Full text of "The cyclopaedia of India and of Eastern and Southern Asia, commercial, industrial, and scientific; products of the mineral, vegetable, and animal kingdoms, useful arts and manufactures"

THE

CYCLOPAEDIA OF INDIA

AND or

EASTERN AND SOUTHERN ASIA.

THIRD EDITION

MORMSO, A» G.BB, EWXBOEOH
PRra T E BS TO «* M«ESTVS »««»* OPFICE.

THE

CYCLOPAEDIA OF INDIA

AND OF

EASTERN AND SOUTHERN ASIA,

PRODUCTS OF THE MINERAL, VEGETABLE, AND ANIMAL KINGDOMS, USEFUL

ARTS AND MANUFACTURES.

SURGEON GENERAL EDWARD BALFOUR,

CORRESPONDING MEMBER OP THE IMPERIAL-ROYAL GEOLOGICAL INSTITUTE, VIENNA;
FELLOW OP THE MADRAS UNIVERSITY;

AUTHOR OP

1 THE TIMBER TREES OF INDIA AND OF EASTERN AND SOUTHERN ASIA,' ETC. ;

POUNDER OP THE MADRAS MUHAMMADAN LIBRARY ; OP THE GOVERNMENT CENTRAL MUSEUM,

MADRAS ; OF THE MYSORE MUSEUM, BANGALORE.

IN THREE VOLUMES.

VOL. II. H— NYSA.

THIRD EDITION. £

LONDON:

BERNARD QUARITCH, 15 PICCADILLY.

1885.

[All Bights Reserved.]

Bis

CYCLOPEDIA OF INDIA

AND OF

EASTERN AND SOUTHERN ASIA.

II. This letter in the English language, as an
aspirate, shows that the vowel following it must
be pronounced with a strong guttural emission of
voice, as in hammer, house, humidity, helm, his-
tory, hyson; but in a few English words it is
quiescent, as in hour, honour. There is no letter
h in the Tamil alphabet, and in foreign words
introduced into it, the h is changed to g, q, or r ;
but this English letter is represented in the Arabic,
Persian, Urdu, Sanskrit, Hindi, Mahrati, Bengali,
Uriya, Telugu, Karnatica, and Malealam, though
the sounds are mere modifications of the simple
breathing. Two of the sounds derived from the
Arabic are not very nicely distinguished in Indian
pronunciation. One may be something harsher
than the other, and so far it agrees with the strong
Sanskrit aspirate, whilst the softer breathing of
the Nagari alphabet, the Visarga, or sign of the
nominative case, may be regarded as peculiar. Sir
William Jones distinguishes the harsher forms by
an accent, as Ah'med. Gilchrist and Shakespear
distinguish it by a dot underneath it ; Professor
Wilson places the dot beneath the softer Arabic
aspirate. In a suggested missionary alphabet, it
has been proposed to indicate the unmodified
flatus by an apostrophe, as ve'ement for vehement.
With the people on the line of the Indus river,
the letters s, h, and z are permutable. Hind
becomes Sind ; Zalim Sing becomes Halim Hing.
The difficulties, however, as to the letter h are
not greater than in the Italian, where the initial
h is quiescent before a vowel, and modifies
the sounds of consonants. Colonel Tod says s
and h are permutable letters in the Bhakka ; and
he supposes that Sam or Sham, the god of the
Yamuna, may be the Ham or Hammon of Egypt.
He also thinks it not unlikely that the Chaora, the
tribe of the first dynasty of Anhalwara, is a mere
corruption of Saura, as the ch and s are perpetually
interchanging. The Mahratt&s cannot pronounce
the ch ; with them Cheeto is Seeto.

HAASIA WIGHTII. Nees. This good-sized
tree is not uncommon in the moist woods on the
Tinnevelly and Travancore range of ghats, at 2000
to 3000 feet elevation, and Animallays 4000 feet.

VOL. II.

H. oppositifolia, Thu\ y occurs in Ceylon. — Bed-
dome.

HAB, a river on the western frontier of Sind,
and for some distance the boundary between
British territory and Baluchistan. It rises in
Kalat, falls into the Arabian Sea in lat 24° 52' N.,
long. 66° 42' E., after a total length of about 100
miles. Except the Indus, it is the only permanent
river in Sind. It abounds in fish. It has been
proposed to supply Karachi (Kurachee) with
drinking water from the Hab. — Imp. Gaz.

HABAKKUK. This sacred writer says (i. 16),
' They sacrifice unto their net, and burn incense
unto their drag ; because by them their portion is
fat, and their meat plenteous ; ' from which it
would seem that the Jewish idolaters had a custom
like that of the Hindu, who annually worship the
implements of their trades.

HABARUM, a mount close to the Dead Sea,
on which Moses died, in the fortieth year of the
exodus. ' In this interval the whole land of the
Emorites had been taken, the Midianites over-
thrown, and the country of the king of Basan
conquered, the river Jabbok crossed, and the
western country on the Jordan (Batanaea and
Aulonites) taken eastward and northward as far as
Hermon. — Bunsen, iii. 252.

HABIB-us-SIYAR. A book written by Khond-
amir. See Khond-amir.

HABIL. Arab. Abel, who is suposed to have
been buried at Damascus. See Abu Kubays.

HABSHI. Hind. An African or Abyssinian,
Habsh being the Arabic reading of Abyssinia.
PI. Habush.

HABZ-i-DAM. Pers. A retention of tho
breath, or power to discontinue breathing, by which
devout Mahomedans are supposed to prolong
their lives. It is supposed to be a gift to devout
men, and the notion is founded on the erroneous
belief that human beings have to take a certain
number -of respirations, and if the power to sus-
pend breathing be acted on, to that extent life
will be prolonged.

HACKERY. Hind. A cart drawn by bullocks,
from Akra, a cart. It may, however, be from the
Portuguese Carro or Acarretai, to carry.— IF.

HACKLES, upright pointed wires, through
which the stems of flax are drawn to disentangle

HADA.

HAFIZ.

or comb them out, being freed at the same time
from remaining extraneous matter. The wire
pins are arranged on different frames, in progres-
sive degrees of fineness. The process is now
performed by special machinery.

HADA. Hind. A blight, drying up of leaves.

HADAYK-ul-BALAGHAT. Arab. Literally,

the Gardens of Eloquence, an Arabic treatise on

eloquence by Mir Shams-ud-Din of Dehli, who

lived at the end of the 18th century.

HADI, a helot race, spread over all Bengal, who
take their name from the original Santali word for
man, Had, and who have supplied such terms
as Hadd, base, low-born ; Hadduk, a sweeper ;
Hunda, hog, blockhead, imp; Hudduka, a
drunken sot, etc. Also, Hadi, in low Bengali
Hadikath, is the name of a rude fetter or stock,
by which landholders used to confine their serfs
until they agreed to their terms. It means literally
the helot's log. It was also used for fastening the
head of the victim in the bloody oblations which
the Aryan religion adopted from the aboriginal
races, especially in the human sacrifices to Kali,
to which the low castes even now resort in times
of special need. In an account of such a human
offering to Kali, during the famine of 1866, it
was mentioned that the bleeding head was found
fixed on the ' harcat,' i.e. helot's log. — Dr. W< W.
Hunter, p. 30.

HAD1AH. Arab. A maiden of good family
and courage, who precedes in battle the Bedouin
Arab, mounted on a camel, in the fore ranks. She
has to shame the timid and excite the brave by
taunts or praise. — Palgrave.

HADIS. Arab. (PI. Ahadis.) The traditions
of the sayings and practice of Mahomed. They
are 5266 in number, and are considered a supple-
ment to the Koran. They are also called Sunna
or customs, also Ahadis Nabaweya, the Apostolic
Acts. The Sunni, the Shiah, and the Wahabi
sects all acknowledge traditions as binding on
them ; but the Shiah sect do not acknowledge the
same collection as binding on them which the
Sunni adopt, and the Wahabi recognise six Sunni
books as correct.

HADIWICKE, a moderately hard, fine, close-
grained, rather heavy Ceylon wood.

HADRAMAUT, a province of Arabia Felix, on
the sea-coast between Yemen and Oman. The
chief products are frankincense, gum-arabic,
dragon's blood, myrrh, and aloes.

HADROSPHERUM, Mesospherum, and Micro-
spherum are terms applied by Pliny to varieties of
nard ; perhaps a mistake of his, as Dioscorides
observes that some people made the mistake of
regarding malabathrum as the leaf of Indian nard.
— Yule, Cathay, i. p. cxlv.

H^EMADIPSA CEYLANICA. Blain. The
land-leech of Ceylon. Another is the Hsemadipsa
Boscii, and another is Hsemopsis paludum.

HiEMATIN, a colouring substance obtained
from the Caesalpinia sappan tree.

HAEMATITE. Tai-che-shih, Chin.
Yu-yu-liang, . . Chin. I Bed haematite, . Eng.
Brown htematite, . Eng. | Hydrated oxide of iron, „
A name given to certain forms of native
peroxide of iron. When of a red colour it is
called red haematite ■, and when brown, brown
haematite. According to Hanbury, it resembles
the old lapis settles. It occurs in British India
and China in many places ; and the Chinese

regard it as crumbs from the table of the great
emperor Yu, and use it medicinally in powder
and in tincture. — Smith.

H^EMATORNIS CAFER is one of the bulbuls
of Southern India. It is not a song bird, and is
called the bulbul-i-gul-dum, or bulbul with the
rose tail. Like quails and cocks, it is trained to
fight, and when pitted against an antagonist it
will sink from exhaustion rather than release its
hold.

H.EMATOXYLON CAMPECHIANUM, the
logwood tree ; has been introduced .into India,
where it grows readily and seeds abundantly. It
is used only as a dye, and the bark is astringent.
It is a low spreading tree, seldom thicker than a
man's thigh. — Cleghorn in Madras E. J. R.

H^ENKE. The Reliquiae Hsenkianse of Presl
is a folio volume, with plates, devoted to the
materials collected by Haenke, who was employed
in the Spanish service, and collected in America
and Manilla. The Indian plants described are
few, and the descriptions and identifications far
from satisfactory. — Hooker f. et Thomson.

HAE-NUN, called by Europeans Amoy, an
island on the S.E. of China about 22 miles in
circumference. The town of Amoy is situated on
the S.W. part of the island, opposite the small
island of Ko-lan-soo, which affords protection to
the town anchorage or inner harbour. On the
western side of the island is that of Woo-seu-
shan, also that of Woo-an. Amoy was delivered
over to the British, after the first Chinese war of
1841-2, and forms one of the consulates thereof,
Shang-hai and Hong-Kong being others.

HAE-TAN, a large and irregularly-shaped island
on the E. coast of China, near the mainland,
between lat. 25° 24/ and 25° 40' N. Its northern
part, Hae-tan peak, is in lat. 25° 36' N, and rises
to an elevation of 1420 feet ; but its eastern and
western shores are low, and indented with deep
sandy bays. — Horsburgh.

H^ETUMAT, a land mentioned in the Vendidad
of the Zoroastrians, as the eleventh of which the
Aryans took possession. It is the valley of the
Helmand to the west of Arachosia. — Bunsen.

HAFIZ, Arab., from the Arabic Hifz, he did
remember, is a Uterary title given to a Mahomedan
who can recite the whole of the Koran from
memory. It is generally earned by lads, some-
times of very tender years, and in large towns
there are always several of the Hafiz. Where so
many are actual Hafiz, multitudes have almost
attained thereto, and remember vast portions of
their religious book ; and every Mahomedan with
any education can indicate almost any passage
under discussion. The Koran is not, perhaps, a
third the size of the Old and New Testaments, and
the feat of committing it to memory is compara-
tively easy, which may explain why we so seldom
hear of a Bible Hafiz. Recently, however, in 1860,
a religious gentleman in Massachusetts having
offered several prizes of Bibles to those, old or
young, who should commit to memory and repeat
the largest portion of the Bible, Mrs. Betsy Conant,
who had been residing in Melrose, a lady sixty-
eight years of age, committed to memory the
entire Bible, Old and New Testament, reciting
each day in the week. This was certified by her
daughter, and also by the superintendent of the
Sabbath school. An Irish servant girl repeated
nearly 10,000 verses; three other women repeated

11A1IZ.

HAIL.

above that number; ami a list was apjK'inb «1 of
some 30 more who were able to repeat from 8000
to 0000 verses. It is noticeable that more than
two-thirds of the successful competitors were
wi.iniii, showing how strong the faculty of
memory is among tin- six as a general rule.

HA FIZ, h lyric poet, native of Shiraz, author of
tin- Dewan-i-Hafiz. Many of his poems have been
translated ; one by Sir William J ones, and which
perhaps surpasses the original, commences with

'Sweet maid, if thou wouldst charm my sight,
And bid these arms thy neck enfold ;
That rosy check, that lily hand,
"Would give thy lover more delight
Than all Bokhara's vaunted gold —
Than all the gems of Samarkand.'

Hafiz is his takhallus, or poetical appellation.
His own name was Muhammad Shams-ud-Din.
Very little is known of his life ; and it appears to
have been in no degree remarkable for incident
He was born at Shiraz in the beginning of the
14th century, and died and was buried near there
in A.D. 1388. He is now regarded as a holy man,
and oblations are offered at his shrine. He is
buried in a small garden about half a mile outside
the walls of the town. The tomb over his remains
was erected by Karim Khan. It is a block of white
marble in the form of a coffin, on which are cut,
in the most exquisite Persian characters, two of his
poems, and the date of his death. A copy of his
works is kept in an adjoining house. The white
material with which the tomb is formed, has
become, from exposure to the weather, very much
discoloured, and adds to the sombre effect pro-
duced by the cypress trees that surround it. Four
well-known distichs of Hafiz inculcate the return
of good for evil :

' Learn from yon orient shell to love thy foe,
And store with pearls the hand that brings thee woe :
Free, like yon rock, from base vindictive pride,
Emblaze with gems the wrist that rends thy side :
Mark where yon tree rewards the stony shower
With fruit nectareous, or the balmy flower :
All Nature calls aloud — Shall man do less
Than heal the smiter, and the railer bless ? '

— Pottinger's TV. pp. 241-2; Ouseley, pp. 241-2; Sir
William Jones; As. Res. iv. ; MacGregor, iv. p. 557.

HAFT. Pers. Seven :—

Haft-Aklim, the seven climates, into which
Mahomedan geographers divide the earth. The
term is meant to include the whole world, and
kings have sometimes assumed the title of King
of the Seven Climates. It applies, however,
to the northern hemisphere, which they partition
into zones of various breadth, from east to
west. Haft-Kishwar has the same meaning and
allusion as Haft-Akbm ; and the sovereignty of
the world is sometimes assumed under that title.

Haft-Dhat, literally seven metals, corresponding
to the planets, each of which ruled a metal : hence
Mohar, the sun, for gold ; Chandra, the moon,
for silver. t

Haft-Hind, the seven rivers of the Panjab.

Haft-Khaneh, or Satgurh group of caves, is one
of the Behar caves in the neighbourhood of Raja-
griha, the most ancient caves in India, about 200
B.C. The others are the Milkmaid's cave, the
Brahman Girl's cave, the Nagarjun cave, and in
the neighbourhood are the Kama chapara and
Lomas Kishi caves.

Haft-Rang, a beautiful variety of the rose.

Haft-Lang, a tribe of the Bakhtiari.

Haft-Tan, literally seven persons who, in the
early days of Mahomedanism, were worshipped in
Kurdistan by the Ali Ilahi sect as the incan
< leit y. Baba Yadgar was one of the seven persons.
His tomb is in the pass of Zardah, and is Um holy
place of the Ali Ilahi sectarians, who believe in
upwards of a thousand incarnations of the godhead.
At the time of the Arab invasion of Persia, the
Zardah pass was regarded as the abode of Elias.

1 1 AFT-AKLIM. Amin Ahmad, Razi, author of
a history of the Persian poets, entitled Haft- Aklim,
or the Seven Climates, has illustrated his work with
much geographical matter. Ahmad was surnamed
liazi, being a native of RaL Amin Ahmad said the
cuneiform character was then unintelligible to the
learned of all religions. — Ouseley y s Tr. ii.402, iii.10.

HAGENIA ABYSSINIA, the kosso or kousso,
a moderate-sized tree of Abyssinia. Its flowers
are largely used in tapeworm. It is a drastic
purgative, and is largely used by the races who
eat raw flesh.

HAGGIS. Sultan Baber compares the jack-
fruit to a haggis. 'You would say,' quoth he
(p. 325), ' that the tree was hung all round with
haggises.' — Yule, Cathay, ii. p. 362.

HAIGA, a clan of Brahmans in Canara.

HAIHAYA, son of Yadu, and grandson of
Nahusha. The Haihaya are mentioned as a power-
ful nation, who defeated and killed Jamadagni,
and are supposed to be the same with the Persians.
In Colonel Tod's time, a tribe of this race were
occupying the top of the valley of Sohagpur in
Baghelcund. They were aware of their ancient
lineage, and though few in number, they were
still celebrated for their valour.

HAIL. In Exodus ix. 24, it is mentioned that
there was hail, and fire mingled with the hail, very
grievous, such as there was none like it in all the
land of Egypt since it became a nation. Hail-
storms of India occur in very limited patches,
and seldom last above 15 or 20 minutes ; but falls
of hail occur simultaneously in places many miles
apart.. The hail occasionally consists of masses of
ice, destroying houses, men, cattle, goats, and
sheep. At the end of the 18th century, a mass
fell at Seringapatam the size of an elephant, which
took three days to melt.

On the 10th April 1822, at Bangalore, 27
bullocks were killed.

In May 1823, a violent hail-storm, with stones of
considerable size, occurred at Hyderabad in the
Dekhan. Sufficient quantities were collected to
cool the wine for several days.

At Dharwar, in May or June 1825, a hail-storm
occurred, with hail in size from that of a filbert
to a pigeon's egg.

In 1826, a mass, nearly a cubic yard in size, fell
hi Kandesh.

At Kotah, on the 5th March 1827, 6 persons
were killed, 7 others severely injured, and animals
and birds killed and hurt

In April 1838, a mass of hailstones, 25 feet in
its larger diameter, fell at Dharwar.

On the 22d May, after a violent hail-storm 80
miles south of Bangalore, an immense block of
ice, consisting of hailstones cemented together,
was found in a dry well.

On the 12th May 1853, in the Himalaya, north
of Peshawur, 84 human beings and 3000 oxen
were killed by masses of ice, nearly a foot in
circumference, hard, compact, and spherical.

HAILEYBURY COLLEGE.

HAIR.

On the 11th May 1855, ice-pieces fell at Nairn
Tal of the dimensions of cricket balls, and birds
were killed.

A hail-storm occurred at Futtehghur on the
13th April 1878, when much injury to buildings
resulted.

In Ceylon hail has fallen at Kornegalle, at
Badulla, Kaduganawa, and Jaffna. On the 24th
September 1857, during a thunder-storm, hail fell
near Matelle in such quantity that in places it
formed drifts upwards of a foot in depth.

One year a heavy fall of hailstones took place
near Ashteh (the village where Bapoo Gokla fell),
which caused severe injuries to people working in
the fields, and the death of a girl about ten years
of age. Many of the hailstones were larger than
a good-sized wood-apple ; they fell in an oblique
direction, and so accumulated at the foot of walls
that it took two days in some places for them to
melt away. One piece was larger than a man's
head, and took two days to dissolve ; the wheat
crops, which were then nearly ripe for taking
down, were quite destroyed by it. A hail- storm
of exceptional severity passed over Tiperah in
Eastern Bengal on the evening of the 12th March
1879 ; 17 persons were killed and 10 wounded.
Native reports stated that 29 were killed and
141 injured. Houses were blown down and un-
roofed, the storm being accompanied by a strong
wind.

Hail-storms of India occur in each month of the
year, but chiefly in the dry months. Of 127 such
hail - storms, 102 occurred in the four months
February to May inclusive : —

January, .

. 5

May, . .

. 17

September,

.' 2

February, .

. 20

June, . .

. 4

October, .

. 3

March, .

. 31

July, . .

. 2

November,

. 4

April, . .

. 34

August, .

December,

. 5

In the first fortnight of March in one year, on
the 3d, a violent hail-storm occurred at Bolarum,
which dashed right through the roofs of the
houses, and stripped the trees of their leaves and
branches; it was experienced at Secunderabad,
but did not extend to Hyderabad itself. A hail-
storm occurred at Cawnpur on the 8th, and two
violent hail- storms happened at the same time near
Meerut, many of the fragments being the size of
ostrich eggs. A violent squall, with hail, occurred
at Hurryhur on the 12th ; 270 birds, which had been
killed by it, were picked up in a single garden, and
the river was found covered with dead fish, which
seemed to have been attracted to the surface, and
fell victims to the gratification of their curiosity.
In Berar and in the parts of the Mahratta country
there is a caste of hail- conjurors, the Garpagari,
who pretend to have the power of preventing hail
falling on fields. — Dr. Blast's Physical Research ;
Dr. Turnbull Christie, Jam. Ed. Jo. ii. of 1830.

HAILEYBURY COLLEGE, an institution near
London, of the English E. I. Company, at which
its civil servants were trained to be writers in
India, for magisterial, revenue, and judicial offices.
It was abolished on the assumption of India by
the Queen of Great Britain.

HAINAN, an island bounding the Gulf of Ton-
quin to the eastward, extends 165 miles in a N.E.
and S.W. direction, and is about 75 miles in
breadth, between lat. 28° and 31° N, and long. 110°
E. Viewed from the sea, it presents many high
and uneven appearances, but inland there are
many level districts, cultivated with rice, sugar-

cane, tobacco, and betel-nut trees. These level
tracts are separated by lofty mountains and
impenetrable forests, through which paths are
opened. The island is subject to the Chinese.
The fishing boats are built of a hard, heavy wood,
and sail fast. Their fishing voyages, commencing
in March, last for two months, and they navigate
to 700 or 800 miles from home, collecting beche
de mer, dry turtle, and sharks' fins amongst the
numerous shoals and sandbanks in the S.E. of the
China Sea. — Horsburgh. See Tonking.

HAINES, Sir FREDERICK, G.C.S.I., served
in the Sutlej campaign of 1845-46, including the
battles of Moodkee and Ferozeshah, at the latter
of which he was severely wounded ; also in the
Panjab campaign of 1848-49, and more recently
in the Crimea, including the battles of the Alma,
Balaclava, Inkermann, and siege of Sebastopol.
He was, in 1871, appointed to the command of
the Madras army, and in 1876 succeeded Lord
Napier of Magdala as Commander-in-Chief in
India. He was created a G.C.B. in 1877.

HAIQ. The populations to whom the term
Armenian is now applied, call themselves Haiq.
Their chief occupancies are the Turkish province
of Erzerum, and the Russian district of Erivan,
and the patriarch resides in Erivan. They
are now under the sway of Russia, Persia,
and Turkey, but they are found in all Eastern
countries. 37,676 are in European Russia alone ;
and one important settlement of them is in
Venice, that of the Mechitarist monks, on the
island of St. Lazarus. In figure the Armenians
have been likened to the Jew, the Turk, and the
Afghan. They evince great commercial aptitude,
and are bankers and merchants. In Armenia,
however, they cultivate the soil. Before their
conversion they were fire- worshippers. Many of
them now are Nestorian Christians, some are
Romanists. The language of the present day has
affinities with the Iron, and Persian, Syrian, Arabic,
and Turki. General tradition and the formation
of language point alike to the mountains of
Armenia as the birthplace of the Arab and
Canaanitish races, and there is especial native
evidence to the same effect as regards Edom,
consequently the Phoenicians.

HAIR.
Haar, . Da., Du., Geh.
Cheveux, Poil, . . Fr.
Bal, . . . Guj., Hind.

Pelo, It., Sp.

Capilli, Pelles, . Lat.
Ruma, Rula, . MALAY.
Ranbut, Tailhan, ,,

Cabello, .... Pokt.

With the exception of man, the exposed parts
of the bodies of mammals are covered with hair.
Hair is a considerable article of traffic. Goats'
hair is largely exported from Bombay to England.
The hair of the elephant's tail and the bristles of
the, wild boar are utilized in India. The value of
the exports of hair from India amounts to about
£2000 annually, about 200 to 300 tons.

A remarkable command is given to the Israelites
in Leviticus xix. 27 : 'Ye shall not round the
corners of your head,' or, literally, ' Ye shall not go
round,' i.e. with a razor, ' the sides of thy head.'
The Septuagint renders this, ' Do not make Sisoen
of the hair of your head.' Greek lexicographers
say that Sisoen, though not a Greek word, means
a lock, or circular portion of hair left unshaven,

Voloss, .... Rus.

Kesa Sansk.

Cabellos Sp.

Har, Sw.

Mairu, .... Tam.
Ventrukulu, . . . Tel.
Sach, Turk.

HAIR

HAIYU.

and consecrated to Saturn, the grandfather of
Bacchus, who is thought to correspond with
Siva. In some respects Saturn also resembles
Siva. A recent commentator says on the above
text, 'It seems probable that this fashion had
been learned by the Israelites in Egypt, for the
ancient Egyptians had their dark locks cropped
-hurt, or shaved with great nicety, so that what
remained on the crown appeared in the form of
I circle surrounding the head. Frequently a lock
Of tuft of hair was left on the hinder part of the
head, the rest being cut round in the form of a
ring, as the Turks, Chinese, and Hindus do at the
present day.'

Poole says ' the Gentiles cut their hair for the
worship of devils or idols, to whom young men
used to consecrate their hair, as Homer, Plutarch,
and many others write.' Prof essor Vitringa looks
upon this manner of trimming the hair in a
circular form, while the rest of the head is shaven,
as a symbol of the sun equally diffusing his rays,
which the ancients called his hair. The Romans
are said to have worn the hair of the head uncut,
cither loose or bound behind in a knot, and con-
secrated it to Apollos.

Herodotus says that the Arabians cut their hair
in such a manner, that the circumference of their
head is found to be round all about as if they had
been cut with a bowl, in imitation of Bacchus, and
in honour of him. He says also that the Macians,
a people of Sybia, cut their hair round so as to
leave a tuft on the top of the head. We learn
from Homer that it was customary for parents to
dedicate to some god the hair of their children,
which they cut off when they came to manhood.
Achilles, at the funeral of Patroclus, cut off his
golden locks, which Ids father had dedicated to
the river-god Sperchias. From Virgil it appears
that the topmost lock of hair was dedicated to the
infernal gods. In Athens it is said Hercules and
Apollos were the chief deities selected for dedi-
cating the hair, — to the first by the humbler
part of the community, and the latter by the
more wealthy. Tertulhan speaks of an extra-
ordinary rite about the dedication of the hair of
infants, which was practised even before they well
had any hair, and that cut off when they were
named.

The ancient Greeks, in laying out their dead,
placed an obolus, a Greek coin, in the mouth to pay
Charon's fare across the rivers Styx and Acheron,
and a cake made of flour and honey to appease
Cerberus. Greek men cut off their hair when they
obtained the age of puberty, and dedicated it to
some deity. Theseus is said to have repaired to
Delphi to perform this ceremony, and to have con-
secrated his shorn locks to Apollo. After this it
was again allowed to grow long, and only cut off
as a sign of mourning. Thus, at the funeral of
Patroclus (Iliad, xxiii.) the friends of Achilles cut
off their hair, and

1 On the corse their scattered locks they throw.'

In some parts of Greece, however, it was
customary to wear the *hair short, and to allow
it (Cassandr. 973) to grow long when in mourning.
' Neglected hair shall now luxurious grow,
And by its length their bitter passion show.'

Hindu men, on the death of a relative, abstain
from shaving, and the Burmese dead have a coin
placed with them for the spirit-world.

The women of nearly all the oriental races

wear long hair, differently braided. The men of
Baluchistan and Afghanistan shave the front, but
weir hair long on the back and sides of the bead.
Mahomedans of India as a rule shave their heads,
Hindu men also shave, leaving only a scalp-lock
on the crown. This scalp-lock is noticed by
Martial, Seneca, and Tacitus as worn by German
races. Brahman women, on the demise of their
husbands, have their heads shaved.

In Luristan, the women, on the death of their
men relatives, cut off their hair, and hang the
locks around the tomb. The hair of Hindu
women, and often also that of men, is frequently
made a votive offering to their gods. Crowds of
the Hindu pilgrims to Triputty and other holy
places, both men and women, return with heads
shaved. Hindu lads have their heads shaved.
Nero placed his first beard in a jewelled box,
and dedicated it to Jupiter. Herodotus mentions
(Melp. iv. c. 34) that the Delian maidens used to
cut off a lock of their hair before marriage, in
memory of the Hyperborean virgins who died in
Delos. In some tribes of the Orang Benua of
the Malay Peninsula, and among the Malay, it is
customary to cut off a part of the bride's hair.

The Somali of the east of Africa change their
hair into red by mixing it with lime. Amongst
the Romans, blonde auburn tresses were most
admired, and to obtain these, men steeped their
hair in a powerful alkali, as the Somali now do.
Mahomedans of India have black hair, occasion-
ally dye it red with henna or mehndi. The tuft
of hair, or scalp -lock, Shik'ha, Sansk., D'zutu,
Tel., Kudi mai, Tam., is worn by all who profess
Hinduism, and it has been a subject of much dis-
cussion with Christian missionaries, whether, on
conversion, the new Christian's scalp-lock should
be removed. — De Bode, ii. 218-19; Neicbold ;
Postans ; Lvbbock.

HAIR POWDER.
Poudre a poudrer, . Fr. I Polvere di cipri, . . It.
Puder Geb. \ Polvos de petuca, . Sp.

Hair powder is generally made from pulver-
ized starch, and perfumed with various scents. —
Faulkner.

HAI-TSAI. Chin. Literally, sea vegetable.
Hai-tsai, Hai-wan, and Kwan-pu are Chinese
names for several species of Laniinaria, Rhodo-
menia, Iridse, etc., used in China for food, for
size, and for jelly. Kwan-pu is the tangle.

HAI-YANG is the Neptune of the Chinese.
In Hi-ching-mian is a temple of the sea-god. At
Ta-coo, in one hand he holds a magnet as em-
blematic of security, and a dolphin in the other,
to show his sovereignty over the inhabitants of
the sea ; his head, beard, and hair are evidently
intended as a personification of water. — Macart-
ney's Embassy, i. 31.

HAIYU, Haioo, Haya, or Vaya. The Haiyu,
the Chepang, and the Kusundu are three un-
civilised Bhot tribes, who dwell amid the dense
forests of the central region of Nepal, to the
westward of the great valley, in scanty numbers,
and nearly in a state of nature. They live in
huts made of the branches of trees, on wild
fruits, and the produce of the chase. The
Chepang arc slight, but not actually deformed,
though with large bellies. Mr. Hodgson says
they are of Mongol descent Their language is
akin to that of the Lhopa. The Chepang, Haiyu,
and Kusunda seem to belong to the Rawat group

HAIZA.

HAKODADI.

of frontier populations. They are named by Mr.
Hodgson as Durre, Denwar, and Bramho. They
occupy the districts where the soil is moist, the
air hot, and the effluvia miasmatic. They dwell
in Nepal as the fragments of a tribe of great
antiquity, with peculiar traditions, language, and
appearance, all tending to isolate them from the
people amongst whom they dwell.

HAIZA. Arab., Hind. Cholera. Haiza-ka-
patta, Kalanchoe varians.

HAJ. Arab. A pilgrimage by a Mahomedan
to Mecca, Medina, Jerusalem, Sinai, etc. ; hence
the title Haji, a pilgrim. Hajjat, a woman pilgrim.
The pilgrimage of Mahomedans to Mecca — en-
joined by the Koran (Sura, xxii. 28)— is incumbent
on all men and women who have sufficient means
to meet the expenses of the journey, and to main-
tain their families at home during their absence.
Its ceremonial continues during three days of the
month Zi-ul-haj. The day of the ceremony is
the 10th Zi-ul-haj, on the Eed-ul-Kurban or
Bakrid festival. The setting forth of the pilgrims
from the distant parts of the world is generally
attended with great show. The Persian Shiah sect
resort in pilgrimage to three places. The town of
Meshid is reckoned the least in the scale of
sanctity ; and those who have been there to the
tomb of Imam-Raza, obtain the title of Meshidi.
The next after them are the Karbalai, who stand
a degree higher in estimation ; while those only
who have visited the Kaba at Mecca and the
tomb of Mahomed at Medina, can lay claim to the
title of Haji. A Persian will feel offended if you
call him Meshidi, when he has a right to the
superior degree of Karbalai, or the still higher
and more pompous appellation of Haji. Thus
Meshidi, Karbalai, and Haji become titles of
distinction. Haj-ul-Asghar, the lesser pilgrimage.
Haj-ul-Akbar, the greater pilgrimage. About
70,000 annually visit Mecca.

The Indian Haj is the most numerous of all the
pilgrimages which arrive every year at Jeddah.
In 1880 it consisted of 15,000 souls, the next
most numerous being the Malay Haj, which num-
bered 12,000. The latter consists mostly of Dutch
subjects. The Dutch encourage their subjects
to visit the holy places in Arabia, on the principle
that the experience which is gained on the journey
of the tyranny and extortion of the Musalman
government in Hejaz tends to increase in a Haji
the sense of the advantages he enjoys at home.

Haj Darwazah, or Mecca Darwazah, the pilgrim
gate of the city, from which the pilgrims issue
when proceeding on pilgrimage.

HA J AM, Hind., the Nai of the Hindus, a
barber, who shaves, bleeds, cups, cleans the ears,
pares the nails, etc., usually included among the
members of the village establishment.

HAJAR. Arab. A stone, any stone : —

Hajar-ul-Akab, eagle - stones of the ancients.
One of them was probably the bonduc nut of
the Guilandina bonduc. The Greeks believed
that the eagle -stones or setiles were only found
in the nests of eagles ; and the Arabs describe
them as resembling tamarind stones, but hollow
and found in eagles' nests, and they believed that
the eagles bring them from India. — King.

Hajar-ul-Musa, asphalte.

Hajar-us-Siah, also Hajr-ul-Aswad, a cele-
brated black stone which is built into the Kaba
at Mecca, an object of the greatest veneration.

This stone is set in silver, and fixed in the
south-east corner of the temple. It is deemed
by Mahomedans one of the precious stones of
paradise that fell to the earth with Adam, and,
being preserved at the deluge, the angel Gabriel
brought it to Abraham when he was building the
Kaba. It Jwas, they say, at first white, but its
surface has become black from coming in contact
with those who are impure and sinful. It is semi-
circular, about six inches in height, and eight inches
in breadth. It is in the wall of the Kaba in the
east outer corner, about four feet from the ground,
its surface undulating and polished. Burton, on
reaching the stone, despite popular indignation,
testified by impatient shouts, monopolized the use
of it for at least ten minutes. Whilst kissing it,
and rubbing hands and forehead upon it, he
narrowly observed it, and came away persuaded
that it is a big aerolite. Ali Bey calls it,
'mineralogically,' a black volcanic basalt, -whose
circumference is sprinkled with little crystals,
pointed and strawlike, with rhombs of tile-red
feldspath upon a dark background, like velvet or
charcoal, except one of its protuberances, which
is reddish. Burckhardt (p. 137) thought it was
* a lava containing several small extraneous par-
ticles of a whitish and of a yellowish substance.'

Hajar-ul-Yahudi is encrinite, sold in Peshawur
at Rs. 10 the maund. — Burton's Mecca, iii. p. 210 ;
Malcolm's Persia, ii. p. 336.

HAJONG, a section of the Bodo tribe who
dwell in the plains of Cachar.

HAJRAH or Hajirah. Arab. Hagar, the
kept woman of Abraham, the mother of Ismael,
generally called the Bibi Hajirah.

HAKARI, a tribe of N. Kurdistan inhabiting
the mountains on either bank of the great Zab
river above Amadia. They have 14 subdivisions,
also 94 Christian villages, with 15,520 souls.
Their country is precipitous and difficult, the
people wilder than any Kurds. They have 25,000
fighting men. — MacGregor.

HAKIM. Arab. A doctor of philosophy, a
doctor of medicine, a learned man, pronounced
Hakeem. The Hakim or Tabib of British India is
of the Mahomedan faith, and, like the Vydian Baid
or Vaid, is usually a physician purist. The Hakim
as a rule claims to be a follower of the Yunani or
Grecian school of medicine. He designates the
Hindu Vydian as of the Misri or Egyptian school,
but recognises also a Suryani or Syrian school.
General Ferrier says that the influence which the
Hakim Sahib has generally exercised in the British
embassy at Teheran, and the employment of such
men as Jukes, Campbell, M'Neill, Riach, Bell,
Lord, and others, in various important duties in
those countries, led the chiefs of Harat to suppose
that physicians occupy a higher place in the
councils of the British than is accorded to them.
— Ferrier, Journal, p. 149.

HAKLUYT, RICHARD (Archdeacon), Bishop
of Westminster, in 1601 was appointed Historio-
grapher of the East Indies, by the first Chairman
of East India Directors. He held constant
communication with the seamen, and lectured at
Oxford to the students. He died 1616, and his
successor was the Rev. Samuel Purchas. — E. J.
Murray, Surveys, 1871.

HAKODADI was a small town of Japan. Within
sight of Hakodadi, and at the distance of about
25 miles, is an active volcano. The crater forms

HAKRA.

HALCYONII)^:.

marly a circle, from 1600 to 2000 yards round.
The ground is in some places so hot that the hand
could not touch it. This volcano throws up a hot
sulphur spring at about 20 miles distant, and 5
from Hakodadi, the heat of its water being 109°
in the warmest part.. The natives regard it as
almost a certain cure in cases of skin disease.
Men, women, and children, all nude, batho to-
gether.

HAKRA, a name of the river Caggar.

HAL. Arab., Hind. Present, present state,
condition, current, as Ibrahim Khan-i-hal, the
present Ibrahim Khan ; Hal-ki-waste, for the
occasion ; Hali-sikkah, current coin. It occurs
frequently in combination, and is used in revenue
accounts to represent the existing state of collec-
tions. — EUiot, Supp. Gloss.

HAL or Har. Hind. A plough. Hali, a
ploughman. It has been suggested that as the
Aryans were originally and essentially an agricul-
tural and therefore a peasant race, they may have
derived their name from their plough, and words
of a similar sound relating to agriculture are found
in several tongues. In Latin it is Aratrum, from
Aro, I plough. In Egyptian (in Nefruari), Ar is
said to mean a plough. In Tamil it is Er, in
Telugu Araka, in Sanskrit, along with Nagala or
Nagara, it is also called Hala or Hara; and the
Aryan race may possibly have obtained their
name from this implement of husbandry. The
Hal is a pointed beam in a plough, which serves
as the ploughshare.

Hala-Ketana, Sansk., the plough-ensign, one
of the insignia of royalty of the great Chalukya
dynasty, when ruling at Kalian. Hali, a plough-
man.

HALA, also Halla Kandi, a ruined city on the
Indus, 30 miles above Hyderabad. The Hala
deputy collectorate is between lat. 25° 8' and
26 f N., and between long. 68° 16' 30" and 69°
17' E.

HALA, a range of mountains, called also the
Brahuic range. It is the great mountain system of
Baluchistan, extending from the Suliman Hills, in
lat. 30° 30' N., by the curved Bugti and Mari
(Murree) chain to the north of Shawl, and thence
in a generally S.S.W. direction to the ocean,
which it reaches at Ras Mowari (Cape Monze), in
long. 24° 46'. Its breadth and height vary. The
Chahl-tan is 11,000 to 12,000 feet, 7000 feet being
the highest part at Kalat. Shawl is 5900 feet. In
the northern part is the Bolan pass, and the Moolla
pass is near Gandava. It throws out to the W.
and S.W. numerous offshoots, which traverse
Makran, and either sink into the ocean or the
desert plains of Eastern Persia, or into the moun-
tain system of Persia. — MacGregor.

HALAILI, a cotton stuff with long stripes of
white silk, a favourite material amongst the city
Arabs. At Constantinople, where the best is
made, the piece, which will cut into two shirts,
costs about thirty shillings.

HALAL. Arab. The new moon. It is a
favourite symbol in Mahomedan standards as a
crescent, indicating continuous increase.

HALAL. Hind. Lawful food for Mahomedans,
a8 opposed to Haram, unlawful food. The lawful
animals are such as chew the cud, and are not
beasts of prey ; birds that pick up food with their
bills, and do not seize their prey with their claws,
or wound them with their bills ; fish, but no other

marine animals, and locusts. Reptiles and wino
and all intoxicants are unlawful.

HALAL KHOR. Hind. Peru. A sweeper,
a house scavenger. The words are Arabo-Persic,
and mean a lawful eater, i.e. one to whom every-
thing is lawful. Scavengers are usually Maho-
medans, and are also called Mahtar, Bhangi, Toti,
Lal-Begi.

HALAR, a principality in the Gulf of Cutch,
of wliich Nowanagar is the capital, ruled over by
the Jam of Nowanagar. See Rajputs.

HALAS, a branch of the Sakai population of
the Malay Peninsula. They tattoo their face and
breast, pierce their ears and nose, and insert
porcupine quills. See Kedah.

HALAYA PAIKA, or Old Paik, a race in
Mysore. Wilson says Halepaik, Karn., is a term
applied in Mysore to the drawers of tari, who
speak the Tuluva language.

HALAYUDHA BHATTA, author of the Abhi-
dana Ratnamala, a Sanskrit dictionary. He lived
about the 7th century. — Dowson.

HALBA. Gond. Immigrants into the Central
Provinces from the south, and their principal
colony is in the S.W., where they hold 37 flourish-
ing villages. They gain their living chiefly by
distilling spirits, and worship deified distillers, at
the head of whom is Bahadur Kalal, which
merely means the ' bold distiller.' They are, next
to the Teli, the best cultivators ; except in the
jungles, they have generally become Hinduized.
All that is necessary for a good Halba is that he
should sacrifice once in his life three goats and a
pig, one to each of the national deities, called
Narayan Gosain, Burha Deo, Sati, and Ratna.

HALCYONIDiE, the kingfisher family of birds,
of the tribe Fissirostres, order Insessores. It has
two sub-families, the Alcedininae and Halcyoninae.
Sub-Fam. Halcyoninse.

Halcyon amauropterus, Pearson, the brown-
winged kingfisher of Bengal, Arakan, and
Tenasserim.

Halcyon fulgidus, Gould, is a very beautiful
kingfisher of Lomhok. It lives in thickets away
from water, and feeds on snails and insects picked
from the ground, like the great laughing jackass
of Australia.

Halcyon fuscus, Bodd.

H. Smyrnensis, Sykes.
Sade-buk, ... Beno.
Match-ran ga, . . ,,
Kilkila, .... Hind.

The white-breasted
India, Ceylon, and eastwards to China

Halcyon leucocephalus, Gmel

Alcedo fusca, Bodd.
Vichuli, .... Tam.
Lak-muka, . . . Tel.
Buche-gadu, . . „

kingfisher ; inhabits all

H. gurial, Pearson.
H. Capensis, Linn.
H. Javana, Gray.
Gurial,

Beng.

H. brunnioepe, Jerd.
Alcedo leucoceph., Gmel-.

Male poyma,

Mal.

The brown-headed kingfisher, is over all India
and the Archipelago.

Halcyon saurophaga, a very fine kingfisher,
with white head, neck, and lower parts, green
scapulars, and blue wings and tail, from New
Guinea, is a very shy bird, frequenting the margin
of the island, usually seen perched on some
detached or solitary branch, as if sunning itself,
and darting off into the dense bush upon being
approached. — Macgillivray, Voyage, L p. 245,

Halcyon atricapillus, Gmel.
Alcedo atricapillus, Gm. | A. pileata, Bodd.
A. brama, Lets.

HALDA.

HALIASTUR INDUS.

The black-capped purple kingfisher ; is rare in
India, but more common in the countries east-
wards to China.

Halcyon Coromandelianus, Scop.
H. Coromandel. , Blyth. I H. lilacina, Sw.
H. calipyga, Hodgt. \ H. Schlegelii, Bonap.

The ruddy kingfisher of the Himalaya, Nepal,
Sikkim, and the east coast of the Bay of Bengal.

Besides these, are H. cyaniventris from Java,
H. concreta from Sumatra, H. pulchella from
Malacca and S. Tenasserim.

Todiramphus collaris, Scopoli.
A. chlorocephala, Gm. | A. sacra, Gm.

The white- collared kingfisher of the Sunder-
buns, Arakan, Tenasserim, Malayana, and Archi-
pelago. Its feathers are largely prized by the
Chinese, who buy the skins at 24 for a dollar.

There are other species in the Nicobars and
Archipelago.

Ceyx tridactyla, Pallas.
A. erythica, Pall. | A. purpurea, Gmel.

The three-toed purple kingfisher, is found in
Sikkim, Malayana, and the islands.
Sub-Fam. Alcedininse.

Alcedo Bengalensis, Gm., common Indian king-
fisher.

Alcedo euryzona, Temm., great Indian king-
fisher.

Several species occur east of the Bay of Bengal,
viz. A. Beryllina from Java, A. Moluccensis from
Moluccas, A. Meningting of Java.

Ceryle rudes, Linn.

Ispidia bicincta, Sw. \ I. bitorquata, Sw.
Karikata, . . . Bkng. I Korayala kilkila, Hind.
Phutka-matcli-ranga, ,,

The pied kingfisher ; occurs in Africa and most
parts of South Asia and south of Europe.

Ceryle guttata, Vigors.
Matchi bag, Hind. | Ung kashiya, Lep.

The large-crested black and white kingfisher, is
a native of the Himalaya. — Jerdon, i. pp. 221-235.

HALDA or Harda, Hind., is a mildew affect-
ing the cerealia, in which the plant turns yellow
and withers.

HALDA or Haldi. Hind. Among Mahomedans,
the ceremony of smearing a couple with turmeric
between the period of their betrothal and marriage.

HALDAR or Holdar, a name borne by some
Bengal families of the trading castes. — Wilson.

HALDIA MOORA and Singia moora are roots
brought to Ajinir mixed with haldi ; they are
acrid and poisonous, and are carefully separated.
Genl. Med. Top. p. 151.

HALEBID, a village in the Hassan district,
Mysore, lat. 13° 12' 20" N., long. 76° 2' E. ; popu-
lation (1871), 1207 ; the site of the ancient city
of Dorasamudra or Dvaravatipura, the capital of
the Hoysala Ballala dynasty. It was apparently
rebuilt in the 13th century by King Vira Somes-
wara. To him is assigned the erection there of
two magnificent temples in honour of Siva, which
rank among the masterpieces of Hindu art. The
larger, Haisaleswara, rises 25 feet high above the
terrace on which it stands. The ornamentation
consists of a series of friezes one above another,
each about 700 feet long, and carved with the
most exquisite elaboration. One frieze alone
represents a procession of not less than 2000
elephants. The Ballala kings ruled from about
a.d. 950 to a.d. 1310. It was plundered by
Ala-ud-Din's general Kafur, a eunuch and con-

verted Hindu leader of a Mahomedan army, and it
was finally destroyed by Mahomed in., in a.d.
1326. Jonur, also called Moti-talao, twelve miles
from Seringapatam, was afterwards made the
capital. The entire walls of the Halebid Saiva
temple are covered with carvings in stone, forming
a Hindu pantheon. There are also two Jaina
temples with colossal idols. The roofs are sup-
ported by splendid columns, said to be of pot-
stone, beautifully turned, and so highly polished
as to be used as a mirror when wetted with water.

HALFA. Arab. The Stipa tenacissima, a
plant of North Africa, largely utilised as a paper
material.

HALHED. Nathaniel Brassy Halhed in 1776
published a code of Gentoo laws or ordinations of
the Pandits, from a Persian translation made from
the original, written in the Sanskrit language ;
author of a Grammar of Bengali, a.d. 1778.

HALI, in Kamaon, one of the Dom race who has
been bought as a slave. In Surat, the Hali slave
was a voluntary bondsman, who had temporarily
sold himself for a sum of money. — Wils. Gloss.

HALLETUS, the sea eagle genus of birds, of
the sub-family Aquilinae, family Falconidse, and
order Raptores.

H. fulviventer, Vieill., ring-tailed sea eagle.

Falco Macei, Temm.
Halisetus Macei, Blyth.
H. albipes, Hodgs.
Macha rang, . . Beng.
Mach -manga, . . ,,
Mach-korol, koral, „

H. unicolor, Gray.
H. lanceolatus, ffodgs.

Bala, Beng.

Kokna, .... Kol.
Ugus, „

F. dimidiatus, Baffles.
F. maritimus, Gmel.

The ring-tailed sea eagle is found throughout
the N. of India, along the Ganges and Indus up
to Kashmir. It lives on fish, tortoises, and snakes.

H. leucogaster, Gmel., grey -backed sea eagle.
Blagrus leucogaster, Blyth.
Ichthysetus cultrungus, „
Falco blagrus, Daud.

This sea eagle is found throughout India, in
Burma, Malayana, and Australia, chiefly on the
coast and near the mouths of rivers. It lives on
sea-snakes, crabs, rats, and on fish which it picks
up on the beach.

H. leucocephalus is a bird of N. America and
N.E. Asia. — Jerdon, Birds.

HALIASTUR INDUS. Bodd.
Falco Indus, Bodd. I Milvus ponticer., Jerd.

Halijetusponticerian., »$>«/&. | M. rotundicaudus, Hodg.
Sunker chil, . . Beng. Ru-mubarik, . . Hind.
Dhobia chil, . . ,, Khemankari, . . Sansk.

Garuda, Can. Ratta Ookab, . . Sind.

Brahmany kite, . . Eng. Garudalawa, . . . Tel.
Pis-gender, . . Gond. Shemberrid, . Yerkala.
Bahmani chil, . Hind, i Garuda mantaru, ,,

Europeans have given the name of the Brah-
many kite to the Haliastur Indus, probably from ob-
serving the feelings of the Hindus regarding it, who
revere it as Garuda, the eagle vahan of Vishnu, and
believe that when two armies are about to engage,
its appearance prognosticates victory to the party
over whom it hovers. The Brahmany kite is very
useful in the populous seaport towns of India, in
removing carrion and refuse, and is never killed.
Major Moor mentions as an instance of this bird's
boldness, of which he was a witness, viz. its
stooping and taking a chop off a girdiron standing
over the fire that cooked it. The religious Hindu
feeds these birds on holidays, by flinging up little
portions of flesh, to which they are attracted by
the call Hari ! Hari ! meaning Vishnu, Vishnu.

HAUCACABUM.

HAMAMKLIDK.K.

I( ii found throughout all India. In Bengal, the
kites and Brahman; kites breed chiefly in January
and February, and disappear during the rains.

HALICACABUM of Pliny, Biippoaed to have
been Phyealu Bomnifera, var. Hexuoaa.

II A I. M 'ORE DUGONG. Cuv.

H. Indicus, Owen,

Dugungus Indicus, Ham.

Triohaohaa dugong, Omel

Halicore cetaoon, III.

H. Indica, Dtttn,

Indian dugong, . . ENO. Duyung, . . . Malay.

Dugong I-ainiintin, ,, Talla-maha, . . SlNUH.

Le dugong des Indes, Fa.

The dugong is an inhabitant of the narrow seas
of the Eastern Archipelago; and Professor Owen
denominated it Halicore Indicus, in distinction
from tliat of the northern coast of Australia, at a
time whin the former had not been ascertained
to frequent (as a dugong of some kind is now
known to do) the Malabar coast and Gulf of Cal-
pentyn in Ceylon. It inhabits the shallows of
the Indian Ocean and about Ceylon, where the
water is not more than 2 or 3 fathoms deep. It
does not appear to frequent the land or the fresh
water. Its flesh is delicate. The dugong was
noticed as occurring in Ceylon by the early Arab
sailors, by Megasthenes (Fragm. fix.) and jElian,
and subsequently by the Portuguese. It is this
creature which gave rise to the tales about mer-
maids, which have till the present day occupied
the world, and doubtless had their origin in the
tales of the Arab sailors. They are phytophagous,
or plant-eaters. The species named by authors
are —

H. Indicus, Owen, the Malay dugong, an
inhabitant of the narrow seas of the Eastern
Archipelago.

H. tabernaculi, Ruppell, the dugong of the
coral banks of the Red Sea, has a feeble voice,
and feeds on algae. It is about ten feet long. In
February and March bloody battles occur between
the males. Its flesh, teeth, and skin are utilized.
Their skins, called tun, are used for sandals.

H. Australis, the manate of Dampier, and white-
tailed manate of Pennant, is a native of the west
coast of Australia.

H. Indicus, F. Cuvier,
Trichechus dugong, Erx-

leben.
Halicore cetacea, Uleger.
Halicore dugong, Cuvier

apud Baffles.
Dugong of Buffon.
Dugong, . . . Malay.

Under these synonyms Dr. Theodore Cantor
unites all the above, which he says inhabits the
Red Sea, the seas of the Malay Peninsula, Singa-
pore, Sumatra, the Philippine Islands, Moluccas,
Sunda Islands, and New Holland. — Eng. Cyc. ;
Bh/th in. B. As. Soc. Journ. ; Tennanfs Ceylon ;
Cantor in B. As. Soc. Jour., No. clxxii. of 1846.

HALIFAX, Lord, better known as Sir Charles
Wood, Secretary of State for India in the middle
of the 19th century, and during the time of the
revolt and mutiny. During his tenure of office,
in 1854, the plan of educating the people of India
was promulgated.

HALIOTIDiE, a family of recent and fossil
shells, belonging to the class Gasteropoda, of the
mollusca. The genera include the haliotis, ear-
shell, sea-ears ; deridobranchus ; stomatia ; scis-
suiclla ; ianthina, violet snail. One species, the
haliotis or sea- ear mollusc or ear-shell, is largely

Halicore tabernaculum,

Ruppell.
Dugungus marinus,

Tiedemann apud Schinz.
H. Hemprichii, Ehrenb.
Parampuan laut, Malay.

food by the people on the OQad of Man-
churia. They arc also dried and exported lo

China, and sell at 300 for a dollar. — Adams.

Haliotis funebria, ( 'umming and ileeve.
II. iris, Auctorum.
Shih-kiueh-ming, . Chin. | Fu-yu kiah, . . Chin.

This mollusc ib found on the coasts of Slian-
tung, Foh-kien, and Kwang-tung ; they are 4 or
5 inches long, and are smooth and iridescent on
their inner surface ; the pearly interior is levigated,
and applied to opacities of the cornea. Shells
with 7 or 9 foramina are most prized. — Smith.

HALLI. Karn. A small village or hamlet ;
written Hully, and added frequently to other
names, as Harpan-hully. It is the Telugu Palli.

HALLIKAR, also Hal-wakkal, a tribe of the
agricultural Sudra in Mysore. — Wilton.

HALWA, a hill race in Bustar, Bandara, and
Raipur, who wear the sacred thread, which privi-
lege those in Bustar purchase from the raja.

HALWA. Hind. A kind of sweetmeat,
specially that made of honey and camel's milk,
and brought from the Persian Gulf, via Bombay,
in saucers. Halwai is a sweetmeat seller. Halwa-
rang means colour of sweetmeat, pale drab, first
dyed with naspal, pomegranate rind, then with
catechu.

HALWAHA. Hind. In Oudh, a predial
slave, employed as a ploughman. See Hal.

HAM A DAN, a town of Persia, in the province
of Irak-i-Ajam, 180 miles S.W. of Teheran. It
is the ancient Ecbatana. It is said to have been
founded by Jamshid, a king of the Peshdadian
dynasty. The population is about 50,000 souls.
It has a delightful neighbourhood, many beautiful
bazars. The mountain streams contain gold.
In the centre of the town is the tomb of Ali Ben
Sina (Avicenna) ; and not far from it are those
of Esther and Mordecai, which are revered by the
Jews, and kept in repair. An inscription on the
tombs is that, on Thursday, the 15th of the
month Adar, the building of this temple over
the tombs of Mordecai and Esther was finished
by the hands of the two benevolent brothers,
Elias and Samuel, sons of the late Ismail Kachan.
The town people make felt carpets largely.—
Kinneir; Menteith ; Morier; Rich; MacGregor,
iv. p. 172 ; Ferrier, Journ. p. 35 ; J. B. Eraser,
p. 221 ; Porter's Travels, ii. p. 91.

HAMAL, or Haml. Arab. lit he carried.
Hamilab, a pregnant woman. Hamal, a porter, a
bearer of a palanquin or tonjons. They carry it
by means of the pole on their shoulders, the first
man on the right shoulder, the second on the left,
and so on, thus always keeping the pole steady. —
Frere, Antipodes, p. 197.

HAMAM DASTAH. Hind. A mortar ; from
the Persian Hawan. See Hawang-dastah.

HAMAMELTDEJE, witch hazels, a very small
group of woody exogenous plants of N. America,
Japan, China, the central parts of Madagascar, S.
Africa, the Khassya mountains, and Upper Assam.
Some of the species are large forest trees, afford-
ing good timber. Bucklandia populnea tree is
found from Cherrapunji to Surureem. Altingia
excelsa, Noronha, is a large tree of Assam and
Burma ; the Liquidamber cerasifolia, Griff., occurs
in the Malay Peninsula; and L. orientate, MiiUer,
is the storax tree of Asia Minor. Hamamelis
Chinensis is of China and the Jaintia Hills. —
Hooker, Him. Jour. ii. p. 318 ; Gamhier.

HAMD-ALLAH.

HAMPI.

HAMD-ALLAH. Arab. An abbreviation of
the ejaculation Al-hamd-ul-illah ! The praise be to
God. It is as commonly used by Mahomedans as
the Thank God ! of the English.

HAMILTON, CHARLES, Author of a
Historical Account of the Rohilla Afghans,
London, 1787.

HAMILTON, De. FRANCIS, formerly Buch-
anan, a Bengal medical officer, who published
papers in the Linnsean Society's Transactions,
author of a Journey through Mysore ; An
Account of Nepaul ; Account of the Fishes
found in the river Ganges and its Branches, with
a volume of plates. He was the first after Rheede
to explore the botany of Malabar.

HAMILTON, Captain, visited Cambay in
a.d. 1681, and gave an account of its quartzose

iTnnPT*3ls

HAMILTON, "WALTER, author of a Geo-
graphical, Statistical, and Historical Description
of Hindustan and the Adjacent Countries, 1820.

HAMILTON, WILLIAM, surgeon to the em-
bassy sent from Calcutta under John Surman and
Edward Stephenson, which reached Dehli on the
8th July 1715. He was successful in his treat-
ment of the emperor Ferokhsir, who on recovery
married the daughter of Jye Singh (Ajit Singh).
Hamilton died 4th December 1717, and his
epitaph is of historical interest : —

' His Memory ought to be dear to Ms Nation,

for the Credit he gained the English

in Curing Ferrukseer,

the present King of Hindustan,

of a Malignant Distemper,

by which he made his own name famous

at the Court of that Great Monarch ;

and without doubt will perpetuate his Memory

as well in Great Britain as all other

Nations in Europe.'

— Orme, ii. p. 20 ; Hough, p. 4.

HAMILTONIA SUAVEOLENS. Roxb.

Niggi, Tulenni, . Ravi.
Phul, Golunla of . „
Pudari of . . . Sutlej.

A common shrub in the'Panjab Himalaya, up
to near the Indus, at from 2500 to 6000 feet.
Its wood is very small ; but in Chamba it is said to
be used for making gunpowder charcoal. — Dr.
Steicart ; Roxb. i. 554.

HAMIR. The Balla race were of sufficient
consequence in the thirteenth century to make
incursions on Mewar, but the first exploit of the
celebrated rana Hamir was his killing the Balla
chieftain of Choteela.

HAMIRA. There were four distinguished
leaders of this name amongst the vassals of the
last Rajput emperor of Dehli ; one of them, who
turned traitor, and joined Shahab-ud-Din, was a
Scythian of the Ghiker race, which maintained
their ancient habits of polyandrism even in
Baber's time. The Haoli Rao Hamira was lord
of Kangra and the Ghikers of Pamir. — Tod's
Rajasthan, i. 560.

HAMIRPUR, a district in the N.W. Pro-
vinces of India, lying between lat. 25° 5' and 26°
10' N. and long. 79° 22' 45" and 80° 25' 15" E.
Area, 2289 square miles. It encloses the Native
States of Sarila, Jigni, and Banda. There are 62
clans of Rajputs, and the Pariahar, Chauhan, and
Bais have been specially guilty of infanticide.
The Chandel and Bundela, the old dominant
classes, now sunk to 548 and 612 respectively,

Kanera, Pudari of Beas.
Muskei, Kantalu,CHENAB.
Fisanniof. . . ,,

Martillo, Ii

Martillo, .... Si
Chekij, . . . Turk

mostly still cling to the neighbourhood of Mahobs
the seat of their former supremacy. The Bai
are far the most numerous of the Rajput classe
in the district. Among the Sudras the mos
numerous are the Lodhi, the Chamar, and th
Kori. The Mahomedans are the descendants c
converted Hindus, who were originally Thakurs
— Imp. Gaz.

HAMITE. Mr. Logan says (J. E. Ar., Ma
to June, 1854) the earliest Hebrew ethnograph
indicates that the Semitic region was joint!
occupied by Shemites and Hamites. Fou
branches of the Hamites are enumerated, vis
(1) the Cushites, embracing the tribes of Sheba
Havilah, Raamah, etc., in Southern Arabia ; (2) th
Ethiopan and Euphratan tribes of Nimrodians.

HAMMA-i-JOUR, literally 'joining of hands,
a Parsee ceremony practised in Pappati, simila
to the English greeting of a ' Happy New Year.'-
Parsees, p. 61.

HAMMAM. Arab. A bath. Hammam lena
to take a bath. Public baths, usual in Turkey
Egypt, Persia, and Kabul, are unknown in India
In the middle of the 19th century there were i
hundred of them in Cairo alone. — Lane, ii. 43.

HAMMER.
Chakuj ; Matripat, Arab.

Marteau Fr.

Hathora, . . . Hind.

The native sledge-hammer of Bombay is em
ployed in breaking trap, granite, limestone, am
other rocks. Its handle is generally of mal
bamboo, about two feet long. Its head is somethinj
like that of an ill-shapen axe, — thick all along
It weighs about 18 lbs. In the face or strikin]
portion is a bluntish wedge of steel, fastened ii
with a piece of leather. With this the nativ
quarryman will break up the most obdurate tra]
into slabs or blocks of almost any size or form
from a pavement flag 3 inches thick and 2 fee
square, to a block 2 feet cube. He looks nar
rowly at the grain of the stone, and then with i
series of blows, of no great force, apparently, th
stone falls in pieces, seemingly without effort
Similar varieties of this, of exactly the sam
pattern, are used as hand hammers ; they an
called Sootki. The blasting, or rather the boring
tool, or jumper, is a plain round rod of iron, abou
three feet long, pointed at both ends with steel
No hammer is ever employed in boring. Thi
jumper is raised and struck in with both hands
and a man will penetrate some inch or two in ai
hour. The native punch is a short, dumpy, lancet
pointed tool; it is sharpened by being turne(
point up, and struck with a piece of flint. Whei
used in stone-dressing, it is held in the left hand
and struck with a hollow-faced iron hammer
the cavity being about an inch in depth and as
much in diameter. — Dr. Buist, Bombay Times.

HAMPI, a ruined city, in lat. 15° 19' 50" N.
long. 76° 30' 10" E., on the S. bank of th<
Tumbudra, 36 miles N.W. of Bellary. It is th<
site of an ancient capital of the Vijayanagar kings
The ruins cover nine square miles, including
Kamlapur on the south, and Anagundi, a latei
seat of the dynasty. Hampi was founded, on the
fall of the Ballala dynasty, about 1336 a.d., bj
two brothers, Bukka and Harihara, whose descend-
ants flourished here till the battle of Talikot,
1565 a.d., and afterwards at Anagundi, Vellore,
and Chandragiri for another century, until finally

HAMPSAGUR.

Overwhelmed by the advancing powers of Beder,
Ahmadna ggur, Bijapur, and Golconda. The
¥ijayanagar rajas extended and beautified Hampi
with many palaces and temples. — Imp. Gaz.

HAMPSAGUR, lat. 15° 9' N., long. 76° 4' E.,
mi the rfgh< bank of the Tumbudra. The level
of the Tumbudra in here 1647 feet above the sea. .

HAMS.

n, . . . Dot.

.Illiniums, Ya.

Schinken, . . . GEE.
Prosciutti, . . . . It.

Prosuntas, . . . PoKT.
Okoroku, . . . Rus.
Jamones, .... Sp.
But, Tube.

They are largely imported into India for the
use of Europeans. Many Mahomedan shopkeepers
will not fven sell them.

II A MSA, the god of the Druse race.

1 1 A \1 S A Y A. Hind. A neighbour, dependant,

1IAMUN, a name for the lake of Seistan,
H.i miii n is an Okl Persian word signifying expanse.
— Ferrier, Journ. p. 429. See Ab-Istadah.

11AMZA, uncle of Mahomed, slain by Wahsha,
a negro slave. See Masailma-el-Aswad.

HAN, the 5th dynasty of China, began B.C. 206,
and lasted to a.d. 264. Most of the Han princes
were munificent patrons of literature. During
the reign of Ming-ti, the 15th of the Han dynasty,
considerable intercourse was carried on between
the princes of India and China. This had obtained
from the earliest period, but particularly during
the dynasties of Sum, Learn, and Tam, from the
fourth to the seventh centuries, when the princes
from Bengal, Malabar, and the Punjab sent
embassies to the Chinese monarchs. The Han
dynasty of China reformed the Chinese calendar.

HANAFIYAH, a large vessel of copper, some-
times tinned, with a stopcock in the lower part,
and generally with a ewer, or a basin, to receive
the water. — Burton's Mecca, ii. 43.

HANBALI, a commentary of the Koran. The
commentator was born at Baghdad a.h. 164, and
died there A.H. 241, nearly 70 years old.

HAND.

Yadd,
Main,
Hat'h,
Mano,

Arab.
. Fr.
Hind.
It. Sp.

Manus,
Dast, .
Kai, .

. . Lat.
. . Pebs.
Tam., Tel.

The figure of the hand, amongst all nations, is
utilized as an emblem.

The hand is an emblem for V., with the three
central fingers folded in ; and by placing the
symbol below, the cardinal X. is produced. In
India, amongst Mahomedans and Hindus, the
right hand is more honoured than the left; in
China the left hand is more honourable than the
right ; in Siam the right more than the left.

In British India, a person to whom you make a
present, a servant to whom you do a kindness,
will rush to your hand and press it to his lips.
To seize a man's hand is to crave his protection,
to profess yourself his servant ; hence the act is
one of obedience and devotion, almost of servility.
The person advancing to seize the hand always
does so in a stooping posture, in an attitude of
humility. The giving the hand amongst all
nations (Prov. xi. 21) has been considered as a
pledge for the performance or ratification of some
act of importance, and it was the custom amongst
the Scythic or Tartar nations of transmitting its
impress as a substitute ; the hand being immersed
in a compost of sandal-wood, is applied to the

HAND-MILL

paper, and the palm and five fingers (panja) is
the signature. In Carne's letters from the East
is given an anecdote of Mahomed, who, as
erroneously supposed, unable to sign his name to
a convention, dipped his hand in ink, and made
an impression therewith, but Mahomed only fol-
lowed an ancient solemnity, or custom, for all
Mahomedans occasionally stamped or sealed
their epistolary communications with the print of
their hand. Hyder Ali often did it. It was
considered a solemn form of signature. The

Smja, or palm and five digit form hand, of the
ahomedans, is used at the Maharram in erect
Panjah flags or Alain, in the name of Husain and
other martyrs. — 7W« Rajasthan, i. p. 368:

HANDI. Hind. A cooking-pot or kettle
made of pottery, of the same shape as a deghcha,
which is of brass.

HANDKERCHIEF.
Mouchoir, . . . Fb.
Tuch, Schnupftuch, Geb.
Kmnal, .... Hind.

Fuzzoletto,
Panullo, .
Mendil, Mahrama,

It.

Sp.

Tube.

Handkerchief pieces form a considerable article
of manufacture and traffic in Southern India.
Handkerchiefs, coloured, from Madras, red from
Sydapet and Ventapollem, are much admired
for the harmony and richness of the colours, and
the superiority of texture. Nellore pocket-hand-
kerchiefs of jean deserve unqualified approbation.
The silk handkerchiefs manufactured in Bengal
are known in the market as Bandana, Kora,
and Chapa. They are generally figured, and of
different colours. They are exported chiefly to
the Burmese territories, and sold at from 1£ to 5
rupees each. The coloured cotton handkerchiefs
manufactured at Ventapollem, on the east coast,
are well known in foreign markets, were formerly
highly prized for their superior qualities and
colours, but they have been driven from the
markets by the Madras and Pulicat manufactures,
which the community prefer for their superior
qualities and colours. Madras handkerchiefs of
superior kinds are sold at If rupee each, and
inferior sorts at 4 annas to 12 annas ; the colour of
the last description is very perishable. The ordi-
nary colour of the Madras handkerchiefs is red,
and Mahomedans and Hindus prefer them to those
of other countries. The principal site of the manu-
facture of silk handkerchiefs for the head is Sering-
apatam in Mysore ; they are of superior quality,
and of red and pink colours ; they are in squares
of 6 cubits, and are, in consequence of their gold
lace ;borders, sold at 35 to 100 rupees each. —
Mad. Ex. J. Rep.

HAND-MILL.

Meula, .... Fb. I Mola, . ' It.

Chakki, .... Hind. |

The grinding at the hand-mill is noticed in
Exodus xi. 5, Isaiah xlvii. 2, and Matthew xxiv.
41. It is the quern of the GaeL In all tin-
south of Asia, in small families, the labour of
one person suffices to grind enough for the
day's consumption ; but where the inmates are
more numerous, two people sit on the ground
with the hand-mill between them. A single

ferson, to cause the upper stone to revolve,
as to pull it towards and to push it from her ;
but when two are working, each pulls towards her
side. The Old and New Testament* notice the
process, but it is well described in the 47th chap-
ter of Isaiah. It is a heavy task, but they lighten

HAND-PLANT.

HAN-LIN-YUEN.

it by their labour-songs, and they work from the
earliest morning hours, 2 or 8 a.m.

HAND-PLANT, Cheirostemon platanoides,
H. B. K., venerated by the ancient Mexicans,
from the singular resemblance to a clawed hand
presented by the curved stamens of the flower.

HANDRO. Hind. ? A tree of Chutia Nagpur,
with hard, red timber. — Cal. Cat. Ex. 1862.

HANGI. Hind. A large horse-hair sieve, used
by silk-dyers.

HANGRANG PASS, lat. 31° 47' 7", long. 78°
30' 6, in Kanawar, W. of the Sutlej, leads over to
Spiti. The top of the pass is 14,530 feet above
the sea, according to the G. T. S.

HANG TUAH, a celebrated champion of
Java, called the Laksamana. He must not be
confounded with the Laksamana of the Portuguese
writers, as the latter lived several generations
after the first, who accompanied king Mansur to
Majapahit.

HANIA. Ar\b. An Arabic salutation, mean-
ing, May it be good to you.

HANIF, an expression employed in the Koran
by Mahomed, to signify that he followed the pure
and catholic faith of Abraham. One Mahomedan
theological sect is called Hanifi. The Hanifi
theology chiefly holds by the religion of Abraham.

HANIFAH, a commentator of the Koran, was
born at Kufa A.H. 80, and died at Baghdad, in
prison, A.H. 150, nearly 70 years old.

HAN JIN and Tan Jin, men of Han or of
Tang, from the dynasties of those names.

HANKA, also Ankus. Hind. The elephant-
driver's spear-goad.

HAN-KOW, Chin., means mouth or port of the
Han. See Yang-tze-kiang.

HANLE TSO, a fresh-water lake in Ladakh, in
lat. 32° 48' N., long. 78° 54' E., at the monastery
of Hanle, 14,600 feet above the sea. This is the
largest sheet of fresh water in Ladakh. — Cunning-
ham's Ladakh, p. 142 ; Schlagentweit.

HAN-LIN- YUEN, the Imperial Academy of
China, founded by Kablai Khan. For 600 years
the small body of Han-lin scholars have held
their sessions undisturbed by dynastic revolutions
or political outbreaks. No learned society in the
world can compete with it in age or in its intense
exclusiveness. The examinations being open to
all, and forming as they do the only recognised
channel to official rank, every man in the empire
who aspires to end his days as something more
than a plebeian, enters the lists. At the first com-
petition, which consists of five sessions separated
by intervals of a few days each, and which is held
annually in the chief city of each district, about
2000 candidates generally present themselves.
Out of this number from 20 to 80 of the best
are chosen, and on these are conferred the degree
of Siu-ts'ai, or 'budding genius.' Every third
year the budding geniuses from every district in
each province — and there may be 70 or 80 — go
to the provincial capital to appear before an im-
perial examiner as candidates for the next degree
of Ku jin, or 'promoted scholars.' On this
occasion 5000 or 6000 competitors contest the
honour of being the one in each 100 who, as the
ripest scholar, is admitted to the further degree
of Ku jin. In company with all those who have
won similar honours in the capital of the 18 pro-
vinces of the empire, the successful Ku jin goes,
in the succeeding spring, to Pekin, where, if

fortune attend him, he wins the distinction i
becoming a Tsin shi, or 'one ready for offic<
In agreement with this descriptive title, the ne
Tsin shi may, if they please, ballot for the vacai
junior mandarinates, for which they have no
shown themselves qualified, and from which th(
may rise by their own exertions to seats in tl
Grand Council of State, or to places in the in
perial cabinet. But, if desirous of still furthi
distinguishing themselves as scholars, and <
obtaining the honour of places in the Imperii
Academy, the 200 or 300 survivors of so mar
contests present themselves at the palace, whei
they are examined by the emperor in perso:
Out of this number about 20 are chosen whoi
scholarship is the ripest, whose penmanship is tl
best, and whose literary style is the most perfec
and to these are given seats among the Immorta
of the Han-lin. On one only of these 20, chose
out of the 300 million inhabitants of the empir
la crime de la crime, is conferred the signal tit
of Chwang-yuen, or model scholar of the empir
Once in three years is this degree granted ; and i
supreme is the prize, that provinces contend f(
it, and the birthplace of the victor becomes famoi
for ever. The instant that the imperial award
given, heralds carry the news at express speed 1
the friends of the laureate. We have, says D
Martin, seen them enter a humble cottage, ant
amid the flaunting of banners and the blare <
trumpets, announce to its startled inmates thi
one of their relations had been crowned by tl
emperor as laureate of the year. And so hig
was the estimation in which the people held tl
success of their fellow-townsman, that his wil
was requested to visit the six gates of the cit;
and to scatter before each a handful of rice, thi
the whole population might share in the goo
fortune of her household.

Members of the Han-lin are appointed tl
official poets and historians of the reigning dynast;
and every imperial compilation undertaken is tl
work of these men. It was they who edited tl
famous dictionary of the language which added
lustre to the reign of K'ang-he (1661-1721), an
who, at the bidding of the Emperor K'een-lun
(1755-1795), compiled the celebrated encyck
psedia in 5020 volumes, one of the few existing copi<
of which is now in the library of the British Museun
To act as examiners at the competitive examine
tions, and as literary chancellors in the province
form part also of their duties, as well as compos
ing prayers for the use of the emperor on occs
sions, writing inscriptions for the temples of varioi
divinities, in acknowledgment of services, an
choosing honorific titles for members of the in
perial household.

The holders of hereditary titles are so few, thi
their existence cannot be said to impair the assei
tion that the holders of official rank form th
only aristocracy in China. Unlike the aristocrac
of other lands, this charmed circle is, accordin
to law, only to be entered by winning distinctio
at the examinations; and as these are open t
every man in the empire, of whatever age and c
whatever station in life, except the very outcast!
the highest prizes are as freely accessible to th
peasant or shopman, as to the sons of the loftief
dignitaries. China may thus be said to be
democratic empire, tempered by an aristocrac
of talent— Dr. W. A. P. Martin, The Chinese

HANNAMANTU'S PILLAR

II AI'TA HINDI'.

tueation and Letters; line, Chinese Empire,
i. pp. 19, 95.

HAN N A M A \ PIT'S PILLAR. About 50 feet
w«st of the high road from Kurnool toGoofer, 604
iiiilt-s from Kuroool town, stands this natural pillar of
gneiss rook. There is scaroely Mich another in the
world. Amongst a few smaller pillars of a similar
kind, it towns 25 feel high, averaging 6 feet
This average width is exceeded in the
middle, and tapers off towards both ends; so that
the top is I or 5 feet square, and the base about
3 feet square. It is all solid, except that the
upper 1 or 5 feet is separated from the rest of the
pillar by a tine horizontal crack. The most strik-
ing part of it is, that it does not Btand on its base
fully, nor even upon half of it. A string 10 feet
long will encircle the whole of the bearing points
of the hate, which all lie within a space about 3
feet long and 2 feet wide, in the form of a trun-
cated right-angled triangle. This is a small base
for a pillar weighing as much as a couple of loco-
motive engines with their tenders complete. Yet
even on this small base, if, as appears likely, the
centre of gravity falls about the centre of the base,
it will require a wind-pressure of 80 lbs. on the
square foot to overturn the pillar. Years ago,
some Hindu enthusiast painted a figure of the
monkey god on this pillar. Recently some icono-
clast has been removing the figure, by flaking off
the stone in a very destructive way. — Traveller.

HANNO, according to Pliny, a native of Car-
thage. When that city was at the height of her
prosperity, he circumnavigated the continent of
Africa, sailing from Gades (Cadiz) to the extremity
of the Arabian Gulf. He wrote all the details of
his voyage in the Punic language.

BANOMOREY, betle-box bearers of Oovah in
Ceylon, a race or caste held to be more degraded
than the Rodiya. — Tennunt.

HAXSA or Hana8a.

Cans, Ger. I Hanza, .... Pali.

x«t», Gb. Ganso, .... Port.

A user Lat. Ansar, .... Sp.

Gangsa, . . . Malay. |

A swan, a goose. AVhen the followers of the
first crusade issued from England, France, and
Flanders, they adored a goat and a goose, which
they believed to be filled with the Holy Ghost.
Salu, translated quails in Numbers xi. 31, are
supposed to be red geese. Brahma is styled
the Hansa rider, it being his vahan or vehicle.
The figure on many Buddhist monuments is the
Casarca rutila, or Brahmany goose. The goose is
emblazoned on the national standard of Burma.

II ANSI, a municipal town of Hissar district,
Panjab, and headquarters of the Tahsil, lat. 29°
6' 19" N., long. 76° 0' 19" E., population (1868)
13,563. Dr. Hunter says it was founded, accord-
ing to tradition, by Anang Pal Tuar, king of
Dehli. Colonel Yule says it was founded by Raja
rethora of Dehli. It was captured by Mahmud
of Ghazni, a.d. 1035. The well within the lower
fort, or fausse braye, is 120 feet deep. In the
centre of the upper fort is a cistern capable of
containing 184,000 gallons. It was the capital of
George Thomas, who raised himself from being a
sailor before the mast to be ruler of a small Indian
prim 'ipality. — Yule, Cathay, ii. p. 406; Imp. Gaz.

HANSRAJ. Hind. Adiantum caudatum, A.
capillus veneris, A. venustum, the pari-soosa or
mu-i-paii. fairy-hair ferns, the leaves of which are

deemed by the natives of India heating and febri-
fuge. — Gen. Med. Tup. p. 127.

HANTU. Malay. A spirit, a ghost

IIANUMAN, a Hindu deity. From Hanu, the
cheek, Hanuman means long jaw. His figure is
that of a man with a black monkey face and a
long tail. Hanuman or Hanumat, in Hindu mytho-
logy, is son of Pavana, the wind, by Anjana, wife
of a monkey named Kesari, called also Laoka-dahi,
also Yoga-chara, Marut-putra; and he has the
patronymics Anili, Maruti, and the matronymic
Anjaneya. His images are set up in temples, some-
times alone, and sometimes in the society of the
former companions of his glory, Rama and Sita.
He is supplicated by Hindus on their birthdays to
obtain longevity, which he is supposed to have the
power to bestow. As the god of enterprise, offer-
ings are made at his shrine by night. Hanuman is
said to be a son of Siva. He is fabled to be the
son of the wind, and is called Maruti, from Pavana
being chief of the Marut, or genii of the winds.
He is also called Muhabar. As the monkey-
general who assisted Rama in his war with
Havana, he is regarded and worshipped as a demi-
god. Both Hanuman ji and Boosundi are said to
have their lives protracted through the four yuga
of Hindu chronology. Boosund was a crow who
had more blood than he could drink in the wars
of Sambhu and Nesambhu. He just quenched
his thirst with blood in the wars of Rama. But
in the wars of the Mahabharat he broke his beak
by striking it against the hard dry earth, which
had soaked in the little blood shed on the occasion.
In 1868, Bala, potail of Assaye, who was five
years old when Sir Arthur Wellesley fought the
battle, was the pujari of the temple in which the
editor put up. Bala daily walked in and poured
water on the lingam (Abishegam), also on Hanu-
man and on the bull (Basava) ; then put rice on all
these, then walked around five times, then put rice
on the tulsi, and the worship concluded. — Tr.
Hind. ii. p. 207 ; Col. Myth. p. 59 ; Dowson.

HANUMAN, the Bengal langur, Presbytes
entellus of Bengal and Central India. The males
live apart from the females, whom they visit at
seasons. See Presbytes.

HANUMAN NATAKA, a long drama on the
adventures of Hanuman, by various hands, com-
pleted by Damodara Misra, by request of King
Bhoja, in the 10th or 11th century.

HANXLEDEN and Paulinus a Sancto Barto-
lomeo whose real name was Philipp Wesdin, in
1790 published the first Sanskrit grammar.

HAOU ? TSING ! TSING ! The Chinese
salutation on meeting, meaning literally, Are you
well ? hail ! hail ! See Chin.

HAPTA HINDU, of the Vendidad, is the
modern Panjab, the Hapta Sin or Hapta Hin. Of
the seven rivers, called in the Vedas the Sapta
Sindhava. These consist of the Sindhu or Indus,
with its six eastern confluents, viz. :
Vitasta or Hydaspes. Vipas or Hyphasig.

Asikni or Ascesenes. Satadru or Hesydru».

Parushni or Hydraote«. Kubha or Kophcn.

In the journeying of the Aryan race, their
fourteenth settlement was in Hapta Hindu (Pan-
iab, vi. 19), the land of the seven Him la, that
is, the country between the Indus and Sutlej. In
the Vedas, the country of the five rivers is also
called the land of the seven rivers. The tradi-
tional Greek names also are seven. The Iudus

HAQ.

HARA KIM.

and the Sutlej are each formed by the junction
of two arms, which in their earlier course were
independent. According to this view, it stands
thus : —

1. Kophen (Kubha), . .) j j d

2. Indus, Upper, . . .)

3. Hydaapes (Bidaspes), . II. Hydaspes.

4. Akesines (Asikni), . . III. Akesines.

5. Hyarotis (Hydraotis, \ Iy H draote8 .

Iravati-Parusm), . .) *

6. Hyphasis (Vipasa), . . )

7. Saranges (Upper Sata- V V. Hyphasis.

dru, Sutlej, Ghara), . )

Ritter supposes that the country extended as
far as the Sarasvati, but such a supposition is at
variance with history. It is now ascertained from
the Vedas that the Aryans passed the Sutlej at a
very late period, and settled in what is now India.
It was not till their fourteenth settlement, after
the migration from the primitive country in the
north, that they passed the Hindu Kush and the
Indus. The previous resting-places form an un-
broken chain of the primitive abodes of the
Aryans. — Bunsen, iii. 465, 487. See Aryans.

HAQ. Arab. Right, truth ; also an attribute
of the deity, Al Haq, the true God, a word in
frequent combination. Haq also means any right
or due to which a person is entitled. Haq-dar, a
person entitled to any right. See Sufi.

HAR. Hind. A necklace; a necklace of honour.

HAR, the Rajput god of war, is Kumara. In
the Hindu mythology he is represented with
seven heads ; the Saxon god of war had six. The
six-headed Mars of the Cimbri Chersonese, to
whom was raised the Irmanseul on the Weser,
was worshipped by the Sacasense, the Catti, the
Siebi or Suevi, the Jetae or Gete, and the Cimbri,
evincing in name, as in religious rites, a common
origin with the martial warriors of Hindustan.
The Rajput delights in blood ; his offerings to the
god of battle are sanguinary, — blood and wine.
The cup (cupra) of libation is the human skull,
the calvarium. He loves them because they are
emblematic of the deity he worships; and he is
taught to believe that Har loves them, who in
war is represented with the skull to drink the
foeman's blood, and in peace is the patron of
wine and women. With Parvati on his knee, his
eyes rolling from the juice of the p'fool and
opium, such is this Bacchanalian divinity of war,
who is a perfect analogue of the manners of the
Scandinavian heroes. The Rajput slays buffaloes,
hunts and eats the boar and deer, and shoots
ducks and wildfowl (cookru) ; he worships his
horse, his sword, and the sun, and attends more
to the martial song of the bard than to the litany
of the Brahman. In the martial mythology and
warlike poetry of the Scandinavians, a wide field
exists for assimilation ; and a comparison of the
poetical remains of the Asi of the East and West
would alone suffice to suggest a common origin.
The cupra of Har, a human skull, the calvarium, in
the dialects pronounced cupar, is the cup in Saxon.
The cup of the Scandinavian worshippers of Thor,
the god of battle, was a human skull, that of the foe,
in which they showed their thirst of blood ; and
Har, the Hindu god of battle, leads his heroes in
the ' red field of slaughter ' with the cupra in his
hand, with which he gorges on the blood of the
Blain. The Gosain are the peculiar priests of Har
or Bal ; they seem all to indulge in intoxicating
drugs, herbs, and drinks. — Tod's Rajasthan, i. 67.

HAR, Terminalia chebula, and other thre<
species, furnish all the discarded myrobalans o:
old pharmacopoeias. The whole are much used ii
dyeing. The myrobalan from Dehli and Harowti
Hindustan and the Dekhan, are of four kinds
namely, Gural harra, astringent and purgative
used in mesalihs, given in medicine to children
4 seers for 1 rupee ; Juwal harra, used in th<
same way, 8 seers for 1 rupee ; Chaipel harra
used only in dyeing, 10 seers for 1 rupee
According to the size of the myrobalan, its valu<
augments, so that a very large one may be wortl
100 rupees or more, the natives believing that th<
very large ones have the virtue of causing purg
ing by being merely retained in the hands, and i
esteemed to possess wonderful general deobstruen
and purgative qualities, etc. etc., but is in reality
worthless. — Genl. Med. Top. pp. 136, 153.

HAR. Hind. A plough ; enters into the com
position of many words. See Hal.

HARA, a name of Siva or Mahadeo.

HARA, a mountain range. See Hala.

HARA, a branch of the Chauhan Rajputs
who give their name to Haraoti, which include
Kotah and Bundi. The Hara Rajputs have hel(
Haraoti through all dynastic changes. Bundi i
their capital, and they claim descent from thi
family that ruled in Ajmir before the Mahomedai
conquest in 1342. The Hara Rajput is above thi
middle height, with graceful and well-proportione<
limbs. He is wiry, upright, with a commanding
presence ; with an air of pride and haught;
superiority over all men, but devoted to thei
chiefs. The face is well shaped ; nose and mout)
finely cut ; eye small and long, bright and clear
but not indicative of high intellect. The Han
Rajput partakes freely of tobacco, spirits, anc
opium, fish, and flesh of all kinds, except that o
the cow or buffalo ; but thick and coarse cakes o
flour form the chief food, with vegetables an<
milk. This Hara branch of the Chauhan dynast;
are descended from Anuraja, a son of Visaldeva
or more properly of Manakya Rai (Tod, ii. p. 454)
who in a.d. 695 founded Sambhur, hence his titl
of Sambri Rao. In a.d. 1024 Anuraja too]
possession of Asi or Hansi, in Hariana. Th
Bundi branch of this family reckon from Ra
Ratan, who built Ratanpur, the name of the chie
town, in 1578 to 1821, in which year was Ran
Sinh. The Kotah branch reckon from Madhi
Sinh, son of Rao Ratan, in a.d. 1579, to Kiswa
Sinh, Madhu Sinh, regent, in a.d. 1819.—
Thomas' Priiisep, p. 249 ; Captain W. H. Beynon
in vol. vii., People of India.

HARA. Arab. A quarter of the city in Cairc
Every quarter has its shaikh, called Shaikh-ul
Hara. The whole city is also divided into eigh
districts, over each of which there is a shaikh.

HARAI is the most important of the hi]
chiefships or zamindaris in the north of th
Chindwara district.

HARAKAT. Arab. Trouble, inconvenience
Under British rule in India, Harakat na hui
barakat hui, Trouble there has been none, bless
ing hath there been. — Burton's Mecca, i. 11.

HARA KIRI is from Hara, Japanese, the belly
and Kiri, root form of Kiru, to cut ; a self-immola
tion by disembowelling, a mode of self-executioi
adopted in Japan. Practically, they make only i
small wound in the belly, and in the act of s<
doing a relative or other person, whom they hav

llAHAM.

HARBURENNI.

selected, cute off their head with a sweep of a sword.
', when Taki Zenzaburo was permitted by
the Mikado so to die, because be had ordered
the Europeans to be fired upon at Kobe, he wore
of ceremony and a zimbaori coat. He
advanced to the high altar and prostrated himself j
twice, with bis pupil on his left to act as the |
kai.shaku or beheading friend. He was presented
with the waki-zashi, short sword or dirk, 9£
long, which the victim raised to his head
ami i .laced in front of himself. He then con-
iloud, ' I, and I alone, unwarrantably gave
tin older to fire on the foreigners at Kohe, and
again as they tried to escape. For this crime
1 disembowel myself, and 1 beg you who are
present to do me the honour of witnessing the
act." Bowing again, he let his clothes fall to the
waist, tin n took the dagger, and, stabbing himself
below the waist on the left side, he drew it slowly
across to the right side, and, turning the dirk in
the wound, he gave it a slight upward turn. He
thin drew out the dirk, leant forward, and
si niched out his neck. At that moment the
kaishaku sprang to his feet, and with one blow
severed the head from the body, made a low bow,
wiped his sword, and retired. The stained dagger
was then solemnly borne away as proof of the
execution. The Samurai, or gentlemen of the mili-
tary class, are trained from infancy to regard this
self -execution as an honourable form of expiation.
In some parts of Japan, as the victim criminal
Stretches out his hand to take the wooden dagger,
the kaishaku strikes off his head ; or a Daimio
disembowels himself and cuts his own throat. —
Mr. Mitford in Cornh. Mag., Nov. 1869 ; Oliphant,
ii. 147 ; Manners and Customs of the Japanese, 193.
HARAM. Arab. Sacred ; the most sacred
place of a temple or a palace ; the seraglio of a
great man. Harmain, the holy cities of Mecca
and Medina. In Arabia, Egypt, and Turkey, the
Haram or Harm means the female part of the
family, and the word is used to avoid the inde-
corum, in the eyes of a Mahomedan, of mention-
ing his wives or daughters. It is likewise the
name for that part of the house where the females
dwell. Mahomedans are so scrupulous to avoid
speaking personally of their female relations, that,
when obliged to refer to them, they say, 'My
house is sick,' or ' My house sends compliments
to your house.' The haram in India means a
purchased woman associating with her master.
In Arabia, the haram woman would be a slave
woman taken in war. — Rich's Kurdistan, i. p. 2.

HARAM, in India, unlawful, forbidden ;
whatever the Mahomedan law disallows ; unlawful
food, such as pork, wine, mushrooms, etc., hence
Harami and Hararazadah, a vicious, wicked man
or beast.

HARA - MUK or Gunga bul, Tib., means
literally place of the Ganges, and is a sacred lake
on the mountain of Haramuk, in Kashmir. It
lies under the wildest and most lofty peaks of the
mountain, is 1$ mile long and 200 or 300 yards
wide, and is about 12,000 feet above the level of
the sea. — Vigne.

HARAN, the present Karra, a day's journey
south of Odessa, to which Abraham went from
Ur of the Chaldees. It is the capital of a Turkish
pashalik, which extends in a north-west direction
from the mouth of the Shat-ul-Arab to the rocks
of Merdin, the Baghdad frontier towards Con

sLantinoplc. In an east and west line it stretches
from the confines of Persia to the banks of the
Khabour, which separates it from the pashalik of
Orfa, the Osrhoene of the Romans, and that part
of Mesopotamia which contained the Haran of
Abraham, and the famous Edessa of the crusades.
— Hun* it, iii.

HARA NO, a district in Eastern Baluchistan
bordering on the Indus. It is one of the three
eastern sections of Baluchistan. Harand and
DajU, in Cutch Gandava, are inhabited by the
Gurchani tribe of Rinds, and have the Muzari on
their south.

HARAQUAITA is the Arachosia of the classics,
the country of the Rachos, with whom the immi-
grant Aryans came in conflict, and who have been
turned into the fearful Rakshasa of popular Hindu
belief. According to General Ferrier, Arachosia.
can be distinctly shown by the Greek measure-
ments to have been at the ruins of Shahr-Zohak
or Olan Robat, between Kilat-i-Ghilji and Mokoor.
According to Ch. Bunsen, Haraquaita is south of
Kabul, and is the Harauwati of the cuneiform
inscriptions, and the Arachosia of the classics.
It was the ninth settlement made by the Aryans
(verse 13) in a country which they conquered,
and it was here that they commenced to inter
their dead, which the Zendavesta strictly pro-
hibits, as being the greatest desecration of the
sacred earth — an apostasy, therefore, from the true
faith. The Arachotia mentioned on the coins of
the Indo-Greek rulers was Kandahar. The Hara-
quaita of the Zend language is the Saraswati of
Sanskrit writers, the Greek Arachotos, and the
Chinese Tsaukuta. — Bunsen, iii. 464 to 485 ;
Ferrier's Journ. p. 323.

HARAWAL. Turk. The advanced guard of
an army ; the officer commanding it.

HARB. Arab. Battle. Harbi, martial, valiant.
In Mahomedan law, Dar-ul-Harb is a non-
Mahomedan state, not subject to Mahomedan
rule, and, although at peace, an incessant object
of hostiUties. Dar-ul-Islam is a Mahomedan state.
HARB, an Arab tribe who warred with
Mahomed. Mahomed is fabled to have resusci-
tated those killed in the war by the application of
balsam of Mecca.

HARBOURS. Captain Taylor gives a list of
656 ports and harbours in British India, the chief
of which are — Karachi in Sind ; on the west coast
of India are Poshetra and Serai, in the Gulf of
Cutch ; Chuch Bandar or Shalbet, on the south
coast of Kattyawar, 30 miles east of Diu Head.
It is formed by Shalbet Island. Bombay harbour
is the best on the west coast. Jyghur and Vizia-
drug is south of Bombay ; Karwar is the port of
N. Canara. Cochin harbour is kept clear by its
splendid backwater, which acts as a tidal reservoir.
Kolachul, on the Travancore coast, has some out-
lying rocks, and large ships can ride at anchor
to leeward of them in still water. Tuticorin. in
the Gulf of Manaar, is the port for all the large
trade of Tinnevelly, but vessels have to lie 2$
miles from the shore. Chittagong harbour or
port is 10 miles up the river Karnfuli. It is one of
the best porta in India. TheHoogly, the Irawadi,
and the Mouhnein rivers are much resorted to.

HARBURENNI and other places in Ceylon
have numerous rock inscriptions in the Pali
language, from 104 B.c. to twelfth century, in the
Lat to the modern Tamil character. Religion

HARDAUL-LALA.

HARDWAR.

mentioned is Buddhist, Sir Wilmot Horton says
there are thousands of these inscriptions in
Ceylon, and they exhibit the Deva Nagari in all
its transitions. The inscriptions would appear to
be much defaced, and little is yet made of them.
— Vol. v. p. 554.

HARDAUL-LALA, a chief of Bundelkhand,
whose spirit, according to the natives of Northern
India, visited the camp of Lord Hastings with
cholera in consequence of the slaughter of cows
in the grove where the chief's ashes were interred.
Hardaur or Hardaul is the name given to the
earth mounds on which a flag is placed, raised to
avert epidemic disease from the villages of N.
India. — Wilson.

HARDEHA. Hind. A tribe of the Koclrhi.
HARDINGE, Viscount, G.C.B., a general
officer of the British army, who distinguished
himself in the Peninsula under the Duke of
Wellington. He took the office of Governor-
General of India, 23d July 1844, and held it till
the 12th January 1848. He endeavoured to
preserve peace, but, after the death of the
Maharaja Ranjit Singh, the Sikh nation had
been agitated, and anarchy followed. On the
death of Kurruck Singh, the Sikh army freed
themselves from all control, and 50,000 men in-
vaded British territory, and they began to cross
the Sutlej on the 11th December 1845. Lord
Hardinge had left Calcutta on the 22d September,
and placed himself under the orders of Sir Hugh
Gough ; and on the British Indian army arriving
at Moodkee on the 18th December, they found
the enemy advancing in order of battle, and the
battle that ensued lasted from three in the after-
noon until nightfall. The Sikh army lost seventeen
guns and several thousand men. In this battle
Sir Robert Sale fell. The Sikhs retreated to
Firoz Shahar, where for three days they were
throwing up entrenchments around their camp.
On the 21st December Sir Hugh Gough attacked
their entrenchments, and the British army and
its generals bivouacked on the field, exposed
throughout the night to the fire of the enemy.
The battle was renewed next day, and terminated
in the success of the British, the camp being
taken, after a long and bloody conflict. Prince
Vladimir of Prussia was present in this engage-
ment, and his physician, Dr. Hoffmeister, was
killed.

The Sikh army retired to the right bank of the
Sutlej opposite Lodhiana, which Major-General
Sir Harry Smith was sent to protect ; and in the
subsequent movements the Sikh army opposed
him at Aliwal on the 28th January 1846, but
were defeated with great loss, and the left bank
was cleared. Sir Harry Smith rejoined the
commander-in-chief, and on the 10th February
1846 the battle of Sobraon was fought and won,
but with great loss on the part of the British, —
thirteen officers were killed and above one
hundred wounded. A treaty was signed, trans-
ferring all the country between the Sutlej and
Beas, and afterwards modified to the Beas and
Indus. Raja Dhulip Singh was reinstated on
the throne, and Raja Gulab Singh made inde-
pendent, and granted Kashmir and other territory.
Sir Henry Hardinge was created a viscount, Sir
Hugh Gough a baron, and Sir Harry Smith a
baronet. Lord Hardinge returned to England,
and was succeeded by Lord Dalhousie.

HARDWAR, ancient historical town and place
of Hindu pilgrimage in Saharunpur district, N.W.
Provinces, lat. 29° 57' 30" N., long. 78° 12' 52"
E. ; population (1872), 4800. It was originally
known as Kapila or Gupila, from the sage Kapila,
who passed his life in religious austerities at the
spot still pointed out as Kapilasthana. Hard-
war, or Hari-dwara, literally Vishnu's Gate, Beems
to be of comparatively modern origin, as both Abu
Rihan and Rashid-ul-Din mention only Ganga-
dwara, or the Ganges gorge (literally, gate). Tom
Coryat visited the place, and described it as 'Hari-
dwara, the capital of Siva.' The level of the
Ganges at Hardwar is 1024 feet. The Ganges falls
rapidly to Hardwar, which is 1300 miles from the
mouth. It is a great place of pilgrimage, the
pilgrims often occupying the valley of the Ganges
to a length of nine and a depth of two miles from
the village of Doodea past Hardwar and Myapore
to Kunkul and Jooalapore. Its celebrity is owing
to the proximity of the Rikikase gorge, from
which the Ganges escapes from the Siwalik Hills
of the Himalaya mountains, thirteen miles above
Hardwar. It was a scene of sacred rites long
before either Sivaism or Vishnuism developed
in their present forms. As the spot where the
Ganges issues forth on its fertilizing career,
Hardwar obtained the veneration of each of the
great religions of India, and preserves the
memorials alike of Buddhism, Sivaism, and
Vishnuism, and of rites perhaps earlier than any
of them. A dispute exists to this day between the
followers of Siva and Vishnu as to which of these
deities gave birth to the Ganges. The Vishnu
Purana is cited by both, as it ascribes the Ganges
to Vishnu, and the Alaknanda, or eastern branch
of the Ganges, to ' Siva's Gate ; ' the Vishnuvites
maintain that it is Hari-dwara, ' Vishnu's Gate.'
The great object of attraction at the present day
is the Hari-ke-charan, or bathing ghat, with the
adjoining temple of Ganga-dwara. The charan,
or footmark of Vishnu, is imprinted on a stone
let into the upper wall of the ghat, and forms
an object of special reverence. Each pilgrim
struggles to be the first to plunge into the pool
after the propitious moment has arrived, and
stringent police regulations are required to pre-
vent the crowd tramping one another to death,
and drowning each other under the sacred water.
In 1819, 430 persons, including some sepoys on
guard, lost their lives by crushing in this manner,
after which accident Government constructed the
present enlarged ghat of sixty steps, 100 feet in
width. Riots and bloody fights were of common
occurrence amid the excited throng. In 1760,
on the last day of bathing (10th April), the rival
mobs of the Gosain and Bhairagi sects had a long-
continued battle, in which the almost incredible
number of 18,000 are said to have perished. In
1795 the Sikh pilgrims slew 500 of the Gosains.
In 1829, Gosains fought their way to the Ganges,
and many were killed. The great assemblage of
pilgrims takes place on the first day of the month
of Baisakh, the commencement of the Hindu solar
year (March — April), and the anniversary of the
day upon which the Ganges first appeared upon
earth. Every twelfth year, the planet Jupiter,
being then in Aquarius, a feast of peculiar
sanctity occurs, known as a Kumbh-mela, and is
attended by an enormous concourse of people.
The ordinary number of pilgrims at the annual

HARDWARE.

fair amounts to 100,000, and at tlio Kumbh-mela
to 800,000.

Pilgrims como to Hardwar from all parts of
Hindustan and Bengal, from the Dekhan, the
Panjab, from Kashmir, Afghanistan, Tartary,
Tibet, and China, sonic as religious devotees,
some as worldly tradesmen. For miles around
the place it is one immense encampment. Colonel
Yule has seen Buddhist pilgrims at Hardwar who
had crossed the Himalaya from Maha-Chin, as
they said, to visit the holy flame of Jawalamukhi
in the Panjab. A great attack of epidemic
cholera occurred at Hardwar in 1783, when
20,000 people died in eight days. — Yule's Cathay,
p. 411 ; Taylor's Visit, p. 177; Imp. Gaz.

HARDWARE.

Chincaglio, . . . .It,

Isenkramvarer, . Dan.
Yzerkramery, . . Dut.

CliiuMiallerie, . . . Fr.
Quincaillerie, . . . „
Kurze woaren, . . Ger.
Loha kam, . Gi'j., Hind.

QuincaTharia, . . Port.
Mjeloizchnue Towar-

wii Rus.

Quinquilleria, . . . Sp.
Jarnkram, . . . Sw.

In commerce, goods of every kind made from
metal.— M'CttUoch.

HARDWARI PEORI, or Indian yellow, is the
(hied deposit precipitated from the urine of cows
that have been fed on the leaves of the mango
(Mangifera Indica). It consists principally of
magnesia and purreic acid, as it has been called
by Sir R. Kane. On treating a solution with
weak muriatic acid, after evaporation, yellow scaly
crystals of purreic acid are obtained. Hardwari
peori is usually met with in the bazars in lumps.
Wilayiti peori is chrome yellow, in lumps
(chromate of lead). Hardwari indicates the
locality where it is obtained. A dye made of the
Harsinggar is sold under the same name. — Powell,
1>. Pr. Panf. p. 195.

HARDWICKE, Major-General, a distinguished
zoologist, who was employed in Northern India
in the early part of the 19th century. His col-
lection was described by Dr. Gray of the British
Museum, in one volume.

HARDWICKIA BINATA. Roxb.

Kar-atchi, Kat-udugu, Ta.
Epe, Nara epe, . . Tel.

Caratchu, Kamra, . Can,

Anjun Mahr

Atcha, Attimaram, Tam,

This large leguminous tree grows in the forests
of the Godavery, in the Nullamallay, on the
mountains of the Coromandel coast, in some parts
of Kandesh, in the Padshapur jungles, in the
Guzzelhutty pass, common in Lulling pass between
Malligaum and Dhoolea, and on the hills of the
Sone valley. It is a most elegant tree, tall and
erect, with an elongated coma, and the branches
pendulous. On the Godavery it is often hollow
in the centre. Yields a timber of an excellent
quality for beams, and a variety of uses. The
wood is red or dark-coloured, very hard, very
strong and heavy. As the shoots grow up very
straight, it is also valuable for rafters. The bark
yields a strong fibre, and the people of the island
of Siva Samudram use it without further pre-
paration. — Roxb. ; Voigt ; Mr. Rohde's MSS. ;
Hooker's H. J. i. 50 ; W. and A. ; Beddome ;
Dr. Gibson.

HARDWICKIA PINNATA. Roxb. This very
large tree is very conmon on the S. Travancore
ghats (Asambu Hills), in the dense moist forests, I
up to 3000 feet elevation, and is also found on the
Tinnevelly side, just above Courtallum (between I
the 2d and 3d falls), and on the new Manjerabad !

VOL. II. 1

HARIANA.

ghat (S. Canara), about 1500 feet up from Siradi.
Tlic tree yields a dark red balsam, which is BMd
medicinally. A deep notch is made into the heart
of the tree, and after a time it begins to flow.
The tree flowers in March and April, and the
legumes ripen in July. The wood is much used
by the coffee planters and others for building
purposes. — Roxb. ; Beddome, Flo ra Sylr. p. 265.
HARE.

Ameb, .
Li&vre, .
Hare, . .
Arnebeth,

Arab.
. Fr.

Ger.

Heb.

Lepre,
Liebre, .

It z hong,
Tawshnn,

. It.

. Sr.
Tibet.
Turk.

See Lepus ; Mammalia.

HARGILA, the Bengali name of the adjutant
bird, said to be from Har or Hur, a bone, and
Nigalua, to swallow.

HAR GOVIND, a Sikh guru. See Guru.

HAR-HAR, a subdivision or part of an estate.
In Saugor it means the cultivated space imme-
diately round a village, which is quite opposed
to the meaning it generally bears in the N.W.,
where it is applied to the land most distant from
the site of the village, i.e. beyond the Mungha.
In Bundelkhand and some other places it signi-
fies a tract of land, but the term in no way indicates
separate possession of the tract designated. —
Elliot, Supp. Gloss.

HARI, the ancient Arya, the country of Herat,
is the western province of Khorasan. — Belleu:

HARI, a name of Krishna as an avatar of
Vishnu. Hari, Hari-bol, amongst Hindus, a shout
of applause.

HARI. The great harvests are called in Hindi
rabi and kharif, or by the Northern Hindu vil-
lagers hari and sawani, from the names of the
months in which the crops are ripe. Rabi is the
spring harvest, kharif the autumn ; but it is not
all land that bears two harvests. Land that does
so is called do-fasli, and land that only bears
once, ek-fasli ; but there are certain tracts of
country where two or even three harvests are
taken off the soil. The principal crops of the
rabi are the cold-weather crops of wheat, barley,
gram, mattar (Vicia), lentils, tobacco, Unseed,
sarshaf or sarson, rai, etc. The kharif sowings are
jawar, bajra (millet), maize, rice, moth, mung,
mash, and other pulses, sugar-cane, and cotton. —
Powell, Handbook.

HARIALI GRASS, Cynodon dactylon. All
its stems which lie near the ground take root,
and by this means, though an annual plant, it
increases and spreads very wide. It yields abun-
dance of seed, of which small birds are very fond.
It has been found very successful to allow the
seed to ripen before the hay is cut, as it then
propagates itself by seeds, in addition to the
runners. This grass is also found in Great Britain,
but in that country its produce and nutritive

Sroperties are comparatively insignificant, while
ere it constitutes three -fourths of the pasture.
It is the most nutritious grass, indigenous to all

fiarts of India, and, when cultivated, of most
u Miriam growth in the hottest time of the year.

HARIANA, a municipal town in Hoshiarpur
district, Panjab, lat, 31° 38° 15" N., long. 75° 54'
E. ; pop. (1868), 7745. The Hariana tract of
country is in the Hissar and Rohtak districts,
Panjab. It consists of a level upland plain, inter-
spersed with patches of sandy soil, and largely
overgrown with brushwood. The Western Jumna

HARI CHANDRAGARH.

HARMOZIA.

canal now fertilizes a large number of its villages.
During the troublous period which followed the
decline of the Moghul empire, Hariana formed the
battle-field where the Mahratta, the Bhatti, and
the Sikh met to settle their territorial quarrels.
In 1783, the terrible famine known as the San
Chalisa devastated almost the whole surrounding
oountry, which lay waste for several years. In
1795, George Thomas took possession of Hissar
and Hansi. By the close of 1799 he. had extended
his power as far as Sarsa, and the Sikh chieftains
of the Cis-Sutlej States began to fear his dangerous
encroachments. In 1801 they combined in re-
questing General Perron, Sindia's general at
Dehli, to attack Thomas; and a force under
Bourquien in 1802 drove him out of Hariana
into British territory. — Imp. Gaz.

HARI CHANDRAGARH, a mountain and hill
fortress, about 20 miles S.W. from Ankole. It is
the culminating point of the watershed of the
Bhima and Godavery drainage systems, 4700 feet
above the sea. The cap or plateau on its summit
is about three miles in breadth. There are Jaina
or Buddhist caves in its centre, with a vihara of
750 a.d. according to Fergusson, and 1284 a.d.
according to Wilson.

HARIDAS, a disciple of Chaitanya. The name
is given to the reader or reciter of the Ramayana,
and preacher of the Kirtan during the Ram Naomi.
The Haridasari of Mysore recite to music songs
and tales from the ancient Hindu writings. See
Yugbyasa.

HARIGOLU. Tel. A basket boat

HARIHAR, a town on the right bank of the
Tumbudra river, in the Chittuldrug district of
Mysore, lat. 14° 30' 50" N., long. 76° 50' 36" E. ;
pop. (1871), 6401. Written Hurryhur.

HARI-HARA, or Hari-Hara putra, a name of
the Hindu deity Ayenar.

HARI-MARIAH, a sacrifice of a live kid in
front of the village god of the Mahrattas.

HARINA and Sorendip, or Serandah, are
Raneh and Madagascar.

HARINAGHATTA, the Trinacachha, one of
the mouths of the Ganges.

HARINESWARA or Harinesa, a title of Siva.

HARIPORE, about 12 miles from the Ravi on
the eastern bank, supposed to be the Sangala of
Alexander. It is west of Pakpatan.

HARISCHANDI, a Vaishnava sect of Hindus,
amongst the Dom or sweeper race of the Western
Provinces of India. The founder was Haris-
Chandra. See Hindu.

HARIS-CHANDRA, the 28th king of the
Solar dynasty. He was son of Tri-Sanku, and
was celebrated for his piety and justice. There
are legends about him in the Aitareya Brahmana,
the Mahabharata, the Markandeya Purana, the
only intelligible one being in the Aitareya
Brahmana, that of his purchasing Suna Sepha
to be offered up as a vicarious sacrifice for his
son. He was a descendant of Ikshwaku. He is
fabled to have had a hundred wives, but no son ;
and he visited Varuna, offering, if a son were born
to him, to sacrifice him to Varuna, A son was
born, and named Rohita, and Varuna claimed the
sacrifice, but was put off with excuses, until
Rohita grew up and began to travel in the forests.
There he met a starving rishi, who had three sons,
and Rohita offered him 100 cows for one of his
sons, to serve as a sacrificial ransom. To this the

rishi and his wife agreed, and the middle son,
Suna Sepha, was given, and for another hundred
cows was bound to the sacrificial post by Ajigarta,
son of Suyavasa ; but Suna Sepha prayed to Indra,
to Agni, to Savitri, to Visva Deva, to the Aswina,
to the Ushas, and the deities released him from
Varuna's bond. — Garrett.

HARIT, in Hindu mythology, the coursers of
the sun, the analogue of the Greek Charites, from
the root Ghar, to shine or glisten. The Harita
in the Rig Veda are 7 or 10 mares of the sun,
typical of his rays. — Doivson.

HARI VANS, founder of the Radha Vallabhi
sect of Hindus, whose special deity is Rad'ha, the
mistress of Krishna.

HARIVANSA, a poem of 16,374 verses, giving
the genealogy of Hari or Vishnu. It is in three
parts. It is thought to have been written in the
S. of India in the time of the Puranas. The
Harivansa is a comparatively modern sequel to the
Mahabharata. — Growse, p. 50 ; Dowson.

HARI WA, named in the cuneiform inscriptions,
is the Aria of the Greeks, the Haroyu of the
Vendidad, the modern Herat. — Bunsen, iii. 481.

HARKARA. Hind., Pers. A messenger.

HARM, Arab., means sacred, and is applied
to the Mahomedan women's apartments, also
to women captives and purchased women. The
words Haram, unlawful, Hurmat, chastity, Hariimi
and Haramzadah, a wicked person or animal,
and Maharram, the first month of the Mahomedan
year, come from this word. See Haram.

HARMALA RUTA. — ?
Peganum harmala, — ? | Ruta sylvestris, — ?

Harka, .... Can. I Viragu Tam.

Kodar, Harmal, . Hind. | Arkalu, .... Tel.

Grows plentifully at Lahore. The ruins of the
old city are covered with this weed and Asclepias
gigantea. Harmal, in Lahore, is looked upon as
the plant sacred to the Pariah caste ; yet though
a Sikh or Hindu would not touch harmal, the
seeds are in common us© among the natives to
fumigate the rooms of the wounded. The natives
regard a person suffering from any discbarge, as
haemorrhoids, menses, etc., as unclean, and think
that the exhalation proceeding from such person
may be prejudicial to the wound ; therefore it is
customary, on the entrance of every stranger, to
strew a few grains of harmal upon a charcoal fire.
The natives, with the exception of Sikhs and
Hindus, use these seeds internally against weak-
ness of sight and retention of urine. — Honig.
p. 284 ; O'SJi.

HAR-MANDUR, a celebrated Sikh temple at
Amritsur. It was destroyed in 1762 by Ahmad Shah.

HARMOZIA. This ancient town, in a bay of the
Gulf of Ormuz, was subsequently called Gombroon,
but now Bandar Abbas. It is a seaport town in
the province of Kirman, in a barren country. It
is fortified with double walls. Bussora did not
long benefit by the fall of Hormuz, but appears
to have been nearly ruined during the reign of
Nadir Shah, whose tyranny extended its baneful
influence even to this extremity of the Persian
empire ; so that in 1750 Mr. Plaisted found there
nine houses out of ten deserted. In the year
1639 there seems to have been an English factory
at Bussora, subordinate to that at Gombroon,
and protected by firmans. — Ouseletfs Tr. i. p. 155 ;
A Journal from Calcutta to Aleppo, etc. p. 11,
Lond. 1758; Kinneir's Memoir, p. 201.

HAKMUzr.

HA RUT.

HARMUZI. Hind. A deep red earth.

BARF W.WJE, a family of insects, found dis-
persed in nearly all the countries of the globe :
they abound more in the arctic than antarctic
region*. The following genera are recorded as
belonging to India, viz. Harpalus, Platymetopus,
Belenophorus, Cyclosomus, and many others.
Some species of Ophonos from Bengal and Poona
closely resemble British species.

1 1 A RPEGNATHOS SALTATOR, oneof a genus
of ants of the Peninsula of India, in Malabar and
Mysore. It has the name saltntor from its making
most surprising jumps when alarmed or disturbed.
It is very pugnacious, and bites and stings very
severely. 1 1 makes its nest under ground, generally
about the roots of some plant. Its society does
not consist of many individuals. It appears to
Feed on insects, which it often seizes alive.

HARPOCRATKS. the ancient Egyptian god
Aurora or Day-spring, is often represented seated
on the lotus.

HAR-PUJAH. Hini>. The worship of the
plough on the day which closes the season of
ploughing and sowing, usually in Kartik. See
Hal ; Har ; Husbandry.

HARPULLIA IMBRICATA. Blnme.

Otonychium imbricatum, Bl., Rumphia, iii. 180,

Streptostigma viridiflorum, Tim:

This tree is common in the western moist forests
of the Madras Presidency, from Canara to Cape
Comorin, and ascends the mountains to about
3500 feet elevation ; it is also found in Ceylon.
When covered with its brilliant orange fruit, it is
a beautiful sight on the ghats in Malabar and
Canara. The tree flowers in the cold season, and
ripens its fruit in March and April. The stigma
is sometimes not at all twisted. — Bedd. Fl. Sylv.

H. cupanioides, Roxb., is a small tree of the
hilly parts near Chittagong ; it flowers in April,
and the fruit ripens in July. — Roxb. i. 645.

HARRIER, species of birds of the genus Circus.

HARRIS, General Lord, commanded at the
siege and fall of Seringapatam, a.d. 1799.

HARRIS, Lord, grandson of the first Lord
Harris, was born in 1810, and was educated at
Christ Church, Oxford, where he took his degree
in 1881. The first post that he held under
Government was that of Lieutenant-Governor of
Trinidad, of which island he was afterwards made
Governor and Commander-in-Chief. In 1854 he
was made Governor of Madras, and he held the
post till 1859, when he was succeeded by Sir
Charles Trevelyan. He made a re-valuation of the
lands in N. and S. Arcot, from which great
advantages resulted to the people and to the
State. He sent to Northern India all the Madras
soldiers, and, dismantling his own presidency of
both men and guns, enabled Lord Clyde and Lord
Canning to reconquer Northern India. — Thurhw,
Com/in in/ and the Crown, pp. 82, 83.

HAJRRIS, Sir WILLIAM CORNWALLIS, an
officer of the Bombay Engineers, who entered the
service in 1828, and died at Poona on 9th October
1848. He wrote on The Wild Sports of Southern
Africa, London 1844 ; and afterwards went to
Shoa as an ambassador, of which mission he
published a narrative, named The Highlands of
Ethiopia, London 1844.

HARSH A DEVA, a king of Kashmir, who
reigned a.d. 1113 to 1125, author of the drama
called Ratnavali, or the Necklace.

HARSHA VARDDHANA was a paramount
sovereign of 30 different states, comprising nearly
one-half of India in extent, and including all its
richest and most fertile provide, *. He was
defeated by the Chalukya of Kalyani. — Cunning-
ham, Ancient Geog. of India, p. 14.

HAR-SULA. Sacrificial pillars are termed
Sura or Sula in Sanskrit, which, conjoined with
Har, the Indian god of war, would be Har-sula.
The Rajput warrior invokes Har with Iub trident
(tri-sula) to help him in battle, while his battle
shout is Mar! mar! — 7W.

HARTAL. Hind. Yellow sulphuret of arsenic,
orpiment. Two varieties occur, -— tho hartal -i-
wilayiti and hartal-warki, the last so called from
its beautiful glittering lamellar texture 5 varieties
of hartal-i-warki are called hartal pili and gulabi.
— Powell, p. 63.

HART'H. Panj. A Persian wheel for raising
water. See Irrigation Wells.

HARTIGHSEA, tp., in Java yields a fruit used
as garlic. Hartighsea spectabihs, the Kohekohe,
or New Zealand cedar, is a good timber tree.

HART'S EAR, Cacalia kleinia, Linn.
Lisan-us-saur, . . Arab. I Yerrimai nakn, . Tam.
Gao-zaban, . . . Pkrs. | Yennapa nalika, . Tel.

The leaves resemble the tongue of the cow
(hence its Asiatic names) ; the stalks are prickly,
and covered with white spots. While fresh, the
leaves have a strong smell like hemlock, and are
given by native practitioners, in the form of
decoction, in rheumatism, syphilis, leprosy, and
in all other cases in which sarsaparilla is usually
employed by European physicians. It is brought
to Bombay from the Persian Gulf, and is procur-
able throughout India in most native druggists'
shops. — Faulkner.

HARTSHORN, the Luh-koh, Luh-jimg of the
Chinese, in China used medicinally, in the form
of powder, as a jelly, and in tincture.

Hartshorn shavings, Luh-jung-p'ien and Luh-
koh-shwang of the Chinese, is used in China in
hematuria, spermatorrhoea. — Sm ith.

HARUN-ur-RASHID, khalif of Baghdad from
a.d. 786 till a.d. 808. He was famed throughout
the world for his valour, love of justice, zeal for
literature and the arts, and his encouragement of
commerce. He placed all public schools under
John Mesue, a Nestorian Christian. His household
physicians were Manik and Saleh, two Hindu
physicians. He is said to have caught the illness
of which he died, on his way from Baghdad to
Khorasan, whither he was going in order to
suppress the revolt of Rafi. At that tune the
empire of the khalifah was one of the most
powerful that ever existed, and extended from
the confines of India and Tartary to the Medi-
terranean, including also all Northern Africa.
The reign of Harun-ur-Rashid was prosperous
and splendid. Although he has been famed for
liberality and justice, his bloody cruelties throw
an eternal stain on his memory. He died at Taos
in Khorasan, after a reign of 22 years. The
Daoudputra, the reigning family at Bahawulpur.
claim to be descended From Harun-ur-Rashid. —
Vambery, Bokhara, p. 53.

HAEUT, in Mahomedan belief, the name of an
angel who, together with another named Marut,
having severely censured mankind before the
throne of God, they were sent down to earth in
human shape to judge of the temptations to

HARVEST.

HASAN GANGA.

which man is subject. They were seduced by
women, and committed every sort of iniquity, for
which they were suspended by the feet in a well
in Babylon, where they are to remain in great
torment until the day of judgment.
HARVEST.

Mietitura, .... It.

Agosto, .... Sp.

Bichun, Hossad, . Tukk.

Abab.
. Fe.
. Gee.
Hind.

Hisal, . . .
Moisson, . .
Erute, Herbst,
Fasl, . . .

In British India there are very generally two
harvests in a year, — the summer crop, sown in the
spring, being reaped in the end of summer, and
known in Northern India as the kharif. The
other harvest, known as the rabi, is sown after
the autumn, and reaped in early spring. In some
localities there are three harvests, known to the
Hindus as that of the spring (arit), asu or autumn,
and paush or winter. The emperor Akbar intro-
duced into India the harvest, or Fasl, as an era.
See Fasli ; Rabi.

HARAVAHA. Hind. Predial slaves of N. India.

HARWUN. Hind. A pulse equal to rawan.

HASAINZAI, an independent tribe on the
N.W. frontier of India. In 1852 the British
moved against them, to punish them for the
murder of Mr. Carne and Mr. Tapp ; and again,
in 1868, to punish them for an inroad on British
territory at Agror. A force 14,762 strong, with
20 guns, was moved under Major-General Wilde.
—MacGr. N. W. F. I. pp. 248-268. See Agror.

HASALE or Hussulleeru, Karn. One of the
aboriginal tribes of Mysore, occupying the lull
districts of Nagar, woodmen, but serving as agri-
cultural labourers.

HASAN and Husain, two sons of AH by his
wife Fatima, daughter of Mahomed. After Ali's
death, Hasan and Husain went to reside at
Medina. Hasan was poisoned there, a.d. 659, by
an emissary of the khalif. The poison was placed
in Hasan's way by his wife Zainab. And several
years afterwards, on the 10th of the Maharram,
a.h. 46, Husain was slain at Kirbala, his eldest
son, Zain-ul-Abidin, alone escaping. These events
are commemorated in India by the ceremonies
of the first ten days of the Maharram. Annually,
as this season of mourning returns, the Shiah
Mahomedans recite the melancholy story of the
deaths of these martyrs.

The deaths of this family, with the assassination
of the khalif Omar in the mosque at Jerusalem,
caused the great division into the Sunni and the
Shiah sects, which continues amongst Mahomedans
to the present day throughout all the Mahomedan
world. After the death of the third successor of
Mahomet, Ali ascended the throne ; but after a
short reign of six years, during which he had to
encounter a serious rebellion headed by Ayesha,
he was at last assassinated. For this reason Ali is
regarded as a martyr, and the first of the twelve
Imams. Of the Shiahs Hasan and Husain, the
two sons of Ali and Fatima were grandsons of
Mahomet; as boys they had been his darlings,
and as men they received much of that warm
personal devotion which had been bestowed on
the great founder of Islam. Hasan succeeded his
father on the throne for a short time, but yielded
to the pretensions of a Sunnite khalif. He was
afterwards carried off by poison, and was thus in
his turn regarded as a martyr, and the second of
the twelve Imams.

Husain and his followers rose in arms to assert
his right to the throne of the khalifs. Near
the banks of the Euphrates the enemy pressed
against him in overpowering numbers. Nearly
all his followers were slain, and his child was
killed in his arms. He himself was fainting from
thirst and fatigue ; but when the hour of prayer
arrived, he performed his religious duties in the
face of the enemy ; for there were few, even in
that hostile host, who were prepared, under such
circumstances, to draw the sword upon the
grandson of the prophet. At last, exhausted by
thirst, he bent his steps towards the Euphrates ;
his adversaries now rushed forward to intercept
him. Husain, however, had already thrown him-
self on his breast over the stream, and w r as
beginning to taste the refreshing water, when an
arrow pierced his mouth. A confused crowd
of warriors now closed around him, and began
to assail him with their swords. A long and
desperate struggle followed, but he was at last
overpowered, and his head was carried away as a
trophy. Husain was thus regarded as, if possible,
the greatest martyr of the three ; and not only
is he reverenced as the third Imam, but his repre-
sentatives of the nine succeeding generations are
reverenced as the niue Imams who make up the
number to twelve. His death, or martyrdom,
was followed by a ciy of grief wherever men had
embraced the faith of Islam; and even in the
present day the Shiah Mahomedans are afflicted
with the profoundest sorrow throughout the days
of the Maharram, and shed tears for their beloved
and martyred Imams ; it is a melancholy sight.

HASAN ABDAL, a village in the Rawal Pindi
district of the Panjab, forming a part of the
remarkable group of ancient cities which lie
around the site of the ancient Taxila, lat. 33 c
48' 56" N., long. 72° 44' 41" E. Hiwen Thsang
in the 7th century visited the tank of the
serpent king Elapatra, which has been identified
with the spring of Baba Wali, or Panja Sahib.
Successive legends of Buddhist, Brahman, Maho-
medan, and Sikh origin cluster around this sacred
fountain. The shrine of Panja Sahib crowns a
precipitous hill, about a mile east of the town ;
and at the foot stands the holy tank, a small square
reservoir of pure water, generally full of fish.
It is so called from its being the burial-place of
Baba Hasan Abdal, a Sayyid of Sabzwar, in
Khorasan, who came to India with Mirza Shah
Rukh, son of Timur, and died at Kandahar, and
whose tomb is much resorted to by pilgrims.
Jahangir, in his memoirs, says : ' To-day I arrived
at Baba Hasan Abdal. About a cos east of the
town is a waterfall, the water of which rushes
down with great rapidity. There is none like it
in Kabul, but there are two or three like it in
Kashmir. In the middle is a tank, from which
the river flows. Raja Man Singh has built here
a little villa. There are a great number of fish
in the tank, half a yard and a quarter yard long,
As the place is so nice, I stayed here for three
days, and drank wine with my friends. I also
enjoyed fishing. The fishes are caught with
peculiar nets, which are difficult to be used. I
caught twelve, had pearls strung through their
snouts, and set them free.'

HASAN GANGA. In a.d. 1347, four years
before the death of Muhammad Taghalaq, Hasan
Ganga, an officer of high station in the Dekhan,

HASAN-ii-.n-SaBHAH.

headed a successful revolt against his master, and
established what was known as the Rahinani
dynasty of the Dekhau, fixing his capital at Kul-
burga. His descendants reigned for thirteen
generations, for 174 years, from a.d. 1847 to
1518. He is said to have been an Afghan of low
i.nik. a native of Dehli He farmed a small spot
q! land belonging to a Brahman named Ganga,
who wan in favour with the king; and Hasan,
having accidentally found a treasure in his field,
he gave it to his landlord. The Brahman, struck
with his integrity, advanced his fortunes. Hasan
rose to rank in the Dekhan, where he became a
|aa4er in the revolt. He had before assumed the
name of Ganga, and now added that of Bahmani,
by which his dynasty was afterwards distinguished.
liming the reign of Ala-ud-Din n., in a.d. 1437,
dissensions broke out between the native Dekhani
and foreign Mahomedan troops, but towards the
end of the dynasty the Dekhani troops gained the
ascendency. Yusuf Adal Khan, a Turk, and chief
of the foreign troops, retired to his government
of Bijapur, where he subsequently (a.d. 1489)
took the title of king, and founded the dynasty
of Adal Shahi. Nizam-ul-Mulk, the Dekhani
chief, being afterwards assassinated by Kasim
Barid, a Turk, his son Ahmad set up the dynasty
of Nizam Shahi at Ahmadnaggur, in the Dekhan.
Kasim Barid was now the master of the court
of the Bahmani king, Mahmud II. (a.d. 1482),
at Beder; and two other great chiefs became
independent, and after a time each took the title
of king. These were Kutub-Kuli, a Turkoman
from Persia, and Imad-ul-Mulk, descended from
a Hindu convert. The former (a.d. 1512) founded
the dynasty of Kutub Shahi at Golconda, near
Hyderabad, and the latter that of Imad Shahi at
Ellichpur, in Berar. Ahmad Barid, son of Kasim,
governed for some tune under a succession of
pageants, but at length assumed the title of king, as
the first of the Barid kings of Beder, the Bahmani
family being thenceforth no longer mentioned.

A temporary union of the kings of Bijapur,
Golconda, and Ahmadnaggur, in 1564, enabled
them to subvert the empire of Vijayanagar, and
reduce the power of its chief to that of a petty
raja. — Elphinstone's India, 416, ii. app. ; Briggs,
The Nizam ; Shahab-ud-Diii's Hist. MSS.

HASAN -ibn-SABBAH, or Hasan-us-Sabbah,
was the founder of the sect known as the
Assassins. He was brought up at Nishapur,
under the then renowned saint, the Imam-ul-
Muwakkaf, and had for his schoolmates the
Persian freethinking poet, Omar-ul-Khaiyam, and
another, afterwards known as Nizam-ul-Mulk,
j Marshal of the Empire, 5 prime minister to Alp
Arslan. The three lads had made a compact that
whichever of them attained to rank and fortune
should share his advantages with the other two ;
and when the most successful of the three was
established in his position as marshal-minister, the
other two claimed fulfilment of the promise made
in youth. Omar-ul-Khaiyam asked only for the
means of devoting himself to literature and science,
and has left a name as the most original poet and the
greatest astronomer of his time ; Hasan-us-Sabbah
asked for and obtained an important political post,
but devoted his energies to endeavouring to sup-
plant his schoolfellow and benefactor. Failing in
this, he turned rebel, and, collecting round him a
band of fanatics, took possession of the fortress

HAHIT-ANGA.

of Alamut, a mountain on the shores of the
Caspian, and spread terror through both Islam
and Christendom by the fierce bravery with which
he and his followers encountered all opposition,
and by the terribly insidious manner in which he
removed his enemies by secret assassination,
Nizam-ul-Mulk being among his many victims.
One of the numerous stories told of him is that,
having been summoned to surrender, he called
two of his followers to him, and bade one to stab
himself, and the other to throw himself from the
highest battlements of the fortress. This order the
' Devoted Ones' — Fidwi, as they were called — at
once obeyed, and Hasan derisively asked the envoy
what his masters troops could do against a chief
who commanded such men as those. He was piti-
less and inscrutable. It is said that he slew his
own son because he drank wine. This does not
seem to coincide with the belief that his followers
were addicted to the use of the resin of Cannabis
Indica, or Indian hemp, called hashish, whence
some have derived their name of Hashishin, the
' Assassin ' of European languages. Hasan-us-
Sabbah was generally known as ' Shaikh-ul-Jabl,'
from his mountain fortress ; and it is from the
title Shaikh, which means both a ' chief ' and
an 'old man,' that he is known to European
history as the ' Old Man of the Mountain.'
He gave his name to the Al-Hasani, a hetero-
dox sect, now variously known as the Ismaili,
Bathenians, or Assassins, who are spread through
Asia from Persia to "Western India, and during
the crusades he or one of his successors was
known as the ' Old Man of the Mountain,' a mis-
translation of the Shaikh-ul-Jabl. His career
was from a.d. 1090 till his death in a.d. 1124, at
Alamut, where he had lived 35 years. The

Eolitical power of the sect was destroyed by
[ulaku, grandson of Chengiz Khan, a.h. 654. —
Porter's Travels, i. 286 ; Osbortie's Islam, p. 357.

HASAN KHEL, (1) A section of the Gadai-
zai Bunerwal ; (2) of the Adam Khel Afridi ; (3)
of the Mahmud Khel Utmanzai Vaziri. — MacGr.
N. W. F. I. i. p. 578.

HASAN NIZAMI, author of the Taj-ul-
Maasar, or Crown of Victories, was born at
Naishapur. Mir Khond and Haji Khalfa call him
Sadr-ud-Din Mahomed-bin-Hasan Nizami. He
left his home during the troubles that overtook it,
and went to Ghazni, and on to Dehli. His book
gives the history of Kutub -ud- Din Aibek, with
portions of the life of his predecessor, Muhammad
Ghazi, and of his successor, Shams - ud - Din
Altamsh.— H. Elliot.

HASHIM- bin -HAKIM, born at Gaza, near
Merv, is known as Mokanna, or the Veiled Prophet
of Khorasan, because he was one-eyed, deformed
in feature, and bald, and concealed his features.
He claimed to be the deity ; his most numerous
converts were near Samarcand and Bokhara. He
was joined by hordes from Turkestan. He had a
hundred of the loveliest women of Transoxiana.
About the year 163 Hijira, he destroyed himself.

HASH I Y A. Hind. A border or edging.

HASHM. Arab. Train, retinue. PI. Ahsham.

HASHMEE MAUND, equal to 16 Tabreez
maunds of 7 J lbs. each, or about 116 lbs. English.

HASHT-ANGA. Sansk. Literally, eight limbs.
A reverential prostration of the Hindus, in which
they touch the ground with the belly, breast, fore-
head, and both sides of the face successively.

HASHTNAGAR.

HASTINGS, FRANCIS.

kiss the earth, half rise up, then pass the left over
the right forearm, and vice versa ; and finally,
after again saluting mother Hertha, stand erect.

HASHTNAGAR ('Eight Cities'), a Tahsil of
the Peshawur district, Panjab j lat. 34° 3' to 34°
25' N., and long. 71° 37' to 71° 57' E. General
Cunningham believes the modern term to be a
corruption of Hastinagara, the city of Hasti.

Hasti, Tod says, sent forth three grand branches,
Ujamida, Deomida, and Poormida. Ujamida's
progeny spread over all the northern parts of
India, in the Panjab, and across the Indus ; the
period, probably 1600 years before Christ. From
Ujamida, in the fourth generation, was Bajaswa,
who obtained possessions towards the Indus, and
whose five sons gave their name, Panchalica, to
the Panjab, or space watered by the five rivers.
The capital founded by the younger brother,
Kampila, was named Kampilnagara. The de-
scendants of Ujamida by his second wife, Kesunee,
founded the Kusika kingdom and dynaBty, cele-
brated in the heroic history of N. India. — Tod.

HASHU or Hashwi occupy the watershed
between the Thoukye Khat and Poung-loung.

HASISH. Arab. Tender tops of Cannabis
sativa, after flowering, the Bhang of India and
Persia, and Fasukh of Barbary. It is indulged in
to some extent by Mahomedans of India. Egypt
surpasses all other nations in the variety of
compounds into which this drug enters. The
Hottentots use it ; and the Siberians intoxicate
themselves with the vapour of the seed thrown
upon red-hot stones, as the Scythians of old did.

HASORA, a town in Central Asia, 7198 feet
above the sea, on the banks of the river which
runs northwards to the Indus. The Hasora
country is west of Deotsu, and lies to the south
of Rongdo. The people speak the Tibetan lan-
guage. Moorcroft gives it the name of Zungari.
It is partially a Bhot district. According to Ad.
Schlagentweit, Hasora, or Astor, or Tsunger, in
lat. 35° 12' N., and long. 74° 53' E., is a fort in
the valley of Astor or Hasora. — Moorcroft; Ad.
Schl. ; Latham.

HASSAN, a mountain forming part of Taurus
and Zagros, between Diarbakar, Palo, and Moosh.
The Kurd race, who inhabit all that part, are
called Zaza, which means stuttering, mouthing, or
speaking unintelligibly, and seems to be a nick-
name. — Rich's Kurdistan, i. p. 376.

HASSAN, a district of Mysore State, forming
the north - western portion of the Ashtagram
division, and lying between lat. 12° 30' and 13° 22'
N., and between long. 75° 32' and 76° 58' E.
The Jains have been numerous at Sravan-Belgola
and other places since the 3d century B.C. ; and a
Jaina image of Gomateswara, 60 feet high, is on a
peak of Chandrabetta. The census of 1871 ascer-
tained the population to be 669,961. Of inferior
castes, by far the most numerous are the Wakliga
(238,780), who are agricultural labourers ; next
come the Kuruba (55,341), shepherds; and the
Neyige (15,972), weavers. The Lingaets, who
have always been influential in this part of the
country, number 70,168. Out-castes are returned
at 128,913; wandering tribes, 5109; wild tribes,
3602. The village of Sathalli is the centre of an
agricultural Christian community, founded by the
Abbe Dubois. The total number of this com-
munity is about 1000, and they are known as
' Caste Christians,' — that- is to say, they retain all

the social observances of their Hindu ancestors.
The Malnad is greatly dreaded for the malarious
fever which prevails after the early rains. — Imp.
Gaz.

HASSANDHUP. Hind. A hard, white clay,
supposed to be a deposit from a mineral spring
containing sulphur. But it is also a medicinal
compound.

HASSANIYEH, an Arab tribe, who have a
very curious form of marriage. The woman is
legally married for three days out of four, remain-
ing perfectly free for the fourth. — Lubbock, Or'uj.
of Civil, p. 54.

HASSELTIA ABOREA, a handsome tree
growing near Jampiam, in Java, with flowers
large, yellowish -white, in axillary fascicles. The
milk obtained from the trunk by incision, mixed
with honey and reduced with boiling water, is
employed as a powerful drastic for destroying the
tape-worm ; it is, however, apt to produce inflam-
mation of the intestines, and in some cases has
proved fatal. — Lindley, Flora Medica, Eng. Cyc.
HASSKARL, JUSTUS CHARLES, a botanist,
Superintendent of the Gardens at Java, 1852-
1854. Collected cinchona plants and seeds in
South America, and took them to Java. He was
created Knight of the Netherlands Lion, and
Commander of the Order of the Oaken Crown.
He was author of the Hortus Bogoriensis, a
catalogue, with occasional notes and descriptions,
of new species of the plants cultivated in the
Government Botanical Garden of Buitenzorg, near
Batavia, published in Batavia in 1844 ; also author
of an octavo volume of descriptions, entitled
Plantse Javanicse Rariores. — Hooker f. et Thomson;
Markham, Peruv. Bark.

HASTINAPUR, an ancient city of the Meerut
district, N.W. Provinces, lying on the bank of the
Burha Ganga, or former bed of the Ganges, 22
miles north -east of Meerut, lat. 29° 9' N., and
long. 78° 3' E. ; pop. (1872) 77. Its remains can
still be traced on the banks of the river, but it
was destroyed by the river encroaching on it.
Hastinapur formed the capital of the great Pan-
dava kingdom, celebrated in the Mahabharata.
The legends of the Mahabharata centre around
this city.

HASTINGS, FRANCIS, second Earl of Moira,
afterwards created Marquess of Hastings, G.C.B.,
assumed charge of the office of Governor-General
of India, 4th October 1813, and held it till his
re-embarkation, 9th January 1823. During his
tenure of office, he took the field in person, on
the 18th October 1817, against the Pindara.
The forces under his command in the field
were over 100,000 horse and foot, besides
20,000 irregular cavalry. He allotted several
positions to the brigades, and closed in upon
the Pindara. One leader, Karim Khan, fell
into the hands of Sir John Malcolm ; another,
Sita or Chetu, was killed by a tiger, whilst shel-
tered in the forests near Asirgarh. While the
Governor-General was encamped in the part of
the country formerly ruled by a noted chief,
Lalla Hurdi, cholera broke out in the camp, and
in ten days carried off 764 fighting men and 8000
camp - followers. He broke up his camp, and
marched S.E. from the Sind across to the right
bank of the Betwa, and encamped at Erich, where
the cholera disappeared. The natives of India
attributed that outbreak to the malignity of Lalla

HASTINGS, WAH11KN.

HATIM TAI.

Hurdi's ghost, who had been poisoned under
extraordinary circumstances. The Marquess in-
line. <1 the <m>\. minent of Great Britain to extend
tin Order of the Bath to officers of the E.I.
Company's service, and before the conclusion of
t in- third Mahratta war fifteen of them were created
Knights Commander. lit- invested the first of
these, Bis David Ouchterkmy, on the 20th March
IMS. at Terwah. Tlie 10. 1.( 'ompauy acknowledged
their sense of his services, bestowing on his family
rants of money, in sums of £60,000 and
£20,000 reepectively. His long rule of 9 years,
from 1814*0 1829, was marked by two wars of the
first magnitude, namely, the campaigns against the
Gurkas of Nepal, and the last Mahratta struggle.

HASTINGS, WARREN, the first Governor-
(innnil of India. He was born in 1782, and
came to India as a writer in 1749. He returned
to England in 1763 ; but in 1769 he was appointed
la be 2d Member of Council at Madras, m 1772
lit of Council, Bengal, and in 1778 Gover-
noi -tienend, and on the 1st February 1785 he made
over the keys of the fort to the next senior Member
of Council, and left India on the 6th of .the same
month. He carried with him a modest fortune of
£80,000. On his arrival in England in 1785, he was
well received by the King, Queen, and Court of
Directors, and was about to be made a peer, when
Mr. Pitt opposed this, and, seven days after his
arrival, he was impeached by Messrs. Burke, Fox,
and Sheridan, accused of acts of oppression. His
trial commenced on the 13th or 15th February
1788, in the presence of the King and Queen. It
proceeded for seven years, and at length, after an
honourable defence, on the 23d April 1795 Hast-
ings was acquitted; the verdict of an impartial
posterity has long since affirmed the award
(Marshman, L p. 427). He passed out at the gate
of Westminster Hall ignorant whence the funds
were to come by which the weekly bills of his
household were to be discharged ; but the Court
of Directors paid his costs, and granted him an
annuity. From all parts of the empire, from men
of various creeds and colours, from officers of
renown, from Hindus and Mahomedans alike,
poured in addresses of congratulation. The
Prince Regent made him a Privy Councillor, and
hinted at higher honours. Happy in his family
life, blest with the healthy old age which is the
appropriate reward of a pure and temperate man-
hood, farming and writing little poems, studying
Malthus, and following with delight the rising
genius of Walter Scott, the great proconsul glided
by an easy road into euthanasia and immortality.
He died on the 22d August 1818, in his 86th
year ; in which year also Sir Philip Francis, his
opponent, died. He was the administrative organ-
izer, as Clive had been the territorial founder, of
the British Indian Empire. He rested his claims
as an Indian ruler on his administrative work.
He re-organized the Indian service, reformed
every branch of the revenue collections, created
courts of justice, and some semblance of a police.
In 1781 he founded the Madrassa for Mahomedan
teaching, and he extended his patronage alike to
Hindu pandits and to European students. — Imp.
Gaz. iv.

HASYARNAVA. Sansk. Ocean of Laughter,
a modern comic piece, by a pandit named Jaga-
disa. — Dovsmi.

HAT. Hind. A periodical market day, a fair.

1 1 A I V or Saif is a long gauntleted weapon used
in athletic exhibitions.

HATCHING FOWL8' EGGS by artificial heat,
though only obscurely described by ancient authors,
appears to have been common in Egypt in very
remote times. The building in which the process
is now performed is called Maamal-el-Tirakh. In
Chusan the hatching-house of ducks is a shed, the
root thickly and compactly thatched with paddy,
the walls plastered over with mud. There are a
number of straw baskets, thickly besmeared with
mud to prevent them from igniting ; a tile is so
placed as to form the bottom of the basket, and
a lid fits closely over the top. A small earthen fire-

E)ot being placed under each basket, the eggs
x-longing to different folks are put into the baskets
as soon as they arrive. The baskets are kept
closely shut for five days, a uniform heat being
maintained under the basket by means of the
before-named earthen fire-pot, and at the ex-
piration of that period they are taken out and
carefully examined ; the good are placed in holes,
which have been cut in a board for their reception,
and the bad are laid aside to be returned to their
owners. Before the eggs have become cold, they
are replaced in the baskets and kept there for
nine or ten days ; that is, the eggs remain al-
together in the baskets about a fortnight or fifteen
days, the heat of the hatching- house ranging from
93° to 100°. In the middle of the shed broad
shelves are placed, on which the eggs are laid when
taken finally from the baskets, being carefully
covered over with a thickly wadded coverlet, and
the little birds issue from their fragile domicile in
about a fortnight or three weeks, — the whole pro-
cess of hatching an egg occupying one month or five
weeks. In the Philippines incubation is performed
by placing warm paddy husks under and over the
eggs, which are deposited in frames. A canvas
covering is spread over the husks. The art is to
keep up the needful temperature ; and one man is
sufficient to the care of a large number of frames,
from which he releases the ducklings as they are
hatched, and conveys them in little flocks to the
water - side. — Pococke's East, L 260 ; Bowling's
Philippines, 104 ; Sirr's Chinese, i. 249.

HATHIKRA-GILLI. Hind. An earthenware
pestle, weighted, used for crushing gram.

HATHILI, a reputed saint, one of five held in
veneration by the lower orders in the N.W. Pro-
vinces. He is buried at Barech.

HAT'HPHOR, a tunnel on the northern face of
Ramgarh Hill, Sirguja State, Chutia Nagpur. At
its mouth it is about 20 feet in height by 30 in
breadth, but at the inner extremity of its course
of 150 yards it is not more than 8 feet by 12.
On the southern side of the recess rises a sand-
stone cliff, which contains two caves, the larger
being 44 feet long, 10 feet wide, and about 6 feet
high. It was here, according to the legend, that Sita
was carried off by the demon Havana ; and two
deep grooves in the rock, in front of the larger
cave, are said to be portions of the enchanted
circle which Rama drew around her for her
protection. — Imp. Gaz.

HATIM TAI, an Arab chief, famed amongst
Mahomedans for his generosity. Many Persian and
Hindustani romances have been written regarding
him. He lived about a century before Mahomed.
In all Mahomedan countries he is quoted as a
model of generosity. Al Maidah says, when he

HATKAR.

HAVELOCK, Sin HENRY.

fought, it was to be triumphant ; when he had
acquired spoils, he gave to the spoiled ; when he
besought, he gave ; if he contested with the power-
ful, it was to overcome ; when he took captives, he
released them. — Major J. Daklon, p. 162; Pal-
grave.

HATKAR, a cowherd race of Berar.
HATRAS, formerly highly predatory, under
British rule became one of the busiest and most
thriving places in Upper Hindustan, and a prin-
cipal mart for the cotton and indigo of the neigh-
bouring districts. — Tr. of Hind. ii. p. 122.

HAUDA. Hind. The howdah or chair for
riding on an elephant. It is in various forms.
The Hauda-amari is a howdah with a canopy.

HAUDIGA. Can. ? A Mysore wood used for
furniture ; polishes and turns well ; is useful for the
cabinetmaker, and would do for veneering.

HAUG. Martin Haug, Doctor of Philosophy,
in early life assisted Chevalier Bunsen in preparing
his Bibelwerk. He was afterwards appointed
Professor of Sanskrit at Poona, an office which
he held from 1859 to 1865, and during this time
he devoted himself to the study of the Zend. He
published his Funf Gatha in the Journal of the
German Oriental Society. In Bombay there ap-
peared his essays on the Sacred Language, Writings,
and Religion of the Parsees ; and he also edited a
translation of the Aitareya Brahmana. He re-
turned to Germany in the beginning of 1866, and
was almost immediately afterwards appointed
Professor of Sanskrit and Comparative Philology
in the University of Munich, which he held up to
the time of his death. He and dastoor Hoshang
Jamasp published two valuable glossaries of the
Old Zend-Pehlavi, and an edition and translation
of the Arda-Visaf. He died in Switzerland, 2d
June 1876.

HAUL. Arab. Power. La haul wa la quwat
ila ba Allah, There is no power nor virtue but in
God, — a solemn invocation of Mahomedans.

HAURAN is a term applied to any solitude,
whether barren or fertile, and sometimes ap-
plied to extensive pasture lands. Hauran is the
Auranitis of Josephus, and the Iturea of St. Luke.
The countries south of Damascus, viz. the Hauran,
the rocky wilderness of the Ledja, and the moun-
tainous district lying east of the Jordan, collec-
tively speaking, formed the country which was
first conquered by the Israelites before the sub-
jugation of the land of Canaan, and was allotted
to the tribe of Reuben, Gad, and the half tribe of
Manasseh. In the time of the Romans, nearly the
whole was comprised under the district called
Peraea, which was itself divided into the six
cantons of Abilene, Trachonitis, Iturea, Gaulon-
itis, Batansea, and Peraea, strictly called ; to which
some geographers have added Decapolis. Abilene
was the most northern of these provinces, being
situated between the mountains of Libanus and
Anti-Libanus, and deriving its name from the city
of Abila or Abela. Trachonitis was bounded by
the desert on the east, Batansea on the west,
Iturea on the south, and the country of Damascus
on the north, and included the rocky district now
called El Ledja. Iturea, on the east of Batansea,
and to the south of Trachonitis, derived its name
from Ietur, the son of Ishmael, and was called
Auranitis, from the city of Auran, which latter
appellation it still retains, under that of Hauran.
Gaulonitis was a tract on the east side of the lake

of Gennesareth and the river Jordan, which
derived its name from Gaulan, the city of Og,
king of Bashan. Batansea, the ancient kingdom
of Bashan, was situated to the north-east of
Gaulonitis, and was celebrated for its excellent
breed of cattle, its rich pastures, and for its stately
oaks. A part of it is now called El Belka. Persea,
in its strictest sense, included the southern part
of the country beyond Jordan and Samaria.

In May the whole of the Hauran plain is
covered with swarms of Bedouin wanderers from
the desert, who come for water and pasturage
during the summer months, and to obtain a pro-
vision of corn for the winter; they remain till
after September. If they are at peace with the
pasha, they encamp generally amongst the villages
near the springs or wells; if at war with him,
confine themselves to the district to the south
of Boazra, towards Om-e-jaml and Jadheins,
extending as far as Zerka. The Arabs of the
Jabl Hauran (called the Ahl-ul-Jabl) and those
of the Ledja seldom encamp beyond their usual
limits ; they are kept in more strict dependence
on the pasha than the other tribes. The Ahl-ul-
Jabl are the shepherds of the people of the
plains, who entrust them with their flocks during
the winter to pasture amongst the rocks and
mountains. In spring the Arabs restore the
flocks to their proprietors, receiving for their
trouble one -fourth of the lambs and kids, and
a like proportion of the butter made from the
milk during the spring months. Those which
are to be sold are taken to Damascus. The soil
of the Hauran consists of a fine black earth, ol
great depth, but little cultivated. — Burckhardt,
Robinson's Travels.
HAUZ. Arab., Hind. A fountain, a tank.
HAVELOCK, Sir HENRY, K.C.B., one oi
three brothers, officers in the British army, whc
served in India. William was killed in charging the
Sikhs at Ramnuggur. Henry, born 1795 at Bishop-
wearmouth, in 1815 entered the army in the
95th Regiment, and afterwards exchanged into the
13th Light Infantry, and in January 1823 em-
barked for India. He served in the first Burmese
war as Deputy Adjutant-General, and published
his Experiences of Campaigns in Ava. On the
9th February 1829 he married Hannah Shepherd,
youngest daughter of the Rev. Dr. Marshman.
He was with his regiment whilst it was cooped ur
in Jalalabad. He was present at the battles oi
Punniar and Maharajpur. In 1857 he commanded
a division in the Persian war. When the mutinj
and rebellion of 1857 occurred, Havelock sug-
gested the formation of a moveable column al
Allahabad, which was immediately formed, and
among the troops were Neifl's Madras Fusiliers,
From this time he commanded in many battles, —
on the 11th July 1857, at Futtehpur ; on the 15th
he fought at Aong ; on the 16th he fought and
took Cawnpur. His last great effort was the firs!
relief of Lucknow, on the 25th September 1857
The second relief of Lucknow was effected by Sii
Colin Campbell, on the 17th November 1857. Sii
Colin Campbell had arrived in India, and the
Government had superseded Havelock, putting
Outram in command of the force in Oudh ; bui
that noble soldier refused to supplant his brave
comrade, preferring rather to act under bin
than deprive him of his well-earned right to re-
lieve Lucknow, and the two together advancing
24

HAVILDAK.

HAW KINO.

effected the relief. The Blue Caps (Fusiliers)
charged tin- Char Bagh bridge, but Maade'i kwo
gttu Bodd not silence the superior artillery of the
. n.niv in tluir front. Almost every man at them
i her killed or wounded, when General Neill,
who commanded the first brigade in Sir James
Out ram 's abseuce, allowed a charge, and the first
Madras Fusiliers were ordered to advance. Lieu-
tenant Arnold, a young officer ever conspicuous
even among the daring spirits of that noble regi-
ment, had been impatiently watching for the
signal. At the first word, and without waiting
fur the regiment to rise and form, he dashed on to
the bridge with some ten of his men. Arnold
himself fell, shot through both legs, and his devoted
followers were swept down almost to a man.
Lieutenant Havelock, the Deputy Assistant Ad-
jutant-General, alone remained on the bridge, the
mark for a hundred bullets. The Fusiliers dashed
forward with a cheer, without giviug the enemy
time to reload, advanced over the prostrate bodies
of their comrades, and, rushing on the guns amidst
a storm of bullets, wrested them from the enemy,
and bayoneted the gunners. It was a second
Lodi ! Poor Arnold died. l At length,' writes the
general, * we found ourselves at the gates of the
Residency, and entered in the dark in triumph.'
General Havelock's career was finished. He
fell sick, and died in perfect peace and hope,
attended by his aide-de-camp, Hargood of the
Fusiliers, and his son. Calling the latter to him,
he said, ' I die happy and contented.' ' See how a
Christian can die.' And when Outram came to
visit his dying comrade, he said, ' I have forty years
so ruled my life, that when death came I might
face it without fear.' A statue has been erected
to his memory in Trafalgar Square, London.

HAVILDAR, in the British Indian armies, a
non-commissioned officer of native soldiers equal
to a sergeant.

HAW AH or Hawa of the Arabs, the Eve of
the Bible, the mother of the human race, and
recognised under different names in all cosmo-
gonies. The Astarte of the Assyrians, Isis nurs-
ing Horus of the Egyptians, the Demeter and
the Aphrodite of the Greeks, and the Scythian
Friya. Baltis, in Byblius called Beuth or Behuth,
Le. void of genesis, is identical with space, and
means the mother's womb, the primeval mother, —
the fundamental idea being the mother or source
of life, which is the meaning of Havvah, and the Eve
of Genesis. The tomb of Eve is pointed out in
several places. Mecca is bounded on the east by
a hill called Abu-Kubays, and, according to many
Mahomedans, Adam, with Eve his wife and son
Seth, lie buried there. Also, at less than a mile
from the Medina gate of Jedda, is a tomb said
to be of our common mother Eve. It is surmounted
by a cupola and surrounded by walls, enclosing a
pretty cemetery, in which many of her children
lie around her. — Bunsen's Egypt; Hamilton, Sinai.
HAWAIGAR, in Hindustan, firework manu-
facturers.

HAWK EAGLE, species of the genera Nissetus
and Limnaetus.

HAWKING is a pastime to which several
Asiatic races are addicted. The employment of
trained hawks may be traced to an exceedingly
remote antiquity ; and Mr. Layard found a bas-
relief at Khoreabad, in which a falconer is bearing
a hawk on his wrist The Bedouins of Mesopotamia

are attached to the sport, and especially so with
reference to their food supply ; and the Arabs
may possibly have introduced it, together with the
creed of Mahomed, among the Malays of tie-
Archipelago. In Africa this sport is confined to a
few of the Mahomedans of the north. In Europe
it seems to be first distinctly mentioned by authors
about the fifth century ; but the garniture of the
trained hawks would appear to have been unknown
prior to the crusades. In the famous Bayeux
tapestry, for instance, falcons are represented as
carried upon the wrist unhooded. Trained
ospreys were formerly employed in Europe for
fishing ; and Colonel Montague cites an Act
passed in the reign of William and Mary, by which
persons were prohibited at a certain period of
the year from taking any salmon, salmon peal, or
salmon kind, by hawks, racks, guns, etc. There
is at least one great hawk fair or sale in the
Himalaya, at which Indian falconers, many of
whom come from immense distances, congregate
for the purpose of buying, selling, and comparing
their hawks.

The hawks commonly used are —

1. Goshawk. — Astur palumbarius, Linn. Baz, Shah-
baz, female ; Jurra, male. Europe, Himalaya,
Sind, Neilgherries.

2. Crested Goshawk. — A. trivirgatus, Temm. Gor-
besra, Manik-berra, Kot - eswar. All the hilly
wooded regions of India.

The Shah - baz, or hawk - king, a large grey
goshawk with yellow (gulab) eyes, caught in the
hills of Afghanistan and its surrounding regions,
is brought down to the plains, and sold, when well
reclaimed, trained, and in good condition, for £5
or £6. The tiercelet or male is, as usual, much
smaller than the female, and is called Jurra in
Persian, 'the active.' Both are uncommonly
strong and ferocious. They are accounted the
noblest birds ; the Sher-baz (lion-hawk), or pere-
grine of Bokhara and the snowy regions, being
all but unknown in Sind.

3. Peregrine Falcon. — Falco peregrinus, Gm. Bhyri,
female; Bhyri bacha, male. Native of Europe,
N. Asia ; visits India from October to April.

The Bhyri or Bhairi, Falco peregrinus, so
celebrated amongst Indian falconers for her
boldness and power, and her tiercel, in Sind
improperly called the Shahin, are found in some
parts of Sind. They fly at partridges, hares,
bustards, curlews, herons, and the saras ; being
long-winged hawks, or birds of the lure, they are
taught to fly high, to wait on the falconer, and to
make the point ; not greatly prized.

4. Laggar. — Falco jugger, Gray. Laggar, female ;
Jaggar, male. Common over all India, Sind, Panjab.

The Laggar, and her mate the Jaggar, is the
only long-winged hawk generally used in Sind ;
she is large and black-eyed, with yellow legs,
black claws, and a tail of a cinereous white colour.
She is a native of Sind, moults during the hot
months from April to October, and builds in
ruined walls and old mimosa trees. The Laggar
is flown at quail, partridge, curlew, bastard -
bustard, and hares. The best sport is undoubtedly
afforded by crows, only she is addicted to carrying
the quarry, and is very likely to be killed by her
angry enemies. She is trained for the season, and
then let loose.

5. Shahin Falcon.— Falco peregrinator. Sutid. Shahin,
female; Kohi, Koela, male. Native of all India,
Afghanistan, and Western Asia.

HAWKINS.

HAWKS.

The Shahin is the female of the Falco pere-
grinator, and is esteemed the first of all the
falcons for hawking. It is trained to hover and
circle in the air over the falconer and party.

6. Saker or Cherrug.— Falco sacer, Schl. Chargh,

female; Charghela, male. Africa, Himalaya,
Nepal, Europe.
The Saker or cherrug falcon, F. sacer, is trained
for striking hares, antelopes, florikin.

7. The Merlin. — Hypotriorchis oesalon, Gm.

8. Turumti, or Redheaded Merlin. — H. chicquera,

Daud. Turumti, female; Chetwa, male. Europe,
all India, and Sind.
Both these have been trained in Europe and
Asia.

9. The Hobby.— Hypotriorchis subbuteo, L. Doureli,

Kegi. Native of Europe ; a winter visitor to all
parts of India.

10. Indian Hobby.— H. severus, Horsf. Dhuti, female;
Dhuter, male. Inhabits the Himalaya, Malay
Peninsula, Java, and the Philippines.

11. The Kestrel. — Tinnunculus alaudarius, Briss.
Narzi, female ; Narzanak, male. A native of
Europe ; a cold- weather visitor to India.

12. Lesser Kestrel. — Erythropus cenchris, Naum.
Kashmir, Neilgherries.

13. Red-legged Falcon.— E. vespertinus, L. S. Europe,
N. Africa, Western and Central Asia, India.

14. Shikra. — Micronisus badius, Gm. Shikra, female;
Chipka, Chipak, male. Afghanistan, all India,
Ceylon, Assam, Burma, Malayana.

15. European Sparrow-hawk. — Accipiter nisus, L.
Basha, female; Bashin, male. Visits India,
October to March.

16. Besra Sparrow-hawk. — A. virgatus, Temm. Besra,
female; Dhoti, male. All the large forests of
India, Assam, Burma, and Archipelago.

The Shikra and her tiercel the Chipak are
flown at partridges, and by their swiftness and
agility afford tolerable sport. At the same time
they are opprobriously called dog-birds by the
falconer, on account of their ignoble qualities,
their want of stanchness, and their habit of carry-
ing the game, — carrying being the technical word
for flying away with the wounded bird. They
could formerly be bought ready trained in most
parts of Sind for a shilling or two.

The Shikra, Micronisus badius, is more com-
monly trained in India than any other hawk.

The European sparrow-hawk, Accipiter nisus,
and the Besra sparrow-hawk, A. virgatus, are both
largely trained.

The Bashah sparrow-hawk, A. nisus, and her
mate the Bashin, a small, short-winged, low-flying
bird with yellow eyes, and dark plumage in her
first year, which afterwards changes to a light
ash colour, marked with large grey bars, are very
much valued on account of the rapid way in
which they fill the pot, especially with partridges.
As they remain in Sind during the cold weather,
and retire in summer to the hills around, those
trained are passage -hawks, or birds of the year.
Their low price, 8s. or 10s., made it scarcely
worth while to mew them, so they were let loose
when the moulting season commenced. — Jerdorfs
Birds ; Burtoii's Falconry in the Valley of the
Indus.

HAWKINS, an English captain who landed at
Surat in the year 1608, in the reign of the
emperor Jahangir. He proceeded to Agra to the
court of the emperor, where he was well received.

HAWKS, Kites, etc.

Faucon, Fr.

Habicht, Falke, . . Ger.
Falcone, .... It.

Halcon, Sp.

Atmaja, . . . Turk.

Eagles, hawks, kites, etc., are all classed by
naturalists under the sub-families Accipitrinae or
hawks, Aquilinse or eagles, Buteoninse or buzzards,
FalconinaB or falcons, and Milvinse or kites, etc.,
all of the family Falconidse. They fly well, take
their prey on the wing, feed on small mammals,
birds, reptiles, fishes, and insects ; almost all are
solitary and monogamous. Many of them are
common to Great Britain and the E. Indies, as the
peregrine and other falcons, the merlins, and
kestrel. Astur trivirgatus, the goshawk, occurs
in the hilly parts of Nepal, India, and the Malay
countries. A. palumbarius is a native of Europe
and the Sub-Himalaya. The kestrel is occasionally
observed in extraordinary abundance, and har-
riers (Circus) are often seen beating over the open
ground. In Lower Bengal, kites quit Calcutta
and neighbourhood during the rains and return in
the cold weather. It is supposed that they go to
the N.E. to breed. The kestrel, baza, and Indian
hobby are most frequent in Bengal during the rains.
In Bengal, the kites and Brahmany kites breed
chiefly in January and February, and disappear
during the rains ; but adjutants appear as soon
as the rains set in, and, becoming in fine plumage
towards the close of the rains, depart at that time
to breed in the eastern portion of the Sunderbuns,
and along the eastern coast of the Bay of Bengal,
upon lofty trees and rocks. In the island of Bom-
bay, on the approach of the monsoon, nearly all the
kites, hawks, vultures, and other carrion birds
disappear from the sea-coast ; but the crows begin
to build their nests and hatch their young just at
the season that seems most unsuitable for incuba-
tion, when the eggs are often shaken out, or the
nests themselves are destroyed, by the violence and
inclemency of rain and tempest. Carnivorous
birds, as the rains approach, betake themselves to
the comparatively dry air of the Dekhan, where
they nestle and bring forth in comfort, and find
food and shelter for their little ones. The scenes
which follow the conclusion of the rains are
curious enough. While the Mahomedans bury,
and the Hindus burn their dead, the Parsee race
expose their dead in large cylindrical roofless
structures, called towers of silence, where birds
of prey at all times find an abundant repast. Their
family cares and anxieties over for the season, the
carrion birds, which had left in May for the
Dekhan, return in October to Bombay, and make
at once for the usual scenes, now stored with a
three months' supply of untasted food. As they
appear in clouds approaching from the mainland,
the crows, unwilling that their dominions should
be invaded, hasten in flocks to meet them, and a
battle ensues in the air, loud, fierce, and noisy ;
the fluttering of the wings, the screaming and
cawing of the combatante, resounding over the
island, till the larger birds succeed, and, having
gained the victory, are suffered henceforth to live
in peace.

In Ceylon, the beautiful peregrine falcon, Falco
peregrinus, Linn., is rare, but the kestrel, Tinnun-
culus alaudarius, Briss., is everwhere found ; and
the bold and daring goshawk, Astur trivirgatus,
Temm., is seen wherever wild crags and precipices
afford safe breeding places. In the district of
Anaradhpura, where it is trained for hawking, it
is usual, in lieu of a hood, to darken its eyes by
means of a silken thread passed through holes in
the eyelids. The ignoble birds of prey the kites,

HAY.

HAZARA.

MilviiR govinda, 8jfk$$ } keep close by tho shore,
and hover round the returning boats of the fisher-
men, to feast on the fry ■ejected from their nets.
AccijHtei ti inotatuB is a beautiful hawk of Celebes,
with elegant rows of large round white spots on
the tail. — TennanVs Ceylon, p. 246; Dr. Buist in
liomhaij Times; Mr. Blyth, ' Z.,' m Indian Field.
See Eagles.

HAT.

Hd\i, . . .

I'"in, . . .

II' u. . . .

Bokha ghaiiH,

DUT.

. l'K.

Gku.

Go j.

Hind.

Fieno It.

Fuunuin, .... Lat.

Fono,

Syeno,

Heno,

Hd, ... SW,
Wolanda pillu, . .
Kudu pnehika, . .
Kuru ot, . . . .

Pobt.

BUB.

. Sp.
, Dan.

Tam.

Tkl.
Tukk.

Any kind of grass out and dried for the food
of liorses, cattle, etc — M'Culloch; Faulkner.

HAY, LORD ARTHUR, afterwards Marquess
of Tweeddale, author of numerous contributions
on the botany and natural history of India.

HAYOBAN8, a Rajput tribe in the province of
Benares, who once were dominant on the banks
of the Xerbadda. — W.

II A YWARD, GEORGE W„ a scientific explorer,
who was endeavouring to reach the Pamir steppes
and the country north of Peshawur, in the interest
of the Royal Geographical Society of London,
but was murdered, in a.d. 1870, in Chitral by
Mir Wali, the nephew (sister's son) of Aman
Malik, chief of Chitral, the valley north of Swat
and Bajour and west of Gilghit. The Kashmir
authorities urged him repeatedly to abandon the
expedition, in which his life would not be safe.
Iff. Hay ward resolved to persevere, although he
was aware that beyond the Gilghit frontier the
Maharaja of Kashmir would be absolutely unable
to protect him.

HAZAR. Arab. Present. Hence also Huziir,
the presence, an appellation of royalty ; also
Hazrat, a respectful address ; Uazari, breakfast.

HAZARA, according to Bellew, is from Hazar,
a thousand ; it means a division, a disposition by
thousands, and is so applied by the Persians,
by the mountaineers of Gnor, and by the Afghans,
to the Mongol tribes occupying the mountain
country of Ghor, lying between Kabul and Herat
in one direction, and Kandahar and Balkh in
another. He says (p. 205) it is the equivalent of
the Tartar toman or tuman. Hazara tribes occupy
the whole range of the Paropamisus, or the
mountains extending between the Hindu Kush
or Caucasus and the city of Herat, to within a few
days' march of Kandahar. The Hazara districts
between Kabul and Bamian are collectively called
Bisut. and mallia or tribute is enforced from them
by the authorities of Kabul. In the mountainous
country between Kabul and Herat, the habitations
of the Hazara tribes are at heights between 5000
and 10,000 feet above the sea. Some of them
claim to be of Turk origin ; others in appearance
very much resemble the Gurkha. They nave the
same high cheek-bones, the same small eyes, very
little beard, and these no doubt are of Tartar
origin. Some profess the Sunni, others the Shiah
form of Mahomedanism. A tribe inhabiting the
country to the east of the Taemuri of Khaff , between
it and the great range from Khairabad to Rosanak,
are violent Sunni. These are of Tartar origin,
and are predatory, selling their captives to the
Turkoman, and plundering up to Herat. Of the

Hazara between Kabul and Herat, some claim
descent from Toghiani Turk.

The Deh Kundi Hazara assert their origin from
a Koresh tribe of Arabs. The Deh Kundi muster
12,000 fighting men.

The Faoladi of Gujaristan are said to be bo
called from a daughter of Afrasiab.

The Deh Zangi Hazara, who were reduced by
Murad Bey of Kunduz, are Shiahs, and from them
most of the Hazara slaves are procured. They
are rich in flocks, and their cavalry have been
estimated at from 12,000 to 28,000.

The Jaguri Hazara, who can assemble 5000,
occupy the country bounded north by Gujaristan
and Gul-Koh, east by Karabagh, Mukur, and
Resana, south by Arghandab and Warazan, and
westby Mahstan, 60 miles by 40 miles of beautiful
and fertile valleys, and number about 60,000 souls.
They are a short but well-made race, beardless,
with flat nose, and some of their tribes follow
the custom called Kooroo-bistan, which consists
in lending their wives to strangers for a night or
a week.

The Faoladi Hazara number 1000 families.
They dwell between Kabul and Bamian.

The Deh Chafran or Zard-alu, near Karabagh,
are about 3000 families.

The Shaikh Ali, east of Bamian, from 8000 to
5000 families, occupy between Bamian, Ghorband,
and the Helmand.

About forty other tribes are mentioned by
Elphinstone, Burness, Wood, Leech, Lumsden,
who estimate their numbers up to 800,000 souls.

The Hazara assume as their titles, Ikhtiar,
Khan, Mehtar, Sadiq, Sultan, Turkhan, and
Vali. Grain is scarce ; their bread is tasteless ;
and their food consists of the flesh of their
sheep, oxen, and horses, with cheese. In
years of scarcity they voluntarily sell their
children to the Uzbak slave dealers. The Shiah
Hazara detest and persecute the Sunni Afghan,
Aimak, and Uzbak, yet revere Ali and all Syuds.
They speak a Persian dialect, and are friendly
with the Kazzilbash and Parsivan. Almost every
tribe is at war with their neighbours, and with
the Aimak and Uzbak, and even the chiefs of their
own race carry off many into slavery. Hazara do
all the labouring work of Kabul. Their country
yields lead and sulphur. They breed dumba (tailed)
sheep and horses. Their animals have the fine
shawl- wool with which they manufacture carpets and
the fabric called Burrick. Hazara Zeidnat was a
tribe in the fertile KalaNao district, at the Murghab
and Panjdeh rivers, who claim to be the original
Hazara, and assume the title of Sar-i-khana. Their
chief has jurisdiction over 28,000 tents. They
are supposed to be 'Aimak. They had immense
flocks and herds of sheep, goats, buffaloes, and
camelB. In 1847, Yar Muhammad marched agamst
and defeated Karimdad, the chief of this tribe,
and removed 10,000 families to Herat ; and tho
Persians, after the capturo of Herat in 1857,
removed the whole tribe within Persian territory,
and deprived them of all their baggage and cattle.
They could assemble 4000 cavalry and 8000
infantry. Ferrier, in his Caravan Journeys
(pp. 194-237), mentions that he fell among the
Aimak Hazara on the Murghab river, and other
tribes about Dev-Hissar, more to the north and
east. He says their women take part in every
war, manage the horse, the sword, and the fire-

HAZARA.

HEAD.

lock. Their courage amounts to rashness, and
they are more dreaded than the men for cruelty
and fierceness. It is, and, so far as they know,
has always been, a national custom. Here we
have an intelligible explanation of the Amazons of
Alexander, and the 'female hosts' of Nemuchi.
In an attack by the Firoz Kohi on a Hazara tribe
near Singlah, in which he was engaged, he says
it was a remarkable sight to see brave and
energetic Tartar women under fire amongst, and
as forward as, the men ; they fight also on horse-
back, and ride or act under any circumstances as
well as the other sex. He says 'more than one of
them would, I have no doubt, meet any European
horseman on more than equal terms : the dexterity
with which they manage their horse is extra-
ordinary, and their courage is not less great.
They take part in every war, and the vanquished
dread their cruelty more than that of the men.'
— Cal. Rev. No. 64, p. 433 ; Vigne's Personal
Narrative, pp. 113-171; Masson's Journeys, ii.
pp. 217-295 ; E. I. Pari. Papers, Cabool and
Afghanistan, pp. 135, 136 ; Yule's Cathay, ii.
p. 540 ; Ferrier, Journeys, pp. 194, 222, 237 ;
MacGregor ; Bellew, p. 205 ; Campbell, p. 54.

HAZARA, a British district in the Panjab,
lying between lat. 33° 45' and 35° 2' N., and
between long. 72° 35' 30" and 74° 9' E. ; area,
2771 square miles. It is bounded on the north
by the Black Mountains, the Swati country,
Kohistan, and Chilas, on the east by Kashmir,
on the south by Rawal Pindi district, and on the
west by the river Indus. It consists of a long
and narrow valley, shut in on either side by lofty
mountains, whose peaks rise to 17,000 feet above
the sea. A group of ancient mounds, extending into
the southern portion of this district from that of
Rawal Pindi, have been identified by General
Cunningham with the site of Taxila. Under the
successors of Ranjit Singh, the Hazara people
declared for independence, and Syud Akbar of
Sitana was elected king by the assembled
chieftains. Enumeration over a total area of
2835 square miles disclosed a total population of
367,218. The Hindus amount to 5*06 per cent.
The Pathan tribes were — Jadun, 15,711 ; Swati,
21,334; 'others,' 16,748. Other Mahomedans
are— Syuds, 11,700; Dhund, 14,412; Kharal,
10,734; Awan, 50,564; Gujar, 54,420. Hindus
or Sikhs— Kshatriyas, 12,320; Brahmans, 3009.
The Swati occupy the Khagan gorge ; while the
other tribes of Pathan origin inhabit the western
frontier of the district. The Dhund and Kharal
hold the south-eastern hills ; the Awan and
Gujar are scattered over the whole country,
occupying inferior social positions. The Dhund,
Kharal, and Swati in particular are of small
stature, and deficient in strength. — Imp. Gaz.

HAZARIBAGH, a British district in Bengal,
lying between lat, 23° 25' and 24° 48' N., and
long. 84° 29' and 86° 38' E. ; area, 7020 square
miles ; population in 1872, 771,875. A central
plateau, about forty miles in length, has peaks
rising from 2463 to 3445 feet above the sea.
Its aboriginal tribes are — Santal, 35,306 ; Kol,
7307 ; Bhoi, 5835 ; Munda, 5664 ; Birhor, 132 ;
Bhuiya, 73,824; Chamar, 26,112; Ghatwal,
31,134 ; Bhogta, 20,546. The agriculturists are
— Kurmi, 40,538; Koeri, 27,550. The traders
are— Banya, 13,669; and Teli, 29,876. The
Rajputs, known as the Panwar or Ujjaini, formerly

supplied the Bhojpuria sepoys to the native
army ; and the Nagbansi, who are peculiar to
Chutia Nagpur, are Rajputs of pure blood.
The Srawak or secular Jains are well-to-do
merchants, and occupy a high social position.
The religious Jains five at the foot of Parasnath
Hill, and are custodians of the temples in the
village of Madhuban, from which pilgrims ascend
Parasnath. The Birhor of Hazaribagh and Lohar-
dagga live in the jungles or hill - sides in huts
made of branches of trees. They have hardly
any cultivation, and never touch a plough. The
men spend their time in snaring hares and
monkeys, and also trade in various jungle pro-
ducts. They worship female deities and devils,
and it is supposed that they at one time practised
cannibalism. The wealthier Ghatwals are con-
siderable landholders in the N.E. of Hazaribagh,
and claim to be zamindars under the permanent
settlement of 1793. — Imp. Gaz.

HAZ AR KINIAN, or the Thousand Springs, are
in Kurdistan, in the district of Aalan, an alpine
spot where innumerable springs start from the
ground. — Rich's Kurdistan, i. p. 262.

HAZEL NUT, Corylus avellana.
Bindik, .... Beng. Avellane, . . . Lat.
Tsin, .... Chin. Fenduk, . . . Pebs.
Noisettes aveilenes, Fr. Avellaas, . . . Port.
Haselnusse, . . Ger. Avellanas, . . . Sp.

Naccinole, aveline, . It.

The fruit of different species of the Coryli or
hazel trees. The kernels have a mild, farinaceous,
oily taste, agreeable to most palates. A kind of
chocolate has been prepared from them, and
they have been sometimes made into bread.
They are grown in Europe, are produced abun-
dantly in China and in the Himalayas ; and hazel
nuts are imported into Bombay from the Persian
Gulf.— APCulloch.

HAZIRAT. Hind. In Mahomedan divination,
in India, the flame of a charm-wick.

HAZIR ZAMIN. Hind. A personal bail.

HAZRAT. Arab. An honorific appellation,
equivalent to lord, reverence, Mr., worship. Lord
Jesus, Hazrat Isa. Hazrat Ali, the lord Ali.

HAZRAT IMAM, a town on the south bank of
the Oxus, producing good silk.

HEAD.

Ras, Arab. I Sar, . . Hind., Pers.

Tete Fr. I Talle, . . Tam., Tel.

The Mahomedan races of Arabia, Persia, and
India, in acknowledging an order, stake their
head on obeying it. The Arab will say, Dala
rasi, On my head be it ; and the Persian and
Indian Mahomedan, Ba-sar-o-chashm, On my
head and eyes be it. Horses are numbered by
their head, as Bis ras asp, 20 head of horses.

Head cloths, or roomals, of cotton are manu-
factured in the Madras districts. They are
always in squares of 5^ and 6 cubits, with lace
borders, and are always red - coloured, printed
with white spots. These are worn by Hindus as
turbands, and are of value from Rs. 8 to 250.

Head - dress. The Turks of Turkey and of
Egypt wear the turband and the red Fez cap. The
Jews of Syria, Egypt, and Persia wear the turband
(sar -band). All the Mahomedans and many
Hindus of India use turbands. Many Persians wear
caps. The Chinese history ascribes wing-like
appendages to their emperor's cap. But wings
attached to the cap are rather an ancient Hindu

UK AT.

HEBREW.

feature, and are remarkably preserved in the stab-
costume of the kings of Burma and the sultanB of
Java. — Yule, Cnthay, i. p. lix.

1 1 1 •: AT. Poo hgying, Bukm. The heat in S. Asia
is sometimes very great Major Sander's ther-
liioiin 1. 1. mi the Farrah-Kud in 1840, rose to
176° in the sun, a heat which enabled him to
poach eggs in the burning sand. The mean heat
at Bombay is 84°, at Madras 88°, Calcutta 79°,
Delhi 72 . The gunpowder in the factory of
Madras is dried on blackened platforms in the
aun'8 rays, and the thermometer rises to 164°
Falir.

HEAVEN, the Assama, Al-Fardus, and the
.Taimat of the Arab, Bihisht of the Persians,
Himinel of the Germans, and Paridesh of the
Hindu, with all is the place to which the souls
of the virtuous dead are translated. Paridesh
means the other world ; Himinel is from Himalaya,
the abode of snow. Mahomedans and Jews have
WTen heavens. The seven heavens of the Jews
are — (1) the vellum or curtain, (2) the expanse
or firmament, (3) the clouds of ether, (4) the
habitation where the temple of Jerusalem and
altar are situated, and (5) where Michael offers
ncrifice ; (6) fixed residence, (7) Araboth or
■pedal place of glory. The celestial place of the
Saiva Hindus is Swerga, said to be on Kailasa, a
mountain in the Himalayas north of Lake Manasa,
also on Mount Meru. It is also called Sairibha,
Mi8raka vana, Tavisha, Tridivam, Tripishtapam,
and Urdhwa-loka. The heaven or paradise of
Vishnu is Vaikuntha, also called Vaibhro, and
sometimes described as on Mount Meru. The Saiva
regards Vaikuntha, and the Vaishnava regards
Kailas as merely a second Swerga. Each sect
believes that the heaven of their opponents passes
away with Indra's paradise at the Maha Prulay,
but that their own heaven is not so much destroyed
as re-created, Kailas merging into Maha Kailas,
and Vaikuntha being elevated into Go Lok.

HEAVY SPAR or sulphate of baryta is found
near the village of Pudoor, on the banks of the
Tumbudra, about 7 miles from Kurnool, on the
slope of a low range of hills. Dr. Royle found it
near the convalescent depot at Landour.

HEBEL, the vanishing, Abel of the Bible.

HEBER. The passage. A historical term con-
nected with the race of Arphaxad, indicating their
passage near the Upper Tigris in a south-western
direction. — Bunsen. See Joktan.

HEBER, REGINALD, bishop and metropolitan
of India, an eminent writer. He was found dead
in his bath at Trichinopoly on the 3d April 1826.
He visited many parts of India, and consecrated
most of the churchyards and churches, which led
to after regulations. His narrative was published
in London in 1828.

HEBREW. The language of Tyre and Sidon
was pure old Hebrew. Abram was a Hebrew,
who spoke Aramaic as his mother tongue, but
migrated from the Trans-Euphrates country, and
adopted the language of Canaan. His first-born
son was Sidon. 1400 years after Joseph, Canaan
was occupied by the Israelite, Edomite, and
Canaanite as separate nations. In the Old
Testament (Isaiah xix. 18) the language of the
Bible is called the language of Canaan, — in no
instance Hebrew. The Hebrew language is used
by the small colony of Jews residing in Cochin
and its neighbourhood. Hebrew is a branch of

the Semitic family of languages. Yemen and
Arabia are considered by Jewish mediaeval tradi-
tion as the land of the Ten Tribes, where powerful
Jewish kings fought against infidels ; this belief
exists even now among Eastern Jews. About
the middle of the 19th century, Rabbi R. Jacob
Saphir visited Yemen. After R. Jacob Saphir,
Joseph Halevy was sent to Yemen by the French
Government, in order to copy Himyaritic in-
scriptions, and brought back manuscripts, which
were partly acquired by the Bodleian Library.
Mr. Shapira of Jerusalem revisited the Jews in
Yemen, and through him the British Museum now

Eissesses a considerable number of manuscript
ibles, many of them provided with the super-
linear punctuation (usually called the ' Assyrian '
vowel-points, while the punctuation used in our
Bibles is called the ' Palestinian '), as well as with
the Massorah. The Yemen manuscripts also
contain a collection of Agadic books, called
Midrashim, which embody many lost passages,
known only from quotations by Maimonides and
others. In Persia the Jews have adopted in their
writings the native language, though still using
Hebrew characters, just as their brethren have
done in the Arabic -speaking countries, in Greece,
Spain, France, and Germany, and as the Karaitic
Jews have done among the Tatars. The Persian
translation of the Bible to be found in manu-
scripts of the National Library at Paris is,
according to Solomon Munk, not earlier than the
13th century and not later than the 14th ; but
Bishop Theodoras in the 5th century mentions
a Persian translation of the Bible. So does
Maimonides in the 12th century, who refers to a
translation of the Pentateuch made several cen-
turies before Mahomed. If this translation is not
based on an early translation, the Jews in Persia
must have kept up the ancient Persian dialect,
just as the German Jews still speak in the ghettos
the pre-Lutheran German, or as the Spanish
exiles in the East speak ancient Spanish, — in a
word, the ' langue des exiles,' as Voltaire styles
the French of the Huguenots at Berlin. We
know, in fact, that in the time of the second
temple the Pentateuch lessons read in the syna-
gogues (Acts xv. 21) were interpreted by the
Methurgeman in the vernacular ; hence the origin
of the Targum or Chaldee translation. In Persia
this rale was observed as late as the 13th century,
for it is stated on the margin of Genesis xxxv. 22,
' The translation of this verse ought not to be read
publicly.' The same is said in the Talmud, ' The
history of Reuben is read (in Hebrew), but not in
the translation.' In the synagogues of the Greek
rite, the practice of reading the translation of the
Haftarah (section of the Prophets, Luke iv. 16 ;
Acts xiii. 14) was still kept up in the 12th
century, according to a ritual manuscript in the
Bodleian Library, which contains the Greek
translation of the book of Jonah in Hebrew
characters with vowel points. This book forms
the prophetical lesson of the afternoon service
(called Minhah) on the Day of Atonement, and it
is the oldest piece in prose written in modern
Greek. Besides the Hebraeo-Persian manuscripts
in Paris, the Imperial Library of St. Petersburg
possesses a fragment of a Hebraeo - Talmudic
dictionary, written at Djorjan in 1339, and the
British Museum an astronomical treatise, tran-
scribed in Hebrew characters from a Persian

HEDERACE.E.

HEDYCHIUM.

manuscript. This is about all that is known of
Jewish writing in Persia.

Recently, Mr. Neubauer acquired in Paris a
Pentateuch and Psalms, written at Koom in the
year 1483, to which a Jewish calendar in Persian
is attached. Another manuscript contains a
translation of the Psalms, which is missing in the
Paris collection. The copyist states that it was
written for the great king, Kibleh-i-Alam (the
Kibleh of the world), possibly Kablai Khan, who
was the great protector of art and science in that
dark age, about 1294. Indeed, at that time, when
Argun was the vassal king of Persia, the Jewish
physician Saad-ud-Daula was his minister of
finances, who not only restored order to the
finances of the kingdom, and forced the Mongol
generals to obey law and justice, but also attracted
learned men and poets to the court of his master.
The most curious of the manuscripts is a fragment
of an epopee, which has for its subject the whole
of the biblical history, and is simply an imitation
of Firdausi ; its author, however, remains at
present unknown.

HEDERACE^E, the ivy tribe of plants, the
Araliacese of A. Rich. Species of the genera panax,
paratrophia, and hedera occur in India. H.
heterophylla occurs in Penang, P. palmatain Nepal
and Arakan, P. terebinthacea in Penang, and H.
exaltata, Thw., is a large tree growing in the
central* province of Ceylon, at an elevation of
4000 to 6000 feet. H. umbellifera, the Sarura of
Amboyna, has a shrubby, unarmed stem, and
yields a blackish or dull-brown resin with a very
powerful aromatic camphorated smell. — Eng. Cyc;
Voigt ; I'hw.

HEDERA HELIX, the ivy.

Arab, i Arbambal, . . Jhelum,
Beas. Karmora,Mandia,KAGHAN

I. Plants adapted for field enclosures.

Lablab kussus,
Brumbrum of .
Dakari, . . .
Kural, Kuril of
Harbambal of .

Parwatti, Thans-Indus
Chenab. I Karur, .... Ravi.
Jhelum. | Karbam,Kaniuru, Sutlej.

This ivy has a chmbing stem, with root-like
fibres. It is found between the Canaries and
Europe on the west, and the northern parts of
China on the east. In the north of India, and
indeed occasionally in Italy, the berries, instead
of being black as in Britain, are bright yellow,
and it is supposed that this is more particularly
the Hedera of the Roman poets. The flowers are
yellowish, and appear late in the season, and, in
consequence, are much resorted to by bees at
seasons when little other food is to be had. It is
common in the Panjab Himalaya, at places from
8200 to 8000 feet ; occurs in the Salt Range and
Trans-Indus ; and Dr. Bellew got it at 9000 feet
near the Saf ed Koh. It is stated to be a favourite
food of goats, and in Kullu the leaves are said to
be added to the beer of the country to make it
strong. — Dr. J. L. Stetcart, Eng. Cyc.

HEDGEHOG, the genus Erinaceus of the mam-
malia. There are in India two species, E. collaris
and E. mentalis. E. dealbatus, Swinhoe, is Chinese.

HEDGES are not used for the cold-weather
crops of India. For the garden crops, sugar-cane,
betel vine, and others, the large species of sac-
charum are used. Quick hedges are formed in
Japan of the Lycium Japonicum, Citrus trifoliata,
Gardenia, species of Viburnum, Thuja, Spiraea ;
and arbours are made of the Dolichos polystachyos.
Dr. Cleghorn gives the following as the wild and
cultivated hedge plants of India :—

Opuntia Dillenii, Haw.
Agave Americana, L.
Euphorbia tirucalli, L.
E. antiquorum, L.
E. nivulia, Buck.
Csesalpinia sepiaria, Rox.
C. sappan, L.
Pterolobium lacerans.
Guilandina bonduc, L.
Parkinsonia aculeata, L.
Poinciana pulcherrima, L.
Mimosa rubicaulis, Lam.
Inga dulcis, Willd.
Acacia Arabica, Willd.
A. concinna, D. C.
Vachellia farnesiana, W.
Hemicyclia sepiaria, W.

Epicarpurus orientalis,

Blume.
Jatropha curcas, L.
Pisonea aculeata, Rox.
Capparis sepiaria, L.
C. aphylla, Rox.
Scutia Indica, Brong.
Azima tetracantha, Lam.
Gmelina Asiatica, L.
Balsamodendron Berryi,

Am.
Toddalea aculeata, Pers.
Bambusa arundinacea.
Bambusa spinosa, Rox.
B. nana, Rox.
Dendrocalamus tulda, Nees.
Pandanus odoratissimus.

ii. Ornamental plants forming inner fences.

Lawsonia inermis, Wall.
Lonicera ligustrina, L.
Citrus limetta, Riss.
Morus Indica, L.
Punica granatum, L.
Phyllanthu8 reticulata.
Hibiscus rosa Sinensis, L.

Adhatoda vasica, Nees.
A. betonica, Nees.
Graptophyllum hortense,

Nees.
Gendarussa vulgaris, Nees.
Gardenia florida, L.
Allamanda cathartica, L.

III. Plants used for edging garden walks.
Pedilanthus tithymaloides, j Rosa semjierfiorens, Curtis.

Heliotropium
cum, L.

Curassavi-

Poit.
Vinca rosea, Willd.
Rosa Indica, L.

The Cacti, Agave*, and Euphorbias are adapted
to the arid districts, their structure enabling them
to exist, when refreshed with only occasional
showers ; the Mimoseae and Caesalpineae seem to
enjoy the somewhat more cold and moist climate
of the Balaghat districts; while the Bambuseae
and Pandaneae luxuriate in the rich loamy soil of
the Mulnad (i.e. rain country). Plants for railway
fences ought to differ as the line is continued
through various districts, in accordance with the
conditions under which particular plants thrive
best between certain limits of temperature and
moisture. — Thunberq's Tr. iii. 8 ; Cleghorn in
Rep. Brit. Ass. 1850, p. 811.

HEDUNG of Java, the chopping knife of the
Tenger mountaineers.

HED-YA. Mahr. A drover or cattle-dealer.

HEDYCHIUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the natural order Zingiberacese. 28 species occur
in the East Indies, some of them with sweet-
smelling flowers.

Hedychium coronarium, Linn.
Doolal champa, . Beng. I Ganda suli, . . Malay.
Khet-lan-thae, . Burm. |

The garland flower, much cultivated. The
flowers are fragrant; colours, orange, scarlet,
yellow, and white. The yellow and white varieties
are both common. This is the most charming of
all the plants of this natural order; the great
length of time it continues to throw out a profusion
of large, beautiful, fragrant blossoms, makes it
particularly desirable. The plants are increased
by dividing the roots.

Hedychium spicatum, Royle.

Ban-haldi ; Shlui of Beas. | Bazar Roots.

Sidhoul, . . . Hind, i San-nai, San-lah, Chin.
Ban-kela ; Saki of Ravi. Kapur kachri, . Hixn.
Khor ; Shalwi, . Sutlej. Kachur, Seer, Rutti, ,,

This grows throughout the East Indies, in Nepal,
in the Panjab Himalaya, up to near the Jhelum,
at least, at from 8500 to 7500 feet, and also in
China. Its large broad leaves are twisted, and
made into coarse mats for sleeping on, etc. The
root is fragrant, warm, and aromatic ; and Dr.

IIKPYOTIDEjE.

Roylo thinks it may probably hi the rittc, or lesser
nkngal of Ainslie. The root, capoor cutchery,
in China, is cut into unmll pieces and dried for
exportation ; lias internally a whitish colour, but
externally it is rough and of a reddish colour; it
ha* a pungent and bitterish taste, and a slightly
aromatic smell. It is exported to Bombay, and
from thence to Persia and Arabia; it is said to be
iim (1 in jH-rfumery and for medicinal purposes,
and also to preserve clothes from insects. In
Garhwal they are used in washing the newly
ma! lied ; and Madden states that they are pounded
with tobacco for the hookah. — O'.S'A; memden j
Roxb. ; \oiqt; Stewart.

HKDVOTIDEiE, a section of plant* of the
natural order Cinchonacese, containing species of
Wendlandia. Dciitclla, lb dyotis, etc. Ihere are
ten knows ipeciea of 1 Icily otis.

Hedyotis Burmanniana, R. Br.
Oldenlandia bifiora, Lam.
( rcrontcgea biflora, Cham, and Schl.
Khet-papra, . . Bkno. | Purputi, Papra, . Hind.

Two-flowered Indian madder, is a plantof Ceylon,
both Peninsulas of India, and Bengal. Appears in
moist ground in the rainy season. The whole
plant is used in infusion as an excellent tonic aud
febrifuge in chronic fever. Dose 1 to 2 drachms ;
piicc 8 annas per lb. Other species also occur,
and are called Ganda badalee and Poonkha.

Hedyotis Heynei, R. Br.
H. herbacea, Willde. | Oldenlandia herbacea, Sox.
Telia nela vemu Tel.

A plant of the Peninsula of India. — Irvine.

Hedyotis umbellata, Lamarck.
H. hispida, Roth. Oldenlandia umbellata,

H. Indica, Rcem. and 8ch. Linn.

Chay-root, Anglo-Tam. Saya, Tam.

Indian madder, . Exg. Emburel ckeddi, . ,,

Choya Singh. Cherivelu, . . . Tel.

Sayan ; Sayan mul, ,,

This dye plant grows in sandy soils on the Coro-
mandel coast. The root of that which grows wild
is reckoned the best, but it is also cultivated
to some extent. For the cultivation of the plant
the finest sandy soil is required, as being the
most favourable to the free growth of the root,
on the length of which the value of the article
greatly depends. The cultivation commences in
the end of May or beginning of June, with
the first falls of the south-west monsoon. Dur-
ing the space of three months the sand is sub-
jected to repeated ploughings, and is thoroughly
cleaned from all weeds. Between each ploughing
it is manured, and after the last ploughing it is
levelled with a board, and formed into small beds
of about six feet by three. The seed, which is
extremely minute (so much so that it is impossible
to gather it except by sweeping up the surface
sand into which it has fallen, at the end of the
harvest), is then sown by spreading a thin layer
of sand over the prepared beds. They are then
kept constantly moist, and are watered gently with
a sieve made of palmyra fibres, five or six times
a day ; care being taken that the water is quite
sweet and fresh, for which purpose it is obtained
from wells newly dug in the field. At the end of
a fortnight the seeds under this treatment will
have germinated freely, after which the young
plants are only watered once a day, in addition to
which, liquid cow-dung, greatly diluted with water,
is daily sprinkled over them. In about four

HEERA-KASSEES.

months more, or at the end of six months from
the time of sowing, provided the season has been
good and the falls of rain regular, the plants will
have reached maturity, and the roots be ready for
digging. But no artificial irrigation will compear
sate for a failure of the natural rain ; and when
this happens, the plants must be left for ti,
even four months longer, in which case the
produce will be deficient both in quantity and
quality. But in an ordinary season the produce
of a podtt) or plot containing an acre ana three-
quarters, will yield from 5 to 10, averaging about
8, candies of 500 lbs. each.

The plants are dug up with a light wooden spade
tipped with iron, and are tied into bundles of
a handful each, without outting off the stocks.
They are then left to dry, the leaves wither and
fall off, and the bundles are weighed and removed.
Before the digging begins, the seeds, which have
now ripened, are shed, and, being exceedingly
minute, become inextricably mixed with the sand,
the surface of which is therefore carefully scraped
up, and reserved for future sowings.

It is largely UBed by the Indian dyer in the south
of India. It furnishes a red dye similar to
manjith. Experiments in Great Britain with the
chay-root have hitherto failed, in consequence, it
is supposed, of deterioration during the voyage.
In the case of this and of some other Indian dye-
stuffs, the colouring matter could be extracted
similarly to indigo before it is exported. — O'Sh. ;
Ains.; R. Mad. Ex. 1857. See Chay-root; Dyes.

HEDYSARUM. Ti-yu, Chin. Several occur
in China, where the roots are employed as a Btyptic
or vulnerary. The leaves are used as a vegetable,
and as a substitute for the proper tea-leaf.

H. lineare is used in Cochin-China as a
stomachic, and H. alpinum in Siberia for the same
purpose.

H. junceum grows in vaBt quantities in Shek-
hawatti and elsewhere, near Jeypore ; the small
branches are sweet, and eaten by camels and other
cattle. This becomes a considerable bush, and
has no thorna

H. edysarum tuberosum, Roxb.
Pueraria tuberosa. — Bank's lc. Kemp. tab. 25.
Kudsumi, . . . Hind. | Daree goomodee, . . Tkl.

A rare species, a native of the valleys far up
amongst the mountains. It flowers during the hot
season, at which time it is perfectly naked of
leaves, being deciduous about the beginning of
the cold season. The root, peeled and bruised
into a cataplasm, is employed by the natives of the
mountains where it grows to reduce swellings of
the joints.— Roxb. ii. 863 ; Gen. Med. Top. p. 205 ;
Smith.

HEEL. This part of the body is often alluded
to by oriental nations. The only vulnerable part
of Krishna's body was his heel, in which he was
shot by a Bhil.

HEEMACHA. HlNn. A bag made of the
skin of a lamb, used by fakirs.

HEEN. Every Chinese province is divided
into a certain number of districts, called Fu, Ting,
Chow, or Heen. A Fu is a large portion or
department of a province under the general con-
trol of a civil officer, immediately subordinate to
the head of the provincial government. — Sirr,
Chinese.

HK.ERA-KASSEES. Hrm Dry persulphate
of iron, used in dyeing, in making ink, blacking

HEERA-KHOND.

HELICTIS.

leather ; also in medicine, and made into missi to
apply to the teeth. To make —
Black missi. — Heera-kassees, chaipal harra, chooni-
gond, lila tootiya, iron filings, kuth, equal parts,
pounded and mixed ; rubbed on the gums.
White missi.— Sufaid soorum (crystallized carbonate
of lime, double refracting spar) and cinnamon
pounded together ; used as tooth-powder.
Sada-kassees.— Impure sulphate of iron, the refuse
from the manufactory of the sulphate of copper ;
four seers for one rupee.

HEERA-KHOND, a place in Assam where
diamonds occur. See Diamond.

HEERANA or Hirana, in E. Oudh, manuring a
field by penning a herd of cattle or flock of sheep
in it for several hours. K'hhutana is used in a
similar sense in Rohilkhand. This practice is
known in England under the name of fold-course
or foldage, and formerly meant a privilege
which several lords reserved to themselves of
setting up folds within their manors for the better
manurance of the same. — Elliot, Supp. Gloss.

HEGGADE. Karn. The headman of a town
or village, but especially applied to one of the
Jain religion. It is also used by certain castes as
an affix to proper names, to intimate respectability,
corresponding with Sahib or Mian in Hindustan.
— Wilson's Glossary.

HEI-MIN, in Japan, all below the nobles ; the
commonalty.

HEJAZ, Arab., is a large province of Arabia,
containing the two sacred cities, Mecca and
Medina. But geographers differ much as to its
limits. Burton says that the Arab of the Hejaz
still uses heathenish oaths and heathen names,
few being Mahomedan. Their ordeal of licking
red-hot iron, their practice of the salkh or scarifi-
cation as a sign of manliness, and their blood
revenge, their eating creatures which have not
been made lawful by the usual formula, and their
lending their wives to strangers, he indicates as
showing how little Mahomedanism has influenced
the uncivilised parts of the country. — Burton's
Mecca, iii. 79.

HELA, a man of a low caste ; an inferior
division of the Bhangi, engaged in the lowest
menial offices. The Hela pride themselves on
eating the leavings of Hindus only.

HELEOCHARIS TUBEROSA, Rcem. and Sch.,
the Ma-tai or Pe-tsi of the Chinese, is a rush which
is cultivated in ponds for its edible tubers. H.
fistulosa and H. plantaginea of Australia and India
and H. sphacelata are allied plants. — Smith.

HELFER, Dr., of the Bengal medical service,
and a celebrated botanist, was murdered by the
natives of the Andamans, in January 1839. See
As. Jour. 1840, vol. xxxiii. Author of Notice of
the Mergui Archipelago, ibid. vol. xxxiii. ; Report
on Tenasserim and the surrounding Nations, Bl.
As. Trans, vol. viii. Along with Lieutenant
Hutchinson, he reported on the new coal-field of
Tenasserim in Bl. As. Trans. 1839, vol. viii. 385.
Author of Researches on the Tenasserim Coast, in
Friend of India, 165, 638. — Dr. Buist, Catalogue.

HELIANTHUS ANNUUS. L. Sun-flower.

Shooria mukti,
Suraj mukhi, .
Suria mukhi, .

Beng.
Hind.

Sansk.

Aditya bhakti chettu.
Poddu or Proddu
tirugudda chettu, Tel.

It is indigenous in Mexico and Peru; it was
early introduced into Europe after the discovery
of America. It is one of the cistaceae, or rock-
rose tribe. An acre has been known to yield

50 bushels of seed - like nutlets, from which 50
gallons of oil have been pressed, useful for the
table, for machinery, soaps, and for painting. The
seeds are valued for feeding fowls, also as a sub-
stitute for coffee. The large flower-heads yield
much honey, the stalks a useful textile fibre,
and the blossoms a brilliant, lasting yellow dye.
The absorbing and exhaling powers of this plant
are great, and it is valuable for raising quickly
vegetation around fever morasses. A sun-flower,
according to Laccupidan, will exhale \\ lb. of
water in a day. Its products are yielded in a few
months. — Roxb. ; Von Mueller.

HELIANTHUS TUBEROSUM. Linn.
Bheamoka, . . . Beng. | Jerusalem artichoke, Eng.

A native of Brazil, but the plant is cultivated
throughout India as a vegetable in gardens.
Jerusalem artichoke is a corruption of the Italian
Girasole. It was introduced into Europe at the
Farnese Garden at Rome, whence it was originally
distributed. The roots are composed of a number
of oblong tubercles, very large and fleshy, reddish
outside and white within, resembling a potato ;
the stems are herbaceous, and upright. In France
it is also known by the name of topinambour
and poire de terre. According to Braconnot and
Payen, the tubers do not contain fecula, but a
vegetable principle called inulin or dahlin. . These
tubers, when cooked, form a good substitute for
potatoes, and by some are even preferred. The
foliage and tubers increase the milk of cows ; the
stem is rich in textile fibre. Its yield is as
plentiful as potatoes, with less labour; and in
fair land, rich in potash, continues uninterruptedly
from year to year. — Roxb. ; Von Mueller.

HELICIA ROBUSTA. Wall.
Rhopala robusta, Roxb. | H. Travancorica, Bedd.

A very handsome, good-sized tree, not un-
common on banks of streams on the Travancore
and Tinnevelly mountains, above Panpanassam,
at about 4000 feet elevation ; it also inhabits
Eastern Bengal and Burma. — Beddome, Fl. Sylv.

HELICIDiE, a family of Gasteropodous mol-
lusca, the land snails. See Mollusca.

HELICTERES ISORA. Linn. Screw-plant.
Isora corylifolia, Sch. and End.

Avurtunni, . . . Sansk.
Leeviya-gaha, . . Singh.
Valambirikai, . . Tam.
Syamali, . . . Tel.
Ada syamali, Kavanchi, , ,
Nooli-tudda, . . „

Dukh.

Dhamni, . .
Muradsing?. . . ,,
Kewun? Kewanni, „
Maror-phalli, . . Hind.
Kupaisi, Joa-ka-phal, ,,
Kisht, Bur-kisht, . Peks.

This plant has a singular-looking contorted cap-
sule, consisting of five fibres closely twisted in the
shape of a screw, of various lengths, from 1 to 2|
inches. A liniment is prepared from the powder
of it, which is supposed to be a valuable applica-
tion in cases of offensive sores inside of the ears.
The Telugu name means that the juice of the root
is a powerful stomachic. The powder of the fruit
has also been used in griping pains of the bowels,
but solely because the twisted fibres of the capsule
were considered to stamp it as a remedy, accord-
ing to the ancient doctrine of signatures. The
fibre of the bark makes good ropes. — Powell ;
Stewart; Ains. Mat. Med. p. 118; O'Sh. p. 228.

HELICTIS. Gray. A genus of the mammalia,
belonging to the order Carnivora and family
Felidi. The species inhabit Eastern Asia, and
have the general appearance and colouring of
Mydaus, combined with a dentition resembling

HELILAH.

HELOT.

Cnfer, . . .

lolle, . . .

/inferno, . .

Amongst Jews, Christians, Mahomedans, and

VOL. II.

Fr.

Narakam, . .

. SANRK.

Gkk.

Infierno, . •

. . Sp.

It.

Jiihuiinain,

. TlJtK.

Kalikutki, Duk.

Schwartz Neiss-
wargel, . . .

Ger.

that of (iulo or Mustela, but differing from both
die latter genera in the targe internal lobe of the
Ma eannvorous tooth. There an three apeoiea,
— II. moaohataof Cliina, H. Kepalenaia, the Nepal
wolverine, and H. orientahs, Horsfield, from
Malayana. They have long claws, adapted for
burrowing. — Jerdon, Mammals, p. 80; Eny. Cyc.
HELILAH. Arab., Pers. Myrobalan of Ter-
minalia ohebula, Roxb. Of these there are six
kind.-. Helilah rirah, th<' young fmit, dried, of
the um of cumin seed ; Helilah jaoi, size of a
barley-corn ; Helilah zengi, size of a raisin, and
Hack like a negro; Helilah chini, larger than
Helilah zengi. and greenish; Helilah aster, fruit
ie;tr maturity and yellow; Helilah kabuli, the

Yuit at full maturity, called also Sarwarri hirda, j Khertik Khcrbeck> AraB .
Helilah -l-siah, Pers., Hehlaj-ul-aswad, Arab., | Kurbec-ul-nswad, .
lelileh-i-kalan. PeRS., Helilaj -ul- kabuli, Arab., j Neiswurtel, . . . Dan.
rerminalia chebula, myrobalan. I Kalikutki, Duk., Hind.

HEUOPOLIS or Baalbec, the Baalith of
Scripture, and Heliopolis or temple of the sun of
he Greeks, is now a ruin. It is ou the lower
lopes of the Anti-Libanus, 43 miles north-west
4 Damascus, in lat. 34° 1' 30" N., and long. 36°
1 K. The date of its origin is unknown ; but
\ntoninus Tins built a great temple there. It
vas sacked in a.d. 748 by the Mahomedans, and
inally pillaged in a.d. 1400 by Timur, and now
•ontains about 100 Arab families, cultivators, and
lerdsmen, who reside in a quarter surrounded by
i modern wall. The great temple of the sun and
ts buildings ace at the western end, outside the
node in walls. There were rows of pillars in the
'orinthian order of architecture, almost all of
vhich have now fallen, as also have the roofs of
jreat courts, one of them 144 feet square, and
Halted passages. On the east is a court 230 feet
iy 118 feet, which had arches on its western and
northern sides. See Baalbec.

HELIOS. The sun-god. See Aditya Ra; Heri.

IIELIOTHIS ARMIGERA, an insect of the
amily Noctuidae, which in innumerable hordes
.ttacked the poppy crops of Shahabad and Patna
a the season 1877-78 ; it is equally destructive
o the cotton crops. It eats into the capsules of
he poppy and cotton ; careful hand-picking is the
ole remedy. The pupae become entrapped in the
apsule. In February and March it attacks the
offce plant.

HKLIOTROPE or Bloodstone, a quartzose
oineral, which occurs abundantly in the trap
ocks of the Dekhan.

HELIOTROPIUM, a genus of flowering plants
>f the natural order Boraginaceae ; several species
re known in India. They should be grown in a
oil more approaching to sand than clay. They
re easily cultivated in pots, or the flower beds;
■ropagated by cuttings in sand under glass. They
■quire to be protected from the hot winds. —
'!<>.<■!>. : Uiddell.

Heliotropium Brevifolium, Wall.
)hiti mirak, . Dkrajat. | Chittiphub, . . Panj.

The herb is said to be laxative and diuretic ;
he seeds are emenagogue. — WalUch; Poicell.

HELIX, a genus of land-snails very numerous
a India.

HELL.

Hindus, a place of after punishment, to which the
kouIh of wicked people are lent Mahometan-

call it by the Hebrew and Arabic term, Jahatrifcn,

but also Dozakh ; the Hindus, Narakam. Amongst
the .Japanese. (Jokuja. or hell— or, as it is other-
wise called. Koja— is their cage. By this they
"i. an their prison, which stands about the middle
Of the town, at the corner of a descending street.
The Hindus have seven or eight hells, named
Atala, Nitala, Oabha-timat, Mahatala, Sutala, and
Patala, each under a regent. The Siva Purana
enumerates eight; other names not enumerated
above, being Tala, Yidhi Patala, Sarkara-bhumi,
and Vijaya. — Hist, qf Japan.

HELLBBORUS NIGER, black hellebore.

Kuddu,

Guj., Hind.
Hellebore, . . . PoBT.
Kataka rohini katuruni,

8an.sk., Tam., Tel.
Calurana, . . . SlKOH.

Under the native names, two kinds of hellebore
are commonly met with in the Indian bazars,
brought from Nepal and the Red Sea. The roots
of both plants are used in medicine ; they are
much used by farriers, and occasionally by native
practitioners, as a powerful cathartic in maniacal
and dropsical cases. The roots of one kind occur
in pieces of 4 to 6 inches, are black all through
their substance, externally of a greyish colour,
with numerous joints. The second variety is in
similar pieces, but of a whiter colour internallv
—Faulk. ; O'Sh. p. 168.

HELL-WATER, a narcotic spirit, distilled in
Java from the fleshy part of the fruit of Arenga
saccharifera.

HELMAND RIVER is the Etymander of the
classics, and the Haetumat of the Vendidad. It
rises at Fazindaz, in the west slopes of the moun-
tains of Paghman, about lat. 34° 40' N., and long.
68° 2' E., and, flowing generally to the S.W., after
a course of 700 miles falls into the lake of Seistan.
It is fordable at fourteen places. It is capable of
being navigated by steamers. Its banks are fertile
and well wooded, and an industrious population
at one time occupied it, but left it, disgusted with
the insecurity that prevails ; and the accounts of
it by travellers, writing at different times, have
greatly varied. — MacUregor, p. 335 ; Malcolm's
Persia, i. p. 3; Pottinger's TV. p. 316; Ferriers
Journey, p. 428. See Aria Palus.

HELMSMAN, the Sikani, Hind., Jurumudi,
Malay. Sikani is from Sukhan, a helm. Sukhani,
a helmsman.

HELOT. Modern India is largely inhabited by
Hindus proper and Helot races, who have become
completely or partially amalgamated into Hindu
society. The superior Helot classes, all over
Northern India, cultivate to a considerable extent
either on their own account or as the servants of
others. In the south of India are the Pariah, who
are represented in the Canarese Karnatiea by the
Holar, and amongst the Mahrattas by the .M liar and
Dher, and by the Malla in Telingana. The leather-
workers, the Chakili of the Tamil jieople, are the
Madiga of the Teling race, and the Mhang of the
Mahrattas. In Northern India, the Dom, Dam,
and Dumi ; in Central India, the Kharwar or
Kheroar, or ancient Santal. and the present Kheria.
In the Panjab are the Chun serfs, descendants of
the Chaura military Helots of the .MahaUiarata.
33 C

HELWINGIA.

HEMILEIA VASTATRIX.

Throughout India are the Coolie or Kuli ; and the
Hadi is a Helot race in Bengal. — Mr. Campbell

HELWINGIA, a very anomalous genus of
Himalaya and Japan, having the unisexual flowers
sessile upon the middle of the leaf, owing to the
adhesion of the flower-stalk to the leaf -stalk and
midrib. H. Himalaica, Hook., grows at 7000 feet.

HEMA. Sansk. Gold. Hemadai, golden
mountain, i.e. Meru. Hema-Kuta, golden peak,
a range between the Himalaya and Meru.

HEMA CHANDRA, a great Jaina teacher who
lived in the 12th century. He gained over to the
Jaina faith the Hindu kings of Gujerat, shortly
after which these princes disappeared before the
Mahomedan conquests. Hema Chandra seems to
have been the author of Abhidana Chintamani,
a useful vocabulary, and of a life of Mahavira,
printed under Mr. Colebrooke's superintendence.

HEMADRI, a Brahman of the Madhyandiniya
Sakha, of the Sukla Yajur-Veda. He wrote
several books, the Chaturvarga Chintamani on
law, the Muktaphala on religion, and a Commen-
tary on Wagbhata, called Ayur Veda-Rasayana.

HEMBAKO, the Tibetan name of the terri-
tory in Ladakh which the Kashmirians call Dras.

HEMEROCALLIS, a genus of plants belong-
ing to the natural order Liliacese, called day-lilies.
H. flava is a native of Germany, and H. f ulva of
Italy ; H. disticha from China ; H. Sieboldii from
Japan. H. speciosa and H. graminea are culti-
vated in gardens.

Hemerocallis fulva, Wilhle., Nargas, Gool-nargas,
Hind., the narcissus of India, cidtivated as a
flowering plant.

Hemerocallis graminea, Tatarinov, Hiuen-ts'au,
Chin. In China this is regarded as a charm for
dispelling grief, and is worn in women's girdles to
favour the birth of sons. The young leaves are
eaten, and intoxicate slightly. The flowers of
this day-lily, when dried, are called the Kin-tsin-
ts'ai. — Smith; Roxb. ii. p. 168; Gen. Med. Top.

HEMICYCLIA, a genus of moderate -sized trees
of Ceylon and the Peninsula of India. H. Gardneri,
Thw., not very abundant; H.lanceolata,TAu'., grows
at Caltura, Ceylon ; and H. sepiaria u W. and A.,
Weera-gass, Singh., is abundant in the hot, drier
parts in the peninsula of the island.

H. Elata, Bedd., is a lofty, straight, glabrous
tree, very common in the dense moist forests of the
Wynad (2000-4000 feet elevation), also in the
Animallays and Tinnevelly mountains. The leaves
are less coriaceous than in H. venusta, but have
exactly the venation and shape of that species^
which is a small drooping tree with a different
inflorescence. H. sepiaria has much more coria-
ceous, differently-shaped leaves, and is scarcely
more than a shrub ; the timber is strong, and much
valued for building purposes. — Thwaites ; Wight,
Icones ; Beddome, Fl. Sylv. p. 279.

HEMIDACTYLUS TRIEDRUS, a pretty little
white and spotted lizard of Labuan. It is one of
the Geckotidae.

HEMIDESMUS INDICUS. R. Broivn.
Smilax aspera.
Periploca Indica, Willdc.
ITnuntamul, Beng., Hind

Kural,

Muckwy, . .

Magraba, . .

Naru nindi, . .

Shadijm, . . .

Iri musu, . .

. DUKH.

. Hind.
jVIaleal.

. Sansk.
. Singh.

Asclepiaspseudosara, Rox.,

■ear. latifolia.
Nunnari, . . . Tam.
Gadi Sugandhi, . Tel.
Nalla Sugandhi, . ,,
Pala Sugandhi, . ,,
Suganda-pala, . . ,,
Pala Chukhanderu, „
Telia Sugandhi-pala, ,,

Sapindus tetraphyllus,

d. a

Koriai Tel.

Indian Sarsaparilla, or Country Sarsaparilla, is
a common plant all over the Indian Peninsula.
The root is long and slender, with few ramifica-
tions, covered with rust-coloured very fragrant
bark, the odour remaining after drying, and
strongly resembling that of new-mown hay. The
roots have long been employed in the Madras
Presidency as a substitute for sarsaparilla, and
have been also used in England, and very highly
spoken of. It can be purchased of good quality at
from 2 to 4 annas the seer. It occurs in bundles
about a foot and a half long. Much of its virtues
depend on a volatile principle ; and it should not
be employed in decoction, as long boiling dissipates
the active ingredient. The infusion is a fragrant
and highly effectual alterative and diuretic, of great
service in secondary venereal affections and
chronic rheumatism. It is in every respect a
perfect substitute for sarsaparilla. — O'Sh. Disp.

HEMIGYMMA MACLEODII. Grif. ?
Cordia Macleodii, Hooker.
Deyngan of . Jubbulpur. | Botku, .... Tel.

This tree is abundant in the Godavery forests
near Mahadeopur, and near Warangal, and it is
also indigenous to the Jubbulpur forests, where it
is called Deyngan. It yields a very beautiful
wood, which would answer as a substitute for
maple for picture frames, etc. — Captain Beddome.

HEMIGYROSA CANESCENS. Roxb.
Molin?ea canescens, Roxb.
Cupania canescens, W. A,
Kurpa, .... Mahr
Nekota, .... Tam. |

A common tree in jungles on the eastern side
of the Madras Presidency, Salem, Cuddapah,
Mysore, etc. ; also found in Bombay and Ceylon.
It does not ascend the mountains much above
3000 feet. The wood is whitish, and is occasionally
used by the natives for building purposes. —
Beddome, Fl. Sylv. p. 151.

HEMIGYROSA DEFICIENT W. A.
Sapindus deficiens, W. A.

A small or middling-sized tree of the Tinnevelly
ghats, common at 2000 to 4000 feet elevation, Ani-
mallays (head of the ghat from Palghat up to the
Neliampatty coffee estates) 2500 feet elevation, and
towards the higher ranges at 5000 feet elevation.
It appears to be in flower all the year round. —
Beddome, Fl. Sylv. p. 231.

HEMIGYROSA TRICHOCARPA. Thw. A
moderate-sized tree. One variety grows in the
central province of Ceylon up to an elevation of
3000 feet, another in the hot, drier parts of the
island.— Thw. En. PI. Zeyl. i. p. 56.

HEMILEIA VASTATRIX, the coffee-leaf
disease, or leaf-fungus, has for several years
seriously affected the coffee trees of the island of
Ceylon. Though requiring careful inspection for
its detection, it was present upon all the coffee
trees examined about 1879. With the help of the
microscope, it is found at all tunes to pervade the
greater part of the stems and older leaves, in the
form of very fine branching filaments, its effects
being apparent in numerous somewhat translucent
spots, which may be observed when holding one
of the older leaves against the light. The direct
injury so caused to the coffee tree is, however,
very slight, as compared with the effect produced
when the fungus attacks the young leaves, causing
them to fall prematurely. The presence of thd
fungus-filaments in such abundance on the outer

HEMIONITIS COUDIFOI.IA.

I IK Ml'.

surface of the tree is quite sufficient to account
for phenomena whiofa it was first thought must
be attributable to a poisoning of the juices of the
tree, I »y an absorption of the fungus inatter through

•>. The latter idea must therefore be given
up. and the disease considered as external, except
when it appears within the tissue of the young
. ■ . i \ . -. Subsequently, from these enclosed masses
of filaments short branches arc produced, •which
iSJMBjt from the pores, and bear the conspicuous
lyange-ooloured spores or reproductive bodies.
3mm of these spores have been observed to
[.Terminate on the outside of the leaf, producing
branched filaments of exceeding tenuity, which
!jrow with marvellous rapidity all over the! surface
>f the leaf, and beyond to the stems. The ends
.»f some of these filaments, too, have been observed
[<> enter the pores of the leaf, to form fresh disease-
-pots and fresh crops of spores. The true Liberian
iOffee is said to be of hardy habit, and more able
;•> n >ist tin- ravages of this disease.

BEMIONITIS CORDIFOLIA. In Tenasserim,
icar the sea-shore, this species of mule fern, with
•ordate fronds, is sometimes seen. — Dr. Mason.

HKMIITERA, an order of insects; several
,'cneia occur in India; amongst them —
(-'mil. l'acliycoriihe, Dall. Cantuo, Bymot and Serv. ;

Callidea, Lap.
Film. Eurygasterulft), Dall. Trigonosoma, Lap.
|M. Plataspidaj, Dall. Coptosoma, Lap.
Fam, Halydidre, Dall. Halys, Fabr.
Fam. Pentetamidaj, St. Pentatoma, Olive.; Catacan-

thus, Spin.; Rhaphigaster, Lap.
Fam. Kdessidre, Dall. Aspongopus, Lap.; Tesseratoma,

Lep. and Serv.; Cyclopelta, Am. and Serv.
' ? am. Phyllocephalidre, Dall. Phyllocephala, Lap.
''\im. HieUdlB, Dall. Mictis, Leach.; Crinocerns, Burm.
'•'am. Aniroscelidie, Dall. Leptoscelis, Lap.; Serinetha,

Spin,
Fam. Alydidse, Dall. Alydus, Fabr.
Fam. Stenocephalidse, Dall. Leptocorisa, Latr.
]7 "am. Coreidae, Steph. Rhopalus, Schill.
Fam. Lygseidae, Westw. Lygseus, Fabr. ; Rhyparoch-

romus, Curt.
Fam. Aradidse, Wlk. Piestosoma, Lap.
Fam. Tingidae, Wlk. Calloniana, Wlk.
Fam. Cimicidre, Wlk. Cimex, Linn.
Fam. Keduviidae, Steph. Pirates, Burm.; Acanthaspis,

Am. Sei-v.
Fam. Hydrometridaj, Leach. Ptilomera, Am. Serv.
Fam. Nepidse, Leach. Belostoma, Latr. ; Nepa, Linn.
Fam. Notonectidse, Steph. Notonceta, Linn.; Corixa,

Geoff.
Of the aquatic species, the gigantic Belostoma
[ndicum attains a size of nearly three inches. Some
>f them are most attractive in colour. A green
>ne, often seen on leaves, is quite inoffensive if
inmolested, but if irritated exhales an offensive
>dour. Insects known as coffee bugs have occa-
sioned to the coffee planters great losses, against
frhich. seemingly, at present they have no means
)f protecting themselves. The whole order emit
\ powerful odour, and they present a very large
proportion of gay -coloured and conspicuous
nsects. The ladybirds (Coccinellidse) and their
dlies the Eumorphidse are often brightly spotted
IS if to attract attention, but they can both emit
Quids of a very disagreeable nature ; they are
certainly rejected by some birds, and are probably
never eaten by any. The genera of Homoplerous
Hemiptera, cicada, lystra, monophlebus, poly-
neura, and cyrene have several species in the E.
Indies. — Tcnnant. See Insects.

1 1 KM 1 1K\M I'l 1 1'S. a genus of fishes of the family
Bcombresocidre, which includes the genera Belone.

Scombresox, Hemiraiuphus, ArrhamphuM. and
Exoccetus.

lleiiiirainpliUH macrorhynchoB of the Bay of
Bengali near Pondicherry, has an elongated 1
and proboseis-like member pro ceed ing from it*
mouth.

II. JneselHi Cue. and IV//., To(hi pendek
(I'endek, short). The Malays thus denominate
all the species of Hemiramphus, to distinguish
them from those of Belone fl'oda of the Malays).
At Penang this species is numerous at all seasons,
but larger individuals occur at irregular intervals.
They appear at European tables under the appel-
lation ofgna rd fish.— Ctmtor; Hartwigt

HEMITRAGUS HYLOOKIUS. Jtrtbm
Komas hylocriut), Ogilby. | Capra warryato, (/ray.

Ibex Eng. I Warri-adu, . . . Tam.

Neilgherry wild goat, „ | Warri-atu, ... ,,

This is found on the Neilgherry and neighbouring
hills, extending along the Western Ghats nearly
to Cape Comorin ; also on the Pulney Hills, and
is called ibex by the Madras sportsmen. They are
very wary, feed like a flock of sheep, and flee to
the precipices when alanned. Length, 4 ft 2 in.
to 4 ft 8 in. to root of tail ; tail, or 7 in. ; height
at shoulder, 32 to 34 in. ; horns occasionally 1 2
to 15 in.— Jerdon, pp. 288-90.

HEMITRAGUS J EM I, AICUS. Jerdon.
Capra jharal, Hodgs. I Capra jemlaicus, H. Smith.

C. quadrimamis, Hodgs.

Himalayan wild goat, Eng. Kart of . . . . Kin.
Tehr, Tare, Tahir, Hind. Jharal of . . . Nepal.
Jhula (male), Kanawar. Jehr of ... . Him la.
Thar, tharni (fern.), ,, Esbu, Esbi of . . Sctlej.

Kras ; Jagla, . Kashh.

It is found throughout the whole of the Hima-
layas, generally in flocks, feeding on the grassy
spots among the rocks. Length, 4 ft. 8 in. to root
of tail ; tail, 7 in. ; height, 36 to 40 in. ; horns 12
in. long, very thick at the base.

HEMP. Cannabis sativa, Linn.
Var. C. Indica.

Kinnub, . . . .
Ma, Lu-sung-ma,
Ta-ma, Ya-ma, .
Hwang-ma, . .

Hamp

Hinnep, Hinnup, ,
Kinnup, . . . .
Chanvre, . .
Hanf, . . . .

Arab.
Chin.

Dan.
Dut.

Fr.
Ger.

Kannabis (canvas), . Gb.

Canape, It.

Ganja, .... Malay.
Bhang, Chang, . Pees.
Konope, .... Pol.
Canamo, . . Port., Sp.
Konapli, Konopel, Rus.
Bhanga, Ganjika, Sansk.
Hampa Sw.

In the export commerce of India, hemp is a
term applied to the fibres of several distinct plants,
all valuable as cordage materials ; and the Chinese
terms, Ho-ma, Ta-ma, Ya-ma, and Hwang-ma, are
fibres of urticaceous, malvaceous, and tiliaceous
plants. But the true hemp of Europe is the fibre
of the Cannabis sativa of botanists. It possesses
a remarkably tough kind of woody tissue, capable
of being manufactured into linen and cordage.
It is an annual plant from 3 to 10 feet high, with
the males and females on separate sterna It is
difficult to say of what country the true hemp
plant is a native, — Willdenow says Persia, Gmelin
Bays Tartary, Thunberg found it in Japan ; so that
the varieties produced by climate have by some
been thought to be distinct species, the European
being called C. sativa, and the Indian C. Indica.
I lei-odot us mentions it as a Scythian plant. Bieber-
stein met with it in Tauriaand the Caucasian region.
It is well known in Bokhara and Persia, and is
grown everywhere throughout India, and in the
Himalaya up to lO.OOOfeet In Euroj)ean coumrh -

HEMP.

HENNA.

it is cultivated only for its ligneous fibre, so
extensively employed in the manufacture of ropes,
and of coarse but strong kinds of cloth. It is
cultivated in oriental countries to obtain the
intoxicating leaves, called Ganja, from which
bhang and subji or sidhi are produced, and for
the resinous product called charras. The mode
of cultivating is, however, different for each of its
products. The plant requires exposure to light
and air, and is therefore sown thin or transplanted
out, when it is cultivated for its resinous and
intoxicating secretion ; while the growth of fibre
is promoted by shade and moisture, which are
procured by thick sowing.

In Arabia, Egypt, and Turkey, the leaves used
as an intoxicant are known as Hashish, and
Hashash is a term of obloquy ; the plural Hashasin
has been supposed by some writers to be the
source of the word Assassin. For its fibre
it is chiefly grown in Russia, and is sent to the
other European countries for cordage, canvas, and
towelling. The finest quality of hemp, and that
which brings the highest price, being sold at 50s.
per cwt. when the best Russia brings only 47s.,
comes from Italy ; though French, English, and
Irish hemps are much esteemed. The Russian
hemp grows best in a friable soil of moderate rich-
ness. At St. Petersburg hemp is assorted into clean
hemp, or firsts ; outshot hemp, or seconds ; half-
cleaned hemp, or thirds ; and hemp codilla. Riga
hemp is classed as rein or clean, outshot, and pass
hemp. Particular care is taken to ship hemp and
flax in fine dry weather, and to preserve it from
damp by packing with mats ; for if either get wet,
they are apt to heat, and to be totally spoiled.

The hemp imported into Great Britain from
all countries, from 1877 to 1880, ranged from
1,204,036 to 1,320,731 cwt., of value from
£1,684,377 to £2,072,040, almost all from Russia,
Germany, Italy, and the Philippines ; from India,
between the years 1874-1879, the raw fibres
exported under the commercial designation of
hemp, in quantity and in value only ranged thus, —
Cwt. Rs. Cwt. Rs.

1874-5,

80,050

6,66,539

1877-8,

55,312

5,76,911

1875-6,

75,878

6,28,604

1878-9,

45,628

4,62,334

187G-7,

85,207

7,58,856

1879-80,

42,202

4,03,076

But during the same period the annual exports
from India of coir, hemp, and jute averaged about
280,000 tons, value £3,500,000, the coir and hemp
being valued about £20 a ton, and jute £12 the ton.

Sunn hemp (Crotalaria juncea), called also Brown
hemp, Madras hemp, Indian hemp, Konkani hemp,
Salsette hemp, Bombay hemp, Travancore flax, and
by the vernacular names, Sana, Ghore-san, Sunn,
Shanamoo, Kenna, Ambari, Taag, Wuckoo-nar,
and Janapa-nar. It is the kind most generally
cultivated all over India, on account of its fibre,
and is that usually mentioned in the exports from
Calcutta under the name of hemp, but also as
sunn. The plant may be distinguished by its
flowers being of a bright yellow colour, and of
the form of the pea and of the laburnum, while
the leaves are entire and lanceolate.

Ambari or Dekhanihemp (Hibiscus cannabinus),
called in the languages of India, Mesta - pat,
Nalkee, Pulooa, Sunni, Valaiti Sunn, Garnikura,
Gongkura, Pooley-nammajii, Pundey, Pundrika,
and Palungoo of Madras, is very generally culti-
vated all over India, and exported of very good
quality from the west side. The fibre is like that

of jute. It is often confounded with that of the
sunn, as it is one of the brown hemps of Bombay,
though the two plants differ much from each other.

Jubbulpur hemp is established as an article of
commerce in India, and highly esteemed by good
judges in Britain.

Manilla hemp is from the Musa textilis, grown
in the Philippines, and introduced into S. India by
Major (now Sir George) Balfour. It is being
imported into Great Britain in increasing quantities
and value.

1877, 332,304 cwt. £488,069 I 1879,337,687 cwt. £434,037
1878,421,160 „ 551,856 | 1880,407,431 ,, 622,776

A gigantic species of Cannabis hemp, growing
from ten to fifteen feet in height, is in China a
staple summer crop. This is chiefly used in
making ropes and string of various sizes, such
articles being in great demand for tracking the
boats up rivers and in the canals of the country.

Jute is the fibre of Corchorus capsularis, and C.
olitorius, and also known to the people as Pat,
Koshta, Bhungee pat, Ghanalita pat, Putta,
Singin-ganasha. It is now imported as jute, being
largely used in Dundee.

Hemp seed and Oil, Ta-ma, Ho-ma-jin,
Hwang -ma, Chin. The small, shining, brittle
achsenia of the Cannabis sativa, are albuminous
and oily, and entirely devoid of all narcotic pro-
perties. They are crushed for oil, the Ganja
yennai, Tamil, in many parts; in Russia, much
used for burning in lamps.

HEMROO. Hind. A satin fabric of India,
value two rupees the yard. See Kimkhab.

HENBANE SEED, Hyosciamus niger.
Bung, Buzir-ul-bung, Ar. | Khorasani ajwain, Hind.
Sikran, Urmanikou, . ,, Adas, Adas pedas, Malay.
Jusquiame, .... Fa. Khorasani omam, Tam.
Bilsenkrout, . . Ger.

The seeds of the henbane plant have the odour
of the plant, and an oily, bitter taste ; an oil is
obtained from them. See Hyosciamus.

HENDERSON, Dr., a Bengal medical officer, who
travelled in disguise as a Syud from Lodhiana in
1835, and passed by way of Mundi, Sanskar, or
Lahul, to Ladakh and Iskardo, descending over
the dangerous pass of Alunipilah, and by Burzel
or Astor to Guryo and Kashmir. He again
travelled to Dir and Bajwara, but was there
plundered, and he returned to Lahore, where he
died of fever in February 1836. He was the first
projector of the Agra Bank.

HENERY", properly Ondari, one of the Bombay
islets, If miles due E. of Kenery Island, and
surrounded by reefs. It is joined on the N. to |
Trombay and Salsette, as these are united to each
other by bridges and embankments.

HENLE. In 1844 there was issued at Berlin
the Systembong der Plagiostomen by Dr. Henle,
which included several of the genera and species
of the fishes of the seas in the S. and E. of Asia.

HENNA, Hind., Picks., is the leaf of the
Lawsonia alba, Lam., the camphire of Scripture,
the Yen-chi-kiah of China, and the Cyprus shrub
of the Greeks and Romans. It is a fragrant plant
when in flower. The fresh leaves, when beat up
with catechu,

' Imbue
The fingers' ends with a bright roseate hue,
So bright that in the mirror's depths they seem
Like tips of coral branches in the stream ! '

This use of the leaves is as old as the era of the

3(5

HENSLOWIA PANIOULATA.

HERAT.

\|>lian mummies, and is still followed by the
Arabs, Persians, ami people of British India, the
last of whom know it as the mehndi. The leaves,
beaten up into a soft mass with rice water, are
applied to the nails, tinker-ends, palms, and soles
oi the feet overnight ; on being washed off the
next morning, these parts are found stained a deep

i'il ool -. Men use it to stain their moustaches

and beards, and for dyeing the manes and tails of
their horses. In China, the leaves or flower of
Lawsonja alba, of the Impatiens balsamina, and of
the Terustrcemia Japonica are mixed with lime or
alum, and applied to stain the fingers, the mane,
tail, and hoofs of horses, red. Chinese children,
especially girls, often have a circular 8]>ot of rouge
or henna placed between the eyes. It is also used
as an ordinary dye-stuff. A decoction of the leaves
is used in skin diseases, lepra, etc. The flowers
when distilled are used as a perfume. — Smith.

Hi:\S|.OWIA PANICULATA. Migu. An-
amho. BORM. A reddish - coloured wood of
British Burma, used occasionally for cart wheels.
The average length of the trunk to the first branch
is 50 feet,—/)/-. Brmidis, Cal. Cat. Ex., 1862.

HENZA. Bun.\r. A large golden figure of the
sacred bird is in front of the throne of the king of
Burma. The word is of Sanskrit origin, — Hanza,
a goose. The Henza is regarded as the king of
birds. It is perhaps a mysticized swan. Amongst
the Burmese, the bayet, an emblem of nobility, is
a pretty necklace of several strings or chains of
filigree work joined together, and sewn with little
figures, in red gold, of the Henza, which hangs
low down on the breast. — Yule's Embassy, p. 85.

11 10 NZ AD A, Myanoung, and Tharawaddy, three
districts in the Pegu division of British Burma,
with a population of about 500,000. The
number of Burmese in the district in 1876 was
greatly in excess of Takings. On the conquest
of the lower country by Aloungbhura (Alompra),
every effort was made to destroy the Talaing
nationality ; and now it is said that scarcely any
one of Talaing descent calls himself anything but
a Burmese, so completely has the national spirit
been extinguished. — Imp. Gaz.

HEPH^STUS MULCIBER, or Vulcan, the
analogue of Visvakarma.

HEPTAPLEURUM RACEMOSUM. Wight.

Hedera racemosa, W. Ic.
A large tree, common on the Neilgherries and
Animallays, etc., at elevations from 3000 to 7000
feet ; grows also in Ceylon. — Beddome, Fl. Sylv.

HERA, a Babylonian goddess, the prototype of
the Roman Juno and of the Egyptian Hora.

HERACLEUM, a genus of plants of which
several species grow in the Himalaya ; one of
these, the padalli or poral, is collected for the
winter fodder of goats, and is supposed to increase
the milk. Wight, in Icones, gives H. pedatum.

HERAT is also called Heri ; and the river
on which it stands is called Hari-Rud. This
river Hari is called by Ptolemy Apia, by other
writers Arius ; and Aria was the name given to
the country between Parthia (Parthuwa) in the
west, Margiana (Marghush) in the north, Bactria
(Bakhtrish) and Arachosia (Harauwatish) in the
east. It is the Haroya of the Vendidad, and is
supposed to be the same as the Haraiva (Hariva)
of the cuneiform inscriptions, though this is
doubtful. The importance of its situation is very
orcat, and it has always exercised considerable

influence over the affairs of Central Asia, and
has endured more than forty riegea in ancient
and modern times. It is one of the most ancient
and most renowned of the cities of Central A.-n.
It gave its name to an extensive province at
the time of the expedition of Alexander, and in
supposed by some to be Alexandria in Ariis.
Before the invasions of Chengiz Khan, the city
could boast of 12,000 retail shops, 350 schools,
144,000 occupied houses, and 6000 baths, cara-
vansaris. and water mills. It was for some time
the capital of the empire which was transmitted
by Timur to his sons. Under the mild and
genial rule of his son, Shah Rukh Mirza, it
recovered all it had lost. The restored prosperity
continued till the beginning of the 16th century.
Up to that period Herat was not only the richest
city in Central Asia, but the resort of the greatest
divines, philosophers, poets, and historians of the
age. From the house of Timur it passed in the
beginning of the 16th century to the Suffava
dynasty of Persia, from whom it was taken by
the Daurani in 1715. It was retaken by Nadir
Shah in 1731, and it fell into the hands of
Ahmad Shah in 1749. When the Daurani empire,
created by Ahmad Shah, was lost by bis grand-
sons, and parcelled out among the Barakzai
brothers, Shah Kamran managed to maintain a
precarious footing at Herat. He was the son of
Mahmud, and therefore nephew of Zaman Shah,
Shah Shuja-ul-Mulk, and Firoz - ud - Din, and
the last remaining representative of the Saddozai
princes in Afghanistan. Herat was all that
remained to him of the empire of his family.
Kamran was cruel and dissipated, and his minister,
Yar Muhammad Khan, was even worse. Dost
Muhammad was ruling at Kabul, and his half-
brother, Kohun-dil Khan, ruled at Kandahar.
Dost Muhammad was the son of Phound Khan,
Barakzai. On the 23d November 1837, Muhammad
Shah, king of Persia, laid siege to Herat, in
pursuance of his ambitious policy for the re-
conquest of Afghanistan. It was on this occasion
that Herat sustained a memorable ten months'
siege, and all the efforts of the Persian king to
capture it, aided by the advice and direction of
Russian officers, were defeated, principally by the
efforts of Lieutenant Pottinger, of the Bombay
Artillery. Shah Kamran and his minister, how-
ever, continued intrigues with Persia, and the
envoy, Major d'Arcy Todd, withdrew. On the
occurrence of disasters in Kabul, Yar Muhammad
was relieved of all apprehension of the interference
of the British Government, and in 1842 strangled
his sovereign, Shah Kamran, usurped the govern-
ment of Herat, and professed himself a dependent
of Persia. On his death in 1851, his son Syud
Muhammad Khan succeeded him, only to be deposed
in 1855, and succeeded by Muhammad Yusuf,
grandson of Firoz, grand-nephew of Shall Zeman.
Muhammad Yusuf was afterwards deposed, and
Isa Khan succeeded ; but under him Herat fell to
the Persians, and he was murdered within a few
weeks by a party of Persian soldiers. By the
treaty of Pans, concluded between Britain and
Persia on the 4th March 1857, the Persians were
required to evacuate Herat, Before they withdrew,
they installed Sultan Ahmed Khan, better known
by the name of Sultan Jan, as ruler of Herat,
and the British Government did not refuse to
recognise him as de facto ruler. Shortly after,

HERBA BENGALO.

HERCULES.

Sultan Jan attacked and took Furrah, but the
Amir of Kabul retook Furrah on the 29th June,
and on 28th of July laid siege to Herat. After a
siege of ten months, during which Sultan Jan
died, the Amir Dost Muhammad took Herat by
storm on 27th May 1863. He died eleven days
afterwards, and was succeeded in the government
of Kabul by his son, Sher Ali, who placed his
own son, Muhammad Yakub, in charge of the
captured city. Herat was thus again annexed to
the Afghan dominions. Herat was visited by Mr.
Forster in 1783, by Captain Christie in 1810, by
Arthur Conolly in 1831, and by Eldred Pottinger
in 1837. It is a city of great political importance ;
and in the strivings of the Persians and Afghans
to obtain its possession, it has undergone great
changes, but quickly recovers from the effects of
war.

Herat is on the high road between India and
Persia, the centre spot of an extensive and fertile
valley, well watered by channels made from a
perennial stream. The climate is the finest in Asia.
There are two hot months in the year, but the
thermometer even then rarely stands higher than
85 degrees (Fahrenheit) in the shade. The nights
are always cool, often cold. The Heratis have a
proverb, ' If the soil of Isfahan, the cool breezes
of Herat, and the waters of Khwarizm were in
the same place, there would be no such thing as
death.' Herat is on the same level with the rest
of the table -land of Western Afghanistan, and
may be regarded as forming part of it, but it is just
beyond the ridge which divides the waters that
run to the south from those that flow northward
to the Oxus. The winter is tolerably mild ; on
the plain the snow melts as it falls, and does not
lie long even on the summits of the mountains.

The districts of Herat boast of extensive mines
of iron and lead. The scimitars made at Herat
are considered the best in Central Asia. The
breed of Herati horses is scarcely less renowned ;
they are very cheap, and are exported in large
numbers. Herat, too, is famous for its carpets,
worked in silk and in wool, and in both combined,
they are made of any size, and command large
prices. Hitherto the difficulty in the way of
transport has prevented their being so well known
as they deserve. Silk is spun in large quantities
in the districts. The districts likewise produce
largely asafoetida, saffron, pistachio nuts, gum,
and manna. These and horses constitute the
principal exports. Of skins, only those of the
sheep and the lamb are used in Herat. Sheep-
skins are made up into coverings. The people
are Mongol, Parsivan, Tajak, and Hazara. — Bellew;
Elphin. India, 629 ; East Lid. Pari. Papers, 133 ;
Treaties, etc. vii. 165 ; Mailer's Lectures, 234.

HERBA BENGALO. Mention is made in
several old works relating to India, of cloths
having been made of a plant called Herba Ben-
galo, which appears to be now unknown as a
material of manufacture. Linschoten, who visited
Bengal in 1599, is one of the earliest travellers
who notice it (vide Navigatio ac Itinerarium
Johan. H. Linscotani, a.d. 1599). Mandelso speaks
of it as 'a certain herb having on the top of its
stalk (which is about the compass of a man's
thumb) a great button like a tassel : this tassel is
spun out, and there are excellent stuffs made of
it. The Portuguese call it Herba Bengalo, and
make of it hangings and coverlets, in which they

represent all sorts of figures ' (vide Mandelso's
Travels, A.D. 1639, translated by J. Davies, book
ii. p. 94). A similar description is given of it
by the Abbe Guyon in his History of the East
Indies : — ' On trouve encore a Bengale une
espece singuliere des toiles qui n'est ni fil ni
coton, dont on fait des tapis et des couvertes.
On les nomme simplement herbes. La tige de
l'herbe, dont elles sont faites, a un pouce
d'epaisseur et au haut une espece de houppe qui
contient une sorte de bourree que les femmes du
Paris filent on prendroit ces etoffes heure de
loiser : mais elles sont sujettes a se couper dans
les plis ' (vide Histoire des Indes Orientales, par
M. l'Abbe Guyon, a.d. 1744, iii. p. 19). Fitch,
about the year 1586, and Hamilton in 1744,
both refer to it in their accounts of Orissa. The
latter calls it Herba, a sort of tough grass of which
they make ' ginghams, pinascos, and several other
goods for exportation ' (New Account of the East
Indies, by Captain A. Hamilton, a.d. 1744, i. 393).

HERBELOT, D', author of the Bibliothequp
Orientale, or the Oriental Library, was born at Paris.
4th December 1625. He was Oriental Secretary
and Interpreter to the court. He began the work
at first in Arabic, but afterwards continued it
in French. He died at 70 years of age, before
the work was printed ; but it was continued by
Antoine Galland, the translator of the Arabian
Nights Entertainments. D'Herbelot understood
critically the Latin, Greek, Hebrew, Chaldaic,
Syriac, Arabic, Persian, and Turkish. It was
history arranged alphabetically. — Oriental Herald.

HERBERT, Captain J. D., wrote on the
Mineral Productions of the Himalayas, in As.
Res., 1833, viii., part 1, p. 216 ; Course and
Levels of the Sutlej, ibid., 1825, xv. p. 339 :
Coal within the Indo-Gangetic Mountains, ibid.,
1828, xvi. 397 ; Gypsum in the Indo-Gangetic
Mountains, ibid., 1833, xviii. part 1, p. 216 ; Tour
through Kumaon and Ghurwal, in Bl. As. Trans.,
1844, xiii., part 2, p. 734 ; Geological Map of
Himalaya Survey, ibid., 1844, xiii. part 1, p. 171.
— Dr. Buist.

HERBERT, Sir THOMAS, a cadet of the
Pembroke family, who travelled as secretary to
the English embassy to Persia from 1627-29.
In his book, entitled A Description of the Persian
Monarchy now beinge, the Orientall Indyes, Isles,
and other parts of the Greater Asia, and Afrik,'
was published in 1634. He contends that Prince
Madoc ap Owen Gwynedd discovered America
300 years before Columbus. The third edition,
1665, contains a beautiful etching of Persepolis
by Hollar.

HERCULES is supposed by Colonel Tod to
represent Baldeva, a prince of Mathura, nephew
of Koonti, the mother of the Pandua, and who, as
in the days of Alexander, is still worshipped at
Buldeo in Vrij, his club a ploughshare, and a
lion's skin his covering. Megasthenes (iii. pp. 525-
531) mentions the Indian tradition of Hercules
as reigning in India fifteen generations after
Dyonysus ; that he built Pahbrotha and other
cities ; had numerous sons, to each of whom he
left an Indian kingdom ; and a daughter Pandsea,
to whom he likewise bequeathed a realm. Bunsen,
following Lassen, says he was chiefly worshipped
in the Suras-Sen country, and identifies him
with Krishna ; says he founded Mathura. But
there were many to whom this name was applied :

HKRDS.MKN.

UKRMODACTYL.

Varro ei n forty-four, Diodorussays tlirrr.

ami Oioero six. Hercules Belui of Cicero is
supposed to !"■ the Osiris *ho invaded »p to the
Indus.— 2W, A'<i/</.«. i. 30; Buna. hi. 525, iv. 210.
HEADSMEN in (Viitral Asia, and south to the

Arabian Sea, are S large mass of the populations

of their respective regions, — many of them in
Aral>ia, Persia, Afghanistan, Baluchistan, being

purely nades. dwelling in tents, and migrating

with the seasons; others of them in British India
camping out only in the dry season. Numbers of
Ahir or Gopa in Central India and Western
Bengal cling to the nomade life of their ancestors,
I h (iop, or pure Gopa, are settling down
to husbandry. The Gareri herdsmen founded the
llolkar dynasty. In the S. of the Peninsula are
the Dhangar, the Kurumbar, also shepherds, who
were -nice dominant, but now only pasture great
locks oJ sheep. Amongst the Hindus of Bengal,
di are numerous ; after them, the Brahman
and Kaist races, are the Bagdi, an aboriginal people,
an< 1 a class of cultivators called Kyurto. See Ahir ;
Dhangar ; Gadaria ; Gaola; Gopa; Kurumbra.

HERI, a name of Krislma, famUiarly Kaniya,
was of the celebrated tribe of Yadu, the founder
of the fifty-six tribes who obtained the sovereignty
of India.' and descended from Yayat, the third
son of Swayainbhuva Manu, or the man, lord of
the earth, whose daughter Ella (Terra) was
espoused by Budha (Mercury), son of Chandra
(the moon), whence the Yadu are styled Chandra*
vansi, or children of the moon, the Lunar race.

The coincidence between the epithets of the
Apollos of Greece and India, as applied to the sun,
are striking. Heri, as Bhan-nath, the lord of
beams, is Phoebus, and his heaven is Heripur
(Hcliopolis), or city of Heri. Helios, of Greece,
was a title of Apollo, whence the Greeks had their
Elysium; and the Heripur or Bhan-t'han (the
abode of the sun) is the highest of the heavens of
the Rajput. Hence the eagle (the emblem of
Heri as the sun) ,was adopted by the western
warrior as the symbol of victory. — 7W« Rqjot-
than, i. pp. 532-545.

HERI, a tribe of Mahomedan Rajputs, chiefly
found in Juspur, a pargana of Moradabad.

HERI-RUD, written also Hari-Rud, a river of
Afghanistan, which rises in lat. 34° 50' N., and
long. 66° 20' E., at that point of the Koh-i-Baba
range of mountains where it branches off into the
Koh Siah and Safed Koh, at an elevation of 9500
feet. It flows west through Shahrek, Obeh, and
Herat. After leaving Herat, it flows through
Persian territory, dividing into two branches, the
smallest of which runs towards Maaliad. Its plains
are harried by Hazara and Turkoman. It is said
to have formerly joined the Murghab. The united
stream is ultimately lost in the desert of Khorasan.
At Herat it was formerly crossed by a brick
bridge. — MacGregor.

1 1 KRITIERA LITTORALIS. Ait., D. C.
Balanopteris tothila, Goert. I Ka-na-zo, . . , BURM.
Suudri, .... J5knii. I Kon-zo-za-loo, . ,,

A species of the Sterculiaceae. Grows in the
Mauritius, the Peninsula of India, the Sunder-
buns, is common in the Rangoon district, and
along the sea-shores in the Mergui Archipelago
and Amherst province. Its wood is used for
boats, boxes, planks of houses, etc. ; is very light,
scented, durable, and tough. — Roxb. i. p. 142 ;
Voigt; M'CUlland; Captain Dance.

IIKKITIKKA MINOR lam.

II. foinci, Willde. | Balanopt«ri» minor, Gcertn.

.Sundri, .... Beng. | Kanaza, . . . Burm.
A gloomy-looking tree, distinguishable from all
other! many miles distant Wherever the tides
occasionally rise and inundate the land, this tree
is sure to be found, throughout the whole Tenas-
serim coast, but is never found at home, either on
the high, dry lands on the one hand, or in tin-
wet mangrove swamps on the other. It grows in
the Sunderbuns, is used in Calcutta for firewood,
furnishes the sundri wood so well known in
Bengal for its strength and durable qualities, and
gives its name, as Captain Munro thinks, to the
Sunderbuns. When seasoned, it floats in water,
and is the toughest wood that has been tested in
India. When Rangoon teak broke with a weight
of 870 lbs., sundri sustained 1312 lbs.

It is used for boats, piles of bridges, boxes? and
many other purposes. It is recommended for
helves, but should be killed a twelvemonth before
being cut down, or otherwise should be seasoned
by keeping, after it has been cut down. Dr.
Wallich says it stands unrivalled for elasticity,
hardness, and durability. He adds that the char-
coal made from it is better than any other sort
for the manufacture of gunpowder. — APC'lelfmn/,
in Records, Foreign Dept. ix. p. 43 ; Dr. Mason ;
Captain Dance; Voigt.

HERITIERA PAPILIO. Bedd. A very lofty
evergreen tree, common in the dense moist
forests above Courtallum (Tinnevelly) at about
3000 feet elevation, also about Peermede (Travan-
core), 3500 feet ; in flower in August and Sep-
tember ; it yields a very valuable, tough timber. —
Beddome, Fl. Sylv. p. 218.

HERIYA RAY AT, or chief rayat, also called
Buddhavant, the wise, in Mysore; a person of
importance, who takes the lead in all affairs of the
community.

HERMANN, PAUL, a medical man who fur-
nished the materials of the Thesaurus Zeylanicus
of the elder Burmann, published in Holland, and
afterward of the Flora Zeylanica of Linnaeus. —
H.et Th.v- 46.

HERMES or Mercury, the analogue of Buddha.
The worship of Hermes was established in Italy,
Greece, Egypt, and Syria, and his ruined temple
is 6 miles from Zahle, and a mile from Fursul.

HERMIPPUS, according to Pliny, translated
the Zendavesta into Greek about the same time
as the Septuagint translation of the Bible. Her-
mippus is supposed to have been the peripatetic
philosopher,- the pupil of Callimachus, and one of
the most learned scholars of Alexandria.

HERMIT CRAB, the well-known Pagurus
crustaceans that occupy the empty turbinated
shells of testaceous molluscs. The fore part of
the body is armed with claws, and covered with a
shield, but it ends in a long, soft tail, provided
with one or two small hooks. Some of them
carry large shells to considerable heights and
distances from the sea. The genus Coenobita
inhabits the laud ; and in Kandavu, one of the Fiji
group, they climb the hills and go far inland,
bearing their shells with them. — Hart wig ;
Mottle*, p. 304.

HERMODACTYL. Pei - mu, Chin. This
medicinal plant of the later Greeks and Arabs
forms the sweet and bitter Surinjan of the Arabs,
and both are supposed to be species of the genus

HERNANDI.

Colchicum. The Persian name of the sweet is
Surinjan shirin, and Surinjan talkh is the bitter.
In India, the Surinjan talkh, or bitter, and Surinjan
shirin, or mild, are both identical with the Hermo-
dactyls of the ancient Arabian and Greek writers.
The tasteless variety is about one inch long and the
same in breadth, heart-shaped, rather flattened,
grooved at one side, convex at the other. They
are not wrinkled, are easily broken, and form a
white powder. The bitter kind is smaller, and
has a striped appearance. In some trials which
Dr. O'Shaughnessy made with an acetous tincture
of the Surinjan talkh, he was led to believe it
possessed all the virtues of the dried Colchicum
of Europe.— O'Sh. p. 661 ; Irvine.

HERNANDI, a martial branch of the Koresh
tribe of Mecca. Many of them in Syria are em-
ployed as irregular horse.

HERNANDIA PELTATA. D. C. Palati,
Singh. This is a large tree, common on the sea-
coast in Ceylon between Galle and Colombo ; also
in Australia, and on the sea-coasts in the South
Pacific and Eastern Archipelago, westward to the
Mascarene Islands, and northward to the Philip-
pines and Loo-Choo. Its wood is very light, and
takes fire so readily from a flint and steel, that it
might be used as tinder. The juice is a powerful
depilatory, removing the hair without any pain ;
the bark, seed, and young leaves are cathartic. —
Beddome, Fl. Syl p. 300.

HERNANDIA SONORA. Linn. Bong-ko,
J a van. A tall, erect tree of the Moluccas and the
Fiji Islands ; in the last, forming one of the sacred
groves, — a complete bower. The genus was named
after Hernandez, a naturalist sent out to Mexico
by Philip II. of Spain, and obtained its name
'sonora' from the noise made by the wind in
whistling through its persistent involucels. The
bark, the seed, and the young leaves are slightly
cathartic. Rumphius says that the fibrous roots,
chewed, and applied to wounds infected with the
Macassar poison, act as an effectual cure. The
juice of the leaves is employed as a depilatory.
It destroys the hair wherever it is applied, and
this without producing pain. The wood of this
species is very light ; and Aublet says it takes fire
readily from a flint and steel, and may be used as
tinder. — Ains. ; O'Sh. ; Voigt ; Seeman's Fiji ;
Eng. Cyc. ; W. Ic. ; Thw. Zcyl. p. 258.

HERODOTUS, a Greek historian who travelled
in Egypt and Persia, and visited Tyre, B.C. 460.
He never gives us to understand that he was able
to converse in any but his own language. He is
called the father of history. He relates that,
after Cyrus had conquered a large portion of Asia,
his third successor, Darius Hystaspes, extended his
conquests towards the Indian Peninsula. — Bjornst-
jerna, p. 93.

HERONS are classed by naturalists in the
family Ardeidge, gen. Ardea, Ardeola, Herodias,
Nycticorax. Those of the E. Indies are —
Ardea Goliath, Temm., the great heron.
A. Sumatrana, Raffles, the dusky grey heron.
A. cinerea, Linn., the hlue heron.
A. purpurea, Linn., the purple heron.
Nycticorax griseus, Linn., night heron.
Ardeola leucoptera, Bodd., pond heron.
Butorides Javanica, Horsf. , little green heron.
Herodias alba, the Ardea alba, large egret, or great
white heron of Europe, Asia, N. Africa, very
rare in Britain, is very common in India, though
the race is considered different by some.
H. bubulcus, the Ardea russata, or buff-backed heron

HERONS.

or egret of Europe, Asia, N. Africa, exceedingly
rare in Britain, is very common in India.

H. egrettoides, Temm., the smaller egret, Patang-ka-
bagla of India, Burma, and Malayana.

H. garzetta, the Ardea garzetta, or little egret of
Europe, Asia, N. Africa, exceedingly rare in
Britain, very common in India. Three specimens
observed of an egret in winter dress seemed to
differ only from ordinary Herodias garzetta in
having black toes.

Herons are plentiful in Kashmir, and a heronry
is protected in the Shalimar Gardens. About 50
miles S.E. from Madras, and 12 miles from Chingle-
put, is a small village called Vaden Thangul, which
means literally Hunter's Rest, from Vaden, hunter, ,
and Thangul, rest. To the south of the village lies
one of the small tanks called Thangul by the Tamil
ryots, implying a water-rest or temporary reservoir,
with an area of about 4£ acres (30 cawnies). From
the N.E. to the centre of the bed of the tank
there are some 500 or 600 trees of the Barringtonia
racemosa, from about 10 to 15 feet in height,
with circular, regular, moderate -sized crowns, and
when the tank fills during the monsoons, the
tops only of the trees are visible above the level
of the water. This place forms the breeding
resort of an immense number of water-fowl ;
herons, storks, cranes, ibises, cormorants, darters,
paddy birds, etc., make it their rendezvous on
these occasions. From about the middle of
October to the middle of November, small flocks
of 20 or 30 of some of these birds are to be seen,
coming from the north to settle here during the
breeding season. By the beginning of December
they have all settled down ; each tribe knows its
appointed time, and arrives year after year with
the utmost regularity, within a fortnight later or
earlier, depending partly on the seasons. They
immediately commence building their nests or
repairing the old ones. When they have fully
settled down, the scene becomes one of great
interest. During the day the majority are out
feeding, and towards evening the various birds
begin to arrive in parties of 10, 15, or more ; and in
a short tune every part of the crown is hidden by
its noisy occupants, who fight and struggle with
each other for perches. Each tree appears like a
moving mass of black, white, and grey; the snowy
white plumage of the egrets and curlews contrast-
ing with, and relieved by, the glossy black of the
water-crows and darters, and by the grey and
black plumage of the storks. The nests lie side
by side, touching each other, those of the differ-
ent species arranged in groups of 5 or 6, or even
as many as 10 or 20, on each tree. The nests are
shallow, and vary in inside diameter from 6 to 8
inches, according to the size of the bird. The
curlews do not build separate nests, but raise a
large mound of twigs and sticks, shelved into
terraces as it were, and each terrace forms a
separate nest; thus eight or ten run into each
other. The storks sometimes adopt a similar plan.
The whole, of the nests are built of sticks and
twigs, interwoven to the height of 8 or 10 inches,
with an outside diameter of 18 to 24 inches ; the
inside is slightly hollowed out, in some more and
in others less, and fined with grass ; reeds and
quantities of leaves are laid on the nests. In
January the callow young are to be seen in the
nests. During this time the parent birds are
constantly on the wing in search for food, now
returning to their young loaded with the spoil,

HERONS.

HKUPESTES.

and again going off in search of a further ftii)(|>Iy.
About the end of January or early in February,

poung arc able to leave their ncHts and
scramble into those of others. They begin to
jh -reh about the trees; and by the end of February
nr the beginning of March those that were hatched
first ere able to take wing and accompany their
parents on expeditions; and a week or two later,
in consequence of the drying up of the tanks in the
vicinity, they begin to emigrate towards the north
with their mends. Thus, in succession, the differ-
ent birds leave the place, so that it is completely
deserted by the middle of April, by which time
the tank also becomes dry. and the village cattle
■tees in its bed, or shelter themselves under the
trees from the scorching heat of the midday sun,
while the cow-boys find amusement in pulling
down the deserted nests. The villagers hold an
agreement from the Nawab's ancient government,
which continues in force by a renewal from the
British Government, that no one is to shoot over
the tank, and this is strictly enforced. When the
tank becomes dry, the silt of its bed is taken up
to the depth of a foot, and spread over the rice-

lield.

Dr. Shortt visited the trees on the 8th March
1864, on a raft pushed along by two fishermen
swimming one on either side, their heads only
visible above. As he got near the birds rose en
masse overhead, and, uttering piercing cries, some,
with threatening gestures, rested a moment on
the adjoining trees, and then took to their wings
again. Although so crowded, they performed their
evolutions with the greatest nicety and dexterity,
never interfering with each other's movements.
Some ascended to a great height, and were hardly
perceptible in the air, while others gyrated imme-
diately above their heads ; many crowded on
adjoining trees, and witnessed the intrusion with
dismay.

The small grey and black stork, Leptoptilos
Javanica,//or.v/'., — Tamil name,Nutha cootee narai ;
literally, shell-fish (Ampullaria) picking crane, —
were the most numerous. Their nests were 2 feet
in diameter, and contained three eggs or young.
The eggs were of a dirty white colour, of the same
shape, but not quite so large, as those of the
turkey. The flesh is eaten by Mahomedans and
Pariahs. The bird keeps entirely to marshy fields,
edges of tanks, etc. Some half-dozen or more
may often be seen in the morning sunning them-
selves with outstretched wings in the dry fields.
They nest early, and the young are firm on the
wing in the month of February.

The ibis or curlew, Ibis falcinellus, — Tamil,
Arroova mooken ; literally, sickle -nosed, which
name they take from their long curved beaks.
The nests of this bird contain from three to five
eggs, resembling in size and shape a medium-
sized hen's egg, but are of a dirty white colour.
The birds are white, with black head, feet, and
neck, and have a long curved black bill. The
young are fully fledged in March, and take to the
wing in April.

The grey heron, Ardea cinerea, Linn., — Tamil,
Narai, sometimes Pamboo narai, or snake crane, — ■
has a similar nest, built of twigs, containing some-
times two, sometimes three eggs. They are fledged
from January to April, according to the time of
depositing their eggs, which some do earlier than
Others. The eggs are of a light green colour;

they are not bo large in circumference as a large -
H/rd henV egg, but are longer, with the small end
sharp.

The purple heron, Ardea purpurea, — Tamil,
< 'umbly narai, or blanket crane. Nest the sjjjwf
depo.-.itH two to three eggs, of same size and
colour as hist ; seems to rear only two young.
The young are fully fledged in April.

Nycticoraxgiiseus. I, inn., — Tamil, Wukka. Nests
are built after the same fashion, but smaller in
si/e, ami contain five eggs the size of a bantam's,
and of the same Bhape. The young are fledged
in April.

The cormorant, Graculus Javanicus, Ilorxf., —
Tamil, Neer cakai, or water-crow. Nest buUt of
sticks ; rears three or four young, which are
fledged and on the wing in January ; eggs like
those of a small-sized bantam's, rather sharp-
pointed at small end, with a slight greenish tinge.

The large cormorant, Graculus Sinensis, — Tamil,
Peroon neer cakai, or large water-crow, — builds
a very rude nest, chiefly formed of sticks; lays four
eggs the size of a medium-sized hen's egg, and
have a slight greenish tinge ; the young are fledged
sometimes in January, sometimes in March. These
birds, as well as G. pygmaeus, are to be seen fishing
in the tank itself; and the rapidity with which
they find their prey, by diving, is wonderful.

The darter, Plotus melanogaster, — Tamil, Pam-
boo t li.-tl.ii neer cakai, or snake-headed water-
crow. Nest same as last ; three, sometimes four,
eggs of same size and colour ; young fledged and
on the wing, some in January, others not till April.

The villagers of Vaden Thangul told Dr. Shortt
that the pelican sometimes breeds here, as also the
black curlew. Occasionally different kinds of teal,
widgeons, etc., are said to nest in the rushes
that bound the inner surface of the tank bund.
The egrets, or Herodias garzetta, bubulcus, and
intermedia, were congregated in very large num-
bers, and roosted on the trees at night ; but they
do not nest, which seems singular, for of all the
birds that assemble here, these occur in the greatest
number. Ardea alba, or Herodias alba, and H.
intermedia are also found here ; and the natives
say that they breed. — Dr. Shortt, in Linn. Soc. Jo.

HERPESTES. Illiger. Mungoose, Mangouste.

Ichneumon, Lacepede. Mangusta, Oliver.

The Herpestes is a genus of digitigrade carni-
vorous mammalia; and the Egyptian species, the
ichneumon, has been noticed by writers from the
earliest times, its combats with snakes and its
alleged attacks on crocodiles having been men-
tioned by Aristotle, Diodorus Siculus, Pliny,
Strabo, iElian, and others. The mungoose of
India and ichneumon of Egypt are frequently
domesticated, and their search for snakes for food
is continuous. Jerdon gives 12 species belong-
ing to British India and the E. Archipelago, viz.
H. brachyurus, exilis, fuscus, griseus, Javanicus,
Jerdoni, Malaccensis, monticolus, Nipalensis,
Smithii, and vitticollis, and retains as synonyms of
other authors, Auro-punctatus, Elliotti, nyula,
pallidus, pallipes, and rubiginosus.

Herpestes fuscus, Waterhouse, the Neilgherry
brown mungoose, occurs in the Neilgherries.

Herpestes griseus, Geoff., Madras mungoose.
II. pallidus, Schinz. | Mangusta mungos, Elliot.

Mungli, .
Koral, .

. . . Can.

Newul, Newara

. . . GOND.

nyul, .... Hind.

Mangus, .

Hind., Maui:.

Yentawa, . . . Tki..

HERPESTRIS MONNIERA.

HEWANT.

► Spread through most parts of S. India, in the
open country, thickets, hedgerows. It eats eggs,
and kills snakes, and their poison is believed not
to affect the mungoose. It is very destructive to
domestic fowls, pigeons. The plants Ophiorhizon
mungos and 0. serpentinum are said to be eaten
by it when bitten by a snake.

Herpestes Malaccensis, F. Cuv., Bengal mungoose.
H. nyula, Hodgs.
Nwal, Newara, Nyul, Hind. | Baji biji, . . . Hind.

Inhabits Bengal, N. India, Assam, Burma, and
Malayana ; lives in burrows made by themselves.

Herpestes monticolus, W. Elliot.
Long-tailed mungoose, Eng. | Konda yentawa, . Tel.

Its tail is long, and tip dark coloured ; occurs in
the E. Ghats.

Herpestes Nipalensis, Gray.
H. auro-punctatus, Hodgs. | H. pallipes, Bhjth.

The gold-spotted mungoose is found in the
Panjab, all over the Lower Himalaya from Sikkim
to Kashmir and Afghanistan ; also southwards in
Bengal, Assam, Burma, and Malay Peninsula.

Herpestes Smithii, Gray, ruddy mungoose.
H. Elliotti, Blyth. | H. rubiginosus, Kelaart.

Occurs near Madras, at the foot of the E. Ghats
and Neilgherries, also in Ceylon.

Herpestes vitticollis, Bennet, the stripe-necked
mungoose of the W. Ghats, from near Dharwar to
Cape Comorin.

HERPESTRIS MONNIERA. H. Br.

H. Brownei, Nutt.
H. procumbens, Spreng.
H. cuneifolia, Pursh.
Bramia Indica, Lam.
Calytriplex obovata, Roiz

and Pav.
Shwet chamini, . Beng.
Adha birni, . . Hind.
Beami, . . . Maleal.
Jelabrimmi, . . Sansk.

This creeping plant grows in many parts of
India, near streams and tanks, in moist places;
and the jointed root, stalks, leaves, and blue-bell
flowers are all used in the medicines of the native
physicians. — Roxb.; Ainslie; Voigt; Useful Plants.

HERRINGS.

Monniera Brownei, Pers.
M. cuneifolia, Mich.
Gratiola . portulacacea,

Weinm.
G. monniera, Linn. , Roxb.

Jali-nim, . . . Sansk.
Nir-pirimi, . . . Tam.
Sambrani chettu, . Tel.

Haringen, . . . DuT.
Harengs, .... Fr.
Haringe, Heringe, Geb.

Aringhe, It.

A well-known fish, 8
and about 5i ounces.

Arenques, . . . Port.
Seldi, .... Res.
Arenques, .... Sp.

Sill, Sw.

to 12 inches in length,
It dies almost the instant

it is taken out of the water. Herrings are met
with in three different forms. Fresh herrings are
the condition in which they are taken from the
sea ; white or pickled herrings are merely salted,
and put into barrels ; and red herrings are gutted
and salted, and afterwards hung up and fired
with the smoke of green wood. On the Tenas-
serim coast are flat-bellied herrings, thryssa
anchovies, Tenasserim sardines, bristle-finned
sprats, shads, chatsesi, fresh -water herrings, flying
fish, half -billed gar-fish, pikes, plagusia, soles and
brachirus-turbots. — Mas.

-, HESSING, Colonel. His tomb is a model of
the taj. He was a Dutchman in Sindia's service,
who rose from a common soldier to be the governor
of Agra. — 2V. of Hind. i. p. 436.
' HESTIA JASONIA, the sylph, floater,
spectre, or silver-paper butterfly, is found only
in the deep shades of the damp forests of Ceylon,

in the vicinity of pools of water and cascades. —
Tennant, i. p. 263.

HESUDRUS, the ancient name of the Sutlej
river, the Hesydrus of Alexander, and the Satadru
of the Vendidad. In the oldest hymns of the
Veda, about 1500 B.C., we find a war-song refer-
ring to a battle fought on the banks of this river.
— Bunsen.

HETEROPA ASAROIDES. Birthwort, The
Si-sin plant of China ; the dried root is used
medicinally.

HETEROPANAX FRAGRANS. Seem. A tree
of Lakhimpur in Assam. The cocoons and silk
of the Eria silk-worm feed on its leaves.

HETEROPHRAGMA ROXBURGHII. D. C.
A large timber tree of Chanda, the Godavery
forests, and the Malabar coast. S. adenophylla,
Seem., and S. sulphurea, Kurz, occur in Burma,

HETEROPODA, a class of nucleobranch oceanic
molluscs, of anomalous forms, with the foot
variously modified for swimming. Amongst these,
Pterosoma plana, Less., is a transparent, delicately-
tinted, winged animal, thick and gelatinous, and
almost invisible in the water ; it is found in the
seas of the Eastern Archipelago. The Firola, of
the same class, is a transparent creature, with a
long proboscis, and swims by means of a fin
below. The Sagitta, or arrow-fish, one of the
same class, darts through the water by sudden
instantaneous jerks ; it resembles a minute arrow.
Its body is so transparent that its whole organiza-
tion may easily be observed. Atlanta, a pretty
little curly shelled nucleobranch of this class,
Heteropoda, has both its shell and body trans-
parent. All these range through the Mediterranean,
Atlantic, and Indian Oceans. — Collingwood.

HET-HER, a name of Aphrodite, called also
Hather, Athyr, and Hathor, an Egyptian goddess,
fabled to be the daughter of Ra or the sun.

HETKARI. Mahr. Signifying down ; as ap-
plied to country, down the coast to the south, a
native of the country southwards of the Savitri
river ; a native of the Southern Konkan, serving
in the Mahratta infantry. — Wils.

HEUMA or Shendu tribe inhabiting the hills
north of Arakan. They occupy the Yeoma-toung
hills, on the watershed between the Meeyk-young
and the drainage of the Manipur rivers. The
Heuma are placed by Captain Tickell in the higher
hills to the N. and N. E. of the Kun tribes,
between lat. 21° and 22° N., and long. 93° and 94°
E. Their chiefs are called Aben, and their
villages have about 50 to 400 houses. They use
the trap-bow for shooting the elephant, but fire-
arms are superseding the ruder weapons. They
regard the sun and moon as deities.

HEVEA BRAZILIENSIS yields the caoutchouc
of commerce. H. Guianensis, the caoutchouc
plant, its trunk 17 to 20 yards high, scaly like a
pine-apple ; very straight, branched at the summit.
Incisions in the bark cause the discharge of a
juice which concretes into the well-known and
very valuable caoutchouc of commerce. This is
a product, however, of many other trees in this
and allied families, — for example, of Jatropha
elastica, Ficus Indica, Artocarpus integrifolia,
Urceola elastica, etc. The juice when first ob-
tained is white and milky, sp. gr. 1*011 ; spread
in thin layers, it quickly dries into a colourless
and often transparent solid substance. — O'Sh. 560.

HEWANT. Hind. The autumn harvest of

iii.vm:. i;i:\.i.\mi\

HIBISCUS CANNABINUS.

Northern India, intermediate between rabi and

kharif, including hajra and j'uar. Hciiiauta in
Bengal in a rice crop growing in the months

Agnthajana and Pauslm ( November — December),
ripening in December.
liKV.Ni:. BENJAMIN, M.D., a Madras medical

oltie,i. author of Mode of Manufacturing Catechu,
Bl. A.-. Trans, vii. p. 108; Travels in India, ibid. ;
On Copper at Nellore, ibid.; Tracts, Historical
and Statistical, on India, with an Account of
Sumatra, London |s| |.

1 1 E Y N I : A A I I ' 1 N I S. Jugs. H. trijuga, Rvxb.
Tliis is a vi y ornamental nuddling-sized tree of
Nepal, common in many localities on the western
mountains of the Madras Presidency, from 2000
feet upwards; at Conoor, 6000 feet, abundant;
Bolampatty valley, 3000 feet, very abundant. II.
jramquijuga, /.'., is a native of the Moluccas, with
the perfect habit of a Melia. — Roxb.; Bedd.

Il'll.W IUA-PATI, i.e. resolute prince, also
styled Shora-pati, lord of the oxen, a ruler who
I Semiramis and drove her back across the
Indus. The whole country on the right bank of
the Upper Indus, the site of the present Peshawur,
opposite Attok (Taxila) and still higher up, was
tributary to the Assyrians, as it afterwards was to
the Medes and Persians. Pliny tells us that
Semiramis capitulated here, on the Kophen (the
Kabul river, the Kubha of the Rig Veda) ; and on
the black obelisk from Nineveh in the British
Museum, which is at least of the 9th century B.C.,
the Bactrian camel is found side by side with the
Indian rhinoceros and Indian elephant. Accord-
ing to Diodorus (ii. 16-19), Semiramis fitted out an
armament in Bactria, and between B.C. 1285 and
1225 she crossed the Indus with a vast force. At
first she drove back the opposing maharaja from
the strong position that he had taken up with a
vast force, especially of archers ; but, rallying his
retreating forces, he soon drove back the Assyrians
in total disorder to the river, which they had
great difficulty of crossing, and only after immense
loss. Semiramis concluded an armistice, made an
exchange of prisoners, and retreated into Bactria
with a third of the army which she had brought
against India. At that time there must have been
a supreme ruler in India, a sami raja, with a
capital in the district to the south of the Saraswati,
in the Jumna and Ganges Doab. — Bunsen, iii. 549.

HIA, the first Chinese dynasty, descendants of
Yu, from B.rj. 1991 to 1559, ruled 432 years. Its
first emperor was Yu, beginning B.c. 1991.

HIATILLA, or the White Huns, a Tartar tribe
who issued from the plains near the north wall
of China, and made themselves masters of the
country of Transoxiana. Some years afterwards,
Turkish tribes expelled the Hiatilla from the lands
that they had taken from the Sacse or Scythians.
There is every ground to conclude that it was an
army of the Hiatilla that invaded Persia in the
reign of Bahram-Gor, and that it was to one of
their kings that Firoz fled. — Malcolm's Persia.

HIBAVINIA OIL. Canarese. Under this
name there was exhibited at the Madras Exhibi-
tion of 1857 a solid oil from the Sampajey district.
of a clove-brown colour. A small phial priced at
4^ rupees.

HIBISCUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
Malvaceae or mallow tribe ; above 30 species of the
genuB are known in the E. Indies. Several furnish
useful commercial products, and most of the

Indian species might be employed for the same
purposes as hemp, as the bark is tough, and may
almost always be stripped off in long slips.

Hibiscus collinus, Roxb. (hriocarpus of I). ( '.),
a native of the mountainous parts of the Northern
Circars and of Peninsular India, where it is called
Kanda-gang, and where the natives use the bark
as a substitute for hemp. Dr. Roxburgh states
that there are three varieties of this plant, the
double red, double yellow, and double flesh red

Hibiscus ficifolius, Roxb. In the Moluccas, an
annual, growing straight, very tall, often 12 to
11 feet high, with few branches. The fibres
described as uncommonly beautiful, and rather
stronger than the sunn fibre.

Hibiscus furcatus, Roxb., W. and A.

H. bifurcatuB, Roxb. H. aculeatus, Roxb.

Koiula gongura, l

A very prickly plant, growing in India to a
height of from 6 to 8 feet. It yields abundance of
strong, white, flaxy fibres, but from the prickli-
ness of the plant it is very troublesome to handle.
The stems are cut when in flower, and steeped
immediately. — Roxb. ; W. and A.

Hibiscus punctatus, Dalz., Gibson, an annual
fibrous plant of Sind and Multan. — Von Mueller.

Hibiscus vesicarius, Cav., a plant of the
Peninsula. Good samples of its fibre were
exhibited as wild Ambari at the Madras Exhibition
of 1855.

HIBISCUS CANNABINUS, L., Dekhani hemp.
Kudrum of . . Behar. | Ambari, . . . Dukh.

Bkng.
Can.

Chin.

Sankokla patsan,
Vatsan, Sunni of
Palungo, . . .
Pulacha, . . .
Ghongu kuru,

Panj.

Tam.

•1
Tel.

Mesta pat, Nalki,
Punday, Pundrica,
Hiang-ma, . .
Peh-ma, Ye-ma, . „

Pula namaji, . . Coimb.

Hibiscus cannabinus is an erect growing plant,
to about 4 to 6 feet. It is slightly prickly over
the stem. There is a dark, purplish - coloured
species. Both are grown all over India for the
acidulous leaves, and also for the fibres of its
bark, called one of the hemps of India, which are
used as cordage ; the cultivators sow a small
quantity along the edges of the usual crops for
their own use. In the beginning of the rains, and
when it commences to flower, it is cut and treated
exactly as the sunn hemp from Crotalaria juncea.
The proportion of fibre is about half the weight of
the plant. It is used for making rope, sackcloth,
twine, paper, etc. The price of the prepared
fibre is from 3 to 4 rupees per maund, according
to its strength, length, and cleanliness. The fibre,
like that of jute, is sometimes called Pat ; also,
in Bombay, Dekhani hemp, to distinguish it from
Taag or Konkani hemp ; also Indian hemp. Also,
it is one of the brown hemps of Bombay, anil is
often confounded with the fibre of sunn, though
the two plants greatly differ, — the sunn, Crotalaria
juncea, being known in Bombay as Taag. The
length of the fibres of carefully cultivated Ambari
is from 5 to 6 feet; they are of a paler brown
than ordinary brown hemp of the Crotalaria
juncea, harsher in feel, and stick more together;
but they are divisible into fine fibrils, possessed of
considerable strength, well calculated for rope
making, as also for coarse fabrics. Though
esteemed by some of the natives of Wi
India, the hemp of the H. cannabinus is not,
cither in strength or durability, so good as the
I true hemp of Europe, or as the sunn or brown

HIBISCUS MUTABILIS.

HIDES.

hemp of the Crotalaria juncea. The strength of
this iibre was tested by several scientific men, and
breaking weight found to be —

Experiments of H. eannabinus. Crotalaria juncea.

Dr. Roxburgh, . . 110-115 lbs. 130-160 lbs.

Dr. Royle 150 „ 190 „

Dr. Wight, ... 290 „ 404 „

The exports of this fibre are not distinguished
from other hemps. An excellent substitute for
tow might be profitably supplied from it. The
rope made of the fibre is used in the Karnatic as
a substitute for the jute of Bengal, the produce of
Corchorus capsularis, a plant comparatively un-
known in the Peninsula. Dr. Riddell strongly
recommended this fibre as a paper material. —
M. Ex. Jur. Rep. ; Royle ; Roxb. ; Voigt ; Stewart.
HIBISCUS MUTABILIS. L.

Gul-i-ajaib,

Hind.

Thalpadmo, . . Beng.
Fu-yung, Mu-fu-yung, Ch.

The changeable rose is a large shrub, native of
China, remarkable for the changes which occur in
the colour of its flowers, bearing white flowers in
the morning, but changing in the course of the
day, and in the evening to red ; easily propagated
by cuttings. The flowers and leaves are used in
China medicinally, and its fibre is there made into
cloth. — Drs. Roxb., Riddell, Mason, Stewart.

HIBISCUS KOSA-SINENSIS. L. Shoe-flower.
Uru, Joba, Juva, Beng. Jaba, .... Sansk.
Chu-kin, Fuh-sang, Chin. Sapata cherri, . . Tam.
Fu-sang, Liu-hwa, ,, Dasana japa push-
Jasun, .... Hind. pamu, .... Tel.
Shem pariti, . Maleal. Jova pushpamu, . ,,
Kambang saptu, ,,

This plant is common in India ; the leaves are
used as emollients, anodyne, and gentle aperients ;
the flowers are deep scarlet, and yield a very
mucilaginous juice, which turns rapidly to a dark
purple. Applied to soft, unsized white paper,
this colour is nearly as sensitive a test for acid as
the celebrated litmus. Shoe flowers are some-
times employed for dyeing lilac colour, but it does
not appear to be a permanent dye ; they are also
occasionally rubbed on leather for the purpose of
blackening and polishing. The natives make
pickles of the flowers, and they are used for
giving a red tinge to spirituous liquors. The
petals furnish a black liquid to dye the eyebrows.
— Roxb. iii. p. 194.

HIBISCUS SABDARIFFA. L. Roselle.

Patwa, .... Panj.
Pulychay kire, . Tam.
Shimay kashli kire, ,,
Yerra gogu, . . Tel.

Mesta, .... Beng.
Thaem-bau-khyen-

boung, . . . Burm.
Oseille, . . Mauritius.

There are five varieties, cultivated in most
gardens for the calyces, which, as they ripen,
become fleshy, are of a pleasantly acid taste, and
are much employed for making palatable tarts, as
well as an excellent jelly. The stem, if cut when
in flower, and the bark stripped off and steeped
immediately, displays a mass of fibres of a fine
silky nature. The leaves are used as greens,
alone or mixed with others; often cultivated in
flower-beds for its very pretty flowers. In the
French West India Islands, a kind of cider or
wine is prepared from it, termed Yin de ozeille. —
Aim. ; Roxb. ; Von Mueller.

HIBISCUS STFJCTUS. Roxb. A native of
the Rajmahal Hills, with a straight stem of from
6 to 14 feet in height, and a very smooth bark.
It is in blossom about the termination of the
rains, and the seed ripens in December and

January, soon after which the plants perish. The
bark abounds in flaxen fibres, beautiful, long,
glossy, white, fine, and strong. Sow in the be-
ginning of the rains in beds, and when about six
inches high transplant out in rows about nine
inches asunder, and about as much from each
other in the rows. In 1801, 40 square yards
planted in this manner yielded 33 pounds weight
of very clean fibres. Dr. Roxburgh's original
specimens are 9 and 10 feet in length, a fibrous
mass apparently easily stripped off, and composed
of fine and easily divisible fibres. — Roxb. ; Roijle.

HIBISCUS SURATTENSIS. Linn., Roxb.
Kashlikire, . . . Tam. | Mulu gogu, . . . Tel.

A herbaceous plant, with speckled prickly
stems, and yellow flowers ; the leaves are used as
greens. — Roxb. ; Jaffrey.

HIBISCUS SYRIACUS. Linn.
Muh-kin, . . . Chin. | Oodha godhul, . Hind.

There are four varieties of this plant cultivated
for ornament in India, two purple, a single and
a double ; and two white, a single and a double.
The flowers are used to blacken the eyebrows and
shoe leather. It is a common hedge plant of Hu-
peh in China. — Roxb. iii. p. 195.

HICK. Singh. A Ceylon wood, very hard,
fine, close, very uniformly grained ; heavy, in
colour resembling pencil cedar.

HIDES.

Hud, .... Dan., Sw.

Huiden Dut.

Peaux, Fr.

Haute, .... Ger.
Chamra, . . . Hind.
Cuoja, Pelle, ... It.

Pellis Lat.

Hides and skins, raw

Balulang, Kulit, Malay.
Pelles, .... Port.
Koshi, .... Rus.
Charma, . . . Sansk.
Pellejos, Pieles, . . Sp.
Toll, Tolu, . Tam., Tel.

Deri, Turk.

dressed, and tanned,

form a large item of the exports from India, and
since the year 1851 the quantities and values ex-
ported have largely increased, while amongst the
millions of India they are largely used. In every
part of S. India extensive tanneries have been
established, chiefly by the Labbai Mahomedans.
The value of the exports from India have been
as under, for hides and skins, raw and dressed : —

1851-52,
1852-53,
1853-54,
1854-55,
1855-56,
1856-57,
1857-58,
1858-59,
1859-60,

£303,089
337,849
402,365
402,386
431,729
572,530
639,702
544,680
444,537

1860-61,
1874-75,
1875-76,

1876-77,
1877-78,
1878-79,
1879-80,
1880-81,
1881-82,

£656,629
2,677,765
2,943,573
2,991,022
3,756,887
3,186,845
3,733,005
3,733,565
3,948,792

About the year 1850, nearly 40,000 tons of leather,
hides, and skins were annually imported into
Britain ; the total imports into Great Britain of
hides and skins, in 1880, was 83,397 tons, value
£6,910,847.

All untanned leather is classed under the
denominations of hides, kips, and skins. From
these there are various kinds of leather tanned.
Butts and backs are selected from the stoutest
and heaviest ox hides. The butt is formed by
cutting off the skin of the head for glue, also the
cheeks, the shoulder, and a strip of the belly on
each side. In the back, the cheeks and belly are
cut off, but the shoulder is retained. The butt
or back of the ox hide forms the stoutest and
heaviest leather, such as is used for the soles of
boots and shoes, for most parts of harness and
saddlery, for leather trunks and buckets, hose

HIDIMI'.A.

HIGH PLACES.

tot fire - engines, pump - valves, eoM i ett 1 1 >olts,

lad gloves for cavalry. Hides coiiHint of OOW
hides, or the lighter ox 1u«1ok and buffalo hides;
tiny are the saino as butts with the bellies on.
Hides are sometimes tanned whole, and are struck
for sole leather, in which case they are called crop
bides. Skins are used for all the lighter kinds of
leather.

Hull hide is thioker, stronger, and coarser in its
Brain than cow hide. The hide of the bullock is
intermediate between the two.

(alt-skin is thinner than cow's. It is tanned
for the bookbinder, and tanned and curried for
the upper jMirt of shoes and boots.

Sheep-skins are tanned and employed for book-
binding, leathering for common bellows, whip-
lashes, bags, aprons, etc.; also for the cheaper
kinds of wash-leather for breeches, gloves, and
under-waistcoats ; and are also coloured and dyed
leathers and mock morocco, used for women's
shoes, for covering writing-tables, stools, chairs,
and sofas, lining carriages, etc.

Lunb-skins are dressed white or coloured, for
gloves ; are very extensively used with the hair
on in the N.W. Himalaya, Afghanistan, Hazara,
Katiristan, Tartary, Tibet, China, and Persia, as
articles of dress for the head, and for mantles.

(i oat -skins form the best dyed morocco of all
colours. Kid-skins supply the finest white and
coloured leather for gloves and ladies' shoes.

Deer-skins are all shamoyed, or dressed in oil,
chiefly for riding breeches. Shamoyed leather of
sheep, goat, and deer-skins was formerly a lucrat-
ive branch of the leather trade, for breeches,
white or dyed.

Horse hide is tanned and curried for harness
work, for collars, etc. Enamelled horse hide,
split or shaved thin, is used for ladies' shoes, in
imitation of seal, but does not produce so good a
leather as seal.

Dog-skin is thin, but tough, and makes good
leather. Most of the dog-skin gloves are really
made of lamb-skin.

Seal-skin makes a valuable leather, but a large
proportion of seal-skins is used as fur.

Hog-skin affords a thin, porous leather, which
is used for covering the seats of saddles.

Iguana skins can be tanned and dyed black, or
left of their natural colour. They are thin, even,
soft, tough, elastic, and granular or shagreen-like
in external appearance. It bids fair to be a dur-
able article for light slippers, and a good covering
for the commoner kinds of instrument boxes, such
as are still done over with shagreen. Python
skin, when tanned, makes excellent boots, much
prized for their strength, pliability, and great
beauty, as they are handsomely marked. The
skins of young alligators are tanned, converted
into leather, and the leather manufactured into
boots.

Wash-leather skins are prepared with oil, in
imitation of chamois, for household purposes,
such as cleaning plate, brasses, and harness.

Leather is made from the skin of salmon and
other fish.

HIDIMBA, a wife of Bhima. Her brother was
a cannibal, and was killed by Bhima.

HIERONIMO DI SANTO STEFANO, a Geno-
ese ; visited India about 1494-99 as a merchant
adventurer. At Cairo he laid in a stock of coral
beads and other wares, and passed down the

Nile to Cane (Keneh), from which he travelled
by land through the Egyptian desert for 7 days
to Cosir (Cosseir) on the Red Sea, where he
embarked on board a ship, which in 25 days
carried him to Mazua (Massouah) ' off the country
ad Presttf John;' and in 25 days more, during
which he saw plenty of boats fishing for pearls, to
Aden (Aden); and in 35 days more to Calicut.
' We found that pepper and ginger grew here, . . .
and the nut of India ' (cocoanute). From Calicut
he sailed in another ship, and in 2<i days reached
Ceylon, ' in which grow cinnamon trees, . . . many
precious stones, such as garnets, jacinths, cats'-
eyes, and other gems, . . . and trees of the sort
which bears the nut of India.' Departing thence,
after 12 days he arrived at a port on the coast of
Coromandel, ' where the red sandal-wood grows ; '
and, after a long stay, departing thence in another
ship, after 27 days reached Pegu in Lower India.
' This country (Pegu) is distant 15 days' journey
by land from another, called Ava, in which grow
rubies and many other precious stones.' From
Pegu, where he suffered many and great troubles,
he set sail to go to Malacca, and, after being at
sea 25 days, one morning found himself in a port
of Sumatra, ' where grows pepper in considerable
quantities, silk, long pepper, benzoin, wliite sandal-
wood, and many other articles.' After further
and greater troubles suffered here, he took ship
to Cambay, where, after 6 months' detention among
the Maldives, and subsequent shipwreck, he at
length arrived, but stripped of all his goods. He
notices that Cambay produced lac and indigo. In
his destitution he was assisted by a Moorish mer-
chant of Alexandria and Damascus, and after a
time proceeded in ship of a sharif of Damascus
as supercargo to Ormuz, in sailing to which place
from Cambay he was 60 days at sea. From
Ormuz, ' in company with some Armenian and
Azami (Irak-Ajemi) merchants,' he travelled by
land to Shiraz, Isfahan, Kazan, Sultanieh, and to
Tauris ; whence he went on with a caravan, which
was plundered by the way, to Aleppo, and finally
to Tripoli. — India in the loth Century; Bird-
wood's India Office Records.

H IE-SHAN, a group of three islands and eight
rocks on the east coast of China, which extend 4
miles long. The southernmost is the largest, and
the inhabitants are fishermen.

HIGH PLACES. Sacred edifices were often
erected by the Hebrews, Greeks, and Romans
upon elevated sites. The custom is of very high
antiquity. Hector, according to Homer, sacrificed
upon the top of Ida. Abraham was commanded
to offer up Isaac on Mount Moriah ; and Balak is
represented as selecting three elevated stations,
where he sacrificed with Balaam. —

First station. — Numbers xxii. 41 : 'And brought
him up into the high places of Baal.' 'And he led
him to the high places of his god' (Chaldee and
Samaritan). 'And he made him ascend Bemoth
Baal' (Syriac). 'He made him ascend to the

Eillar or mound of Baal' (Greek). 'And he led
im up to some temples of his god ' (Arabic).
Second station. — Numbers xxiii. 14: "And he
brought him into the field of Zophim, to the top
of Pisgah.' 'To the field of observation, to the
top of the lull' (Chaldee). 'To the field of the
watchers, to the top of the hill' (Syriac). 'To
the field of the watchers, to the peak of observa-
tion' (Samaritan). 'To the field of observation.

HI-HYA.

HILL STATES.

on the summit of a levelled place' (Greek). 'To
an high place, on the top of a citadel ' (Arabic).

Third station. — Numbers xxiii. 28: 'And Balak
brought Balaam unto the top of Peor.'

Numerous Hindu temples are erected on the
summits and slopes of mountains, notably at Tri-
puttyand Srirangam, in the Madras Presidency. —
Archselogia; Milner's Seven Churches.

HI-HYA, a tribe of the Lunar race, brave and
valorous ; their remnants exist in the line of the
Nerbadda at the very top of the valley of Sohagpur
in Baghelcund. See Sehestra; Arjuna; Ha-Haya.

HIJILI, a small marshy district on the western
side of the mouth of the Hoogly river. It is the
sea-coast division of the Midnapur district of
Bengal ; a considerable quantity of salt is now
produced by private persons under Government
supervision. — Imp. Gaz.

HIJRAH. Aijab. A flight, but applied as relat-
ing to the flights of the disciples of Mahomed,
and of Mahomed's own flight, to escape persecu-
tion. The first flight consisted of 15 disciples
of Mahomed, who, at his recommendation, to avoid
persecution, took refuge in Abyssinia. The Koresh
wished them to be delivered up, but the Nagashy
of Abyssinia refused. The second flight is that
most generally known, and has given rise to the
Mahomedan era of the Hijrah. It was the flight of
Mahomed to Medina, which took place on the
night of Thursday the 15th July, a.d. 622. In the
khalifat of Omar, this was constituted the com-
mencement of the Mahomedan era.

The Mahomedan Hijrah year consists of twelve
lunar months, each of 29 days 12 hours and 44
minutes ; and the year, 354 days 8 hours and 48
minutes.

The months of the Mahomedan year, —
Maharram, . . 30 days. Shaban,

Safar, .... 29

Rabi-ul-Awal, . 30

Rabi-us-Sani, . 29

Jamadi-ul-Awal, 30

Jamadi-us-Sani, 29

Kajab, ... 30

Ramazan, . .
Shawal, . . .
Zilkada or Zul-

kada, . .
Zilhijja or Zul-

hijja, . . .

29 days.

30 „

29 „

30 „

29 „

The corresponding years of the Christian and
Hijrah eras may easily be calculated by the follow-
ing formula, — it being remembered that the Chris-
tian are solar and those of the Hijrah lunar years,
and that 521 solar are equal to 537 lunar years :

Ex. — What is the year of Christ 1734, according
to the Hijrah ?

From 1734 a.d. subtract 621, the difference of
the two eras ; result, 1113 of the Hijrah in solar
years.

Then, 521: 537: : 1113: 1147 Hijrah.— Play-
fair's Yemen.

HILLAH, a town 54 miles from Baghdad, on
the site of the ancient Babylon ; about two-thirds
of it is on the right bank of the Euphrates and the
remainder on the left bank, the two parts being
connected by a bridge of 28 boats, and 450 feet
in length. It is inhabited by Arabs, Persians,
Turks, and Jews. It has numerous gardens.
Basket boats ply at the ferry.

Hillah lies in lat. 32° 31' 18" N. and W of
Baghdad. According to Turkish authorities, it was
built in the fifth century of the Hijira, in the
district of the Euphrates which the Arabs call
El-arad-Babel, lying on a spot of the west site of
Babylon. The ruins near Hillah are still by the
Arabs designated Babel, and all historical records
as well as traditions agree in representing these

as the remains of the first city of Nimrud, the
Babylon of Herodotus, Diodorus Siculus, and
other historians. — Mac Gregor.

HILL STATES is a term by which the British
designate several independent and feudatory
kingdoms in the Himalayas. Nepal is the largest
of these ; it is independent, but has treaties with
British India.

Sirmur or Nahdn. — In recognition of the ser-
vices rendered by raja Shamsher Purgass during
the 1857 mutiny, he received a khillat of Rs. 5<>00,
and a salute of 7 guns. The family is Rajput.
Revenue of Sirmur, a lakh of rupees a year. The
raja maintains a small force of drilled sepoys.
numbering 250 men. Population, 75,595. The
raja pays no tribute, but is bound to render feudal
service. Gross revenue, Rs. 2,10,000.

The Kahlur or Bilaspur raja had estates on
both sides of the Sutlej, but the sunnud given
to raja Mooher Chand in 1815 confirmed to him
the eastern portion only. The family is Rajput.
In acknowledgment of his services during the
mutinies of 1857, the raja received a dress of
honour of Rs. 5000 value, and a salute of 7 guns.
Revenue, Rs. 1,00,000 ; population. 66,848.

The Hindu? or Nalagarh chief belongs to a
Rajput family. A sunnud was granted in 1815.
Population, 60,000 ; revenue, Rs. 90,000.

Bashahr, a tributary state, gave Rs. 3945 as
tribute. Raivaun, on the left bank of the Pabur,
was transferred to Keonthal. The thakuri of
Kotgurh and Kumharsain were declared independ-
ent of Bashahr. The raja is of a Rajput family.
Population (1872), 90,000 ; revenue, Rs. 70,000.

Keonthal. — After the Gurkha war, a portion of
the territory of Keonthal was sold to the maharaja
of Patiala. The chief claims a Rajput origin. He
is bound to render feudal service. In 1858 the
chief was created a raja, and received a dress of
honour worth Rs. 1000 for his services during
the mutinies. Revenue, Rs. 60,000, and popula-
tion (1875), 50,000.

The Baghal family is Rajput. Revenue, Rs.
60,000 ; population, 22,305.

Jubbul — Originally this Rajput state was tribu-
tary to Sirmur, but after the Gurkha war it was
made independent, and the rana received a sunnud
from Lord Moira on 18th November 1815. Re-
venue, Rs. 30,000 ; population, 40,000 souls. The
rana pays Rs. 2520 tribute, and is bound to
render feudal service.

Bhajji pays tribute, Rs. 1440. Revenue, Rs.
23,000 ; population, 19,000.

Kumharsain state, formerly a feudatory of
Bashahr, was declared independent at the Nepal
war ; pays Rs. 2000 as tribute. Revenue, Rs.
10,000; population, 10,000. The family is Raj-
put, of not very high pretensions.

The Kuthar sunnud bears date the 3d September
1815, and confirms to rana Bhoop Singh and his
heirs the hereditary possessions of his ancestors,
subject to the performance of feudal service, and
supplying a contingent of 40 begar, but subse-
quently commuted to a tributary payment of
Rs. 1080. Revenue, Rs. 5000 ; population, 3990.
The family is Rajput.

Dhami. — This old Rajput state became independ-
ent of Kahlur after the Gurkha war. The state
was bound to supply 40 begar, but this was com-
muted to a tribute of Rs. 720. Revenue, Rs.
8000 ; population (1875), 5500.

llll.l. TRACTS.

HILL TROUT.

Jim/hut, a lull slate, the chief of which acted
unfriendly dmfalg the Nepal war. He died with-
out issue on 11th duly IH.VJ. The state was
treated as a lajwe, and pensions to the extent of
ssigned to the family. Gazetteer
says population, 10,000; revenue, Us. 8000.

r.nlmin. — This state was originally a feudatory
of Sinnur, but a separate sunnud was granted to
it in September 181ft. Its tribute payment is
Rs. 10KO. Its chief is of Rajput origin. Thakur
.Jograj was created a nma in 1858 for services
tendered daring the mutiny. Revenue, Rs. G000;
population. 1898.

Mmloq. — The sunnud of this Rajput state is
dated 4th September 1815. The tribute is lis.
II.'". Revenue, lis. 9000 ; population, 100<X

llijn. — This petty state juysa tribute of Rs. 180.
ue, Rs. L000; population, 9K1.

'J'arur/,.— Revenue, Rg. G000 ; pop. 6000. It
pays Rs. 880 in lieu of begat.

Ktnthinr state pays Re. ISO in lieu of begar.
iiue. Rs. 4000; population, 2500.

Mmujnl was an ancient dependency of Kablur,
but was declared independent on the expulsion of
the (iurkha. Its tribute payment is Rs. 72. Re-
venue. Rs. 700 ; population, 917.

J)tt> -kuti. — This pretty chieftainship jwiys allegi-
ance to the British Government, and is exempted
from all pecuniary liability. Revenue, Rs. (500 ;
population, 700.

In 1847 transit duties were abolished through-
out these states. A yearly sum of Rs. 13,735 is
paid in compensation by British India. To all the
hill chiefs the right of adoption has been granted.
— Aitcheson, Treaties, etc. p. 328.

BILL TRACTS of Arakan, or N.E. Arakan,
are regarded as a revenue district, extendiug N.E.
to Independent Burma and to Manipur, with an
area of 4000 or 5000 square miles, and a popula-
tion of 12,442 souls. The country, wild and beauti-
ful, consists of parallel ridges of sandstone, clothed
with dense forests ; its chief river the Kuladan
(Koladyn) or Yam Pang. The tribes are the —

Ra-Khaing or Khyoung - tha, or sons of the
river ; profess Buddhism, and have paper books.

Shandu are polygamic, and bury their dead.

Kha-mi. meaning man, homo, or Khwe-myi,
meaning dog's tail, their dress hanging down
behind like a tail. They trade.

Mro, 21 62, live on the Mi, Anu, or Khoung-tso,
dwell on the banks of the Tsala river.

Khyeng inhabit the Arakan Yoma Hills, E.
of the Le-Mru ; they are shy, and tattoo their
women's faces.

Khyaw, in a village on the Tsala river, are a
Kuki clan. They speak different dialects of the
Arakanese and Kha-mi, but have many religious
beliefs, domestic customs, and laws in common.
Twice annually they worship the spirits of the
thai I. Ka-nie-hpa-law. Chastity before marriage
is not required, and crimes are punished by fines.

HILL TRIBB3 is a general term by which the
British designate collectively the numerous un-
civilised tribes who inhabit the mountain ranges
and higher hills in British India ami along its
bonders. Most of them are wholly illiterate.
Dr. W. \V. Hunter has mentioned that —

In the North-Wcst Provinces there are wander-
ing and wild tribes, named Bur. Damak, Kanjar.
l'asi. kumbnh. Nat, Saussee, Gond, and theTharoo
in the Tend ; the Pasi also occurring in Oudh.

The Chinese Frontier and Tibet have the
Gyami, Gyarung, Takj>a, Manyak. Thochu. Sokpa,
Horpa.

.Xtp/il ( Bint to West) has the Sen*, Sunwar.
tinning. Murmi. Magar, Khaksya, Pakhva. \
l.imbu.

/\'>>i)tti Group, Hast Nepal, have the Kiranti,
Rodoag, Rungchcnbung. Chingtangya, Nach-
hcreng. Waling. Yakha. Chourasya, Kulungya.
Thuhiugya. Babingya, Lohorong, Limbichhong,
I'.alali, Sang-pang, Huini. Khnling. Ihingmali.

The Broktn Tribes of Nepal are the Darhi.
I'cnuar. Paliri, Chepang. Bhnnnu. Vayu. Kuswar.
Kusunda. Tharu.

l-epcha of Sikkim.

I ,h<> pa of Bhutan.

In N. E. Bengal are the Bodo, Dhiinal. Kochh.
Garo, Kachari.

In the Eastern Frontier of Jl< m/ul are the
Munipuri, Mithan Naga, Tabbing Naga, Khari
Naga, Angami Xaga. Xainsang Naga. Xowgong
Naga, Tengsa Naga, Abor Miri, Sibsagor Miri.
Deoria Chutia, Singpho.

Mishmi, Chulikata Alishmi.

Abor group, viz. Padam and other Abor, Miri
and Hill Miri, Dophla, Aka or Hrusso.

Naga of Upper Assam, the lower Naga group.

Naga west of the Doyang river.

Kuki, Manipur, and their neighbours Kou}xmi.

Mikir, Jaintia and Khassya.

Arakan and Burma, Khyeng or Shou, Ka-mi.
Ku-mi ; Mru or Toung, Sak.

Siam and Tenasserim, Karen, Toung-thu, Ahom,
Kham-ti, Laos.

Central India, Ho (Kol) j Kol ; (Singbhum),
Santal ; Bhumij Iiajmaliali, Gond, Khond, Saora,
Chentsu, Bhil, Patooa.

Broken Tribes, Cheroo, Kharwar, Parheya, Kisan
or Nagesar, Bhuiher, Boyer, Nagbansi, Kaur or
Kaurava, Mar.

Southern India, Toda. Kota ; Badaga, Irular,
Kurambar, Mali-Arasar, with many broken tribes
in the plains, Yerkala, Pariah, Chakili, Mhar,
Mhang, Okkalu, Holar.

Ceylon, Veddah.

HILL TROUT of Hindustan is no trout, but
a large bony fish of a silver-grey spotted with
black ; will eat everything he can swallow ; is
often taken with an infant brother while spinning
for his high-caste neighbours, with an artificial
minnow of glass, with a piece of rag or news-
paper, with bees, or dragon-flies caught off the
bushes by the river, with a morsel of cabl>age
leaves boiled, but in general with the orthodox-
spinning, the minnow, or the artificial fly, made
very large and showy. In Kashmir, five bags
of these fish have been caught, some weighing 7
lbs. each. One seen in the market was 19 lbs.
The Walur Lake, the Dhul LakA, and the Jhelum
all swarm with them about the mulberry trees,
the fallen fruits of which seem to afford them in
legions a sweet and pleasant diet, if one may
judge by the mighty rush ensuing on a shaking
of the boughs. Boatmen avail themaefc
this, cover a bent pin with a plump mulberry,
and drop it amid the shoal. This fish is wideiy
distributed; abundant in the backwaters of the
Ganges, in the great rapids of that river far above
Hurdwar. and in Pehra Doon, in lat. 27° 28 N.. in
the upper branches of the Brahmaputra, and in
i the Mishmi and Abor backwaters, also in most

HILSHA.

HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS.

of the small rivers of the Panjab, in which latter
locality it does not seem to grow very large,
though plentifully, owing perhaps to its being the
common food of numerous fish of prey. Is
abundant, though small, in Central India, in
Bundelkhand and Jhansi districts. That it is
eatable, is all that can be said, but giving good
sport in its way, and yielding subsistence to the
monsters of the deep, and useful in diverting
their attention from mischief to their own breed.
The Europeans in Northern India apply the
name of trout to three spotted carp, species of
Barilius. B. bola, which takes a fly well, is said
to attain 5 lbs. weight. It is found in Northern
India, Assam, and Burma. B. tileo, smaller, is of
Assam and Bengal ; and B. bendilisis is a third
small species. See Chiliva ; Fish ; Fisheries.

HILSHA or Ilisha, Clupea ilisha, shad, sable
fish of Southern India.

Nga-tha-louk, . Burm. I Palasa, .... Tam.
Pulla, .... Sind. I Ulumoolum, . . . Tel.

This is a migratory sea fish of the herring tribe,
which enters the Ganges and Irawadi and Indus
rivers to deposit its eggs. It is the shad of Bengal
and the sable fish of Trichinopoly. In one of
them 1,023,645 eggs were counted. The females
are more numerous than the males. It is best
preserved in tamarinds or vinegar. — Dr. F. Day.

HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS comprise a system
of stupendous ranges, with the loftiest peaks in the
world. They extend continuously for a distance
of 1500 miles along the northern frontier of
British India, from the Indus to the gorge where
the Dihong bursts through their main axis, thus
embracing the meridians 75° to 95° E. On the
west, the Himalaya, with the Kouen Lun, converge
towards the Pamir table-land, whence the Tian
Shan and the Hindu Kush radiate, and the Kouen
Lun and the Himalaya form respectively the
northern and southern escarpment of the lofty
Tibetan plateau, which has an average level of
15,000 feet. The average breadth of the Himalaya
is computed at 150 miles, with a mean elevation
of 18,000 to 20,000 feet ; but there are solitary
mountains and peaks rising higher, — for instance,
in the Western Himalaya, Jumnotri, 20,038 feet :
Kedarnath, 22,790 feet ; Badrinath, 23,210 feet ;
Nanda Devi, 25,661 feet ; — and in the Eastern
Himalava, Dhawalgiri, 26,826 feet ; Daya bang,
23,762 "feet ; Mount Everest, 29,002 feet ; Kan-
chinjinga, 28,156 feet.

The Himalayan system is composed of a northern,
a central, and a southern range.

The northern range is naturally divided into a
western and an eastern section. Its western
section is known as the Kara-korum or Mustagh,
and it forms the water-parting between the basins
of Lob-Nor and the Indus. The Kara-korum pass
is on the real line of water-parting, and the
streams north of it join the Tarim basin, while
those on its southern slope discharge into the Indus.

Several of the peaks along this western section
of the Himalaya attain a height of 25,000 feet,
and the chief one, ' K. 2,' 28,265 feet, is second in
altitude to Mount Everest. This section of the
range extends from its junction with the Hindu
Kush near the Baroghil pass to Mount Kailas,
near Lake Manasarowar in Tibet, and the best
known passes across it are the Kara-korum and the
Changchenmo, exceeding 18,000 and 19,000 feet
respectively in height. But there are also the

Karambar pass, the Mustagh pass, and a pass on
the road between Kudok and Kiria. The southern
slopes of the Mustagh range in its northern portion
are covered with enormous glaciers, one of them
35 miles long. These glaciers are the source of
streams which flow southwards between bare
craggy mountains and join the Indus or its
tributary the Shayok. The collective name
applied to the various districts which comprise
the valleys of the Indus, Basha, Braldu, Shigar,
Shayok, etc., is Baltistan. The inhabitants are
Mahomedanized Tibetans of Turanian stock, and
there is a small body of Aryans called Dards.

To the E. of Lake Manasarowar, a saddle which
is crossed by the Mariam-la pass, connects the
northern and central ranges of the Himalaya.
On its eastern side rises the Tsan-pu (To-chok-
tsang-pu), of which the northern range forms
the northern watershed as far as to the south of
the Sky Lake (Tengri-nur in Mongolian, and
Nam-cho in Tibetan). Hence it appears to
curve round the lake in a north-easterly direction
for 150 miles, after which its further course is
unknown.

The subsidiary chain between the northern and
central ranges runs from Mount Kailas, near
Lake Manasarowar, to the junction of the Indus
and the Shayok. Major Cunningham called it
the Kailas or Gangri range. It is 550 miles in
length. Its peaks average between 16,000 and
20,000 feet in height, and it is crossed in its
northern portion by a number of passes, which
lead from the valley of the Indus into that of the
Shayok. About lat. 33° 12' N., the Indus deviates
at right angles, and pierces right through this
granite range to resume a north-westerly course
beyond. The southern portion of this range lies
in Tibetan territory, and has been crossed at
four points by native explorers.

The central range has its commencement in the
Nanga Parbat, 26,629 feet high. It towers con-
spicuously on the extre.ne verge of the Kashmir
frontier above the Indus valley, and has been seen
by General Cunningham from Pamnagar, in the
Panjab, a distance of 205 miles. Proceeding
from this point towards the south-east, we find
that for the first 50 or 60 miles the central range
forms the water-parting between the Indus and
the Jhelum. Two roads, joining the Kishenganga
and Astor rivers, go over passes of upwards of
13,000 feet, and others lead into the Dras valley.
At the point where the Dras pass (11,300 feet)
affords access from the Kashmir valley to the
high table-land of Ladakh, a minor range branches
off and separates successively the Sind valley, the
northern part of the vale of Kashmir, and the
Jhelum valley, on the south, from the Kishenganga
on the north. A little south of the same pass,
another ridge branches off, and, running north
and south, forms the eastern boundary of the
vale, till, near Banihal, it joins itself to the Pir
Panjal range, which again runs east and west for
about 30 miles, then turns N.N.W., and continues
for some 40 miles more till it dies off towards the
valley of the Jhelum. This range completes the
mountainous girdle which encircles the valley
of Kashmir. About the vicinity of the Dras pass,
the range increases in height, and the peaks are
high enough to form glaciers, two of them, Nun
and Kun, being each over 23,000 feet in height.
The north-eastern slope of the range drains into

HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS.

the Indus, the Sum and Zanskar being the chief
rivers. A little farther to tin- south, the Bara
Lacha pass (16,200 feet) affords a route from
IjiIiuI hikI Kangra to Ijeh.

Farther to the south-east, the central range

Mies broken by the precipitous gorge of the

Sutlej (the classic I lesudrus), which, rising in the j

korum, tadakh, Zanskar or Ikralacha, and Pir
I'anjal, all of which have aN.W. to S.K. direction.
The lktralacha separates the Indus river from its
first affluents, as the Eastern Himalaya separatee
the Tsan-pu from the Ganges. The average
elevation of Kashmir valley is between 6000 and
6000 feet ftbote the sea ; Huramuk Mount, 13,000

saered lakes ot UakasTal and Manasarowara on the i feet ; Pir Panjal, 15,000 feet; average of the

southern side of the Tibetan Kailas, takes a north
westerly eourse for 280 miles, till, joined by the
waters c >f the gpiti river, it turns and cleaveB through
the two outer ranges, emerging on the plains of
India at Ropar, after a course of 560 miles. The
junction of the Sutlej and Spiti rivers is marked
by the Lio I'orgyul peak, which rises sheer 22,183
feet high from the edge of the two streams.
18,000 feet below its summit Further to the
S. E.. numerous passes lead from British territory
over the central range into Hundes. The Niti
pass (16,676 feet) leads across it to Khotan,
1>\ waj <>f Totling, Gartokh, Rudokh, Noh, and
Kiria, and is the best and easiest route between
Beaten Turkestan and India. Eastward of this
point, the central range is occupied by the
Native gtateB of Nepal, Sikkim, and Bhutan. On
its northern side the range has enormous glaciers,
which drain into the Tsan-pu river; while its
southern slopes give rise to many large rivers,
which burst through the southern range, and
eventually discharge their waters into the Ganges
or Brahmaputra. The source of the Ganges
lies a few miles beyond Gangotri ; and the Kali,
Karnali, Narayani, Buri Gandak, Tirsuli Gandak,
Bhutia Kosi. Arun. all flow through Nepal. To
the east of the Mariam-la pass, only three Euro-
peans have ever crossed the central range. An
imposing view of the long line of glaciers and
peaks of the central range was obtained by Dr.
Hooker from the Donkia-la pass in Sikkim. Two
of the most remarkable of the iidand lakes
are the Palti and Chomtodong. The former
(14,700 feet above the sea) is about twenty miles
long and sixteen broad, without an outlet. This
lake is situated north of the Arun basin, and,
like the Palti lake, is encircled by spurs from the
central range. The Palti or Yam-dok-cho lake

valley of Indus (north of Kashmir valley), 6000 to
7000 feet.

Major Cunningham gave the following summary
of the information he collected regarding the great
mountain chains in the north of the Panjab : —

Snow line.

Name of Chain.

■a $

1 J

§*" ! North

South

Kara- korum or Tr. -Tibetan,

450

24,000

20.000 1 18,000

18,500

Kailas or Gangri, or Mid-

550

20,700

20,000 18,500

19,000

Tr.-Himalaya or Tsho-moriri,

350

21,000

19,300 19,500

20,000

W. Himalaya or Bara Lacha,

060

25,749

20,000 19,000

18,000

Mid-Himalaya or Pir Panjal,

407

21,786

17,000 17,000

16,000

Outer Himalaya, or Daola

Tin- snow dis-

Dhar

300

16,174

15,020 appeared
' annually.

Peaks. — Some of the peaks on the Kara-korum
range, along which runs the boundary between
Ladakh and Yarkand, are very high, the highest
being 28,278 feet above the sea. This mountain is
called K. 2, and towers above all the surrounding
ranges, being probably the second highest in the
world. The heights to the south of the Sutlej
range from 20,103 feet to 25,749 feet, and the
heights of the passes vary from 16,570 feet to
18,331 feet. In the Western Himalaya the snow
limit ranges are from 17,500 to 20,106 feet. The
highest peaks of the Western Himalaya are, —
Nanda Devi or Jawahir, 25,749 feet ; Gyu peak,
24,764 feet ; Mono Mangli, 23,900 feet ; Porgyal,
22,700 feet.

The Giant's Peak and the Eastern Dal-la are
occasionally called Gemini by residents of Assam
who have seen the Himalaya panorama from
Nanklau in the Khassya Hills.

Eastern Dal-la, lat. 27° 52' 1" N., long. 92° 38'
is also without an outlet, and is ring-shaped ; it 6" E., in Bhutan, in the immediate vicinity of the

is supposed to be about 45 miles in circum
ference. An island in its centre rises into
rounded hills from 2000 to 3000 feet high.

The southern range, at its north - western
extremity, appears to spring from the southern-
most point of the Pir Panjal range. At its outset
it is pierced by the waters of the Chenab, the
main stream of which rises in I,ahul far to the
south-east, under the name of Chandra-bhaga,
and for 180 miles drains the south-western and
north-eastern slopes of the central and southern
ranges respectively. The peaks of the southern
raiiLT- gradually increase in height from 1300 to
10,000 feet, and its outer slopes are washed
by the Ravi and Beas, the feeders of which rise
on the southern side of the culminating range.
Passing the Sutlej, the road up the gorge of which
is connected with Simla by the great Hindustan
and Tibet road, we meet the Bhagirathi, Alak-
nanda, and a variety of rivers, which rise in the
space between the two southern ranges.

The western terminal portion of the Himalaya
chain comprises a number of great ranges, which
are commonly known as the Mustagh or Kara-

VOL. II.

Giant's Peak top of the peak, is 21,435 feet accord-
ing to Herm. Schl., and 21,476 feet, Pemberton.

A line of high snow peaks can be traced
running nearly parallel to the plains of India,
and extending from the places of passage of the
Indus on the west and Brahmaputra on the east.
These snowy peaks are separated from each other
by deep ravines, along which flow large and rapid
rivers. Every pre-eminent elevation is not, how-
ever, so much a peak as a cluster of peaks,
springing from a huge sustaining and connected
base. Between lat. 27° 16' 23" and 31° 6' 8" N.,
and long. 78° 32' 32" and 89° 18' 43" E., are
seventy-nine peaks, ranging from 14,518 feet, to
that of Mount Everest, 29,002 feet above the sea.
The Pir Panjal, a great suow-clatl range, shuts in
the valley of Kashmir on the south. With tliat
exception, the ranges covered with perpetual
snow are first met with on the southern slope of
the great Indo-Tibetan table-land, along a line
between 80 and 90 miles from the foot of the
outer mountains, and 20 or 30 miles south of the
Indian watershed ; and from this line north-
ward snowy peaks abound everywhere over the
49 D

HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS.

summit of the table -land. The average elevation
of the crest of the Indian watershed, between the
points where the Indus and Brahmaputra cross it
(1500 miles), probably exceeds 18,000 feet. The
heights of the following peaks are given by Mr.
Trelawney Saunders in Geog. Mag., July 1877 : —

Aku

Barathor, ....
Badrinath, . . .
Bus or Srikaiita,
Bandor Poonch,
Black Rock Guaream,
Choomalari, . . .
Choomoonko orChola
Chamlang, E., . .

„ W., .

Chaubisi, . . .
Dayabang, . . .
Dhoulagiri, . . .
Everest, Mount, . .
Jannoo, ....
Jib-jibia, ....
Jaonli, ....
Jamnotri, ....

K. 2,

Kanchinjinga, . .

Kabroo

Kamet or Ibi Gamin
Kedarnath, . . .
Morshiadi, . . .
Narsing, ....
Narayani, ....
Nandakut, . . .
Nandd Devi or Latu,
Nandakna, . . .
Nila Kanta, . . .
Powhoonri or Donkia,
Pandim, . .
Pancha-chuli,
Sihsur, . .
Sankosi, . .
Sargoroen,
Trisool, E., .

„ W., .
Tharlasgar, .
Yassa, . . .

Lat. |

Long. |

28° 23' 25"

85*

10' 12"

28 32

9 32

30 44 16

19 20

30 57 25

50 50

31 12

35 45

27 34 7

48 39

27 49 37

18 43

27 27 28

49 38

27 46 27

1 21

27 45 16

51 56

28 49 33

39 33

28 15 17

33 35

28 41 43

32 9

27 59 12

58 6

27 40 52

5 13

28 21 3

49 21

30 51 18

53 53

31 25

34 6

27 42 5

ii 26

27 36 26

9 15

30 55 13

38 4

30 47 53

6 34

28 35 38

51 46

27 30 36

19 28

28 45 39

25 52

30 16 51

6 39

30 22 31

30 41 6

44 53

30 43 52

7(1

26 56

27 56 52

53 5

27 34 34

15 35

30 12 51

28 9

27 53 18

7 54

27 58 13

sr,

28 32

31 6 8

32 32

30 30 56

54 31

30 18 43 179

49 7

30 51 40 |70

2 14

28 32 55

|84

36 9 1

Ht., Ft
24,313
26,069
23,210
20,149
20,758
17,572
23,944
17,325
24,020
22,215
19,415
23,762
26,826
29,002
25,304
26,305
21,672
20,038
28,278
28,156
24,015
25,373
22,790
26,522
19,146
25,456
22,536
25,661
22,093
21,661
23,186
22,017
22,673
27,799
23,570
20.405
23,092
23,382
22,582
26,680

Watershed. — The Himalayan watershed lies at a
very considerable distance to the north of the
great Himalayan peaks, which, from the side of
Hindustan, seem to form the watershed. The
greater part of the giant peaks, which rise to an
elevation of 25,000 to 29,002 feet, are situated
not on the central axis but to the south of it.
Viewed from a distance of about 150 miles, these
mountains present a long line of snow-white
pinnacles, which on a nearer approach are seen
towering above the dark line of lower but still
lofty mountains. The steep face is toward the
plain, and to the north the chain supports the
lofty table-land of Tibet. Deep narrow valleys,
separated by ranges running either parallel or at
right angles with the main ridge, contain the
numerous sources of the rivers flowing into the
Ganges, the Indus, and the Brahmaputra.

Rivers. — The great rivers issuing from the
Himalaya from west to east in succession, are the
Jhelum, the Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, the Sutlej,
the Jumna, the Ganges, the Gogra, the Gandak,
the Kosi, the Tista, the Monas, and the Subansiri.
The Indus, the Kabul river, the Jhelum, the
Chenab, the Ravi, the Beas, and the Sutlej form
seven large rivers, which flow through fertile
valleys. The Jhelum runs in the valley of
Kashmir. The course of the Ravi and Chenab is
short, and their valleys small. The Beas in its

upper portion is in the Kulu valley, but lower
down it becomes entangled amongst the lower
ranges west of Mundi, whence it opens on the
plains of the Sutlej. The Sutlej has a tortuous
entangled course in its upper parts, but enters
the valley west of Simla, in Sukeyt and Balaspur.
The Brahmaputra, Indus, Sutlej, and Kurnali or
Gogra are called by the Tibetans, Tam-jan-
khamba, or Horse's Mouth ; Shingh-gi-khamba,
or Lion's Mouth ; Langchan-khamba, or Bull's
Mouth ; and Mabja-khamba, or Peacock's Mouth.
These four great rivers drain the Kailas group of
mountains. They rise close to the great Kailas
Purbut. Eastward of the meridian marked by the
Sanpu falling into the plain of Assam, the rivers
descending from the eastern part of the Tibetan
highland cut up the plateau into a succession
of lofty ranges and deep gorges running north to
south. These rivers include the Dihong and
other affluents of the Brahmaputra, also the great
Yang-tze-kiang with its tributaries, which flows
southwards to lat. 26° N., then turns eastward, to
traverse the whole of China proper.

Passes. — The Himalaya present almost insur-
mountable obstacles to communication between the
countries which they divide, thereby separating the
Boti or people of Tibet from the Hindu family of
India. The distinction of climate is not less posit-
ively marked, the ranges forming the lines of
demarcation between the cold and dry clhnate of
Tibet, with its dearth of trees, and the warm and
hmnid clhnate of India, with its luxuriance of vege-
table productions. There are, however, many
passes. In Kanawar there are fifteen, at elevations
varying from 15,000 to 17,000feet. From the peak
of Mono-mangh to the sources of the Gilghit and
Kunar rivers, not less than 650 miles, the chain
is pierced by the Sutlej and Para at the base of
Porgyal, and by the Indus at the foot of Dyamur.

Between Gilghit and Chittagong there are a
hundred passes ; but of all these, the basins of
the Ganges and its four great feeders, the Gogra,
the Gandak, Kosi, and Tista, are the great moun-
tain passes of the Himalaya.

The following are the heights of passes over the
Outer Himalaya range : —

Lat.

Long.

lit, Ft.

Barga, . . .

31° 16'

78° 19'

15,000

Ghusul, . . .

31 21

78 8

15,851

Gunas, . . .

31 24

78 8

16,026

Kirolia, . . .

31 15

78 25

17,000

Lumbia, . .

31 16

78 20

16,000

Marga, . . .

31 16

78 21

16,000

Nibrung, . .

31 22

78 10

16,035

Nulgun, . .

31 19

78 13

14,891

Bupin, . . .

31 2

78 10

15,480

Shatul, . . .

31 25

77 58

15,555

Siaga, . . .

31 16

78 20

16,000

Sugla. . . .

31 13

78 29

16,000

Sundru, . . .

31 24

78 2

16,000

Yusu, . . .

31 24

78 4

15,877

Sub-Himalayas or Siwalik. Along the southern
base of the Himalaya, and parallel with the general
direction of the mountains, a series of compara-
tively low ridges extends, formed of tertiary
rocks. In the Panjab, the transition from the
plains to the outer hills is marked by a belt of dry,
porous ground, seamed by numerous gullies or
ravines, from 100 yards to a mile wide, partly
covered with long, tufty jungle grass. To the
east the Terai occupies the same position. This is a
belt of waste, marshy ground, a malarious region

HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS.

HIMALAYA MOUNTAIN*

of varying bread th, lyine; In-low the level of the
plains. Tin -ir.Ki a fiords pasture to innumerable
herds of cows and buffaloes. Beyond lies a dry
belt of ruing ground, called Bhavar, chiefly of a
grarelbj and Bandy nature, with abundance of the
sjiI tree (Vatica robusta). Next intervenes a
range of fossiliferous sandstone, which ahnost
uniformly edges the Himalaya from the Jheluiu
to I'pper Assam. The space between these and
the slope of the Himalayas themselves is occupied
by the Duns, the Maris (in Nepal), and I) wars (in
Hliu'an). longitudinal valleys of rising ground,
chin ■[■ eultivated or yielding a plentiful forest
LTiowih. Streams issuing from the Himalayan
lose a great part or the whole of their
water by percolation through the gravel in the
Hhavar region. At the baM of the slope, mucli
>f the water that h;is percolated the gravel re-issues
n the farm of springs, the ground is marshy, and
Rgn gran replaces the forest. This tract is the
lVrai. i term not unfrequently applied to the
whole forest -clad slope of the Himalayas, known
1 1 so in Nepal as Morung.

Sivalaya (Sivalik) is the local name of the range
separating the Dehra Doon from the plains east of
he Jumna, and this has given the term Siwalik.
It was in the Siwalik Hills that Lieut. (General Sir
Proby) Cautley, in the early part of the 19th cen-
-,ury, discovered the presence of fossils ; and the
Elections made by him and Dr. Falconer were
lescribed by the latter in the Fauna Antiqua
Sivalensis and Palseontological Memoirs. The
,'ieat fossiliferous deposit of the Siwaliks is near
he valley of Markanda, westward of the Jumna,
ind below Nahun. By the joint labours of Lieut.
Uautley and Dr. Falconer, and of Lieutenants
Baker and Durand, a sub-tropical mammalian
ossil fauna was brought to light, unexampled for
•ichness and extent in any other region then
mown. It included, amongst the Primates,
tpecies of macacus (2), and semnopithecus (2) ;
)f the Carnivora, species of felis, cams, ursus,
lyaena, meles, mellivora, lutra, machaerodus,
mhydriodon, etc. ; of the Proboscidea, elephas
», euelephas loxodon (1), stegodon (5), mas-
»don (4), tetralophodon (6), trilophodon (7) ;
)f the Ungulata perissodactyla, rhinoceros, acero-
berium, Ustridon, equus, hipparion ; of Ungulata
irtiodactyla species, hippopotamus, bippopota-
nidon, tetraconodon, sus, cervus, camelopardalis,
uvatherium, bos, bison, bubalus, antilope, capra,
>vis, camelus. Of the Rodents, species of mus
^1), rhizomys and hystrix. Among the Reptilia,
nonitors and crocodiles of living and extinct
ipecies, the enormous tortoise, Colossochelys
£tlas, with numerous species of emys and
rionyx. And, along with fossil fish, Cyprinidae
ind Siluridas, no less than 25 species of shells
irere found, all of which but 4 are now extinct.
Phe general facies of the extinct fauna exhibited a
ongregation of forms participating of European,
African, and Asiatic types. They are beautifully
irranged in the London Natural History Museum.

Himalaya, as a name, is from the Sanskrit words
Eima, snow, and Alaya, an abode. The range is
dso called Himadri, and Himavat ; also Himachala
[snowy mountain), and also Himadaya, the place
)f appearance of snow (Adaya, appearance), whence
die classic name JSmodus. Himavat, the Western
Himalaya, where it bifurcates and embraces the
country occupied of old by the Sakse, was the

Emails of ancient geographers, the Himin of the

MCBSO-Gothie, the Hemel ( Himmel) of I h<- ( ',' i man,
and the Hevcn el the An-lo -Saxon. Pliny was
fully aware of the signilieatioii of the name. for
he says (Hist Nat. vi. p. 117), ' Imaus in colarum
lingua, nivorum ■gni'ftfflns ' Hindus call till the
high snowy peaks of the Himalaya by the generic
name Kailasa ; and, in the mythology of the Hin-
du-. Mount Kailasa is the heaven of Siva and of
Vishnu; another fabled Himalayan mountain, Merit
or Su-meru, bflUg the site of Swarga, the heaven
of Indra; and in Hindu mythology the sacred
Ganges is fabled to spring from the feet of Vishnu.
Races. — The habitable parte of the range are
occupied by Mongoloid races, and to a small extent
by tribes of Aryan descent; and many of the
tribes are supposed to have occupied their present
localities before the 4th or the 7th centuries a.d.
A sparse Aryan population lies Nattered among
tin- valleys.

The Bhot area is bounded on the south by
India and Kashmir, on the north by Chinese
Tartary, and on the west by Little Bokhara
and Kafiristan. Amongst them may be men-
tioned the Mahomedan Bhot of Baltistan or
Little Tibet, of Rongdo, Skardo, Parkuta, and
Khartakshi, of Shigar, Chorbad, etc. ; (2) the
Buddhist Bhot of Ladakh, Hungrung and Kana-
war, the Bhot of the Chinese empire, the Tibetans
of Rudok, Garo, Goga, etc., of Lhassa and Tishu-
Lumbu, the Si-Fan, the Lhopa of Bhutan, the
Tak, the Bhot of Garbwal, Kamaon, and Nepal ;
the Chepang, and probably the Rhondur, the Clink,
the Drok, the Hor, the Kolo ; and (3) in the
further east are the Koch'h, the Diurnal, the
western Bodo of Sikkim ; and (4) still farther are
the Bhutan frontier, and still farther are the
eastern Bodo or Boro of Assarn and Cachar, the
Garo, the Khassya, and the Mikir. To the central
region are similarly confined, each in their own
province, from west to east, the Dunghar (west
of Nepal), the Dardu, the Gakar, the Baniba, the
Kakka, the Dogra, the Kanet, the Garhwali, the
Kohli, the Kas or Khasia (in Nepal), the Magar, the
Gurung, the Kusunda, the Chepang, the Sunwar,
the Newar, the Murmi or Tamar, the Khombo or
Kiranti, the Yakha, the Limbu or Yak-thumba,
the Lepcha or Deunjongmaro (in Sikkim). the
Lhopa (in Bhutan), the Dafla (east of Bhutan),
the Abor and Bor, the Miri, and the Mishmi.
The Cis - Himalayan Bhotia (called Palusen,
Rongbo, Serpa, Kath - Bhotia, etc.), extend
along the whole line of the ghats, and with the
name have retained unchanged the lingual and
physical characteristics, and even the manners,
customs, and dress, of their transnivean brethren.
The passes through the Snowy Range are occupied
by the Bhoti, who have a monopoly of the trade
across the Himalaya, are carriers, loading the goods
on the backs of sheep. Most of the traders of
the snow valleys have some members of their
families residing at Daba or Gyani, on the Nuna
k ha r lake.

The men of all races in the hills are short
and of poor physique ; they look worn, and get
deep-lined on the face at a comparatively early
age. The young women are often extremely
pretty, those living in the higher and colder
villages having, at 15 or 16, a complexion
as fair as many Spaniards or Italians, anil with
very regular features. But they grow darker as

HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS.

they advance in years, and become very plain.
As a general description of the Mongoloid tribes
there, the head and face is very broad, usually
widest between the cheek-bones, sometimes as
wide between the angles of the jaws; forehead
broad, but low and somewhat receding ; chin
defective ; mouth large and salient, but the teeth
vertical, and the lips not tumid ; gums thickened ;
eyes wide apart and oblique ; nose long, pyra-
midal ; hair of head copious and straight ; of
the face and body deficient ; stature low, but
muscular and strong ; character phlegmatic, good-
humoured, cheerful, and tractable. Polyandry yet
exists partially, but is disappearing. Female
chastity is little heeded before marriage. Crime
rare, and they are truthful. They sacrifice, and
are little Hinduized. Their craftsmen are stranger
helot races, located amongst them from time im-
memorial, as smiths, carpenters, curriers, potters.
The Newar alone have any literature, and that
wholly exotic.

To the lower range, again, and to similarly
malarious sites of the middle region, are exclus-
ively confined the Koch'h, Bodo, Dhimal (Sikkim
and east of it), the Kichak, Pallas, Hayu, Tharu,
Dhenwar, Kumba, Bhramu, Dahi or Dari, Kuswar,
the Bhotia (in Nepal), the Boksa (in Kamaon,),
the Khatir, the Awan, the Janjoh, the Chib, and
the Bahoa (west of Kamaon to the Indus).

The Khas, Magar, Gurung, Newar, Murmi,
Lepcha, and Bodpa, etc., are dominant un-
broken tribes. The broken tribes are all the
Awalia, the Chepang, Kusunda, and Hayu, and
there are tribes of helot craftsmen, blacksmiths,
carpenters, curriers, etc., who are regarded as
unclean. The unbroken tribes are the more
recent immigrants from the north ; their languages
are of the simpler Turanian type, whereas those
of the broken tribes are of the complex or pro-
nomenalized type, and the phenomena of ethno-
logy in the Himalaya warrant the conclusions that
they were peopled by successive swarms from the
great Turanian hive, and that its tribes are still
traceably akin alike to the Altaic branch of the
north, and to the Dravidian of the south. The
Khas, the Kanet, the Dogra, and several other
tribes of the Western Himalaya, are clearly of
mixed breed, descended from Tartar mothers and
Aryan fathers.

The Himalayan mountains thus form the meeting-
ground of the Aryan and Turanian races. The
two stocks are in some places curiously inter-
mingled, though generally distinguishable. To
the extreme north-west are found the Dard, an
Ayran race of mountaineers, abutting on the
Pathans or Afghans on the west, and the Balti,
a race of mahomedanized Tibetans of the Turan-
ian stock, on the east. To this latter stock also
belong the Champa, a race of hardy nomades,
wandering about the high-level valleys of Rupshu,
and the Ladakhi, a settled race, cultivating the
valleys of their country. The other Aryan races
are the Pahari or ' mountaineers, ' the Kashmiri,
the Dogra, and Chibhali, who inhabit the outer
hills. In Garhwal and Kamaon we find the
Kanawari (inhabitants of Bashahir), the Nilang
people, who differ in no respect from those of
Hundes, and the inhabitants of the Bhotia Mahals
of Kamaon and Garhwal, who are of mixed Tartar
and Indian origin.

A number of the hill-men are Rajputs, and

there are a few villages of Brahmans. The Dom a
hereditary bondsmen to the Rajputs. Basgi men ai
women are singers at the temples. From Kashm
eastwards, all the easily accessible portions of tl
Himalaya are occupied by Aryan Hindu as far
the eastern border of Kamaon and the Kali rive
separating Kamaon from Nepal, — the Tibetans beii
here confined to the valleys about and beyond tl
snow. People of Tibetan blood have migrated in
Nepal throughout its whole length, and ha'
formed mixed tribes, whose appearance and la:
guage is more Tibetan than Indian, but who
religion and manners are Hindu. East of Nepi
in Sikkim and Bhutan, the Hindu element almc
disappears, and the Tibetans are altogether don
nant. Between the Kali and Dhansri, in Nepi
Sikkim, and Bhutan, the ordinary population coi
sists of the following : —

1. Cis-Himalayan Bhotia or Tibetans, called Rongb

Siena or Kath Bhotia ; Palu-Sen.

2. Serpa. 3. Gurung. 4. Magar. 5. Murmi.
6. Newar. 7. Kiranti. 8. Limbu or Yak-thuml
9. Lepcha or Deunjong Maro.

10. Bhutanese, or Lhopa, or Dukpa, or Brukpa.

Gurkha, Gurung, Magar. — In Nepal, in the wc
are the Gurung and Magar tribes, short, with fe
tures of an extreme Mongolian type, full of mart
ardour and energy. They are famed as the Gurk
soldiers. They have considerable intellectual abilil

The Newar of the valley of Nepal are the cidl
vating peasantry, have Tibetan features, with
fair and ruddy complexion. The language of tl
Magar, Gurung, and Newar is chiefly Tibeta
Farther east are the Keranti, Murmi, and othei
Some mixed races are found to the south of eai
chain, as the Lahuli and Kanawari in the wes
and the Gurkha and Bhutani in the east.

Highest Permanently Inhabited Villages.
1. Bhutan, Sikkim, Nepal. 2. Kamaon and Garhwa

Yangma Guola, 9,279 feet.
Lamteng, . . 8,883 „
Bumdangtang, 8,668 ,,
Lachung, . . 8,630 ,,

3. Simla and Kulu.
BambhoraGarh,9,844 feet
Janglik, . . 9,257 „
Jatvar, . . 8,177 ,,
Kot, . . . 7,678 „

5. Kishtwar and Kashmir.

Ussilla, . . 8,940 fet

Tsobta, . . 8,842

Mukba, . . 8,600

Kathi, . . . 7,410

4. Lahol, Kanaur.

Darcke,
Rarik, .
Kunu, .

11,746 fe(

11,685

11,683

Sukne, . . . 9,122 feet. Daver, .
Bara Banghal, 8,535 „ Kullan,
Pashmin, . . 8,351 ,, Shapion,

II. Highest Summer Villages of Kamaon and Garhws
They do not occur in the Himalaya west of Garhwal

7,718 fe<

7,175

6,672

Kedarnath,
Goh, . .
Loa, . . .

11,794 feet.
11,561 „
11,540 „

Niti, .
Nelong,
Milum,

11,464 fee

11,350

11,265

III. Western Tibet.
A. Highest Permanently Inhabited Villages.

Hanle, a Buddhist

monastery, 15,117 feet.

Chushul, a small
village, . . 14,406 „

Pananuk, a shep-
herds' settle-

14,146 „

ment,

Puling, in Gnari

Khorsum, . 13,953 fee

Towns with a considerab

number of Stone House

Muglab,
Kibar, .
Gya, .

13,847 fee
13,607 „
13,548 „

B. Highest Summer Villages.

Norbu, . . 15,946 feet.
Chabrang, . 15,588 „
Korzog, . . 15,349 „

Puga, .
Gartok,

. . 15,264 fee
. . 15,090 „

C. Highest Pasture Grounds in

Summer.

Larsa, . . . 16,349 feet.
Zinchin, . . 16,222 „
Kiangchu, . 15,781 ,,

Rukcbin,
Amlung,
Jugta, .

. . 15,064 fee
. . 15,300 „
. . 15,058 „

HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS.

IV. Kou.n l.im.

Highest pasture
grounds, . 13,000 feet.

• \ill.igo»,i>, 400 feet.
Bmeit MiimiiuT

villages. . 10,200 „

V. Andes. Highest TownH and Villager

Authorities : Burkart ; Humboldt ; Pentland ;

Wisli/.enus.

I ile

1 1,098 feet (H.)

., (H.)

. ii,3.so ,, (p.;

Turche, . 10,041 feet (H.)
Cebolullullo.8,890 „ J P.
Zacatecas, 8,051 „ (B.J
Mexioo, . 7,469 „ (H.)

Sanatory stations and convalescent depots for

British troops have been formed on Bpurs from

fee Himalayas, as well as on other of the hill

of British India, as on Mount Abu, Maha-

•■ ar, Rainanmallay, the Neilgherries. In 1877

rtality at the hill stations was only 6*49 per

in Bengal proper, 9*11 ; in Meerut and

lohilkhand, 10-16; in the Panjab, 10-68; Gan-

getic provinces, 18-24 ; Agra and Central India,

1 1 in Kamaon, .... 5300-5500 feet.
. on the Sutlej, 150 miles from Simla, 9096 ,,
i', "ii the Chamba Hills, . . 5700 ,,

Darjiling, 7218 „

Dharmsala or Bhagsu, Kangra Hills, . 5000-6000 „

li, 16 miles S. of Simla, . . 5000-6000 „

Kussowlee, 45 miles from Ambala, . . 6400 ,,

i adjoining Mussoori, . . 7300-7572 ,,

in the Hazara Hills, . . . 8000 „

ri near Landour, . . . 6400-7200 ,,

Tal, in Kamaon, 22 miles S.AV.

of Almora, 6409-7400 „

Simla, 77 miles from Ambala, and 22

miles N.E. of Subathu, . . 6500-8000 „
Subathu, 9 miles from Kussowlee, . . 4000 ,,

Languages. — In the Himalaya, according to Mr.
Ijltcheson, the various dialects are mixed together
in L r n at confusion. On the northern Assam frontier
in found, in the following order from E. to W., the
Aka. Abor, Dafla, Miri, and Mishmi ; next to these
is Bhutia, which carries us as far E. as the Tista ;
Sikkini, or the country between the Tista and
ii,r Singhaleela range, contains the Lepcha and
Liinlm dialects. The Sikkim Terai gives us the
Diurnal, Bodo or Mechi, and Koch'h, which latter
also occupy the plains of Koch-Bahar, and the
northern parts of Runipur, Dinajpur, and Pur-
'niah. In Nepal, according to Mr. Hodgson and
Dr. Campbell's researches, we find a perfect maze
I of dialects. Beginning from the Singhaleela range,
we find Limbu or Kiranta, which goes W. as far
as the Dudkusi river, in long. 86 44'. Sher-
will found the Gurung in the higher parts of
Singhaleela, closely connected with whom are the
Munni. Along the lower hills are the Magar,
who extend to the W. as far as Palpa. Some-
where about here we should apparently place the
in-ahum, Chepang, Hayu or Vayu, and Kusunda.
In Central Nepal are the Newar, Pahri, and
Brahmo, a dialect of Magar, also the Darahi or
Dorhi, Danwar, and Paksya. The Tharu Uve in
ihe Terai between Chumparum and the Khat-
mandu valley, as far W. as the river Gandak.
These last four are classed among Indo-Germanic
languages. The rest are Turanian, with more or
less infusion of Hindi. The Parbatia or Paharia,
a dialect of Hindi, is spoken all over Nepal, and
jis the court language. West of this again comes
the Palpa, then the Thaksya, Sunwar, and Sarpa,
the dialects of Kajnaon and Garhwal, which carry
us on to the Milchan of Kanawar, the Hundesi,
mil Tilwirskad north of it. West of this come
ra dialects of the Panjab hills.

I 'n/lri/n. — The Dchra Doon is a winter valley. Its
length is about 45 miles ami its breadth aliout half
thai. It is shut on the north by the Siwalik range,
rising 3000 feet high. On the E. are ItlliiiiiHWM
mountains rising 7000 or 8000 feet, amongst them
Mussoori and Landour ; the Asun and the Sooswa
rivers drain it It is clear of jungle, and well
cultivated. The tea-plant thrives, and the village
of Dehra is large and thriving.

In the Kangra valley, some places like Bhagsu
(Dharmsala), and the road from Kangra town,
HauralMigh and Fouta-Kal, are beautiful, as also
are the views of the Snowy Range. Kot Kangra
or Kangra town was the capital of a powerful hill
state, which was conquered by the Sikhs. It is
2500 feet above the level of the sea. Bhagsu,
above Dharmsala, is 7000 feet above the sea.
Haurabagh is 7000 feet, and Fouta-Kal 9000 feet
above the sea. The Kangra people are sturdy,
honest, and independent.

The Sutlej valley commences a few miles above
Mundi, and continues up for about 40 miles,
almost to Simla and Subathu, and has the sana-
toria of Simla, Kussowlee, Nagkunda, and Chor.
Mundi is the chief town of the Mundi state.
The Sutlej people are amiable and gentle, free of
low cunning, having the appearance of a mixed
race between the Tartar and the common hill-
men. They are fair, well made, and strong, but
are filthy and indigent. The women have a toga
fastened round the waist. Nagkunda is esti-
mated at 9000 feet above the level of the sea.
Chor is 12,000 feet.

The Beas valley exceeds in beauty that of
Kashmir. It runs from the Bajaora mountain on
the north, to the Snowy Range on the south, a
length of about 60 miles, and its heights range
from 4500 feet at the foot of the Bajaora pass, to
9000 feet at Ralha at the foot of the Rotang pass.
Sultanpur is 4584 feet. It is the only town in
the valley, and trades with Ladakh, Central Asia,
Mundi, and Kangra. Polyandry prevails in the
Beas valley, but the general immorality is ascribed
to the large numbers of Yarkandi traders.

Kulu. — The poorer Kulu people wear only a
blanket, wound around the waist, and one end
flung across the shoulders and pinned across the
chest ; men and women often dress alike, but the
long hair of the women is plaited in one tress.

Animal Life. — The partridge has been observed
16,080 feet above the sea, and crows and ravens
1 6, 500. The Khali j pheasants never descend below
12,000 feet ; and high over the Kinchinghow
(22,756 feet), flocks of wild geese are seen to wing
their flight. The wild yak, the existence of which
in the wild state has been doubted, and the kiang,
five to six species of wild sheep and goats, hares,
and mice, are found as high as 16,000 to 17,000
feet The highest permanent village occupied by
man is at 11,746 feet (Darcke), but in summer the
herdsmen go higher up the mountains. On the
southern slope the cultivation has not risen higher
than 10,000 feet; but on the north side are the
cultivated valleys of the Baspa river at 11,400
feet, and advancing farther, the habitations of man
are to be seen as high as 13,000 feet, and cultiva-
tion 13,600 feet There are many shrines and
sacred spots within the ranges to which Hindu
pilgrims resort, and numbers of them perish
amidst the perpetual snows. Amongst them is
Badarinath, in Garhwal, a temple dedicated to an

HIMALAYA MOUNTAINS.

HIMYAR.

incarnation of Vishnu, 10,294 feet above the sea.
Kedarnath is another Vaishnava temple within the
Himalayas, 11,794 feet above the sea; Gangotri
also, in Garhwal, at 10,319 feet of elevation, is
another shrine, its vicinity being sacred to Hindu
thought, as near it, at 13,800 feet, the Bhagirathi
issues, no puny stream, from beneath a glacier.

Flora. — If we commence with the bases of
these mountains, and pass successively through the
several belts, we first find a vegetation similar to
that of the southern provinces of India : the agri-
cultural products consist of rice, millet, amaranth,
an esculent arum, ginger, turmeric, a little cotton,
and sugar, at the season, succeeded by wheat,
barley, and buckwheat, in the cold -weather
months. Along with plantains, oleander, and
some of the orange tribe, we meet also with some
species which were long considered peculiar to
China, as Marlea begonifolia and Houttuynia cor-
data, with species of Chloranthus, Incarvillea, and
others. On ascending higher, we pass through
different gradations of vegetation until reaching
the regions of the oaks and rhododendrons, which
is immediately succeeded by that of pines.

Trees grow very generally in the Himalaya up
to heights of 11,800 feet, and in most parts there
are extensive forests covering the sides of the
mountains at but a little distance below this limit.
In Western Tibet, however, there is nothing at
all corresponding to a forest. Apricot trees, wil-
lows, and poplars are frequently cultivated on a
large scale ; poplars, indeed, are found at Mang-
nang in Gnari Khorsum at a height of 13,457 feet,
but they are the objects of the greatest care and
attention to the lamas. On the northern side of
the Kouen Lun are no trees at all, owing to the
considerable height of the valleys. In the Andes
they end at about 12,130 feet ; in the Alps, on an
average, at 6400 feet, isolated specimens occurring
above 7000 feet. The cultivation of grain coin-
cides in most cases with the highest permanently
inhabited villages ; but the extremes of cultivated
grain remain below the limit of permanent habita-
tion. In the Himalaya, cidtivation of grain does
not exceed 11,800 feet, in Tibet 14,700 feet, and
in the Kouen Lun 9700 feet. For the Andes
the limit is 11,800 feet. In the Alps, some of
the extremes are found near Findeler, at a
height of 6630 feet, but the mean is about 5000
feet. The upper mean limit of grass vegetation
in the Himalaya is at 15,400 feet ; in Western
Tibet, nearly the same level as for the highest
pasture grounds, 16,500 feet, may be adopted,
in the Kouen Lun grass is not found above 14,800
feet. Shrubs grow in the Himalaya up to 15,200
feet ; in Western Tibet as high as 17,000 feet ;
and in one instance, at the Gunshankar, even to
17,313 feet. On the plateaux to the north of the
Kara-korum, shrubs are found at 16,900 feet,
and, which is more remarkable, they occasionally
grow there in considerable quantities on spots
entirely destitute of grass. As an example may
be mentioned, amongst several others, the Vohab-
Chilgane plateau (16,419 feet), and A Bashmalgun
(14,207 feet). In the Kouen Lun the upper
limit of shrubs does not exceed 12,700 feet.
Above this height grass is still plentiful, and
shrubs being here, as generally everywhere else,
confined to a limit below the vegetation of grass,
the range presents an essential contrast in this
respect to the characteristic aspect of the Kara-

korum. The number of species of plants, as I
well as the number of individuals, is exceedingly U
limited in the higher parts of the Kouen Lun. >|
Lichens are completely wanting in the dry angular I
gravel covering the high plateau, and the slopes I
of the mountains in their neighbourhood.

Snow is a phenomenon which varies extremely 1
with the latitude, longitude, humidity, and many g
local circumstances. In Ceylon and the Madras I
Peninsula, whose mountains attain 9000 feet, and fl
where considerable tracts are elevated above 6000 |
to 8000 feet, snow has never been known to fall. I
On the Khassya mountains, which attain 7000 feet, I
and where a great extent of surface is above 5000 1
feet, snow seems to be unknown. In Sikkim j
snow annually falls at about 6000 feet elevation, I
in Nepal at 5000 feet, in Kamaon and Garhwal I
at 4000 feet, and in the extreme West Himalaya H
lower still. In the Sikkim Himalaya, the giant |
peaks of Donkiah, Kinchinghow (22,756 feet),
and Kanchinjinga, the third greatest mountain of
the world (28,156 feet), only surpassed in altitude
by the Kara-korum (28,278 feet), and Mount
Everest (29,002 feet), form the culminating points
in this magnificently wooded region. The truly
temperate vegetation supersedes the sub-tropical
above 4000 to 6000 feet; and the elevation at
which this change takes place corresponds roughly
with that at which the winter is marked by an
annual fall of snow. — Outer Mountains of Kemaon,
by Capt. Herbert, in Bl. As. Trans, xi. xii. ; Royle,
III. Him. Bot. ; Herm. Schl. ; MacG. ; Campbell,
pp.47, 147-8, 168; Thomson's Travels; Hooker
f. et Thorn, pp. 189, 190 ; Hooker, Him. Jour. ;
Universal Review, No. 3, p. 359 ; Major Cunning-
ham • Captain Strachey, Report, Brit. Association,
1847 ; Annals, Indian Administration ; Medlicott
and BlanforoVs Geology of India ; Trelawney
Saunders; Magnetic Survey of India, p. 9;
Fraserh Himalaya Mountains; H. H. Wilson , s
Hindoo Sects ; Imperial Gazetteer.

HIMIS, a Buddhist monastery near Leh in
Ladakh, 12,324 feet above the sea.

HIMMARGUJERATI, one of the eighty-foui
Gachchas of the Jaina sect.

HIMMAT BAHADAR, the pupil of Rajendnl
Gir, a Dasnami ascetic.

HIMYAR was the fifth monarch from Kalitau.
and gave his name to a dynasty which ruled
over Yemen for many centuries, with varying
fortune and different degrees of magnificence
Himyar was the first of the descendants ol
Kahtan who reigned over the whole of Yemen.
This dynasty terminated on the conquest oi
Yemen by the Abyssinians in a.d. 525 ; and Dthoc
Nawaz, the last of them, was the tyrant who de-
stroyed the Christians of Nejran by burning 20,00(
in a pit, noticed in chapter 85 of the Koran ail
the martyrs the brethren of the pit. The dynastjf
had ruled in Yemen for 2000 years, and its down •[
fall was accelerated by the intolerance of thtf
Jewish Tobbas. For a short time prior to A.Dj
595, assisted by the Persian monarchs, Nushir-|
wan and Khusru Parwez, the dynasty again rulec
over Yemen, but was ultimately put aside bjs
Persia declaring Yemen to be a satrapy. Thtf
devotions of the Himyarites were addressed to s|
multitude of deities, of which the principal wert^
the sun, the moon, and the planets. The mostj
powerful of this dynasty was Abu Karib, com-,
monly called Tobba. In a.d. 206 he covered thfl

HINAYANA.

HINDU.

Kaba with a tapestry of leather, and supplied its
door with a lock of gold. The Beni Himyar of
S. Alalia claim to be descendants of that dynasty.
Himyaritic inscriptions were found by Lieutenant
Cruttenden in the town of Senaa. They are
Kkewise met with at Aden. The language appears
to lean more to Hebrew than the Ethiopic, while
ira language, called also Ekhili or Mahrali,
is more akin to Ethiopic. — Play/air's Yemen;
r's J'r. ii. 178; Wrii/ltt's Christ, in Arabia.

II I.N A VAN A, a form of Buddhism which pre-
vails I in India east of the Indus. It was put
aside by Kanishka, who introduced the Mahayana
lohism. The llinayana was the purer sect of the
Buihlhists, followers of the lesser vehicle.

HIND. The term India, by which this country,
M far as it was known, is distinguished in the
Murlh st Grecian histories, appears to be derived
from Hind, the name given to it by the ancient
ns; through whom, doubtless, the know-
both of the country and its name were
tnmsmitted to the Greeks. Mr. Wilkins says that
no such word as Hindu or Hindustan are to be
found in the Sanskrit dictionary. The people
■Bong whom the Sanskrit language was vernacular,
tfltyled their country Bharata. — RennelVs Memoir.

HINDI is a term used all over Northern India,
>te the vernacular tongue of the districts.
speaking generally, the whole of Upper India,
■eluding the Panjab, but exclusive of Bengal,
nay be said to be possessed by one language, the
Hindi. This range, therefore, would include all
the Rajput states, Jeysulmir, Ajmir or Rajasthan,
Mi' war, Marwar, Bikanir; and also the N. and E.
in Lahore, Multan, Dehli, Agra, Malwa, Gujerat,
Oudh. Allahabad, and Behar. Indeed, in the
entire tracts lying between the Vindhya on the
south, the Himalaya on the north, the Indus on
the west, and Bengal and Assam on the east, are
spoken what are called Hindi dialects, some of
which contain Sanskrit words to the extent of
line-tenths of their entire vocables. The lan-
jwages spoken in the north-western border of
India, between it and Afghanistan, and those
of India adjoining Afghanistan, are dialects
of Hindi, but sufficiently distinct to be called
Sindi. Panjabi, and Kashmiri. Lieut. Leech, in-
deed, has given vocabularies of seven languages
-poken on the west of the Indus. Accord-
ing to Colebrooke, Hindi owes nine-tenths of its
voeatiles to Sanskrit roots ; but when it is spoken
by Mahomedans, who added to it Arabic and
Persian roots, it became converted into Hindus-
tani or Urdu, literally the camp tongue. It is
that which the Mahomedans generally, and the
Indian army everywhere, speak, and has hitherto
l>een the language employed in personal inter-
course by the British in their communications with
the people of the country, though only formed into
a written tongue since the beginning of the nine-
teenth century by Dr. John Borthwick Gilchrist of
the Bengal Medical Service. The learned and
the great retain Persian for epistolatory corre-
spondence. When, however, Hindi is spoken by
Hindus, who draw on Sanskrit for enrichment or
embellishment, it appropriately retains the name
of Hindi. Modified in these various ways, it is
found not only on the plains of Hindustan, but
also on the southern slope of the Himalayas, for
Mr. Trail informs us that the language of Kamaon
and Garhwal is pure Hindi. Indeed, generally,

along the Sub-Himalayan range as far as the
Gogia river, the impure Hindi dialect introduced
by the Gurkhas from the plains appears to be
extirpating the vernacular Tibetan tongues of the
aboriginal mountaineers. Mr. Masson made him-
self understood throughout the whole of Kohistan ;
and it will thus be seen that the term is used to
bring under one common designation the various
dialects of a language essentially one, but which
has received no great cultivation in any of its
forms. According to the Brahman pandits of
Benares, there are hundreds of dialects equally
entitled to the name. The Brij Basha (or Bhaka,
as it is pronounced on the Ganges) and the
Panjabi are the two most cultivated varieties of
it ; but the Panjabi passes into Multani, which a
good philologist has shown to be a corrupted
form of Panjabi ; whilst Jataki, again, farther to
the south, is a corrupted form of Multani ; Sindi,
according to Lieut. Burton, is a perfectly distinct
dialect, though directly derived from Sanskrit.
When the Mahrattas extended their conquests
into Hindustan, they saw Hindi everywhere
prevalent, from the limits of the desert to the
frontiers of Bundelkhand, and, finding it different
from their own tongue, they called it contemp-
tuously Rangri Basha, quasi barbarous jargon.
Sir John Malcolm extends the Rangri Bhaka as
far west as the Indus, and east as far as the fron-
tier of Bundelkhand, where, as in all the country
to the Indus from the western frontier of Bengal,
dialects of Hindi prevail. The Marwari and other
dialects of Rajputana are evident varieties of Hindi
introduced by the Rajput races.

The great variety of the Hindi dialects is
doubtless owing to the absence or non-use of any
common book, as the Bible or New Testament ;
and from the prolonged dominance of the Maho-
medan rulers, and the encouragement given by
them, by the ruling Hindu courts, and by the
British, to the study of Persian, Hindi has been
less studied than the Persian or modern Urdu.
In 1872, in eight districts of the N.W. Provinces,
the Urdu or Persian reading pupils in the Tahsili
and Halkabandi schools largely exceeded the Hindi
and Nagri reading scholars, ranging from fths to
3ths.

The people speaking these Hindi dialects are
of different races. Amongst the races in this
tract are the Mhairs of Ajmir, the Rajputs, the
Hindus of the eastern counties, called Purbbiahs,
and the descendants of the Aryan conquerors
who have been residing there nigh two thousand
years, men of large physical frame, proud, vain,
self-reliant, and abstemious.

H INDIAN, a small town in Khuzistan, on the
J Tab river, 35 miles from its mouth, navigable
I to this town for bagla and boats. — MacG. p. 176.

HINDIKI, a name by which the Hindus are
designated in Afghanistan and westwards to
I Russia. In Astracan there are about five hun-
dred families. Mr. Mitchell says that the repu-
tation of these Hindu colonists stands very high,
and that they bear a preference over all the
merchants of other nations settled in this great
commercial city. The Hindiki in Afghanistan
are described by Bellew as descendants of Arab
fathers with Hindu mothers. The Indian born
Habvish, slaves of the Nawabs of the Karnatic,
were styled Hindi.

HINDU is the ordinary name by which the

HINDU.

. HINDU.

idol-worshipping people of British India are at
present known, but the term is only of recent use.
The races to whom it is applied are only now
fusing, under the firm rule of the British, and
never, hitherto, could have had one common
designation. Bharata or Bharatavart'ha is an
ancient Sanskrit name for part of the countries
which Europeans include in the term India. Hindu
for the people, and Hindustan for the country,
now so generally applied by natives as well as
foreigners, are possibly of Persian or W. Aryan
origin, and may have relation to the seven rivers
of the Panjab, the Sabp'ta-Sindhu, which the
Aryans met with in their course to the south,
the river Indus being still known as the Sindhu
or Sind'h (Hitopadesa, p. 333). With the Persians,
Ind or Hind and Hindu, as synonymous with
black, has long been applied to the dark-coloured
populations in the territories which are now com-
prised in British India. The Arab, the Persian,
the Afghan, and Sikh, when speaking of the people
of India, only call them ' black men ; ' and even in
India the Mahomedan descendants of the Arab,
Persian, Moghul, and Afghan conquerors use the
same designation. ' Kala Admi,' literally black
man, is ever in their mouths ; and Hindus them-
selves, in their various tongues, likewise so dis-
tinguish themselves from all the fair foreigners
amongst them. The African races, who were
formerly brought to India as the household slaves
or guards of native princes, invariably, when allud-
ing to such of their own people as are born in the
country, style them Hindi ; and the Hindu mer-
chants trafficking throughout Afghanistan, Central
Asia, and Russia, are known to the people as
Hindiki. Therefore, though a large part of the
idol-worshipping people now-a-days call them-
selves Hindu, in this they are merely following the
names given to them by their Arab, Persian, Afghan,
Turk, Moghul, Tartar, and British rulers. Even
Europeans have only of late habitually used this
term, for at the beginning of the 19th century
Gentoo was the everyday name employed, though it
has since gradually fallen into disuse. It, also, was
derived from a foreign people, the Portuguese, and
was applied to the idol-worshippers, like the Gens
of the Romans and Gentile of the Scriptures. It
never, perhaps, reached much beyond the sea-
port towns, and if the better educated amongst
the natives ever employed it, their doing so was
merely in imitation of Europeans. And now, too,
similarly, Brahmans and others, when alluding to
the Teling race of their own countrymen, likewise
style them Hindus.

Hindu is thus almost entirely a European con-
ventional term, and does not represent a nation,
a race, or a religion. The great bulk of the people
known by this appellation are the descendants of
Turanian, Scythian, and even Aryan immigrants,
who in bygone ages are supposed to have left
the cold north, some offshoots moving westward,
and others to the south ; for remnants of Turan-
ian languages are found in Baluchistan, and the
seat of the great Sanskrit-speaking people was
long in Kashmir, proving that one great highway
to the south had been down the valley of the
Indus, through Kashmir and the Panjab. But
between the valley of the Indus and that of the
Brahmaputra, there are 20 or 30 passes in the
Himalaya through which the northern races could
stream to the genial south. Amongst the first of

these immigrants seemingly were Kolarian and
Dravidian races, belonging to the Turanian family
of mankind, bodies of whom seem to have spread
themselves over the Peninsula. As to the date of
their advent, however, history is silent, but there
seems no doubt that great branches of the Scythic
stock were occupants of India at the time that
it was to a considerable extent conquered by the
Sanskrit-speaking tribes of the Aryan family. In
the north, the subjugation or ousting of the Turan-
ians from all rank and power was so complete,
that Sanskrit forms of speech became the lan-
guages of the country ; and now, in the north, Kash-
miri, Panjabi, Sindi, Gujerati, Mahrati, Hindu-
stani, and the Bengali, all of them with a large
admixture of Sanskrit, are sister tongues known
as forms of Hindi. South of the Nerbadda, how-
ever, it is otherwise. Throughout the Peninsula
the languages in use differ from the Sanskrit in
grammar, and only admit Sanskrit words in the
same way that the Anglo-Saxon admitted terms
of law and civilisation from the Norman-French.
At the present day, the south of India more largely
represents the Turanian, and the north the Aryan
race. The fair, yellow-coloured Aryans are, how-
ever, to be met with south even to Cape Comorin ;
but though mixing with the various Dravidian
nations, races, and tribes for at least 3000 years,
in physical form, complexion, intellect, and manners,
the Brahmanical and other Aryan families are
as distinct as when their forefathers first came
from the north, it may be three or four thousand
years ago. The great Aryan migration seems to
have received its first check at the Yindhyan range,
between the 14th and 8th centuries before the
Christian era.

This powerful branch of the Aryans passed into
Northern India between the 14th and 8th centuries
before Christ. They brought with them the lan-
guage of the Vedas ; and as all Brahmans profess
alike to recognise the authority of these sacred
books, we witness the modern worshippers of
Siva, Vishnu, and the maintainers of the Sankhya
or Nyaya or Vedanta doctrines, all considering
themselves and each other to be orthodox mem-
bers of the Hindu community. It is this common
recognition of that one set of religious books
which is the sole bond of union amongst the
descendants of the various races and tribes pro-
fessing Hinduism or Brahmanism, who now people
India. The Aryans seem to have brought with
them a servile race, or to have had amongst them
a social distinction between the noble and the
common people, which has ever continued. As
they conquered southwards, amongst the Turanian
races whom they found in the country, they re-
duced the less civilised tribes to a state of predial
slavery. They named them in fierce contempt,
Dasa or slaves, and these formed the true servile
race of Menu and other writers. Where the
races who had preceded them retained their I
independence, these proud immigrants styled
them M'hlecha, a term which even to the present
day is intended to comprise everything that is
hateful or vile. But the immigrant Aryans found i
along the coasts of India also other races, different (
alike from the Scythic tribes and from the Aryans
of the Vedas, — earlier colonizers or immigrants, I
probably from the west, — who had a civilisation of I
their own, and with whom the Pharaohs, and Solo-
mon and Hiram, and the Cushite Arabs of Yemen

trade

HINDU.

tlic people of K. Africa, carried on a lucrative
• by sea. This people had extended down the
• Cape Coinonn, had crossed over to
Oeylon, and crept up the Coroinandel coast, till
stopped by the Godavery and Mahanadi. AJ1 the
Bengal Presidency and Central India was at that
t im<- thinly inhabited by a Turanian, Sakyan, or
Mongol race, coining down from Tibet and Nepal.
Mut so Bparso was the population whom the Aryans
encountered, that, in the Vedas, Aguiis represented
M the general of Nahusha, the first settler, that is,
tlu v cleared the ground by burning the forests,
and Borne fine descriptions are given of the
grandeur and terror of the sight. Up to the

iinsrnt day the religions of the prior occupants
law never been other than local cults, and many
of them even yet continue very barbarous. The
Mgher civilisation of the East Aryans has enabled
thnn to propagate their changing views, but the

Ehases of their religious beliefs have been marked
y four great epochs : —

I. The Vedic age, which was characterized by the wor-
ship of the gods of the elements, Agni, India, Varuna,
and appears to have been current in the Panjab prior
to the disappearance of the Saras wati in the sand.

II. The Brahmanic age, characterized by the worship
of Brahma, and which seems to have prevailed between
the disappearance of the Saraswati and the advent of
Sakhya.

in. The Buddhist age, which was characterized by
the pursuit of Nirvana, and seemingly prevailed from
about B.C. 600 to a.d. 800 or 1000.

iv. The Brahmanical revival, which is characterized
by the worship of incarnations of deities, and has pre-
vailed from about A.D. 800 till now.

I 'edic Age. — Among the gods whom the Vedic
Aryans worshipped were Indra and Agni. Indra
was the firmament, with all its phenomena. He
alone held the thunderbolt, and was king over
gods and men. Agni was the element of fire.
All the other gods were but manifestations or other
forms of these two. The relationship is evident
between Agni and the sun, the Surya or Sura
Savitri of the Vedas, and a female divinity. But
Indra also is frequently identified with the sun :
indeed, the twelve great deities, or Aditya, are but
other names of the same god as presiding over the
twelve months of the year. The Aditya most
frequently invoked are Mitra, Varuna, Aryaman,
and, in a lesser degree, Ansa, Daksha, Pushan,
Bhaga, Vishnu, and Twashtri. Pushan watches
over roads and travellers ; Twashtri is the Vulcan
or smith of the gods. Slight mention is made of
Vishnu ; but we have the germ of the legendary
three steps, being apparently simply the rise, cul-
mination, and setting of the sun. Among the
inferior deities, the Marut or winds hold the first
place ; and next to them the Aswini, apparently
twins or brothers, and sons of the sea (Sindhu),
so that the Vedic Aryans evidently had settlements
near some water, which they called a sea. The
Aswini are almost invariably represented as having
a triangular car with three wheels, drawn by asses ;
while their name appears to be derived from
Aswa, a horse, which would seem to identify them
with the two horses of the sun. The sakta or
hymns addressed to them are richest of all in
legend. Their connection with Indra (Jupiter),
their patronage of mariners, their twin brother-
hood, the two horses and stars found on their
coins, identify them with the Grecian Dioscuri. In
the Vedas, heaven, earth (Aditi and Pritivi), and
ocean are rarely invoked, and the sun has com-

HINDU.

jmratively few saktas. Occasional laudations are
given to rivers, especially to the Saraswati ; and
this nature-worship extends to the cow, the wood
used in the oblations, and even the vapa or sacri-
ficial post. To Ushas, or the dawn, some of the
most beautiful hymns in the Veda are addressed.
All these deities are expressly declared to be ' the
progeny of the heavens and the earth' (Wilson's
Vedas, i. p. 276). No mention is made of the

f)lanets, — for Brihaspati is not a planet, but ' the
ord of prayer,' — and: the moon has not even a sakta.

The worship of the Vedic race is briefly but
comprehensively described by themselves (Asht.
I. Adhy. I. Sakta 6), where it is said the standers
around associate with (Indra) the mighty (sun),
the indestructive (fire), the moving (wind), and
the lights that shine in the sky. The blessings they
implore, says Professor Wilson, ' are for the most
part of a temporal and personal description,
— wealth, food, life, posterity, cattle, cows, and
horses ; protection against enemies, victory over
them, and sometimes their destruction.' ' There
are a few indications of a hope of immortality and
of further happiness, but they are neither frequent,
nor, in general, distinctly announced.' The only
notice of an after life is found in the legend (for
nothing is founded on it) of three brothers called
Kibhus, who for their meritorious actions were
made gods. Also, in one or two passages, Yama
and his office of ruler of the dead are obscurely
alluded to (Dr. Wilson, i. p. 25). Yama is usually
connected with the Yamuna river. So monotonous
and irreverent are the great bulk of their prayers
(to Indra especially), that Professor Wilson could
scarcely believe them to be in earnest. An in-
stance of this is the hymn addressed to the goddess
Anna (Anna devati, known in Bengal as Anna
Purna), personified as Pitu, or material food, by
the rishi Agastya (see Wilson's Veda, ii. p. 192 ;
Calcutta Review, No. 64, p. 412); and in a similar
strain the soma plant is addressed. This plant, the
Sarcostemma brevistigma, is found all the way
from the mountains of Mazenderan to the Coro-
inandel coast, and Viswamitra is described as
passing the Sutlej and Beas to gather it. Bruised
between two stones, mixed with milk or barley
juice, and fermented, it formed a strong inebriat-
ing spirit. ' The purifying soma, like the sea roll-
ing its waves, has poured forth songs, and hymns,
and thoughts.'

The ritual of these old Aryans, as described in
Professor Wilson's epitome of the saktas, compre-
hended offerings, prayer, and praise. The former
are chiefly oblations and libations of clarified
butter poured on the fire, and the expressed and
fermented juice of this soma plant, presented in
ladles to the deities invoked. It seems to have been
sometimes sprinkled on the fire, sometimes on the
ground, or rather on the kusa sacred grass strewed
on the floor; and in all cases the residue was
drunk by the assistants. There is no mention of
any temple, or any reference to a public place of
worship ; the sacrificial chamber was always in the
house of the worshipper, and it is clear that the
worship was entirely domestic. The worshipper
himself does not appear to have taken any part
personally in the ceremony ; and it was by priests
— seven and sometimes sixteen — by whom the
different ceremonial rites are performed, and by
whom the mantras, or prayer and hymns, were
recited (i. p. 24). The soma juice was the obla-

HINDU.

tion or libation of the Vedic worship (the homa
of the Parsee), and allusions to it are met with in
almost every page.

The following tabular statement of the number
of saktas in the 500 hymns translated by Professor
Wilson, addressed to each deity, sets their actual
and relative worship clearly before us : —

Indra,

. 178

Brihaspati, .

Sarasvati,

Agni, . .

. 147

Mitra, . .

Vishnu (none

Aswini, .

. 28

Varuna, . .

in the first

Marut, .

. 21

Usha, . . .

Ashtaka), .

Vayu,

. 6

Surya or Savi-

liudra,

. 3

tri, . . .

This leaves less than sixty hymns for all the
other members of the Vedic pantheon. Some of the
divinities worshipped in Vedic times are not un-
known to later systems, but at first perform very
subordinate parts ; whilst those deities who are the
principal objects of worship of the present day
are either wholly unnamed in the Veda, or are
noticed in an inferior or different capacity. The
names of Siva, of Durga, of Kali, of Kama, of Sita,
of Krishna, of Radha, the present gods, so far as
research has gone, do not occur in the Vedas.
And the practice of the conquered races seems to
have been to represent or regard local deities as
identical with, or avatars or incarnations or other
names of, the Vedic gods, who had already become
objects of Aryan worship. The Vedas mention
Rudra as the chief of the winds, collecting the clouds
as a shepherd's dog does the sheep, and attending
on his master Indra ; in the Vedas he is the father
of the winds ; even in the Puranas he is of a very
doubtful origin and identification; but in the
present day everywhere amongst the Saiva Hindus
he is identified with Siva. With the single excep-
tion of an epithet Kapardi, ' with braided hair,' of
doubtful significance, and applied also to another
divinity, no other name applicable to Siva occurs,
and there is not the slightest allusion to the
lingam or phallus form in which, for the last
ten centuries at least, he seems to have been
almost exclusively worshipped in India ; neither is
there the slightest hint of another important
feature of later Hinduism, the trimurti, or triune
combination of Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, as
typified by the mystical syllable O'm (a-u-m),
although, according to Creuzer (i. p. 26), the
trimurti was the first element in the faith of the
Hindus, and the second was the lingam. In this
view Creuzer must have intended the mixture of
creeds now current in India, for the whole Vedic
faith was essentially a sabaistic and nature worship.

Religious Books. — Aryan Hindus have been re-
markable amongst civilised races as abstaining
from all historical writings ; and a knowledge of the
changes that have occurred in their beliefs has been
obtained from their books of religion, philosophy,
and fiction.

The Rig - Veda Sanhita is a collection of
hymns of the ancient Aryans, addressed to the
elements and powers of nature. Their age is
various, prior and subsequent to the 15th century
B.C. The Rig- Veda is of primary importance in
the Hindu religion and mythology. The Yajur
and Sama Vedas consist of hymns derived from
the Rig, but re-arranged for religious purposes ;
and the fourth Veda, the Atharva, is of later date.
The Brahmana are ritualistic and liturgical com-
positions, chiefly in prose, and attached to the
different mantras. They are later than the Vedic

hymns, and recognise one Great Being as the soul
of the universe. Of a still later age are the
Aranyakas and Upanishads, which form part of
the collective Brahmanas, and are principally
philosophical. The Brahmanas recognise one Great
Being as the soul of the universe. A golden
egg was produced in the universal waters, from
which in course of time came forth Prajapati,
the progenitor, or the quiescent Universal Soul.
Brahma took a creative form, as Brahma the Pra-
japati. From the Prajapati, or great progenitor,
there was produced a daughter, and by her he
was the father of the human race. The Upani-
shads, of which above 150 are known, are later,
the oldest being about the 6th century B.C. They
contain an examination of the mystic sense of the
Vedas, and are free from Brahmanical exclusive-
ness. They have a monotheistic tendency.

The age of Menu was after that of the Brah-
manaB. Menu follows the golden egg theory, and
he calls the active creator who was produced
from it, Brahma, and Narayana. The latter name
became subsequently exclusively applied to the
Vishnu deity. The institutes of Menu show a
great advancement of the Brahman caste.

The Mahabharata and the Ramayana are epic
poems, which deal with the actions of men. Indra
is mentioned ; but Brahma, Siva, and Vishnu
have become the gods, Brahma being but little
mentioned ; while in some passages Siva, in others
Vishnu, is supreme, and the incarnations of Vishnu
assume a permanent place. The Ramayana, by
Valmiki, is supposed to be of the 5th century B.C.,
and its hero the royal Rama and his faithful wife
Sita have been deified as incarnations of Vishnu
and his consort. It is the older epic. The age of
the Mahabharata is supposed to be in some of the
six centuries B.C. ; but it contains an interpolated
episode, the Bhagavat Gita, which has been sup-
posed to be of the 2d or 3d century a.d. In
it Krishna is the Supreme, and bhakti or faith is
enjoined.

These books belong to the Brahmana age. But
a great reformer arose in the 6th century B.C.,
and the religious sects formed after him were
prominent in India for about 1500 years, and are
still the faiths of Burma, Tibet, Mongolia, Man-
churia, Siam, Annam, and largely of Ceylon, China,
and Japan. The reformer was Sakya Sinha, son
of king Suddhodana of Magadha, and is known
to history as Buddha.

Buddhism. — The valley of the Ganges was the
cradle of Indian Buddhism, and Sakya Muni the
founder of the new doctrines. As the champion
of religious liberty and social equality, Sakya
Muni attacked the Brahmans in their weakest and
most vulnerable points, — in their impious assump-
tion of all mediation between man and his Maker,
and in their arrogant claims to hereditary priest-
hood. His boldness was successful, and before
the end of his long career he had seen his prin-
ciples zealously and successfully promulgated by his
Brahman disciples, Sariputra, Mangalyana, Ananda,
and Kasyapa, as well as by the Vaisya Katyayana
and the Sudra Upali. At his death in B.C. 543,
his doctrines had been firmly established, and the
holiness of his mission was fully recognised by the
eager claims preferred by kings and rulers for
relics of their divine teacher. His ashes were
distributed amongst eight cities, and the charcoal
from the funeral pile was given to a ninth. He

had

HINDU.

lived ;iinl preached from Champa and ltaja-
griha in the east, to Sravasti and Kausambi in the
I n the short space of 45 years, this wonder-
ful man succeeded in establishing his own peculiar
doctrines over the fairest districts of the Ganges,
from the Delta to the neighbourhood of Agra and
Cawnpur. This success was perhaps as much due
to the early corrupt state of Brahmanism, as to the
r purity and more practical wisdom of his
own system.

From his timo until the end of the long reign
of A jatasatra, 619 B.C., the creed of Buddha ad-
vanced slowly but surely. This success was partly
due to the politic admission of women, who in the
cast have always possessed much secret though
not apparent influence over mankind. To most
of them the words of Buddha preached comfort
in this life, and hope in the next. To the young
widow, the neglected wife, and the cast-off mis-
be Buddhist teachers offered an honourable
career as nuns. Instead of the daily indignities to
which they were subjected by grasping relatives,
treacherous husbands, and faithless lords, the most
miserable of the sex could now share, although
still in a humble way, with the general respect
accorded to all who had taken the vows. The
Bhikshuni were indebted to Ananda's intercession
with Sakya for their admission into the ranks of
the Buddha community ; and (see Csoma's Ana-
lysis of the Dulva, Res. As. Soc. Bengal, xx. p. 90 ;
also Fo-kue-ki, chap. xvi. p. 101) the Pi-khieu-ni,
or Bhikshuni, at Mathura, in token of their grati-
tude, paid their devotions chiefly to the stupa of
Anan (Auanda), because he had besought Buddha
that he would grant to women the liberty of em-
bracing ascetic life. The observances required
from the nuns are recorded in note 23, chap. xvi.
of the Fo-kue-ki. The female ascetic even of a
hundred years of age, however, was bound to
respect a mouk even in the first year of his ordina-
tion. It is related that Sakya's wife, after the
first outburst of grief on seeing his return to her

an ascetic, herself became a Bhikshuni.

From its rise in the 6th century B.C., the doc-
m of Buddha gradually spread over the whole
of India. It was extended by Asoka to Kashmir
ami Kabul shortly after Alexander's invasion, and
it was introduced into China about the beginning
of the Christian era by 500 Kashmirian mission-
aries. In A.D. 400, when F"a Hian visited India,
Buddhism was still the dominant religion, but the
Yaishnava sect of modern Brahmanism, with a
Mixture of the old Aryan creed and the Buddhist
faith, were already rising into consequence. In
the middle of the 7th century, although the pil-
grim Hiwen Thsang found numerous temples of
the Saiva, whose doctrines had been embraced
by Skanda Gupta and the later princes of Patali-

Imtra, yet Buddhism was Btill the prevailing re-
igion of the people. But though the faith of
Sakya lingered about the holy cities of Benares
and Gaya for two or three centuries later, it was
no longer the honoured religion of kings and
princes, protected by the strong arm of power,
but the persecuted heresy of a weaker party, who
were forced to hide their images under ground,
and were ultimately expelled from their monas-
teries by fire. In 1835, Major Cunningham exca-
vated numerous Buddhist images at Sarnath near
Benares, all of which had evidently been purposely
hidden under ground. He found quantities of

HINDU.

ashes also, and there could be no doubt that tin
buildings had been destroyed by fire ; and Major
Kittoe, who subsequently made further excavations,
was of the same opinion. The Buddhist religion
has long been extinct in British India. Its last
remnants were extinguished, in blood and violence,
about the 14th century, dying out about Trichino-
poly and along the coast-line from Vizianagram to
Masulipatam. But it still flourishes in its Hinayana
and Mahayana forms, in the countries on its north
and north-east borders, in Nepal and Tibet, in
Mongolia and Manchuria, in Ava, Ceylon, and
China, and amongst the Indo-Chinese nations of
Annam, Siam, and Japan ; and its followers far
outnumber those of all other existing creeds except
the Christian.

The Buddhist faith was pre-eminently a religion
of mercy and peace, of charity and benevolence.
In the topes dedicated to the celestial Buddha,
Adinath, the invisible being who pervaded all
space, no'deposit was made ; but the divine Spirit,
who is ' Light,' was supposed to occupy the in-
terior, and was typified on the outside by a pair
of eyes, placed on each of the four sides either of
the base or of the crown of the edifice. But in
ages of strife and violence, of deifying mortals
and of arrogant assumptions of an ignorant priest-
hood, a creed that taught gentleness and meek-
ness and kindness to living creatures must have
exercised a great influence over the community, —
must early have gained many converts amongst
the peaceable and good, and largely leavened the
minds even of those who did not openly become
converts ; and amongst this class must be in-
cluded the entire populations from the primeval
land east of the Oxus to China and Japan in the
farthest east, to Singapore and Ceylon in the ex-
treme south. For ten centuries it had been the
prevailing religion of India ; but when the unwritten
Tartar faith became corrupt and feeble, Brahman-
ism was revived, mixed with the worship of new
gods, a Siva and a Vishnu, and every form of
absurd fetishism gathered from local idolatries
and superstitions. It is this mixture of several
creeds which Europeans now style Hinduism, andits
followers Hindus. It is found amongst the people
in every variety of belief, — from the mildest spirit
and demon worship and recognition of numerous
forms of gods and their idols, to a distinct theism ;
from the grossest ignorance and superstition, to
the most refined speculativeness ; performed and
associated with bloody and most inhuman rites,
and again followed with the greatest tenderness
for animal life.

Brahmanic Revival. — In the later hymns of the
Vedas can be traced the origin of the Vishnu wor-
ship, and the setting aside of Indra. But the
foreign Siva and Bhavani had come in with the
Sakse, and mingled in their worshippings, until
the doctrines of Buddha, himself a Sakyan, were
promulgated, and held their own for more than a
thousand years, until, between the 5th and 12th
centuries of the Christian era, a host of new divini-
ties, Vishnu, Siva, Durga, Kali, Rama, Krishna,
Ganesha, Kartikeya, prevailed over a better faith
than their own, and up to the present day enslave
and degrade the Hindu mind.

The Puranas, eighteen in number, are more
recent books. Their age has been supposed to be
from the 2d to the 16th century a.d., though their
name means old. These are all in verse ; give a

HINDU.

cosmogony, celebrate the powers and works of
the gods, and give the history of the Solar and
Lunar dynasties who ruled in Northern India ; and
to them have been appended 18 Upa Puranas.
Later than these are the Tantras, which are reli-
gious and magical works, that give prominence to
the female energy of the deity, his active nature
being personified in the person of his sakti or wife,
each of whom has a gentle and a fierce form, as
Kadha, Devi, Uma, Gauri, Durga, and Kali, and
these are worshipped both symbolically and in the
actual woman.

In the Puranas the Vedic deities are forgotten,
and marvellous legends have gathered round the
favourite divinities, full of wild imaginings, and
evidencing a corrupt state of society and religion.
Vishnu and Siva have obtained respective sects as
followers. Krishna has become the object of a
sensuous, joyous worship ; the worship of Devi,
the consort of Siva, has become established, and
the foundation has been laid of the obscene and
bloody rites afterwards developed in the Tantras.
The Puranas and the Tantras are the religious
books of the Hinduism of the present day. The
Veda is a mere name : its gods, and rites, and
language are only known to the learned, and the
modern system is quite at variance with the
Vedic writings, — the Puranas and later writings
being the great authorities of modern Hinduism.
Their mythology and legends fill the popular mind,
and mould its thoughts. The great epic poems,
the Mahabharata and the Eamayana, with their
heroes, the Pandava, the Kaurava, Kama and his
wife Sita, Hanuman, and Havana, are listened to
with delight ; and the stories about Krishna, from
his infancy till his death, are the never-ending
source of joy to the young. The mild and gentle
Rama, ' the husband of one wife,' pure in thought
and noble in action, and his faithful wife Sita, are,
however, objects of the devotion of many, and
theirs is the least degrading of the many forms of
Hindu worship.

Philosophies. — Concurrent with the ritualistic
worship of the modern Hindu gods and goddesses,
there are six schools of philosophy, — the Nyaya,
the Vaiseshika, the Sankhya, the Yoga, the Purva
mimansa, and Uttara mimansa. All of them have
the same final object, — the emancipation of the soul
from future birth and existence, and its absorption
into the supreme soul of the universe. They are
supposed to have had their origin between the 5th
and 3d centuries B.C. The Nyaya and Vaiseshika
recognise a Supreme Being ; the Yoga is theistical ;
the Sankhya, atheistical ; the two Mimansas are
the Vedanta. The object of these two Vedanta
schools is to teach the art of reasoning, with a
view to aid in the interpretation of the Vedas.
The Purva mimansa is generally known as the
Mimansa, and the Uttara mimansa as the Vedanta ;
and the principal doctrines of the latter are that
the Supreme Being is the omniscient and omni-
potent cause of the existence, continuance, and
dissolution of the universe. The Vedanta or
Mimansa philosophy is treated as a scholastic
philosophy, which, basing itself on the sacred
books and the popular religion, seeks for unity of
thought only as a means of introducing order
amid the divine personages and legends, and has
sought to give a spiritual import, a sort of new
birth, to the gods of Brahmanism. In the Vedanta
philosophy, Brahma is placed in the foreground as

the soul of the universe, the primal being, which
alone has true existence. To this school, not
matter only was a semblance, even the soul was a
transient phenomenon. The Sankhya philosophy
is contrasted with it, as a purely pantheistic
system. In this view this philosophy has broken
completely with the popular creed, and with the
doctrines of the Vedas and the Brahmanas. The
Sankhya philosophy occupies itself more with life
in manifestation, therefore especially with the life
of the individual spirit connected by its body to
the outward world. Both of these leave the
Vedas unassailed, nay, the whole Brahmanic reli-
gion, in so far as it concerns rites and customs.

A census was taken of the people of British
India in 1881, and the numbers following these
creeds were found to be 187,957,450, out of a
total population of 253,891,821 souls : —

Hindu Population, census 1881.

Males.

Females.

Total.

British Territory —

Ajmir,

202,226

173,803

376,029

Assam,

1,580,458

1,481,690

3,062,148

Bengal,

22,578,544

22,874,262

45,452,806

Berar,

1,252,541

1,173,113

2,425,654

Bombay, .

6,291,598

6,016,984

12,30S,582

British Burma,

73,929

14,248

88,177

Central Provinces, .

3,700,467

3,617,363

7,317,830

Coorg,

90,705

71,784

162,489

Madras, .

14,104,951

14,392,727

28,497,678

N. W. Provinces,

19,813,098

18,240,296

38,053,394

Panjab,

3,883,915

3,246,613

7,130,528

Tot. Brit. Territory, .

73,572,432

71,302,883

144,875,315

Feudatory States in —

Bombay, .

2,842,559

2,683,844

5,526,403

Central Provinces, .

705,612

679,668

1,385,280

N. W. Provinces,

261,726

240,001

501,727

Panjab,

1,160,125

961,642

2,121,767

Tot. Feudatory States,

4,970,022

4,565,155

9,535,177

Tot. British Territory,

incl. Feud. States, ' .

78,542,454

75,868,038

154,410,492

Native States —

Baroda,

969,948

882,920

1,852,868

Central India, .

4,130,018

3,670,378

7,800,396

Cochin,

215,637

213,687

429,324

Hyderabad,

4,517,812

4,375,369

8,893,181

Mysore,

1,967,814

1,988,522

3,956,336

Rajputana,

4,792,774

4,046,469

8,839,243

Travancore,

872,770

882,840

1,755,610

Total Native States, .

17,466,773

16,060,185

33,526,958

Grand total, .

96,009,227

91,928,223

187,937,450

Total population,

129,941,851

123,949,970

253,891,821

Christianity and Mahomcdanism have modified
the doctrines of the Aryan Hindus. Since
Buddhism disappeared from India, its nations have
been conquered by races professing creeds with
followers nearly as numerous as Buddhism had ever
acquired. Rapid as was the progress of Buddh-
ism, the gentle but steady swell of its current
shrinks into nothing before the sweeping flood of
Mahomedanism, which in a few years spread over
one-half of the civilised world, from the Atlantic
Ocean to the swampy fens of the Oxus, to China,
and to the Eastern Archipelago. From the
11th century, when the inroads into India of
Mahomedans began, up to the present time,
when they too, as a ruling race in India, have
in their turn almost disappeared, Semitic Arabs,
Aryan Persians, Scythic Tartars, Turk and
Mongols, and Anglo-Saxons, have successively
swayed the destinies of the Hindu races, and
each of the new-comers has to some extent

HINDU.

modified the beliefs and social customs of the
conquered Legislation by the Mahomedan rulers,
Bad after them by the British, has effected many
changes. Repulsive forms of fanatical penance are
phenomena seldom seen ; the immolation of widows
i criminal occurrence; ghat murder, or the
exposure of the sick and dying upon the banks of
sacred rivers, is matter of past history ; open in-
fanticide has been in a great measure suppressed.
Further changes have been retarded by the cir-
cumstance that the Mahomedan and the Chris-
tian came amongst them as soldiers, with all the
licence to be found in camps, and the contempt
ft >r st range things which youth engenders. Never-
theless the great bulk of the 23 millions who
follow Mahomedanism in Bengal and Assam, as
also its followers who speak the Malay language,
are descendants from idol - worshipping races ;
while in N.W. India many Rajput and Jat tribes
have also embraced the faith of Islam; and the
Hindu Xanak, the founder of the Sikh faith, and
Kabir and other reformers, drew their views pro-
minently from the Mahomedans. Christianity
has been preached in India since the early years
of the era, and there has lately been a belief that
parts of the ritual of the worship of Krishna had
been taken from Christian texts, but the Christians
throughout the E. Indies, China, and the Archi-
_o may not as yet exceed three millions.
Since the 15th century, Christian missionaries
all sects have been labouring in their vocation,
with some success. But this has been largely
owing to the steady increase of schools for secular
instruction, which have every year been on
the increase, and, since the middle of the 19th
century, are crowded with the youth of all
races, sects, castes, and ranks. In this respect
every teacher of English is a missionary, for it is
impossible for the youth of India, if educated
under Christian teachers by means of a Christian
literature, to be otherwise than embued with the
doctrines of Christians, whatever their professions
may be. In the 19th century, the first reforming
sect that arose was a theistic body in Calcutta,
and many who have received the higher education
have joined it, or have formed other sects with
similar views. But even in the case of Hindus
who have had no English education, and have
never heard the voice of the missionary, such are
receiving instruction from others of their own
people who have been so taught ; and the mass
has been so leavened, that the great tendency
amongst youthful inquiring minds is to accept
some form of monotheism, — either to acknowledge
one of their own deities, whether Vishnu or Siva,
as the Lord of all, or adopt an ideal Supreme Being
of their own creation, whom they clothe with
attributes, purer, more just, and more worthy of
reverence than any god which their religious
books possess.

Hinduism as it is. — In approaching this part
of the subject, it may be mentioned that the
mythology of India has done much to explain that
of Greece and Scandinavia, as will be seen by the
following list of the more prominent Hindu deities
of the present day and their principal analogues : —

Agni,
Swaha,

Aswini-Kumara,
Aruna, ,

Atadeva, ,
Kuvera, .

Vulcan, fire, ignis.

Vesta, his wife.

Castor and Pollux.

Aurora.

Diana.

Tlutus, the god of riches.

In. Ira, . .

Varan*. . .

l'ritliivi,
Viswakarma,
Surya or Arka, .
Heraoula, .
Attwiciilapa,
Vayu, .
Vaitarini, .
Durga,
Narada,
Krishna,
Bhawani,
Knli or Durga,
Ganesha, . .
Kartikeya or

Skanda, . .
Kama, .
I I.-t 1111111:111, son of

Pavana, .
Rama, .
Sri, Lakshmi,
Anna Puma,

HINDU.

God of firmament,— Jupiter.

God of water, — Neptune, Ouranos,

Goddess of earth, - Cybele.

Architect of gods, — Vulcan.

The sun, — Sol.

A Hindu deity, — Hercules.

yKsculapius ? — Genii.

Jkbu,

The river Styx.

Juno.

God of music, — Mercury.

Apollo.

Venus or Minerva Musica.

Proserpine.

A male Minerva.

God of war, — Mars.
God of love, — Cupid.

The monkey god, — Pan.

The god of wine, — Bacchus.

Ceres.

Anna Perenna.

Sects. — The changes in the religions of the Aryan
Hindus during the past nineteen centuries have
been continuous. Perhaps the earliest indications
of coming changes were given in the third division
of the Vedas, known as the Upanishads, which dis-
cuss the nature of the deity, the nature of the soul,
and the connection of mind and matter. They
contain the beginnings of the metaphysical
inquiry, which ended in the full development of
Hindu philosophy. The oldest of these books is
supposed to be about the 2d century B.C.

The great Saiva reformer was Sankaracharya,
who lived in the 8th or 9th century. He was the
teacher of the Vedanta philosophy; he founded
the sect of Smartha Brahmans, and has been re-
garded as an incarnation of Siva. His follower,
Anandagiri, wrote the Sankara Vijaya about the
10th century. The worshippers of Siva regard that
deity as the Supreme ; and his consort Parvati, in
her numerous forms of Devi, Durga, Bhawani,
etc., has many worshippers. These two are pre-
eminently designated Mahadeo and Mahadevi

Vishnu and his consort Lakshmi are equally
regarded by their followers as Supreme, and
might have the same designations, but neither
under these names nor in any of their many incar-
nations are they so honoured. A few of the gods
of the times prior to the Christian era continue
to be invoked, — amongst them, Indra the god of
the firmament, Agni the god of fire, Kama the god
of love, and Kuvera the analogue of Pluto ; but
the Diti, Aditi, Aditya, Rakshasa, and others of the
Vedas have become myths, and the chief deities
of the modern Hindus are Siva and Vishnu with
their consorts ; Rama and Rama-Chandra, and Bala
Rama, Ganesh, Garuda, Hanuman, Jaganatha, Kan-
doba, Krishna, Kartikeya, god of war, the phallic
lingam, Nandi the bull, Virabadhra, and Vitoba.

Ramanuja was a Vaishnava philosopher, who
put forward the Viseshtadwaita system, and the
sect who follow his teachings worship Rama and
Sita. The Adwaita is a monad doctrine, which
acknowledges the reality of spiritual existence
only. Dwaita, or the doctrine of duality, dis-
tinguishes two principles in creation, spirit and
matter.

Ramanand (a.d. 1350 ?), the follower of Raman-
uja, was the first to admit low caste people as his
disciples, one of whom was Rai Das, another
was Kabir, and the Kabir Panthi sect gave rise to
the Nanak Shahi about A.n. 1449.

HINDU.

Chaitanya, a Vaishnava reformer in Bengal in
the 16th century, was deemed an incarnation of
Krishna. He too admitted all classes as his dis-
ciples.

Charandas, a merchant of Dehli, lived in the
time of the 2d Alamgir (a.d. 1757). His first dis-
ciple was his sister, Sahaji Bai, who was a dis-
tinguished writer. The sect worship Krishna and
Radha.

Mira Bai, wife of Lakha, rana of Udaipur in
the reign of Akbar, was of the Vaishnava sect,
and a distinguished writer.

Jayadeva, of the 12th or 13th centuries, wrote
the Gita Govinda, an erotic poem on the early life
of Krishna.

Five great sects exclusively worship a single
deity, and one recognises the five divinities ;
these are —

1. Saiva, worshippers of Siva in his numerous forms,

who, however, worship Siva and Farvati or Bha-
wani conjointly.

2. Vaishnava, who worship Vishnu.

3. Surya, who worship Surya or the sun.

4. Ganapatya, who worship Ganesba.

5. Sakta, who exclusively worship Bhawani or Parvati,

the sakti or female energy of Siva.

6. Bhagavata, who recognise all divinities equally.

The fourth and fifth are subdivisions or rami-
fications of the first, or Saiva, of which may be
traced these distinctions : — 1. Saiva proper, mean-
ing the worshippers of Siva and Parvati conjointly.
2. Lingi or Lingaet, the adorers of Siva or his
phallic type separately, and these are a very strict
and rigid sect. 3. Sacta, the adorers of the yoni
of Bhawani or her symbol separately. 3. The
Ganapatya, the exclusive worshippers of Ganesha,
the first-born of Mahadeva and Parvati.

The second grand sect, or Vaishnava, is variously
divided and subdivided. First, or division of
Gocalast'ha, or worshippers of Gocal or Krishna,
is subdivided into three : —

1. Exclusively worship Krishna as Vishnu himself :

this is generally deemed the true and orthodox
Vaishnava.

2. Exclusively worship Radha, as the sakti of Krishna

or Vishnu : this sect is called Radha Valabhi.

3. Worship Krishna and Radha conjointly.

Second, or division of Ramanuj, or worshippers
of Raniachandra, is in like manner subdivided
into three : —

1. Worship Rama only.

2. Worship Sita only as his sakti.

3. Worship both Rama and Sita conjointly.

The Vaishnava of the present day, though
nominally worshippers of Vishnu, are thus in fact
votaries of deified heroes. The Gocalast'ha (one
branch of the sect) adore Krishna, while the
followers of Eamanuja worship Eamachandra.
Both have again branched into three sects ; one
consists in the exclusive worshippers of Krishna,
and those only are deemed true and orthodox
Vaishnava; another joins Krishna's favourite,
Radha, with the hero ; a third, called Radha-
valabhi* adores Radha only, considering her as
the sakti or active power of Vishnu. The fol-
lowers of these last-mentioned sects are said to
have adopted the singular practice of presenting
to their own wives the oblations intended for the
goddess ; and those among them who follow the
left-handed path are said to require their wives to
be naked when attending them at their devotions.

Among the Ramanuj some worship Rama only,
and others both Rama and Sita; none of them
practise any indecent mode of worship. And
they all, like the Gocalast'ha, as well as the fol-
lowers of the Bhagavata, delineate on their fore-
heads a double upright line with chalk, or with
sandal-wood, and a red circlet with red sanders
i wood, or with turmeric and lime ; but the
j Ramanuj add an upright red line in the middle of
I the double white one.

The Saiva sect are all worshippers of Siva and
Bhawani conjointly ; and they adore the linga
or compound type of this god and goddess, as the
Vaishnava do the image of Lakshmi - Narayana.
The exclusive adorers of the goddess Bhawani are
the Sakta sect. In this last-mentioned sect there
is said to be a right-handed and decent path, and
left-handed and indecent mode of worship ; and
both Major Moor and Professor Wilson allude
to the licentious character of the latter form, a
feature certainly quite unknown in the Southern
India of the present day. The left-handed form
of worship of the several sects, especially that of
the Sakta, is founded on the Tantras, which are
for this reason held in disesteem.

Sectarian Differences. — The great point of differ-
ence amongst the sectaries is as to the claims of
respective deities to be regarded as the first cause.
Few Brahmans of learning, if they have any religion
at all, will acknowledge themselves to belong to
any of the popular divisions of the Hindu faith,
although, as a matter of simple preference, they
more especially worship some individual deity as
their chosen or Ishta Devata. They refer also to
the Vedas, the books of law, the Puranas, and
Tantras, as containing the only ritual which they
recognise, and regard all practices not derived
from those sources as irregular and profane.
These deities have their different avatars or incar-
nations, in all of which, except that of the sakti
themselves, they have their sakti (wives) or
energies of their attributes. These have again
ramified into numerous names and forms. The
following is an enumeration of the several sectaries
of each class, and to them we refer for separate
notices of their origin and tenets : —

Vaishnava Sects.

Ramanuja, or Sri Sam-

10. Mira Bai.

pradayi, or Sri Vaish-

11. Madhavachari or

nava.

Brahma Sampradayi.

Ramanandi or Rama-

12. Nimawat or Sanakadi

wat.

Sampradayi.

Kabir Panthi.

13. Vaishnava of Bengal.

Khaki.

14. Radha Valabhi.

Maluk Dasi.

15. Sak'hi Bhava.

Dadhu Panthi.

16. Charan Dasi.

Raya Dasi or Rai Dasi.

17. Harischandi.

Senai or Sena Panthi.

18. Sadhna Panthi.

Valabhachari or Rudra

19. Madhavi.

Sampradayi.

20. Sanyasi, Vairagi, Naga.

Saiva

Sects.

Dandi and Dasnami.

6. Gudara.

Jogi or Yogi.

7. Ruk'hara, Suk'hara,

».

Jungama or Sri Saiva.

and Uk'hara.

Paramahansa.

8. Kara Lingi.

r>.

Urdhaba'hu, Akas

9. Sanyasi, Brahmachari.

Muk'hi and Nak'hi.

Avadhuta Naga.

Sakta

Sects.

Dakshini or Bhakta.

3. Kanchuliya.

Vami or Vamachari,

4. Kaiari. ■

HINDU.

HINDI'.

i nr Satna.

k Sillllli, (if -.cVcH

elaaaei, vie. :
la.i.
injbakahi,

.-. Kammyi.
-/. Sittlini Shahi.
I . (lovind Sinlii.
Nirmala.

Mmtktmu 0Mfe

I. .I.i ina.

it. Digambara.

6. Swetambara.

r. Yati.

d. Sravaka.
5. Baba Lali.
C. J'ran Nathi.

7. Sad!..

8. Satnami.
!•. Siva Narayani.

10. Sunyavadi.

uf these comprise u number of sub-
ins, and, besides acknowledged classifica-
tions, many individual ascetics are to be found
all over India, who can scarcely be included
within the limits of any of them, exercising a sort
of Independence both in thought and act, and
attached very loosely if at all to any of the
popular Bchismatical sects. Some of the popular
WOKS of the Hindus adopt a different classifica-
tion, and allude to 9li prashada or heresies,
which are thus arranged, viz. : — Amongst the
Rrahmans, 24; Sanyasi, 12; Viragi, 12; Saura,
18; Jangama, 18; Jogi, 12. Also, new gods or
objects of worship are in constant formation, and
lieved in by great masses of the people,
though only a bit of paper, a cart-wheel, and
other oddities. There is a temple of the goddess
Elamma about a mile distant from the town of
Jat, in the Jat jaghir. An annual fair is held in
honour of this idol, at which about 10,000 people
assemble. About the year 18G0, a Mali or gar-
dener set up the idol, stating that it had appeared
then of its own accord. Both men and women
visit the temple and worship the idol. The wor-
shippers, before commencing the worship, strip
naked, apply powdered sandal -wood to their
whole bodies, put on the ornaments they may
have, hold a small branch of the nim tree in
their folded hands, and leave their places of re-
sidence to visit the idol. After visiting the idol,
they go round the temple for a certain number of
times. They then leave the temple to bathe in a
neighbouring tank. After bathing, they return to
the temple, worship the idol, and return home.
When Mr. Chapman was collector of Satara, he
punished some of the naked worshippers.

Sakti. — The Hindu goddesses are uniformly re-
presented as the subordinate powers of their respect-
ive lords. The term is from the Sanskrit, meaning
power, strength ; thus Lakshmi, the consort of
Vishnu, the preserver, is the goddess of abundance
and prosperity ; Bhawani, the wife of Siva, is the
■enteral power of fecundity; and Saraswati, whose
husband was the creator, Brahma, possesses the
powers of imagination and invention, which may
justly be termed creative. She is therefore
adored as the patroness of the fine arts, especially
of music and rhetoric ; as the inventress of the
8anskrit language, of the Devanagri writing
characters, and of the sciences which writing per-

St nates; so that her attributes correspond with
oee of Minerva Musica of Greece or Italy, who
invented the flute, and presided over literature.

Mixings. — Saivaism and Vaiahnaism described
above are the common everyday religions of the
bulk of the Hindu populations. But the internal
beliefs of the worshippers have no such com-
munity, and their various tenets must be sought
for under the history of their several sects. A
Saiva sect, the Satnami, profess to adore the true
name, the one God ; but they nevertheless recog*

nise the whole Hindu pantheon, and pay reverence
to what tiny coiwider ma infestations of his nature
visible in the avatars, particularly Rama and
Krishna. The Sadh, on the other hand, utterly
reject all kinds of idolatry ; are pun- deists,
with a simple worship. Between these unitarian
sects and such as adore every deity, there is the
utmost diversity of theory and practice ; and the
fusing of their creeds, doctrines, and customs is
continually going on. Major Moor tells of a
Mahoincdaii butcher at Poona, who occasionally
supplied the Residency with meat Being asked
if he would kill a calf, he started back with horror
at the proposal, ejaculating a prayer to be forgiven
for having even heard it. Many Mahomcdans of
India borrow from the Hindus ceremonies that
are celebrated with festivity. They take an active
part in the gambols of the Holi, and even solicit
the favours of the Indian Plutus at the Diwali.
Many Hindus, on the other hand, join in the
festival of the Maharram. The bridal procession
of the Mahomedans on the fourth day, with all
the sport and gambols of the Chaut'hi, is evidently
copied from the similar custom of the Hindus.
The Mahomedans have adopted the premature
marriage of infants, and Hindus largely imitate
the Mahomedan seclusion of their wives (Cole-
broke, As. Res. vii. p. 307). A Mahomedan is
forbidden to eat meat which has not been killed
by one of the faithful, who is directed to ' halal '
or sanctify the animal by turning its face toward
Mecca, and, while the blood is ejected, to repeat
a short prayer. Many Mahrattas and other H indus,
pleased with the ceremony, bring their sheep, fowls,
etc., to Mahomedans to be made 'halal,' and then
eat them with increased satisfaction.

Vahan or Vehicles. — Several animals are appro-
priated as the vahan or vehicles to the mytho-
logical personages of modern Hinduism. The
swan, the eagle, and the bull appertain respect-
ively to Brahma, Vishnu, and Siva, and are
severally denominated Hanasa, Garuda, and
Nandi. Ganesha, eldest son of Siva and Parvati,
the elephant-headed god of prudence and policy,
rides a rat, supposed to be a very sagacious
animal ; Kartika, their second son, generalissimo
of the celestial armies, mounts on a peacock.
Indra, the powerful regent of the firmament, the
Jupiter Pluvius of the Hindus, rides the elephant
Airavata, symbolical of might. Varuna, genius
of the waters, bestrides a fish ; as doth also Ganga,
the prime goddess of rivers. Kama Deva, the
god of love, is carried by a lory or parrot ; Agni,
god of fire, by an ardent ram.

Village Deities. — Every hamlet has its own
object of adoration, always supposed to be a
goddess, and the idol is generally a black stone
or piece of wood. Amongst names given to it
in Southern India are —

Ai. Osuramma.

Ankal-Amma. Sellamma.

I'lini Ainma, gold mother. Yellamrna.

Kani-Amma. Padavettu-Amma.

Yegatal. Tulukan-Amma.

M u tialu nmia, pearl mother. Muttumari.

Tripura-sundari, the beau- .Man-Amman.

tiful of three cities. Potearamma

Paleri-Amma, or Periya- Karikatta.

Amma, or great godd ess. Tairthoniam ma.

Dandumari, (Jhoundeswari.

Mallamma. Vadivatta.

Chiimaimna. Nagattamma.
Ammannamma.

HINDU.

A pujali or pujari, a worshipping priest of the
Sudra caste, is appointed for her daily worship.
He anoints her daily, and puts ashes on her head,
— really on the top of the stone, for it is not an
image, being entirely without shape, a mere stone
from the neighbouring brook or river. In a small
pot he cooks rice, which he collects from the
villagers in turn, presents it to the idol, and then
takes it to his own home. He breaks a cocoanut
in front of the idol, to which he offers it. But
the one half he keeps for himself, and gives the
other to the families from whom he collected the
fruit. The villagers make vows to their goddess
to offer up to her fowls and sheep in sacrifice, if
she will fulfil their desires. Once a-year they
collect money by subscription, and celebrate a
feast in honour of their goddess, during which
sheep and fowls are largely sacrificed. The Sudra
Hindus and the entire servile and predial tribes in
the south of India have the fullest faith in their
respective village goddesses. When they or their
children are overtaken by sickness, they seek the
idol and consult the pujari, who sings hymns,
affects to hear the Amman's voice, and then
announces to the worshipper the offering that must
be presented. If cholera break out, it is not un-
usual for some neighbouring village deity suddenly
to rise into great importance, and the sacrificial
rite is then almost unceasingly performed. The
Hindus, too, have even personified this pestilence
into a goddess, whom they name Maha-Kali, and
believe that if they neglect her worship she
destroys them by the disease. Indeed, gods are
everywhere in process of establishment, and small-
pox as well as cholera have thus been personified.
Maha-Kali of Ujjain is a cholera goddess, and
Mari- Amman or Amur of the Tamils is a small-
pox deity. When a person is attacked with small-
pox, they believe that the goddess has taken
possession of the sick man. While in the house,
the sexes remain apart until the sick person has
recovered, and been purified by ablution. They
place the leaves of the margosa tree beside the
sick person, because the goddess is supposed to
delight in this tree. They give cooling food, but
employ neither internal nor external remedies, in
reverence for the divinity. The women of the
household offer rice -flour mixed with jagari or
coarse sugar and black gram (Pairu, Tam. ; Pesalu,
Tel.) before the patient in honour of the goddess,
and afterwards distribute offerings to Sudras and
others. On the seventh day, i.e. what medical
men call the fifteenth day, the invalid is bathed
in cold water, and the whole body rubbed with a
pasty mixture of leaves of the margosa (melia and
azadirachta) mixed with turmeric, and on the
same day rice mixed with curds are distributed to
Sudras. If in the virulence of the disease an eye
be lost, it is attributed to something having been
done displeasing to the goddess. The goddess,
indeed, is supposed to appear in three forms, — as
Tatta amavaru or Chinnamavaru, i.e. small god-
dess or measles ; Peddamavaru, or great goddess
or smallpox; and Pairamavaru, or goddess of
green gram (Phaseolus mungo), — the two first of
which are most feared.

Devil and Spirit Worship. — Every Hindu work
containing allusions to native life, says Dr. Cald-
well, and the dictionaries of all the Hindu tongues,
prove the general prevalence of a belief in the
existence of malicious or mischievous demons, in

demoniacal inflictions and possessions, and in the
power of exorcisms. Spirit houses of Mysore are
little sheds erected over white-ant hills. In Berar,
when the Gonds fell a wood on a hill-side, they leave
a little clump to serve as a refuge for the elf or
spirit whom they have dislodged. The Brahmanic
worship of the spirit of the dead is shown by
their bringing back to the house the dead person's
soul, supposed to have lost its home by the body's
death. A stone or some such object is picked
up at the grave, and carried reverentially back to
the house, where it is worshipped for a few days,
and then decently disposed of. The demons wor-
shipped are multitudinous. Chand Khan of the
Dekhan is one of them. His tomb is worshipped
on one bastion of every mud fort. The legend
regarding him is to the effect that there was a
difficulty encountered in the erection of a bastion,
and he was sacrificed and buried to appease the
obstructing demon. See Demon ; Devil ; Shanar.

Unions of any sort, especially of waters, are
held sacred by Hindus, and above all the union of
the Ganga and Jumna near Allahabad, — the latter
river having previously received the Saraswati below
Dehli, so that in fact all three unite at this famed
sangam or confluence. But the Hindu poet feigns a
subterrane flow of the Saraswati, and a mystical
union at the sacred point, where bathing is deemed
peculiarly efficacious. Major Moor once saw (p. 429)
at Poona a well-modelled group in clay, where
Radha's locks, tripartite, were plaited into the
mystical Triveni by the amorous Krishna, who sat
rapturously admiring the work of his hands. The
Triveni, or three-plaited locks, in Hindu mythology,
is the mystical union of these three sacred rivers,
the Ganges, Jumna, and Saraswati, severally the
consorts or energies of the three great powers.
Coleman also says (pp. 394, 398) that the Triveni,
or three-plaited locks, is allegorical of the holy
rivers Ganga (or Ganges), Yamuna (or Jumna),
which join near Allahabad, the Saraswati being
supposed to join the other two under ground. A
Hindu dying near the imagined confluence of the
three streams, or even of those of the Ganga and
Yamuna, attains immediate beatitude ; consequently
self or self - permitted immolation, sati, etc.,
were meritorious on this peculiarly holy spot,
and multitudes of pilgrims annually resort there
to bathe. Other rivers are held sacred by Hindus,
viz. the Godavery, the Sindliu or Indus, the
Krishna or Kistna, the Cauvery, and the Brahma-
putra. It is, however, the Ganges that is most
revered. The Hindu longs to perforin his ablu-
tions in its streams ; its waters are carried to remote
distances, to be sold to persons who wish to
perform with it their sacred rites ; many men
and women formerly drowned themselves in the
sacred stream, hoping by that means to reach their
heavenly abode ; the bodies of those dying far
and near are sent to be committed to its bosom ;
and from still greater distances Hindus send in-
cremated bones of deceased relatives to be cast
into the waters.

The union of the palmyra and the Urostigma
religiosa is deemed holy, and their orchard is
married to its adjacent well before its fruit can be
partaken of.

The Hindus also reverence the impressions of
feet. On the top of Adam's Peak in Ceylon is a
natural hollow, artificially enlarged, said to be the
impression of a foot of Buddha, as Buddhists

HINDU.

. but called l>y the Hindus, Sripada or Sripad,
meaning the divine footstep, Vishnu having, they
say, alighted on that spot in hisavataraof Kama;
although Mahomedans and Christians have also
claimed that footmark as of their religious relics.
Hindus make pilgrimages to the Sripad in Ceylon,
and in other places where similar proofs of an

Car or descent liave been discovered.
ie Mahrattas make images in honour of de-
ed ancestors, and of their guru or spiritual in-
structors, as Lares, or Penates, or Leraures. Nat
and Yira (Nat'ha, lord; Vira, brave) and Bharava

iaiv epithets applied to such domestic images.
Their leaf-platters, used as plates, are usually
made of the leaves of the mango, the jamoon,
Byrygium jambolanum, the banyan, and pipal
trees. Part of the ceremony of a vow of friend-
ship, amongst Hindus, consists in dividing a bel
or larger wood-apple, half of which is kept by
each party, and from this compact is called bel
bandar, livery Hindu, whatever his avocation, on
his new year's day worships the object or imple-
ment by which he obtains his living, or, in western
phrase, blesses and consecrates it. During the
Durga puja, Durga is worshipped in the form of a
water-pot. It is called Ghita-puja, also Ghatastha-
pana. The water-pot being placed after certain
invocations, Durga is supposed to enter it, and
she is then worshipped. The bamboo is worshipped
by the Tiperah people, the Cachari, and the Garo.
They stick a bamboo in the ground during one of
their religious festivals, and worship it. The Kol
of Central India worship the sal tree (Vatica
robusta).

Many trees are held to be sacred, some to Siva,
some to Vishnu, some to both.
To both are the Artemisia austriaca, Calophyllum ino-

Iphyllum, Chrysanthemum Indicum, Euonymus tin-
gens, Gracillara spinosa, Guet tarda speciosa, Ixora
bandhuca, Jasminum undulatum, Nerium odorum,
Origanum marjorana, Sarcostemma brevistigma.
Bacred to Vishnu, Azaderachta Indica, Ocimum sanc-
tum.
Sacred to Lakshmi, Nelumbium speciosum.
.Sacred to Siva, Bauhinia parviflora, Azaderachta Indica,
Csesalpinia pulcherrima, Crat&va religiosa, Jonesia
asoca, Phyllanthus emblica.
Kama Deva, god of love, tips his arrows with the flowers
of the Mangifera Indica, Michelia champaca,
Mesua ferrea, Pandanus odoratissimus, and Pa-
vonia odorata.

The JSgle marmelos leaf represents Brahma,
Siva, and Vishnu. The Euphorbia ligularia is
sacred to Manesha, the snake goddess, and is
worshipped by an Assam tribe.

The Cow. — Hindus regard the cow as sacred.
Every morning the Hindu wife or maid-servant
spreads the floor with cow-dung mixed with water,
partly as a religious duty, partly for cleanliness.
She sprinkles the urine of the cow over her head,
and sprinkles it about the house in purification,
when anything has occurred to make it, in their
religion, unclean. Every morning, on rising from
bed, every Hindu is enjoined to cast a glance on
the objects mentioned in the following slokam: —
A kapalam (brindled) cow, a mirror, the sun, a
rich man, a king, a priest, a giver of rice (in
charity), and a chaste woman. It is not, however,
the cow's face, but its tail, on which they cast
their look. Protecting the cow is meritorious.
When a Hindu is dying, his relations give a cow
to a Brahman, and repeat the gift on the 11th day
after the demise. When a Brahman is married,

VOL. II.

HINDU.

the lather of the bride always gives a cow, Sura-
bhi, to his son-in-law, along with Other HI

Every Friday the Hindu wife washes her cow.
She smears its face with turmeric, and ornaments
the animal's forehead with a round mark from
the red powder prepared from lime and tur-
meric. Some Hindus call the cow Kama-dub, or
Kama-dhenu, the servant of Iudra; other Hindus
believe that the cow is Lakshmi, the goddess of
prosperity, whom they thus propitiate by their
worship. Those who do not possess a cow will buy
some grass and give it to that of their neighbour.
Amongst the five deadly sins is that of killing a
cow; the other four are killing a Brahman, a
pregnant woman, a child, and killing one's mother.

The Bull is not reverenced equal to the cow, but
it is the vahan or vehicle of Siva. In all saiva
temples may be seen the image of this animal, called
Nandi, made of black stone, kneeling before the
lingam and yoni, the symbols of Siva and Parvati.
In pictures, Siva is invariably represented riding on
his vahan or vehicle, a bull. A bull, both in the
saiva and vaishnava temples, carries the kettle-
drums which are sounded for worship three times
daily. When a cow or bull falls sick, Hindus will
vow that if the animal recover, it shall be left in
the temple ; and every Friday the Brahmans
employed in the services of the temple, when they
lave Siva's symbol and the Nandi with milk, in
the ceremony called Palu Abhishekam, the devoted
bullocks are likewise thus washed.

Daily Life of the Hindus. — Having briefly
sketched some of the various rites now forming the
religion called in Europe Hindu, and the differences
in the forms of idol-worshipping which are to be
found, it may be interesting to conduct one of
this faith from the cradle to the grave.

Childhood and Adolescence. — The ceremonials
observed on the birth of children, at the com-
mencement of their education, on investiture with
the sacred thread, communication of a gayatri or
initiatory sentence, in their marriage ceremonies,
and those adhered to on the occurrence of a
death in a family, have now a general resemblance
among, or are more or less imitated by, all castes,
classes, and ranks. On the birth of a Brahman
child, the ceremony called Putrotsavam is per-
formed, and on this occasion the father presents
sugar and sugar- candy to relatives and friends.
On the 1 lth day the mother is anointed with the
oil of the oriental sesamum. On the same day
(11th) the Punyahavachanam, or the purification
rite for the mother and house, is performed. It
is then that the child receives its name — that of
some one of its grand or great-grand parents — by
the father writing it three times with a golden
ring, in unhusked rice, spread on a plate. This
naming is called Namakaranam, and is followed by
the guests bestowing blessings on the young one,
as they scatter rice, coloured with turmeric, over
it and the mother, who are seated in the midst of
the assembly. The father then distributes money
to the poor, and entertains relatives and friends.
On this night, for the first tune, the child is put
into the cradle by the female guests, some of
whom sing religious songs, while others rock the
little one, and at the close the assembly are dis-
missed, after being presented with betel-nut, plan-
tains, and boiled pigeon-pea (Cajanus Indicus).
The birth of a girl is less a source of rejoicing,
because of that part of the Hindu creed which
65 E

HINDU.

lays down that parents and other ancestors attain
Swarga-locum or Indra's heaven through a son's
efforts. Each new moon, as also on the occur-
rence of an eclipse, either of the sun or moon,
also at the summer and winter solstices, their Utray-
anam and Datchanayanam, every caste Hindu,
whether Brahman, Kshatriya,Vaisya, or Sudra, offers
the Tharpanam, or water sacrifice, in the names of
his deceased father, grandfathers, great-grand-
fathers, and their wives, consisting of seeds of the
oriental sesamum mixed with the water. It is as a
means of continuing this ceremony that Hindus long
to have a son born to them, as in their creed-books
it is taught that the manes of ancestors are grati-
fied by the Tharpanam. At five months of age,
the Choulam ceremony occurs, and the lobes of
the ears are pierced with a small, thin gold ring.
When six months old, Anaprasanam, or giving the
child rice for the first time, is a social and sacred
rite, at which, as also at the Choulam, relatives and
friends are entertained. On the first occurrence
of the birthday, the child is anointed and decor-
ated with jewels, relatives and friends are enter-
tained ; and in the evening the child is carried to
a temple, and presented to the deity of their sect.
As the second anniversary draws near, or about
that time, the boy's head is shaved on a propitious
day, which affords another opportunity for feasting
friends.

Boyhood. — When five years old, the father
ascertains an auspicious day, and entrusts his son
to a teacher. The instructor engraves the alpha-
bet with an iron style, sometimes set in silver or
gold, on a leaf of the palmyra tree, which is then
coloured with turmeric. The leaf is placed on
unhusked rice spread over the floor, and the
teacher, whatever the sect or caste of the pupil
be, invokes the god Vigneswara to smooth the
difficulties in the way of the child's studies. Then,
holding the boy's forefinger, he thrice traces with
it the forms of the vowels in the rice, teaching
the boy their sounds. The pedagogue is presented
with a new cloth and some money, and dismissed,
after which relatives and friends are entertained.
On the seventh or ninth year, the Upanayanam is
performed, on which occasion the family priest —
Upad'hay-ya, Sansk., Upa-dhialu, Tel.— causes
the boy to offer a burnt-offering, Homan, to the
entire pantheon of gods, by pouring ghi (clarified
butter) over the fire. He then invests the youth
with the zandiyam, the zonar or sacred cord,
letting it fall from over the left shoulder to the right
side. He subsequently teaches the gayatri to the
boy, if he be of the Brahmanical order, as also the
morning, noontide, and evening prayers, the due
attention to which is considered sufficient to re-
move all sins committed during the day and night.
The gayatri or gayatri mantrum of the Brahman-
ical or priestly order is never pronounced aloud,
and it is exceedingly rare that any Brahman can
be induced to divulge it. Its literal translation is :
' O'm ! earth, air, heaven, O'm ! Let us meditate
on the supreme splendour of the divine sun ; may
he illuminate our minds.' It is considered the
most sacred text of the Vedas ; and the common
belief in and reverence for it is the bond of union
amongst the entire Brahmanical order. With this
ceremony the boy is considered to be born again,
and he is of the Punar Janma, or twice born. This
is the spiritual birth of the Hindu, or his regenera-
tion, for until this time the uninitiated youth,

though of the Brahmanical class, so far as his right
to perform religious ceremonies is concerned,
is only regarded in the fight of a Sudra. If the
Vaishnava youth, who has now been initiated into
the mysteries of the Brahmanical order, be set
apart for the sacerdotal office of the priesthood,
he is further marked, by being branded on the
muscular part of both arms with the sanku or
chank, and the chakram or disc of A T ishnu. This
is called the Chakrankitam. From this time he is
ranked as a Brahmachari, or of the order of bache-
lors, for he has now entered on his religious life, —
the whole of the days of a spiritual Brahman being
apportioned into four religious stages, viz. that
of the Brahmacharyam, or bachelorhood ; Grahas-
tasramam, or the married state; Vanaprastam, the
living in solitude with his family ; and Sanyasam,
or the abandonment of all worldly matters. A
bachelor's dress differs from that of a married
man, in so far as he does not wear the dhoti,
but only a wrapper round the lower part of the
body ; lie is prohibited from eating betel, and
continence is enjoined. Among other Hindu
castes, the Brahmachari ceremony is performed at
any time prior to the celebration of marriage, but
their gayatri is from the Puranas, not the Vedas.

Marriage. — There is no time fixed for the mar-
riage of sons. It is performed at any time from
infancy, as the parents may please. But amongst
the priestly and mercantile orders, the Brahmaus
and Vaisya, as also among the goldsmiths, girls
must be married before they attain puberty. The
Brahmans believe that they would be as if guilty
of murder if they allowed a girl to grow up before
being married. This is founded on correct physio-
logical knowledge. And in Southern India, they,
as also the goldsmith tribe or race or caste, regard
such a possible occurrence with so great horror,
that they say it would be incumbent on them if it
happened, but which is invariably guarded against,
for all the family to drown themselves. Chili ben
have no voice in the matter of their marriage.
When parents are desirous of having their sons
married, they institute inquiries amongst their
relatives or friends not of their own gotram or
tribe. They visit the girl's parents in a propitious
hour, and request their daughter in marriage for
their son. The parents of the girl make inquiries as
to the character of the boy, and if satisfied, they
promise their daughter for him. It is not custom-
ary for a girl's parents to go seeking for a husband
for their daughter. When so far arranged, if the
girl's parents be poor, they may perhaps stipulate
that jewels and money shall be presented to their
daughter at the marriage time. But this practice,
which is a remnant of the ancient custom of pur-
chasing a wife, is gradually dying out with all but
the humbler people. Now-a-days, a rich Hindu
would disdain to receive money from the parents
of their son-in-law for giving their daughter to
him, and many tribes — for India contains the de-
scendants of numerous distinct races — repel with
disdain any insinuation of their readiness to sell
their daughters. Indeed, sons-in-law do now
occasionally receive some dower of money or
property with their brides. In a recent instance,
so much as five lakhs of rupees (£50,000) are said
to have been given to a son-in-law who had already
four wives. But the former practice of disposal
of their female children is clearly marked in their
marriage law, in which a girl, who quits her father's

HINDU.

in. use for her husband in another family, ceases to
be an heir of her own parents, though she acquires
rights In the property of her new home.

'iage Ceremonies. — When all the preliminary

uigements are settled, a day is fixed for the
performance of the marriage; preparations are
Bade by the father of the girl, who invites relat-
and friends to be present on the occasion,
flic invitations 1 xing usually communicated verb-
ally, but sometimes by letter. On the day preceding
that of the marriage, by the Snat'haka Varattam,
the youth is relieved of his bachelorhood, the

ninny on this occasion consisting in the homa
Or fire-sacrifice, and giving of charity. On the
marriage eve, the bridegroom, accompanied by his
parents, relatives, and friends, goes in procession
to the I nide's house, and presents her with a new
cloth of some value, with any jewels that may
iiavc been before agreed on; betel-nut is handed
to the guests, and friends and relations are enter-
tained. The poor Brahmans, too, are remembered
on the occasion, the money-gifts to whom are
called Datchana. The wedding-day at length
arrives, but with emotions very different from
those of the principal actors in ancient Hindu
times, for now-a-days both bride and bridegroom
are usually quite infants, — and if not both, the bride
with most tribes certainly is so. Tribes of Sudras,
however, and a fair, intellectual literary race called
Kait or Kayasth, who claim their origin from a
deified mortal called Chatr-goputr, also many of
the Pariah tribes, allow their girls to grow up and
remain in their father's house, without auy feeling
of shame being associated with the practice. And
the Vedas teach us that in their times virtuous
maidens remained unmarried in their father's
house long after they had grown up. On the
wedding-day, the bride and bridegroom are an-
ointed with oil (the Abhiangana-s'nanam), are
dressed in their best, and decorated with jewels.
The father of the bride has erected a tem-
porary canopy in the court of his house, beneath
which she is seated beside her groom, and the
family priest commences the ceremony by causing
them to make a burnt-offering, by the homa

rifice of pouring ghi into the fire, whilst
the priest utters a mantra. At the same instant,
by the Navagraha Aratanam and Asht'ha dik
palaka Aratanam, a series of incantations, they
bring Indra, Vanma, Agni, Yama, etc., from
Swarga-locum and locate them in any casual
article, in some part of the house.

When seated, the girl is formally given to the
husband (Kania-danam, literally spinster-giving) ;
a priest blesses some water in a small vessel, and
the father of the girl, taking this and his daughter's
right hand, places them together in the bridegroom's
right hand, saying, ' I do this, that my father, grand-
fathers, and great-grandfathers may attain Swarga '
(In a vcn). The bridegroom then rising, and standing
before the bride, amidst the deafening din of tom-
toms, ties round her neck the mangala sutram, a
■tread coloured with turmeric, to which a golden
jewel called Bottu or Tala is attached. Sandal-
wood paste, perfume, and flowers are presented
to the guests, betel-nut is offered to all relatives
and friends, and money-presents are made. The
married couple receive Asir-vadam (benedictions
and congratulations) from the assembly, and as
they prostrate themselves at their parents' feet
their parents bless them. The prostrations are

HINDU.

also occasionally made at the feet of other i
i ( I it ives, who likewise bestow a blessing. Amongst
the HndiniaiiN. the ceremonials of the marriage
are continued for five successive days, and for
three days, or one day, or seven days, with oilier
s. On the fifth or last day, the gods who
were brought from Swarga into the bride's home,
and have been daily worshipped there, are released.
Four earthenware pots, placed beneath the panda]
or canopy, are filled with rice highly coloured
with turmeric, and a Hralunaii sitting near, by
motions from his hands, affects to feed the located
gorls (Navediam), and then to release them. This
is the Naka balli, or offering of victims, to the
gods of Swarga-locum. And now the parents of
the newly-married couple, as also relatives and
friends, interchange presents, and make gifts to
the young people. In the evening of that day
the bridegroom takes his wife home. This is done
in a procession, in which parents and relations
join, and is treated as a religious ceremony, called
Grahapravesam, or house-entering, immediately
after which the bride and bridegroom are seated
in the middle of the floor, the father of the girl
presents them with new clothes, and the relations
and friends are feasted. After remaining three
days in her husband's home, the girl-wife is taken
back to the house of her parents, with whom
she lives, making only occasional visits to her hus-
band's residence, until puberty. On this event her
father sends word to her husband, who presents
gifts to the bearer of the happy tidings, fixes on
an auspicious day to bring his wife home, and
intimates the date to his father-in-law. The latter
prepares a cot or bed, candlestick, cooking uten-
sils, chairs, boxes, and other household fittings,
also buys new clothes for his daughter, whom
they convey to her husband's house for good, and
an entertainment is given to all relatives and
friends. Her parents remain in the house with
their daughter and son-in-law for two or three
days, and before taking leave of them they give
them some advice for their guidance.

Married Life. — From this time the young wife
lives with her husband, in subservience to her
mother-in-law or sister-in-law, whichever be the
head woman in her new home. As a young thing
she cannot have much to say ; but her little ways
and tiny talk are at an end, and it is even, on
many occasions, considered highly indecorous for
her to speak at all. She cannot speak to her
husband in the presence of his father or mother
or other people, and partly from shamefacedness,
partly from fear of them, her husband rarely
speaks to his wife in their presence. This intense
reserve goes off greatly as they grow older ; but
in no instance, perhaps, does the Hindu wife ever
attain to the same freedom of speech with her
husband as marks the intercourse with the young
wife in a Mahomedan family, where they are some-
times married equally young, and where their
innocent prattle is the very life of the household.
At home, however long she be a wife, a Hindu
woman never eats till her husband finishes his
meal ; she rises and stands in a respectful attitude
if her husband or his parents or brothers enter the
house, and at all times addresses them in a low
tone of voice, and speaks slowly. And so long as
the husband's mother or his sister is the head of
the house, the husband communicates his wishes
as to what he wants his wife to do, not to her

HINDU.

directly, but through his mother or sister. Abroad
from home, the Hindu husbands and wives may
at all times be seen walking along the roads, but
the wife never presumes to walk at the side of her
partner. She is always a pace or so behind, and
a little at the side. If they be out on matters of
business, the wife continues, all along the road, to
prompt her husband as to what he is to say or
do, but the instant that the place of business is
reached, she falls off to a distance, and never
presumes to take any part in the discussion. In a
poor family, the wife, as in all countries, has to
perform the entire domestic duties of the house-
hold, but with richer people who keep servants
the wife's labours are restricted to superintend-
ence, attention to her children, sewing, and other
female occupations. They are in this social re-
spect much in the position that Europe was a few
hundred years ago ; but there is this difference,
that scarcely a Hindu wife is able to read or write,
or even permitted to learn. Since the middle of
the 19th century, in the presidency towns, a few
female schools have been established by the better-
educated Hindus, who are desirous that the next
generation shall receive educated partners in their
homes. But in all India, out of a population of
nearly 200,000,000 of Hindus, there are not, per-
haps, in 1883, 3000 girls of the higher Hindu
castes under tuition. The younger men are
averse to the continuance of the intense restraint
hitherto imposed on their homes, and are breaking
through it, but these are almost solitary exceptions
to the vast mass. Brahman girls are forbidden to
be educated at all ; and those who urge education
on them are opposed by the women themselves,
who will exclaim, ' What ! would you make us as
dancing-girls ! ' the educational efforts having only
hitherto been directed to such unfortunate sisters,
from the fear — and it is shared with many men of
the Hindus and Mahomedans — that education may
tempt, by giving facilities, to vice. In this they
evidence a great ignorance of human nature, a
more enlarged knowledge of which would con-
vince them that only the training of the moral
faculties can uproot vice, which, where the evil
desire prevails, no restrictions can restrain. The
utmost that a Brahman woman learns, are the songs
and hymns sung by women in their own houses
during marriages and other festivals. The Hindu
wife — bred from her childhood in the strictest
seclusion, consigned at an early age to the care
of a husband of whom she can have previously
known little or nothing, and who is often as de-
pendent upon others as herself — leads a life of
mysterious quietude, varied only by the rites of
religion and the ordinary events of the family.
Of the world around her she knows nothing. All
her thoughts and feelings, joys and sorrows,
desires and affections, are imprisoned within the
little circle of her own household. Her mental
faculties are either altogether undeveloped, or
wasted upon toys, ornaments, idle tales, family
gossip, or similar frivolities. Her moral powers,
too, are overlaid by superstition and prejudice.
Yet these ladies are the mothers of the rising
generation, who are acquiring the language and the
literature of Europe, and fondly imagining that its
members are as capable of exercising the rights of
self-government and self-control as those who
have sprung from the free and independent women
of the western world, whose mothers in the warlike

ages took part in the counsels of their nations, and
accompanied their warriors to the field. Hindu
wives are only allowed to speak to their nearest
relations, fathers, brothers, etc., and are never
trusted from home alone. Married women, when
at the daily bath, smear their bodies with turmeric,
and place on their foreheads the round mark with
the red colouring matter from the turmeric ? and,
like many other orientals, paint their eyelashes
with lamp-black. Married women also wear a
bodice. Though their religious books (Shastras)
permit the Hindu widow to re-marry, custom,
which is more rigorous, forbids it ; and once widows,
except with a few tribes, — the Jat, the Gujar, and
others, — they ever after remain single. See Mar-
riage Customs.

Death and Future State. — When a Hindu dies
there are the inevitable tokens of grief amongst re-
latives ; but women evince their emotion with great
demonstrations and noise, proclaiming aloud the
good qualities of the deceased, as they beat their
breasts and mouths. The death-wail is heard far
distant, and once heard is never forgotten. ' Naked
he came, and naked has gone ; this dwelling-
place belongs neither to you nor to me.' Be-
latives and friends, on learning the melancholy
tidings, go to the house of mourning to condole
with the bereaved family, and the women join in
the death-wail, which rises loud above all the
other sounds of the busy world around. As death
is drawing near, however, the attendants, after
purifying the house with cow-dung, perform the
Jiva Praias-chittam, by laving the dying man's
body with water, placing in his mouth or causing
him to drink a little milk, buttermilk, honey,
treacle, and plantains (panchakavia), and then
releasing a cow. Such an ordeal few men in weak
health could withstand, and it may not be doubted
that it is never performed without hastening the
fatal event, for the attendants force the five things
into the dying man's mouth. After demise the
corpse is washed and dressed. The family priest
pronounces certain mantra of purification over
it, for every household has its own Brahman
teacher. It is borne on a bier to the burning
ground by four men, and followed by relatives
and friends, both men and women. A large heap
of firewood and dried cow-dung cakes has been
already gathered together there, which are stacked
up over the remains, and the son sets the pile on
fire. It is their belief that as death parts the soul
from the body, the god of justice, Yama, sends
two angels with an invisible form to receive into
it the flitting spirit, and convey it to Yama-locum,
his hall of justice, to be tried there, and awarded
its sentence of future punishment or reward. The
secretary, Chatr-goputr, records the decree, andthe
disembodied spirit takes up its abode in Swarga, or
inNarika, or revisits earth to be re-born, and afforded
another opportunity of gaining release from mor-
tality. The day following the demise and incre-
mation, they revisit the spot. They pour milk or
water, or milk and water, over the ashes, and make
an offering of rice to the Preta, the departed soul.
On the second, third, or fifth day, the son selects
any small black stone, or three back stones, which
he places against a pipal tree, Ficus religiosa, on
the bank of a pond or tank. This represents the
deceased, or rather his Preta is supposed to be
located in the stone, and where three stones are
used, those also of his grandfather or great-grand-

HINDI'.

In!'; and each day, for ton days, the sou offers
to the si.. He or stones a water-sacrifice to quench
the thirst df the departed. He also cooks rice
there, and offers it to a crow, to satisfy the hunger
of the deceased ; he continues this every morning
till the tenth day, because it is the Hindu belief
th.it the soul of the departed hovers about the
house for ten or twelve days, and then takes up
that future habitation which, according to their
view of the transnii^Tation of souls, may be its lot.
(in the tenth day the stone is thrown into the
water. The object of all this is their belief that
the shade of the departed is occupying five separ-
ate beings and places, — one descends upon his son,
a second rests on the place of incremation, a third
in the house he has left, a fourth in the stones that
are raised to represent him, and the fifth in the
crow to which the food is thrown. And if the
crow refuse the food, the beholders deem it an
augury of the ill life of the departed, or that some
object of his life remained incomplete.

Widowed State. — If the deceased was a married
man. the mangala sutram, or sacred thread, which
was tied round the neck of his bride on the wed-
dinir day, is now broken by other widows of the
luxury. She ceases to wear a bodice or jewels,
or flowers in her hair. She discontinues the use
of turmeric when at the bath ; the red mark is no
longer placed on her forehead, and in many cases
the long black tresses are removed, for some
- of Brahman women have their head shaved.
From this time their lives are one continued scene
of misery, Bestricted to the meanest of the house-
hold avocations, they are treated by their nearest
relatives with contumely and neglect. Their very
loneliness and bereavement, instead^of being occa-
sion for sympathy and endearment, only calls forth
harsh, often brutal, treatment. Their very condi-
tion is a term of abuse ; and, denied it on earth,
many a Hindu widow seeks peace in the grave,
for there the wicked cease from troubling, and
there the weary be at rest.

After -Death Ceremonies. — On the 11th day,
among Brahmans, the son of the deceased selects
two or three relatives, or several Brahmans, to be
in the place, or representatives, of his parent.
They are anointed with the oil of the oriental sesa-
muin. The son presents them with flowers, the
sandal perfume, and new cloths, and then enter-
tains them. Until they finish their meal, no
member of the household is allowed to partake
of food. So soon as they rise, however, a morsel
of rice is thrown to the crows, and the representat-
ives of the deceased are dismissed with betel-nut,
new cloths, and presents of money, according to
the son's means. All other relatives present are
then entertained. For one year from this time
this becomes a monthly ceremonial on the day of
the deceased's demise. On the first anniversary
of the deceased person's samvatsarikam, a Hindu,
however poor, must, with much display, perform
the ceremonies which are then required. This
necessity is a great tax to all of them ; but where
several deaths have occurred in a family, it is a
ruinous burden, for the rules of their faith compel
their performance, and if a person have not money
of his own with which to perform this, he must
beg for it or borrow it for the purpose. The
religious importance to the deceased of the perform-
ance of this anniversary rite is considered very
great, and it is this which occasions the great

HINDI

di -.-ire to have | son. If the family be what in law
is called a united Hindu family, lie- ceremonial is
conducted by the eldest son, but where they have
separated, each son muBt perform it separately.
For those who have no sons, the widow can per-
form it, and the widower husband can do the
same for his wife. On the future anniversaries
the sradha only is performed.

Burial and Burning. — Before the body is taken
to be burnt, it is anointed with ghi, or clarified
butter. Arrived at the side of the water, the nearest
relation sots fire to the pile, which is soon in a
blaze. It takes three cwt. of wood to consume the
body of an adult. At the present day, the general
practice of the Vaishnava Hindus is to burn their
dead, but they also launch the bodies into the stream
of the Ganges, or expose them on the open plains.
After the incremation, using a branch of sami,
and another of palasa (Butea frondosa), instead of
tongs, the son or nearest relative first draws out
from the ashes the bones of the head, and after-
wards the other bones successively, sprinkles them
with perfumed liquids and with clarified butter
(ghi) made of cow's milk, and puts them into a
casket made of the leaves of the palasa (Butea
frondosa). This he places in a new earthen vessel,
covers it with a fid, and ties it up with a thread.
Selecting some clear spot where encroachments of
the river are not to be apprehended, he digs a
very deep hole, and at the bottom spreads the
cusa grass (poa), and over the grass a piece of
yellow cloth. He places thereon the earthen
vessel containing the bones of the deceased,
covers it with a lump of mud, moss, and thorns,
and plants a tree in the excavation, or raises a
mound of masonry. Subsequently, the son or
nearest relative repairs to the cemetery, carrying
eight vessels filled with various flowers, roots, and
similar things ; he walks round the enclosure con-
taining the funeral pile, with his right hand towards
it, successively depositing at its four gates or
entrances, beginning at the north gate, two vessels
containing eight different things, with this prayer :
' May the adorable and eternal gods, who are
present in the cemetery, accept from us this eight-
fold imperishable oblation. May they convey the
deceased to pleasing and eternal abodes, and grant
to us life, health, and perfect ease. This eight-fold
oblation is offered to Siva and other deities ; salu-
tation to them.'

In the south of India, the ascetic followers of
both Siva and Vishnu bury their dead ; so do the
Vaishnava, Vairagi, and Sanyasi in the north of
India, and the Saiva Jogi. The class of Hindu
weavers called Yogi have adopted a similar prac-
tice, as also have all the castes in Southern India
who wear the lingam. All infants and unmarried
persons are interred, as also all the artisan tribes.
At the Sanyasi devotee's interment no wailings
or expressions of grief are allowed. The corpse,
seated in a litter, is borne to the grave, preceded
by musicians, and attended by persons who cast
rose-coloured powder into the air, or demonstrate
in other modes their joy. It is placed in the
earth in a sitting posture, instead of being con-
sumed on the pile. A small platform raised over
the spot, and exhibiting the sculptured feet of the
deceased, commemorates his sanctity.

Ceremonials of Worship. — A Brahman who
attends to his religious duties, bathes before sun-
rise in cold water, and offers a water sacrifice

HINDU.

wise

libation from his hand. He prays in this

He who meditates on Pundri kacha (he with
the lotus eye), though a very great sinner, will be
forgiven.

' If he sprinkle over his head water which is
pure and holy, he will be purified and strength-
ened.

' All sins committed during the night, by word,
deed, mind, mouth, hands, feet, belly, organs, or
in anger, will be forgiven by Surie jotishi ' (the
light of the sun).

The next part of the ritual is the ceremony
called Arg'hiam, which is performed to free the
sun from the Eakshasa, who is striving to hinder
its appearance. This consists in offering, four
times, a water sacrifice or libation, by taking water
in the hands and pouring it on the ground, as he
four times pronounces the Vedic Gaitri, viz. ' O'm!
Bhurbhuva, ssuvaha, O'm ! Tatsa vit'hru varennyam,
B'hargo devasya dhimahi dhiyo yonaha pracho
dayath.' — ' O'm ! earth, ah, heaven, O'm ! Let us
meditate on the supreme splendour of the divine
sun. May he illuminate our minds.' After this
he prays, at length or briefly at will, in the form of
a commenting or expounding of the above Gaitra.
He then prostrates himself (to Vasu deva or to
Krishna, or to Vishnu if a Vaishnava) to Sarvan-
tariaini, a god who pervades all creatures, and
prays him to bless all the Brahmans and cows
within the four seas, mentioning his own name,
his got'hram or tribe rishis. At the close he
offers to Narayana his deeds by body, mouth,
heart, and senses.

At noon, prayers are repeated, and he prays to
Suria (the sun).

In the evening, prayers recur, and he implores
Varuna (the god of the sky and regent of the
west) in sacred words.

Hindu Society. — Hindus are classed as Yaidikam
and Laokalam or Lao-kikam, clergy and laity.
It is a common notion that the Brahmans of
India are the priests of the Hindus, but this is
not correct. Though of the priestly or sacred
order, the vast bulk of this class are employed
in lay pursuits, as soldiers, merchants, lawyers,
clerks, perhaps in every avocation of daily life
except such as involve manual labour, though
they are even agriculturists in Northern India
and Orissa. Various sects of Hindus have priests
of the Sudra caste, and many aboriginal races
employ members of their particular tribe or race.
Speaking in a general way, it may be stated that
where the people of India are followers of the
Puranas and Vedas, their priests are invariably
Brahmans ; but the extensive Lingaet sect, and
the Jain, and all the sects or tribes who worship
the village deities, or adhere to spirit or devil
worship, select priests from their own classes.
Also the Kansallar, or artificer tribes of Sudras,
all of whom wear the sacred cord, select an
ascetic member of their own caste as then priest,
and have also family priests from their own circle.
Indeed, they claim for themselves a superiority
to the entire Brahmanical order, asserting their
origin to be older ; and no one of the Kansallar
would accept of water from a Brahman. But, in
the usual discrepant character of the Hindu
people, although the Kansallar claim that their
caste possess this superiority, and though they
possess the Brahmanical Vedas, yet their manner

of conversing and dressing, and their women's
clothes and ornaments, resemble those of non-
Brahmanical castes. In paying respect to Brah-
mans, they say and use the Dandam, and not, as
from an inferior to a superior, the Namaskaram,
as one Brahman will to another. Amongst the
Saiva sect, who have Brahman priests, the guru
is styled Sankarachari, and is invariably a Sanyasi
or ascetic. He resides in a matham or monastery
along with other Brahmans, to whom he imparts
religious instruction or preaches. He is greatly
reverenced by his disciples, who regard him as
almost equal to a god. The monastery is sup-
ported by the disciples' gifts. The members of
these monasteries are charitable to all the poor,
and erect temples out of surplus receipts. But
the head of the establishment, the Mat'hadi-padi,
when he travels to superintend his followers,
does so with vast pomp and display, in a litter
of a peculiar form, often richly ornamented, and
accompanied by a great concourse of people,
with elephants, horses, and conveyances for his
property. Like all Sanyasi and Brahmans engaged
in religious duties, the members of the matham
bathe thrice daily. Twice daily the chief worships
the Saligrama, a fossil ammonite from the Gogra
or Gandak, or a gold, silver, or copper idol of
Krishna or of Siva. After washing the idol with
water, he decorates it with the sectarian mark,
and worships it with offerings of flowers and
tulsi leaves ; he sips a little of the water used in
the worship, and the rest is carefully preserved in
a silver cup along with tulsi leaves, and dropped
from a small spoon, ' Voodharni,' into the hands
of disciples, who esteem the gift as cleansing from
all sin. The head monk only eats once a-day,
and before taking his meal he invariably presents
it to the deity. Disciples, when they approach
the head monk, prostrate themselves before him.
Their mode of caring for the idol is in all its
forms identical Avith that of caring for a living
human being, — bathing and anointing it, offering
it food, offering it praise and reverence in song,
in dancing, and in prayer, and periodical, in some
cases daily, and seasonal airings and processions.
In exploring the great theatre in Ephesus, Mr.
Wood discovered an inscription containing infor-
mation as to the endowments and worship of the
temple of Diana, and laying down the route by
which, on the birthday of the goddess, her silver
shrines and other treasures were to be carried in
procession from the temple to the great theatre
through one city gate, and back to the temple
through another city gate, which was called the
Magnesian. And this is a perfect representation
of the customs of the Hindus of the present day,
and precisely as noticed in Isaiah xlvL 7 : ' They
bear him upon the shoulder ; they carry him, and
set him in his place.'

Position and Religion of Hindu Women. — A great
defect in their social system seems to be the un-
equal conditions of the sexes. In European house-
holds there is almost as little real mixing of
different grades of society, as occurs amongst the
different castes of India. But among the Hindus,
although their creed permits the women to attain
heaven on their demise, so long as they are here
on earth, whatever secret influence a wife may
have, it is not shown to the community. Specu-
lative as are the entire Brahmanical populations,
and to a large extent also all the races called Hindus,
70

HINDU.

•i them diving into the mysteries of their
theology, excepl a \ edantist occasionally make a
remark to the women of his household as to the
inutility of worshipping their ordinary images, the
Hindu wife has little or no instruction in religion,
ami takes no part in all that army of ceremonial
which occupies so much of the daily time of a
Hindu, particularly if religious. The Hindu prays
Booming, noon, and night a somewhat long prayer.
The wife's prayer, if she pray at all, is very short,
I Saiva woman merely mentioning the name of
her deitj in the three words — 'O'm! nama Saiva!'
— • Hail! name of Siva!' Amongst the Smart'ha
Brahmans and Mad'hava sect of Vaishnavas, each
household keeps a tulsi plant in the middle of its
little parterre or courtyard. A small pedestal is
erected, in the hollowed centre of which the plant
is placed. Dailj the women of the house resort to
it. circle, 'pradatchanam,' and prostrate themselves
six times before it, pour water over, and then, stand-
ing before it, pray to Lakshmi. A similar worship
to the pipal tree, with a sculptured cobra at its
foot, is offered both by men and women to whom
offspring have not been given. This pipal tree
is always on the bank of a tank, in which the
devotees bathe, dressed in a silk gannent used
only when performing sacred rites. Places where
cobra snakes have formed colonies are largely
report id to by women longing for children, and
they make to the cobras offerings of sugar and
milk, for the cobra is deemed an ayu.8o; A^uos/,
■Harding the symbol of the reproductive organ.
The prayer of the Brahman of every caste and
led includes the Gaitri invocation to the sun.

Legal Rights of Husband and Wife. — A girl is
accounted by law marriageable at the age of
eight. Girls are, however, given in marriage at
of two and upwards, till they attain their
maturity. A Brahman girl attaining maturity
without having contracted marriage, forfeits her
caste. The girl, when married, remains with her
own family until she reach maturity, when her
husband can claim her and remove her to his
house. The right of choosing a husband for the
girl rests first with her father. Should he have
demised, it devolves in succession upon her
paternal grandfather, brother, paternal uncle, male
paternal cousins, and lastly upon her mother. If
these relatives should have neglected the duty of
ahooaing a husband for the girl up to three years
after she may have attained the age of eight, she
is at liberty to choose for herself. The lads of the
three superior classes, namely, the Brahman or
the sacerdotal order, the Kshatriya or the military
tribe, and the Vaisya or the mercantile body, may
not contract marriage until they have completed
the Btage of studentship (Menu, iii. 4), the open-
ing of which period is marked by performance of
the Upianayanam, or investiture with the sacred
thread, and the close by a ceremony termed Sama-
vasthana. For the Sudras or the servile class,
who have no stage of studentship, there is no
limitation as to the time for marriage. There are
Bight recognised kinds of marriage, viz. Brahma,
Haiva, Arsha, and Prajapatya, which are appro-
priate for Brahmans, and are based upon dis-
interested motives; the Gandharva and Rakshasa,
which are appropriate for Kshatriyas, and are
founded, the former on reciprocal desire, and the
latter on conquest ; the Asura, which is practised
liy Vaisya and Sudras, wherein the consent of

HINDU.

the party giving away the girl is obtained by a
pecuniary consideration ; and the l';ii.diacha,
where the marriage may have been r ff.
through fraud or force practised upon the gii 1. and
which is reprobated for all classes. Though each
class has its characteristic description of marriage,
there is nothing to bind them to the rites appro-
priate to them. A Brahman, for example, may
contract an Asnra marriage, and a Sudra a
Brahma one. The Brahma and Asura are the
most usual forms of marriage. The former is an
approved one, and the latter, as a sordid pro-
ceeding, is discouraged (i. 42, 43 ; Macnaughti n
junr. i. 60). The binding circumstances essential
to the completion of a marriage are gift and
acceptance of the girl, and the ceremony termed
Saptapathi, or the seven steps. This is performed
by the bridegroom placing the bride's foot suc-
cessively on seven lines drawn on rice in a platter.
From this observance has followed the practice of
any two persons pledging mutual friendship by
taking seven steps together, so that the term
Saptapathinam has come to be synonymous with
friendship. The ceremonial in question accom-
plishes the marriage. The other ceremonies
observed, including sacrifice by fire (homam), are
of minor significance. The tying the tali or
nuptial token by the bridegroom round the neck
of the bride, is a practice sanctioned by usage, but
not prescribed in the Shastras. The above matri-
monial contract in itself fixes the condition of
the parties as married, irrespective of the con-
summation of the marriage, when the girl, on
reaching maturity, is taken home by the husband.
It brings the girl, should her husband die, to the
state of widowhood, with its attendant conse-
quence, and gives her right of inheritance in her
husband's family. When either party incurs for-
feiture of caste, intercourse between them ceases ;
and should the loss of caste be on the side of the
woman, and she be sonless, she is accounted as
dead, and funeral rites are performed for her
(Smruti chandrika, on text of Vasista and Yajna
vulkia). If she have a son, he is bound to main-
tain her ; and in this way, under such circum-
stances, her existence is recognised notwithstand-
ing her loss of caste. Infidelity in the female,
save in certain of the lowest classes, occasions
forfeiture of caste, and puts an end to the marriage
(Smruti chandrika). The husband, however, is
not entitled to damages from the adulterer, — the
Hindu law not providing for discretionary damages
upon any account. Impotence in the man, and
confirmed barrenness in the woman, as also loath-
some or incurable disease in either, justify separa-
tion (i. 47), but will not sever the marriage.

Akbar, emperor of India, forbade marriages
before puberty, and sanctioned the re-marriage of
widows. The British Indian Government in 1856
by an Act sanctioned this, but up to this time
(1883) very few Aryan Hindus of the higher castes
have dared the superstitious dread of the gods,
and the anger of their caste-fellows, which hinder
this act of justice towards their widows.

Murli ; Basava. — Many young women all
through India are married to their gods, and
thenceforward are allowed to associate with the
temple attendants or others. Girls of the Vira-
saiva sect and of some of the aboriginal races
are married to a knife or other object, and be-
come common. With some of the Hindu sects a

HINDU.

widower cannot re-marry, but such a bridegroom
with his bride arc each married to a tree with all
the customary ceremonies of a wedding, each
clasping their respective trees, and they then live
together as husband and wife. The weaver castes
near Madras devote their eldest daughter to the
gods to serve in the temple ; and .instances occur
of temple girls being educated in Christian mission
schools.

Hindu Inheritance. — Adoption is legal with the
Hindus, and sons are often adopted. If a son be
adopted, he succeeds to his adopted father; he
loses all claim on the inheritance of his original
father, and is entitled to a sixth of the property
of his adoptive one, even if after his adoption
sons of the body should be born. In Hindu
law there are ten descriptions of sons, — one of
them the son of a man's wife by an uncertain
father, begotten when he himself has been long
absent. When a Hindu dies, the sons may either
continue to live together with the property
united, or they may divide it according to
certain rules. If they remain united, the eldest
brother takes possession of the property, and
the others live under him as they did under
their father. In this case the acquisitions of all
the sons (who have not formally withdrawn) go
to augment the common stock. If they divide,
the eldest takes l-20th ; the youngest, l-80th ;
and the intermediate sons, 1-iOth. Unmarried
sisters live with their brothers.

Sectarian Marks. — Amongst the peculiarities
which first attract the eye of a stranger on seeing
the Hindu religionists, are the red and white
marks on their foreheads. Their prominence is
often so glaring as to be unseemly. When the
theistical Sikh religionists hastened from the
Pan jab in 1857 and 1858 to aid in quelling the
mutiny and rebellion in India, in their wild
enthusiasm they named all the Hindus con-
temptuously ' Matha Din,' literally, carrying their
faiths on their foreheads ; and a more expressive
term could not perhaps have been coined, for all
that ordinary Hindus know of their religion are the
differences in these marks, which indicate differ-
ences of religious sects, not of castes, and the
sectaries have a superstitious regard for such dis-
tinctions. It is held necessary, where convenient,
or no especial objection or difficulty exists, for
these marks to be daily renewed. A Brahman
cannot perform any of his daily sacrifices, etc.,
without the completion or contemplation of this
distinction ; and it is irreverent in one of an
inferior tribe to approach a holy man, or to ask
his blessing, or to partake in the benefit of any
religious rite, without or in view to this sectarial
decoration. The Saiva, worshippers of Siva,
called Siva-bakht, and the Vaishnava, otherwise
Vishnu-bakht, worshippers of Vishnu, are to be
known, the former by the horizontal position of
their forehead lines, and the latter by their per-
pendicularity. One perpendicular mark, centrally
between the eyes, is generally referable to one of
Vishnu's sectaries^; it is not common. Two
upright parallel lin^s, with a black or open circlet
between or under them, are the commonest dis-
tinction of Vaishnavas, whether seen on pictures
of Vishnu himself, or on Rama and Krishna, or
others of his avatars. In general, perpendicular
lines appertain to Vaishnava sects, and horizontal
lines appertain to Saiva sects. The marks on the

forehead are ordinarily called namam ; the cus-
tomary substances used are earths, tirumannu, or
white ashes from a sacred fire, saffron, sanders
wood, sandal-wood, white clay, etc. It is a very
ancient mode of distinguishing religious sects,
and is alluded to in Ezekiel ix. 4. The Sakta sect,
when they avow themselves, mark either with
saffron or with turmeric and borax. The Saura or
Suria are true worshippers of the sun ; and some
of them adore the dormant and active energies of
the planet conjointly. This sect, which is not
very numerous, is distinguished by the use of red
sanders for the horizontal triple line, as well as
for the circlet on their foreheads.

Superstitions. — Hindus believe in omens, good
and bad, and look for them as encouragements or
warnings on most occasions, such as in journeying
from one place to another, or when a marriage is
on the tapis. It is considered a favourable omen,
if, when proceeding on business, a crow fly from
left to right ; or the traveller meet two Brahmans,
or a married woman, or a Sudra with a stick in
his hand, or a jackal be seen. If these good
omens occur, they believe that they will certainly
succeed in the object of their journey. It is a
bad omen to meet a single Brahman, or a widow,
or if a crow fly from right to left, or a cat cross
their path. On seeing any of these evil omens,
almost every Hindu will postpone his journey,
however emergent ; though in this latter case he
may return home for a little and start again. It
is a good omen, if, when a marriage is under dis-
cussion, the toll of a bell be heard or the neigh of
a horse ; but a person sneezing or the sudden
extinguishing of a light are bad omens.

No Hindu ever takes any important step with-
out first consulting the stars, by referring to a
Brahman astrologer or to the astrological almanac.
If business will not admit of delay, he will con-
sult the Sivagyanmut or Advices of Siva, or the
buchuns or sayings of Khona, wife of the great
astronomer Varahamira, to ascertain whether the
time be auspicious. With many Hindu and ab-
original races, the snake is reverenced ; and if
a cobra be killed, they inter it or burn it with all
the ceremonies usual for a human being.

When an epidemic disease seems to be approach-
ing a village, the village tutelary divinity is carried
in procession to meet the god of the pestilence,
and with shouts, execrations, and defiant gestures
they deter the advance.

The names, both of men and women, and of
their towns, are frequently those of their gods
and their avatars, or of their deified heroes, — as
Siva, Ananda, Eswara, Gopala, Narayana, Rama,
Bhawani, for men ; Durga, Kali, Ganga, Lakshmi,
Radha, Saraswati, for women ; and Bhima,
Yudishtra, Draupadi, Kunti, their ancient heroes
and heroines.

Charity and Alms. — Almsgiving is expressly
enjoined by the Brabmanical religion, as con-
ferring merit and power over the unseen world,
not for compassion or brotherly love, or for
doing as we would be done by. Hindu charities
consist in feeding Brahmans and pilgrims ;
building choultries, and houses, and temples,
and bridges ; in planting trees, and groves, and
gardens ; making roads ; in supplying water to
travellers ; in digging wells or tanks. It is, how-
ever, an oriental idiosyncrasy for every man to
desire, not to found a family or restore an old

HIN'DU.

ral residence, but rather t<> leave some
residence exclusively commemorative of himself,
ami to repair nothing which his predecessors
have left, lest they should have the credit of it
with posterity. If they give alms, it is to persons
of their own or of a higher caste. For a Hindu
to bestow alms on a Pariah, however urgently in
peed the latter may be, is almost an unknown act.
Food, and Cook-in;/, and Hospitality. — Like that
of the bulk of the human race, the food of the
Hindu is obtained almost wholly from the vege-
table kingdom. But with the Hindu the adher-
ence to this kind of diet forms part of their
religious belief. Unlike the Hebrews (Dent, xiv.;
Leviticus xi.) or the Mahomedans, to whom only
certain creatures were forbidden, several Brah-
nianical tribes do not touch animal food at all,
and no Hindu of the four great castes can partake
of the flesh of the cow, much less avow that he
had so done. They also require their food to be
prepared by p< ople of their own or a higher caste,
or. in their dread of pollution, even by their own
hands. With some sects this dread is carried to
such an extent, that they do not permit any un-
converted eye to see them cooking, and if acci-
dentally overlooked, will bury or give away the
materials under preparation, however hungry
they be. Many Hindus likewise cook within a
sacred circle, and if any lower caste or no-caste
person enter it, the cooking is suspended, and the
article destroyed. Many Hindus eat their meals
dressed in silk clothes used only for sacred rites,
and waited on by their wives or female relations,
who do not presume to eat until their husbands
have finished. They eat off metal dishes, of gold,
or silver, or brass ; but the ordinary platter is
made of leaves of the plantain, banyan, lotus, or
jialasa, pinned together with grass stalks in the
form of a dish. These are sold in every bazar.
They are employed to ensure safety from pollution,
Being thrown away after the meal. The custom
mentioned in John ii. 8, of appointing a governor
of the feast, is one followed by Hindus at a
large feast. There is a continued stream of their
hospitality, such as it is, but castes will rarely eat
with one another ; and at meals each Brahman
sits with his own leafy platter apart from his
neighbour, to prevent the possibility of even acci-
dental pollution by his own food touching that of
another, or vice versa. Where such stringency
exists as regards people of their own faith, their
associating at meals with people of other creeds
is of course an impossibility. These remarks
apply to the Brahmanical Hindus in general ; but
the members of many of their reformed sects eat
with each other, without regard to former caste
distinctions. In like manner, as followers of one
faith, all individuals are equally entitled to the
prasad'ham, or food which has been previously
presented to a deity ; and it is probably the dis-
tribution of this in all temples, and, for instance,
annually at Jaganath, that has given rise to the
idea prevalent in Europe, that at this place all
castes of Hindus eat together. A Hindu in
general eats twice daily, in the forenoon and after
sunset; but a Brahman widow eats only once
daily, at noon. The food of the Hindus along the
seaboard of India is rice, — when they can afford
it, — partaken of with vegetable curries or pickles
as condiments. In the higher lands of the interior,
and in the more northern portions of India, the

HINDU.

pulses and millets, with wheat and maize, are tie
articles in common use, in the form of cakes.
The prior processes which in Europe fall to the
miller and the baker, are got through in the
Hindu household. The pestle and mortar is with
Hindu families a very important domestic imple-
ment, and few are without it. The mortar is
generally of stone, but often a block of wood,
the lower part shaped like an hourglass stand,
and in the upper is a conical cavity of the contents
of about two gallons. The pestle is of hard wood,
about four feet long, and two inches in diameter,
with the ends tipped or ferruled with iron, to
prevent their splitting or wearing. It is usual for
two women, to whose lot beating rice out of the
husks and similar domestic operations generally
fall, to work together. The pestle is raised perpen-
dicularly by the right hand of one, and as it falls
is caught by the right hand of the other, she who
raised it quitting it in its fall; when tired with
their right hands, they use the left, relieving them.
A song is frequently chanted during the work.
The stone mill, so often alluded to in the Old
and New Testament, consisting of two flat stones
worked by one or two women, is in use in every
house. The religious restriction to vegetable
diet is doubtless of Buddhist origin. Buddhism
had the effect of inspiring a great respect for life ;
and all orthodox Hindus regard the inviolability
of animal life as the most sacred of laws. In
whatever degree sanguinary rites may be practised
by any portion of these people, such are directly
opposed not only to the influence and example of
almost all the Brahmans, but to the practice of
the immense majority of the more cultivated and
the higher castes. Myriads of Hindus have lived
and died without ever partaking of animal food ;
and amongst the Jains, every precaution is taken
to prevent themselves involuntarily destroying or
swallowing even insect life. Their priests never
partake of stale food, lest living creatures should
have been generated in it, keeping a cloth over
their mouths lest an insect unconsciously enter ;
and they walk with a small soft broom in hand,
with which they gently sweep the ground on
which they are to tread or sit. With all this,
there is occasionally witnessed amongst some one
or other of the races following Hinduism an
apathy and indifference as to the preservation of
the lives of their fellow-creatures which Euro-
peans fail to understand. An instance of this
occurred in 1820 at the fair at Hardwar, in which
700 persons are stated to have lost their lives.
It was calculated that not less than two millions of
people had assembled on the occasion, when, at the
opening of the fair, the rush was so great towards
the steps of the bathing-place as to cause this
melancholy catastrophe. Dreadful as it was, the
exertions of the British officers only prevented its
being infinitely greater. An eye-witness remarked
that the Brahmans looked on not only with apathy,
but with joy depicted in their countenances ; and
women at a short distance were batlung in other
parts of the sacred water, with as much indiffer-
ence as if the utmost serenity prevailed around
them. After the fair, the roads for miles round
Hardwar were strewed with dead bodies of men,
women, horses, camels, and dogs.

Dress and Clothing. — The dress of Hindu men
is of white muslin or cotton cloth, and their
upper coat is now generally sewed. The under

HINDU.

garment for the lower part of the body, the
dowati or dhoti, is a loose, unsewed wrapper.
Women of all classes wear unsewed wrappers of
green, red, or yellow coloured cotton, edged with
silk or gold embroidery, and a bodice of cotton
or silk.

Scalp - Jock. — All Hindu men retain only
the tuft of hair on the crown of their heads,
which is familiar to Europeans from the pic-
tures and descriptions of the Indians of North
America as the scalp - tuft, the most glorious
trophy, if not the sole reward, of their victor.
The Hindu practice of wearing this scalping tuft
(Shik'ha, Sansk. ; d'Zutu, Tel. ; Kudimai, Tam.)
was doubtless brought with them from Central
High Asia ; for, like the Indians of N. America, the
Scythians cleaned the scalps they took, and hung
them to their horses' bridles. The Decalvare of
the ancient Germans was nothing other than the
scalping mentioned in the laws of the Visigoths,
capillos et cutem detrahere. According to the
annals of Flude, the Franks still scalped about
the year 879, and also the Anglo-Saxons ; and
head-hunting is only now being suppressed among
the Khassya and Garo races of the N.E. frontier,
and amongst the Dyaks of Borneo.

Titles. — One amongst the honorific social
distinctions of the Hindus is that of Acharya,
a religious teacher, properly a Brahman who
instructs religious students of the Vedas, of the
Brahman, Kshatriya, and Yaisya castes, but is in
use as relating to any religious instructor. In the
south of India the term is applied to the head of
a religious society, equivalent to the Mahant of
Hindustan, and the Panda or head priest of a
temple. But it is assumed also by Brahmans en-
gaged in secular pursuits, by carpenters and other
artisans, and amongst the Mahrattas by cooks.

Caste. — A great object with Hindus in general
is to preserve their social position in caste. The
divisions and subdivisions of their different castes
are very numerous, — the Sudra are said to have
nearly fifty ; but with all Hindus purity of caste
is held of the highest consequence, and ite loss
may occur from various causes.

The division into castes or sects of the Aryan
races whom we style Hindus, was known to the
Greeks, and seems to have been early known to
the Arabs. The Grecian authors, on the authority
of Megasthencs, divided the tribes into seven, and
Ibn Khurdadba (obiit a.d. 912), an officer of the
khalifs, also arranges them into seven classes,
but the occupations differ which these authors
attributed to them : —

Greek Authors.

Arab.

. Strabo.

Diodorus.

Arrian.

Ibn Khurdadba

Philosophers.

Sophists.

Sab kufria.

Husbandmen.

Brahma.

:.'..

Shepherds and

Shepherds and. Shepherds and

Kataria.

Hunters.

Cowherds.

Artificers and
Merchants.

Artificers.

Artificers,Mer-
chants, and
Boatmen.

Sudaria.

Warriors.

Baisura.

Inspectors.

Sandalia.

Counsellors &
Assessors.

Assessors.

Lahud.

Ibn Khurdadba's first name is unknown. By
the others he seems to indicate the Brahman,
Kshatriya, Sudra, Vaisya, the Chandala, and
jugglers.

Dr. Caldwell tells us that in all ordinary cases
where illegitimate children are born, if there

be no great disparity in rank or caste betwee
the parents, the child takes that of the two parcn
which is the lower. Where considerable disparii
exists, and particularly when the woman is of tl
higher rank, — as, for instance, when a high casl
woman, or even a woman belonging to tl
middling castes, has formed an intimacy with
Pariah man, — the mother either procures abortic
or commits suicide. The child never sees the ligh
Caste has its chief relations with race descen
There are historical instances of sovereigns crea
ing Brahmans in great numbers from among
other races ; the Mahratta Brahmans are sai
to have been so made from amongst fishermei
and a great body of Kajputs were consecrated <
the Kshatriya caste.

To escape possible defilement, the servile raci
— Pariah, Mhar, Mhang, Chamar — are compelk
to dwell outside the village walls, and in tl
larger towns Christians have their own quarters
and the higher Aryan castes require the predi
races not even to approach their dwellings, but 1
stand at a distance and call aloud what they wish i
communicate. A Hindu may lose or be expclle
from his caste for many social acts, but no mer
torious deed can raise a Hindu from one caste t
another, nor does immorality or crime degrad
him from his caste. Many castes eat and drin
together, but intermarriages of persons of differei
castes are almost prohibited in the higher caste
and are rare even in the very lowest. It is
hedge over which many persons desire to lea]
Chaitanya and other reformers have founded seci
which have abandoned caste distinctions ; and th
lower tribes, as the Chamar or shoemaker, th
Dhobi or washerman, have largely joined ant:
Bralnnanical sects, as the Kabir panthi, Satnam
etc. The aboriginal races, of Turanian descen
as a rule, by origin and nature are averse to cast
distinctions and Brahmanism.

Avocations. — The races following Hinduism, an
the converts from amongst them to Mahomedanisi
and the Sikh faith, are, almost exclusively, th
owners and tillers of the soil of India ; and u
agriculturists in Northern India are in villag
proprietory communities, those of Central Indi
are village proprietors, and those of Wester
and Southern India are joint holders undt
Government. The entire banking interests i
India, moneyed men and capitalist class, smalh
merchants, traders, and carriers, are Hindus ; an
Hindus are settled for merchandise in Arabia, i
Afghanistan, all through Persia and Turkestan
they are in Astracan, in the southern province
of Russia, even as far as Moscow ; also in Furthe
India, throughout Burma, Tenasserim, southward
to Singapore ; and, from unknown antiquity, on
Hindu tribe of the north-west of the Peninsul
have been located on the east coast of Afric
southwards to Mozambique, and have been th
willing agents of slave-dealers.

The more famous amongst their writers : —

Agastya.

Bhaskara.

Anandagiri.

Bhatti.

Angirasa.

Bhava Bhuti.

Apastambha.

Brakmagupta.

Arya Bhatta.

Ckaraka.

Aswalayana.

Ckarandas.

Atri.

Dandi.

Bharata.

Devi Makataniya

Bharavi.

Dhanwantri.

Bkartrihari.

Py.t Dwiveda.

HINDU.

Raghu N'alldandalia l;J»it t i
Charya.

( .1 ■'.• - ill

i: i s.khara.

HaUyinUm Wiatta

nalid.

1 'IllilH ll.l .

Kamanuja.

.lnVii i N v.i.

Sama Kaia Dikahita.
Sankaraoharyu.

k. .';.n.

in.

Sayana.

Sayani Chandra Sckhara.

Kivavaykiar.
Soma Deva Bhatta.

Ipliia.

Sri-Harsha.

Sri Kri.-hna Tarkalankar.i.

Ki;-ii [>waipa Yana. Xudraka.

Sundaru Misra.

k i Bhatta.

Nusruta.

rya.

Vachispati Misra.

Vaidya Natha Vachispati.

aha.

Valuiiki.

Bbatta.

Varaha-Mihira.

■bum.

Vararuclii.

ndcya.

Vikrainaditya.

Mini 1

Visakha Datta.

ii .Misra.

Vishuil Sai lniili.

Visva Mitra.

l'liiiini.

Yisvanatha Kavi Raja.

iira.

Vopadeva.
Vrihaspati Misra.

njali.

Yajnavalkya.

A knowledge

of reading and writing is very

widely diffused,

but those who cannot write use

marks as their sign-manual, of which the
following may be mentioned: —

Mang, ... .A daffra.

Dher, .... A staff.

(.nter, . . . Chisel or kikra.

ber, .... Looking-glass,

shopkeeper or Bakal, . A balance.

Dhangar, .... Scissors.

rdener, . . . Kurpi.

Banjara, . . . Spear.

Koli, Ramusi, Bhil, . Bow and arrow.

■ and Kangrez, . . Joli.

Kassar (brazier), . . Tulai.

Kunbi A plough.

Qoldsmith, . . . A hammer.

Blacksmith, . . . AnviL

Ohamar, .... Leather knife or rapi.

Tailor, .... Yard-measure.

Soldier, .... Dagger.

Teli, .... Subbal pur.

Byragi, .... Forceps.

Maniar, .... Churi or bracelets.

Religious Liberty. — From the oldest times, suc-

ling rulers of Travancore and Cochin, and

uingly those of Gujerat, have ruled their

dominions with the most entire religious liberty ;

and Arab races, Jews, Parsees, Romans, Africans,

ptians, Portuguese, Dutch, and British have

led and settled there. At Patna, the little

-tian church, or Mut'h, as it is inserted in the

village dufturs, was endowed its portion of land

exactly as any other religious establishment.

In the changes between Buddhism and Hindu-
ism, and with the occasional forcible proselytizing
by die Mahomedans to their faith and by the
Portuguese at Goa to their views, there has been
much cruelty ; and, generally speaking, Hindu and
llahomedan sovereigns favoured those of their
who were of the rulers' faiths. But, by an
Ail passed in 1840, a discontinuance was put to all
interference on the part of British functionaries
in the interior management of native temples; in
the customs, habits, and religious proceedings
Of their priests and attendants; in the arrange-
ment of their ceremonies, rites, and festivals ;
and generally in the conduct of their interior
economy; the tax on pilgrims was abolished;

HINDU.

and in 1841, salutes ami tin- sttendaoM of troops
or military buds wen forbidden at sucfa festivals.

Hindu Morality.' Major Moor remarks that it
is some comparative, though Mga4 ive, prtili
the Hindus, that the emblem under which they
«\.r\ where exhibit the elements and operations
of nature are not externally indecorous. Unlike

the ahominai.ie realities <>f Egypt and Greece, we

see the phallic emblem in the Hindu pantheon
without offence, and know not, until the infor-
mation be furnished, that we are contemplating
a symbol whose prototype is indelicate. The
external decency of the Bymbols, and the diffi-
culty with which their recondite allusions are dis-
covered, both offer evidence favourable to the
moral delicacy of the Hindu character. Temples
are nevertheless commonly to be seen, on which
are represented, in statues even of life si7.e,
figures which only the mind of man in all its
corruptness and wickedness could conceive.
However recently erected, these are perhaps but
remnants of the period succeeding the asceticism
and austerities of Buddhism. Books then came
to be written about heroes whom they deified,
some of whose lives, as painted, are a continuous
outrage of decency. But the people generally
never followed such licence. To have done so,
society must have ended. At the present day,
undoubtedly, the morality of the Hindus is far
above the stories in their books, the statues on
their shrines, or the licence which prevails
amongst the few who associate with the Deva-
dasa at their temples ; and it is only their patience
under such grossness, their not rising in wrath to
reform it, their worship of fire and the elements,
of the sun and moon, of the lingain and yoni, of
the saligrama, the binlang, the tulsi, and the
poa ; their reverence for, almost worship of, the
cow, the kite, and the cobra ; their worship of
Nandi, of idols with unnatural or liideous forms,
of shapeless blocks of wood or stone, in which the
educated have no faith, and which are often
treated with irreverence by all ; their respect for
books of the contents of which they are ignorant,
and which are not worthy of their present civilisa-
tion, — it is their adherence to all these confused
amalgamations of the coarse Vedic creed, Scythic
worship, fetishism, the austerities and sacredness
of life of Buddhism, and the licence of Vishnu as
Krishna, which excites the wonder and the con-
tempt of all educated men. And their indifference
is the more remarkable, because two thousand
years ago they had a religion ' less disgraced by
idolatrous worship than most of those which pre-
vailed in early times. They had a copious and
cultivated language, and an extensive and diversi-
fied literature ; they had made great progress in
the mathematical sciences, they speculated pro-
foundly in the mysteries of man and nature, and
they had acquired remarkable proficiency in many
of the ornamental and useful arts of life. In
short, whatever defects may be justly attributed
to their religion, their government, their laws,
their literature, their sciences, their arts, as con-
trasted with the same proofs of civilisation in
modern Europe, the Aryan Hindus were in all
these respects quite as civilised as any of the most
civilised nations of the ancient world, and in as
early times as any of which records or tradition
remain.' In the re-ascendency of Brahmanism
after the overthrow of Buddhism, the prime defect

HINDU.

HINDUSTAN.

of which was a want of knowledge of the true
God, and to which was subsequently added a relic
worship, and an over-fondness for asceticism, the
writers who are now regarded by the Hindus as
authorities, introduced the outrageous matters
which at the present day are the shame and
degradation of the followers of this extraordinary
faith. Major Moor observes that, with a little
alteration, the first part of Juvenal's fifteenth
satire, beginning ' Quis nescit,' might be applied
to the teachers of Hinduism as now seen, as
happily as to the Egyptians, the objects of
Juvenal's severity. It is a picture of the
Hinduism of the present day : —

1 Who knows not that there's nothing vile nor odd,

Which brain-sick Brahmans turn not to a god ?

Some of those blockheads bulls and cows adore ;

Fish, reptiles, birds, and snakes, as many more ;

A long-tail'd ape some suppliants admire,

Or man-like elephant, a god the sire ;

One race a god, half-man half-fish, revere,

Others to unsightly moieties adhere ;

Hosts to a stone's high deity bend down,

While others sticks with adoration crown ;

Nay, vegetables here hold rank divine,—

On leeks or mushrooms 'tis profane to dine.

O holy nation, where the gardens bear

A crop of gods throughout the tedious year ! '

It has been remarked that the characters of
many of the Hindu deities are faintly indicated by
the term immoral. Everything that is gross and
sensual and wrong is to be found as ordinary acts
of their deities ; and the followers of these faiths
present the extraordinary spectacle of a people
with purer lives than is to be found in the
idolatrous or demonolatrous systems of religion
which they follow. They have a proverb amongst
themselves, — ' Yatha devas, Tatha bhaktah,' i.e.
As is the god, so is the worshipper, — happily not
applicable to their own conduct. For in their
domestic lives they are gentle, not aggressive ;
modest, reverent, respecters of authority, temporal
and spiritual ; desirous of knowledge, seekers of
the truth, patient under mental or bodily labour ;
diligent in their callings, frugal, temperate, and
chaste ; living with one wife, though Hindu law
permits a plurality; amongst the entire Hindu
races offences against the person are rare, and it
is only amidst the licence of the temples that
gross polygamy is common, and is even there
confined to the habitues of the shrines.

In all these remarks, however, it is necessary
to bear in mind that the Hindus comprise many
races, and dwell in many different climates.
Amongst some of the races, and particularly
amongst the non-Aryan tribes, there is much
drinking of alcoholic fluids, which with other
of their races is almost unknown. Mountstuart
Elphinstone says their most prominent vice is
want of veracity. They do not even resent the
imputation of falsehood. The same man would
calmly answer to a doubt by saying, ' Why should
I tell a lie ? ' who woidd shed blood for what he
regarded as the slightest infringement of his
honour. Hindus are not ill fitted by nature for
intrigue and cunning, when their situation calls
forth those qualities. Patient, supple, and insinu-
ating, they penetrate the views of the persons
with whom they have to deal. like all that are
slow to actual conflict, they are very litigious,
and much addicted to verbal altercation. ' The
manner in which often,' Dr. Chevers writes at
p. 451, 'a crowd of Bengalis fall upon a victim of

their displeasure, and beat and tear him into
pieces with sticks, fists, feet, hands, and any
weapon which may happen to have been brought
or caught up, until the body lies in the midst
of them a mere bloody, featureless, disjointed,
broken mass, is scarcely characteristic of the
reputed mildness of the national character.' —
Abbe Domenech's Deserts of N. America; Bunseu's
Egypt; Brown's Teloogoo Dictionary ; Caldwell's
Comparative Grammar, also Tinnevelly Shanarsi
Calcutta Review; Coleman's Mythology ; Cunning-
ham's Bhilsa Topes ; Cunningham 's History of the
Sikhs ; Elliot's History of India ; Elliot's Supple-
mental Glossary ; Elphinstone 's Hist, of India j
Hodgson in Bengal As. Soc. Transactions ,
Latham , s Descriptive Ethnology; Marsden's Marco
Polo; Max Midler's Chips; Marshall's Stat. Rep.;
Moor's Pantheon ; Mullen's Hindu Philosophy ;
Sherring's Castes and Tribes ; Strange 1 s Hindoo
Law; Pennant's Ceylon; Tod's Rajasthan ; Tod's
Travels ; Vigne's Travels ; Ward's Hindoos ;
Wilson's Glossary ; Wheeler's Mahabharata ,
Wheeler's Ramayana ; Wheeler's Travels of a
Hindoo ; Wilson in Royal As. Soc. Transactions ;
Williams' Story of Nala.

HINDUSTAN is a term which the people of
Europe apply to British India generally. To the
people of India, however, and to Europeans resid-
ing there, the name is restricted to that part of
the country which lies between the Himalaya and
the Vindhya mountains, and from the Panjab
in the N.W. to Bengal in the S.E. This was
the Aryavartha or Aryan country of the Sanskrit
writers, who also called it Punya bhumi, or the
Sacred Land. Jutting to the south of this
portion is a triangular promontory or peninsula,
known to the Hindus as the Dekhan (Deccan),
meaning the south ; and these two portions form
the region which is briefly to be noticed here.

Rivers and Mountains. — The northern portion is
watered by the Ganges and the Indus and their
tributaries, and it is known as the Indo-Gangetic
plain. It is an immense extent of flat country,
stretching from sea to sea, is entirely composed of
alluvial deposits of very late geological age, and it
separates the hilly ground of the Peninsula from
the mountain ranges of Sind, thePanjab,the Hima-
laya, Assam, and Burma. Several of the southern
rivers are large, — the Nerbadda, Tapti, Mahanadi,
Godavery, Kistna, and Cauvery ; but none of them
equals in importance the Ganges, or the Indus,
or the Brahmaputra, which, with the Irawadi of
Further India, are the only rivers navigated by
steam flotillas, though the Godavery has boats
trafficking on it. The marine lagoons, on the east
and west coasts, connected by canals, are available
for inland navigation, and most of the rivers and
their affluents are utilized for irrigation. The east
coast of the Peninsula is washed by the Bay of
Bengal, and its west coast by the Arabian Sea ;
but the great Indo-Gangetic plain is mountain
girt. To the west are the Khirtari, the Suliman,
and the maze of mountains separating India from
Afghanistan ; to the south are the Vindhya ; and on
all the north Hindustan proper is bounded by the
stupendous Himalayas.

The Aravalli hills are connected by lower
ranges with the western extremity of the Vindhya
mountains, on the borders of Gujerat, and stretch
northwards to a considerable distance beyond
Ajmir, in the direction of Dehli, forming the

HINDUSTAN.

the desert on the west and the
MDtra] table-laud. It would be more correct to
say the level of the desert, for the south-eastern
portion, including Jodhpur, is a fertile country.
Amarkantak, a great plateau, forms the water-
the Mahanadi, Son, Tons, Johilla, and
N, rbadda. These rivers, though large and full of
wmter eveu half-way from their mouths, are very ]
irregular in the slopes of their beds, and are
disturbed l»y frequent rapids, so that, owing to
impediments, increased still further by the
haracter of the riverbeds or their banks, ,
tion is limited for the most part to the j
portions of their course.
( '< a trttl India is a table-land of unequal surface,
from 1500 to 2500 feet above the sea, bounded by
ivalli mountains on the west, and those of
the Yindhya on the south, supported on the east
by a lower range in Bundelkhand, and sloping
gradually on the north-east into the basin of the
Ganges. It is a diversified but fertile tract. The
plateau is known as the Patar, and many parts
are covered with jungle. The Aravalli hills have
gfforded protection to the most ancient sovereign
gaoe in the east or west, — the ancient stock of the
Suryavansa, the Heliadae of India, or children of
the sun, the princes of Mewar, who, when'pressed,
were wont to retire to its fastnesses, only to issue
again when occasion offered.

The J "niilhya mountains north of the Nerbadda
river, and the Satpura range south of that river,
run east and west, and separate Hindustan proper
from the Dekhan.

In that peninsular Dekhan or southern portion
are two mountain ranges, known as the Eastern and
Western Ghats. These ghats run in wavy lines
southwards towards Cape Comorin, approaching
and receding from the coast, and leaving, be-
tween them and the sea, low, alluvial, fertile tracts
from 50 to 100 miles broad. The region enclosed
within the ghats has several extensive plateaus,
rising 1200 to 3000 feet above the sea, as in
led Districts, Coimbatore, Hyderabad, and
Mysore ; and in the more southern parts are spurs
rising higher, with particular names. For in-
. stance, to the north of Coimbatore the chain rises
abruptly to 8000 feet, as the Neilgherry range, and
continues northward as the mountains of Coorg.
The rainfall, which is great on the western coast,
is less on the Neilgherries, being 82 inches at
Dodabetta, and 48 inches at Ootacamund. Farther
north, in the Nagar district of Mysore, where are
many rounded or table-topped hills 4500 feet
high, often cultivated to that height, and rising
in some places to upwards of 6000 feet, the climate
of the western part is very humid, and particularly
so at the town of Nagar or Bednur, 4000 feet
high, on a spur of the western chain, where in-
clement rain is said to last for months.
The Travancore group presents a striking ana-
i the island of Ceylon. The hills are loftiest
at the extreme north of that district, where they
■tretch east and west for GO or 70 miles, separat-
ing the districts of Dindigul and Madura.
The Putney mountains are west of the Dindigul,
aimallay south of Coimbatore, and the Sheva-
giri south-west of Madura.

Climate and Seaso7is. — A country with such
varied features, and extending through 28 degrees
of latitude (8° 8' to 36° N.), has climates and pro-
ducts commensurately varied. In Hindustan the

people usually arrange the year into three period*,
— the Choumasa or Burk'na, which is the rainy
season of four months' duration ; after which is
the Seeala, or Jhara, or Mohasa, the cold season ;
followed by the Dhubkala or K'hursa, or hot
season. This division indicates generally the
course of the seasons in all Hindustan, though in
one locality or another the rains or the hot or cold
seasons may be somewhat more or less prolonged.

Winds and ltdins. — The S.W. monsoon blows
from the Southern Ocean, and is loaded with
vapour. This is deposited largely along the sea-face
of the Western Ghats, and between them and the
sea, from 70 to 100 inches at the sea-level, and as
much as 250 inches on the mountain face. At
Mahabaleshwar it amounts to 2G0 inches annually.
In the Southern Konkan, especially in the Sawant-
wari district, the rains are as heavy as in Canara.
At Bombay the rains last from June till the end
of September, and the fall is only 71 inches, which
is considerably less than at any point farther
south on the west coast. At Tanna, however, the
average fall is more than 100 inches. This mon-
soon wind passes over the plains of Bengal, and
strikes on the Khassya mountains and the whole
length of the Himalaya, discharging itself in heavy
rains. From April till August it blows from the
east of south, in August S.S.E., and in September
more easterly, lowering the temperature of Bengal
and of the northern plains, though the plains of
the Panjab continue excessively heated.

From the vernal till the autumnal equinox, the
heat of a great part of India continues great ; but
after the autumnal equinox, the great mass of the
Himalaya becomes intensely cold, and the plains
of India generally become cool. Where the N.E.
monsoon prevails, it is everywhere a land wind,
except on the east coast of the Karnatic, the
Malay Peninsula, and the Archipelago. In
Malaya it blows over a great extent of sea, and
is therefore very rainy; but in the Karnatic the
width of sea is not great, so that the rainfall,
though well marked, is less, and terminates long
before the end of the monsoon, probably from the
wind acquiring a more directly southerly direction,
after the sun has reached the southern tropic.
The amount of rain varies prodigiously in different
parts of India, from almost none to 555 inches at
Cherrapunji ; but the rainfall affords no direct
criterion of the humidity of any climate, for the
atmosphere may be saturated with moisture with-
out any precipitation taking place. Thus, while
in Sikkim 1° for 300 feet is the proportion for
elevations below 7000 feet, on the Neilgherry
Hills it is about 1° for 340 feet; in Khassya, 1°
for 380 feet ; and the elevations of Nagpur and
Ambala produce no perceptible diminution in
their mean temperature, which is as great a3
that which would normally be assigned to them
were they at the level of the sea. The chief
fall occurs during the S.W. monsoon, between
May and October. On the more southerly part of
the Coromandel coast, on the east of the Penin-
sula, heavy rain falls in the months October to
December, at the opening of the N.E. monsoon ;
and in all the more northerly provinces, a well-
marked season of winter rains occur, commencing
about Christmas, and extending to February. At
this season, in the south of India, showers occur,
but they have little effect on agricultural opera-
tions, — often, indeed, are injurious to cotton when

. HINDUSTAN.

HINDUSTAN.

grown as a cold-weather crop. Subject to these
exceptions, it may be said generally that the por-
tion of India east of the 80th meridian has a
rainfall of more than 40 inches, while the portion
west of the same meridian has less than 40 inches.
The region in which the fall is less than 30
inches includes almost the whole of the Panjab,
a considerable part of the N.W. Provinces, a large
part of Rajputana and Kattyawar, as well as almost
the whole of the Dekhan and Mysore. In Sind,
and in the southern portion of the Panjab, the
rainfall is less than 15 inches, and is extremely
irregular ; but in Sind the agriculture almost
wholly depends on artificial irrigation from the
Indus. The parts of the country most subject to
droughts are — (1) the W. and S. parts of the N.W.
Provinces, the Panjab E. of the Sutlej ; (2) the
W. and N. States of Rujputana and of the Centi'al
Plateau, which border on the N.W. Provinces; (3)
the districts of Bombay and Madras above the
ghats, together with the southern and western
regions of Hyderabad and all Mysore, except the
strip lying close along the Western Ghats; and
(4) the Madras districts along the east coast, and
at the southern extremity of the Peninsula.

Dr. Royle gives the following arrangement of
the countries of which the plants will grow in the
different parts of India : —

Tropical and East Indian

islands, tropical Africa,

Brazil, Guiana, West

Indies, and Florida.
East and west coast of

Africa.
S. States of N. America,

Egypt, N. of Africa, Syria.
Mexican highlands, lower

mountains of Spain.
S. of Africa, extra-tropical

New Holland, S.America

beyond 23^° S. lat.
Mediterranean region.

Travancore, Cochin, Mala-
bar, Ceylon, Malay
Peninsula, Chittagong,
Bengal, Lower Assam.

Coromandel coast, North-
ern Circars, Konkan.

Gujerat, Behar, Doab,
Dehli, Malwa.

Mysore, hilly ranges in
Dekhan, Rnjputana.

Saharunpur and Northern
Doab.

Dehra Doon, and Hima-
layan valleys to moder-
ate elevations.

Neilgherries, Upper As-
sam, Himalayan moun-
tains.

Himalayan mountains, re-
gions of oaks and pines.

Himalayas above region of
forest.

Chino - Japanese region,

Middle Andes, Peru, and

mountains of Brazil.
North of Europe, north of

Asia, & North America.
Arctic regions, mountains

of Europe, Elevated

Andes.

Crops.— Many parts, alike of the northern and
southern districts, have two crops during the
year, — one called the kharif or rain crop, sown in
June, and reaped in October ; the other, sown in
October, and reaped in March and April, called
the rabi or spring or cold - weather crop. The
latter, embracing the months which approximate
in temperature to those of the season of cultivation
in colder countries, corresponds with them also in
the nature of the plants cultivated, as for instance
wheat, barley, sorghum, oats, and millet, peas,
beans, vetch, tares, chick-pea, pigeon-pea, and
lentils ; tobacco, safflower, and chicory ; flax,
and plants allied to mustard and rape, as oil-
seeds ; carrot, coriander, and cummin, and other
seeds of a similar kind, as ajwain, sonf, soya, and
anison. In the rainy season, a totally different
set of plants engages the agriculturist's attention,
as rice, cotton, indigo, and maize, with sorghum,
pulse, paspalum, most of the tropical legumes,
as well as several of the cucumber and gourd
tribes, together with the sesamum for oil, and the

varieties of the egg plant as a vegetable. Th<
sunn and sunni species of Corchorus and Crota
laria cordage plants are also cultivated at this
season. In the extreme N.W. countries, as, foi
instance, throughout Afghanistan, the climate if
excessive. The cold of the winter is intense, the
spring is damp and raw, and the summer, during
which hot west winds prevail, is intensely hot ai
all elevations. The crops are chiefly wheat ant
barley, even up to 10,000 feet elevation. Rice ii
cultivated in great quantity at Jalalabad, 200(
feet ; at Kabul, 6400 feet ; and to a considerable
extent at Ghazni, 7730 feet. Poplars, willows
and date-palm trees are extensively planted, at
well as mulberry, walnut, apricot, apple, pear,
and peach trees, and also the Elseagnus orientalis.
which bears an eatable fruit. The vine abounds as
in all warm and dry temperate climates. Th<
majority of the Afghan and Tibetan plants are
also, on the one side, natives respectively of the
Caspian steppes and N. Persia, and of Siberia or
the other.

The date is cultivated in Baluchistan up to 450C
feet ; and a dwarf palm, Chamserops Ritchieana
Griffith, occurs abundantly in many places, bul
with a somewhat local distribution.

The area of the entire region under notice
is 1,308,332 square miles, and its population
253,891,821. Excluding Assam and BritisI
Burma, both of which are beyond Hindustan in
Further India, the British administer 876,972 sq,
miles of territory, with a population of 193,270,70C
souls ; and the states in alliance, feudatory anc
mediated, have an area of 573,772 square miles
with a population of 52,002,924.

Races. — The British territory is chiefly in the
plains, and its population at the census of 1871
comprised 73£ per cent, of Hindus and Sikhs,
21 £ per cent, of Mahomedans, and 5 per cent. 01
all others, including under this title Buddhists
Jains, Christians, Jews, Parsees, Bramhoes, anc
Hillmen. As this page is passing through the
press, portions only of the 1881 census have beer
made public, and the figures are to some extent
not up to date. Under the designation Hindu arc
included almost all who profess, in some form, the
Brahmanic religions, or who are worshippers ol
local deities, of whom about 10^ millions arc
Brahmans, 5| millions are Kshatriyas and Rajputs,
105£ millions of other castes ; 8f millions do not
recognise caste ; and 17f millions are aboriginal
tribes or semi-Hinduized aboriginals. In 1881
the numbers were as under : —

Hindus, . .

187,937,450

Jains, . .

1,221,89C

Sikhs, . . .

1,853,426

Christians,

. 1,862,684

Mahomedans,

50,121,585

Aborigines,

. 6,420,511

Buddhists, .

3,418,884

Others,.

. l,04y,43f

The Buddhists are almost all inhabitants ol
Burma, and not of Hindustan, but with the incom-
plete census reports the residence respectively
cannot be distinguished.

The ancestors of the present inhabitants, dur-
ing the bygone ages, either as immigrants or af
conquerors, have been entering India from the
north and west. How little these have amalga-j
mated, may be judged of by mentioning that out olj
1030 villages lying here and there between th<i
Jumna and Sutlej, and which were under Britisl|
management in 1844, there were found to be 41
different tribes of agriculturists. And as i
characteristic of the rebellion of 1857 and 1858

HINDUSTAN.

it was observed that certain classes of villagers I castes. In this way almost every family of a few

1 and destroyed other classes ; — the power- hundred years' duration is now broken up. The

ful hand I of a regular government being tempor- | cause of the origin of this exclusive propensity is

arily removed, (lie ancient antipathies of race at j unknown, further than that the system of caste

line into play. Dwelling amongst each and the forms of H rah manic worship commenced

door to door, but yot never mixing, neither
sating together nor intermarrying, most of the
main as distinct as when, 10, 16, 20, flO,
\<\ and 60 centuries ago, they came to the south.
It is this separating system which has kept the
>>f Aryan and Turanian races of India pure.
On the slightest suspicion as to descent, all inter-
ceases, and the descendants, in different
iias from the same recognised ancestor, form new

amongst the East Aryans after their passage of the
Sutlej, and now every Aryan and most Turanian
households are guided by its rules. The tribes
and castes are everywhere numerous. It has
been estimated that in Bengal alone, if their sub-
divisions and septs and clans be taken into ac-
count, they would amount to many thousands.
The Bombay Census Report of 1881 enumerates
1245.

Population of India according to Census of 1881,- classified under Sexes and Religion, and distinguishing British Territory

from Native States.

Province or

Total Population of all Religion*

rritory.

Males. Females.

lUunia.
Central Prov.,.

.
W.W.P.&Oudh,

I Panjab, . . .
....
<nj St.

. .
Prov., .
N.W.i'.&Oudh,
!». . .

1, . ■

n. Brit. Terri,
Feud. St.)
•states.

....

■ ntral India, .

Cochin, . . .

l>ad,

....

Rajputana, . .

iKvancorc,

ve St., .
II. Top.,

248,844

2,503,703

34,625,591

1,380,492

8,497,718

1,991,005

4,959,435

100,439

15,421,043

22,912,550

10,210,053

102,850,879

3,572,355

867,687

B84.6M

2,112,303

0,987,044

109,787,923

1,139,512
4,882,823
301,815
5,002,13
2,085,S42
5,544,605
1,197,1 34
20,153,928

211,878
377,723
911,270
292,181
956,690
748,768
879,866
77,863
749,588
195,313
640,384

99,03S,018

460

4,881,

69,686,

2,672,

16,454

3,736

9,888,

178,

31,170:

44,107

18,860

801,888

3,368,894

842,033

357,051

_1 ,749,380

6, 817,368

1,045,493
4,379,084
298,463
4,843,457
2,100,346
4,723,727
1,204,024

1S,594,594

Total

039
146

sot;
684
582
177
630
488
678
394
7,130,528
144,875,315

0,941,249

1,709,720

741,750

3.861,683

13, '254,402
215,143,290

2,185,005
9,261,907
600,278
9,845,594
4,186,188
10,268,392
2,401,15S

Hindus.

M. & F.

876
,062

,452
,425,
,308.
88!
,317
168
■ •197
,063,

,130

1,317,

21,704i

187,

8,021,

168:

275

1,933

6,922

10,525

45,127,033

5,526,403

1,385,280

501,727

2,121,767

9,535,1

154,410,492

1,852,868
7,800,396
429,324
8,893,181
3,956,336
8,839,243
1,755,610

Aborign,

M. &F.

488,251

2,055,822

87,838

562,678

1,683,599

753,229

9,914

240,014

1,137,284

2,140,44 1

47,267,474

4,677,688

369,216
220,318

589,534

Buddh.

M. 4 F.

166

3,251

2
3,418

1,168,5891,253,115

:',8'
899

174,980
510,718
33,344
925,929
200,484
861,74'
146,909
2,854,111

5,207, 222;3,41S,875

101,522
891,424

166,343

1,159,289;

Christ.

M. & F.

Sikhs.

M. * F.

2,225 182

7,093 14

128,135, 549

1,885! 525

138.317J 127,100
84,219

11,949

3,152'

711,080

47,664

3,644

33,420 1,121,004

6,837i 30

24 2

27o 596,110

7,149 595,142

1,175,738 1,848,25'

771

7,065

136, 361 j

13,614!

29,249

1.294 1

498,542]

Jains.

M.& V.

24,308

158

1,609

20,020

216,224

45,718

24,973

79,957

35,826

448,897

Others.

M. * F.

169

177

37,407

245

80,382

143,905

668,806

1,804

221

1,645

919,784

282,219 .3,303
193 93,989

6,852

289,204

97,200

38,101 1.017,080

1,455

3,664
41

686,896 5,169

46,718
49,824

8,521

378,672

8,146

1,025

1,249

685

21,084

483,735, 32,35

38,748,522 33,520,058
129,941,8.51 123^0,070 ! 253,891, 8211187,037, 45(> 50,121,585 6742TiT5l1 3,418,8841,862,634 17853,42617221^961,049,435

Many of the aboriginal tribes, now under the
'•ritish or feudatory rulers, are broken national-
ities, as the Gond, the Bhil, the Kathi, the Gujar, the
Mair, the Meena, the Bhar, the Kurku, the Maria,
the Khond, the Santal, the Kol. There are smaller
tribes in Chutia Nagpur and the Tributary Mahals,
\»ild mountain races in Julpiguri, with more com-
pact clans of Mongoloid tribes in the Garo, Khassya,
.laintia. and Naga Hills, and in Tiperah and the
< 'hittagong Hill tracts. On the hills and in the
plains in the extreme south of Peninsular India,
the Nair, the Coorgs, the Beder, the Male
Arasar, the Kadar, the Yanadi, the Irular, the
Bndaga, the Toda, the Kotar and Kurumbar, and
the Saura, the Ohenchwar of the Eastern Ghats.

The Kallar, Maravar, Teer, and Shanar occupy
the plains in the very south of the Peninsula.
\ Some of the predial tribes, the Dom, Pariah, Mhar.
Holiyar, Mhang, Dhor, Chamar, Veddar, Puller,
Cherumar, are settled in the outskirts of the
villages; but the Wadawar, Banjara, Lambari,
Korawa, Bhaora, Bhatu, the Yerkala, some of
the Kurumbar, and others, are homeless wanderers,
moving amid the civilised settled dwellers of the
plains, or secluded in the hills and forests, and are
largely predatory, as are also the Sansi, Baori,
Harni of the Panjab, and the Nat of Northern
Hindustan. The Dravidiana are in several great

nations, as the Tamilar, the Teling, and the Canar-
ese.

The more compact of the smaller nationalities
of Dravidian aud Kolarian descent have found
shelter in the mountain tracts on the south-west
of Bengal proper, in the hills of Orissa, and in the
valleys of the Satpura and Vindhya ranges, and
in northern Gondwana, where they have formed
many little states under chiefs claiming to be of
ancient lineage, or cadets of Rajput houses.

The next in numbers are the Mahomedans. They
are chiefly in Bengal, the N.W. Provinces, and
the Panjab, with smaller numbers in Oudh, parts
of the Bombay and Madras Presidencies, or dis-
persed among the Hindu communities. None of
them have settled among the semi- civilised or
wild aboriginal tribes. Many of them are of
Arab, Afghan, Moghul, and Persian descent, but
a considerable number are of converts from
Hinduism ; and the ancestors of the great bulk of
those in Bengal, in number 21,704,724 in 1881,
are recognised to have been non-Aryan aborigines,
though their history is not known. The Maho-
medans are in two sects, the Sunni and the Shiah,
the former greatly preponderating, with smaller
offshoots known as Mahdavi. In 1881, the total
of the Mahomedans of Hindustan was 50,121,585.
Hindustan is partly under British, partly under
79

HINDUSTAN.

Rajput, Hindu, and Mahomedan rule. The prin-
cipal of the allied states are those ruled over by
Hindu sovereigns, and the Rajput families of Udai-
pur or Mewar, of Jodhpur or Marwar, of Jeypore
in Rajputana, by the Rao of Cutch, and the Hindu
sovereigns of Mysore, Travancore, and Cochin.
The Mahratta rulers are of Kolhapur, the Gaekwar,
Sindia, and Holkar ; the Mahomedan states are
Bhopal and Hyderabad. The French have pos-
sessions in Hindustan, with an area of 178 square
miles, and 271,460 souls ; and the area of the
Portuguese possessions is 1086 square miles, with
407,712 souls, chiefly in towns or suburban.

The chieftains of Rajputana have about 93,000
armed retainers, mostly undisciplined.

The Hyderabad state is composed of portions of
Telingana, Karnatica, Maharasthra, and Gond-
wana. Its ruler, styled the Nizam, is a Mahomedan,
and most of its territorial nobility and its soldiery
are of the same sect. The area, including Berar,
is about 98,000 square miles, and its population
11,226,496.

In the Hyderabad state there are three large
armed forces, — one body, the subsidiary force, at
Secunderabad, of about 5000 of all arms ; the
other, the contingent, also of all arms, about 5000,
at Ellichpur, Bolarum, Aurangabad, Hingoli, and
Mominabad ; and the Nizam has a large body of
disciplined and undisciplined troops, stated in
1879 at 38,000 infantry, 8200 cavalry, and 725
guus.

The dominions of the Maharaja Sindia are
33,119 square miles in extent, with a population
of 2,500,000, and revenue, 1 million.

The Maharaja Sindia can, under treaty agree-
ments, maintain a regular force of 5000 men, and
36 guns. The fortress overlooking the town of
Gwalior is held by British troops, who occupy
also the neighbouring cantonment of Morar.

The Maharaja Holkar of Indore and Malwa
rules over about 8400 square miles of straggling
territory in Central India, with a population of
about 750,000.

Bhopal adjoins Holkar's dominions to the east-
ward. Its ruler and the court are Mahomedans, of
Path an descent, as are likewise a large number of
the population of the chief town. The territory
contains 6760 square miles, and nearly 700,000
inhabitants. The number of armed retainers
maintained is about 6000, with 39 guns of sorts.
Bhopal has, from the earliest times, displayed an
unswerving friendship for and loyalty to the
British. In the most trying times of the Mutiny,
when other states wavered, Bhopal stood true.
The dynasty which rules it has never shown any
love for aggression. A small colony of Maho-
medans planted in the midst of a large Hindu
community at the time of the break up of the
Moghul empire, the descendants of that colony
have been satisfied to maintain the dominion of
their fathers. Pathans in Central India are as
much foreigners to the Hindu population as are
the British. The present and preceding ruler have
been ladies, eminently just and devout.

The Native States of India can dispose of 64,172
cavalry, 241,063 foot soldiers, and 9390 trained
artillerymen, working 5252 guns.

The Mewar state, of 11,614 square miles, and a
population of 1,161,400 souls, was founded about
A.D. 144. It is also called Udaipur from its
capital. It is ruled oyer by a family of Surya-

vansa or Solar descent, Sissodia Rajputs, t
Heliadae of India, the highest in social rank ai
dignity of all the Rajput chiefs of India, descen
ants from Rama, king of Ayodhya.

The states of Doongurpur, Sirobi, and Parta 1
gurh are offshoots from it ; and Sivaji, the found
of the Mahratta power, was descended from tl
Udaipur family. By treaty in 1818, the Britii
Indian Government undertook to protect this stat

The Jeypore state, of 15,000 square mih
and a population of 1,900,000 souls, is ruled 1
Cuchwaha Rajputs (Kachwaha), who also clai
descent from Rama. It was founded amongst tl
Meena race, a.d. 967. The family furnished to tl
Moghul emperors some of their most illustrioi
generals ; and Jey Singh n. (a.d. 1699) was
distinguished mathematician and astronomer. 1
1803 the state entered into a treaty of alliam
with the British.

The Marwar or Jodhpur state was found*
about a.d. 1459 by Jodha, a descendant of tl
Rahtor Rajput kings of Kanouj. Among tl
Rajput states it ranks next to Mewar and Jeypor
Its area is 35,672 square miles, and populatioi
1,783,600.

Bundi is ruled by a family of the Hara tril
of Rajputs. Its area is 2291 square miles, ar
population, 220,000 ; revenue, Rs. 5,00,000. Ra;
Oineda, in 1804, gave efficient assistance to Colon
Monson when retreating before Holkar ; and i
1818, Maha Rao Bishen Singh concluded a treal
with the British, acknowledging the Britis
supremacy.

The Kotah principality was formed in tl
beginning of the 17th century by the chief <
Bundi, who was forced by the Maharana <
Udaipur to cede half his territory to his young*
brother. Its treaty with the British is in 181'
and this was the first of the Rajput states to cc
operate with the British in suppressing the Pir
daris. During the mutiny of 1 857, however, tt
Maha Rao made no attempt to assist the Politics
Agent, who with his two sons was murderec
Area, 5000 square miles; population, 433,000
revenue, Rs. 25,00,000 : tribute, Rs. 1,84,720.

Jhallawar was formed in 1838, when the Kota
principality was dismembered, and (8th April
British supremacy was acknowledged by Ri
Rana Mudun Singh undertaking to pay Rs. 80,00
annually as tribute. Its area is 2500 sq. miles
population, 220,000 ; and revenue, Rs. 14,50,00(

Tank is ruled by a Mahomedan ruler with th
title of Nawab, descendant of Amir Khan,
famous predatory leader. Its area, 1800 squai
miles; population, 182,000 ; revenue, Rs. 8,00,00(

Kerrowlee is a Hindu state, with an area of 187
square miles ; population, 188,600 ; revenue
Rs. 3,00,000. Its maharaja, Muddun Pal, di
good service during the mutinies.

Kishenyarh is an offshoot of Marwar. Its aref
720 square miles ; population, 70,000 souls ; an
revenue, Rs. 6,00,000.

Dholpur is ruled by a Jat family. Its chief i
1803 co-operated with the British during th
second Mahratta war, and its chief in 185
aided the fugitives from Gwalior. Its area, 162
square miles ; population, 500,000 ; and revenue
Rs. 6,00,000.

Bhurtpur is also a Jat principality. It wa
founded by Birj, a freebooter, and was largel
extended in 1763 by his grandson, Suraj Mull

IIIXIHsTAN.

In 1808, Kanjit Singh was ruling when Holkar,
iKti the battle of Deeg, pursued by Lord Lake,
took refuge in the fort. Kanjit Singh refused
to surrender llolkar, and witlistood four assaults
eapitulatiug, and a new treaty was then
formed. Chi the occurrence of a disputed suc-
cession, the fort was stormed by the British, 18th
January 1826, and the young maharaiah settled
on the throne. Area, 1974 square miles ; popu-
lation, «;:.i 1,000; revenue, Kg. 21,00,000.

The Ultcar chief ship in Kajputana is under
British protection, has an area of 3800 square
miles; population, 1,000,000; and revenue, 16
lakhs. The state in 1771-1770 was carved out
amongst the Moo and Rajputs by Pratap Singh, a
Naruka Rajput.

Bikanir was founded about the close of the
15th century amongst small tribes of Jat, Bhatti,
and others, by Bika Singh, son of Kaja Jodh Singh
of Jodhpur. He died A.D. 1505. In 1857, his
successor greatly aided the British, and 41 villages
were bestowed on him. Its area is 17,676 square
miles : population, 539,000 ; revenue, 6 lakhs.

Jeysulmir, a Rajput state, entered into alliance
with the British in 1818. Its chiefs name was
Moolraja. Area, 16,447 square miles ; population,
73,700 ; revenue, Rs. 5,00,000. The people are
chiefly Yadu Bhatti Rajputs, who claim a very
ancient descent, and its ruler, the Maharawal, is
head of the clan. Like the Rahtor Rajputs, they
are supposed to be descended from one of the
Indo-Scythic tribes who penetrated into India at
very remote times.

Dungurpur chiefship, formed by an offshoot
from the Mewar family. Area, 1000 square miles ;
population, 100,000 ; revenue, Rs. 75,000.

Sirohi, a state in Rajputana, is ruled over by
the Deora, a branch of the Chauhan clan. They
claim direct descent from Deo Raj, a descendant
of Prithivi Raj, the Chauhan king of Dehli. The
earliest inhabitants were Bhils, succeeded by Raj-
puts of the Gehlot Pramara, and the present
Mora Chauhan. Area. 8000 square miles ; popu-
lation. 153,000. Its ruler in 1845 transferred
Mount Abu to the British as a sanatorium. During
them utiny of 1857-58, its ruler, Rao Sheo Singh,
did good service.

Baroda is a Native State in alliance with British
India. It includes all the territories of the Maha-
raja the Gaekwar in different parts of Gujerat,
lying between lat, 21° 51' and 22° 49' N., and
long. 72° 53' and 73° 55' E., with an area of
1899 Rquare miles, and population, 2,000,225.
Its chief rivers are the Nerbadda, Mahi, Sabar-
mati, and Saraswati. Its people are Hindus,
Jains, Parsees, and Mohamedans. Revenue,
Rs. 1,02,64,820.

< 'utch is a Native State in political relation with
the Bombay Presidency, ruled over by a Jhareja
Rajput prince. Population, 512,084; but there
ate many broken tribes amongst them.

Kolhapur is ruled by the representatives of the
younger branch of the family of Sivaji, as the
rajas of Satara were of the elder. The Kolhapur
family long struggled to head the Mahratta power,
until, in 1731, Sahoji by treaty recognised Kol-
hapur as an independent principality. In 1760,
the descendants of Sambaji became extinct, and
one of the Bhonsla family was adopted. In the
mutiny of 1857 the raja remained faithful, but his
younger brother, Chimma Sahib, joined the rebels. '
VOL. II. 81

.HINDUSTAN.

1184 square miles; )>opulation, .'.4«'.,i;.<; :
revenue, 10 lakhs.

Mysore is a Hindu state in the southern part of
the Peninsula, with an area of 27,078 square
miles, and, iii 1881, a population of 4,180,188.
Its Mulnad or hill country adjoius the Western
Ghats; its plain country is well cultivated, but
the rainfall is not abundant and is irregular, and
in 1876-77 it failed, and above a million of the
inhabitants wore lost. Its aboriginal tribes are
Bedar, Kurubar or Kurumba, I^ambaui, Koracha,
and Pariahs. The languages are three dialects of
Canarese.

The Cochin Rajas claim descent from an ancient
dynasty who once ruled from N. Canara to Cape
Comorin. The state was conquered by Hydor
Ali, and retained by Tipu, until, in 17!»2, it was
released by the British. In 1809, the family
rebelled against the British, and, by a treaty then
made, a subsidy of Rs. 2,76,037 per annum was
exacted. Area, 1131 square miles; population,
399,060 ; revenue, Rs. 10,57,497.

The Travancore rulers are of the Kshatriyarace,
and of the Hindu religion, but, with many of their
subjects, Nairs and others, they follow the descent
by the female line. At the commencement of the
18th century, the territory now known as Tra-
vancore had a number of chiefs, who were con-
stantly at war, but they were gradually brought
under the authority of the Raja of Travancore,
Wauji Baula Perumal, 1758 to 1799. He was
a stedfast ally of the British, who aided him in
return ; and in 1789, being attacked by Tipu, the
British declared war, and, on the conclusion of
peace in 1792, Tipu restored all the territory
he had wrested from Travancore. A treaty was
agreed to in 1795. Any failure in the direct
female descent requires the selection and adoption
of two or more females from the immediate relat-
ives of the family, who reside at certain places in
Travancore. The maidens adopted for this pur-
pose become Tumbruttis, and are styled Ranis
of Attingah on certain ceremonies performed
publicly at Attingah, and in the chief temple of
Trevandrum. Area, 6653 square miles ; popu-
lation, 1,262,647 ; reuenue, Rs. 42,85,000.

The family of the Zamorin of Calicut and the
Bibi of Cananore also follow uterine descent.

The Puducottali chieftain is styled the Raja
Tondaman Bahadur. At the siege of Trichinopoly
in 1753, the British army greatly depended on
the Tondamaus' fidelity and exertions for provi-
sions. They and most of their subjects are of the
Kollarrace. Area, 1037 square miles; population,
268,750; and revenue, Rs. 3,24,136.

The Smu/nr Raja is a Mahratta of the Ghor-
para family. The territory is small, in a valley
between two hills, 35 miles west of Bellary. In
1817, the chief Shevo Rao submitted to Brigadicr-
Genl. Munro, but his state was restored to him in
June 1818, and a formal sunnud issued in 1826.

Banayanapilly is a jaghir held by a Syud family
with the title of Nawab. Its area, 500 square
miles; population, 35,200; revenue, Rs. 1,66,175.
It has been in the family under successive grants
from Mysore and Hyderabad, and formed part of
the territories ceded to the British by the Nizam
under the treaty of 1708, and it was confirmed
by sunnuds in 1849 and 1862 in perpetuity for all
legitimate successors.

Benynl is an administrative division of British

HINDUSTAN.

India, comprising Bengal proper, Behar, Orissa,
including the Tributary Mahals, Assam, Chutia
Nagpur, and the Native States of Hill Tiperah and
Koch-Bahar. It extends from the meridian 82°
to 97° E. long., and lies within the parallels of 19°
40' and 28° 10' N. lat. On its N.W. is the Native
State of Rewa in Central India, also the districts
of Mirzapur, Ghazipur, and Gorakhpur, belonging
to the N.W. Provinces. On the north of Bengal,
from the Chumparuu district as far east as
the Bhutan Doars, the Himalaya range, running
through the Independent States of Nepal, Sikkim,
Tibet, and Bhutan, forms its northern boundary.
Farther east, along the northern frontier boundary
of Assam, lies a tract inhabited by the Akka,
Dofla, Miri, Mishmi, Naga, and other wild tribes.
Along its eastern frontier lies a part of Independent
Burma ; below that is the Munipur state ; still
farther south are various hill tribes, — the Naga,
Lushai, Khyen, Mikir, etc. ; and at the extreme
south-east (south of Chittagong, which is the
south-eastern district of the Bengal Province)
is the Akyab district of Arakan.

On the south-west of Orissa is Ganjam in the
Madras Presidency ; on its west are the Tribu-
tary Mahal estates, and also the Sumbulpur and
Balaspur districts of the Central Provinces.

In 1881, the populationof Bengal was 69,536,861.
About two-thirds of its population profess Hin-
duism in various forms, and about one-third are
Mahomedans, with a small number of Christians.
It is ruled by a Lieutenant-Governor. Many of
the higher caste Hindus are recognised as former
immigrants, but the origin of the vast bulk of the
Mahomedans is obscure.

Assam is a province of British India, with an
area of 41,798 square miles, and a population,
in 1881, of 4,881,420. It is the valley of the
Brahmaputra, but is east of the Ganges, and
beyond the bounds of Hindustan.

Madras city is built on the western shore of
the Bay of Bengal. It is the chief town of a
British province of same name, with an area of
138,318 square miles, and a population, in 1881, of
31,170,631, comprising several distinct ethnic divi-
sions of races speaking Canarese, Tamil, Telugu,
Uria, and Tulu, with several uncultivated tongues
of scarcely civilised aboriginal tribes.

The Bombay Presidency embraces an area of
197,875 square miles, and a population, inclusive
of Feudatory States, of 23,395,663. The Feu-
datory States of this presidency have an area of
73,753 square miles, and, in 1881, a population
of 6,941,249. Their names are Khairpur, Cutch,
Cambay, Mahikanta, Narukot, Palanpur, Katty-
awar, Rewakanta, and Surat. In the Konkan
are Janjira, Jauhar, and Sawantwari ; and in
the Dekhan, Akalkote, the Dangs, Satara Jag-
liirs, Kolhapur, S. Mahratta Jaghirs, and Savanur.
The languages spoken are Canarese, Mahrati,
Gujerati, Konkani, and Sindi, and denoting dis-
ti net races. The more prominent of the aborigines
are the Bhil, Koli, Ramusi, Mhar, and Mang.

Central Provinces, a British district lying be-
tween lat. 17° 50' and 24° 27' N., and long. 76°
and 85° 15', with an area of 112,912 square miles,
and 11,548,511 inhabitants. The British districts
comprise Ch'hattisgarh, Jubbulpur, Nagpore, and
Nerbadda ; and there are thirty native principal-
ities, viz. fifteen in Chutia Nagpur, with Bamra,
Bastar, Kankar, Karond, Kawarda, Khairagarh,

Khondka, Makrai, Nandgaon, Patna, Raigarh Bar-
garh, Rairakhol, Sakti, Sarangarh, and Sonpur.
It lies south of the Vindhya mountains, and the
Nerbadda river flows through it. Its aboriginal
peoples are chiefly Gond, Bhil, and Kol tribes.

Coorg, a British province, in lat. 11° 56' to 12°
50' N., was conquered in 1833. Its dominant
race are brave mountaineers, 27,033 in number,
the total population, in 1881, being 178,302.
They are demon-worshippers. Canarese, Kodaga,
Malealam, and Tulu are spoken.

Ajmir and Mairwara form a British province in
Rajputana, of 2,710,680 square miles, and a popu-
lation of 460,722. The chief aboriginal races are
Mair and Gujar, the languages Hindi and Urdu.
Mairwara is inhabited by Mair, Gujar, and other
aborigines.

The North- West Provinces and Oudh are in the
centre of Hindustan, in the valleys of the Ganges
and the Jumna, and their affluents. They are
ruled over by an officer, who is Lieutenant-
Governor of the N.W. Provinces and Commis-
sioner of Oudh. The combined territory has an
area of 105,395 square miles, and a population
of 44,849,619. The N.W. Provinces part is the
Hindustan proper of the Mahomedan classification,
and three-fourths of its inhabitants are Hindus.

The Panjab province, in the extreme N.W., is
ruled over by a Lieutenant-Governor. Its popula-
tion, including the feudatories, number 22,712,120
souls, in an area of 219,714 square miles. The
Hindus, Mahomedans, and Sikhs form the bulk
of the population.

Central India is a political division, under
the superintendence of a Political Agent. It has
an area of 81,140 square miles, with a population
of 7,699,502. In this political division there are
71 feudatory or mediated rulers, of whom 4 are
Mahratta, 7 are Mahomedans, 17 are Bundela, 33
are Rajput, 6 are Brahman, and 4 belong to other
races. The 6 feudatory states are Gwalior, Indore,
Bhopal, Dhar, Dewas, and Jowrah.

The Native States under the political agencies
for Central India, Bhopal, Baghelcund, and
Western Malwa, are given in detail at page 458,
British India.

This Feudatory Territory has three grand divi-
sions. The N.E. division comprises the Native
States of Bundelkhand and Rewa. The northern
division consists of the northern and central dis-
tricts of the Gwalior States. The S.W. division
comprises the table-land known in modern times
as Malwa, though far within the ancient limits of
the province of that name, and the submontane
territory between it and the Nerbadda, as also a
considerable tract south of that river, extending
to the Kandesh frontier. The 1st or N.E. divi-
sion, extending from the Bengal Presidency in
the E. to the Gwalior State in the W., includes
Rewa and 35 other states and petty chiefships.
Its area is about 22,400 square miles, its popu-
lation about 3,170,000 souls, and its public
revenues aggregate about Rs. 63,58,000. The 2d
or N. division extends from Bundelkhand and
the Saugor district, and has an area of about
19,505 square miles ; its population is about
1,180,000 souls, and its public revenue about
Rs. 67,65,000. The 3d or S.W. division goes
on westward to the Bombay Presidency, and
contains the remainder of Gwalior, Holkar's
States, Bhopal, Dhar, Dewas, and other small

HINDUSTAN.

-um.'s. The area of this division is about 41,700
■quare miles, its i>opulation about 3,320,000 souls,
mid its public revenues about Ha. 1,30,00,000.

Jihil. — The desolate wilds and jungles of the

in Satpura range, and parts of the country

which extend from them to the Vindhya Hills,

in- ooeupied by Bhil tribes, who abhor field

labour or manual labour of any kind.

Malwa. — Adjoining this are the richly-cultivated
plains of Malwa, with occasionally intervening
tracts of hill and jungle, from the Myhee on the
west to Bhilsaon the east, — a stretch of nearly 200
miles, and from the crest of the line of the Vindhya
to Mundissore and Oomutwarra, a distance of 100
to 120 miles, and occupied by a thrifty agricultural
people.

Hilly Tract. — This is succeeded by the more hilly
and jungly tracts of Oomutwarra, Seronje, and
Keechiwarra, with a scanty population.

Oxtalior. — Northwards towards Gwalior the
country becomes more open, except on the wild
border tracts of Kotah and of Bundelkhand, till we
come to the carefully-cultivated plain of Gwalior,
stretching for a distance of 140 miles between the
( hambal, Pahuj, and Sind rivers.

lUtudelkhaiid is ruled by the Bundela race. A
vast portion of Bundelkhand is hilly and unpro-
ductive, forming the northern slope of the table-
land of the Yhidhya.

Rewa is ruled by the Baghela race. The plains
of Rewa are fertile, but the valley on the Sone
to the south of the Kymore range is desolate.
The people are indolent and untrustworthy.
Though widely different in other respects, there
is one characteristic common to the Baghel of
Rewa, the Bundela of Bundelkhand, and the
Rajput of Gwalior and Malwa, — a dislike to labour
or service away from their homes. They generally
leave tilling of the soil to the inferior and servile
classes, and are regarded as the heads of the local
society. Many of the Rajputs in the states of
Central India give themselves up to sloth and
the immoderate use of opium.

Malwa and Gwalior are great centres of trade.
In Malwa, the towns of Iudore, Bhopal, Ujjain,
Mundipur, Rutlam, Dhar, Jowra, Augur, Nemuch,
Shujawulpur, and Bhilsa are the principal marts.
Indore is the capital of the Maharaja Holkar.
(Jwalior is the capital of the Maharaja bindia.

Rajputana Agency. — Rajputana stretches from
lat. 28° 15' to 30° N., and from long. 69° 30' to
78° 16' E., containing an area of 123,000 square
miles, with a population estimated at 10,208,392.
and includes twenty principalities, viz. : —

15 Rajput, viz. —
Mewar (Udaipur).
•Teypore.

Marwar(Jodhpur).
Bundi,

Shthpura.

2 Jat, viz. Bhurtpur, Dholpur.
1 Mahomedan, viz. Tonk.

In 1881, there were in Rajputana 8,839,243
Hindus, 861,747 Muhomedaus, and 378,672 Jains,
the aboriginal races being Ahir, Balal, Bhil,
Chamar, Dhakur, Gujar, Jat, Kanta, Mina, and
Sondhia. The Bhils are — in Dungurpur, 66,952 ;
Udaipur, 51,076 ; Banswara, 48,045 ; andPartab-
j/urh, 270.

Frontiers. — Around thebordersof Hindustan are

Bikanir.

Sirohi.

Kotah.

Dungurpur

Kerrowlee.

Banswara.

Kishenghur.

Partabgurh

Jeysulmir,

Jhallawar.

Ulwar.

HINDUSTAN.

many independent states, republics, theocracies,
and democracies, with most of which the British
Government, as a paramount power, have treaties
or agreements. Commencing in the 8.W. on the
sliore8 of the Arabian Sea, and enumerating the
states in succession northwards, aud again turning
to the S.E., are —

Lus Beila, Baluchistan, Sewistan.

Near the Dehra Ghuzi Khan district are the
Bugti, Murree, Gurchani, Lughari, Kosab, and
Khutran.

Near the Dehra Ismail Khan district are tho
Bozdar, Kusrani, Oshterani, Sheorani, and Waziri,

Near the Kohat district are Turi, Zymukht,
Orakzai, Sepah, Buzoti, and Afridi.

Near Peshawur are the Momund, Usraan-Khel,
Ranizai, Swati, Bunurwal, and Judun.

Near the Hazara district, the Husanzai.

On the north are Ruka, Nari-Khorsam, Garh-
wal, Hundes, Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Towang.
Beyond Hindustan, in Further India, many tribes
on the Assam borders, Manipur, Tiperah, and
numerous Shan, Karen, etc., tribes in native
Burma, Chittagong, and Arakan, with Burmese
and Taking in British Burma.

People. — Several civilised nations are found
within the above space, in the Indian plains, but dif-
fering from each other, in manners and language,
even more than those inhabiting any correspond-
ing portion of Europe. The inhabitants of
the dry countries in the north of Hindustan,
which in winter are cold, are comparatively
manly and active. The Mahratta, inhabiting
a mountainous and fertile region, are hardy and
laborious; while the Bengali, with their moist
climate and their double crops of rice, where the
cocoanut tree and the bamboo furnish all the
materials for the construction of their houses
unwrought, are more effeminate than any other
people in India, and a love of repose, though not
sufficient to extinguish industry or repress occa-
sional exertions, may be taken as a characteristic
of the whole people of the Bengal Province.
Akin to their indolence is their timidity, which
arises more from the dread of being involved in
trouble and difficulties than from want of physical
courage ; and from these two radical influences
almost all their vices are derived.

The men of Hindustan on the Ganges are the
tallest, fairest, and most warlike aud manly of
the natives of Hindustan proper ; they wear
the turban, and a dress resembling that of the
Mahomedans; their houses are tiled, and built
in compact villages in open tracts ; their food is
unleavened wheaten bread.

Food. — Along the lowlands of the southern
Peninsula, as in similar districts of Further India
and China, rice is the favourite article of food
with all whose means afford it; but the multi-
tudes use it only as an occasional meal, and
subsist on the pulses and millets and wheat.
They are skilled cultivators of the soil, and by
irrigation channels, canals, and tanks of every size,
have supplemented the natural rains, producing
largely for domestic use and for export, ciuchona,
cotton, coffee, hemps, indigo, jute, lac, opium,
salt, silk, saltpetre, tea, and wheat; and, since the
arrival of the British, coal has been largely worked,
and tea and coffee have become great industries.
Their domestic animals are the oxen and buffalo
horned cattle, with camels, horses, asses, mules,

HINDUSTAN.

IIINGLAZ.

goats, and sheep, and they have domesticated the
elephant and the yak, and have trained the various
hawks used in falconry ; they are brave and skilful
fishers, and the sea could supply millions with
food if the salt laws could be framed to permit
its use for curing. Much loss of human life and
domestic animals is caused by crocodiles, snakes,
leopard, panther, bear, and tiger. Hindustan yields
alum, gold, silver, iron, lead, precious stones, in
which, as also in the copper and brass wares, they
are skilled workers, and in much of their art they
continue unrivalled. The raw materials for glass-
making are abundant, and they produce beauti-
fully-tinted bangles for the wrist. Their weavers
supply the whole labouring community with the
useful cotton and woollen cloths ; though Europe
and America have been sending to Hindustan
the cotton fabrics now used by the well-to-do
classes, the strong cottons of the labouring classes
are still holding their own. The British have
introduced spinning mills, they are weaving by
steam-power. In the finest muslins, they still sur-
pass all other nations ; and in their silks, silk and
cotton fabrics, carpets, mushru, kimkhab, and
shawls are producing articles the admiration of
the world.

Languages. — There are two learned languages,
Sanskrit and Pali, in which the religious books of
the Hindus and the Buddhists are written. The
Buddhist Scriptures of Tibet, Mongolia, Pegu,
Ava, Siam, Kambogia, Cochin-China, and Ceylon,
are all in the Pali, and the Yedas of the Hindus
are in a fonn of the Sanskrit tongue. The Koran
and the Hadis are religious books of the Mahomed-
ans. Though the Koran has been translated into
most languages, it is still retained in the Arabic by
most of the people of that religion, but neither
Arabic, Sanskrit, nor Pali are vernacular, and are
understood only by the very learned. Throughout
Northern Hindustan, the Hindi is the language
of the people, but it has numerous dialects,
designated by the names of the districts in which
they are spoken, Panjabi, Multani, etc. One
of these, the Brij-Basha or Brij-Bhaka, is the
form spoken near Mathura, and takes its name
from Brij, the tract about Mathura and Brinda-
ban, where, in the Hindu mythologies, Krishna
sported with the Gopin. The Rangari or Rangri
dialect is bounded by the Indus on the west,
Bundelkhand on the east, the Satpura Hills on
the south, and Jeypore, Jodhpur, and Jeysulmir
on the north. A language of mixed origin is in
use amongst the Mahomedans of India, and em-
ployed by all races as the ordinary lingua franca
in their intercourse with the people of the country.
It was first reduced to writing and grammar by
Dr. John B. Gilchrist of the Bengal Medical De-
partment. It is called Hindustani, also Urdu,
and is essentially Hindi, with large admixtures of
words of Sanskrit origin or of Persian and Arabic,
according as the speakers or writers are Hindu or
Mahometan. At present the Hindustani or Urdu,
the Panjabi, and the Persian are written and
printed in the same character ; but the Arabic,
Bengali, Burmese, Canarese, Chinese, Gujerati,
Hindi, Mahrati, Malealam, Malay, Siamese,
Singhalese, Tamil, and Telugu are all distinct
tongues, each written and printed in a separate
character. In the south of India, the Arabic
numerals as used in Europe have been generally
introduced into Government accounts. This was

on the recommendation of Sir Erskine Perry ; ar
it has been supposed possible to use the Rom?
and Italian character for the other tongues.

Religion. — In Hindustan, amongst races ordii
arily classed as Hindus, including 20 millions i
non-Aryan aborigines, there is practised every for
of idol-worship, nature-worship, spirit-worshi
fetishism, and demon-worship ; but the great ma
follow what Europeans designate as Brahmanisr
which is a reverence for deities described in tl
Vedas, Puranas, Tantras, religious books writtt
by the Brahman teachers. The ancient history
India shows that there were four great religio
eras. The Vedic, in which Agni, Indra, and oth
personifications of spiritual existences were pr
pitiated with feasts and invoked in the hym:
of the Rig Veda, and in which maidens selecti
their husbands in the Swayamvara, and monarc
sacrificed in the Aswa Medha. In the Brahmar
period the Kshatriya feasts were converted in
sacrifices for the atonement of sins against Bra
raanical law, and divine worship was reduced tc
system of austerities and meditations upon t
Supreme Spirit as Brahma. It was in this e
that the Brahmans assumed the character of
great ecclesiastical hierarchy, and established tli
priestly dominion which still extends over t
minds and senses of the Hindus of India. Third!
the Buddhist period, in which Sakya Muni a
peared; and fourthly, the Brahmanical reviv
during which Brahmans abandoned the worsli
of their god Brahma, and, with books styled t
Puranas, reverted to the old national gods a:
heroes of the Vedic Aryans. In this era Vish
came to be regarded as the Supreme Bein
and Rama and Krishna as his incarnatioj
Followers of this form of belief are known
the Vaishnava, of whom there are numero
sects. Another deity, Siva, of whose orig
nothing definite is known, is now largely wc
shipped by the Saiva religionists, of whom al
there are many sects ; and there are besid
these, many smaller, active monotheistic sec
Mahomedans of Hindustan, 50,121,585 in numb<
are mostly of the Sunni sect, the Shiah se
tarians being few in number. Christians, of ;
sects and denominations, do not number t\
millions ; Jains, fire-worshippers or Zoroastriar
known as Parsees and Sikhs, are over thr
millions, and aboriginal races, with local cults ai
others, are 7,575,946 souls. — Treaties, Engag
ments, Sitnnuds, etc. ; Annals of Indian Admim
tration ; Census Reports for 1871 and 188:
ElpJiinstone's History of India ; Hooker and Thon\
son^s Flora Indica; RoyWs Productive Resourc
of India ; Wils. Gloss.

HIND Y AN, a town in the province of Ears,
the mouth of the Kheirabad river, the Ab-i-Sherei
of Timur's expedition, and perhaps the Arosis
Nearchus. It is navigable from the sea up
Zeitun, which latter town is only a day's journ
(five farsangs) to Behbehan. — De Bode.

HINGINGHAT, a town in Wardha Distric
Central Provinces of British India, 21 miles sout
east of Wardha, in lat. 20° 33' 30" N., long. 7
52' 30" E. ; population (1877), 9415. The cottx
grown in the Wardha valley is esteemed one
the best indigenous staples of India. — Imp. Gaz.

HINGLAZ, a town in Makran, 12 miles inlai
from the Arabian Sea, and about 80 miles "V
from the mouth of the Indus. It is a place

IIINdoi.I.

HMTOPOTAM

1 1 i i if 1 1 1 pilgrimage, l>ut is little visited, from the

pMBoultlea which attend tho journey when made

most parts of Hindustan. It is at the end

tin range of mountains dividing Lus from

;ran. A small temple on the summit of a

intain is dedicated to Nan! «>r Maha Mari, a

n of Kali. Eiinglaj Devi or 1 1 insula Devi is

red goddess. — Potions' Western India,

1NGOLI, lat. 19° 43' N., long. 77° 1 1' E., in the

.hnn, south-east of Aurangabad, and 185 miles

west of Hyderabad; the mean height of

village is 1 195 feet according to Scott, and

et according to Wilson. It is a military

station of the Hyderabad contingent.

11 1 N \ T 0M. At the union of the vales of Hinnoni
and Jehoshaphat, there is a basin of water where
tin lire of the Hebrew temple was preserved: and
peyond it. where a clear stream runs through a
very narrow inlet between the Mount of Olives,
and that when- Aceldama and the other sepulchres
stand, are many olive trees. — Skinner's Overland
Journey, i. p. 218.

HIOCNG-NU, the Hun. De Guignes places
Attila and the greater part of his army among the j
Turk race.

HIPPALUS, a Greek of Alexandria, the com- j
mander of a trading vessel in the Red Sea, some
time prior to or during the reign of the Emperor
Claudius, or about a.d. 47. He took advantage of
the steady blowing of the monsoon winds, and
I direct to the coast of India, at which he
Musiris or Barace, somewhere between
Goa and Tellieherry. His name was given to the •
8.W. monsoon. A few years before this, as a
freedman of Annius Plocamus was collecting
tribute on the coast of Sabaea, he was carried
out to sea, and across the Arabian Sea to the
jKjrt of Hipporos in the island of Ceylon, where he
was kindly treated, was presented with a larger (
-hip. and on his return the king of the country |
four ambassadors to the Roman emperor, !
and a raja or chief to be the captain to manage
the ship. Mr. Roberts supposes the port of
Hipporos to be the Greek words Hippos and Oros,
or horse mountain, a Greek translation of Kuthri-
Malei. a hill on the N.W. coast of Ceylon. —
Roberts, p. 81; India in the loth Century. See
liris.
HH'POBOSCA EQUINA. Linn. Horse-fly.
HIPPOCAMPUS, a genus of fishes of the family
bngnathidse. II. mannulus and H. comes of the
Indian Seas, when drying, assume the figure of a
horse's head, and are known to all as the sea-horse,
which the name Kuda in Malay implies. The
body in tapering and curled near the tail.

HIPPOCRATEA ARBOREA. Roxb. Katha-
jwhariya, Hind. A tree of Assam, Chittagong,
Tiperah, and Morung, also of the Kotah jungles.
II. Indica, obtusifolia, Grahamii, and viminea are
also known in India.

HIPPOCRATES, B.c. 460-361, the Bu-krat of

the Arabs, was a learned physician, born n.c. 460

. an island in the ^Egean Sea, He was the

MM of Heraclides and Phaenarete, of the Asclepiadae

family. He travelled in Greece, Scythia, Colchis,

ia Minor ; also, it is supposed, in Egypt and

It is to him that Galen attributes the theory

of the four elements in the body, air, earth, fire,

and water. He wrote 'On the Nature of Man,'

and to him is due the important doctrine of crises.

Hippocrates, and afterhim Galen, held a knowledge

of astronomy to be essential t<> physician*. He
i'k supposed to be the ('liaraka of the Hindus.

HIPPOGLOSSUS, ti genus of fiabea at th-
family Pleuronectida). H. olivaccus is the Ja|»ane8€
halibut.

HIPPOLYTE, a gentH of the crustacean of the
tribe Palenioniens, «»t' Milne Edwards, as under : —
II. vcntricoHUfi, Edw., Asiatic Sea*.
H. quoyanus, Edw., New Guinea.
H. Bpinifrons, Edw., New Zealand.
It. apinicauduB, Edw., New Holland.
H. gibbcroBus, Edw., New Holland.
H. mannoratUH, Edw., Oceanicn.

HIPPOLYTUS, a Christian bishop who resided
in Arabia, and is supposed to have written tin-
treatise concerning the Peregrinations of the
Apostles.

HIPPOPHAERHAMNOIDES. Linn. A spiny
shrub of the Panjab and N.W. Himalaya, in Kangra,
Lahore, and Ladakh, with many vernacular names.
Its stem is sometimes 5 or 6 feet in girth, with
dioecious flowers, small, round, orange-coloured,
acid berries, and narrow leaves like those of
rosemary. Its acid fruit makes a good jelly with
half its weight of sugar. Its stem gives a good
fuel and charcoal. — Stewart; Cleghorn.

HIPPOPHAE SALICIFOLIA.
Lhala, .... Bhot. I Buckthorn, . . . Eng.
Tarwa, .... Chuk. | Tser-khar, Soorch, Panj.

A willow-leaved shrub of the N.W. Himalaya.
It is found in the Sutlej valley between Rampur,
and at an elevation of 10,000 feet. Near the
Chenab it is a stout shrub with spinous branches,
and frequent in the valleys. The Bmall yellow
berries are extremely acid, but when ripe and
boiled with sugar form an agreeable and whole-
some preserve. The people use the branches for
dry hedges and fuel, and they are considered
village property. A species of Prunus, Litsi, ripens
here in September, with a tolerably sweet fruit,
something like the cherry. A gooseberry, BUitsi,
with small, woolly, sour berries, is common here
also. A black-fruited Ribes, Rasta, resembling in
taste the European red currant, is largely eaten
by the people. — Clegh. Pan. Rep. pp. 67, 150 ; Dr.
J. L. Steicart.

HIPPOPOTAMUS, the Behemoth of the Old
Testament, is found in Africa in great numbers,
and the existence of two species is suspected.
The natives kill it with spears after enticing it into
a pitfall. The flesh is delicate and succulent ; the
layer of fat next the skin makes excellent bacon,
technically denominated hippopotamus speck at
the Cape. The curbaj whip (hence the Spanish
Corvacho and French Cravache) is made of the
hide. The ivory of the great canine teeth is highly
valued by dentists for making artificial teeth. No
other ivory keeps its colour equally well ; and the
canine teeth are imported into England for this pur-
pose, and fetch about 30s. per pound. One of the
specific distinctions pointed out by M. Desmoulins
is the comparative abrasion of the canines in the
supposed two species.

The people of Rome several times had oppor-
tunities of witnessing hippopotami, amongst other
wild beasts, collected for the triumphal exhibitions
of their emperors. But for 1500 years, until 25th
May 1850, Europe had not seen one. The Zoolo-
gical Society of Loudon then obtained a male, and
afterwards a female, which bred. That received
in 1850 was the first living seen in Great Britain
siuce the Triassic age of the world.

8:.

- HIPPOSIDEROS.

HIRUNDINID.E.

The hippopotamus has been discovered in a
fossil state in Ava and in the Sub-Himalaya,
where there is an admixture of extinct and exist-
ing forms, well preserved, — remains of hippopota-
mus, rhinoceros, mastodon, peculiar forms of
elephas, and very remarkable bovines, dissimilar
from those now in India ; also, of animals still
existing in India, are found the fossil Emys
(Pangshura) tecta. The embedded shells are all
of species still living in the valley, and indicate
that the changes have been gradual from the time
that the hippopotami wallowed in the muds, and
rhinoceros roamed in the swampy forests, of
the country where mastodons abounded, and where
the strange forms of the sivatherium, dinotherium,
and camelopardis existed. — Eng. Cyc. ; Hamilton's
Sinai, p. 339.

HIPPOSIDEROS, a genus of the mammalia of
the order Cheiroptera. The following Indian
species may be named : —

II. apiculatus. H. fulvus. ' H. niurinus.

H. armiger. i H. galeritis. H. nobilis.

H. ater. H. insignis. H. speoris.

H. bicolor. H. Lankadiva. H. penicillatus.

H. diadema. H. larvatus. H. Templetoni.

H. cineraceus, Blyth, the ashy horseshoe bat,
has only been found in the Panjab Salt Range.

H. niurinus, Jerdon.
Rhinolopkus murinus, Ell. | Rhinolophus fulgens, Ell.

The little horseshoe bat is of a mouse colour.
It inhabits S. India, Ceylon, Nicobars, Burma,
and Malayana.

H. speoris, Jerdun.

Uhinolophus speoris, Sch n . ,

Bli/th, Ell.
It. Dukhanensis, $>/kcs.

H. apiculatus, Gray.
H. penicillatus, Gray,

The Indian horseshoe bat has a variably coloured
body. It inhabits all India, Ceylon, and the Archi-
pelago east to Timor.

Voulha is the Singhalese word applied to all
bats. — Mr. Blyth\s Report.

HIPTAGE MADABLOTA. Gtertn.

Gaertnera racemosa, Roxb.

Bcnkar, Khumb, . Beas. Ati muktamu, . . Tel.

Endra, . . . Chenab. I Madhavitige, . . ,,

Bokhi or Utimukta, Duk. I Potu-vadla, ... ,,

Madmalti, . . . Panj. | Vadlaya rala, . . .,
Chabuk, Churi, . ,,

Delight of the woods, is a large climbing shrub,
with very beautiful white and yellow flowers in
terminal racemes ; petals fringed, four white,
one yellow ; one of the stamens is much longer
than the rest ; fruit unequally three-winged. The
bark is a good sub-aromatic bitter. H. obtusifolia,
D.C., is a plant of China. It grows over all India,
and is cultivated at Lahore. — Riddell.

HIRACLIUS, successor of Phocas, was taken
prisoner by Khusru.

HIRAM, king of Tyre, was contemporary with
Solomon, whom he assisted in building the temple
of Jerusalem. He received from Solomon 20 vil-
lages of Galilee, and was a partner with Solomon
in the Indian trade. He reigned R.c. 1025 to 992.

HIRANYA. Sansk. Gold or golden ; hence —

Hiranya or Svarna, supposed to be Ireland.

Hiranya-Garbha, from Hiranya and Garbha, the
womb.

lliranyabaha. the river Sone. Its E. branch is
also called Gujjhabate or Colli.

Hiranya Kasipa, in Hindu mythology, Adaitya,
an enemy of the Hindu gods, a king destroyed

by Vishnu as Narasimha. He is the same wi
Vijaga, son of Kasyapa and Diti. — An. Res. iii. p. o9

Hiranyaksha, from Akshi, the eye.

HIRLO. Mahr. Any warrior slain in battl
Cairns are accumulated over their remains.

HIRNEOLA AURICULA JUTLE. Fr. Jew"
ear, a fungus of Britain, and widely distribute
It is the Teria iore of Tahiti, and is known
Singapore as an article of commerce used as foe

HIRN PARDI, also Hirn-Shikari, a fowl
race of the Peninsula of India, who call themselv
Bhaora.

HIRUDO, the leech, one of the class Annelid;
many of which occur in the south and east
Asia ; they were early employed therapeutically 1
the Hindus, and the Arabs adopted their practi
(Royle, Hindu Med. p. 38 ; and Wise, Him
Medicine, p. 177). Herodotus alludes to o:
kind, Bdella Nilotica. Dr. Pereira infers th
Sanguisuga iEgyptiaca, the species from which t
French soldiers in Egypt suffered, is that referr
to in the Bible (Proverbs xxx. 15) by the nai
of Olukch or Aluka. The latter, or Aluk, is al
the Arabic name for leech. Six kinds of usef
and six venomous leeches are mentioned
Susruta, and by Avicenna. But Aristotle mak
no mention of them, and they do not appear
have been used in Greek medicine in the time
Hippocrates. Pliny, however, describes tht
very clearly, under the name of Hirudines a;
Sanguisuga;, and distinguishes two species. Eig
species of medicinal leeches have been enumerate
the most common is the Sanguisuga medicinal
Hirudo medicinalis, Linn., which is a nati
of all the stagnant fresh waters. H. officina
is distinguished by its unspotted olive - gre
belly and by the dark-green back. H. medicina
is the kind usually employed in Britain,
belly is of a yellowish-green colour, but cover
with black spots, which vary in number and si:
forming almost the prevailing tint of the bel
the intervening spaces appearing like yellow spo
On the back are six longitudinal reddish
yellowish - red bands, spotted with black, ai
placed on an olive -green or greenish -broi
ground. Other species, figured by Brandt, i
H. provincialis, H. verbana, H. obscura, and
interrupta. In the United States they use
decora. In India, leeches are extremely abu
dant, procurable in the tanks. Hirudo tagal
also called H. Ceylonica, a land leech, lives
the thickets and woods of Ceylon, the Philippi
Islands, and at elevations of 11,000 in the Hin
layas. — Enq. Cyc. p. 212.

HIRUNDINIDJi, a family of birds of t
order Insessores, tribe Fissirostres, comprising t
sub-family Hirundininse, with the genera Hirum
Cotyle, and Chelidon, and the sub-family Cypf
linse, with the genera Cypselus, Acanthylis, Col
calia, and Dendrochelidon.

Hirundo rustica, the rustic swallow of Europe, As
Africa ; is migratory, and common in the plains
India during the cold season; chiefly seen oi
water.

H. domicola, Jerdon, is the Neilghcrry house swall
of »S. India, Ceylon, Penang, Malacca, and Java.

H. tilifera. This is a beautiful wire-tailed swallc
with prolonged middle tail feathers, and is fou
throughout India, N.W. Himalaya, and Kashmi

H. daurica, mosque swallow or red-rump swallow,
found in N. and Central Asia, over all India fn
Nepal to Ceylon, and N. China.

flllSl.nl', R,v. STEPHEN.
!la\i( -..11a, Myth, belongs to tho group «.f i« publican
swallows (lVtroeh.lidon of the prince <>f < anino),
and has similar habits to the If. fulva of N.
r

hyperythra, Layard. Oeykm.

tyh- Sinenais, the ordinary Indian sand martin, occurs

togethor with H. riparia.
urbica, the martin of Europe, Africa, Asia, and

•Siberia, is somewhat rare or local ? in India, and

migratory.
liparia, the sand martin of Europe, Asia, Africa, N.

America, is migratory in India, and local, ami

mostly replaced by H. Sinensis.
('. rupestrisof S. Europe, is common in the high moun-
tains of India, and there is a diminutive of it also

in the H. concolor of Sykes.
<'. <mlmoccata, Hodgt., the dusky martin of Kashmir,

Ladakh, Nopal, and in the cold weather, Pan jab.
( '. concolor, Sybct, the dusky crag martin of all India,
t 'helidon urbica, Linn., the English house martin, has

been found in the Neilgherries.
(li. Oaihmiriaimfyffoufd, the house martin of Kashmir,

where it is abundant.
(li. Nipalensis, //<*/;/.«., the little Himalayan martin.
Ch. dasypus, Bonap., of Borneo.

Sub-Fam. Cypselinaj, Swifts.
Acanthylis sylvatica, Tirkell, the white-rumped spine-
tail of all India, inhabits the jungles.
A. leucopygialis, Blyth, of Japan.

coracinus, Mull,, of Borneo.

gigantea, Temm., brown-necked spine- tail of Neil-
gherries, Wynad, Malabar, and Ceylon. It is a
magnificent swift.

caudacuta, Lath., white-necked spine-tail, a splendid
powerful swift of the Himalaya, Nepal, Sikkim
and Bhutan, and China.

aselus melba, Linn., the alpine swift of Southern
India.

r. apus,£(HH.,the European swift,ia found throughout
W. Asia, N. Africa, and Europe ; is common in
Afghanistan, Kashmir, and visits the Panjab in
the rains.

affinis, Graii, the common Indian swift of the Pan-
jab, Sind, all India ; breeding in colonies,
leuconyx, Blyth, the white-clawed swift of all India,
but rare.

vittatus, Jard. and Sebly, of all China, Malayan.
Batassiensis, Gray, the palm swift, abounds in all
the districts of India, Ceylon, Assam, Burma,
wherever the palmyra and cocoanut palms grow ;
nest very small, and always placed on the leaf of
the palmyra.
Sinensis, Bonaparte, of China.

localia nidifica, Lath.
Lath.

ido nidifica,
Blyth., Horsf.
brevirostres, M'Clcll

H. unicolor, Jerdun.

Cypselus unicolor, Jerdon.

C. concolor, Blyth.
This, the Indian edible nest swiftlet, is found in
the Neilgherries, Ceylon, "Western Ghats, Coorg,
Wynad, Malabar, Sikkim, Himalaya, Assam, Java,
Malay Peninsula, Andamans, Siam, Cochin-China,
and other islands of the Archipelago. The nest,
when pure and of the first make, is composed
entirely of inspissated mucus from the large salivary
glands of the birds. It is very small. "When these
first make nests arc removed, the second make are
inferior.

linchi, Jerdon, C. fuciphaga, Hirundo fuciphaga,
edible nest swift of the Nicobars, on the rocky
coast of the Bay of Bengal from Arakan south to
Java. Its nest is more valuable than that of the
C. nidifica.

Other species of Collocalia are found in the
Eastern Archipelago as far as New Guinea, one
pom the Mauritius, and one or more from the
1 V.ilic islands. — Jerdon, pp. 155-185.

HISLOP, Rev. STEPHEN, born 8th September

1*17, at Dunse, Berwickshire. He joined the

Church in 1814, and a munificent donation

of Rs. 25,000 having been offered by Captain

(General Sir William. K.C.B.) Hill, on condition

1 i I - —

■ • t founding a mission at Nagpur, Mr. BUou
went to it. He devoted his spare time to examina-
tion of the geology of Nagpur, and his writings

appeared in the Journals of the Bombay A*.
Society for July 18.0:;. the Rojal Geological
Society for 1855, on the Connection <-t the Plant-

bearing Sandstone <>f Nagpur with the Goal Beds
of Central India and Western Bengal ; and the
Bengal Asiatic Society's Journal, No. iv. 1 *.V>.
contain another on the Age of the Carbonaceous
Strata just referred to. In those papers Mr.
Hislop described some of the numerous fossils
which had been found in the tertiary deposit,
and the sandstone, coal, and shells of the province
of Nagpur. He employed his leisure in making
a geological collection of the antiquities of the
provinces around him ; they now form the nucleus
of the collection in the museum at Nagpur. He
was drowned crossing a river.

HISSAR, municipal town and administrative
headquarters of Hissar district, Panjab, lat. 29 Q
9' 51* N., long. 75° 45' 55" E. ; population (1868),
14,133. The district, lying between lat. 28° 86'
and 29° 49' N., and long. 75° 16' and 27° 23? K. ;
area, 363,973 square miles; population, 484,681.
Hissar forms the western border district of the
great Bikanir (Bickaneer) desert It consists
for the most part of sandy plains dotted with
scrub and brushwood, and broken by undulations
towards the south, which rise into hills of 800
feet, like islands out of a sea of sand. The soil is
in places hard and clayey, difficult to till, but
when sufficiently irrigated, highly productive. In
these spots water is only reached at a depth of
from 100 to 130 feet ; the cost of a masonry well
is seldom below £150. The sandy tracts are not
unfrequently swept by storms, which greatly alter
the face of the country. The jhul (Salvadora
oleoides), the kavi or leafless caper (Capparis
aphylla), and the jharberi (Zizyphus napeca)
abound ; their berries serve as food in times of
scarcity. It has been much harried. After
Nadir Shah ravaged the land, the Sikhs began
their inroads ; the Bhatti of Bhattiana struggled
for superiority ; and from 1795-1802, George
Thomas, an Irishman, fought for dominion.
Early in the mutiny of 1857, the local levies at
Hansi and Hissar revolted, and all Europeans
were either murdered or compelled to fly. The
Bhatti rose under their hereditary chiefs, and the
majority of the Mahomedan population followed
their example, but were suppressed by a force of
Panjab levies, aided by contingents from Patiala
and Bikanir. under General Van Courtlandt.

The Tuar Rajputs (13,921) possess five or six
villages. The Bhatti, now Mahomedans (22,008),
trace their descent from Jesal, of the Yadukinsi
stock. Both Tuar and Bhatti were marauding
desert tribes. The Pachada, or men of the west,
now Mahomedans, are also of Rajput descent.
A religious sect known as Bishno worship their
founder, Jambhaji, as an incarnation of Vishnu,
and bury their dead in a sitting posture, in the
floors of their houses or cattle-sheds. They con-
sider even the touch of tobacco polluting. At
their marriages, passages from the Mahomedan
Koran and the Hindu Shastras are indiscrimi-
nately recited. They avoid destroying life, and
inter any animal accidentally killed. The decayed
town of Agroha is interesting, as being the original
seat of the great mercantile class of Agarwala.

HISSAR.

HITTITE.

There are rock-cut inscriptions at Tosham. — Imp.
Gaz.

HISSAR, a hill state north of Badakhshan,
whose chief claims a Grecian origin. It yields
copper ore, micaceous sandstone, inferior marble.

HISTA, a Malay measure of arbitrary length,
the fourth of the dippa, about half a yard. — Sim-
monds' Diet.

HISTIOPHORUS, the sword-fish or fan-fish,
is the Ikan-layer of Amboyna, the Dutch Zeyl-fish
or Sail-fish, and the Sailor-fish of seamen. It is
from 10 to 14 feet long, and is said to raise its
dorsal fin and use it as a sail. — Bennett.

HIT, in lat. 33° 43' N., and long. 42° 27' E., is
on the right bank of the Euphrates, has 1500
houses. It has bitumen springs on the left bank
at Gasar Sadi. The people are boat-builders, pre-
pare salt, bitumen, and naphtha, and burn lime.
There is a bridge of boats here. It is the usual
place where caravans cross the Euphrates between
Baghdad and Damascus. With the smell of bitu-
men and naphtha outside the town the whole
water and air is infected. It is undoubtedly the
place mentioned by Herodotus under the name
of Is, as furnishing bitumen for the building of
Babylon. Near this, on the Euphrates, and a
little below Samara on the Tigris, the country is
mere alluvium. The works of salt and bitumen
around Hit give a singular appearance to the
country. The Euphrates near Hit has an average
width of 350 yards, with a depth of 16 feet, and
a current of three knots per hour in the season
of the floods, when there are fourteen islands,
on some of which are small towns. See Iran ;
Karej.

HITOPADESA, Saxsk., from Hita, good,
and Upadesha, teaching, — Good Advice, is the
title of an ancient Sanskrit work, though it is but
a rearrangement of an older one, called Pancha
Tantra, or the Five Books, which itself has been
translated several times and printed. But it has
never attained the fame of its offspring, the Hito-
padesa, and there are few, if any, of the vernacular
languages of India into which the Hitopadesa
has not been translated. It is classed by Hindu
writers as a work on Niti, or polity, and it was
designed for the instruction of princes, to prepare
them for the duties of their future lives. The
scene of the Hitopadesa is the ancient city of
Pataliputra, situated at or near the present Patna.
The king of that place, deploring aloud the wild
and heedless lives of his sons, Avas overheard by
a pandit named Yishnu-sanna, who undertook to
make his sons versed in the principles of polity
within the space of six months. To accomplish
this he prepared the Hitopadesa, and accomplished
3ns task of instructing and training the princes.
The book consists of a series of fables, story
within story, according to an oriental fashion.
But the greater part of the work is occupied by
verses cited from ancient writers in illustration
and proof of the positions maintained by the
interlocutors.

The Hitopadesa is divided into four books,
entitled Mitra-labha (Acquisition of Friends),
Suhrid-bheda (Separation of Friends), Vigraha
(War), and Sandhi (Peace). The first two have
a general interest, and are applicable to all classes
of people. The last two books apply especially
to kings and ministers. The stories are mostly
concerned with animals, but there arc a few in

which human beings are concerned. These arc 1 1< >t
edifying, and display a contempt for chastity, and
a disposition to make merry over the misfortunes
of easy-tempered husbands with intriguing wives.
The nature of them may be inferred from such
titles as The Old Man and his Young Wife, and
The Fanner's Wife and her Two Gallants.

In the 6th century of a.d. era it was translated
into Old Persian, by order of the emperor Nu-
shirwan. From the Persian it was translated into
Arabic in the ninth century, under the title of
Kalila o Damna, a work which obtained great
celebrity, and is still popular, Kalila o Damna
being the Arabic representations of the Sanskrit
names Karataka and Damanaka, two wily jackals
who appear in the work, and are proverbial
throughout the east for their craft and cunning.
It was afterwards translated into Hebrew, Syriac,
and Greek. The Hebrew version was made by
John of Capua, towards the end of the fifteenth
century, and from his work translations were
made into the chief modern languages of Europe,
and it became familiar to British youth under the
designation of Pilpay's Fables. Two versions of
the work were made into modern Persian by
authors whose names are known, but their transla-
tions have been eclipsed, and their productions are
obsolete. There is also a translation in Turkish.
The most celebrated Persian translation is that of
the renowned rhetorician, Husain Yaiz Kashifi,
whose work, Anwar-i-Suhaili (Lights of Canopus),
is famous throughout the Mahomedan world, ana
is scarcely less famous among the orientalists of
Europe. Elegant versions of it were printed by
Messrs. Eastwick and Woollaston, and that of
the latter is published in an ornamental style.
The Anwar-i-Suhaili has borrowed some stories
from the Hitopadesa, but has greatly added to
their number. The identity of the borrowed
stories is palpable enough when pointed out ; but
nothing can well be more dissimilar than the two
works, the one all plain and terse simplicity, the
other florid, fanciful, ornate, and abounding with
far-fetched hyperbole. The stately sententious
roll of the verse of the Hitopadesa and the light
and airy couplets of the Anwar-i-Suhaili are at
the very opposite extremes of composition. Yet
another distinguished Persian author bestowed
his labours upon the Arabic edition of the work.
Abul Fazl, the celebrated minister of the Emperor
Akbar, made a new translation. Though a pro-
fessed rhetorician himself, and the author of
several important works in the high style, he
considered Husain Yaiz's version too florid and
difficult for such a work ; and he made a more
simple translation in an easy narrative style, which
became popular under the title of lyar-i-Danish,
Touchstone of Wisdom. This has again been
translated into Hindustani, under the title Khirad-
afroz, Enlightenment of the Understanding. The
Hindus have thus had brought back to them,
first in a Persian, and then in a modern Urdu
form, the stories told by their ancestors in ages
long gone by.

The text has been frequently printed in Europe,
but the most esteemed edition is that of Professor
Francis Johnson of Haileybury.

HITTITE, a dominant race mentioned in 1
Kings x. 29 and 2 Kings vii. 6. They held
mastery in Syria in the era of the Hebrew
judges and earlier kings. They were called Khcta

HI-UL.

HO.

by the Egyptians, awl Khatta by tin' Assyrians.
In B.C. y:tf>, Shaluiaueser received tribute from
all tin' kind's of the Hittite*. Their but monarch,
Piraru (I'isiii). was defeated and slain ii.c. 717.
ami Carcheniish was made the scat <>f an Assyrian
governor. Hut at one time tin- Hittite empire
■tretohed from the Euphrates to the Dardan-
elles, and they disputed for several centuries the
pray of Central Asia with Hamesside Pbaraobs
on the one side, and with Assyria's mightiest
monarchs on the other. The 1 1 it t it t-H were
defeated, and their city Ketesh destroyed, by
an Egyptian king (Barneses u. of Egypt?),
about 1340 B.C. A great battle, figured in Sir
Q. Wilkinson's Ancient Egyptians, was fought
between Rameses II. and the Hittites, near their
snored city of Kadash, which is shown as a city
with a double moat, crossed by bridges beside a
broad stream running into a lake. The lake has
been generally identified with the Baheiret Horns,
through which the Orontes passes south of Horns.
The site of the city, as important in Hittite records
as the northern capital of Carcheniish, Lieutenant

HIUNRA of tin Byaiiai, an avalanche.

IIIWKN TH8ANG, ■ Chinese nav.-li.-r who
|uiasfd 17 years (from a.d. CrJ'J to 645) in travelling
through the countries lying to the YY. <>f China,
and especially in India, through countries which
few had visited before him, icribes Koine

parti <>f them which no one has since explore,).
His ehief object was to study the religion of
Buddha, but his observations, geographical, sta-
tistical, and historical, are characterized by great
minuteness and precision. He started from Pekin.
and made his way, amidst hardships and ditiicultics,
through Chinese Tartary to tin- region where
Buddha had laboured. Near Talas, on his way
to India, he fell in with the Great Klian of the
Turks, a successor of Dizabulus, whom the
Chinese traveller calls Shehu. His account is
very like that of Zamarchus. The Klian occu-
pied a great tent adorned with gold flow
dazzling richness. The officers of the court sat
in two long rows on mats before the Khan, bril-
liantly attired in embroidered silk, the Khan's
guard standing behind them. Although he was

Conder lias identified with the ruins known as ! but a barbarian prince under a tent of felt, one
the Tell Neby Mendeh. They lie on the left bank
of the Orontes, four English miles south of the
lake. The modern name belongs to a sacred
shrine on the highest part of the hill on which
the ruins lie, and the name of Kadesh still sur-
vives, an instance of the vitality of prior names
lingering in the minds of the people long after
they have forgotten the Roman, Greek, or Cru-
laders 1 names. Lieut. Conder writes, — 'Looking
down from the summit of the Tell, we appeared
to see the very double moat of the Egyptian
picture ; for wdiile the stream of the Orontes is
lammed up so as to form a small lake 50 yards
across on the S.E. of the site, a fresh brook flows
in the W, andN. to join the river, and an outer line
of moat is formed by earthen banks, which flank
a sort of aqueduct parallel with the main stream.'
He gives a full account of the ruins, the position
of the place, and the disposition of the Egyptian
forces before the battle.

Their writing character was displaced by the
Assyrian cuneiform. The Assyrian King Sargon
(B.C. 722-705) is mentioned in the Hebrew Bible.
It was in the time of Sargon that Assyrian culture
first gained a permanent footing in the W. ; while
the overthrow of Carcheniish and the last relics
of Hittite power in B.C. 717 naturally led to the
disuse of the Hittite mode of writing, and the
spread of the cuneiform characters employed by
the Assyrian conquerors. The well-known pas-
sage in Pliny (H. N. vii. 57), ' Literas

vn. «)/), Lateras semper
arbitror Assyrias fuisse ; sed alii apud ^Egyptios

a Mercurio ut Gellius ; alii apud SyroB repertas I four woon-gye or chief ministers,
volunt.' Mr. Sayce sees in this an allusion to the ] many woondouk. — Yules JCmhassy.
Hittite graphic system. In this case, he remarked,
the passage in Pliny would be a record of the
three independent modes of writing which the east
invented, and would contain a half-forgotten
tradition of that strange system of hieroglyphics
from which in all probability the syllabary of Asia
Minor and Cyprus was derived. Hittite monu-
ments have been found at Kiz Hissar, which is
supposed to represent the Da'na' or Tyana of
Xenophon, built, according to ^Strabo, on the
tomb of Semiramis.

HI-UL or Hi-el, the graud festival of the Ger-
man triWs of the Baltic.

could not look on him without respect and admir-
ation. He appears to have regarded the Wakhsh
branch as the main Postu or Oxus. — Stanislas
Julieii, Wsloire de la vie de Iliivan Thwwj, pp.
55, 56 ; Yule, Cathay, i. pp. 165 and 234.

HLAINE, an elongated valley of Pegu.

HLA-PET. Blum. Literally, wet-tea. To
the eastward of Bamo and Koung-tuno, hills are
visible, peopled by cateran Kakhyen, ami by
breeches- wearing Paloung, employed peaceably
in growing tea for pickling. This is the hla-pet,
whicli is made up with a little oil, salt, garlic or
asafcetida, etc., into a sort of pickle, and is es-
sential to the comfort of every Burman, being
partaken of on all ceremonial occasions. It is
floated to Ava on bamboo rafts, so as to be retained
always partially wet. It is eaten by the Burmese
in small quantities after dinner, as Europeans eat
cheese. They say it promotes digestion, and they
cannot live in comfort without it. Colonel
Burney mentions that the Burmese Resident, pro-
ceeding to Calcutta in 1830, took a large supply
of hla-pet with him, as a necessary of life, not to
be had where he was going. Hla-pet is partaken
of on many ceremonial occasions ; and on the
conclusion of law -suits, the bill of costs is always
rounded off with a charge for pickled tea. as
European agents' accounts are stUl rounded off
with a charge for postages. — Fytche, p. 270 ;
Mason's Burma ; Yule's llmhassy, p. 101.

H'LWOT-DAU. BtitM. The cabinet and high
court of the realm of Burma, in whicli there are

assisted by as
many woonaouK. — j kmj amotutjf, p. 3.

HXAU. Buit.M. A boat of Burma,

HNAU-BEN. Blkm. A large tree, of pah-
yellow wood, preferred for making combs. It
beai-s a large fragrant fruit, but worthless. —
Cratcfiird, i. p. l'.»2.

HO, a Chinese measure of capacity, about 7j
gallons. — Simmonds' Did.

HO. Arab. He, He is ; the name of God. Ho
ul Aziz, He is glorious.

HO, Hore, Horo, in the Kol tongue, a man. In
the mountains 8.W. of Calcutta are the Dhaugar,
Onion, the Kol, the Larka Kol or Ho, and the
Khoud. The Ho are a comparatively small tribe

«9

HOANG-HO.

HOCOMLIA MONTANA.

of the Kol race. Their country proper is the part
of the Singbhum district called Kolehau, a series
of fair and fertile plains studded with hills. It is
about 64 miles from N. to S. and 124 from E. to
W., and has to the S. and S.E. the tributary
estates Mohurbhun, Keonjur, Bonai, and Gangpur,
inhabited by Uriya-speaking Hindus ; to the east
and north the Bengali pargana of Dhulbhum and
district of Manbhum, and to the N. and N.E. the
Hindi district of Lohardaggah.

The Ho is the most compact, the purest, most
powerful and interesting and best-looking division
of the whole Munda nation. The more civilised
Ho have an erect carriage, and dignified, fine
manly bearing, with figures often models of beauty.
The occupants of the less reclaimed parts are
more savage -looking. Their tradition is that
they came from Chutia Nagpur, and that they
brought with them their system of confederate
governments of Purha, which they call Pirhi or
Pir. The Ho have a tradition that they once wore
leaves only, as the Juanga women till 1871 did,
and not long since threatened to revert to them
unless cloth-sellers lowered their prices. The Ho
of the border-land have probably much intermixed
with the Uriya. They are agricultural, but change
their localities. A Ho bridegroom buys his bride,
or rather his father buys her for him, the price
being so many head of cattle. The Kol and Larka
Kol are cognate with the Khond. The Ho lan-
guage differB so little in phonology and glossary
From the Munda, Bhumij, and Santal, that
Captain Tickell's account of its grammar may be
taken as that of the Kol language generally. The
Ho are addicted to suicide ; they have no endear-
ing epithets. They erect menhir or slabs, and
dolmen or tablets, over the graves of their dead.
The dance of the Ho and Santal is not that of
the Munda, though the last have something re-
sembling it, and it can be made to assume a mourn-
ful cadence, as the same step and drum-beat is
used at their funeral ceremonies. Colonel Dalton
says (p. 106) the youths and maidens of the Ho
mourn as they revolve, and lock up, keeping
admirable time both in the movements of the feet
and undulations of the head to the monotonous
beat of the drums. They believe that the souls of
the dead become bhoots (spirits), but no thought
of reward or punishment is connected with the
change. — Captain Tickell, As. Soc. Jour. ix. pp.
783, 997, 1063 ; Lubbock; Origin of Civil, p. 268 ;
Dalton's Ethnology of Bengal, pp. 106, 184.

HOANG-HO, a great river in China, 3040 miles
long, in lat. 39° 40' N., and long. 98° E., un-
doubtedly one of the finest rivers in the world. It
takes its rise in the mountains of Tibet, and, after
traversing the Koukou-Noor, enters China at the
water province of Kan-su ; it leaves it again to
the sandy plains at the foot of the Alechan
mountains, surrounds the country of Ortous, and,
after having watered China from south to north,
and then from west to east, throws itself into the
Yellow Sea. The waters only assume their yellow
tint after passing the Alechan and the Ortous.
The river rises almost always to the level of the
country through which it flows ; and to this is to be
attributed the disastrous inundations which it occa-
sions, which are so fatal to China, but are of little
consequence to the nomadic Tartars, who have
only to strike their tents and move off elsewhere.
In ancient times its mouth is said to have been in

lat. 39° N. ; at present it is in 34°. The Chinese
Government is obliged annually to expend enor-
mous sums to keep the river within its bed.
In the year 1799 it cost £1,682,000. — Hue's
Journey.

HOANG-TI is the first historical Chinese em-
peror (b.c. 2698); and the Chinese historians allege
that in his reign the inventors of sundry arts and
sciences arrived from the western kingdoms in
the neighbourhood of the Kouen Lun mountains.
— Yule, Cathay, i. p. 35.

HOCKEY. A game of Tibet resembling hockey,
and called Chaughan, is played on horseback, on
a plain about 60 yards broad and 350 long, with
a stone pillar at each end as the goal. The ball
is somewhat larger than a cricket ball, and in
Tibetan is called Pulu. The stick or Byntu is of
the strong and straight bough of the almond tree,
about 4 feet long, and let in at the top and passed
quite through to the other end of a curved piece
of solid birch-wood, about the size and shape of
a drenching horn. The game is mentioned by
Baber. It is played in every valley in Little
Tibet, Ladakh, Yessen, Chitral. The Persians, who
wanted to play on horseback, were the first who
found a long stick necessary. This stick they
called Chugan, hence the Byzantine T^vKxvi^eiv,
and the French Chicane, in which lawyers bandy
about the unlucky clients. Prom the Chugan
came the croquet-mallet, the golf-club, with all
the family of spoons, drivers, cleeks, bunker-irons,
putters, and niblicks ; came also the hockey-stick,
and probably the bat, which was at first a thick
club with a curved foot, a terrible weapon in the
hands of a ' slogger.' The Chugan may have been
the father of the racquet. In Byzantine descrip-
tions of the game, a staff ending in a broad bend,
filled in with a network of gut-strings, is men-
tioned. The Munipuri call it Kaugo-jai. They
select a turfy piece of ground 400 yards in
length by 200 in breadth. The ponies used are
small, swift for their size, and obedient mouths.
The club consists of a rattan as thick as an
ordinary-sized walking-stick, and 5 feet long,
and its lower end has attached, at an angle of 45
degrees, a cylindrical piece of hard oak-wood, 1
foot in length, and 1 or 1£ inch in diameter. The
whole weighs about 1 lb. 10 oz. The ball is a globe
3 to 4 inches in diameter, cut out of the light
bulbous root of the bamboo. The suppleness of
the cane, the weight of the club, and the elasticity
of the ball is such, that a well-delivered stroke will
lift the latter about a hundred yards. Two sides
are formed, 5 to 7 to a side. The ball is thrown
up in the centre of the ground, and each party
strives to drive it to the opposite goals. The club
is held in the right hand and the reins in the left.
All the skill of horsemanship and dexterity in the
use of the club are called into full play. It is
beautiful to see the game played by men expert in
the exercise, and by ponies well trained, for the
animals in the course of time acquire a perfect
knowledge of the play, and enter into the excite-
ment of it as well as the riders.

HOCOMLIA MONTANA. Gibson.
Sampga, .... Can. I Kudkee, .... Mahr.
Tambut, . . . Mahr. |

Grows in Canara and Sunda, on and close to
the head of the ghats. Wood seldom runs large ;
is white, hard, and tough ; used for agricultural
implements. — Dr. G'ibsoti.

[H)

llnMADtN.

HOE I KING.

HODADIN, a jKiiceable shepherd tribe of
Bedouins.

HOD AIDA, on the east coast of the lied Sea,
in lat. 11 17' N., and long. IS . r );i' K., a town of
Yemen, with lofty building. It is on the N.E.
Hide of a Randy hay, and sheltered by a point of
land running S'.W. A.bonl \.i>. 1836 it was made
the x.it of government <>f that part of Yemen.

HODGSON, Captain- J. A., author of Journey
to the Source of the Jumna, Hot Springs at
.lumnotri, etc., in Ar. Res. xiv. p. 128; On a New
Form of the Hog Kind in Sind, in Bl. As. Soc.

p. 461 ; Oa the I aw of l/Cgal Practice and I '..lie*
of Nepaul, Loud. As. Tram i. pi- It wiu

his opinion that the Tamulian, Tibetan, lu<l«>-
Chinose, Tangus, Chinese, Mongol, and Turk art-
s' > many hranehcB of the Turanian family. — hr.
Hnigft ( 'dialogue.

HODOSONLA BBTEROCLITA. ttooktr. Tri-
chosanthes het, Roxb., is the most magnificent

Slant of the jungles in the valley of the Tista in
ikkim. It is a gigantic climber, allied to the
gourd, bearing immense yellowish- white pendulum
blossoms, whose petals have a fringe of buff-
Trans, xiv. p. 423 ; Journey to the Head of the ' coloured curling threads several inches long. The
Ganges, in As. Res. xiv. p. 60; Survey to the fruit is of a rich brown, like a small melon in
Heads of the Ganges and Jumna, ibid.; Latitudes form, and contains six large nuts, whose kernels
of 1 'laces in Hindoostan, ibid. p. 163; Heights (called Katior-pot by the I^epcha) are eaten. Dm
and Positions of the Himalaya Peaks, ibid. p. stem when cut discharges water profusely, from
187 ; Route from Katmandu to the Chinese | whichever end is held downwards. It ia a new
1 rentier, ibid., 1832, xiii. p. 513. Captain Hodgson cucurbitaceous genus, found in the Terai, clinging
and Lieutenant Herbert published Astronomical in profusion to the trees, and also 5000 feet up the

< >hservations in Hindustan, with a Journal of the
Survey of the Sources of the Rivers Ganges and
Jumna, and an Account of the Positions and
Heights of the Principal Peaks of the Himalaya
Mountains. — Dr. Bum's ( 'ataloaue.

HODGSON, BRYAN H., of the Bengal civil
service, widely known for his researches into the
natural history of the Eastern Himalayas, and the
ethnology of the races and tribes dwelling in
British India and its bordering- countries. He
was appointed Resident at the court of Nepal in
1821. He wrote on the Sheep inhabiting the
Himalayan Region, in Bl. As. Trans., 1841, x. p.
820; On the Literature and Religion of the
Buddhists, Serampore 1841 ; On the Buddha
1 literature of Nepaul, As. Res. xvi. p. 409 ; Route
from Katmundu to Tazedo, ibid. xvii. p. 513 ; On I
a New Species of Buceros, ibid, xviii. p. 178 ;
Description of the Aquila Nepalensis, ibid. }>art ii. ;
j>. 18 ; Description of the Circaetus Nepalensis.
ibid. p. 21 ; Migration of the Natatores and
Grallatores in Nepaul, ibid. p. 122 ; On the Wild
Goat and Wild Sheep in Nepaul, ibid. p. 127 ;
Description of the Ratwa Deer, ibid. p. 170 ; Of
the Buceros Homrai, ibid. p. 139 ; Of the Wild
Dog of the Himalayas, ibid. p. 221 ; On the
Antelope of the Himalayas, Gleanings in Science, \
iii. p. 152 ; On a Species of Felis, ibid. p. 177 ; j
On Scolopacidae, ibid. p. 233 ; On the Musk Deer, i
ibid. p. 329 ; On the Cervus Jaral, the Ratwa j
Deer, and the Tharai Goat, ibid, p. 371 : On the
Chiru, ibid. p. 387 ; On the Mammalia of Nepaul, I
ibid. p. 442 ; On the Manufacture of Nepaul |
Paper, Bl. As. Trans, i. p. 8; On the Nepaul
Military Tribes, ibid. ii. p. 217 ; On the Aborigines
of Nepaul Proper, ibid. iii. p. 215 ; On European
Speculations on Buddhism, ibid. pp. 382, 425, j
499 ; Synopsis of Mammalia of the Himalayas, '
ibid. v. p. 231 ; On Nepaul Ornithology, ibid. p.
358 ; On the Language of Buddhist Scriptures,
ibid. ii. p. 682 ; On the Cuckoo of the Himalayas,
ibid. viii. p. 136 ; On the Thibetan Type of Man-
kind, ibid. xvii. p. 222 ; On the Aborigines of
Central India, ibid. p. 550 ; Relics of the Ca ih o K c
Mission in Thibet, ibid. p. 225 ; Route from
Katmandu to Darjceling, ibid. p. 634 ; Ou the
Aborigines of Southern India, ibid, xviii. p. 350 ;
On the Aborigines of North-Eastern India, ibid,
p. 451 ; Note on Indian Ethnology, ibid. p. 288 ;
On the Aborigines of the North-Eastern Frontier,
ibid. xix. p. 309 ; Aborigines of the South, ibid.

mountains. It grows also in the forests east of
Chittagong. The long stem, like almost all woody
climbers, is full of large vessels ; the iuice does
not, however, exude from these great tubes, which
hold air, but from the close woody fibres. — HooL:
11. ./. i. p. 395, ii. p. 350.

HODHAD, king of Yemen, father of Balkees,
queen of Sheba ; lived about the beginning of the
Christian era. See Balkees.

HOD'HU, an ancient name of India.

HOE, a secret society of the Chinese, into which
the members are initiated. The concluding cere-
mony consists in pricking the middle finger of the
right hand, dropping the blood into a bowl of
arrack, from which each of the candidates drink,
and are then saluted as brethren.

HOE is the digging implement of the labourers
of India ; its forms are called in Hindi, hat'hia.
kalpi, kharpa, mamati, rambha, and ramp.

HOEI-HOEI. The Chinese and Manchu call
by the name of Hoei-hoei all the Mahomedan tribes
who live under Chinese dominion. This word,
therefore, has ceased to designate a nation. As
the Uigur Hoei-hoei, called simply Hoei-hoei under
the Mongol dynasty of Yuan, were Mahomedans,
this name is applied by the Chinese to all those
of the same religion, in the same manner as the
Russians are often called Greeks, because they arc
of the Greek Church. The inhabitants of the
towns of Little Bokhara are in part descendants
of the ancient Uigur or Hoei-hoei, and con-
sequently Turk ; in part Sarti, or Bokharians,
who are scattered as merchants all over Central
Asia, and who are Iranians. There are many of
them at Pekin, Hang-chu-fu, Canton, and other
commercial cities of China. Their mother-tongue
is Persian, but they also speak the oriental Turki,
which is the general language of Turkestan, aud
the most diffused in Little Bokhara.

HOEI KING, a Chinese Buddhist traveller in
India, Khotan (Yu-than), and Tibet, in a.i>.
399-400, along with Fa Hian, the Fo-kue-ki of
Remusat, Klaproth, and Landresse. Fa Hiau.
with Hoei King and other Chiuese pilgrims, reached
Yu-than or Khotan in a.d. 899-400. Fa Hian
then travelled by Tsu-bo and Yu-hoei and over
the Tsu-Ling mountains southwards to Kie-Chha,
the modern Ladakh, where he rejoiued Hoei King.
From Kie-Chha the pilgrims proceeded westward
to Tho-ly, which they reached in one month.
They came to Iudia overland by way of Tartaiy

HOFFMEISTER

HOISALA BELLALA.

and Kabul, visited Ceylon, and sailed thence to
Java. On his return, Fa Hian left behind him an
account of his travels, called Fo-kue-ki, or an
account of the Buddhist countries. At the time
of his visit Buddhism was still the dominant
religion, though Vaishnava doctrines were gaining
ground. — Cunningham, Ladakh; Cal. Rev.

HOFFMEISTER, author of Travels in Ceylon
and Parts of the Himalayas to the Borders of
Thibet.

HOG, Indian wild boar, Sits Indicus.
Khanzir, .... Akab. Porco, . . . It., Pokt.

Lat.
Malay.

Sus, Porcus,

Babi, Babi alas,

Babi utan, . . ,,

Dakar, . . . Mahr.

Svinza, .... Bus.

Puerco, Sp.

Svin, Sw.

Pandi, .... Tel.
Hweh-liwch, . Welsh.

Varaha, . Beng., Sansk.
Handi, Mikka, . . Can.
Jewadi, .... ,,

Svun, Dan.

Varken, Zwijn, . Dut.
Cocbon, Pourceau, . Fk.
Schwein, .... Gek.

Paddi Gonu.

Choiros, .... Gr.
Jangli soor, Soor, . HiND.

The wild hog abounds in many parts of India,
and the males attain to a very large sizi.'. It is
generally believed that there is no specific differ-
ence between the wild hog of Europe and India.
The adult males dwell apart from the herd. The
wild boar is constantly hunted by Europeans on
horseback, with the spear ; natives of India hunt
the boar with dogs. Spearing the wild hog is one
of the favourite sports of British officers in India.

All the wild hogs in the Archipelago are small
animals compared with the wild boar of Europe,
or even with that of continental India.

Sus verrucosus, so called from the fleshy excres-
cence on the sides of the cheeks, has a grotesque
and a formidable appearance, but is in reality a
timid animal. Their number in Java is immense
in particular districts.

Sus Andamanensis, Blyth, a small race in the
Andamans.

Sus Zcijlanensis, Blyth. Mr. Blyth distinguished
this from the hog common in India. The skull
approaches in form that of a species from Borneo,
the Sus barbatus of S. Muller.

The genus Babirussa of F. Cuvier takes its name
from two Malay words, Babi, hog, and Rusa, a
deer. It is the Sus babyrussa of Linnaeus, and the
B. alfurus of Lesson, and occurs in the island of
Bum or Bourou, one of the Moluccas, also in
Celebes and Ternate.

Sus Papuensis is a New Guinea hog.

Porcula sylvania, Hodg., the pigmy hog of the
sal forests of N. India, is the Sano banei and
Chota sur of the natives of India, and confines
itself to the deep recesses of primeval forest. The
adult males abide constantly with the herd, and
are its habitual and resolute defenders. — Sykes 1
Cat. Dec. Mam. p. 11 ; Crawfurd, Diet. p. 152 ;
Termant's Ceylon, p. 59 ; Catalogue of Mammalia
in the India House Museum.

HOG-DEER.

Hyelaphus porcinus, Staid.
Cervus porcinus, Zxmiatrm.
0. dodur, Royle.
Axis porcinus, Jerd.

Para, Hind.

Khar, Laguna, . ,,

The hog-deer inhabits Central India, Bengal,
the Gangetic valley, Paujab, Sind, Assam, Sylhet,
Botina. It frequents chiefly long grass and
tamarisk jungles, grassy grounds and open glades
in forest opeuings, rarely seeking the forest shade.

Axis niger, B. Ham.
Cervus niger, B. Ham.
C. oryzeus, Kdaart.

Sugoria, .... Hind.
Nuthrin baian, . „

It is not gregarious, both sexes living solitary
in general. The young are beautifully spotted.
The buck drops his horns in April, and ruts in
September. — Jerdon, p. 263.

HOGENDORP. Le Compte C. S. W. do
Hogendorp, author of Coup d'CEil sur Tile de
Java et les autres possessions Neerlandaises dans
l'Archipel des Indes, 1830.

HOGG, Sir JAMES WEIR, Bart., took a
prominent part in discussions relating to Indian
affairs in Parliament. He was a Director of the
East India Company, and twice was Chairman.
He was born at Stoneyford, in the county Antrim,
in 1790, and was called to the bar in Ireland. At
Calcutta he held the office of Administrator-
General. He returned to England in June 1833.
At the abolition of the old Court of Directors he
was named one of the Political Military Com-
mittee. He was raised to the baronetcy in 1846.

HOG-GUM, a resin abundantly afforded by
Moronobaea coccinea, Aubl., a fine tree of Jamaica.
Negroes dig it from among the roots of old trees.
It is used in medicine, and is inflammable, burn-
iug with an agreeable odour. This might be
introduced into India. The false hog-gum of
Jamaica is yielded by Rhus metopium, Linn.

HOGLA. Beng. Typha angustifolia, Typha
elephantina, Roxb., elephant grass, cat's-tail grass.

HOG'S LARD.
Sur-ki-charbi, . . Hind. | Adeps suillus, . . . Lat.

This is the fat about the loins of the hog, Sus
scrofa. It is purified by melting and straining.
Its melting point is from 78 to 88 degrees Fahr.
In Europe, hog's lard is much employed in oint-
ments, but in India it is desirable to exclude it
from all pharmaceutical preparations. — (TSh.

HOISALA BELLALA, a dynasty who had
supreme sway in Mysore from a.d. 1000 to 1300.
They built three groups of temples, one at
Somnathpur, S. of Mysore, by Vinaditya Bellala
(1043), another at Baillur by Vishnu Verddhaua
(1114), and the greatest at Dwara Samudra or
Hullabid (1145) by Vijaya Narsinha, the building
of which was stopped by the Mahomedan invasion
in a.d. 1310-1311.

Some of the Hoisala Bellala kings were Jains ;
but their buildings at Somnathpur, Bellur, or
Hullabid belong to the Vaishnava or Saiva faiths.
The Basti temples of the southern Jains, like the
Jain a temples of Northern India, always have a
tirthankara as the object of worship. The Bettu
temples of Southern India are open courtyards,
containing images of Gomati, who possibly may
be Gautama Buddha. There are two hills at the
village of Sravana Belgola, 33 miles N. by W.
from Seringapatam. On one of these, a mass of
syenite 500 feet high, a Jaina image, 70 feet 3
inches high, has been carved out of the solid rock.
The expression of its features is pleasing, with
curly hair ; and at Karkala, the image, 41 feet 5
inches, and weight 80 tons, has been moved to its
present site, and was erected a.d. 1432. The
third, and supposed oldest, at Yannur, is 35 feet
high. They belong to the Digambara sect of the
Jains, being entirely naked, but with twigs of the
Bo Tree twisted round their legs and arms, with
serpents at their feet. In the Jaina cave at
Badami, the figure has two snakes twisted around
its legs and arms, and the Bo Tree is placed behind.
On a shoulder of the other hill at Sravana Belgola,
called Chandragiri, are the Basti temples, fifteen

HOLAR.

HOUG \i:\A LOXGIFOUA.

in number, all of the Dravidian style, rained into
l loto ya The Jaloa temple at Ifoodbidri, an<l all
others in Canara, resemble the temples of Nepal,
lad many <>f them are built of wood. The interiors
are richly and variedly carved, with massive pillars.
A large number of the tombs of the priests, some
of them five to seven storeys in height, each with
a sloping roof, like the temples of Khatmaudu,
Tibet, and China. The stambhas or free-stand-
ing pillars of the Jainas in Canara, are very
il. — Fergussoii, p. 393. See Architecture.

HOLAR, also Holiar or Holaru, in the Canar-
ese districts of the Peninsula, the Pariah or Dher
race. Professor Wilson describes the Holar as a
man of a low or out-caste tribe, by profession a
musician, which answers to the Mhang race, but
there is no doubt but that the Holar is the Dher.
The Morassi Holiyar are the same as tho Halle
Ifakkata, old adopted sons of the Morasi Wakaliga.
They are labourers and weavers. See Holiyar.

HOLARRHENA ANTIDYSENTERICA. Wall.
Eohites antid., Roxb. \ Chonemorphaantid., Don.

Kogar of . . . Chenab. Keor (seed) . . . Panj.
Kyur of . . . Kanora. Kawar of . Ravi, Bras.

Panj.

Istaraku pal a,

Tei..

Km a (seed) of
Indarjao ,,

A large shrub or small tree of Malabar, Siwalik
Hills, up to the Chenab in the N.W. Himalaya,
Sylhet, and Chittagong. It bears a white flower.
Its bark (Tellicherry bark) is used in medicine as
an astringent. The leaves are used as fodder or
as litter. The wood is white, light, and close-
grained, and is used by carvers.

HOLARRHENA CODAGA. W. I. Kooda palli
maram, Tam. A small-sized white wood, very
fine grained, employed in cabinet-making. Dr.
Wight gives also H. Malaccensis in Icones, 1298.

HOLARRHENA MITIS. 11. Br. Kirri-walla-
gasB, Singh. A moderate-sized tree of Ceylon,
not uncommon up to an elevation of 1500 feet.

HOLARRHENA PUBESCENS. O'Sh. Reora,
Hind. Wood light. This species and the H.
antidysenterica yield the Indurjuo talkh of the
bazar. — O'Sh.; Roxb.; Voigt; Thiv. Zeyl. p. 194.

HOLDNA. Hind. In Kangra, the process of
destroying weeds in a rice crop.

HOLI, a popular Hindu festival, called in
Sanskrit Holikha, or Phal gotsava, or Hutasham,
or Hutasavi, also Dola or Dolavatra, or tho Swing-
ing Festival. It is supposed to relate to the vernal
equinox, and to be similar to the Persian New
Year's day. It is held about the 19th March, or
ten days before the full moon of Phalguu. It is
in honour of Krishna, and is quite a saturnalia,
red powders being thrown and red fluids squirted
at passers-by, and licentious songs sung. At the
close of the festival, a pile is lighted, and a wheaten
cake or Poli offered on it. The analogy between
the goddess of the spring, Saturnalia, Phalguni,
and tho Phagesia of the Greeks, will be recognised.
The word is not derived from eating, with the
Rajput votaries of Holica as with those of the
Dionysia of the Greeks, but from Phalguni, com-
pounded of Guna, quality, virtue, or characteristic,
and Phala, fruit, — in short, the fructifier. The
Egyptian Phallica is the Holica of the Hindus.
Phula and Phala, flower and fruit, are the roots of
all Floralia and Phalaria,— the phallus of Osiris,
the thyrsus of Bacchus, or lingam of Iswara, sym

Ayodhia. It is much ol*ervcd by the cowherd
i if < irissa.
HOLIDAYS of the several race* dwelling in
India chiefly occur at seasonal changes, but al*o
at Mm anniversaries of certain occurrence* con-
nected with their religions or historical •
Tho dates of the public holidays vary with the lunar
months, and those below are approximate : —

Chrixtiitn.
Now Year's day, Jan. 1.
Good Friday, April.
Christmas day, Deo. 25.

Easter holidays, March.
Ascension day, May.
Pentecost holidays, June
H imln.
about

Makar Sankrauti,
January 11.

Maha Snivaratri, about
February 24.

Huli, about March 10 11.

Ram Naomi, about April 4.

Shravani purnima, Cocoa-
nut day, about August <>.

Parsee—Rammi <„• ShahanshaJii

Janm Ashtami, about Aug.

II.
Ganesh Chaturthi, about

August 25.
Dasara, about Septenilxr

30.
Diwali, about Oct. 1H-1'.I.

Jamshidi navroz, about

March 21.
Aban feast, about end of

April.
Adar feast, about June 8.
Farvardin Jasan, about

June 8.

Gatha Gabanbars, about

September 19 21.
Pateti or New Year's day,

about September 23.
Kurdad feast and valava,

about September 28-29.
Atishbehram Salgeri, about

November 8.

-Kadmi.
Pateti or New Year's day,

about September 24.
Kurdad feast and valava,

about August 29 30.
Atishbehram Salgeri,about

September 9.

■8uni (lunar months).
Ashura.
Bari "\Vafat.
Ghilan.
Mira j -i-Mahomed .

Parsee-
Aban feast, about end of

March.
Farvardin Jasan, about

May.
Gatha Gabanbars, about

August 20-22.

Mahomedan-
Sliab-i-Burat.
Lailat-ul-Kadar.
Ramadhan 'Id.
Bakr 'Id, or 'Id Kurban.

Mahonmhtn—fthiah (lunar month*).
Katl-i-Imam Ali. 'Id Gadir.

Shaha Kadir. Ashura.

Ramadhan 'Id. Chahlam.

Bakr 'Id. 'Id Maolud.

Jeivi&h.

Purim, or day of Queen Esther, March 13.

Pesach or Passover, April 11-17.

Shabuoth, or the Delivery of the Law, May 31.

Tishabaiab, or the day of Lamentation, August 1.

Rosh Hosana, or New Year's day, September 21-22.

Kipnr, or the days of Atonement, September 29 •"*".

Succoth, or the Feast of Tabernacles, October 5-13.

Hindus have many other festivals. Their naim s
differ in the several languages ; but there may be
named here Bali-Pratipada, Basaut'h-Panchami,
Nag-Panchami, Kartiki Ekadasi, and others.

Mahomedans have also the Maharram, Akhiri-
Char Shamba, Chiraghan - i - Banda Nawa2, and
Zinda Shah Madar, Pir Dastagir, and I'rus-i-
Kadar TVali.

Parsees have in addition, the Amardad, Jam-
shidi-Naoroz, Ardibehesbt- Jasan, Meher-Jasan,
and others.

HOLIGARNA LONGIFOLIA. Roxh.
Kagira, Biba-biba, C.\y. I Katu-jeru, . . Mai.eai..
Holgori, . . . Mahi!. |

One of the trees yielding the well-known black
lacquer varnish. It grows in Travancore, in
Malabar, in Canara, and Sunda, mostly above
the ghate at Nilgund, in the Konkan, Assam.

bolized by the Sriphala, or Ananas, the food of | Chittagong, and in tho forest* of Tenasserim.
the gods, or the Sitaphala of Sita. the Helen of Wood good for houses and beams. Its danger

HOLIGARNA RACEMOSA.

HOLKAR.

ously acrid exudation is used by the natives to
varnish shields and for other purposes. A fine
black varnish from its fruit is brought from
Manipur. This turns of a beautiful black colour
when applied to a surface, owing, according to
Sir D. Brewster, to the fresh varnish consisting
of a congeries of minute organized particles, which
disperse the rays of light in all directions ; the
organic structure is destroyed when the varnish
dries, and the rays of light are consequently
transmitted. There is brought also from Manipur
a varnish made from the Semecarpus anacardium
(marking nut), and a remarkable black pigment
resembling that from Melanorrhcea usitatissima,
which is white when fresh, and requires to be
kept under water. — Roxb. ; Voiyt ; Gibson ; 0\Sh. ;
Mason; Hooker's H. J. ii. p. 331; Beddome.

HOLIGARNA RACEMOSA. Roxb. A tree
of Assam, Sylhet. Leaves alternate, linear-oblong.
Flowers racemed, juice of the wood acrid. — Roxb.

HOLIYA or Holayar, in the Cauarese-speaking
country, in Mysore, and in Coorg, an agricultural
labourer. In the Canarese -speaking country, like
the Pariah or Dher ; in Coorg he is one of three
principal classes of slaves, Holayaru, Yewaru,
and Paleru. Their subdivisions are the Mari,
Byr, Murtha, Bulgi, Baday, Rookh, and Kembatta
Holayaru. The last is a native of Coorg. The Mari
Holayaru follow the custom of descent through the
female line, the descensus ab utero. The Holeya
race of labourers in Coorg, ill-favoured, with
coarse, stupid features, short in stature, but
strong built, with dark and black skiu, and black,
straight hair. They practise demonology, and are
said to have no guru. — Wils. See Hokr.

HOLKAR, the family name of the Mabratta
rulers at Indore and its territories. The family
name is taken from the village of Hull, on the
Nira river in the Dekhan, where they were shep-
herds and farmers. Mulhar Rao Holkar, son of
Khundaji Holkar, was born about the year 1693,
and his mother, in consequence of some dispute,
took him to Kandesh to his uncle Narainji,
where, as a lad, he herded his uncle's sheep.
When grown up he took service, and distinguished
himself under Kudum Bande, a Mahratta leader,
but subsequently (1724) under Baji Rao Peshwa
as a commander of 500 ; and in 1728 was sent to
administer Malwa, where he died a.d. 1769. Mul-
har Rao was present at the battle of Panipat, and
shared in the common overthrow of the Mahratta
armies. Sindia's forces were almost annihilated,
and Madhaji Sindia was lamed for life ; but Hol-
kar's division alone drew off with serried ranks
and little loss, and Sindia thought that he had
not been well supported by Holkar. He was
succeeded by his grandson, Mali Rao, who died
insane, nine months after his ascension. The pious
Ahalya Bai, the mother of Mali Rao, then took
the management of affairs, and appointed as the
commander of the army, Tukaji Rao Holkar, a
chief of the same tribe, but in no way related to
Mulhar Rao. This chief for many years served
Ahalya Bai with the most devoted fidelity. Ahalya
Bai died in 1795, and was not long survived by
Tukaji Rao Holkar, after whose death the power

Rao, an illegitimate son of Tukaji Rao Holkar,'
who in 1802 defeated the united forces of Sindia
and the Peshwa near Poona. The conclusion of
the treaty of Bassein, between the Peshwa and
the British Government, defeated Jeswunt Rao's
hopes of possessing himself of the person of the
Peshwa. In the following year, when Sindia and
the raja of Berar combined against the British,
Jeswuut Rao Holkar promised to join the con-
federacy, but on the actual outbreak of hostilities
he kept aloof, and apparently intended to take
advantage of the war to aggrandize himself at
Sindia's expense. His schemes, however, were
rendered hopeless by the treaty of Surji Anjen-
gaum ; and Jeswunt Rao Holkar, after making a
series of inadmissible proposals for an alliance,
seems then to have hastily determined, unaided
and alone, to provoke hostilities with the British.
In the war which followed, Holkar was completely
overthrown. He was pursued by Lord Lake
across the Sutlej, whither he retired in the hopes
of forming a combination with the Sikhs against
the British Government ; and on 24th December
1805 he signed a treaty on the banks of the Beas,
by which he was stripped of a large portion of
his territories. Soon after the conclusion of the
treaty, Jeswunt Rao Holkar became in 1805
insane. He died in 1811, leaving an illegitimate
son, named Mulhar Rao Holkar, during whose
minority the state was torn by the most violent
dissensions. The lad's mother, Toolsi Bai, the
favourite concubine of the late ruler, secured
herself in the regency. She was, however, sub-
sequently barbarously murdered, and Holkar's
army having sustained a complete defeat at
Mehidpore, on 6th January 1818 the treaty of
Mundisore was concluded, by which the supremacy
over the Rajput princes of Udaipur, Jeypore,
etc., was transferred to the British Government,
the engagement between the British Government
and Amir Khan was confirmed, four districts
rented by Zalim Singh of Kotah were ceded to
him, Holkar lost all his possessions within and to
the south of the Satpura Hills, and his remaining
territories came under the protection of the British
Government. Mulhar Rao Holkar died in October
1833, at the age of 28. He left no issue, but his
widow and his mother adopted Martand Rao
Holkar, a child between three and four years of age,
who was said to be of the same tribe and lineage
as Mulhar Rao Holkar. The child was publicly
installed on 17th January 1834, under the name of
Martand Rao Holkar. The adoption of Martand
Rao, however, proved to be a device of the
mother of Mulhar Rao Holkar, for the purpose
of keeping the power in her own hands during
a long minority. It was not acceptable to the
people, who were in favour of the succession of
Hari Rao Holkar, a cousin of the late Maharaja.
Hari Rao since 1819 had been kept in rigorous
confinement, but he was released on the night
of 2d February 1834, by a powerful body of his
partisans, and received a ready welcome from the
troops and people. The policy of non-interference
prevented the Resident from giving active support
to Martand Rao, although the installation of

of the house of Holkar was nearly extinguished i Martand Rao had been formally acknowledged by
by quarrels in the family and amid the dissensions i the British Government. Tin's indifference on
which distracted the Mahratta confederacy at the i the part of the British Government as to who
close of the eighteenth century. The fortunes j should rule, gave rise to most serious disturbances,
of the family, however, were restored by Jeswunt ! The wealthy merchants fled from Indore, trade

HOLKAR

HOLLAND.

was suspended, an 'l '* m ' Wbei infested tho roads
and destroyed many villages. Martand Rao was
banished from t lie country, and granted ail allow-
anoe of 5<H) rupees a-raonth, on condition of his
resigning all claims to the succession. On 8th
September L885, an attack was made on the palace
for the purpose of assassinating the Maharaja
ami his minister. The attempt was unsuccessful,
ami resulted in the slaughter of the whole of the
assailant*. Martand Rao Holkar died without
issue at Poona, on 2d June 1849, and with hil
death ended the intrigues which from time to
time endangered the peace of the country, both
during the rule of Hari Rao Holkar and his suc-
cessor. When the attack was made on his person
in 1835, Hari Rao applied to the British Govern-
ment for aid, but it was refused, on the ground
that the engagement to maintain the internal
tranquillity of the country depended on the con-
dition that the measures of its government were
not directly or indirectly the cause of disturb-
ance ; and because the grant of assistance would
require a continual interference in the internal
affairs of the state, inconsistent with the position
of Holkar and the policy of the British Government.

In 1841, Maharaja Hari Rao adopted as his
heir and successor, Khundi Rao, a boy of 13
years of age, son of an obscure zamindar, and
very distantly related to the reigning family ; and
Hari Rao died on the 24th October 1843, aged
48. Warned by the evils which resulted from
the vacillating policy pursued on the accession
of Martand Rao, the British Government took
immediate measures to proclaim Khundi Rao as
the acknowledged successor, and to make it known
that no other claims would be recognised. But
Khundi Rao died on 17th February in the
following year. He was never married. On this,
Sir Robert Hamilton selected and installed the
younger son of Bhao Holkar, who took the title
of Tukaji Rao Holkar. In a letter to the young
chief, the Governor-General laid down the condi-
tions on which the state was conferred on him.
This letter (No. lxxvii.) was declared to have the
force of a sunnud, and the Maharaja was required
to present a nuzzer of 101 gold mohurs on its
delivery.

The young chief, Tukaji Rao Holkar, attained
his majority in 1852, and was entrusted with the
entire management of the affairs of the state, and
was granted a sunnud guaranteeing to him the
right of adoption.

An annual payment of 30,000 rupees is made
to Holkar by tho British Government as compen-
sation for his share of the district of Patan, which
was made over to Bundi in 1818. The Maharaja
also receives through the British Government a
tribute of 72,700 Salim Sahi rupees, on account
of Partabgurh, but he has no feudal supremacy
over that state. He receives credit for this tribute
as part of his contribution towards the Malwa
contingent, and it is realized from Partabgurh one
year in arrears.

In the war with Jeswunt Rao Holkar, Lord
Lake gave many lessons how to deal with the less
coherent forces of Asiatic rulers. Jeswunt Rao
Holkar, when he opposed the British in 1803, had
■0,000 regular troops, amongst whom were
60,000 light horse, and 130 guns, with tho for-
tresses of Chandore and Galingurh. From the

tics he adopted, this moveable force baffled the

British commanders and all the military power of
India, from April 1804 till the 16th February
1805. Hut ou the 2d April 1806, Ix»rd Ijdco
marched all night, and at daybreak entered 11 .1-
kar'a camp, which he completely broke up; in
this, in going and coming, I/ml Lake marched
•')'» miles. Lord Lake subsequently, in December
1805, marched in his pursuit 405 miles in 43 days,
from Secundra to the Beas river at the Rajghat.
Iu Jeswunt Rao Holkar's final overthrow, Txtrd
I .akr marched 350 miles in a fortnight. Sir D.
Ouchterlony was defending Dehli against the
Mahrattas; but, on 'their abandonment of Dehli
on the 14th or 15th October 1803, Lord Lake
followed them, and at length, with a small body
of 3000 British horse and artillery, amongst which
were the 8th and 27th Dragoons, made a forced
march of about 48 miles, defeated the forces of
the Mahrattas, about 60,000, near Farrakhabad,
followed 10 miles in pursuit, and returned to camp,
making a journey of about 70 miles in 24 hours,
with a loss of 22 dragoons killed, and 20 Europeans
and natives wounded.

At that time, Amir Khan, the Rohilla chieftain
of Rohilkhand, forsook the Bhurtpur raja, but
was followed by General Smith, whom Lord Lake
sent in pursuit. After a march of 700 miles in
43 days, Amir Khans army was overtaken, and
defeated at Afzalghur, at the foot of the Hima-
layas, on the 2d March 1804, and Amir Khan
was conveyed across the Ganges and Jumna in
March, but he rejoined Holkar's camp under
Bhurtpur. At Laswari, in Central India, in 1803,
Lord Lake aud General Fraser fought and won a
battle against the battalions of Sindia and Perron.

The Indore State maintains 3300 cavalry, 5250
infantry, and 340 artillery, with 24 field guns.

In 1832, the Maharaja (1883) Tukaji Rao Holkar
was born, and in 1843 he was placed on the
throne by the intervention of the British. He has
displayed much capacity as a ruler. His estates are
somewhat scattered, and he has wished to connect
them. Area, 8075 square miles, aud population in
1878 was 635,000. He has earnestly encouraged
all commercial and trading transactions. The ab-
original race is the Bhil. — Treaties and Situnudt.

HOLLAND, a country in Europe with great
possessions in the Eastern Archipelago, which
are designated Netherland India, also the Dutch
Possessions in India; and Holland formerly held
parts of Ceylon, also parts of what is now
British India, and likewise Malacca in the Malay
Peninsula. Holland is situated along the south-
eastern coast of the North Sea, and extends
in its greatest length, from N.E. to S.W..
about 190 English miles. Its greatest breadth,
from E. to W., is about 123 English miles. The
superficial area is 7,614,252 English acres, or
11,897 English square miles. Holland has had a
severe contest with the ocean, which has ended in
the country being brought into a high state of
cultivation and comparative safety. The canals
are very numerous, and of the greatest utility in
draining off the waters, and in facilitating the
internal trade. They are lined with trees, which
tend greatly to improve the country, in itself so
flat, that to those approaching it along the rivers
aud some part of the coast the trees and spires
seem to rise out of the water. Along the coast
of the North Sea there is a line of broad sand-
hills and downs, in some parts so very high as to

HOLLY.

HOLWAN.

shut out the view of the sea even from the tops
of the spires. In some parts of Zealand and of
North Holland the defensive war against the
encroachments of the sea is kept up with great
difficulty and at an immense expense. The pro-
vince of Friesland, which has no sandhills, is
protected against the sea by stupendous dykes
and palisadoes, the repair of which costs upwards
of half a million sterling yearly. The industry of
the people has multiplied cattle and pasture-
grounds. Laws passed in 1857 and 1863, and
based on a system of religious equality, and a
total separation of church and state, ensure for
every child in the country an education in the
simple branches of secular knowledge. The three
universities of Leyden, Utrecht, and Groningen
contain upwards of 1400 students. The population
in 1865 was 3,529,108. Protestants, 1,942,387 ;
Catholics, 1,234,486 ; the remainder are Jews.
Several dialects are spoken in Holland. The
Dutch, which is an offspring of the Low German
or Nieder Deutsch, is the language of two-thirds
of the inhabitants. Flemish is spoken on the
Belgian frontier. See Dutch.

HOLLY, Ilex aquifoliura, Linn., a favourite
European evergreen. Its hard white wood is
used in making Tunbridge ware, for the stringing
or lines in cabinet work, calico-printers' blocks,
etc. Birdlime is the juice of holly bark extracted
by boiling, mixed with a third part of nut-oil.
21 species are known as natives of the Himalayas,
Nepal, Southern India, Khassia Hills, and Burma.
Several species of holly — Kau-kuh and Tsz'-shu
— grow in China ; Ilex cornutum, near Ningpo ;
I. agnifolium, near Canton. The berried holly
tree, called Miau rh-tsze and Luh koh-tsze, grows
along the valley of the Yang-tse ; a tea, called
Luh koh-ch'a, is made from the leaves, and the
wax insect sometimes feeds on them. The wood
is turned into small boxes, and the bark is
boiled to produce birdlime. — Smith, M. M. See
flex.

HOLLYHOCK is a plant of the genus Althea,
and its varieties well worth cultivating on the
plains during the cold months of India. — Jaffrcv.

HOLOCANTHUS INSPERATOR, C. and V.,
Kulloo koli min. Tam. , is a fish frequently taken
at Madras. H. semicircularis, C. and V., also a
Madras fish.

HOLOCENTRUS ARGENTEUS is the Poo-
koorowah, a very delicious fish of Ceylon and the
Bay of Bengal. H. ruber, a beautiful red fish
of the New Hebrides, is poisonous at certain
seasons. — Bennett.

HOLONG. Hind. ? A tree of Chutia Nagpur,
furnishing a hard red timber. — Ced. Cat.

HOLOSTEMMA RHEEDIANUM. Spr.

Holostemma adakodien, R. et Sc.
Asclepias annularia, Roxb.
A. convolvulacea, Herb., Heijne.
Sarcostemrna annulare, Roth.

Apoong, .... Kol. Istara'kula palem, Tel.
Ada modien, . Maleal. Vistara'kula pala, ,,

Palla-gurgi, . . . Tel. Palagurugu, . . ,,

This plant grows throughout India. It has
large flowers of a red, green, and white colour;
is very abundant in the hills about Purulea,
and is also found in the neighbouring plains of
Chutia Nagpur. The fibre is said to attain its
best condition after the rains. — Boyle. Fib. PL p.
306.

Swala, . . . Japan.
Holothurion, . . Lat.
Trepang, Malay, Japan.
Biche-da-mar, . . Sp.

HOLOTHURIA.

Hoy-shun, . . . CHIN.

Sea cucumber, . . Eno.

Sea slug, ... ,,

Cornechu, . . . Fr.

Beche-de-mer, . . ,,

There are thirty-three species or varieties, and
several of them are used as food. They are found
in the Mediterranean, in the Eastern Archipelago,
Australia, Mauritius, Ceylon, Zanzibar, etc., and
are occasionally brought to Bombay from the
latter place, and re-exported to China. The great
sea cucumber of Europe is the largest of all the
known species, and is probably a foot in diameter.

H. Oceania, Lesson, is about 40 inches long,
and secretes from the surface of its body a fluid
which causes an intolerable itching.

H. lutea, Quoy and Gaimard, is the Styehopns
luteus, Brandt.

H. tubulosa, Blainville, of the Mediterranean.
The Fierasfer Fontanesii, a parasite fish, dwells
within it. It is eaten at Naples.

In the Ladrones, H. Guamensis, Quoy and
Gaimard, is preferred as food.

H. edulis, the trepang of the Malay, is black.
It is found in all the islands from New Holland to
Sumatra, and also on most of those in the Pacific ;
but is produced in the greatest abundance on
small coral islands, especially those to the south
of the Sidu group. The Chinese at Canton call
it Hoy-shun, which means sea ginseng.

The holothuria of Raffles Bay is about 6 inches
long and 2 inches thick. There are six sorts,
the best lying about 12 feet deep. It is an
unseemly - looking mollusc. Upwards of 8000
cwt. are yearly sent to China from Macassar;
about 9000 cwt. are exported from Java. It is
fished for in April and May, and is relished in
China and in Malay countries. They are boiled in
water, then flattened by stones, dried on mats in
the sun, and then smoked. It is for the most
part caught by the hand, for it has little power
of locomotion ; but in deep water, sometimes by
diving or by harpoons. It sells at Singapore at
8 to 115 dollars per pikul of 133^ lbs. Trepang,
although an article of considerable importance in
the trade of the Indian islands, is seldom dealt in
by Europeans, which arises from nice or rather
capricious distinctions in their quality, which no
European is competent to appreciate.

New Caledonia exports annually, to the value of
£4000, the white bellied, red bellied, small black,
large black, and brown, with teats, selling at
£12, £15, £20, £25, and £30 the ton. In China
the first quality sells at £90 to £200 the ton. In
1871, 2742 pikuls were received at six Chinese
ports. H. scabra, of the Philippine Islands, regu-
larly lodges in its interior, species of fierasfer and
of pinnotheres.

Many of the Holothuridse have anchor-shaped
spicules embedded in their skin, as the Synapta ;
while others (Cuviera squamata) are covered with
a hard calcareous pavement. Many of these are
of a bright red or purple colour, and are very
conspicuous ; while the trepang which is not
armed with any such defensive weapons, is of a
dull sand or mud colour, so as hardly to be dis-
tinguished from the sea-bed on which it reposes.

^PP plPTVi^TPi*

HOLU. Can. Pollution. See Holar ; Holayar.
HOLWAN. In a.ii. 16, when the Arabs had

HOLWELL

lluNAWAi:.

talc n this oity, 300 horsemen returning from
this enterprise, undec Ike command of Fadhilah,
towards toe eml of the <lay encamped between
two mountain* in Syria. Fadhilah (Fazl Allali)
poring intimated that it was time for evening
r, began to repeat with a loud voice the
usual form, ' God is great,' etc., when ho heard
Ins words repeated by another voice, which con-
tinual to follow him to the end of his prayer. —
Ji'ic/i's Kurdistan, i. 51.

HOLWELL, Ma., the chief of the settlement of
Calcutta, when, on the 18th June 1756, it was
taken by Suraj-ud-Dowla. Mr. Holwell and 140
of his people were thrust into a guard-room 20
feet square, from which in the morning only 23
re- issued alive. This guard-room was known in
Indian history as the Black Hole of Calcutta. It
was in the corner of Tank Square, near where,
i, was Messrs. Lyell, Mackintosh, & Co.'s
otlice, but it was removed about the beginning of
entury. See Black Hole ; Calcutta.

HOLY FIG - TREE, Urostigma religiosum,
Mi<j. Holy Grail or Sangreal, see Jataka. Holy
Btar Anise, Illicium auisatutn.

HOM, of the Zendavesta, is the Soma of the
Vedas, and supposed to be the Sarcostemma
(reviaagma; but possibly is the vine of Bacchus,
the ampelos, and identical with the Gaogird tree,
which enlightened the eyes.

llt'M A, a sacrificial burnt - offering of the
Hindus. It consists of clarified butter or ghi, pre-
sented to the fire in sacrificial ladles. The word
is Sanskrit from Hoo, to offer. The devout of all
eastern races have offered to the deity articles of
the foods by which life is sustained. The Horn or
burnt-offering of Abel was of the first of the
flock. The modern Rajput tenders the first
portion of the repast to Anadeva, the nourisher,
the goddess of food ; and all Hindus make similar
oblations. The Homa burnt-offering can be made
only by Brahmans. While prayers (mantra) are
being said, five kinds of consecrated wood,
together with the dhurba grass, rice, and butter,
ire kindled and burnt, and the fire is fed so long
is the ceremony lasts.

HOMAGE is shown in Rajputana by offering
>f water. The kallas is a household utensil of
>rass. A female of each family, filling one of
;hese with water, repairs to the house of the head
)l the village, when, being all convened, they
•roceed in a body to meet the person to whom
hey render honour, singing the suhailea, or song
if joy. The presenting of water as a token of
loniage and regard is especially common in
Eewar. — Tod's Rajasthan, ii. p. 98.

HOMALIUM CEYLANICUM. Gardn.
lilackwellia Ceylanica, Gardn. ; B. tetrandra, W. Ic.

This large tree, the Lee-yang of the Singhalese,
s not uncommon throughout the western forests
I the Peninsula up to 4000 feet; is a'so found
n the N. Arcot Hills, near Madras, also in
talon. The timber is very strong, and in use
.»r building and various other purposes.
j Homalium tomentosum? Myouk-kyan of the
iuiniese, a tree of Moulmein, with a strong wood.
Travancoricum, Bedd., is a very handsome
dddle-sized tree of Travancore and Tinnevelly.
(Iritnthianum, minutifolium, Nepalense, pro-
inquum. and Schliohii are also known, large

ees.— ( 'al. < 'at. Ex., 1862 ; Beddome, Fl. Sglv.

HOM Al. <>N KM A ABOMATICUM. s<kott.

Calla aromatica, Itoxb. \ ZantcUeachla worn., fipr.
Kucliu gundubi, Jit.sc.

A perennial plant, native of (hittagong; tulx-ni
eon i' I with the dried sheaths of the leaves, with
long white fibres proceeding from every part.
When cut they exhale an aromatic scent like
ginger. As a stimulant it is highly esteemed in
India. Ur. Wight figures also H. calyptratrum
and H. albescens. — Roxb. iii. 513; W. Ic; O'S/i.

HOMALOPSIDifi, a family of harmless fresh-
water snakes, order Ophidia, sub-order Serpeute*
colubrinaj nonvenenati, species as under : —

Fordonia unicolor, Gray, Penang.

( 'antoria elongata, Gthr., Singapore.

Cerberus rhynchops, Sehneid., from Ceylon to Siam.

Hypsirhina plumbea, Bwe, Eastern India.

H. enhydris, Sekmeid., Bengal, Eastern India.

H. Jagorii, Peters, Siani.

H. Bennettii, Gray, China.

H. Chinensis, Gray, China.

Ferania Sieboldii, Schleg., Bengal, Province Wellesley.

Homalopsis buccata, L., Malayan Peninsula, Ganiboja.

Hipistes hydrinus, Cant., Penang.

Herpeton tentaculatum, Lacep., Siam.

HOMARARI, a Baluch tribe who occupy
Tambu. See* Kalat.

HOMERlTiE of Ptolemy; the Himyar of

\ Till tL'i

HOMONOYA SYMPHYLLLEFOLIA. Kurz.
A timber tree of Darjiling Terai.

HOMOPTERA, an order of insects. Amongst
them, in the East Indies, sec. Trimera; family
Fulgoridse : —

Fulgora (Hotina) clavata, Westio., Assam.

F. gemmata, Westio., Himalaya.

F. guttulata, Westw., N. India.

F. virescens, Westw., Sylhet.

F. viridirostris, Westw., Assam.

F. spinolae, Westw., Mysore, Assam.

F. oculata, Westw., Malabar, Penang.

Aphana scutellaris, White, Java.

A. imperialis, White, Sylhet.

Ancyra appendiculata, White, Moulmein.

HONAIN-bin-ISHAQ, a Christian, a native of
Hira, who lived in the 9th century. He was one of
the most ancient of the Arabian medical writers.
After travelling in Greece and Persia, he settled
in Baghdad, where he translated into Arabic the
elements of Euclid, the Almagest of Ptolemy,
and the works of Hippocrates and Aristotle. He
appears to have commented on the works of
Galen. One of his treatises is on the eyes, and
another on sleep and vision.

HO-NAN is bounded on the N. by Peh-chi-li,
on the S. by Hu-peh, on the E. by Ngan-hoei.
and on the W. by Shen-si ; it is also called by
the Chinese, Tong-hoa. The capital is situated ou
the south bank of the Hoang-ho, which flows
through the whole breadth of the province. I to
population is turbulent, and generally found
inimical to foreign travellers. Ho-nan means
south of the river. — Sirrs Chinese, i. p. 431.

11< >N AWAR, a seaport town in the N. Canara
district of the Bombay Presidency ; situated in
lat. 14° 16' 30" N., and long. 74° 29' E. On the
decay of the Portuguese power in India, Honawar
was acquired by the sovereigns of Bednor ; and.
on the conquest of Bednor by Hyder Ali. this
town also submitted to him. In 1783 it was
taken by assault by a British force, despatched
from Bombay , under the command of Qaoenl
Matthews; and in 1784 successfully defended by

VOL. II.

HONE.

HONEYSUCKLE.

Captain Torriano against Tipu Sultan, to whom,
however, in the same year, it was ceded by the
treaty of Mangalore. On the overthrow of that
prince in 1799, it again came into the possession
of the British. It is the Honor and Onor of Deb
and Cesar Frederici ; Hinawar, Hannaur of Abul-
fada; Hanor and Hunawur of Abd-ur-Razzaq ;
and probably the Nandor of the Catatan map;
Abul Fazl describes it as a fine place, with pleasant
wardens and a Mahomedan population, with a
great export trade of rice, and much frequented
by shipping. It was long a nest of pirates. —
Imp. Gaz. ; Cathay, ii. p. 451.

HONE, a stone used for sharpening or setting
cutlery. The best is of a greenish colour, inclin-
ing to yellow, often marked with thin dendrical
lines, and is moderately hard, having a fine close
texture, resembling indurated clay. Hones of
good quality are obtainable in the Cuddapah and
Kurnool districts of India. — Waterston ; M. Ex.

HONEY.

Asal-ul-nahl, Injubin, Ar. Mel, Lat.

Pya-ya, .... BURM. Madu, Ayer-maddu
Fung-mih, . . . Chin. imanisan labah, Malay.
Honig, Honing, . Dut. Shahad, . Pers., Hind.

Dibs, Asal, . . . Egypt. Med, Bus.

Miel, . . . . Fr., Sp. Madha, .... Sansk.
Debash, .... Heb. ' Mipanny, . . . Singh.

Madh Hind. Haniiig, .... Sw,

Mele, Miele, . . . It. i Tayn, Teyna, Tam., Tel.

Honey is obtained from the honeycomb of the
Apis mellifica, Linn., and other species of honey-
bee, of the order Hymenoptera, Linn. Honey
is secreted by the nectaries of flowers, sucked
by the bee into its crop, where it undergoes
some slight changes, and is then stored up in the
comb for the food of its community. The finest
honey is that which is allowed to drain from the
comb ; and if obtained from hives which have
never swarmed, it is called virgin honey. In
some localities it is poisonous, owing to the
deleterious nature of the plants from which it is
collected. Dr. Hooker has stated that in some
parts of Sikkim the honey of rhododendron
flowers is believed to be poisonous. Azalea pontica,
the Anabasis informs us, poisoned the soldiers of
Xenophon in the retreat of the ten thousand.
Honey diluted with water undergoes the vinous
fermentation, and hydromel or mead is produced.
A wild shrub, jeneda, appears to intoxicate the
bees. The aborigines take a piece in their hand,
and, biting through the bark, they get the pun-
gent white juice into their mouths ; this they spit
out at the bees, which either fly away or become
intoxicated. The honey of the Eastern Archi-
pelago is a thin syrup, very inferior in flavour to
that of temperate climates. The comb is chiefly
sought on account of the wax, which forms a
large article of exportation to Europe, India, and
China. The honeys of the Aravalli and of Kashmir
are praised, selling at tenpence the pound. There
are wild bees in the woods of Kashmir, but the
zamindars have also hives in the walls of their
houses. The bees are quite domesticated. In the
Shevaroy Hills honey is largely collected by the
Mallaiali race, and is seemingly the product of
three species of bees. Mr. Fischer had some
hives of bees from Europe, but by day the bee-
eater birds and king-crows largely destroyed them,
and moths at night stole the honey. Once, on
examining the hive, he found a moth had succeeded
jn forcing its way into the hive. The bees had

killed it there, but as they could not cast it out,
they enclosed it in a wax tomb.

The honey-yielding Apis dorsata, A. bicolor,
A. Indica, A. nigripennis, and A. socialis, occur
in the south of India and Ceylon.

Sir Samuel Baker, in his book, Eight Years in
Ceylon, refers to the Bambera (A. dorsata) as
follows : — ' The largest and most extensive honey-
maker is the Bambera. This is nearly as large as
a hornet, and it forms its nest upon the bough of
a tree, from which the comb hangs like a Cheshire
cheese, being about the same thickness, but five
or six inches greater in diameter. The honey
from this bee is not so much esteemed as that
from the smaller varieties, as the flavour partakes
too strongly of the particular flower which the
bee has frequented ; thus in different seasons the
honey varies in flavour, and is sometimes so highly
aperient that it must be used Avith much caution.
The wax of the comb is the purest and whitest of
any kind produced in Ceylon.' It is supposed to
range the Archipelago, Siam. A. dorsata and
A. Indica have been introduced into Europe, and
the Cyprian bee into Ceylon. In Europe, the
gold-banded Ligurian is prized.

HONEY DEW, a secretion on plants, from
species of Aphides.

HONEY-EATERS of the South Sea Islands,
are species of Melithreptes, in Australia and
neighbouring islands, of the family Melliphagidse.

HONEY-GUIDE, birds of the sub -family
Indicatorinae, genus Indicator, of Sikkim and the
Malayan a.

HONEY OF RAISINS is the Sher of the
Persians. It is the juice of the unripe grape,
boiled to a syrup and formed into a solid mass,
like congealed honey out of the comb. It is
supposed to be this honey to which Ezekiel,
writing of Tyre, alludes (xxvii. 17) : ' Judah and
the land of Israel traded with thee ; corn of
Minnith, honey of raisins, and (in some editions
honey alone) oil, and balm gave they to thee
for thy wares.' It is made in Syria, and is exported
to Egypt.— De Bode's Tr. ii. p. 146.

HONEY-SUCKERS, the name of a family of
birds, the Nectarinidse or Cinnyridae, of which
several species are common to India and the
Archipelago. They are also called the sun-birds,
and they take the place in the E. Indies of the
humming-birds of S. America. Humming-birds
have straight bills, while the bill of the sun-bird
is curved. The species are all of small size, with
some feathers of a bright metallic lustre. They
hover over flowers, and extract the honey with
their tongues. Dr. Jerdon notices the Arach-
nothera magna and A. pusilla, the large and little
spider-hunter, ^Ethopyga miles, M. Vigorsi, M.
Gouldise, M. ignicauda, M. Nipalensis, M.
Horsfieldii, and M. saturata ; Leptocoma Zey-
lanica and L. minima; Arachnechthra Asiatica
and A. lotenia. The sub-family Dicseinse, flower-
peckers, has Dicseum coccineum, D. chrysorhseum,
D. minimum, D. concolor, Piprisoma agile, Myz-
anthe ignipectus, Pachyglossa melanoxantha. In
the Moluccas, in Bouru and Ceram and Timor, and
Australia, species occur of Tropidorhynchus and
Mimita. — Jerdon ; Tennant.

HONEYSUCKLE. Jin-tung and Kin-yin-hwa,
Chinese, species of the genus Caprifolium, with
few exceptions natives of cold countries ; require
rich vegetable soil. — Jaffrey.

HOXG.

KOOKEH.

HONG, a word used in Malay invocations, un-
hallowed, of gnat power, and so panas (hot), thai
if any man use a Hong invocation throe time ,
nothing that In- undertakes for himself will succeed,
mi* I In; will live powerful but miserable, able to
afflict or assist others, but unable toassist bimielf.
It is perhaps the Sanskrit Honi. It appears to be
eonauleredas a recognition of an essence or first
principle beyond God, and an appeal to it for
power which God has not granted to man. It is
Med in Javanese invocations; and a Javanese
explains it to mean embryo of being, primeval
essence ; so that Sir T. S. Raffles' conjecture, that
it is the Buddhist and Hindu O'm (Aum), is pro-
bably correct. — Jour. Intl. Arch.

HONG. Chin. A united firm, a mercantile
corporation.

HONGAY. Can.

Hippo, Can. I Moha, . Hind., Mahk.

Kiiiiinj, . Hind., M.wik. | Nella kalavalu, . Tel.

Under these names are known two different trees
growing in the woods of Mysore. Oil is obtained
from the seeds of both. Hip-pe trees are exten-
sively planted in topes in front of villages, for
tlie purpose of obtaining oil. They seem to be
species of Bassia, or perhaps Pongamia glabra. —
M. Ex. o/1857.

HOXG-KONG, a large island at the entrance of
the < 'an ton river, about 22 miles in circumference,
but very mountainous and generally barren. The
highest peak has 1825 feet of elevation. The
island was ceded to the British in the beginning
of 1841, and Victoria Town is on the north side of
the island. The houses of the European residents
are built terrace-like, on the face of the hill.
Hong-Kong is the Heang-Keang of the Chinese,
and the name signifies the valley of fragrant
waters. It is one of the group of islands which lie
north of the estuary leading to Canton, in lat.
22° 17' N., and long. 114° 12' E., and is distant
from Macao 42 miles, and from Canton 105 miles.
Hong-Kong is about 10 miles in length, and 4£
in breadth ; the noble harbour is nearly 4 miles
in length, and rather more than If in width.
Hong-Kong is one of that cluster of islands called
by the Portuguese the Ladrones, or piratical
islands. — Lay's Chinese as they are, p. 280.

IK >X HAR. Hind. Fate ; that which is to be.

HOXIGBERGER, Dr., a German physician
at the court of Ranjit Singh ; author of a work
on the medicinal products of the Panjab.

HON OVER, the most sacred prayer of the
Parsees. It is very ancient, and has been trans-
lated from the Zend into German by Professor F.
Spiegel, and into French by J. Oppert. D. Framjee
of Bombay sent its words to the editor in 1871.
He cousiders it to be a theistic prayer to the Sup-
reme Being. Its words are, —

' Yatha ahfi vairyo
At ha rat us asliat chit hacha
Variheus dazila mananho shyaothenanam
Aiiheus Mazdai, Khshathremch Ahurai
Ayiin darigubyo dadhat Vactarem.'

— Bunsens God in History.

HOODED, in natural history, a term applied to
describe several animals. The hooded chameleon is
the Chamseleo cucullatus ; the Corvus cornix is the
hooded crow of Europe, Asia Minor, Afghanistan,
Japan, and Barbary ; and the hooded presbytes is
one of the Simiadae.

HOOKAH. Hind. The Indian pipe and appar-

atus for smoking. In Bengal generally, and in
•, pine tobacco is rarely smoked ; but various
compounds are made and smoked in hookahs of
various forms, the ghalyun of Arabia, nargy!
Persia, hubble-bubble of British India generally,
and tlio highly ornamental hookah. The nargyle in
doubtless a word derived from Narel, a cocoanut.
for the primitive form of hookah is the narel
hollow cocoanut shell half-filled with water. On
one side of the shell is inserted a pipe, which is
connected with the fire-pan and tobacco-holder
(chillam), and on the other side is inserted
another tube, which goes into the mouth of the
smoker. AVhen the smoker draws, the smoke
from the first pipe (the end of wliich is under
water), is drawn up with a bubbling noise through
the water (hence the term hubble-bubble), and
is thus cooled and purified. The flexible tube
(necha) of the more elaborate hookah is made of
a long coil of iron wire covered with cloth and
ornamented. This was invented in Akbar's time.
A hookah for smokiDg madhan (opium), with a
peculiar shaped chillam, is called Madhaki. In
Lower Bengal the lower orders frequently smoke
in companies, with one hubble-bubble or narel
or kalli, which are the most ordinary and cheap
forms. All sitting round in a ring, the pipe
passes from one to another, each taking a few
whiffs as it passes. This is never done by the
higher orders, nor is it done in Hindustan. The
Sulfah form of hookah is the commonest in Kabul
and Peshawur. The hookah has almost ceased to be
used by Europeans in India, but natives continue
to use it with gurako or prepared tobacco. Some
hookah-snake tubes are very costly, the precious
metals and precious gems being largely employed
in their manufacture. The snake or pliable orna-
mental tubing lengthens out into several coils,
and the smoke passes through a water- vase, while
the mouthpiece is of amber, silver, etc. — Sim-
momls* Diet. ; Robinson's Travels, ii. p. 226.

HOOKER, Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, K.C.S.I.,
M.D., F.R.S., D.C.L., LL.D., was born 30th June
1817. In 1839 he entered the navy as Assistant-
Surgeon, and up till 1843 he was Botanist of the
antarctic voyage of exploration by the Erehus and
Terror under Captain (Sir) James Clark Ross ; and
between that year and 1860 he published the
Flora Antarctica, Flora Novae Zelandia?, and the
Flora Tasmauica, in six quarto volumes. Between
1847 and 1853 he visited the N.E. of India, and
published in two volumes a journal of his travels
in the Nepal and Sikkim Himalayas. When on
the frontier with Dr. Campbell, the raja of Sikkim
seized and imprisoned both of them for some
weeks. He published in a folio volume tin-
Rhododendrons of the Sikkim Himalayas, and
several communications in the journal of the
Bengal Asiatic Society ; and he and Dr. Thomas
Thomson commenced a Flora Indica, of which one
volume appeared; but later on he renewed the
I publication of the Flora of British India, and
; up to 1883 three volumes were completed. He
j also wrote On the Structure of the Bafanophon. a>.
! On the Origin of the Pitchers of Nepenthes, On
the Distribution of Arctic Plants, in 1860;
j Essay on the Flora Tasmanica, A Memoir on the
Welwit.-ehia Mirabilis ; also Students' Flora of the
British Islands, and Primer of Botany for the
of Beginners; and along with Mr. Bentham, Genera
Plantarum ad exemplaria imprimis in Herbarriis

HOOLOCK GIBBON.

HOPEA PARVIFLORA.

Kewensibus servata definita. On the death in
1865 of his father,Sir William Hooker, he succeeded
to the office of Director of the Royal Gardens, Kew.

HOOLOCK GIBBON, Hylobates hoolock, the
white-handed gibbon (H. lar.). The long-armed
apes or gibbons constitute a very distinct section
of quadrumanous animals, confined to the Malay
countries of Southern Asia and the adjacent
islands. They do not usually bear captivity well.

HOOLOOGOO, grandson of Chengiz Khan.
See Hulaku.

HOOLY, a Hindu festival in honour of Krishna,
which takes place in the month Phalgun, Feb-
ruary — March, at the commencement of the joyous
spring. The amusements on this occasion consist
in dancing, singing, and play. Their songs are
called Kavir, or extempore stanzas, principally in
allusion to the charms of Krishna and his amours
with the Gopia, and are not marked by an excess
of delicacy. One of the dances is the favourite
Tipri dance, or Rasa mandala, in which 20, 30, or
more form a ring, each having a short stick in
the hand, with which the dancer strikes alternately
those of the persons before and behind him,
keeping time with it and his foot ; the circle moves
round, keeps time to a drum and shepherd's pipe
of three or four sweet and plaintive notes. In
Major Moor's Hindu Pantheon is a beautiful plate
on this subject, in which Krishna (with Radha) in
the centre is described as the sun, and the circle
of dancers as the heavenly bodies moving round
him. In the hooly, the players throw a red
powder, sometimes mixed with powdered talc to
make it glitter, into the eyes, mouth, and nose,
or over the persons of those who are objects of
the sport, splashing them well at the same time
with an orange-coloured water. The powder is
sometimes thrown from a syringe, and sometimes
put into small globules, which break as soon as
they strike the object at which they are aimed.
The Hindu women are expert in throwing these.
The hooly among the Hindus reminds one strongly
of the Saturnalia of the Romans : people of humble
condition take liberties with their superiors in a
manner not admissible on other occasions. The
chief fun in public is throwing the coloured
powders above alluded to on the clothes of persons
passing in the streets,and squirting about the tinted
waters. Dignified personages avoid as much as
they can appearing abroad while these jocular-
ities are passing, unless with the view of gaining
popularity they condescend to partake in them ;
in general they confine themselves to their houses,
and amuse themselves with their families. In
pictures, belonging to a series illustrating the
domestic occupations of the Indians, the family
diversions of the hooly appear like those more
publicly exhibited, — scattering yellow and red
powders, and squirting coloured water. Sending
simpletons on idle errands contributes also to the
delights of the hooly ; this is performed exactly
similar to our ceremony of making April fools on
the first of that month, and is common to all ranks
of Hindus ; and Mahomedans, indeed, join in this,
as well as in other items of hooly fun and humour.
Another opportunity of merriment, similar to the
May-day gambols of England, is afforded to the
Hindus in a festival in honour of Bhawani, that
always falls on or near that day.— Cole. Myth.
Hind. p. 382 ; Moor's Hindu Pantheon. See Holi.

HOOPOE, birds of the genus Upupa, of which

in India are U. epops, Linn., U. nigripennis, Goidd.
U. longirostris, Jerdon. U. epops is common ii
Southern Asia during the cold season, and on th<
table-lands at all seasons. It is to all appearand
a bird of fluttering and feeble flight, but hai
repeatedly been observed, during the seasons o
migration, at altitudes considerably above thi
limits of •vegetation. On the western side of tin
Lanak pass, about 16,500 feet, Major Cunninghan
saw a hoopoe ; also at Momay (14,000 to 16,00*
feet elevation), under the lofty Donkia pass ii
Northern Sikkim.

HOORMUZ, the name of one of those Parthiai
kings known to the Romans as Artabanus. Ther
were five of the name Artabanus, the first in B.c
216, and the last about a.d. 235, and with whon
ended the Arsacidse, he having been slain by on
of his officers, Ardeshir Babegan (Artaxerxes) wh
became the first of the Sassanidse., It is suppose*
by Malcolm that Artabanus ill. was the Shahpu
of the Greeks. His son Vonones reigned, for
short period. His name is sometimes writte
Pollas. He was the Volageses of the' Greeks
whose war with the emperor Nero and embass;
to Vespasian are related in the Roman historj
Hoormuz appears to have been Artabanus IV
of the Romans. — Malcolm's Persia, i. p. 85.

HOPEA, a genus of plants of the natural orde
Dipterocarpacese. The Thin-ga-do of the Burmese
a species of Hopea, is a large tree which abound
in the same localities of British Burma as E
odorata, but the wood is not equally valued, i
cubic foot weighs 52 lbs. It sells at 12 annas pe
cubic foot. H. decandra, Buch., called Ooroop
in Malayala, is a tree which the natives of Canar
prefer to teak for building ships, being mor
durable and close grained. H. discolor, Thw., :
a large tree of Ceylon, growing in the Saffragai
and Ambagamowa districts at no great elevatioi
The under sides of the leaves are of a rich brow
colour. H. faginea, Wall., is a tree of Penan<
H. floribunda? The-ah,also Tan-the-yaof the Bui
mese, is a very large tree of Tavoy. — Thw. Zeyl.

HOPEA ODORATA. Roxb.
Then-gan, .... Burm. | Then-gan-pha-yung,BuRS

This species grows in Chittagong and Burm?
and is considered the most valuable indigenou
timber tree in the southern provinces of Tenasserin
and at Tavoy and Mergui is sawn up for buildin
purposes. The then-gan trees grow to a height c
250 feet ; they are found near Moulmein in laterit
and sandstone chiefly. The best canoes are mad
of it, and it is used extensively in native boat
building. It is a light-brown wood, is used ex
tensively by the Burmese in the construction c
boats carrying 3 or 4 tons, formed from the trunk
of these magnificent trees. The trunk is scoope
or burnt out, and stretched in the centre, whils
warm, by means of cross pieces of wood. Whe:
the required breadth is obtained, the sides ar
built up to obtain a greater capacity. These tree
boats, if they may be so called, are from 7 to J
feet beam. The breaking weight of H. odorati
may be stated at 800 lbs., with a specific gravit;
of 45 to 46 lbs.— Drs. Mason, M'Clelland, Roxb.'

HOPEA PARVIFLORA. Bedd.
Kiralboghi,GhatsofS.CAN. I Iru-bogum, . Malabab
Tirpu, . Plains „ j

A large, handsome tree, common both ix
the moist and dry forests in Malabar and S
Canara, up to an elevation of 3500 feet. Tlu

100

HOPEA M'AVA.

]|<)l:l)KI'\f.

ITOOd it hardly known commercially as yet, but
it is much valued by the natives in S. Canara ;
and ( 'ulonel Beddome believes it will be of great
value for gun-carriage purposes, and will also
answer well for sleepers. In S. Canara it is much
valued for temple-building purposes. — Bedilome.

HOPEASUAVA Wall. Engyfo, Burm. A
valuable tree found in the Eng forests of British
Btmna, but large trees are not common in Pegu.
Wood tough and hard, but heavy, used in house-
building, for boats, and a variety of other purposes,
and said to bo as durable as teak. A cubic foot
weighs 55 lbs. In a full-grown tree, on good
soil, the average length of the trunk to the first
branch is 60 feet, and average girth measured at
6 feet from the ground is 7 feet. — Dr. Brandts.

BOPEA WIGHTIANA. Wall. A variety of
this tree is the 11. glabra, W. and A., very common
in many of the western Madras forests. The
timber is very valuable, and very similar to that
of Hopea parviflora. One variety, the Kong of
Tinnevelly, is par excellence the timber of that
district. Another variety is abundant in the S.
Canara district, where it is called. Kalbow and
Hiral bogi ; it is a first-rate coppice firewood, and
large tracts in this state are met with in the plains
of that district, never apparently flowering, but
abundantly covered with the abortive fruit-like
echinate excrescence, much like the young fruit
of a Spanish chesnut ; it is probably the formation
of some insect in the bud of the panicle. A some-
what similar formation occurs in Hopea parviflora.
-Wall.; Beddome, Fl. Sylv. p. 96.

HOPPER, the Appa of the Singhalese, and
Apum of the Tamils. In Southern India, cakes
made of wheaten flour and cocoanut milk. The
Appas of the Bombay Presidency are made from
the Sorghum vulgare, and areof rice-flourinCeylon.

HOPS.

Humle, . . . Da., Sw.
Hoppe, .... Dut.

Houblon, Fr.

Hopfen, .... (!kh.
Bruscandoli, .... It.

Luppoli, It.

Hamulus lupulus, , Lai.
Chmel, . . . . Bus.

Obion, Sp.

Lupulo, . . Sp., 1'okt.

an
bi

The hop plant has been introduced into India,
grows well at Kaolagir in the Doon, but flowers
bparingly. It has yielded enormously in Australian
colonies, in Victoria, along the valleys of Gipps-
land, and other localities, to the extent of 1500 lbs.
an acre. The properties of hops, of giving the
-bitter to beer ana preventing acetous fermen-
tation, enable it to be kept much longer. To it,
O doubt, is owing a portion of the stomachic
roper ties of malt liquor, as we see exemplified
n thejbitter, often called Indian, ales. Hops are
to vypnotic, especially when stuffed into a pillow,
P aut they should be first moistened with spirits, to

* >revent the rustling noise. Fomentations also
^ »ave been used. Hops are thought to be diuretic

n 'as is also the root), and to be useful in correcting

* ithic acid deposits. — Royle ; Von Mueller.

HOR or Hor-pa. Tibetan. Kao-tsze, Chin.
taa This race call themselves Ighur. They seem to be
fl Shot. They dwell on the north-western frontier
J )f Tibet, on the confines of the Turk districts of
.little Bokhara. Some of them are Mahomedans,
nd Mr. Hogdson considers them to be Turks. —
Tsathani's Ethnology.

HOR A. Sansk., Lat. The l-24th part of
he natural day, answering to a European nour.
The Vara or solar day in Hindu almanacs is

reckoned from sunrise to sunrise, and is divided
into _'l hora or hours, and each hora of the day is
ruled by one of the planets in turns, the r
being the Sun, Venus, Mercury, Moon, 8aturn,
Jupiter, and Mars. — Kala SantaUta. dm TOM ;
Vara.

HORA, a goddess of Byblus, worshipped at
Babylon as Hea, the equivalent of Juno. Her
name in Tyre was Itea. — Bunsen.

HORA-A1.IA. BOHflt A rogue or imiM
elephant.

HORA-BORA, a tank, now in ruins, in the
Bintenne district of Ceylon. Its length is 8 or
10 miles, and breadth 8 or 4. The embankment
is from 50 to 70 feet high, and its base is 200 feet
broad. — TennanCs Ceylon.

HORANAWA, a shrill musical pipe in use with
the Kandians. Its tones have some resemblance
to those of the bagpipe. Its mouthpiece is made
from the talipot leaf, and its other parts of jack-
wood and brass. — Sirr's Ceylon.

HORDE, an introduced English word from the
Turkoman word Urdu, a camp.

HORDEUM, a genus of plants of the natural
order Panicacese, furnishing the barley so much
used by the more northern nations of the world.

H. distichon, Linn. , 2-rowecl barley.

H. deficiens, Stendel, of Red Sea, 2-rowed barley.

H. hexastichon, Linn., 6-rowed barley.

H. vulgare, Linn., 4-rowed barley.

H. zeocriton, Linn., 2-rowed barley.

To this species belong the sprat, battledore, Ful-
ham. Pultney rice, and Turkish barley, and the
Dinkel.

English barley is that with 2-rowed ears, and
its botanical name is Hordeum vulyare distichon.
The Scotch here or bigg is the Hordeum vulgare
hexastichon. It has two rows of ears, but three
corns come from the same point, so that it seems
to be 6-eared. The grains of bigg are smaller
than those of barley, and the husk thinner. The
kinds of barley especially cultivated for making
pearled barley or malt,- are Hordeum perlatum,
II. distichon B., Zeocriton commune, Hordeum
mundatum. These are technically known as
Scotch and French pearl barley, battledore barley,
German rice, sprat barley. Fero de ozzo is made
from sprat barley.

Professor Einhof analyzed 1000 parts of barley
flour, aud found it to contain 720 of starch, 56
sugar, 50 mucilage, 36 - 6 gluten, 12 - 3 vegetable
albumen, 100 water, 25 phosphate of lime, and
68"0 of fibrous or bgneous matter.

The specific gravity of English barley varies
from 1-25 to 1-38 ; of bigg, from 1*227 to 1*265.
The weight of the husk of barley is 1/6, that of
bigg 2/9. Professor Ure states ' specific gravity
of barley is 1*285 by my trials.'

H. asgiceras, Royle, MSS., has ears cylindrical ;
florets arranged in a confused manner, not in
rows ; awns soft, short, hooded, and bent down-
wards ; grains loose in the husk. It is found in
the northern parts of India, and probably in
Tartary, as its grains have been sent to England
under the name of ' Tartarian wheat.' Its appear-
ance is more that of wheat than of barley, and
its naked grains assist the resemblance. It is.
however, a genuine species of Hordeum. It
appears to be a productive plant, but little is as
yet known of its quality in the climate of Englaud.

H. gymnodistichum has the ear cylindrical ;

101

HORDEUM CCELESTE.

HORN.

awns almost parallel with the ear ; grains loose in j any husk at all, but only a fine skin. Barley is
the husk. Naked barley, a species but little culti- ; one of the cheapest of the grains found in the
vated now, is of unknown origin. It is said to bazars of Kaira, in Gujerat. — Powell; Cleg. Pant/.
have been introduced into England in the year , Rep.; Steicart, p. 256; Bay. Cyc, quoting Loire's
1768; but it is reported to have preserved its; Elements of Agriculture, p^ 238; Voigt.

characters unaltered from time immemorial in
some parts of Europe.

H. gymno-hexastichon has the ear cylindrical ;
awns very long, rough, and rigid, rather spreading
away from the ear; grains loose in the husk.
The original of this, the naked 6 -rowed barley, is
unknown. It is extemely productive, and in some
parts of Europe it is reckoned the most valuable
of all. The French call it, on account of its good
qualities, Orge celeste.

HORDEUM C03LESTE.
(Jhama, .... Bhot. I Elo, .... Chenab.
Gliomas (husked), . ,, | Ua-jo, Ua, Khas, Sutlej.

This is found in the Sutlej valley between Ram-
pur and Sungnam up to 15,000 feet. The beard-
less variety is most esteemed. Barley ripens in
the end of May, several weeks before wheat. The
dough made of it is called ' ampe ' in Ladakh.

HORDEUM DISTICHON. Linn.
Zeocritum distichon, Beauv.

Shair, Arab. I Shoreh, .... Heb.

Mu-yau, .... Bukm. Jao, . . Hind., Pers.
Krithe of Dioscorides, Gr. | Barley arisi, . . . Tam.

Barley of Exodus ix. 31, the summer barley of
England. This is commonly stated to be a native
of Tartary. Colonel Chesney found it wild in
Mesopotamia, upon the banks of the Euphrates.
It is much cultivated in Europe, and is the common
summer barley of England, and that which cul-
tivators seem to prefer. Its ears are not so large
;is those of H. hexastichon, but the grains are
heavier. Ear cylindrical ; awns almost parallel
with the ear ; grains adhering to the husk.

HORDEUM HEXASTICHON. Linn.

Shair, Arab, i Yoa of . . Kangra, Jav.

Juvo, Beng. j Soa, Jhotak, . . Ladakh.

Mu-yau Bvrm.

Chenab.

Shiroka of
To-sa of .
Tro, Ne, of
Situs-hooka,
Chakof .

Nepal.

Pangra.

. Bus.

SlTLEJ, S\V

Yava, Yava biy yamyuTEL.
Pachcha yava, Yavalu, „

Thanzatt, Nai,
Jaw, jawa, . . ,,

Sa-too, . . . Dukh.
Ijoeir, .... Egypt.
Krithe of Dioscorides, Gu.
Shoreh, .... Heb.
Jao,. . . Hind., Pers.

Common or winter barley is grown in N. India.
It is frequently cultivated as a cold-weather crop in
the plains of the Panjab, as it requires less labour
and gives more produce than wheat even in
inferior soils, and where the water is deep below
the surface. Above 8000 feet of elevation it is
much more common than wheat, while at lower
heights it is less grown. In Lahoul and Ladakh
it is abundantly cultivated with Fagopyrum up
to 13,000 feet in Ladakh. Some kinds of barley
may be seen up to 14,000 feet about Hanle, near
the Tsomoriri lake, and this is found in the Sutlej
valley between Rampur and Sungnam at an eleva-
tion of highest limit 15,000 feet, and much culti-
vated. Barley is cultivated much in the same way
as wheat, but is ready for cutting somewhat sooner ;
it is grown much on ' sailaba ' and ' barani '
lands. In the Panjab it is much less esteemed
than wheat, and sells much cheaper, though it
produces much more, and requires worse lands
and less watering than wheat. The varieties are
Jau-desi (common country barley) and Jau-
paighambri. Ghoni jau is barley that has scarcely

HOREB and Mount Sinai are part of the
Jabl-ul-Tur range, with Hor or Seir, now called
Jabl Harun, or Aaron's mountain.

HOREHOUND, BLACK, Ballota nigra ; white,
patch leaves.

Horehound, white ; Marrubium vulgare, Linn.
Pucha pat, . . . Beng. | Marrubium Indicum, Lat.

This plant grows at elevations of 2000 to 7000
feet in the N.W. Himalaya, in Kashmir, the Salt
Range, on the Chenab and Trans-Indus. The
leaves are of a whitish-grey colour, having a
woolly appearance, and possessing a faint agree-
able odour, and a sharp, bitter taste. That met
with in Bombay is imported from Singapore, and
is used in various ways by the natives, but chiefly
as an ingredient in Guraku, and, when combined
with other herbs, for scenting the hair of women.
The essential oil is in great request among the
superior classes of natives, for imparting the
peculiar fragrance of the leaf to clothes. — Faulkner;
J. L. Stewart.

HORINGHATA, one of the mouths of the
Ganges.

HORMARA, a section of Baluchistan, adjoining
the Arabian Sea. The Hormara tribe say they
came originally from Sind.

HORN.

Hoorn, Dut. j Tanduck sungu, Malay.

Corne, Fr. Rogg, Kus.

Sing, Guj., Hind., Karn. Cuerno, Sr.

Corno, . . . .It., Por. Kombu, .... Tam.
Cornu, Lat. | Kommu, .... Tel.

The horns of animals are largely utilized in the
manufactures of the south and east of Asia ; and
those of the bison, buffalo, elk, ibex, goat, ante-
lope, deer, oxen, and rhinoceros are largely im-
ported or re-exported. Horn of kinds is exten-
sively used in the manufacture of handles for
knives, walking-sticks, spoons, combs, lanterns,
snuff-boxes, powder-flasks, buttons, hairpins, etc.
In China, buffalo horns are worked into lanterns,
some of which are highly elegant. Chessboards,
work and knitting boxes, tea-chests and tea-
caddies, inkstands, baskets, etc., which are lined
with sandal-wood, are generally very neatly made
at Vizagapatam. But they are far surpassed,
both in cheapness and workmanship, by articles
of a similar description, the produce of German
industry, which are largely imported into England.

In China, lanterns made of horn shavings are
largely used. Horn is softened by very intense
heat, and then extended into thin lamina) of any
shape. The best sort of rhinoceros horns come
from Cochin-China, and sell at times for 300
dollars a-piece ; an inferior sort is imported into
China from India, of which some probably are
from Southern Africa, which are sold for 30 dollars
and upwards a-piece. The Chinese work the
finest of these horns into elegant cups and other
articles, but the most of the importation is used
as a medicine. It also forms an article of com-
merce in the Chinese junks trading to Japan.
The deer-horns and antlers exported from India
are the dense antlers of the sambur (Cervus
hippalephus), of the barking deer (Cervus munt-
jac), of the axis (Cervus axis) , the nil-gai

102

HORNBEAM

HORSE.

(Pwnalif rasa), ;in<l other ipeoiet; also the horns
..t" the il.ar, gural, and yak. Horns exported from
India, —

Cwt R». I Year. Cwt. Rs.

>, 68,175 7,62,399 1877-78, 88,783 19,42,009
1875-76, 55,755 8,06,652 1 1878-79, 67,828 13,78,667
1876-77, 71,890 12,80,051 1 1879-80, 57,204 12,68,321

H rn-bows are sometimes used in the arma-
ment of some Chinese troops.

IK UwNBKAM, Carpinus viminea.
Shirash of . . . Beas. I Imar of . . . Sutlej.
Charkre of . . . Ravi. |

A moderate-sized tree growing in the N.W.
Himalaya, at from 5500 to 6000 feet up to the
IJavi. Its wood is esteemed by carpenters. — Dr.
J. L. Star art.

HORNBILL, birds of the family Buccrotidae,
genera anorhinus, berenicornis, buceros, hom-
raius. hydrocissa, meniceros, tockus, aceros, crano-
rhinus, rhyticeros, and rhinoplax, the shapes of
whose bills arrest attention. Their food consists
of fruits, berries, flesh, and even carrion.

B. ra vat us, body and wings black, greater coverts
and quill-feathers tipped with white ; thighs, upper
and under tail coverts, white. It is a native of
India, the Himalaya mountains, Java, and most of
the islands of the Archipelago.

B. pica, Scopoli, is the B. coronata, Boddsert.
The female is built up in the nest and fed by the
male during incubation. This hornbill abounds
in Cuttack, and bears there the name of Kuchila-
khai, or Kuchila-eater, from its partiality for the
fruit of the Strychnos nux vomica.

B. rhinoceros, the rhinoceros hornbill. The bill
about 10 inches long, and of a yellowish-white ;
the upper mandible red at the base, the lower
black ; the horn or casque varied with black
and white ; the body black, of a dirty white
below and posteriorly ; tail about 12 inches, the
feathers white at the base and tip, black in the
middle. It is a native of India and the Indian
islands. — Ena. Cyc; Goold ; Tennanfs Ceylon.
See Birds ; Buceros.

HORNED HOG, the babirussa, inhabits the
woods of Java, Celebes, and others of the larger
Sunda isles. Its upper tusks are of great length
and curved form, and grow upwards and back-
wards like the bonis of the Ruminantia. It is
probably the Sus tetraceros of .<Elian. — Eng. Cyc.
p. 359.

HORNET, Tsireah, Heb. ; Crabo, Lat.

HORPA, Turkish tribes, so called by the
Tibetans, and known to the Mongols as Bada Hor.

HORRE. Singh. A hard, though coarse,
open-grained, heavy Ceylon wood, Dipterocarpus
laevis.

HORSBURGH, JAMES, whose name is indis-
solubly connected with the history of the Marine
Surveys of India, was a native of Scotland. He
began life as a cabin boy, but soon rose to the
command of a vessel in the eastern seas, and
gave rein to his innate love of surveying. After
many years, he returned to England, and a set of
his charts, engraved by Walker, placed him at once
in the first rank of hydrographers. About 1804
he published the first edition of his East Indian
Directory, and on the 10th November 1810 he
was appointed to examine the journals of the East
India Company's ships, and became Hydrographer.
From that time till his death in 1836, all charts
passed under his scrutiny, and were published

under Ium superintendence. Fourteen chart*

adually^compiled by himself, were published bv
the East India Company, from the N. and 8.
Atlantic to the Archipelago. His Directory went
through six editions, in 1809, 1836, 1841. After
the middle of the 19th century, Mr. Findlay
printed one on that of Horsburgh, and in 1K71
Captain Taylor printed another.

In his honour a lighthouse was erected on
Pulo Aor, near Pedra Branca. His nailing
directions are reckoned indispensable in navi-
gation. The island of Pedra Branca is called
Batu Putih by the Malays, both these terms signi-
fying white rock. Prior to the quarrying opera-
tions on it, it was covered by the dung of the
numerous sea-birds that frequented it as a resting-
place. The rock is situated at the extremity of
the Straits of Singapore, nearly in mid channel ;
and as it advances beyond the mouth of the Straits
considerably into the China Sea, it has for ages
served as the principal leading mark to vessels
passing out of, or into, the Straits. — Dr. BuitCs
Catalogue; Jonrn. Ind. Archipelago, 1852; E. I
Marine Surveys, P. P., 1871.

HORSE.

Hisfm, .... Arab.
Son; H'nyet, . . Bukm.

Hest, Dak.

Paard Dut.

Cheval, Fit.

Pferd ; Gaul, . . Ger.

'I*«r#f, Gr.

Sus, Heb.

Ghora Hind.

Cavallo, . . . It., Port.
Equus, Caballus, , Lat.

Asp, Pers.

Kon, Pol.

Loschad, .... Rum.
Asu; Hya; Aswa, Sansk.

Caballo, Sp.

Hast, Sw.

Kudri, .... Tam.
Guramu, .... Tel.

Sukk, Turk.

Cefl, .... WKLSH.
Aspa, Zend.

The king Sesonchosus of Egypt is supposed to
have been the tamer of the horse. But, from
time immemorial, the horse has been domesticated
and subservient to man, and been largely used
in war. An ancient eastern prince (Job xxxix.
19-25) describes the horse as a creature which

' Mocketh at fear, and is not affrighted ;
He saith among the trumpets, Ha ! ha !
And he smelleth the battle afar off,
The thunder of the captains and the shouting. '

Judging by its varied names, the horse seems
to have been very generally diffused over the
central parts of the old world, some of the terms
being derived from its neigh. Amongst every
nation of the old world its use and beauty have
made it a favourite. Supernatural powers have
even been attributed to it by some nations. It
was sometimes considered the most acceptable
sacrifice that could be offered to heathen deities ;
and we read in 2 Kings xxiii. 11 that Josiah took
away the horses that the kings of Judah had given
to the sun. According to Herodotus, the horse
was the most appropriate offering that could be
made to the sun, on account of its great swift-
ness. The Persians dedicated horses to the sun ;
and Sextus Pompeius sacrificed to Neptune by
throwing horses into the sea.

During the Hindu rule in Hindustan, prior to
the advent of the Mahomedans, the horse was
offered in sacrifice by sovereigns claiming para-
mount power. See Aswa Medina.

The sacred horses of the Germans were white,
and the device of the Saxons was a white horse.
Marco Polo tells us that 100,000 white horses
were presented to the Great Khan on New Year's

HORSE.

day ; and the Tartar chiefs continued at least to
the time of Kan-ghi to present a tribute of white
horses to the emperor. Native princes in all
parts of India continue fond of white horses, and
generally have one or more favourites of this
colour in their stud. A favourite colour for state
occasions is cream-colour. The royal carriage of
Britain on state occasions is drawn by six cream-
coloured horses. The horse represented on Greek
and Roman bas-reliefs was a small, compact, and
spirited-looking little animal, not lai'ger than what
we would call a pony, but he must have been
perfectly trained, for neither bridle nor bit nor
saddle was used by his rider, who guided him
by a small stick, tapping him on either side of the
neck as he wished to turn.

Naturalists generally believe that the varieties
of all horses have descended from one species, but
there are at present numerous varieties, presenting
great differences in size, shape of ears, length of
mane, proportions of the body, form of the
withers and hind quarters, and especially of the
head, and the pedigree of a racehorse is generally
more to be relied on in judging of its probable
success, than its appearance.

The horse can bear both intense heat and
intense cold. In Siberia are wild horses in lat.
66° N., and he comes to the highest perfection in
Africa and Arabia. Much humidity seems more
unfavourable to the horse than heat or cold ; and
this, perhaps, will explain why, to the eastAvard of
the Bay of Bengal, over a humid area of enormous
extent, in Burma, Siam, Malayan Archipelago, the
Loo-Choo Islands, and a large part of China, full-
sized horses do not occur. In Japan, farther
east, they recur. The range of colour in horses
is very great. The English racehorse is said
never to be dappled ; cream-coloured, light and
mouse-coloured duns are occasionally dappled.
Horses of varied colours, of diverse breeds, and
from various parts of the world, have a tendeucy
to become streaked, and racehorses often have
the spinal stripes, the stripe being generally
darker than the other parts of the body ; they
occur across the shoulder and on the legs. Dar-
win considers the whole horse genus to have had
for a progenitor an animal striped like a zebra
(but perhaps otherwise very differently con-
structed), the common parent of our domestic
horse, whether or not it be descended from one
or more wild stocks of the ass, the hemionus,
quagga, and zebra. He says that the spinal
stripe in the English racehorse is more common
in the foal than in the grown animal. The ass
not rarely has distinct transverse bands on its
legs, like those on the legs of the zebra. The
spinal stripe occurs on horses of all colours, but
on the mouse duns and on duns the transverse
bands occur on the legs, and sometimes also a
faint shoulder stripe. In the Kattyawar breed, a
horse without stripes is not considered purely
bred. The spine is always striped and the legs
barred, and a shoulder stripe is common, and
sometimes is double or treble. The ass has
almost always a dark stripe or band on the
shoulder, which is sometimes even double, but is
always variable in length and breadth. The
koulan of Pallas has been seen with a double
shoulder stripe. The hemionus has no shoulder
stripe, but their foals' legs are generally striped.
The prevailing belief amongst the Europeans in

India, is that the native breeds of horses have
decreased under British rule. Up to the begin-
ning of the 19th century, there were several horse
fairs in Rajputana, especially those of Bhalotra
and Poshkur, to which the horses of Cutch and
Kattyawar, the Lakhi jungle, and Multan, were
brought in great numbers. Valuable horses were
then bred on the western frontier, on the Looni,
those of Rardurro being in high estimation. But
after the successes of the British over the Mahrattas
and the Pindara, the breeding studs of Rardurro.
Cutch, and the jungle became almost extinct, and
the horses from the west of the Indus were carried
to the Sikhs. The destruction of the predatory
system, which had created a constant demand,
lessened the supply. The Lakhi jungle was well
known in India for its once celebrated breed of
horses, which became extinct in the early part of
the 19th century.

Colonel Henry Shakespeare thinks that the
cause of the decline of the native horse in India,
arises from the fact that Government has en-
couraged the supply of a larger description of
animal than the country naturally produced, and
the hardy small breeds of native horses have thus
been neglected. Perhaps, however, the chief
causes of the decline in their numbers, is their
nou -requirement for the predatory bands and
Parthian-like cavalry, since the contentions of
the princes of India have been suppressed ; also
cultivation has been extending over grazing lands ;
and as the former governments of India and their
military servants were the largest buyers of horses,
though the British continue to buy extensively,
the soldiers and the guns of the British Indian
army are larger than those in use by former native
powers, and the British admit only horses into the
ranks of their armies, and even in their equipage
a mare is rarely seen.

Panjab. — Under native rule, the Panjab main-
tained an enormous cavalry force, mounted chiefly,
if not entirely, on horses bred in the country, but
that territory is now unable to meet the demands
of its irregular force, which is numerically insigni-
ficant compared with that kept up by the Sikh
Government. The reasons assigned for this are
three in number : — 1st. Large numbers of brood
mares were withdrawn from the Panjab at the
time of the annexation ; 2d. Extensive demands
were made on the province for both horses and
mares during the mutiny ; and 3d. A large propor-
tion of the re-mounts of the Sikh army were mares,
which were regularly bred from ; but under the
British system, which requires re-mounts to be
available for service at all times of the year, this
cannot be done. It has therefore occurred that
mares introduced into irregular cavalry corps, on
account of their tractable nature, are not per-
mitted to breed ; and the result is that every one
bought up for military purposes, and even every
one bought up by the European community, may
be regarded as a brood mare lost to the country.
It has also been ascertained that breeders are
parting with their best mares. The Dlmnni caste,
of the Rawal Pindi districts, the best in the
province, is almost extinct from this cause. Yet
many excellent brood mares were left, especially
in the Rawal Pindi, Jhelum, Gujerat, Gugaira,
and Lahore districts. There were also very good
mares in the frontier districts, such as Bunnu,
Kohat, Debra Ismail Khan, and Dehra Ghazi

104

IIORPE.

nonsB.

Khan. Although small, they possess good blood
and great powers of endurance, which is every-
thing in the horse.

Palanpur has a really good breed, the mares
of which ;ire justly and highly esteemed, and
command considerable prices even among natives.
In Rajpvtana, few of the princes have generally
good horses in their territories. The Marwar
horse contains apparently much Kattyawar blood,
and, bred with great care in many places through-
out the country by the thakurs and others, is a
valuable animal in every respect. Good mares
o scattered, but the generality of horses
met with are inferior animals in every respect.

The breed of horses in Jeypore is exceedingly
poor, as little care has been taken to improve the
country animal in any way. Some few of the
thakurs possess and breed good animals. The
horses of Shikawutti are said to be good.

Bunni Singh, raja of Ulwar, founded a fine
breeding stud, consisting of well-selected Arabs
and Kattyawar horses, and in Ulwar the troopers
were better mounted than native cavalry generally,
and a better stamp of horses was met with than in
any other Kajput state. The finest of his cavalry
were, however, almost annihilated on meeting with
the rebels in superior numbers in 1857.

In Bhurtpur, also, some attention was given to
the breed of horses, but they are inferior to those
of the Ulwar district.

The Dekhan breed of horses was highly improved
about the beginning of the 19th century by crosses
with the Arab horse. The small blood-horse of
the Bhima valley or Terai are of this breed, and
the mares are beautiful. The horse very rarely
grows above 14 to 14 - 1 hands in height, but has
t ho fine limbs, broad forehead, and much of the
docility and all the enduring properties of the
Arabs, and has been mistaken for them. He is
not so fiery as the small and blood Arab, and
more manageable in the ranks. Malligaum, about
25 miles from Ganga Kheir, on the Godavery, is a
great mart for the Dekhan horse, and purchasers
from all parts of the Peninsula annually resort to
the fair. Some of the horses are really very fine.
In the Dekhan, the larger horses are bred about
the Gor river and Aligaum, between Poona and
Ahmadnaggur.

The Hyderabad territory in the Dekhan can
breed about 2000 horses a-year, and 500 good
colts could be purchased at lower rates there than
are paid for Arabs or Cape or Australian horses.

The low-statured horses of the Bhima and
Man rivers, the Bhima Terai and Man Terai, are
good. The Bhima horse has all the best points of
the high-bred Arab, without his very fine skin,
irritable temper, and rather long pasterns, and
has generally better feet. The marches of the
Mahratta and Pindari horsemen during the early
part of the present century are well known, and
the Mahratta pony to this day, when of the
proper breed, commands a high price in the
Indian markets. The little ponies used in Madras
in the Jatka carriages, are brought from Poona,
Sholapur, Hubli, and Dharwar. A few are
brought from Kangayam in the south of the
Peninsula. A good pony costs 150 rupees.

The Tattu, or pony of the Dekhan,is a wonderful
animal, often with great speed, or great strength
and much endurance. Their colours are generally
bay, or brown, or chesnut; grey seldom, and dun

still more so. They are generally taught to amble
four or five miles an hour.

The Kalhi or KattftMar horse is a largo and

fiowerful blood animal. They have line )•
leads, and make admirable cavalry chargers; com-
monly of a dun colour, with black points and
black manes and tails. All have the (shoulder
stripe. It bas been said, but not seemingly with
correctness, that few of the Kattyawar bones of
the present day are of the real Kattyawar breed,
being much crossed with Arabs and half-bred
horses of sorts. The pure bred Kathi are fine
powerful horses, with one great deficiency in
shape, — a want of bone below the knee, and i
fiery screaming temperament. This breed is
specially preferred by native chiefs, who give very
large sums for handsome Kattyawars.

The Ghoont or Khund is a breed of the Himalaya
mountains, generally small, strongly made, hard-
mouthed, and sometimes almost unmanageable.
In ascending hill faces, or passing along the
declivities of mountains, it is best to let them have
their own way, for in an intricate passage they
often show more sagacity than the rider. Their
common pace is a kind of amble, and they stop
every now and then to breathe, when no applica-
tion of the whip will move them. They are sure-
footed, and sometimes halt at the edge of a pre-
cipice, to the terror of the rider ; they are not so
quick in ascending hills as the low-country horses,
but they descend with double the speed, and endure
great fatigue. The ghoont, though a useful animal,
seldom carries any burden but a man. In Spiti
they are bred chiefly for sale. They have two
breeds, one a small ghoont, never above 12 hands
high, peculiar to the country ; and the other, a
large breed from 13 to 13^ hands high, is bought
from the Chinese, and usually comes from Choo-
moortee ; for a Chinese ghoont two years old tbey
give a Spiti ghoont four years old. All are equally
hardy, and are kept out the whole winter, except
the yearlings, which are housed. During winter
the ghoont Live on the roots of the stunted bushes,
and are very expert at scraping the snow from
off them with their fore feet The breed of
ghoont might be unproved with a little care.
Many are killed during winter by wolves and
leopards.

The Yarkand pony is a hardy little animal, and
fetches a high price, being in request for the hill-
stations in the North-Western Provinces of India.
The variety called the Tangun piebald is common.
They are shy and timid at first, and evince a
strange dislike to Europeans, but soon get accus-
tomed to their new masters ; and for their strength,
endurance, and sure-footedness, are well adapted
for alpine travelling. While crossing the Kara-
korum mountains, whole caravans are sometimes
overwhelmed by snowstorms; and Killah Shah, ■
chief merchant of Leh, mentioned that in many
places the route to Yarkand was only traceable by
the bones of horses.

The Tanfjiiii of Tibet are wonderfully strong
and enduring. They are never shod, and the
hoof often cracks, and they become pigeon-toed.
They are frequently blind of one eye, when they
are called Zemik (blind ones), but this is thought
no great defect They average £5 to £10 for a
good animal in Tibet, and the best fetch £40 to
^.">(i in the plains of India, where they become
acclimated and thrive well. Giantchi (Jhansi-

100

HORSE.

feting of Turner) is the best mart for them in the
eastern part of Tibet, where some breeds fetch
very high prices. The Tibetans give the foals of
value messes of pigs 1 blood and raw liver, which
they devour greedily, and it is said to strengthen
them wonderfully ; the custom, Dr. Hooker
believes, is general in Central Asia. Humboldt
(Per. Nar. iv. p. 320) described the horses of
Caraccas as occasionally eating salt meat. In
India, sheep's head is often given in mesalih.
The Tibetan pony, though born and bred 10,000
to 14,000 feet above the sea, is one of the most
active and useful animals in the plains of Bengal,
powerful and hardy, and when well trained early,
docile, although by nature vicious and obstinate.

In China, the horse commonly seen is not much
larger than the Shetland pony. It is bony and
strong, but is kept with little care, and presents a
worse appearance than it would if its hair were
trimmed, its fetlocks shorn, and its tail untied.
This custom of knotting the tail is an ancient
practice, and the sculptures at Persepolis show
that the same fashion prevailed among the
Persians. The Chinese language possesses a great
variety of terms to designate the horse. The
differences of age, sex, colour, and disposition
are all denoted by particular characters. They are
chiefly reared in the province of Kiang-si.

In the north also, in the vast plains, the Mongol,
Tartar, and Manchurians rear horses, a docile,
handsome, and intelligent breed, but do not gene-
rally exceed 10 or 12 hands; usually chesnut,
bay, and grey. These are generally bred in a wild
state, the stallions and mares being allowed to
form herds in the plains at their will. Piebald or ,
skewbald horses marked with patches of white |
and bay are to be seen. Horseflesh is eaten both I
by the Chinese and Mongolians, as also the flesh
of mules and asses in many parts of China.
The horses of Japan average only 13 hands.
In the Archipelago, the horse has been imme- |
morially domesticated by most of the more ad- |
vanced nations, wherever it could be made use of.
The chief exceptions are the Malay Peninsula,
the eastern seaboard of Sumatra, and nearly the
whole of Borneo, — countries in which the people
dwell on the marshy banks of rivers, in which
there is not even a bridle-path, and fit, therefore,
only for the boat and the buffalo. The native
horse is always a mere pony, seldom reaching 13
hands high, and more generally of about 12 hands.
There are many different breeds, every island
having at least one peculiar to itself, and the large
islands several.

Sumatra has at least two distinct races, — the
Acheen and Batubara, both small and spirited,
but better adapted to draught than the saddle.
The small but excellent breed of horses reared in
Acheen excel all those of the Archipelago, ex-
cepting those of Bhima in Sumbawa. Those of
Acheen have fine crests and good strong shoulders ;
in which latter particular, as also in height of
wither, they differ very much from the horses of
Java and the islands to the eastward, which are
generally deficient in these points. They are ex-
ported to Penang and Singapore, and are driven
in small carriages. They are occasionally sent to
British India.

Of all the countries of the Archipelago, Java is
that in which the horse most abounds, and here
we find several different breeds, as those of the

hill countries, and those of the plains. Generally,
the Java horse is larger than that of Sumatra, but,
in the language of the turf, has less blood and
bottom. The lowland horses, the great majority,
are somewhat coarse and sluggish, but the upland
are spirited, smaller, and handsomer.

The horse, although of a very inferior breed, is
found in the islands of Bali and Lombok ; but the
next island to these eastward, Sumbawa, produces
the handsomest breeds of the whole Archipelago.
They are the Arab of the Archipelago ; yet the
blood is not the same as the Arab, for the small
horse of Sumbawa, although very handsome, wants
the fine coat and the blood head of the Arabian.
There are in this island and adjacent islets three
different races, that of Tambora, of Bhima, and of
Gunong Api, the last being most esteemed.

Next to Java, horses are most abundant in
Celebes. These are inferior in beauty to those of
Sumbawa, but excel all others of the Malayan
portion of the Archipelago, in combining the
qualities of size, strength, speed, and bottom.

A very good breed is produced in Sumba, called
in the maps Sandal-wood Island.

But perhaps the best breed of the whole Archi-
pelago, although still but a pony, is that of the
Philippines. It is superior in size to any of the
breeds of the western islands, which it may owe
to the superior pastures of the Philippines, and
possibly to a small admixture of the Spanish horses
of America, although this last is by no means an
ascertained point.

Generally, the horses of the Archipelago are hardy,
sure-footed, and docile. The horses are all entire,
and the mares used only to breed and as beasts of
burden. By the natives of the Archipelago, the
horse is only used for the saddle or to cany bur-
dens, and never for draught, either for plough or
wheel-carriage. To see horses drawing a native
carriage, except in imitation of Europeans, we
must go to the sculptures on ancient temples in
Java, where they are thus represented.

In two islands only of the Archipelago is the
horse found in the wild state, Celebes and Luzon,
the only ones that are known to have extensive
grassy plains fit for its pasture, and in these it is
caught by the lasso and broke in, as in the Llanos
of America. In such situations it is certainly far
more likely to have become wild from the domestic
state than to be indigenous. In so far as Celebes
is concerned, this view is rendered probable by
the name being a corruption to the Javanese from
one language of that island, the Wugi ; while in
another, the Macassar, the horse is called the
' buffalo ' of Java. In the Philippines it is not even
alleged that the wild horses are anything else than
domesticated ones become so. In Pigafetta's
enumeration of the domestic animals of Cebu, he
makes no mention of the horse. In the city of
Manilla, a pair of good riding horses cost from 100
to 120 dollars, and a pair of carriage horses from
120 to 130. Of course they are much cheaper in
the provinces where they are reared. The horses
of Sumbawa, Celebes, and Sumba are largely
exported to Java, to the British settlements in the
Straits of Malacca, and even as far as the Mauritius.
In Batavia, a good Bhima or Batak horse is worth
from £10 to £15.

The Barb, so famed in Europe, was never brought
to India; reared by the Moors nf Barbary and
Morocco, during their dominion in that country,

106

ttORSK.

BOB8B.

i!m- i.;irh was introduced Into Spain, where, how-
ever, it lias been suffered to degenerate greatly
since tin ir expulsion. The nobK' barbs arc of rare
occurrence even in their own country. The common
4 Berbery in i very inferior animal. In the
beauty ami symmetry of their km, however,
• veil the berbf are fax from excelling; their valu-
able qualities — ami in tliese they are perhaps un-
equalled by any other breed in existence — are
unrivalled speed, surprising bottom, abstinence,
pitieiiee, and endurance under fatigue, and gentle-
ness of temper.

Arabian horses are now-a-days comparatively
little Men in India. A larger horse, with greater

1 tower, lias lieeii needed, to meet the wants of the
British Government for its heavier ordnance and

The Arab people do not keep any long pedigrees
of tliejr thoroughbred horses. The certificates
which they furnish merely give the names of th.
elans, under the assumption that the purity of
blood is notorious throughout the tribe. Of all
tin ir domestic animals, Arabs put the greatest
value on their horses.

The time to see the horses and horsemen of
Damaxnts in their glory, is about sunset on the
Merj and the neighbouring road, where they are
regularly exercised. If the master does not .'ride.
a groom is sent out, and the young foals gambol
loose by their dam's side, till they are old enough
to be ridden, which is at an early age. Their
education begins often with learning the rahwan
pace, which is much esteemed. It is generally

heavier soldiers, and for the larger carriages now ' taught by tying the feet on the right and left side

in use by Europeans and the wealthier natives.
Also, the prices demanded for the Arab horses are
beyond the means of ordinary purchasers, and the
Arab never was in great request in India, except
M a riding horse. The chief, Abd-el-Kadir, speak-
ing of Arab horses, said, • A thoroughbred horse
is one that has three things long, three things
short, three things broad, and three things clean.
The three things long are the ears, the neck, and
the fore legs ; the three things short are the dock,
the hind legs, and the back ; the three things
broad are the forehead, the chest, and the croup ;
the three things clean are the skin, the eyes, and
the hoof. He ought to have the withers high and
the flanks hollow, and without any superfluous
flesh.' These are very nearly the words which
•writers use in describing perfection in horses, and
in these matters, therefore, they seem to have
boirowed their ideas from Arabian writers.

The best Arab horses are bred in the desert by
the Anazah tribe, in whose territory, before the
conquest of the Wahabees, the district of Nejd
was included, where the richest pasture of Arabia
is found. That name, in India, used to procure a
high price at all times for a horse. The Anazah
is one of the largest and most extensively sub-
divided of the Bedouin tribes. They have the
best horses. They visit Nejd as well as Syria.
Some of the Anazah Arabs have a great promin-
ence in the foreheads. The marks at the base of
the ears of the Anazah and other horses, have their
origin in the custom of the Bedouin, of stitching
the new-born foal's ears together, to make them
take what is thought the proper shape. Purveyors
of the Indian market, knowing that the Indian
purchasers look for such marks, frequently counter-
feit them on the baser born breeds which they buy
for India, by branding them in the right place
with the firing-iron.

In the Arab horse, says Colonel Shakespeare,
the favourite colours in India are greys of kinds.
The nila, i.e. a grey with a blue skin, is generally
more hardy that the sabza, a grey with a light-
coloured skin, and the feet of the nila are more
generally black than the sabza. The other colours
are bay and brown of different shades, and ches-
nuts. Black is very rai*e. Arab roans are common.
The high-caste Arab is phlegmatic and wearisome

together, each to each, — the right front to the right
hind, and so with the left. An animal who excels
in this kind of amble is worth a large sum, be he
ever so ill-bred or poor in appearance. The value
of the accomplishment lies in its comfort to rider
and ridden, for so smooth is the pace, that a brim-
ming cup of water may be held at full speed
without spilling ; and so easy is it for the horse,
that a well-trained one is supposed to cover the
distance between Damascus and Beyrout in eight
or nine hours. When we consider that the actual
length of road is 72 miles, twice ascending and
descending several thousand feet in crossing the
ranges of Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon, the j>er-
formance is certainly creditable.

The pedigree of one of their horses of the blue
blood is as well known throughout the districts
traversed by the tribe he belongs to, as that of any
royal family of Europe. The Bedouins of Syria
have five principal breeds, known as the Khamsa,
or five, — (1) The Kehilan (fern. Kehileh or Kehilet)
is the fastest, but not the hardiest. They are bred
chiefly by the Bedouins settled between Basra,
Merdin, and Syria. That of Dsjulfa seems to be
the most numerous. They are highly esteemed,
and consequently are veiy dear. (2) The Seglawi
(fern. Seglawieh), of which the Seglawi Jedran is
considered the best in all the desert. (3) Abeyau
(fem. Abeyeh) is a small, but generally the hand-
somest breed. (4) The Hamdani (fem. Hain-
danieh), not a common breed. (5) The Had ban
(fem. Hadbeh), not common.

Mr. Robinson says these five principal races
diverge into many ramifications. Every mare
particularly swift and handsome, belonging to any
one of the chief races, may give origin to a new
breed, the descendants of which are called after
her, so that the names of different Arab breeds
in the desert are innumerable. The horses of the
Bedouin of Syria are mostly small, seldom exceed-
ing fourteen hands. They ride, almost exclusively,
their mares, having the advantage over the horses
in speed and good temper. The latter they sell
to the town's people, or to the fellahs. Tbey object
to them, not only because they are more vicious
than the mares, but because they neigh, which in
an expedition by night might be the means of
betraying them. They are first mounted after the

to ride when unexcited ; trips ui his walk, and does i second year, from which time the saddle is seldom
not step out ; but when roused by emulation in taken off their backs. They are kept in the opeu
the hunt or race, will go at full speed over rock ; air during the whole year, never entering the tent,
and stone, when the soil is not visible, or up and ; even in the rainy season. In summer they stand
down the sides of a precipice, and, if properly exposed to the mid-day sun. In winter a sack-
handled, never make a mistake. cloth is thrown over the saddle. like his master.

107

Horse.

horse.

with very little attention to his health, he is seldom
ill. Burning is the most general remedy, and as
this is done with a hot iron, it has given rise to
the erroneous notion that the Arabs mark all their
horses.

More than half of the Arab horses exported to
Bombay are shipped from the seaport of Koweyt.
Palgrave says they are generally brought from the
north of Arabia or the Syrian desert. There are
good horses of this kind at Hayel and Jabl Shomer.
Those of Shomer or Anazah breed are high blooded,
and often very perfect in all their points. The
best of the Nejd horses are small, few reaching
fifteen hands, and fourteen being about the aver-
age, but their small stature is not observed in
their excellent shape. The genuine Nejd breed is
obtainable only in Nejd ; and the distinctive points
of the Nejd horse are, the full rounded haunch,
the slope of the shoulder, and the extreme clean-
ness of the shank. In Nejd breeding, care is
taken to select a good stallion and good mare.
The total number is about 5000 ; and horses are
kept only for war or parade, all travelling and
other drudgery being performed on camels, or on
asses. The Nejd horses are esteemed for their
great speed and endurance ; and in the latter
quality, indeed, they are unequalled, bearing up
through abstinence and labour for 48 hours, under
an Arab sky. They are often ridden without bit
or bridle, saddle, rein, or stirrup, but they yield
to the pressure of the knee or thigh, and to the
voice ; can be wheeled and turned and brought to
a dead stand in mid career of full gallop. Mares
are never parted with, and good stallions rarely so.
Those of Hayel and Jabl Shomer are a fine breed,
and horses from them often find their way to
Europe, where they are sold at high prices. These
are generally the produce of a Jabl Shomer mare
with Nejd stallion, or the reverse. Their height
varies from 14 to over 16 hands ; but their shape
is less elegant than the Nejd, and often indicates
some defect, such as a heavy shoulder, small rump,
shelly or contracted hoof, or small eye.

To the east and south of Toweyk, the Arab
horse loses in beauty and perfection, in size and
strength ; and in Oman they resemble the tattu
of India.

In the south of Arabia, the horses are mere rats,
short and stunted, ragged and fleshless, with rough
coats and a slouching walk, but with fine snake-
like head, ears like reeds, wide and projecting
nostrils, large eyes, fiery and soft alternately,
broad brow, deep base of skull, wide chest, crooked
tail, limbs padded with muscle, and long elastic
pasterns. It was told to Captain Burton (Pilgrim-
age, iii. p. 269) that the Zu Mahomed and the Zu
Husayan, sub-families of the Beni Yam, a large
tribe living around and north of Sanaa in Yemen,
have a fine large breed, called El Jaufi, and that
the clan El Aulaki rear animals celebrated for
swiftness and endurance. The other races are
stunted ; and some Arabs declare that the air of
Yemen causes degeneracy in the first generation.
In Solomon's time the Egyptian horse cost 150
silver shekels, which, if the greater shekel be
meant, would still be about the average price,
£18 ; and Wellsted tells us (i. p. 306) that several of
the Imam's horses in his time were of the noblest
breed in Nejd, some of his mares being valued at
from 1500 to 2000 dollars.

Persia, — The Bakhtiari have a hardy race of

horses, of a middle stature, about the usual size of
the Arab horse, and a good deal of the blood of the
latter runs in their veins. They are exceedingly
fleet, sure-footed, and soft-mouthed, very manage-
able also, and capable of climbing up mountains
with the agility and fearlessness of mountain goats.
Among the richer Bakhtiari are many Chab-Arab
horses, which are taller than the Nejd- Arab, and
resemble more those of the island of Bahrein. The
Chab-Arab horse is justly prized in Persia; and
Baron de Bode never witnessed a greater display
of beautiful Arab blood horses, than on the plains
of Mai- Amir, at the camp of the Bakhtiari chief,
Muhammad Taghi-Khan, for at the court of the
Shah of Persia the Turkoman horses are preferred
to the Arab ; and among the former, the Tekke
breed is the most esteemed for its size, power, and
faculties of endurance.

Arabian horses are not very common in the
north of Persia ; but the breed between them
and a Persian mare is all elegance and elasticity,
being of a rather stronger mould than the Arab
of Nejd, the best race of the country. The Per-
sian horses never exceed 14 or 14£ hands, yet
certainly on the whole are taller than the Arabs,
and have been much improved of late. Although
neither so swift nor so beautiful as those of Arabia,
they are larger, more powerful, and, all things con-
sidered, better calculated for cavalry. Of the
several breeds of horses in use in Persia, the most
valuable is that called the Turkoman. In the eyes
of an English jockey, however, these horses would
hardly seem to possess a single good point. They
are from 14^ to 16 hands high, have long legs and
little bone under the knee, spare carcases, and
large heads. But what renders the Turkoman
horses so valuable to the natives, is their size and
extraordinary powers of supporting fatigue ; for
they have been known to travel 900 miles in 1 1
successive days. The Arabian blood has also been
introduced into Persia, and some horses bred in
Dashtistan, in point of speed and symmetry, emu-
late the most admired coursers of Nejd. Their
usual food is chopped straw and barley ; the bed
is made of dung, which is dried and beat into
powder, and regularly every morning exposed to
the sun. No people are fonder or take more care
of their horses than the Persians. They are
clothed with the greatest attention, according to
the climate and season of the year, and in the
warm weather are put into the stable during the
day, but taken out at night. The horses in Persia
are not so subject to internal disorders as in Eng-
land, but their heels are invariably contracted,
from badness of shoeing.

Persian horses brought to Bombay from Basrah
and Bushahr, and those bred on the shores of the
Gulf, are in use with the British Government, and
some are of great power, strong, and enduring.
The Gulf horses are out of Persian mares by Arab
horses.

Turkoman horses, of excellent breed, are found
amongst the Turkomans, who export the finest to
Afghanistan, Persia, and India. The Akhal and
Yomut horse is little inferior to the Arab in
swiftness, endurance, and beauty of form. The
Turkoman horse is a fine animal, between fifteen
and sixteen hands high. He is bred from the
Arabian, but the cross of the breed of the country,
and the fine pasture, have given him great size
and strength. There are probably no horses in

108

HORSE.

BOB8E,

the world that can endure so much fatigue. Sir
.1. .M;ilc(ilm ascertained, after minute examination
of the fact, tliat the small parties. of. Turkoman
Who ventured several hundred miles into Persia,
Died both to advance and retreat at the average of
marly one hundred miles a-day. They train their
horses for these expeditions as sportsmen train for
a race ; and the expression they use to descrihe a
horse in condition for a chapao or forage is, that
4 his flesh is marhle. 1 The Turkoman horse stands
liigh, and the reports as to his feats show him to be
a very superior animal, but they are almost un-
known in India.

The Turkoman horse around the Hindu Kush is
carefully reared. It is a large bony animal, more
remarkable for strength and bottom than sym-
metry and beauty. Its crest is nobly erect ; its
head is not bo small, or its coat so sleek, as the
brood of Arabia, and the length of its body is
greater. They will perform six hundred miles in
7 or even G days. Those that reach India are
reared about Balkh, and Andkhu, and Maimana.

The horses of the Turko-Tartar races are, —

The Turkoman horse, or Argomak, chiefly in
the western and southern parts of the khanate.

The Uzbak horse, more especially in the north
of Bokhara, and in Miankale ; and lastly,

The Khokand horse, in the neighbourhood of
Samarcand and the east of it. There are two
more, which are, however, inferior to the former ;
these breeds are the following, — the Kirghiz horse
and the Karab Airi, the latter being a cross-breed
from the Turkoman stallion and an Uzbak mare,
and vice versa. All these breeds differ from each
other by their coat, as well as by other qualities.

The Argomak is usually tall, well-shaped, with
slender legs and a swan-like neck, carrying its
head proudly and with ease aloft. But its great
beauty consists in the peculiar lustre of its coat,
which is especially observable in the bay-coloured
Argomak. Their defects are, a narrow chest, and
a Bcanty tail and mane, in addition to which, some
have the defect of being saddle-backed. These
defects incapacitate the Argomak for undertaking
long journeys ; and it would be above all things
unadvisable to make use of them in travelling over
the steppes of the Kirghiz, because they are so
much spoiled by the excessive care which is taken
of them, that they are almost incapable of finding
food for themselves, not only in winter, but even
in summer.

The Uzbak horses, which are smaller than the
Argomak, and inferior to them in point of external
beauty, have nevertheless many redeeming quali-
ties, of which the principal is their strength. Some
of their defects arise in consequence of their being
badly broken in by the Uzbaks. With these
horses the pace is neither a walk nor a proper
trot, but what the Cossacks term a grana or short
trot. Baron de Bode here seems to mean the
amble. The second defect is that the Uzbaks
never geld their horses, which renders it impos-
sible to picket them together, but each horse is
obliged to be attached to a separate stake, — a cir-
cumstance which, although trivial at first light,
is one of the reasons why the Uzbak camps take
so much room, and are therefore more exposed to
sudden attacks.

The strongest race of the Turko-Tartar horses
is undoubtedly that of Khokand; hence they are
usually employed by carriers for transporting goods

from <>nc plnco to another. Five batman is the
usual weight of n loaded cart, although they in-
crease the weight sometimes to seven and eight
batman from Bokhara to Samarcand. The jjowcr
of these horses becomes still more apparent vheo
they are used as pack horses. Baron de Bode
had Been a horse loaded with two large tents,
some kettles flung over the back, and a man sit-
ting astride. It accompanied him in this fashion
the whole way from Samarcand to Karshi, and
from thence to Bokhara.

The Karab-airi is a very handsome race of
horses, in size equal to the Uzbak horse, but in
the shape of the head and legs resembling the
Argomak. They are reckoned good racing horses
in Bokhara, but as they are trained for the game
of kukbari, in which, after running a certain
distance, the riders rest, these horses cannot hold
out a protracted race, especially as they exhaust
their strength from the very outset.

The horses of the Kirghiz Kazak are trained to
run races, in distances sometimes from twenty-
five and thirty to forty and fifty versts. Every
Kirghiz, in setting out on a journey, fastens to
his saddle a bag of kurut or curd made from
sour milk. He soaks some of it in water, and
thus appeases his hunger and thirst together.

Two wild horses are found in the Russian
steppes, the Tarpon and the Musin. The latter
is supposed to be a steppe horse run wild ; but the
younger Gmelin, Pallas, and Middendorff think
that the tarpan is a descendant of the pristine
wild stock. Darwin and Wallace, however, are
of opinion that the tarpan also is a steppe horse
run wild. — Rolleston, p. 50.

The Muss of the Kirghiz is the wild horse of
the Asiatic plains. This animal is not like the
wild horse of S. America, which undoubtedly
sprang from those taken into the country by the
Spaniards. He is of a distinct race from the
Asiatic horse, very small (not so large as an ass),
beautiful in form, having a small head and short
ears, and varying in colour from black, bay, grey,
and white, the latter being the most rare. His
sense of smell is very acute, which renders him
most difficult to approach. He is exceedingly
fleet, and few horses can run him down. In
hunting him, a great number of Kirghiz assemble,
and when the scouts have found the herd, the
horsemen form an extended line at a considerable
distance towards the steppe. When so much has
been accomplished, they gradually ride up, forcing
the herd towards a pass in the mountains. Aj
they approach near to the ravine, the hunters
draw closer, forming a crescent, and proceed with
extreme caution till the stallions enter the pas*.
While this has been going on, another party of
hunters have made their way into the pass, taking
their stand in the narrowest part, and waiting till
the herd appears. Having signalled to the hunters
on the plain that the pass is secured, the whole
body close up, and the wild animals'arl> in a trap.
They are now driven onward till stopped by the
hunters above, when the work of slaughter begins,
and vast numbers of these beautiful, creatures are
killed by their battle-axes. The Kirghiz consider
their flesh the greatest delicacy the steppe affords.

Dr. Jerdon, however, says wild horses of a truly
feral type are at present unknown. The Gor Khar,
Equus onager, Pallas, is the wild ass of Cuteh :
the Kyang or Dzightai, or wild ass of Tibet, is

109

HORSE CHESNUT.

HORUS.

Equus homionus, Pallas; the E. hemippus, Is.
Geoffroy, which inhabits Syria, Mesopotamia,
N. Arabia, is the wild ass of Scripture ; and E.
asinus is of N.E. Africa and S. Arabia.

Since 1840, British India has received small
batches from the Cape of Good Hope, of good
figure and good temper, suitable for riding horses
and for draught, but, like the Arab horse, higher
priced than can easily be afforded. Australia has
since taken a hold on the Madras and Calcutta
markets, and its imports are termed Walers. What
number of new horses of all sorts are needed for
British India annually, is not known. The imports
have been —

1874-75,
1875-76,
1876-77,
1877-78,
1878-79,
1879-80,

Australia. Other Places.

2072
2075
2355
1938
2079
2133

476
175
507
487
1271
1473

Australia. Other Places.
Rs.5,29,270Rs.l,44,325

7,06,850 37,025

7,25,700 1,19,550

5,99,000 2,32,820

7,07,300 5,50,525

6,89,600 4,78,350

— Hue and Gabet, p. 229 ; Yule's Cathay, i. p.
143; Darwin, Animals and Plants ; Tod's Rajas-
than, ii. pp. 162, 227 ; Powell; Gerard's Koona-
irur, p. 112 ; Adams, p. 269 ; Hooker, Him. Jour.
i. p. 118, ii. p. 131; Williams 1 Middle Kingdom;
Crawfurd, Eng. Cye. p. 383 ; Skinner's Journey,
ii. p. 70 ; Niebuhr's Travels, ii. p. 301 ; Shake-
speare's Wild Sports; Palgrave, i., ii. p. 97;
Robinson's Tr. ii. pp. 167, 356 ; Wellsted's Tr.
i. p. 306 ; Kinneir's Persian Empire, p. 38 ; Mal-
colm's Persia, ii. p. 241 ; De Bode's Bokhara, p.
198 ; Vigne's Personal Narrative, p. 455 ; Atkin-
son, Amoors, p. 326 ; Porter, ii. p. 536 ; Gnu/.

HORSE CHESNUT, ^sculus hippocastanum.
An Asiatic tree, long planted for shade and orna-
ment on the Continent and in Britain. The wood is
soft, and not durable. The fruits are used in Swit-
zerland and Turkey for feeding sheep, horses, etc.

HORSE - FLY, Hippobosca equina, Linn.,
attacks horses and man. Its bite, like the scorpion
sting, affects individuals variously.

HORSE GRAM, Dolichos uniflorus. This pulse,
Madras gram, is largely used in the Peninsula of
India for feeding horses. In Northern India,
Chenna, or Bengal gram, Cicer arietinum, is the
pidse used. The composition of horse gram in 100
parts is, — moisture, 11 "40 ; nitrogenous matter,
23 "25 ; starchy matter, 61 - 43 ; fatty or oily matter,
0-81 ; ash, 3'10.

HORSE HIDE is tanned and curried for har-
ness work, for collars, etc. It has of late years been
substituted for seal-skin, but does not produce
so good a leather. Enamelled horse hide, split or
shaved thin, is used for ladies' shoes, in imitation

of SGftl

HORSE LEECH is the Shwui-chih and Mah-
wang of the Chinese. Horse-mango, Mangifera
foetida. Horse-almond, Sterculia fcetida. Horse-
cassia, Cathartocarpus Javanicus. Horse-cat, civet.

HORSE-RADISH, Lah-kan, Chin.

Peberrod, . . .
Rammenas, . .
Rava, Raifort,
Cran de Bretange,
Meer-settij, . .
Rafano, . . .

The Cochlearia armoracia, Linn., a perennial
plant, common in moist places of Europe, and
grown in India. Its root is used as a condi-
ment, and is, besides, an article of the materia
medica.

HORSE-RADISH TREE.

Dan.

Rapbanus rusticanus, Lat.

Dut.

Rabao de Cavallo, . Port.

Fb.

Khren, Ru.s.

Rabano, Picante, . Sp.

Ger.

Pepparrot, . . . Sw.

It.

Hub-ul-ban (seeds), Arab.

Sujna Beng.

Sohunjana, . . Dukh.
Munga-ke-jhar-ki-jar,HiN.
Sagul-ke-jbar-ki-jur, . ,,
Moringa pterygosperma, L.

Hyperanthera moringa, L.
Sagul, .... Mahr.
Moriaben, . . . Perb.
Sigrumalla sobanjana, Sa.
Muranghai ver, . Tam.
Munaga veru, . . Tel.

This tree grows easily from seeds, in gardens,
only requiring watering for the first few months.
The scraped roots are very like horse-radish, and
are served up as a substitute. The long pods are
boiled and used as a vegetable, also made into
curry. The flowers and leaves are used as a vege-
table, and its gum is used medicinally. — Faulkner.

HORSE TAIL. The tails of the horse and of
the yak are used as standards. Tupha, Tugb, or
Tau, according to Remusat, is the Turki name of
the horse-tail standard, but is applied also by the
Chinese to the yak tail, which, respectively with
those nations, mark the supreme military command.
— Rech. sur les langues Tartares, p. 303 ; D'Ohssmi.
i. p. 40, in Yide, Cathay, i. p. clxxiv.

HORSFIELD. Dr. Thomas Horsfield and Mr.
Moore's Catalogue of Birds, in the India House
Museum, appeared in 1856 and 1858. Dr. Hors-
field was one of the earliest naturalists labouring
in the East Indies, though the extent of his
labours in Java and Sumatra is but little known.
His researches in Java and the neighbouring
islands began in 1802, and were continued till
1819. During that time he collected upwards of
two thousand species, the most copious and inter-
esting of which have been published by Messrs.
Brown and Bennett in the Plantee Javanie*
Rariores, one of the most profound and accurate
botanical works, and one most important for the
Indian botanist to study with attention. He wrote
Zoological Researches in Java and the Neighbour-
ing Islands, 1824 ; Descriptive Catalogue of the
Lepidopterous Insects in the Museum of the East
India Company, 1828-9 ; with Bennett and Brown,
Plant® Javanicae Rariores, descriptse Iconibusque
illustratse, 1838-44; and an Essay on the Cultiva-
tion and Manufacture of Tea in Java, 1841.

HORTON PLAIN, a few miles from Newara
Elia, in Ceylon, is the highest table-land in that
island. The pitcher plant, Nepenthis distillatoria,
grows in great luxuriance on it.

HORTUS MALABARICUS, a botanical work
undertaken at the suggestion of Henry van
Rheede, a Dutch Governor of Malabar. The
specimens were collected in 1674 and 1675 by
Brahmans, and sent to Cochin, where drawings
of them were executed by Mathaeus, a Carmelite
missionary ; corresponding descriptions were at
the same time made in the Malabar language,
which were afterwards translated into Portuguese
by Emanuel Carneiro, a Cochin interpreter, and
from that into Latin by Hermann van Douep,
the secretary to the city of Cochin ; the whole was
under the superintendence of Casearius, a mission-
ary there. The work was at length published at
Amsterdam between 1686 and 1703, in 12 volumes
folio, with 794 plates, and was edited by Com-
melyn, who has occasionally added remarks on
the plants. — Wight's Prod. i. p. 7.

HORUS, a god of the Egyptians. One of the
most remarkable fictions in the Egyptian and
Syrian mythologies, is that of the annual disap-
pearance and resurrection of Horus, or the solar
Osiris, and the lamentations for Adonis and the

110

HOSHANO \B.\D.

HOT SIM.'!

{•>v at his restoration. These, as well as the
)eot'han of India, hear evident reference to the
Mm's animal motion. — Elliot, Siipp. (floss.

Hi is 11 A\C \ BAD, a town in the Central Pro-
vimvs of India, in the Sagur and Nerbadda terri-
tories, lat. 20° 4.V 30" N., and long. 77° 46' E.,
its district forming a portion of the Nerbadda
valley, lying entirely on the left bank of the
rivt t, and including some large tracts in the
Satpura Hills. The district is bounded on the
north by the territories of Bhopal, Sindia, and
llolkar, from which it is separated by the Ner-
btdda, the Central Provinces lying between lat.
21° 40' and 22° 59' N., and long. 70° 38' 30" and
78° 45' 80" E. Population in 1872, 440,180 ; area
( 1*77 ). l:;7G square miles. Four Gond rajas, in
1*7(1, held the eastern portion of the district.
The aboriginal tribes number 89,029; Hindus,
:Hi4.676; Mahomedaus, 21,765; Buddhists and
Jains, 1182. The most numerous of the aboriginal
tribes are the Gond (57,946 in 1872), and Kurku
(19,295) ; the remainder consisting of Bharia,
Maria, etc. Among the Hindus, the Brahmans
in 1872 numbered 25,393, and the Rajputs,
28,689 ; the mass of the Hindu population consist-
ing of Dhers or Mhars, 89,173 ; Kunbis, 17,215 ;
Lodhis, 13,323 ; Gujars, 24,759 ; Chamars, 15,117,
and others inferior castes. — Imp. Gaz.

HOSHIARPUR, in lat. 31° 32' 13" N., long.
75° 57' 17" E., a large civil and military station,
in the Panjab, N. of Ludhiana, 1066 feet above
the sea. It gives its name to a British revenue
district, lying between lat. 30° 58' and 32° 5' N.,
and between long. 75° 81' and 76° 41' 15" E.
Area, 2086 square miles, pop. (1868) 938,890.
Brahmans numbered 76,821; Rajputs, 47,464;
Kshatriyas, 21,784; Banya, 1493; Arora, 386;
Jat, 112,789 ; Gujar, 21,543 : 3977 Sayyids, 843
Moghuls, 8733 Pathans, 145 Baluch, 37,522
Mahomedan Rajputs, 31,262 Jats, and 45,893
Gujars. The Jats form the most numerous tribe
in the district, composing 42 per cent, of the
proprietary body, and paying 38 per cent, of the
land revenue. — Imp. Gaz.

HOSPITAL. There was an hospital at Rai and
another at Baghdad, of which Rhazes, a.d. 923 or
982, was the superintendent ; and about the same
time, between a.d. 905 and 920, the first Euro-
pean hospital was founded by the Saracens at
fealerno in Italy. Hospitals existed in China
during the Sung dynasty, between a.d. 960 and
1278. The pinjrapol of Bombay and of Surat are
hospitals for sick and lame animals, established by
Hindus. The East India Company established
many civil hospitals throughout India, and Hindu
tod Native States have followed in this line.

HOTA, Sansk., or Hotri, the priest who directs
the Homa or burnt-offering, from Hu, Sansk.
to offer. The Hota pours the clarified butter on
the fire in the burnt-offering, repeating the proper
formulas. Hutsava or fire-food is the name of the
oblation. — Ward's Hindoos; Wilson, Glossary.

HO-TSING, the artesian fire-springs of the
Chinese, which are sunk to obtain a carburetted
hydrogen gas for salt-boiling, far exceed the
European artesian springs in depth. These fire-
springs are very commonly more than 2000 feet
deep ; and a spring of continued flow was found to
be 3197 feet deep. This natural gas has been used
in the Chinese province Sze-chuen for several
thousand years; and portable gas, in bamboo

cane», has for ages been used in the city of

Khiung-techeu. More recently, in the village of
Fredonia, in the United States, such gas hasbeen
used both for cooking and for illumination.—
Curiosities of' Sri, ,,r> , p. 1 \H ; Iml„ ,t.

HOT SPRINGS and sulphurous springs are
numerous on the shores of the Dead Sea, and also
in its basin, and in other parts of tin Jordan
valley. The hot springs of Callirhoe wer<- th.-
favourite resort of Herod. There are others at
I in K.is (Gadara), where are the ruins of baths;
and the hot Bprings of Tiberias have been famous
ever since the time of Joshua (B.C. 1426), when
they gave name to the place. Most of these are
strongly mineral. The hot water of Elisha's
Fountain is sweet.

The hot springs of Bosher and Ghullas in Oman
are inland from Muttra, situated at the foot of
rocks. Their temperature ranges from 83° to 112°.

Hot springs occur also at Maculla in Arabia,
likewise 1£ miles inland from Muscat.

In Shoa, hot springs occur at the village of
Gossamee in Morabeitee ; at Kowut, in the pro-
vince of Gidem ; at Korari, about 10 miles S.E.
of Alioamba; at Makfood, in the bed of the
Jowahah river; at Metak, about 3 miles S. of
Ankober ; at Finfinni, in the Germama plain ; in
the bed of the river Kassam, in the district of
Aden, and in the neighbourhood of the extinct
volcano of Fontali.

Hot springs occur at Jumnotri, Gungootri, Ke-
darnath, and Badrinath, in Garhwal ; also near
Nutpa, Bukti, and Jauri, in the valley of Sutlej
(Gerard), opposite Soni banks of Sutlej (Prinsep).
Hot spring at Silol, Kangra (G. T. Survey). Kulat
in Kullu (Gerard). Munnikarn, in Kullu, and a hot
spring farther up the Parbati. Mr. Edgeworth
informs us that the water where it issues from its
source is of the temperature of 207° Fahr. It is
therefore one of the hottest known springs. Some
of the hottest of these are the Geysers 180°,
Surajkund 190°, the Petersquelle in the Caucasus
195°, spring on Paluk river 196°, and what Hum-
boldt discovered and describes as the hottest
spring in the world, Guanaxuata in Mexico, 207°.
The boiling point of water at the elevation of
Munnikarn is much below that point. Rice is
cooked in the spring at Jumnotri 194°, at about
1 1,000 feet above the sea, and in many others of
inferior temperature. Munnikarn is on the right
bank of the Parbati (or Parub) river. There is a
large village here, and high mountains covered
with snow environ the place. There are several
hot springs, three or four of which boil furiously.
The latter issue out of rocks near the edge of the
river, and dense steam rises out of them in con-
siderable volumes, heating the air all round,
absolutely darkening the path for a few yartla,
and the heat is very distressing. All the inhabit-
ants of Munnikarn cook their food in these boiling
springs, and wood is never used by them for
culinary purposes.

In Ladakh many hot springs occur, but the
best known are those of Nubra, Puga.and Chushul •
the two first have clear water, and a temperature
of 167°, with beds of soda below the springs.
Those at Puga occur in the bed of a rivulet,
where they bubble out at temperatures from 80*
to 140°. The hottest contain chloride of sodium
and sulphuretted hydrogen in solution ; and those
of low temperature chloride and borate of sodium.
11

HOT SPRINGS.

The hot spring of Chushul has a temperature of
96°, without taste or smell, but is said to have
medicinal properties.

A hot spring occurs at Behitsil in the Basha
valley in Little Tibet, from which a deposit of
sulphur occurs. Two hot springs, sulphureous
and chalybeate, also occur near the village of
Duchin, in Little Tibet. The temperature of one
visited by Mr. Vigne was 154° Fahr, One occurs
12 miles east of Rajawur, the temperature about
140°. It is sulphureous, and deposits sulphur in
its course.

Between U and Tsang, in Tibet, are some hot
springs, which are also numerous in the mountains
lying east of the Ma-p'ham lake, and at one place
hot water is thrown twelve feet high. Hot springs
issue from the flats near a stream at Chung-leng,
16,170 feet above the sea, the temperature 122° to
130°. The hot springs of India are resorted to by
the people for the cure of lingering ailments.

The hot spring at Ab-i-Garm at Chitral, in
Afghanistan, is also called Talab-i-Nil, also
Chattiboi. Lower range of Suliman mountains.

In Baluchistan a hot spring occurs at Basman,
in the Kohistan of Baluchistan, 44 miles N.W. of
Banpur. Lieutenant Pottinger halted at Basman,
and found the hot well upwards of twelve yards iu
circumference, and two or three feet in depth ; in
the centre of it was a circular pipe built of red
burnt brick, about eight inches in diameter, and
within as many of being level with the water,
which boiled out of it as thick as a man's thigh,
with considerable violence, and at noon so heated
that he could not venture to put his hand into the
ebullition. One side of the well had been gradu-
ally worn away by the incessant gushing of water
over it, and thence a limpid brook flows past the
village, and suffices the husbandmen for the
irrigation of their grounds. He bathed in this
stream about five yards from its source, and
found the water pleasantly tepid, with a strong
sulphureous smell and taste, which unfit it for
culinary purposes ; but the Baluchi regard it as
aperient in its effects, and an excellent specific in
cutaneous disorders.

Pir Muggen, Alligator Tank, is 13 miles from
Kurachee (Carless). Juggen and Deyrah, N.
Sind (Kirk). Springs at the base of the Halla
mountains, Sind (A. Young).

The following means of temperature of the hot
springs at Pir Mangal, or Munga, or Mungear,
were taken in September 1844 by Major Baker
and Lieutenant Maclagan : —

1st spring, 4th Sept., 11.30 a.m., Water, 119° Air, 89-25°

4.45 p.m.,

, 118-29,,

)» »i

9.5 p.m.,

, 117 „

,, 5th Sept.

5.45 a.m.,

, 119 „

9.5 a.m.,

, 119 „

2d spring, 4th Sept.,

11.45 a.m.,

, 127-5 „

5> )>

4.55 p.m.,

, 126-25 „

86-5

' )>

9.25 p.m.,

, 126-05 „

5.50 a.m.,

, 128-25 „

5th Sept.

, 9.15a.m.,

, 128 „

oil and principal spring, which is the saint's shrine,
and which feeds the Alligator Ponds.

4th Sept., 5.30 P.M.

"Water, 99° Air, 85-5°

The water of these springs, where it first issues,
has a slightly sulphureous smell and taste,but, after
a short exposure to the air, becomes perfectly
sweet and pure ; it leaves a slightly blackish
deposit on the pebbles. The rocks in the vicinity

consist of an upper cap of coarse limestone, over-
laying coarse soft sandstone.

The other hot springs of Sind are the Lukki
and Gazi Pir springs. Of the latter, Lieutenant
Maclagan gave the following account : — ' There is
a hot spring on a considerable elevated plateau
upon the hill called Bhil, above Gazi Pir, a
saint's shrine, a few miles west of Shah Hasan, on
the Meunchar Lake. I could not hold my hand
in the spring for any length of time. The water
fills a small reservoir under a clump of trees, then
escapes in a narrow stream which flows along to
the edge of the plateau, and throws itself over the
rock in a white cascade.' The sulphur springs
near the village of Lukki, like the springs at
Mangal Pir, are three in number, but are much
more highly impregnated with sulphur, though
their temperature, as under, is not so great, —
1st spring, at 12 A.M., water 102° Fahr. ; air in the

shade, 82° Fahr.
2d spring, at 12.12 A.M., water 103° Fahr. ; air in sun,

86° Fahr.
3d spring, at 2 P.M., water 105°, in shade 68° Fahr.
Water boiled at third spring by thermometer at 21 2°
75', and at Kurachee by same thermometer at 214° ;
difference, 1° 25'.

At Devakl Unei is 50 miles S.E. from Surat, at
the foot of some hills, the temperature being 111°
to 120°.

One at Oonai or Oonari, in the jungle between
Bansda and Boharee, in Gujerat, has a tempera-
ture of 120° to 124° ; but it is said to vary at
seasons (Dr. A. Gibson). Oonai is a small hamlet
in the territory of the raja of Bansda, near the
hills east of the Surat district. Also one at Tooee,
near Ruttenpur, on the Mhye river, in Gujerat,
between lat. 22° 49' N., aud long. 73° 30' E. There
is a sulphurous hot spring at Tulsiram, in the
centre of Geer, in Kattyawar.

A line of thermal springs traverses the Southern
Konkan ; and there are hot wells at Veijrabhoy,
48 miles N. of Bombay.

Hot springs occur between Dasgaon and Southern
Rajapur, between the Ghats and the sea, generally
from 16 to 24 miles inland from the sea. At Rajapur
there is one spring ; near Mhar, on the Bancoot or
Fort Victoria river, 75 miles S. of Bombay, there
are several, their temperatures being 98°, 105°,
and 109°. They are midway between Dasgaon
and Mhar, and about 75 yards from the river.

There are ten places with hot spring between
Rajapur and Saksee, viz. in the Viziadnig taluk,
village Oonglee (Oonale) near Rajpur, about 20
miles from the Ghats and 12 miles from the sea. It
is largely used. There are three in the taluk
Ratnagherry and in the mahal Sangameshwar, at
the villages Rajwari, Tooril, and Sungmairi, about
14 to 16 miles from the Ghats and 26 miles from
the sea. That at Tooril is exceedingly hot. One
at the village Arowli, in the Konedewri mahal ;
one said to increase the appetite, at the village of
Mat in the Hatkumbe mahal. Three at Oonari
village in the Severndrug taluk and the Natoe
Pal wan mahal. One at the village Oonari, in the
Jafferabad mahal. One at the village of Savi, in
the Ryeghur taluk and Mhar pargana, between
Mhar and Dasgaon ; and one at the village Oonari,
taluk Sankse and Pali mahal. Oonali or Oonari
is the Mahratta term for hot springs, which will
explain why so many villages bear this name.

Hot springs, about 150 in number, occur near
Wujerabaee, in the Bhewnday taiuka of the Tanna

112

IloT SPRINGS.

HOT SPRINGS.

colleetorate. « The district in which they occur
borders upon tin- river Tansa, on the Dugantl
m,|,' of toe Bbewnday taluk, and is seemingly
oonfined to the villages of Akulkolec, Ganeahpurl,
JBomd, and Nimbawullee, in a tract about 3
miles long and ;i mile broad. The Argurd Kund
■pring, which is the hottest, has a temperature of
Hot springs, having a temperature of
§7 , rise through the limestone near the Pinch*
hills, and globules of gas escape from round holes
in the debris and mud covering the bottom of the
ravine. About five miles north of the hot springs
of Urjunah, and four miles south of those of Kair,
sandstone caps a gently rising ground covered
with basaltic soil. Near the last-mentioned town
many hot springs rise in the argillaceous limestone,
which has been remarkably broken up and altered
1>\ the globular basalt protrudiug through it in
different places. The principal springs issue at
the foot of the rising ground, where the rock is
most remarkably altered. Their temperature
(87 ) was the same as that of Urjunah, on the
other side of the Pindi Hills, and it did not vary
during the hot and cold months of 1831 and 1833.

Hot springs occur in the Satpura Hills, at
Nizardeo, also at its sister spring at Unabdeo, about
3 miles to the north of Adawad, right under the
Satpura Hills. Here the hot water issues from an
oblong aperture in what appears to be a solid
block of masonry, forming the lower part of an
old Hindu temple, and flows into a tank 25 feet
square. Four miles west of the Unabdeo spring
is auother hot spring, called Ram talao, or Sunab-
deo. It is in a narrow gorge or glen formed by
two low projecting spurs of the Satpura ; the
temperature, 140°. It contains 8*4 per cent, of
silica and iron. There is another hot spring at
Nizardeo, at Wirwada.

Near Bagin river in Pana district, Bundelkhand
(Franklin). Two hot springs in Alwar country,
one 15 miles W. by S. from Alwar, one 20 miles
N.E of Jeypore (Capt. Bellew's Survey). Mineral
springs at Machery? (Col. Tod). At Sitabari,
in Harowtee ; also cold springs (Col. Tod).

Birbhum. — Hot springs occur at Buklesur in
Birbhum. There are about eight of these, each
being enclosed by little walls of sandstone in the
form of wells, and known by different names,
taken from those of the Hindu gods. The spring
that has the highest temperature is the Suraj-
kund. in which, says a Hindu traveller, we could
not dip our hand, and in which an egg may be
boiled, but not rice, of which we threw in a hand-
ful to try the experiment. A few paces from the
Surajkund is a cold spring. There are springs
in the bed of the Paphara,"the washer-of-sins.
The water of the Satgunga has a milky whiteness,
whence the origin of its name.

Coufervse abound in the hot springs of Suraj-
kund ; and two species, one ochreous brown and
the other green, occur on the margin of the tanks
hemselves, and in the hottest water ; the brown
8 capable of bearuig the greatest heat, and forms

belt in deeper water than the green. Both
ippear in broad luxuriant strata, wherever the
:emperature is cooled down to 168°, and as low
u»90°.

The water of one hot spring at Pachete near
,he Dainuda is 190° Fahr. in the cold weather.
The spring is chalybeate. Hot springs near
Monghir, on the Ganges, are known as the Seeta

V.,I.. „. 113

Kund ; temperature, lG3 y . Hot springs at Kuhi
Kondah and Bhimband, in the trap mountains
of Raimahal. A thermal spring occurs in trap
rock between hit. 28 and 24 N., and louir. 8<i
and 87 I

Kaljhunii,Maharu,Hatbulleah,N'ouhhil, between
Raimahal and Suri (Sherwill). Lacarakunda, 21
miles S. W. of Suri, in Birbhum (Sherwill). Tant-
looee,16 miles N.W.of Suri, on Sidh nullah, (Sher-
will). Springs at Katkamsandi, Old Benares
road (Everest). Pinarkun, Ramgur (Breton).
Paharpur, Kurruckpore Hills (Sherwill). Rajgir
and Guriuk, N. by E. of Gyah (8herwill). Utteer,
30 miles from Puri (Brander).

There are two warm springs in the bed of the
Godavery, one in the middle of the river near
Badrachellum, about one hundred miles west from
Rajaraundry. At Kair and Urjunah, Dekhan
(Malcomson). At Byorah (Malcomson).

Bum Buklesir is a pretty and curious spot, easily
accessible, in a well-cultivated country, with a
little jungle to its south. It is one mile from the
large town of Tantipara, on the banks of the
Buklesir, a small nullah. There are five or six
hot springs, the whole group called Bum Buklesir.
The hot wells have been surrounded with masonry
walls, and are immediately on the north or
right bank of the nullah. There are numerous
hot springs in the bed of the nullah, only to be
seen in the dry season, giving out sulphuretted
hydrogen, with which the air is tainted. Near
the hot springs are several cold ones, all flowing
from a tough gneiss rock. The hot and cold
springs are only separated by a few feet from
each other. The body of water ejected from the
hottest well is very considerable, being about 120
cubic feet per minute ; it runs from innumerable
small orifices in an accumulation of mud and
dirt, the rock being nowhere visible within the
masonry of the tank. In the hottest water, 162°,
a green shining conferva thrives. Another spring
is 128°, and the coolest 83°. Some 300 or 400
feet from the bank of the river, among the
dilapidated temples, there is a large built tank,
which is supplied by two springs, one hot and the
other cold, so that at one end the water is warm,
at the other cold, and in the centre tepid. The
stream of the nullah is about 50 yards across,
with a brisk current, and it retains its heat below
the springs for a considerable distance ; its tem-
perature was 83° in the month of December, when
the temperature of the air was in the shade 77°.
The sand of the stream some little way from the
spring, and at the depth of six inches, is intoler-
ably hot to the hand. Extending for about 200
yards along the right bank of the stream, are 320
small brick and mortar vihara or temples, built
by various pilgrims, each containing a lingam or
emblem of Mahadeo. Only one temple has any
pretension to architectural elegance. Numerous
attendant Brahmans, most importunate beggars,
loiter about the temples, engaged in bathing in
the hot stream, or watching the cremation of
dead bodies, which operation is constantly being
carried on. Tantipara is a fine substantial village,
with most of its inhabitants engaged in preparing
silk for the Calcutta market. There is an indigo
factory, besides a police choki and abkari station.
A short way off is the large town of Dobrajpore,
offering a good market for English piece-goods,
and producing a largo supply of fish from its

•HOT SPRINGS.

HOT SPRINGS.

numerous tanks. Between it and Bum Buklesir,
and in the town of Dobrajpore, large naked and
picturesque masses of granite and gneiss protrude
through the soil, occupying altogether about a
mile square. The scene is a very curious one.
In the opposite direction, but farther away, is
Nagpore, or Jye Nuggur, a large town ; the greater
part of it has gone to decay, as is shown by
its falling mosques, half -filled and weed-choked
masonry tanks, and ruined buildings which almost
approach to palaces in extent. The famous Nagore
wall or entrenchment extends in an irregular and
broken figure round the town of Nagore, at a
distance of about 4 miles ; its length is about 32
miles. At Lakarakunda, about 5 miles off, is a
warm spring, temperature 85°. Near the feeble
stream which carries away its waters is a curious
cut stone Hindu temple.

The hot springs of Momay (temp. 110°), at
16,000 feet, produce a golden-brown Ccenocoleus,
representing a small form of C. cirrhosus, and
a very delicate Sphcerozyga, an Anabaina, and
Tolypothrix ; and at 17,000 feet, a delicate green
Conferva, with long even articulations. With the
latter is an Odontidium, allied to or identical with
O. turgidulum ; and with the former a fine species
of Epithemia, resembling in form, but not in
marking, E. faba (E. zebra) ; a fine Navicula,
perhaps the same with N. major and Fragilaria
virescens. In mud from one of the Momay
springs there was Epithemia Broomeii, n. s., aud
two small Naviculse ; and in the spring two other
species of Epithemia.

In the hot springs of Surajkund, and on their
banks, at temperatures varying from 80° to 158°,
at which point vegetation entirely ceases, a minute
Leptothrix abounds everyAvhere, varying a little in
the regularity of the threads in different specimens,
but scarcely presenting two species. Between
84° and 112° there is an imperfect Zygnema, with
very long articulations ; and where the green
scum passes into brown, there is sometimes an
Oscillatoria, or a very minute stellate Scytonema,
probably in an imperfect state. Epithemia
ocellata also contributes often to produce the
tint. An Anabaina occurs at a temperature of
125°, but the same species was found also in the
stream from the springs, where the water had
become cold, as was also the case with the
Zygnema. Mr. Thomas Brightwell found in a
portion of the same specimen, Epithemia alpestris.
The Diatomaceae consisted of —
Epithemia Broomeii, n. sp. I E. insequalis, n. sp.
E. thermalis, ft, sp. | Novicula Beharensis, n, sp.

The vegetation in the three sets of springs was
very different. As regards the Confervae, taking
the word in its older sense, the species in the
three are quite different, and even in respect of
genera there is little identity ; but amongst the
Diatomacese there is no striking difference, except
in those of the Behar springs, where three out of
the four did not occur elsewhere. In the Pugha
and Momay springs, the species were either iden-
tical with, or nearly allied to, those found in neigh-
bouring localities, where the water did not exceed
the ordinary temperature.

In Ceylon, hot springs occur in two places in
the Kandyan province, at Badulla, at Kitool
near Bintenne, near Yaviutu in the Veddah
country, and a fourth at Kannea, 7 miles beyond
Trincomalee ; and there are two in the province

of Uva, and one at Batticaloa. Their waters are
considered efficacious in cutaneous ailments and
rheumatism. A fifth is said to exist near the
Patipal Aar, south of Batticaloa. The water in
each is sufficiently pure to be used by the natives
for domestic purpose?.

In the hot springs of Kannea, the water flows
at a temperature varying at different seasons from
85° to 115°. In the stream formed by these
wells, M. Reynaud found and forwarded to Cuvier
two fishes, which he took from the water at a
time when his thermometer indicated a tempera-
ture of 37° Reaumur, equal to 115° of Fahrenheit.
The one was an apogon, the other an ambassis ;
and to each, from the heat of its habitat, he
assigned the specific name of Thermalis. Also a
loche, Cobitis thermalis, and a carp, Nuria ther-
moicos, were found in the hot springs of Kannea
at a heat of 40° cent., 114° Fahr. ; and a roach,
Leuciscus thermalis, when the thermometer indi-
cated 50° cent,, 122° Fahr.

Fish have been taken from a hot spring at Puri
when the thermometer stood at 112° Fahr., and as
they belonged to a carnivorous genus, they must
have found prey living in the same high tempera-
ture.

Fishes have been observed in a hot spring at
Manilla, which raises the thermometer to 187°, and
in another in Barbary, the usual temperature of
which is 172° ; and Humboldt and Bonpland,
when travelling in South America, saw fishes
thrown up alive from a volcano, in water that
raised the temperature to 210°, being two degrees
below the boiling point. The springs of Kannea
are situated in low ground abounding in quartz,
surrounded by low jungle, in an unhealthy country,
Of the two warm springs in the provinceof Ouva,
one is at Badalla, in Upper Ouva, about 1861 feet
above the level of the sea, where the mean annual
heat is about 69° ; the other is about a mile and
a half from Aliputa, in Lower Ouva, near the
path on the way to Kotahowa, about 1061 feel
above the level of the sea, where the meai:
annual temperature is probably about 76°.
Hot springs also occur as under : —

On Ranjit river. — Darjeeling Guide.

Between Meeaday and the Arakan Hills. — Phayre.

Sitacund, near Chittagong.

Springs at Numyan, near Prome.

Hot-water fountain at Tavoy ; at LAinkyen, in Tavoy

and at Sienli in Martaban. — Prinsep.
Near Kaline Aurig, Martaban. — Low.
Hot spring on Attaran river, Tenasserim. — PiddingtoiX
Hot springs on the Palouk river and at Pee, betweei

Mergni and Tavoy, some sulphuretted. — Major W

M'Leod.

There is a hot spring near Chirana Puteh, ant
another at Salanama in Rambu. Tin has beet
procured near Taba, and also near Chirana Puteh

Ayarpanas (hot water) spring near Malacca ; ib
water, 115°, is said to be useful in rheumatism.

Hot springs, some of interest, exist at Yom-
mack, in lat, 22° 24' N., long. 113° 28' E., about
15 miles N.W. of Macao, with a temperature from
132° to 190° Fahr. The springs are three in
number, and are near a rivulet, 100 yards from
the river.

Hot springs occur in the Shan-tung province
of China at Ai-shan, about 12 miles from Chefoo:
also at Loong-chwcn, 60 li E. of Ning-hai ; at
Wun-shih-ting, 70 li S. of Tung-chow ; near Yi-
chow-foo, and at Chau-yuen, 60 li W. of Whang-

114

HOTTKNTOT.

HOI S!

hien. The water la sulphurous, and lwiths have
itabhahed there.— FbHtet, Ceylon, ii. p, lit ;
Bengal As. Soe. Journal, 1848 ; Mra Hertey's
Tartary, \. p. 94; Patterson's Zoology^ part ii. p.
•_'ll: )<\,r.il's British Fishes, i. part xvi. ; 7Vm-
'\ii/i'ii. p. 69 ; Davy's Ceylon, pp. 42-46;
Carttr'x western India, p. :il ■ rottinm/r't Belnch-
istmi, \>. 17'.': Hooker, Him. Jour. ; Tr. of Hind.;
Dr. M'. Hihbert, in Jam. Ed. Journ. xxiv., 1887;
Dr. /.'. Kir*, in ./<>. /.'. W«fc Nor. No. vi. ; /'/r mfag ,•
Dr. ,1. Ihmra,,. Bo. Medt. I'm., 1836; Brwsw;
J>r. MatvJurnon, in Indian Annals of Med. >'•■.,
I •'•'' I : !/<•. Livingstone, in Jam. Ed. Jour.

HoTTKNTOT, a race occupying a part of the
mireiae south of Africa, near the Cape of Good
Hope.

HOUGH, Major W., author of A Narrative

of the March and Operations of the Army of

tin- Indus in the Expedition to Afghanistan in

'. and History of the Dooranee Empire to

the Present Time, London 1841.

HOURI. In Mahomedan belief, a woman in
paradise. It is translated in Sale's Koran, chap,
iv., 'beauteous damsels, having fine black eyes.

HOUSE.

Bait Arab.

Kaiaon, Fr.

Bku, Ger.

Khana, . Hind., 1'eiw.

Casa, .... It., Sp.

Oor, Tam.

Illu, Tel.

Ev, Konak, . . . Turk.

In the granitic country of Telingana, the houses
are usually built of adhesive earth or clay, of a
square or rectangular form, smeared often with
red earth, and picked out with perpendicular
bands of slaked lime, with a pyramidal roof of
palmyra leaves or grass. Houses in the Karnatic
are of mad walls, with roofs thatched with grass
or palm leaves. Houses on the banks of the
Kistna, near its debouchure, have circular walls
of adhesive earth.

In the Tamil and Telugu country, the walls are
usually of mud, with thatch or tiles for the roof,
flie humbler races have circular houses ; their
houses in Telingana arc detached from each other,
outside the gharri or fort. In the Canarese tract
about Hurryhur, the back of the house is formed
by raising a very high wall, on which a long
sloping roof rests.

In Arabia and Mahomedan countries of Persia
and India, houses have a common courtyard, with
numerous rooms leading from it.

The circular form of hut is the only style of
architecture adopted among all the tribes of
ventral Africa, and also among the Arabs of
Upper Egypt : and although these differ more or
less in the form of the roof, no tribe has ever yet
sufficiently advanced to construct a window. Their
houses are circular and conical, with only one
opening for a doorway.

The Yezdy, a Kurd race settled near Aleppo,
build a stone wall, and erect over it a goat-hair roof.

!n Persia, the cottages of the villagers and
peasantry are of mud, or rough stones cemented
with mud, and mostly consist of two rooms. The
walls, which are usually about seven feet high,
are very thick, and full of niches and recesses,
which serve as cupboards for depositing all
manner of miscellaneous articles. The roofs of
the larger Persian houses are flat, and many have
tall bad-gir or wind towers risiug high above.
The bad-gir is a large square tower, covered on
the top. but opening below into the apartment

above which it is erected. The four sides are kid
OMa in long perpendicular aperture* like narrow
windows, and within these are partitions or walls
intersecting each other, so as to form four
Channel! in the tower. By thin contrivance, from
Whatevet quarter the wind blows, it is caught in
the tower and conveyed into the room below, bo
that a constant current of air is kept up, except
when it happens to be a dead calm.

The cottage of Bengal, with its trim, curved,
thatched roof, and cane or bamboo walls, i* tin-
best looking in India.

The houses of Hindustan are built of clay or
unburnt bricks, and tiled.

In the greenstone tract of the Dekhan, lWar.
and the Mahratta country, where wood is scarce
and of high price, the walla are mostly of mud,
with flat roofs. The houses are huddled close
together, surrounded by a wall, often with a
(antral gharri or fort.

Houses with a flat roof have a parapet (Deuter-
onomy xxii. 8) to prevent any one falling into the
street.

Acts x. 9 tells us that 'Peter went upon the
housetop to pray. 5 All the flat-roofed houses of
India would admit of this ; but some of the rich
Hindus have a room on the top of the house, in
which they perform worship daily.

2 Samuel xi. 2 says, ' And it came to pass in an
evening-tide, that David arose from off his bed,
and walked upon the roof of the king's house.'
It is common in India with Mahomedans and
Hindus to sleep in the afternoon. The roofs of
houses are flat, and it is a pleasing recreation in
an evening to walk on the fiat roofs.

In Tibet, the peasant's house much resembles a
brick kiln in shape and size. It is built of rough
stones, without cement, and has two or three
small apertures for ventilation. The roof is flat.

Houses in Burma, Arakan, the Straits Settle-
ments, and all through the Archipelago, are raised
on piles ; some on the river side are built over
the river on piles several feet high, with wooden
or bamboo matting walls. The whole frontage on
the left bank of the Moulmein river is built over,
as also in Mergui. Some of the tribes of Further
India live in great houses, communicating in their
entire length. This is for defence.

Houses in many eastern countries are built as a
quadrangle, the four outer walls being dead, or
pierced with loopholes ; in one of the halls is the
entrance to an open unroofed courtyard, sur-
rounded by chambers or open verandahs. This
arrangement explains the circumstances of the
letting down of the paralytic into the presence of
our Lord, in order that he might heal him (Mark
ii. 4, Luke v. 19). The paralytic was carried by
some of his neighbours to the top of the house,
either by forcing their way through the crowd by
the gateway and passages up the stairs, or else by
conveying him over some of the neighbouring
terraces ; and there, after they had drawn away
the awning, ' they let him down along the Bide of
the roof, through the opening or impluvium, into
the midst of the court before Jesus.'

Matthew x. 12-14 says, 'And when ye come

into an house, salute it. And whosoever shall

not receive you,' etc. It is the custom amongst

I Hindus of a stranger to go to a house, and as

he enters it to say, ' Sir, I am a guest with you

I to-night.' If the person cannot receive him, he

HOUSE-LEEKS.

HUDDART.

apologizes to the stranger. — Horn's Critical Study
of the Scriptures, i. p. 385 ; Shaw's Travels, i. pp.
374-376 ; Hartley's Researches in Greece, ii. p.
240 ; Robinson's Tr. ii. p. 351 ; Ward's Hindoos.

HOUSE -LEEKS, King-t'ien, Chin. The
plants Umbilicus malacophyllus, Sedum acre, and
Serapervivum tectorum, are grown on Chinese
housetops, with the idea that they ward off fires.
—Smith, M. M. C.

HOUSHA, in Bengal, a village authority.

HOUTMAN, CORNELIS, in a.d. 1595, as
supercargo, was entrusted with the cargo of four
ships to sail by the Cape of Good Hope to the
East Indies, a company having been formed,
entitled 'Het Maatschappy van verre Landen,' to
carry out the Dutch enterprises in the east. He
left the Texel 2d February 1595, crossed the
line 14th June, doubled the Cape 2d August,
landed at Sumatra 11th July 1596, and entered
the harbour of Bantam 22d July. He purchased
pepper and spices in the Sunda Islands and Java,
and returned to the Texel in 1597.

A second expedition, in which he was slain,
went out in 1598, and returned in 1600-1601.
This seems to have been commanded by Admiral
Vauneck, who formed an establishment at Java
and in the Molucca Islands ; and he was followed
by Admiral Warwyk, who fortified the factory at
Java, and formed alliances in Bengal. In 1624
the Dutch settled on Formosa, which soon attained
a high degree of prosperity, but was ultimately
wrested from them by a Chinese patriot. They
have had a factory in Japan since 1640, where
they submitted to very degrading treatment. The
Dutch subsequently expelled the Portuguese and
Spaniards from Malacca and from the Moluccas,
and afterwards formed settlements at Timur,
Celebes, Macassar, and Sumatra.

Spielbergen was the first Dutch navigator who
touched at Batticaloa in Ceylon, in March 1602.
He went to Kandy, where he was well received,
entered into alliances with the king of Kandy in
the year 1638, and for the next twenty years their
ward with the Portuguese were incessant. The
Portuguese finally departed on the 24th June 1658.

HOVA. The tombs of the Hova race of
Madagascar consist of stone vaults, made of
immense slabs of stones, flat inside, forming a
subterranean grotto. They also erect stone pillars
similar to menhir. The supposed aborigines of
Madagascar were the Vasimba, whose tombs are
small tumuli or cairns, surmounted by an upright
stone pillar.

HOVENTA DULCIS.

Chih-ku, Ki-ku-tsze, Chin.
Coral, Honey, and

White stone tree, Eng.

Thunb.

Sicka, Hind.

Kempokonass, . Japan.
Ken, Kimponass,

This tree grows in India, Nepal, China, and
Japan. Its fruit are small, dry, and pea-like,
pendent upon the fleshy peduncles, like the
cashew nut. They greatly increase in size at the
time of their maturation. The fruit-like thick-
ened branches are of a russet colour, and filled
with a pleasant, yellowish, pear-like pulp. The
fleshly peduncles are said to counteract the im-
mediate and after effects of wine. — Smith,
M. M. C. ; Roxb. i. p. 630 ; Von Mueller.

HOWA. Arab. Eve, the mother of the human
race.

HOWDAH, a seat, pad, or open litter fixed on
the back of an elephant.

HOWLER, a name given to the Gulshaniyeh
darvesh. See Darvesh.

HOAVRAH or Haura, sub-district of Hoogly
district, Bengal, with independent magisterial
jurisdiction, lying between lat. 22° 13' 15" and 22°
47' N., and between long. 87° 47' and 88° 24' 15"
E. — Imp. Gaz.

HOW-TSAO. Chin. A bezoar stone, used in
China for the treatment of Cynanche tonsillaris.

HOYA, a genus of plants of the natural order
Asclepiacese. The species in Southern Asia are,
— H. carnosa, fusca, lanceolata, linearis, ovalifolia,
pallida, parasitica, Pottsii, pauciflora, pendula, and
viridiflora. Several of the species, under the name
of wax plants, are cultivated on account of their
elegant flowers. H. imperialis, Lindl., of Borneo,
is highly beautiful, its large and rich purple
flowers being relieved by the white, ivory-like
centre ; it is epiphytal. H. carnosa, R. Br., the
flesh-coloured wax plant, is a native of China. —
Voigt ; Wight ; Eng. Cyc. ; Low's Sarawak, p. 67.

HOYA PENDULA. Wight and Arnott.
Asclepias pendula, Roxb. I Hoya revoluta, Wight.
A. Kheedii, W. and A. | Nasjera patsja, Maleal.

This plant grows in the Circar mountains,
Malabar, and Neilgherry Hills, and is used in
medicine. Its flowers are middle sized, white,
and fragrant. — Voigt.

HOYA VIRIDIFLORA. R. Br. Asclepias
viridiflora of Roxburgh. A native of Coromandel,
Sylhet, and the Neilgherry Hills. The root and
tender stalks produce nausea, and promote ex-
pectoration. The leaves, peeled and dipped in
oil, are used by the natives of India as a discutient
in the early stages of boils, and in the more ad-
vanced stages to promote suppuration.

HSU SHEN, author of the Shuo Wen, a
Chinese dictionary. It consisted of 10,000 separate
characters, in the tablet and stylus form. Com-
monly called the ' Lesser Seal.' He lived in the
time of the Han dynasty.

H'TEE, Burm., is the umbrella or canopy of
gilt iron filigree which crowns every pagoda in
Burma. Now-a-days, generally, a bottle is put on
the H'tee, and a similar practice is said to be
pursued in Ceylon, originating, as it is surmised,
from the knowledge that glass is a non-conductor.
The H'tee of the Shooay Dagon pagoda at Ran-
goon was renewed by the king of Burma in 1871
at a cost of £62,000, and about 50,000 people
assembled to assist in putting it up. It was 47
feet high and 13 in diameter. Kings of Burma in
1755, and again in 1774, had asserted their
sovereignty over Rangoon by thus crowning the
great pagoda. — Yule's Embassy.

HUAKI. Maori. A fabric of New Zealand
used in clothing.

HUC and GABET, two French missionaries,
who, by a route till then quite unexplored by any
European, passed among the mountains north of
Bhutan and Ava, and so made their way due cast
to the plains of China (Central Flowery Land). M.
Hue wrote an account of his travels.

HUD. At Hasek is the tomb of the prophet
Hud, the fourth in descent from Shem.

HUDDART. Captain Joseph Huddart, F.R.S.,
author of the Oriental Navigator, which first
appeared in 1785, with an atlas of 108 charts. A
second edition of it appeared in 1797, a third in
1801, and a fourth in 1808, of 755 pages. Its plan
was adhered to by Captain James Horsburgh

116

Ill DDKKAK'no.

lll'OKI.

(i.i>iii M;iy L836),under the titled India Directory,
tli«' first part of which appeared in 1K<>9, the
fccoiiI part in 1811, and it li as since gone through
several editions, its place has now been largely
taken by two similar works, one under the editor-
ship of Mr. Findlay, and 'another by Captain
Taylor of the Indian navy.

Ill DDKKAK'OO. II ini). A kind of ring used
omedan marriages.

Ill DKiAK". Kai:n. A low caste in Mysore.

HUE or Fue. Chik. A secret society.

HUGEL. Haron Charles F. von Hugel, author
liinir und das Reich der Siek, Stuttgart
1M0, describing his visit to the Himalaya moun-
tains and the valley of Kashmir. The Fische aus
mir were described by MM. von Hugel
an d von Heckel. Baron Hugel met other two
travellers in Kashmir, and they agreed to carve
the following inscription on a black marble tablet,
and Bet it up in the little building on the Char
Chunar island : — ' Three travellers in Kashmir on
the 18th November 1885, the Baron Ch. Hugel
from .Jamu, Th. G. Vigne from Iskardu, and Dr.
.lohn Henderson from Ladakh, have caused the
names of all the travellers who have preceded
them in Kashmir to be engraven on this stone.
Bernier 1668 ; Forster, 1786 ; Moorcroft, Guthrie,
and Trebeck, 1823 ; Victor Jacquemont, 1831 ;
Joseph "Wolff, 1832.' Two only of these, the first
and the last, ever returned to their native country.
In the list they did not include Catholic mission-
aries. Forster did, 6trictly speaking, return home,
but he came out again and died at Madras. When
Char Chunar island was visited by Dr. Adams in
1854, the tablet had been removed. — HugeVs Tr.
p. 144 ; Blast's Cat.; Adams' Naturalist in India.

Ill (JH LINDSAY was the name of the first
steamer that conveyed an overland mail from
Bombay to Suez. She was the first steamer that
entered the Persian Gulf. She was lost coming
out of the roads of Bassidore, a port on the island
of Kishm, in the Persian Gulf.

lH'CrLI or Hoogly, a town in Bengal, in lat.
22° 54' 44" N., long. 88° 26' 28" E. It has the
town of Chinsurah adjoining it on its south, and
their joint population in 1872 was 34,761. A
fort is said to have been built here by the
Portuguese in 1537, and a population gathered
around it. About the year 1629 it was taken by
storm, under the order of the emperor Shah
Jahan ; but in 1640 the English East India Com-
pany, under a firman granted to Dr. Boughton,
opened a factory here, and two years afterwards
another at Balasor. Between 1685 and 1688,
disputes arose between the Nawab of Bengal and
the Company's servants ; but peace was restored,
ind in the treaty permission was given to build a
factory at Sutanati, the present site of Calcutta.
Hoogly is the head station of a British revenue
ilistrict, with an area of 1467 square miles, and a
population in 1872 of 1,488,556 souls, the most
lumerous Hindu castes being the Bagdi, Kaibartta.
Brahmans, Rajputs; and Mahometans, 299,025.
When Hoogly fort was taken by the troops of Shah
Jahan byjassault, after a siege of 3£ months, more
than 1000 Portuguese were slaughtered, and 4400
men, women, and children were made prisoners of
war. The best-looking young persons were sent to
Agra, and circumcised and made Mahomedaus. The
jirls were distributed among the harains of the
inperor and his nobility, In Hoogly the first

preM was let up in India in 177K, by Mckhth.
llalhed and Wilkinson the occasion of the publica-
tion of a Bengali grammar by Hulhed. The
Handel church is the oldest Christian church in
Bengal, built, according to the inscribed date, in
1599. Prior to Hoogly, the royal port of Bengal
was Satgaon. The Ganges formerly flowed by
this place, and came out near Andool, and the
remains of wrecked vessels have been turned out
beneath the earth, which has overlaid the bed of
the deserted channel. Satgaon is of great anti-
quity, having been known to the Romans under
the name of Ganges Regia.

The Hoogly river is formed by the junction of
the Bhagirathi and Jelinghi, two branches of the
Ganges. It runs into the sea at Saugor roadstead,
by an estuary 15 miles wide. Ita length is 160
miles by winding of stream. It receives the
Damodah, 350 miles ; Dalkissore, 170 miles ;
Cossy, 240 miles; Mor, 130 miles; and about
49,000 square miles are drained. The river has
on its banks Calcutta, Serampur, Chanderouggur,
Hoogly, and Murshidabad. The rivers forming
it are offsets from the western branch of the
Ganges delta. The eastern or Saugor channel is
the principal entrance. From Middleton Point
light to Fort William at Calcutta is 83£ miles in
length, following the windings of the river. It is
the most westerly, and, for commercial purposes,
the most important channel by which the GangeB
enters the Bay of Bengal. Proceeding south and
a little east from Santipur, the Hoogly river
divides Murshidabad from Hoogly district, until
it touches the district of the Twenty - four
Parganas in lat. 22° 57' 30" N., and long. 88° 27'
15" E., close to the village of Bagherkhal. It
then proceeds almost due south to Calcutta, next
inclines to the south-west, and finally turns south,
entering the Bay of Bengal in lat. 21° 41' N., and
long. 88° E.

The Saraswati, now a muddy channel, enters
the Hoogly at Satgaon, about 30 miles above
Calcutta, and the Adi Ganga, now little more
than a series of pools, which diverges south-east
from it just below Calcutta, are both rivers of
great sanctity. They are supposed to represent
the original Ganges, Holy Mother Ganga, who
takes her divine source in the Himalayas, and
pours her waters into the Bay of Bengal at Sagor
(Saugor) island. In August 1856, neap tide rose
15£ feet above the datum sill of the Kidderpore
dock ; and upon the 18th August 1856, spring tide
rose to 22| feet above the same datum, the
greatest rise of the salt lakes being 12 feet. This
is on the western side of the delta. On the
eastern side the tides rise from 40 to 80 feet The
silt held in solution, earthy matter, carbonate of
lime, magnesia, sulphates of lime and iron, at 8
feet of depth, varies at Calcutta and in the
Gasper Channel from 7 84 to 18*92.

The Hoogly is difficult to navigate. The tides
run rapidly. The James and Mary Sands, 80
miles below Calcutta, used to be reckoned so
perilous, that until well into the nineteenth century
East Indiamen lay at Diamond harbour, just
below their dangerous currents. A minute super-
vision of the channels, with steady dredging
and a constant readjustment of the buoys, now
renders the Hoogly a safo waterway to Calcutta
for ships of the largest modern tonnage, drawing
up to 26 feet. These sands are shallows formed

117

HUGONIA MYSTAX.

HULUGU.

at the entrance into the Hoogly, from its western
bank, of the Damodar and Rupnarayan rivers,
which bring down the drainage of South -Western
Bengal. These rivers discharge at sharp angles
into the Hoogly, at a distance of only a few miles
apart, nearly opposite Falta, which lies 27 miles
by water from Calcutta. Their waters check the
flow of the Hoogly, and lead to the deposit of
vast quantities of the silt with which the Hoogly,
Damodar, and Rupnarayan are loaded. If a ship
touch the bottom of the sands, she is immedi-
ately pushed over by the current ; and cases
are known in which only the yards of a great
three-masted ship have remained above water
within half-an-hour after the accident; vessels
become covered over with the sand if not promptly
blown up. The sands extend upwards from Hoogly
Point, 33^ miles from Calcutta, opposite the mouth
of the Rupnarayan, to about Falta, 27 miles from
Calcutta, opposite the mouth of the Damodar.

Fishermen, who have sea-going boats, inhabit
villages near the entrance of the Hoogly.

A bore is caused by the head-wave of the advan-
cing tide becoming hemmed in where the estuary
narrows suddenly into the river, and often exceeds
7 feet in height. It is felt as high up as Calcutta,
and frequently sinks small boats or dashes them
to pieces on the bank. The tide itself runs as
high up asHoogly town. — Tr. of Hind. i. pp. 13, 15.

HUGONIA MYSTAX. Linn. Modera kanni,
Maleal. ; Agur, Tam. A shrub growing in
Malabar, the Coromandel coast, and Ceylon, with
large blossoms of golden-yellow colour. It is em-
ployed iu native medicine. — IF. 111.; Voigt.

HUJERI. Arab. A term applied to one of
the servile races of Arabia. Qu. Khijra ?

HUJRA. Pkks. A place of assembly, a chamber.
In Afghanistan, a house set apart for the accom-
modation of travellers, and where, in the evenings,
the old and the young assemble to converse and
smoke the chillam. — Masson's Journeys, i. p. 119.

HUJRA, a small town of 3000 inhabitants in
the Montgomery district of the Panjab ; residence
of a branch of the Bedi Sikhs, descendants of
guru Baba Nauak. It was conquered by Bedi
Sahib Singh during the reign of Ranjit Singh,
and held by him in jaghir from the Maharaja. His
descendants still hold extensive revenue grants in
the neighbourhood, and exercise considerable local
influence. — Imp. Gaz.

HUJULOHA. Hind. An epithalamium.

HUKKA. Hind. A pipe used in India, in
which smoke is made to pass through water.
Hukka bardar, a pipe-bearer. Hukko charsee
Pattani, used by Pataus for smoking charras,
resin of hemp, or Cannabis sativa.

HUKMCHIS. Hind. A dark-coloured gum
obtained from the date palm.

HUKUM or Hukung, a valley in Assam, about
1000 feet above the level of the sea. It is sur-
rounded on the north and east by mountains
elevated 5000 and 6000 feet, and is traversed by
numerous ranges of low hills.

HULAETA. Hind. In Hindustan, the first
ploughing of the season, which is generally pre-
ceded by the taking of omens, and other super-
stitious ceremonies. The note of the koel bird,
amongst other auguries, is considered very favour-
able, and its utterance is of such authority as to
enable the cultivator to dispense with a formal
application to a Brahman.— Ell. See Hal ; Har.

HULARI, a mountainous district near Shiraz,
with fine vineyards, from which the choicest
Persian wine is prepared, both red and white. This
wine has much body ; it resembles the strong
Cape wines, and is fit to be exported.

HULAS WAR, a division of the Holeyar of the
Canarese-speakinff race.

HULDI or Haldi. Hind. Turmeric ; Curcuma
longa, Roxb. It takes an important place in many
of the customs of the people of India. Haldi
mehndi is a Mahomedan betrothal ceremonial, as
also are Haldi or Munja baithna, Haldi cbor, and
Haldi saoo. The Hindu races use it largely for
smearing their bodies, and to dye with it portions
of their new clothes to avert the evil eye.

HULKA-BUNDI or Halka-bandi. Hind. A
system of schooling, embracing those of the circle
of villages in which they were established.

HULL. E. C. P. Hull, author of Coffee Planting
iu Southern India and Ceylon, London 1877.

HULL AH or Nimboli. Hind. A neck orna-
ment worn by Mahomedans.

HULLAR or Hulla, a district which forms the
chief part of the southern shores of the Gulf of
Cutch. The land near the sea is low, but all well
watered. Nowanagar is the principal place of
the district. The Roje temple is in lat. 22° 32
50" N., and long. 70° 1' 30" E.

HULLE MUKKALU, a caste in Mysore who
live by begging, and by fees from goldsmiths'
shops, blacksmiths' shops, and at marriage cere-
monies.

HULUGU, grandson of Chengiz Khan, founded
the Mongol dynasty of Persia. On the 22d of
January 1258, he appeared with his army before
Baghdad. On the first of February he took the
city by storm, and put an end to the power of the
khalifs. He had made the khalif Mostassim
believe that he was willing to give his daughter
in marriage to the khalifs son. But when the
principal people were thus all got together, the
Tartars set on them, and put them all to death.
Baghdad, the city of science, learning, and pleasure,
was given up to pillage and slaughter, and more
than 800,000 persons were mercilessly destroyed.
Sanut declares that Hulugu killed the khalif by
pouring molten gold down his throat. Whilst the
Mongol were covering Poland with blood and
ruins, Hulugu, in the east, was completing the
conquest of Syria. After the capture of Baghdad,
he entered Mesopotamia, seized on Murdiu and
Harran, passed the Euphrates, and made himself
master of Aleppo and Damascus. The Tartar-
general had sent orders to Nasir, the sultan of
Aleppo, to submit at once, and come in person to
meet him. Not being complied with, Hulugu
laid siege to Aleppo. Twenty catapults played
for five days against the town, and it was taken
by assault on the 18th January 12C0. An in-
j credible amount of treasure was found in it, and
the carnage was still more horrible than at
Baghdad. The streets were choked up with
corpses, and it is stated that 100,000 women and
children were sold for slaves in Little Armenia or
in the territories of Europeans. He was succeeded
by his son Abaka, who married a daughter of
Michael Palaeologus, the Greek emperor. His
brother Nicolas, who succeeded him, became a
Mahomedan ; but Arghun Khan, son of Nicolas,
was hostile to the people of that creed. Arghun
sent embassies, conducted by a Genoese named.

118

Ill MA.

HUMl'I.

relli, to the I 'ope, and to tlio kings of
France ami England, proposing an alliance

laceusand Turks; and in 12'JO Edward i. of
England sent Qeoffrey de Langley on a return
i to him. Arghun having lost his favourite
wife in 1286, sent Kublai Khan to select another
for him, ami the Polo relatives were commis-
i y Kublai Kban to escort the new bride be
bad ohosoii for his nephew, to the Persian court.
— Hue's Christianity, i. p. 268,

II I'M A. a fabulous bird, the phoenix of classical
writers, also the hoopoe, Upupa epo.

HUMAYUN, emperor of India, twice reigned
in that country, \ i/.. from the death of his father
Baber, 26th December L680, till he abdicated on
the 9th July 1543, aud again from re-accession,
a.m. i."i,')."i, till his death. Humayun was the eldest
of four sons of Baber. Of these, Kamran was
governor of Kabul and Kandahar at the time of
their father's death, but Hindal and Mir/a Akbari
were unemployed in India, llumayunon accession
ceded the Panjab and the country on the Indus to
Kami an, in addition to his former territories; gave
tin government of Sainbal to .Hindal, and that of
to Mirza Askari. Humayuu's first opera-
tions were against Bahadur Shah, kmg of Gujerat,
and he was one of three hundred chosen men
who, at night, in August 1635, scaled the almost
perpendicular rock on which the hill fort of
Qhampaner is built. Sher Shah's revolt, how-
ever, recalled him to Hindustan and the banks of
the Ganges ; but, after gaining temporary advan-
tages, in a general action in April 1840, mar
Canouj, Hurnayun's forces were defeated and
driven into the Ganges, Humayun himself escaping
to the i >t her side with great difficulty. He sought

i-iin kQQk lj"' tit 1*1, defeated the Afghans, and
compelled Kaiuran t<> IK to India, wl
refuflM with Sultan Sclim, ami afterwards with
Jan of the Ghakkar, who in September
1553 betrayed him to Humayun. He waa
blinded, and allow, «1 i<> pffeeeed to Mecca, where
be soon after died. Humayun passed a year at
Kabul and Kandahar ; ami on the death of Selim
Shah he set out from Kaiul with 15,000 horse
in January 1665, 10 1 .ah.-i. ■, ov« rthrew Sikaoder
Shah at Sirhind, ami took possession of Dehli and
Agra. In less than six month* after his return
to the capital, when descending the stairs from
bis library, hearing the muazzan's call to prayers,
he repeated the oj iwu on the steps

till the azan was finished. As he rose with the
help of his staff, it slipped on the polished
marble step, and be fell over the parapet, and
was stunned. On the fourth day of the accident
be expired, a.d. 155C, a.m. 063, in the 49th year
of his age and iOtb of his reign, including the
HI years of his banishment from his capital. He
was succeeded by his son Akbar, then thirteen
years and four months old ; and in Akbar a reign
India was formed into one empire. Humayun in
all his military operations had shown no want
of personal courage, but great deficiency in enter-
prise, and he had gone through his subseiju« nt
calamities with cheerfulness that approached to
magnanimity. — Elphin. pp. 384-413.

HUMBOLDTIA UNIJUGA. Bedd. 1c. A
handsome middling-sized tree, growing abundantly
on the Travancore Ghats, in the dense forests a
little below the Attraymallay, 8000 to 4000 feet
elevation ; timber very hard and durable. Wight
gives also H. Brunonia, laurifolia, and Vahliana.

etion from Kamran at Lahore, then, failing — W. Ic. ; Beddome, Fl. Sylr.

m an invasion of Sind, he sought and found an
asylum with Maldeo, raja of Marwar, but finding
Maldeo likely to deliver him up to his enemies,
be moved to Amerkot, a fort in the desert not
far from the Indus. The journey through the
was calamitous ; many of his companions
•lied miserably from thirst; Humayun, with only
seven mounted attendants, entered Amerkot, and
was received kindly by the chief, liana Parshad.
Here, on the 14th October 1542, was born bis
1 mi Akliar. His fortunes still varied, and he sought
protection with Shah Thamasp, king of Persia.
; his confidential officer, Bahrain Khan, to
meet the kin-, and followed afterwards on a visit,
but found himself a prisoner, was compelled to
accent the Shiah doctrines and forms, and pro-
mised to introduce it into India, t<> wear the Kazzil-
basli oap, and to v<-iU~ the kingdom of Kandahar.
At length he was allowed to depart, and, arriving
at Seistan, be found 14,000 horse awaiting his
arrival, under the command of Morad Mirza, king
Thainasp's son.

He took Bast on the Hebuaml, l>esieged and
took Kandanar, March 1545. Mirza Askari took
Kabul, and recovered Akbar, but only again
to sustain reverses in Balkh, during which be
tied with only eleven attendants to Badakhshan.
Recovering somewhat, be overthrew Kami an
(1547). and all the brothers (1548) were recon-
ciled, and took food together; only again for.
Humayun to meet with further reverses, for
Humayun marched against the Khalil, but in a
night attack he was defeated by these moun-
taineers, and his brother Hindal killed. Humavmi

HUME, ALLEN OCTAYIUS, C.B., a civil ser-
vant of the Bengal Presidency, and author of The
Game Birds of India. While magistrate of Etawa,
by force of will and mild obstinacy of purpose,
be overcame much resistance from the natives, and
for years continued toiling at schools and Chris-
tianity, and all that elevates the human heart. He
was an instance bow much can be done hi India by
the influence of one man. It is in India where such
influence attains its highest sway. A place more
desert-looking and hopeless of growth for any
European seed could hardly be selected ; yet this
one pale Englishman, of slender frame and asoetio
habits, developed upon that fiery soil a caste of
natives unsurpassed in firm allegiance and educa«
tional distinction. — T. J. Hovell-Thurlow, Tht
Cow/in in/ and the ( town, p. 89.

HUME A ELATA. Huxh. Masjot, Bkm* A
tree of Chittagoug which attains a great aiie.
Ilium a elegans is an ornamental plant of N. S.
Wake, grows to the height of 5 or 6 feet ; colour
of the tlower red, and well adapted for borders ;
it requires a good BoiL — Raxhurgk, ii. p. 640;
Hiddell.

HUMEANA. Him'. A waist-belt to carry
money.

HUMPI, a ruined city in the Hillary district
of the Madras Presidency, known formerly as
Bijanagar, also written Vijayanagar and Yijia-
nuggur, jirojHrlv Vidianuggur, or the town of
learning. There is a tradition that there was
a town here about a.d. 1100, but it first acquired
a name from being occupied or founded by two
fugitiv « from Telingana. or. according toPrmsep,

HUMULUS LUPULUS.

HUNDES.

iu 1338 by Bilal Deo of Karnata, wlio resisted
Muhammad Taghalaq, and founded Vijayanagar.
In 1347, Krishna Rai ruled there; in 1425, Deva
Rai ; in 1478, Siva Rai. Vijayanagar sovereigns
claimed to be of the Yadu race. Towards the
15th century, the city had become the capital of a
great Hindu power, which ruled over the Hindu
chiefs to the south of the territories of the Adal
Shahi, Nizam Shahi, and Kutub Shahi, kings
of the Dekhan. In the middle of the 16th
century, these three Mahomedan kings, fearing
the growing power of Ramaraja, the sovereign,
made war against him. Rama was then in his
70th year. He met the confederates at Talicottah,
on the 25th January 1565, with a great army of
70,000 horse, 90,000 foot, 2000 elephants, and
1000 pieces of cannon ; but he was defeated
with a loss of 100,000 men, and was taken
prisoner. The authors Khan" Khan and Shahab-
ud-Din state that the elephant on which he was
mounted ran away with him into the confederates'
camp. He was beheaded at Kala Chabutra, in the
Raichore Doab, and his head remained for 200
years at Bijapur as a trophy. Vijayanagar sank
into an insignificant place, and is now known as
the ruins of Humpi. The raja's brother, how-
ever, took refuge in Peniconda, and subsequently
at Chandragiri, whence the English merchants
obtained the grant of the ground on which Madras
was built, and engraved on a gold plate, which
was lost in 1746, when Madras was captured by
the French under Labourdonnais. The descendant
of Ramaraja is the raja of Anagundi, whose
title is Sri Mudrajadhi Raja, Raja Parameswara,
Sri Virapratapa, Sri Vira Terumala, Sri Vira-
venkata Ramarawya, Dava Maharawya Sumstan
Vedaya Nagarum. — Wh. II. I. p. 459.

HUMULUS LUPULUS. Linn. The hop plant;
has been extensively distributed in the Himalayas.
At 2500 feet, in the Dehra Doon, it grows well,
and at an altitude of 6000 feet in the Government
gardens, Mussoori, but in those regions the highest
limit appears to be 4000 or 4500 feet. It has been
successfully cultivated in Dehra Doon for many
years, so far as mere growth is concerned ; but
heavy rain at the flowering period prevents the
flower from reaching perfection as to quantity and
quality of the powder on which its value depends,
and the results have, on the whole, been unsatis-
factory.— Stewart, P. PI. p. 217. See Hops.

HUN. Hind. A gold coin of S. India, worth
31£ rupees, called pagoda by the British. It is
about 50 grains weight.

HUN, a race who have secured for themselves
a niche with the 36 races of India. D'Anville,
quoting Csoma de Koros, informs us that the White
Hun occupied the north of India ; and it is on
the eastern bank of the Chambal, at the ancient
Barolli, that tradition assigns a residence to the
Hun ; and one of the celebrated temples at that
place, called the Sengar Chaori, is the marriage
hall of the Hun prince, who is also declared to
have been possessed of a lordship on the opposite
bank, occupying the site of the present town of
Bhynsror. In the 12th century the Hun must
have possessed consequence, to occupy the place
they hold in the chronicle of the princes of Gujerat.
The race is not extinct. One of the bards pointed
out to Colonel Tod the residence of some in a
village on the estuary of the Myhie, though
degraded and mixed with other classes. There

are also two tribes in the Himalaya who have
preserved this designation, — the one in Gnari
Khorsum, who call themselves Hunia ; the other
beiug the Limbu in Nepal and Sikkim, a large
division of whom are called Hung. Arrian,
Strabo, and Ptolemy state that a race known as
the White Hun were established in the Panjab
and along the Indus about the beginning of the
Christian era. They are mentioned in the Maha-
bharata and Markandea Purana ; Dr. Fergusson
says (p. 39) the White Hun or Ephthalites are
the Jat.

The Hun are known in Chinese history as Heung-
noo, meaning boisterous slaves. The Hiatilla or
White Hun issued from the plains near the north
wall of China, made themselves masters of the
country of Transoxiana and Khorasan, and antici-
pated the irruption of those Turkish tribes who
afterwards expelled the Hiatilla from the lands
that they had taken from the Sacae or Scythians.
There is every ground to conclude that it was an
army of the Hiatilla that invaded Persia in the
reign of Bahram-Gor, a.d. 420, and that it was
to one of their kings that Firoz fled, a.d. 475.

The Hun who appeared in the west, dated their
empire from one of the princes of the Hia (Hya)
dynasty. Their country was of great extent,
situated on the west of Shen-si, of which they
possessed the western parts ; and their posterity
still inhabit a part of that territory, the present
Ele or Hi. They were one of those extensive
tribes which the ancients comprised under the
name of Scythians.

It was from Hi valley and town in Central
Asia that Lassen supposes the Szu Tartars were
expelled by the Yue-tchi or White Huns, B.C. 150.
The Szu Tartars he supposed to be the Sacse, and
the Yue-tchi to be the Tochari. After occupying
Tahia or Sogdiana for a time, they are stated by
the Chinese to have been driven thence by the
Yenger some years afterwards, and to have estab-
lished themselves in Kipen, in which name Lassen
recognises the Kophen valley in the Kohistan.
The great Kirghiz horde is adjacent to Hi and
Tarbagatai. It is under the dominion of China,
and exchanges large quantities of cattle on the
frontier for silk goods.

HUNDE. Karn. A name of the Kuru-baru,
Mysore shepherds.

HUNDE S or Gnari Khorsum is a part of Chinese
Tibet comprising the upper basin of the Sutlej
and headwaters of the Kamali river. For the
name, Professor Wilson gave Hiun, snow, and
Des, country ; but Captain H. Strachey derives the
name from the Sanskrit Hun, meaning the ab-
origines of the country north of the Himalaya, who
are mentioned in the Mahabharata and the Mark-
andeya Purana. This latter explanation com-
mended itself to the Hungarian scholar, Csoma
de Koros, who thought that he might find in
these parts the origin of his own people. Mr.
Ryall's derivation is from a Sanskrit word mean-
ing gold, Hun-des being the gold country. The
Hunia people of Hundes are chiefly nomades,
owning large flocks of sheep, and herds of cattle
and goats. They are a good-natured race ; ugly,
simple, and, like most dwellers in cold regions,
extremely dirty. They practise polyandry, and
in their customs are like the Bhot of Ladakh
described by Cunningham. There are five prin-
cipal passes leading into Hundes from British

120

HUNDI.

lll'KDOll;.

territory. The traffic is only open between the
15th of Juno and 15th October, and not even
then without the express permission of the Chinese
authorities at Lhassa, who carefully satisfy them-
selves that no epidemic prevails in the Ghats in
British territory. The gold-fields of Hundes lie
chiefly in tin- neighbourhood of Thok Jalang,
100 miles N.E. of Gartok. Washing operations
are carried on under the supervision of a gold
commissioner, who is called Sarpan, and takes a
royalty of Jths of an ounce yearly from each digger.
At Gartok, fine gold-dust sells at Rs. 1^ in weight
forRs. 16. The greatest demand for gold is at Lhassa.
In the early part of the 19th century, the gold-
fields round Lake Manasarowar were worked rather
extensively; but an epidemic breaking out amongst
the miners, the authorities at Lhassa interposed,
and the operations were stopped. The Hunia all
drink tea, and travel great distances, living on it
and sattu, the flour of a parched grain. The
Hunia only grow small patches of uwa, a kind
of barley, and obtain their other grains from the
hill territories of British India. They keep three
years' supply of grain in store, to obviate the
stoppage of the roads. Their villages are mere
tents. — Tod's llojasthan ; Gutzlaft's Chinese His-
tonj; Malcolm's Persia; Chatjiela"s Hindustan;
Ritchie's British World.

HUNDI, an Indian draft or bill of exchange,
drawn by or upon a native banker or sirraf,
commonly written shrof. — Simmonds' 1 Diet.

HUNGARY, a kingdom of Europe, divided by
the river Danube into Upper and Lower Hungary,
and subdivided into 46 counties. The Hungarian,
Lapponian, and Finish dialects are now classed as
members of the great Turanian or Tartar family
of tongues, which is spoken by all the tribes from
the Himalaya to Okotsk and to Lapland, and
includes the Hungarian, Crimean, and Turkish
tongues.

HUNG KIAO. Chin. The Red Church, also
known as Brug-pa, the designations of the Sakya
priesthood of Tibet.

HUNGRUNG, a district adjoining Ladakh,
belongs to the raja of Bisatun, its villages lying
from 9500 to 12,000 feet above the sea.

HUNG SING-WONG, with the Chinese, the
god of the Southern Ocean, and a state deity of
China.

HUNSUR, a town in Mysore, on the right
bank of the I-akshmantirtha, in lat. 12° 17' 40" N.,
long. 76° 19' 5" E. ; population (1871), 4293. It
has the breeding establishment of the Amrita
ma ha I. a select breed of draught cattle, said to
have been formed by Hyder Ali for military pur-
poses, and still kept up by the British Government.

HUNTER, ALEXANDER, M.D., a medical
officer of the Madras army, who about A.D. 1851
founded the first school of industrial arts seen in
India, and, with much devotion and self-sacrifice,
by the year 1871 he had taught one or other
branch of art — drawing, pottery, etc. — to upwards
of two thousand young men, all of whom had
found ready employment. His success led to the
formation of several other schools of art in other
parts of India. He devoted much of his attention
to the manufacture of fibres from the plants of
the south of India, and to the discovery of minerals
useful in the arts.

HUNTER, Dr. W. W., LL.D., CLE., a Bengal
civil servant, author of Rural Life in Bengal, I rajas of Duttea.

121

C..iii].aiatiw Dictionary of the Non-Aryan lan-
guages of India, London L86& He was Skit
OfiOOT to the Covermiieiit of India, eompiled in
18 volumes the Statistical Report of Bengal, and,
after years of labour, issued the Imperial I
teer of India, in 9 volumes. The work is one of
administration, and is the necessary complement
of the transfer of India from the Comj»any to the
Crown. During the E. I. Company's rule it
had several times been projected. Dr. Hunter in
his preface names ten parsonH who were his
assistants. He wrote also Orissa in 2 volumes,
and also a life of Lord Mayo. His varied talent
were utilized by being nominated a member of
the Council of the Governor-General of India,
and was employed in 1882 to ascertain the state of
education amongst the people.

HUNTERIA OORYMBOSA. Rorb. A tree of
Penang. This and H. Zeylanica, Thw. (Maddeya,
Singh., the Cameraria Zeylanica of Retz), are
supposed by Colonel Beddome to be the same.
The timber is very fine and close-grained, and
very similar to boxwood; it answers well for
engraving. — Beddome, Fl. Sylv. part xxiii. p. 265.

HUNTING LEOPARD, or Hunting Cheeta,
Felis jubata. These animals live mostly in the
plains, where they hunt deer or antelope in parties
of four or five together, in the same manner as
the wolves do, secreting themselves in bushes at
different points, while one of their number chases
the buck. On its passing the ambuscade, they
pounce out on the little gazelle, or take up the
running in turns as it races past them.

HUNZA-NAGER are two adjoining towns, and
include a small tract of country on the upper
course of a large feeder of the Gilghit river, having
an area of 1672 square miles.

HU-PEH is the northern division of the ancient
province of Hu-kwang, and is bounded on the N.W.
by Shen-si, on the S.E. by Ho-nan, on the E. by
Ngan-hoei, and the W. by Sze-chuen. Its popu-
lation is about 27 millions. Hu-nan is the southern
division of Hu-kwang, and is larger than the
northern portion just described, but it is not so
thickly populated.

HURA CREPITANS. Linn. The sand box-
tree, a middle-sized tree of rapid growth, native
of tropical America. The trunk is strongly
armed, the wood light and useless. The sap of
the leaves and trunk is so very poisonous, as to
produce blindness in a few days after touching
the eye. Seeds a violent, drastic, dangerous pur-
gative.— M. fit ./. /.'. ; Voigt.

HURALA. Can. Four sorts of Hurala, lamp-
oil seed, are grown in Mysore. — M. E. o/1857.

HURDAH. Hind. A parasitic fungus in the
form of an orange-coloured rust. It is of the
genus Trichobasis ; it attacks growing wheat and
barley.

HURDI-MURDI, in Persia, is a term employed
to designate all the trifling but necessary articles
which travellers fling in small bags, and carry
across the saddle on a journey, in order to have
them at hand.

HURDOUR or Hardaur is the name given in
Hindustan to the oblong mounds raised in villages,
and studded with flags, for the purpose of avert-
ing epidemic diseases, and especially the cholera
morbus. It is called after Hurdoul Lala, the son
of Bursing Deo, from whom are descended the
The natives have a firm persua-

HUEEE-HARA.

HURRICANES.

sion that the cholera broke out in Lord Hastings'
camp, in consequence of beef having been killed
for the European soldiers within the grove where
repose the ashes of this Bundelkhand chief. His
worship prevails throughout the Upper and
Central Doab, a great part of Rohilkhand, and to
the banks of the Sutlej. To the eastward the
worship of Hoolka Devi (the goddess of vomiting)
has been prevalent since the same period. — Elliot.

HUREE-HARA. Sansk. Both words are
derived from Rhree, to take away, possibly the
source of the English word to harry.

HURINGATTAH, an entrance to the Ganges,
on the west of Rabnadab Island.

HUR KI PAIRI, sacred steps leading down to
the Ganges.

HURMUL SEED, Lahuri hurmul, Hind. The
Harmalje semina are seeds of Peganum harmala,
grey, small, pyramidal, and triangular, and used
as rue. — O'Sh.

HUR-PUJA or Har-puja, amongst the agricul-
tural races of India, the worship of the plough.
This takes place on the day which closes the
season of ploughing and sowing. It generally
occurs in the month of Kartik, but in some places
is held both after the kharif and rabi sowing, i.e.
in the months of Sawun and Kartik. The plough
is washed and decorated with garlands, and to
use it or lend it after this day is deemed unlucky.
The practice reminds of the Fool-plough in
England, a ceremony observed on the Monday
after Twelfth Day, which is therefore called Plough-
Monday, on which occasion a plough adorned
with ribbons is carried about, and the peasants
meet together to feast themselves, as well as wish
themselves a plentiful harvest from the great corn
sown (as they call wheat and rye), as well as to
wish a God-speed to the plough, as soon as they
begin to break the ground to sow barley and
other corn. — Br. Ap. ii. No. 92, Elliot's Sup. Gloss.

HURRICANES.

Tufan, . Arab., Hind.
Mou being, . . . Bcrm.
Typhoon, Tyfoon, . Eng.
Orkun Germ.

Tund-howa, . . . Hind.
Gird-bad, . . . Pers.
Huracan, .... Sp.
Kyar, Turk.

Hurricanes have been investigated by Colonel
Capper, Quartermaster - General of the Madras
army, Mr. W. C. Redfield of New York, Dr. Thorn
of the British army, Colonel Reid, Mr. G. T.
Taylor of Madras Observatory, and Captain Pid-
dington of Calcutta. A hurricane means a turning
storm of wind blowing with great violence, and
shifting more or less suddenly, so as to blow half
or entirely round the compass in a few hours.
The present state of our knowledge seems to show
that, for the West Indies, the Bay of Bengal, and
the China Sea, the Avind in a hurricane has two
motions, the one a turning or veering round upon
a centre, and the other a straight or curved motion
forward, so that it is both turning round and roll-
ing forward at the same time. It appears also
that, when it occurs on the north side of the
equator, it turns from the east, or the right hand,
by the north towards the west, or contrary to
the hands of a watch ; and in the southern hemi-
sphere, that its motion is the contrary way, or
with the hands of a watch. Piddington's first
memoir, with the charts and diagrams, showed that
this rule held good for the storm of June 1839 off
the Sandheads. and that the wind was really
blowing in great circles in a direction as described,

i.e. against that of the hands of a watch. He
assumed, then, that the hurricanes in the Bay of
Biscay always follow this law.

The tyfoons and storms of the China Sea and
eastern coast of Asia appear to be similar in
character to the hurricane of the West Indies and
the storms of the United States coast, when pre-
vailing in the same latitudes. A tyfoon which
occurred in the China Sea in 1831, affords pro-
bable grounds for connecting the hurricane at
Manilla, October 23-24, with that of October 31
at Balasor, on the shores of the Bay of Bengal.

Of 61 hurricanes that occurred north of the
equator, from 1830 to 1854, their numbers were —
in the month of October, 12; May and November,
9 ; September, 8 ; April, August, and December,
each 5; July, 4; June, 2; and March, 1. In the
Bay of Bengal the hurricanes usually occur at the
changes of the monsoons, in April and May, and
in October, November, and December.

The S.W. monsoon prevails north of the equator,
and when it prevails, the S.E. trade-wind acquires
additional strength from the demand made upon
it to supply the S.W. monsoon, these two winds
being apparently one system under the influence
of the earth's rotation and the high temperature
which prevails in the northern hemisphere.

Gales and hurricanes occur in the Indian Ocean
south of the equator. Trade-wind gales occur at
all seasons, but chiefly in June, July, and August.
In these the wind veers but little. In the extra-
tropical gales, between lat. 30° and 45° S., the
wind veers much, and in the tropical hurricanes
the winds veer and shift.

South of the equator, hurricanes occur in
November and May, and travel to the W.S.W.,
and afterwards, but not always, to the S. and
S.E., the wind invariably moving round a central
space (which is usually characterized by a calm)
horn left to right, or with the hands of a watch ;
while the storm, which has a diameter of 1 to 1500
miles, moves onwards at the rate of 1 to 20 miles,
but more frequently 4 to 7 miles an hour, for a
period varying from a few hours to ten days,
attended with torrents of rain, and its northern
half often with lightning. Dr. Thorn showed that
south of the equator these rotatory storms are
always generated between the N.W. monsoon and
S.E. trade-wind. They occur only during the"
S.AV. monsoon months, and their rise and progress
are intimately connected with the S.E. trade-wind
and N.W. monsoon, two opposing winds. With
ships, the safest course is to lie to and watch the
barometer and wind, till the bearing of the centre
be known with some certainty.

Of those who have resided at Mauritius, who
have earnestly studied and discussed the laws
which govern these storms, may be mentioned
Dr. Thorn, Lieutenant Fryers, Royal Engineers, Mr.
Sedgewick, who published a little work, which he
called The True Principle, and Mr. Bosquett, of
the Observatory at Mauritius, who translated into
French Piddington's Hornbook, with annotations
of his own, and who claimed to be able, by care-
ful and constant meteorological observations, to
foretell the occurrence of hurricanes in the Indian
Ocean, and to describe the course they will take.
The chart in Piddington's Hornbook shows that
these cyclones never extend to the northward uf
10° or 12° south latitude in the meridian of Maur-
itius. Therefore vessels leaving the island in the

122

IIlTRIinWM -

!II'|;K!< \'

hurricane season for any part of India, should
r to i In- northward, [Missing well to the west-
i of the Cargadcs, a moat tlangerous ^mnp,
t fms keeping a clear sea open to the westward,
that there may bo nothing in the way should it
desirable to run to tin- northward ami west-
ward, which would be the true course to take in
case of encountering the south-weMt in or north-
ern quadrants of a cyclone (of which in the
hurricane season a vessel from Mauritius is in
danger), and this course she should keep until she
is sufficiently far north to be beyond its influence.

Of the more remarkable occurrences, that at
tin- mouth of the Ganges, on the 7th October 1787,
was attended by a violent earthquake, and extended
60 miles up the river ; 20,000 craft of all descrip-
tioiiH were destroyed, — amongst them, 8 English
ships and all their crews, — and 300,000 souls are
-aid to have perished in Lower Bengal, or in the
bay. The river rose 40 feet above its usual
level. An English church and steeple sank into
the earth the next morning.

On 1th October 1739, a cyclone occurred at
- mouth, in which 30,000 lives were lost

Madras has been subjected to severe hurricanes,

generally in the early part of May or the end of
•ctober. They seem to travel up from the E.S.E.,
and progress rapidly in a W.N.W. direction till
they touch the land, and then they assume a
westerly or sometimes W.S.W. course. Their
centres generally come right on to the port of
Madras. A hurricane has seldom been known to
extend south of Porto Novo, 120 miles from
Madras (out at sea they are met with as far south
as Ceylon), or north of Nellore, 100 miles from
Madras. Their diameters are about 150 miles,
and they revolve in a direction contrary to the
hands of a watch. When the hurricane's centre
comes right on to Madras, and there takes a west
course, the wind is first at N., increasing in violence
for a few hours, and then a lull or perfect calm
for half an hour or so, when the hurricane recom-
mences furiously from the exactly opposite quarter,
south. This is in accordance with the theory of
cyclones. Usually the gale commences about
N.N.W., showing that the vortex of the cyclone
bears about E.N.E. Vessels, therefore, warned
by the barometer, tho hollow breaking surf, the
threatening sky, and the signals of tho master
attendant, should at once put to sea (having pre-
viously close-reefed and sent down top-hamper).
The course to steer, and fortunately it is one
which the wind assists, is S.S.E. to S.E. In a
few hours the vessol will probably have the wind
moderate at west, and may — in fact it has been
do in — sail round the cyclone, the wind veering
to south and then to east. Vessels at first steer-
ing east to get away from the land have run
right into the vortex of the hurricane. The only
danger in a southerly course is from the storm-
wave setting the ship on shore. If tho lead give
notice of this, the ship must be hauled up more to
the eastward.

If the gale commence N.N.W. at Madras, and
end at S.E., as has often happened, it shows that
the centre has taken a W.S.W. course, and passed
a little to the south of the town; but if it end at
S.AV., it shows that the centre has taken a W.N.W.
course, and the vortex passed to the north of
Madras.

In the earliest notices that we have of hurri-

coast, — at leant of those of
which we have any record, — was tl
October 17-1(1, twenty-three d

render of Madia to M. de la Bourdonnais. I

the 2d of October the weather u;u remarkably
mild during the whole of tho day, hut al*nit
midnight a most furious tempest arose, which
continued with great viol, me till noon of tho
following day. When it be-all t: «ix

large French ship in tie- Madras roads, at
smaller ones. The /hi- ,l't >rlnu<<, I'lumi.r. and

/.//* put to sea and foundered, and in than
upwards of twelve bundled men were lost. Tho
Mermaid and .b/n'c, , prizes, shared the same fate.
The Acftilli: (the flag-ship of M. de la Bourdon -
nais) and two other vessels of war were dismasted ;
and they had shipped so much water tliat the
people on board expected them to go down every
minute, aoth withstanding they had thrown over-
board the lower tier of guns. Of twenty other
vessels belonging to different nations in tho
Madras roads when the storm began, not one
escaped, being either wrecked or lost at sea. The
ships which were at anchor in the road of Pondi-
cherry felt nothing of this hurricane.

Another hurricane occurred off Cuddalore on
the 13th April 1749. (It is rare to meet with
hurricanes before May.) The English army were
then on their march to Tanjore, to set Sahoji on
the musnud and depose Pretaub Singh. Admiral
Boscawen had agreed to send some ships to escort
the troops, cannon, and stores to the place at
which they designed to disembark them, which
was at Devicottah, south of the Colerun river.
A dreadful hurricane at N.N.W. came on on the
night of the 12th of April, and continued all the
next day. Its greatest violence was between eight
at night of the 13th, and at two the next morning,
shifting round from the northward to the east, till
it came to the south, where it ended. In this
storm H.M. ship the Pembroke (one of those
appointed for the above service) was driven
ashore and wrecked on the Colerun shoal, a little
off Porto Novo. The captain, all the officers
(except the captain of marines and purser, who
were ashore on leave), and 330 men were drowned,
only 12 men being saved. In the same storm the
74 gun ship Namur (Boscawen's flag-ship) foun-
dered in shoal water, not far from Devicottah. The
first, second, and fourth lieutenants, master, gunner,
two lieutenants of marines, and 620 men m
drowned; only two midshipmen and 24 men were
saved. The admiral, captain, and some odier
officers were on shore. The Lincoln and Winchel-
sea, E.I.C. ships, were likewise wrecked off Fort
St. David, but the crews were saved. Almost all
the small vessels that were near Fort St. Davit I
were lost. H.M. shijo Tartar and Deal Castle.
together with the Swallow sloop, being at sea, and
D>0rS to the southward, did not feel the tempest
in that violent degree with which it raged near
the coast, but they were all dismasted. The rest
of the fleet were fortunately at Trincomalee. The
English camp was at that time some niih ■ from
Porto Novo, and was so devastated that the army
were obliged to march to Porto Novo for equipage.

Oriue mentions a hurricane on the 31st October
1752, as the most violent that had been remembered
on the coast

The new year of 1761 was ushered in with a
most violent hurricane at Pondicherry. At this

HURRICANES.

time the British were laying siege to that town,
and the fleet were in the roads intercepting all
succour by sea. When the storm began, Admiral
Stevens had with him eight sail of the line, two
frigates, a fire-ship, and a ship with stores. From
8 P.M. of the 31st December, till 10 p.m., there was
a constant succession of very heavy squalls.
About 10 p.m., Admiral Stevens, in the Norfolk
(having for his captain the gallant and unfortunate
Kempenfelt), was forced to cut his cable, and
made the signal for the squadron to do the same.
But the noise and violence of the gale was such
that no guns could be heard or signals observed.
The other commanders accordingly obeyed previous
orders, and continued at anchor, till at length
their vessels parted, and then with the greatest
difficulty they got their ships before the wind,
with scarce any sail set. The gale continued to
increase until midnight, by which time the wind
had veered from N.N.W., where it began, to the
N.E., and in an instant it was succeeded by a
calm, attended by a thick haze. This was of
short duration, for in the space of a few minutes
the storm burst from the S.S.E., and raged with
redoubled fury. Had the squadron got under
sail and proceeded to sea early, they would have
had an opportunity of gaining sufficient sea-room
before the storm came from the S.E. The first
gust of this fresh hurricane laid the Panther on
her beam-ends, when, the sea breaking over her,
Captain Affleck ordered the mizzen-mast to be cut
away. This not relieving the ship, he ordered the
main-mast to be cut away likewise ; it broke
below the upper deck with such force that it tore
it up, and the mast and rigging hanging over the
side, continued to encumber the ship for a con-
siderable time, until a heavy sea cleared them.
The ship then righted, and, the reefed foresail
having withstood the violence of the gale, by
means of it they got back in fourteen fathoms
water, and there let go the sheet anchor ; but not
bringing up, they cut away the fore -mast, the fall
of which carried away the bowsprit, when the
ship came round, and in this manner rode out
the storm. The America, Medway, and Falmouth
were dismasted, and, after much distress, came to
an anchor near the Panther. But it did not fare
so well with the Newcastle, the Queenborough
frigate, and the Protector fire-ship, who, scudding
before the S.E. gale, mistook their soundings, and
drove towards the shore without endeavouring to
come to an anchor. The roaring of the wind pre-
vented them from hearing the noise of the surf
till it was too late. All three came ashore about
two miles south of Pondicherry. Of their crews
only seven perished, who were dashed overboard
by the violence with which the ship struck when
they took the ground. A more miserable fate
attended the Due d'Acquitaine, the Sunderland,
and the Duke store-ship. Their masts withstood
both hurricanes, but they were driven back by
the S.E. tempest, and were under the necessity
of anchoring; when, bringing up with all their
masts standing, they broached to, and either
capsized or foundered. The crews, in number
eleven hundred, perished, except seven Europeans
and as many lascars, who were next day picked
up floating on pieces of wreck.

On 21st October 1763, a cyclone occurred at
Madras, which lasted 11 hours; all the ships driven
on shore were stranded.

On the 21st October 1773, a violent hurricane
visited Madras. It began at N.W., and ended
with the wind easterly. (It must have travelled
S.W., and the vortex passed south of Madras.)
The men-of-war put to sea early, but all the
vessels that remained at anchor were lost, with
the crews.

The next hurricane of which we have to notice,
is that of 1782. The weather had been threaten-
ing, and when it came on to blow, on the 20th
October, the boats belonging to Sir E. Hughes'
squadron (then in the roads) were on shore with
their crews, on duty. The gale commenced at
N.W., and every vessel that could bear canvas,
put to sea. Most of the men-of-war boats put
off to their ships, which were getting under
weigh, and were reached with difficulty by the
larger boats, and some of the smaller ; but some
boats were unable to reach their vessels, and were
lost. The Superb was dismasted, and the Exeter
was almost rendered a wreck. Sir Edward
Hughes was obliged to shift his flag to the Sultan.
Both the Superb and the Exeter got to Bombay
with jury-masts. The Neckar (a country vessel)
lost her main -mast, and some vessels foundered
at their anchors. The morning following the
hurricane presented a sad spectacle, — upwards
of a hundred small country vessels stranded on the
beach, the whole remaining stock of rice in the
warehouses washed away, famine raging, and
pestilence threatening ! For the ravages of
Hyder had driven thousands from the country
to Madras, where already there had been great
suffering for want of food. Upwards of 1000
corpses were buried every week for several weeks,
in large trenches outside the town. The Governor
(Lord Macartney) used noble endeavours to
mitigate the calamity, and set an example by
sending away all his own horses and servants.
Hyder was at Pondicherry, and the admiral's
fleet gone ! Ships, however, came in laden with
grain from Bengal ; Hyder Ali died in December,
and the hopes of the British revived.

The records of the Madras Observatory notice
a heavy gale on the 27th October 1797. The
barometer did not fall below 29 - 465.

A hurricane occurred at Coringa and Masuli-
patam on the 28th October 1800.

On the 4th December 1803, H.M.S. Centurion (of
50 guns, bearing the flag of Admiral Rainier), on
her passage from Trincomalee to Madras, experi-
enced a violent hurricane, which left her with
nothing standing but the bowsprit, and had
nearly proved her destruction. The gale com-
menced about midnight; at 11 a.m. on the 5th,
the wind flew round in a violent gust to the
southward, and till 6 p.m. it was blowing a hurri-
cane. H.M.S. was so severely strained, that she
had 8 feet of water in her hold, and her upper-
deck guns were obliged to be hove overboard.
Jury-masts were rigged, and on the 11th the
Centurion anchored in the Madras roads. H.M.S.
Albatross was dismasted in the same storm, and
put in at Negapatam to refit.

Madras suffered from another hurricane on the
10th December 1807. Fortunately there was only
one vessel in the roads when the storm commenced,
and she put to sea. To show the effect of the
storm-waves, it may be mentioned, from the
testimony of an eye-witness (Captain Biden) that
the bottom of a ship of 800 tons, supposed to

124

HURRICANES.

HUSAINI BULBUL.

havo been burnt in the roads about ten years
• in 1797), was washed high and dry on the
bipnh near Parry's offico; the whole of her floor
w;is perfect, with a large quantity of her ballast
»f iron kentledge). The devastation along
tlie beach and in the town and suburbs of Madras
was very great. It was during this hurricane that
there occurred an extraordinary rise of the tide,
which inundated the whole of Black Town.

Another very disastrous hurricane occurred on
the 2d of May 1811. Providentially the fleet,
with tin; troops for the attack of Java, had just
•ailed. The Dover frigate and Chichester store-
ship remained in the roads; they parted, and were
lost. Ninety country vessels went down at their
anchors. Only two vessels that were iu the roads
when the hurricane set in, were saved, and these
put to sea. During this hurricane the surf broke
in 9 fathoms of water, four miles from shore !

On the 24th October 1818, Madras again suffered.
The wind commenced at north, and, after increas-
ing in violence, suddenly lulled, and as suddenly
flew round furiously to south. This hurricane
travelled west, and its vortex passed over the
town. The barometer fell to 28 - 78.

( h\ the 9th October 1820, there was a hurricane
commencing at N.W., veering to W. and S.W.
The barometer fell to 28*50. Here the cyclone
travelled west, and passed to the north of
Madras.

On the 30th October 1836, a gale set in from
north. At 4 p.m. it blew a regular hurricane from
N.N.W. and N. After an ominous lull of half an
hour, it flew round with redoubled violence from
the south, at half-past seven P.M. At this time
the barometer was 28"285.

On the 29th October, at noon, it had been 30*050

„ 30th October, at 6 A.M., .... 29940

„ 30th October, at noon 29707

„ 30th October, at 5 p.m., . . . . 28 "891

„ 30th October, at 7.30 p. M 28 285

At midnight, when the gale broke, . . . 29'415

A storm causing great loss occurred at Bombay
on the 15th June 1837.

In November 1839, a hurricane occurred off
Coringa, when a storm-wave laid the shore 8
feet under water. 70 ships and 700 people were
lost at sea, and 6000 perished on shore.

In October 1842, there was a heavy gale at
Madras, but hardly considered a hurricane.

In May 1843, another hurricane occurred at
Madras. On this occasion the brunt of it was felt
out at sea, and several vessels were lost Those
that remained at their anchors rode it out.

The next hurricane at Madras took place on the
25th November 1846 ; during it the pressure-
plate of the Observatory anemometer broke, at a
pressure of 40 lbs. registered ; and the force of
one heavy gust was computed at 57 lbs. per square
foot ! The large iron wind-vane of the Observa-
tory was bent to a right-angle ; and one of the
flat piers on the Elphinstone bridge blown over.
These formed the data for computation. The
previous month there had been an unprecedented
fall of rain (20$ inches in 24 hours). Had the
hurricane set in before the soil had dried, not a
single building or tree in Madras would have
remained upright.

On 19th April 1847, a violent hurricane ex-
tended from the equator to Sind. It was severe
at Ratnagherry ; the Maldives were submerged,

followed by severe famine. Tin- 'Imj.utra was
lost in this.

A destructive storm occurred at Bombay on the
2d November 1*54.

In July 1780, during a tyfoon in the China
Sea, about 100,000 people perished.

A tremendous hurricane, with an inundation
caused by a storm-wave, occurred at Cuttack and
around Culcutta, on the 30th November 1831.

On the 31st October 1831, 300 villages and
11,000 people were swept away in Lower Bengal
by inundations, followed by a famine; and the
loss of life was estimated at 50,000 souls.

On the 21st May 1832, 8000 to 10,000 people
perished iu the delta of the Ganges.

On the 8th October 1832, a furious storm and
disastrous inundation occurred around Calcutta,
followed by great sufferings at Balasore. — Mr.
Mddrum in Pro. Brit. Assoc., 1867 ; PharoaVs
Gazetteer of S. India ; Dr. Buist in Bo. Geo. Tr.,
1856 ; Piddington, Laic of Storms, j>. 524 ; American
Expedition to Japan, p. 137. See Cyclone.

HURTAL. Persulphuret of arsenic, orpiment.
There are two kinds, viz. gobhari hurtal, in yellow
flakes, used in oil-painting; one seer costs Ra. 14.
Tabki hurtal, greenish, crystallized, given by
fakirs in fumigation. One ruttee of it is wrapped
up in a leaf of muggar-bel, and smoked in a hookah.
It is evident that the smoker only escapes danger-
ous consequences, owing to the heat volatilizing
most of the arsenic ; as it is, the little inhaled
often makes the person senseless. Salt is then
given to restore the senses. Thus employed, tabki
hurtal is considered a most powerful aphrodisiac.
It is also used in ointment ; costs three rupees for
one seer. — Genl. Med. Top. p. 137.

HURUT or Harat, a Persian wheel for drawing
water from a well ; a corruption of Ruhut or
Arhut. — Elliot, Snpp. Gloss.

HUSAIN ALI KHAN, KIRMANI, author of
History of the Reign of Tipu Sultan, translated by
Colonel W. Miles, London 1844.

HUSAIN - bin - ALI - ul - VAIZ, surnamed
Kashifi. He translated the fables of Bedpai from
the Arabic of Ibn Makaffa, and named them
Anwar-i-Sohaili, or Lights of Canopus.

HUSAIN GORI, the first of the Gori dynasty,
succeeded to the throne of India in a.d. 1157
(other authorities say 1151 or 1155), by deposing
Khusru Shah, the 13th and last of the Ghaznavi
kings. Mahmud, the nephew and successor of
Shahab-ud-Din, was the fifth and last of the
Gori dynasty. He imparted little influence on
India. He had attacked the king of Kharasm at
Takash, and subdued the Ghikar tribe; but in a.d.
1206, while returning to Ghazni, he was assassin-
ated by two of his own tribe, — accordiug to ( time
in 1212, and another authority gives 1214.

HUSAINI. Hind. A kind of grape, the large
sweet kind that are packed in boxes, and sent
from Kabul in the cola season.

HUSAINI BULBUL, also called the Shah-
bulbul, is of the sub-family Myagriwe, and is
known also as the paradise fly-catcher. It is of
a chesnut colour for many months, but becomes
white in the breeding season, in its plumage des
noces. It is a very graceful bird, with very long
tail feathers, and it is a pretty sight to see it
flitting from tree to tree ; how the birds prevent
the long tail feathers from becoming entangled
in the thorny trees, is difficult to understand.

HUSAN YUSUF.

HUSBANDRY.

In Ceylon, the bird in its chesnut dress is
called the fire-thief, and the white bird the
cotton-thief ; it is also called the sultana bulbul.
Its colouring is chaste. Mr. Layard has often
watched them, when seeking their insect prey,
turn suddenly on their perch and whisk their
long tails with a jerk over the bough, as if to
protect them from injury. It is common about
Madras. It is the Tchitrea paradisi, Linn. ; and
Europeans call it also the bird of paradise. —
Tenitaitt's Ceylon, p. 249.

HUSAN YUSUF of Lahore is the silicious
frustule of one of the DiatomaceBe. It is of a
pyramidal form with a convex base, and on each
triangular face is a prominent rounded knot ;
these markings are not affected by acids, and
remain after heating to redness. When heated
in a reduction tube, it gives off a peculiar smell
and combustible gas, showing that it is quite in a
fresh state, otherwise it appears somewhat similar
to a fossil. Husan Yusuf is collected in lakes and

fonds in the hills around Srinuggur in Kashmir,
t floats on the surface, and is skimmed off and
dried. — PowelVs Handbook, p. 320.

HUSANZAI. Between the extreme northern
frontier of the Hazara district and the Indus, there
lies a somewhat narrow strip of rugged and
mountainous territory ; this is inhabited by the
Husanzai, who therefore dwell in Cis - Indus,
that is, on the left bank of the river. They could
number, perhaps, 2000 fighting men. The prin-
cipal hill is known as the Black Mountain, from
its dark and gloomy aspect. In the adjoining
tract, within the Hazara border, lies Western
Tournouli, the fief of a chief politically dependent
on the British.

HUSBANDRY, Agriculture, Tillage.
Zaraat ; Fallahat, Arab. | Kheti bari, . . . Beng.
Amongst the Chinese, and with several of the
races in India, husbandry is considered an honour-
able avocation ; but Rajputs, Brahmans, and Maho-
medans in India deem manual labour derogatory.
Husbandry and silk-weaving were the earliest of
the art3 cultivated by the Chinese people. The
former was introduced by Shin-nong, the imme-
diate successor of Fo-hi, and the silk-weaving by
an empress ; and to both of these benefactors the
Chinese perform annual sacrifices on their festival
days. With them, husbandry is still highly
honoured ; and annually, at a grand festival in
honour of the spring, the emperor ploughs and
sows part of a field. The ancient Egyptians,
Persians, and Greeks held games and festivals,
mingled with religious ceremonies, at seed-sowing;
■and in England, formerly, the festival of Plough
Monday was held, during which the plough-light
was set up before the image of the patron saint
of the village.

The Chinese annual ceremony at Pekin con-
sists in ploughing a sacred field with a highly
ornamental plough kept for the purpose, the
emperor holding it while turning over three
furrows, the princes five, and the high ministers
nine. These furrows were, however, so short,
that the monarchs of the present dynasty altered
the ancient rule, ploughing four furrows, and re-
turning again over the ground. The ceremony
finished, the emperor and his ministers repair to
the terrace, and remain till the whole field has
been ploughed. The ground belongs to the
temples of heaven and earth, on the south of the

city, and the crop of wheat is used in religious
services. The rank of the actors renders the
ceremony more imposing at Pekin, and the
people of the capital make more of it than they
do in the provinces. A clay image of a cow is
carried to the spot, containing or accompanied
by hundreds of little similar images ; after the
field is ploughed it is broken up, and the pieces
and small images are carried off by the crowd, to
scatter the powder on their own fields, in the
hope of thereby ensuring a good crop. The heads
of the provincial governments, the prefects and
district magistrates, go through a similar ceremony
on the same day. In Ningpo, the principal
features of the ceremony consist in a solemn
worship, by all the local officers, of a clay image
of a buffalo, and image of a cowherd. The pre-
fect then ploughs a small piece of ground, and
he and his associates disperse on the morrow.
They come together in another temple at dawn,
where a series of prostrations and recitals of
prayers are performed by the fathers of the people
in their presence. So soon as this is over, the
clay ox is brought out, and all the officers pass
around it repeatedly in procession, striking the
body at a given signal, and concluding the cere-
mony by a heavy blow on the head. The crowd
then rush in and tear the effigy to pieces, each
one carrying off a portion to strew on his fields.

In British India, until after the middle of the
19th century, the Kandh race sacrificed human
beings to the earth goddess, with ceremonies
identical with those practised by the Chinese and
their clay bullock.

Most races have had some religious ceremonies
at seed-time or harvest ; and to the present day,
amongst most of the Hindu races of British
India, at the close of the ploughing and sowing
season, either in the spring or autumn, the plough
is worshipped. It is their Har-puja.

The Kuur-mundla of the Hindus in Northern
India, meaning the closing of the furrows, is a
name given to the day on which the sowing is
completed, but also called Kuur-boji and Hariur,
and in the north-west Dulia jhar or Pulia
jhar, meaning the cleaning out of the sowing
basket, — Kuur-boji meaning the filling of fur-
rows. The day is a festival. The plough is
decorated ; the residue of the seed-corn is made
into a cake, which is partaken of in the open
field, and part of it given to Brahmans and
beggars. It is the seed-cake of the farmers of
England, mentioned by Tusser : —

' Wife, some time this weeke, if the wether hold cleare,
An end of wheat sowing we make for this yeare :
Remember you, therefore, though I do it not.
The seed-cake, the pasties, the fermenty pot.'

The plough, the hoe, and from time immemorial
the drill, have been the chief agricultural imple-
ments of the Hindus, of whom about 70 per cent,
are engaged in husbandry. Their ploughs for
breaking up new ground are very heavy, and are
drawn by two to eight team of bullocks, as the
nature of the soil demands; but one pair of
bullocks, with a very light plough, suffices for
cultivated land. In rice-fields buffaloes are used.

The plough of the Hindus for their lighter soils
is a naturally crooked branch of a tree, with an
iron plate as a share or coulter. The cow is never
put to labour by the agricultural Hindu, the only
race who so employ it being the homeless wandering

126

HUSBANDRY.

Ill >BANDRY.

Brfojari In Malay count ries the plough in usually
l>y one or two buffaloes, which are pecu-
liarly adapted for the wet land culture of rice, to
whieh tlic use of the plough is almost ercluaively
confined, the ehunkal or large hoc being employed
in turning up theeoil in plantation culture. When
Hie light plough of the Hindu farmer is used, then;
hi I B&ere scratching of the soil, but it is finely pul-
verised by repeated cross traversing. This form
<>f cultivation lias been denounced by most of the
Europeans who have written on the subject; and
toberteon, of the experimental farm near
Madras, constructed a light plough of the shape
in use in Britain, to be substituted for that of wood
which is now in use. But in all such substitutions
the i>oint which presents itself as difficult to meet,
is the feebleness of the draught cattle. The plough
of India is doubtless defective, but it is suited to
the draught cattle at their command ; and by
going over and over the ground and making
repeated stirrings, they eventually get down to a
depth of 4£ inches, or about half an inch less than
an aterage lea ploughing in Britain.

The Chinese have a machine which cuts up
both the soil and the trefoil roots. It consists of
a strong wooden frame with three cross bars, into
which are fixed two rows of strong concave knives.
A bullock is yoked to the machine, and, with the
driver standing upon it, it is urged through the
soil in all directions.

The drill husbandry of Mysore cannot be ex-
celled. Their drilling-machine sows thirteen rows
at a time, with the greatest regularity; and their

ments of India and the cultivating tiller*
the Koil are to a great extent joint proprietors
of the land, it is felt to be the duty of the Mate
to instruct their partners, and within their M
rights to prevent exhaustion of the soil. So fai
cxi>erienee of a century teaches, there are, tal.
the entire country, two bad years to every seven
good ones ; the average population affected in each
instance is about twenty millions ; and the result
may accordingly be said to be equivalent t<- .1
famine over the whole couutry nearly twice in a
century. Each of the great provinces, except
Bengal, is visited with drought at intervals averag-
ing eleven or twelve years, and with famines of
exceptional magnitude at intervals of about fifty
years. Bengal enjoys far longer periods of immu-
nity, and, except in one or two localities, is wholly
exempt from this visitation. Judging from the
past, the largest population ever likely to be
simultaneously famine-stricken is about thirty
millions ; and of these, 4£ millions will need assist-
ance during the months of greatest distress, and
an average of 2$ millions for an entire year.

How to prevent the soils of India being
exhausted, is becoming an increasing subject of
thought. With the exception of irrigated lands,
little manure is employed in India. The principal
food- crops are neither manured nor irrigated, and
so long as moderately good soils were being tilled,
a rude system of husbandry sufficed to meet
the wants of cultivators; but now that by the
pressure of population inferior soils are being
taken up, it is necessary that an improved system

bullock hoe. with blades which pass between the ! of agriculture should be adopted. At present the

drills, eradicates weeds when the plants are a few
inches high, and freely and effectually stirs the soil.

In British India, the arable land is held by three
distinct tenures. Sir William Muir has described
three broad distinctions in the title under which
land was found by the British originally, to be
Owned or managed throughout various parts of
India, viz. ryot occupancy or proprietorship,
official zamindarship, and village proprietorship.

The first signifies that the ryot is the heredit-
ary occupant or owner of his own individual
holding. The last, village proprietorship, signifies
that one or more persons, or a body of coparceners,
possess proprietary rights over all the lands (in-
cluding waste) contained within the boundaries
of their village or estate ; village proprietors may
be either talukdars, zamindars, pattidars, or mem-
bers of a proprietary and cultivating brotherhood.
At the time that the British assumed supremacy,
ryot proprietorship prevailed in the south of
India, official zamindarship in Bengal, and village
proprietorship in the N.W. Provinces.

It may be added, that on the N.W. Frontier are
tribal tenures; and in llazara, Peshawur, and
partly in Dehra Ismail Khan, there is a periodical
redistribution of the holdings amongst tne tribes,
known as Waish or Vaish. In Bannu, the island
is held in tals, the area of the tribe ; in darra,
the holding of a group of families; and lich'h,
one family holding. In Dehra Ghazi Khan, each
member of the tribe holds his own share.

From the time of the census of 1871, hus-
bandry of India has been attracting great atten-
tion, because the population has been increasing
more rapidly than the means of subsistence. Also,
two-fifths of the revenue of British India are
derived from the land ; and as the Govern-

farm cattle not at work are rarely if ever fed ;
the cows and calves are half-starved, and little
milk is obtained. Draught bullocks are partially
fed. But fodder grasses are never cultivated ; and
the want of power in the draught cattle is a great
cause of defective tilling. It is acknowledged
that with care produce can be greatly iucreased.
Messrs. Lawes and Gilbert at Eothamsted, for 24
years grew wheat on unmanured and manured
land. Unmanured land yielded only 12 "4 bushels
per acre, weighing 57*4 lbs. the bushel ; land
receiving yearly 14 tons of farm-yard manure
yielded 84-1 bushels per acre, weighing 59 - 3 lbs.
But the average produce per acre, on a series of
observations extending over ten years, in several
districts of the Bombay Presidency, was found to
be as follows : — Wheat, 9 bushels, 585 lbs. ; juari,
10 bushels, 650 lbs. ; bajri, 6 bushels, 390 lbs.

In the Dehra Doon the produce from wheat
cultivation was found to average 1260 lbs. per
acre; and at the Sind experimental farm, bajri
(Penicillaria spicata) has yielded as much as 1420
lbs. per acre.

In the Nile valley the yield of wheat is from
8 to 20 fold ; barley, 4 to 18 fold ■ maize, 14 to
20 fold ; Sorghum vulgare, 36 to 48 fold.

The Famine Commissioners in their report
(ii. p. 72) give the following as the produce of
food-grains per acre in several parts of British
India : —

l\inj;il>, . . 11 bushels, or 029 of a ton per acre.

N.W. Provinces ami
Oudh, and Bengal, 13 ,

C.ntrnl Provinces, . 8
Berar, . . .6
r.oinbay, excl. Sind

and N. C'auara, . 7
M ad raa and Mysore. 1 1

0-36

0-.M
010

OM'.i

127

HUSBANDRY.

lbs.

Wheat.

lbs.

Cotton.

lbs.

602

Sagar, . . .

324

Raipur,

. 52

426

Hoshangabad

267

Wardlia,

. 40

360

Jubbulpur, .

600

Nagpur,

. 21

675

Narsingpur, .

400

448

Raipur, . .

432

654

Mr. Morris, Chief Commissioner of the Central
Provinces, in his report for 1872-73 (p. 6), gives
the following as the average produce per acre : —

Rice.
Raipur, .
Bilaspur,
Balaghat,
Chanda,
Bhandara,
Seoni, .

The area under cultivated crops in India is
equal to one acre per head of the population,
which increases at the rate of 1 per cent, per
annum, equal to two millions yearly. To provide
for this increase of numbers, two methods of
increasing the production present themselves,
viz. progressively to increase the area of culti-
vated land, and gradually to increase the pro-
duce from the land at present cultivated. The
equivalent of the two methods are an extension
of cultivation by two millions of acres annually,
or an increased produce by one-tenth of a bushel
annually from the present acreage. In coming to
a decision over these two methods, it is neces-
sary to remark that in British India, the best and
most available land has long been occupied. The
cultivable area still untouched is great, but is in
places remote from population, and requiring much
beyond the ordinary capital of an Indian culti-
vator to bring it into a state of production. The
second method has therefore to be chiefly relied
on. One bushel of increase per acre, obtained
gradually in ten years from the present cultivated
area, would meet the demand of a gradual increase
in the same time of 20 millions of people. The
produce would then have gradually risen from
10 to 20 bushels an acre.

The population in British India is at present,
one part with another and one year with another,
barely raising more than sufficient food for their
requirement, and the Indian Government, in 1883,
arranged with the railways to carry grain from
one district to another at the lowest remunerat-
ive rates ; because from certain districts it was
being exported, while the population in some parts
is even now pressing on the means of subsistence,
and is increasing at a rate which is causing
anxiety. The increase in Great Britain from 1851
to 1861 was - 56 per cent. In India it has been
stated at from 052 in the N.W. Provinces, 0'54
in Bombay, and - 74 in Madras, and it has been
supposed that the normal may be 0*5 and 0*6. —
P. P. 1880, p. 29.

The population per square mile has been given
as under : —

Berar, 129

Ajmir 119

Assam, 99

Central Provinces, . 91

Coorg, 84

Burma, 31

Oudh, 468

Bengal 397

N.W. Provinces, . . 378

Madras, 226

Mysore 187

Panjab, 173

Bombay 131 i

On the average, in all British India, 211 to the
square mile, — agricultural, 56 per cent. ; traders,
18 per cent. ; labourers, 16 per cent. ; professional
and service, 10 per cent., the labourers being
mostly employed on the land.

Between 1850 and 1880, 18 millions of acres of
waste land had been brought under cultivation in
the Madras and Bombay Presidencies, a quantity
amounting to 80 per cent, of the area under culti-
vation in 1850. In the N.W. Provinces, from 1840

to 1880 there was an increase of 6 millions of
acres, or 30 per cent, of the area under cultivation
in 1840. In British India, the cultivated area for
food-crops is a little more than one acre for each
individual ; in the Panjab, 0*76 of an acre ; in the
N.W. Provinces and Oudh, and in Bengal, 0"81 ; in
Central Provinces, l - 8 ; in Berar, 1*75 ; in Bom-
bay, 1-4 ; in Madras, - 93 ; in Mysore and Burma,
each 1 acre. — F. Rep. p. 73.

The Famine Commissioners, in their report of
1880 (i. p. 50), assuming the population of British
India at 181,350,000, estimated the area under
food-crop at 166,250,000 acres, yielding an out-
turn of 51,530,000 tons of food. The ordinary
consumption is estimated at 47,165,000 tons,
leaving a surplus of 5,165,000 tons. The esti-
mated consumption includes food, 37,980,000
tons ; seed, 3,450,000 tons ; cattle food, 309,000
tons ; and wastage, 2,555,000 tons.

The famine of 1876-77 affected a population of
36 millions in the Peninsula of India, and in that
year the crop in Bombay was short of the average
by 1£ million tons, in Madras by 3^ millions,
and in Mysore by 1 million tons.

The subject of Indian husbandry is one of much
difficulty. The climates, the rains, and the soils
of British India widely differ, and demand from
the husbandman the most varied treatment. The
lands in the deltas of the Ganges and Indus are
annually strewed over with the fine silt which the
floods of these rivers bring down in their course
from the Himalayas, and cereals and the great
millets are grown with little labour ; and by varying
the crops, the soil in those districts is made to yield
three crops in the year. The great volcanic tract
of the Dekhan, in provinces reached by the moist
winds and rains of the south-west monsoon, and
covered for ten and twenty feet deep with the
regur or black cotton soil, from unknown times,
has yielded once a-year, without manure, one
luxuriant crop of wheat, sorghum, or cotton,
grown in the open fields, without other care than
the ploughing, sowing, and reaping.

The earth nowhere else yields agricultural pro-
duce in return for so little labour as in Lower
Egypt, and gives back the seed so plentifully. In
the lands which the Nile overflows, when the
water is partially withdrawn, the fellah, without
previous labour, throws the seed from his boat
into the wet mud. Their present yield of wheat is
from 8 to 20 fold ; of barley, from 4 to 18 ; of
maize, from 14 to 20 ; of Sorghum vulgare (dar-
rah), from 36 to 48 fold. A like fertility is
repeated in the flats of the deltas of the Indus
and the Ganges, where rice crops are grown defy-
ing the inundations.

In India, crops known as the kharif are sown from
the latter part of May and beginning of June to
the early part of August, and are reaped from the
latter part of October to the early part of De-
cember. And in districts watered by the N.E.
monsoon and winter raius, rabi crops are sown
from the latter part of August to the early part
of November, and are gathered in the spring
from the end of February — March to the beginning
of April, being brought on by the heavy dews
and cool nights and winter showers that prevail
during the cold- weather months of India.

The Rice varieties of the Peninsula of India are
sown and ripen at different periods. Some of
them are sown in July, but most in August. Some

128

EfUSBANDRY.

ii|M-u in four months in November, some in five
months in I >.-. ■■ -niln-r, and hoiho in six months in
January or February.

<>t the oilseed*, Sesamum oricntale is sown in
Mayand gathered in August, and Arachis hypogca
i in September and gathered in February.

Of tin- Pulses, Ijiblab vulgaris, CajanuB Indicus,
Phaseolus radiatus, and Dolichos catiangare gene-
rally grown on lands depending on the natural
niins, and their seeds are sown along with the
millets. Phaseolus mungo and Ph. max. are sown
in .Inly and gathered in January. Cicer arie-
t i n u in is sown in October and gathered in March.
DoBoboa cultratus, Phaseolus aconitifolius, and
Pisum sativum arc sown in December and gathered
in February.

For Millets, the ground is ploughed up, and the
seeds sown broadcast, in July or August, and
reaped in November or December, —

Panicum miliaceum, Willde., or varagoo, in six
months ;

Penicillaria spicata, or cumboo, in four months ;

Panicum miliare, or shama, in three months ;

Sorghum vulgare and its allies ripen in five
months;

Setaria Italica, or tennay, in four or five
months.

In Kandahar, the spring or rabi harvest pro-
duces wheat, barley, pulses, beans, lentils, madder,
etc. The autumn or kharif harvest crops are
maize, pulse, rice, beans, carrots, turnips, egg-
fruit, beetroot, love-apple, tobacco.

In most parts of Afghanistan and in the extreme
N.W. of India the crop sown in the end of autumn,
and reaped in spring, consists of wheat, barley,
Krviun lens (addus), Cicer arietinum (nukhud),
with some peas and beans. The other crop is
sown at the end of spring, and reaped in autumn,
and consists of rice, Panicum Italicum, and P.
miliaceum, Sorghum vulgare, Penicillaria spicata
Zea mays, and Phaseolus mungo.

The former, the spring harvest, is the most
important in the countries west of the Suliman
range. The latter, ,the autumn harvest, called by
the Afghans Paniyeh or Tirmani, is on the whole
the most considerable. But there are modifications,
according to climate. In the Hazara country, and
also in all the coldest parts of Afghanistan and the
neighbouring states, they sow their only harvest
in spring, and reap it in the end of autumn.

In the Kharaoti (Karoti), the Kattiwaz, and some
other elevated countries in that neighbourhood,
they sow their only crops at the end of one autumn,
and reap it the beginning of another.

In Bajawar, Panjkora, in the country of the
Upper Momunds and that of the Utman Khel,
wheat is the principal grain sown, and their most
important harvest is that which is reaped in
summer.

In Peshawur, the Bangash, Jaji, Daman, and
Isa Khel countries, the harvests are nearly equal ;
but in the eastern countries, that which is reaped
in autumn is the more important. Wheat is the
chief food of the people, though in several parts
the millets, Panicum, Sorghum, and Penicillaria
spicata are also made into bread. Indian corn
heads are eaten roasted as a luxury.

About towns the food -grains mentioned are
largely supplemented by their palez harvest, of
musk melons, water melons, various kinds of

HUSBANDRY.

in open fields like grain. And in the gardens are
grown carrots, turnips, beetroot, lettuce, onions,
garlic, egg-plant, spinage, and greens of all kind*,
cabbage, cauliflower. Barley is given to horses,
and turnips are sown for cattle.

Bice is grown in most parts of Afghanistan, but
in very different quantities. In Swat and Pesha-
wur it is most abundant.

Herar is a province in the centre of the Penin-
sula, which receives the rains of the 8.W. monsoon
from June to August, and the winter rains of
December and January, and its seed times and
harvest times are as under. The plants with an
asterisk (•) are irrigated : —

Bown.

Harvested.

Abrus precatorius,". , .

.(iliic

November

Allium sativum,* . . .

November

March

A. cepa,*

Cajanus Indicus

June

Jan., Feb.

Capsicum annuum,* , .

June

January

(Jhavica betle,* ....

May

in a year

Cicer arietinum, ....

October

February

Convolvulus batatas,* . .

September

February

Coriandrum sativum,*

June

January

Crotalaria juncea, . . .

June

October

Curcuma longa, ....

July

January

October

January

Gossypium Indicum, . .

June

January

Hibiscus cannabinus, . .

June

Nov., Dec

Indigofera tinctoria,* . .

June

August

Lathyrus sativus, . . .

October

January

Linum usitatissimum, . .

October

February

Morinda citrifolia, . . .

June

in 3 years

Nicotiana tabacum, . . .

July

December

Oryza sativa,* ....

June

Oct., Dec

Panicum pilosum, . . .

June

October

Papaver somniferum,* . .

October

Feb., March

Penicillaria spicata, . .

July

October

Phaseolus mungo, . . .

June

November

October

January
November

Ptychotis ajwain, . . .

June

Saccharum officinarum,* .

Jan. or May

in 12 months

Sesamum Indicum, . . .

August

January

Sinapis ramosa, ....

November

February

Sorghum vulgare, . . .

May, July

July, Dec

Triticuin jestivum, . . .

November

February

June

September.

In India, diseases and wild beasts cause heavy
losses to the agriculturists. On this form of loss
the Mysore Administration Reports for 1873-74
to 1875-76, have shown the losses in cattle sus-
tained by their owners,—

1874-1876.

1875-1876.

From
Sickness.

Hy Wild
Beasts.

From
Sickness.

By Wild
Beasts.

Cows, ....
Bulls or bullocks,
Male buffaloes, .
Female ,,
Sheep and goats,
Horses, . . .
Asses

33,440
24,555

5,450

12,575

67,129

898

1,797

1,522

1,041

279

414

1,681

42,313
33,089

8.971

1(1, 979

55,181

666

1,396

L9N

92 1

246

381

i.t;s.-,

Total, . . .

145,772

5,025

UMtttB

urn

In 1873-74, the cattle of all kinds numbered
2,911,684, and the deaths 138,759. In 1874-75,
the respective numbers were 2,921,962 and
150,797, the increase of 12,038 deaths having been
due to cattle disease in the Mysore and Hassan
districts.

Irrigation. — The crops are liable to great in-
juries from insects and fungi, which will be found
mentioned under In Beet*. liata, locusts, hyaenas,

elephants, also cause losses; but that which is
most dreaded is droughts, for the rainfall fluctuates
cucumbers, pumpkins, gourds,' grown everywhere | from year to year sis much as 50 per cent on either
vol. 11. 129 1

HUSBANDRY.

side of the average, and failure of the rains results
in scarcity and famine. The rains on the seaward
sides of the Western Ghats and of the Arakan Hills
never fail, the inundations and the canals of Sind
and Lower Bengal protect the crops from all fear
of drought; but in Mysore, the Ceded Districts,
Ongole, Orissa, Hyderabad, Raj pu tana, Oudh,
N.W. Provinces, and the Panjab, the rains have
often failed, and millions of the inhabitants and
their cattle have perished. The Tamil, Teling,
and Gond races have evinced much ingenuity in
constructing tanks wherever the slope of the
ground admitted, and the races along both banks
of the Lower Indus have laboriously formed
inundation canals. With water, in tropical coun-
tries, plants of some kind may be grown. But
much injury results from profuse supply of canal
water swamping the lands. Land is destroyed
unless there be perfect drainage made before the
irrigation is adopted. The water must be able
to get out of the land as well as to get into it
with equal facility. Of all the supplies, river
water is the best, as it brings with it a large
proportion of silt; after that comes water from
tanks, then the natural rains ; and worst of all
are the waters of wells and canals, for they con-
tain much saline matter in solution, and chiefly
soda. Salts in undue proportion render soils
sterile. Mr. Robertson of the Sydapet farm says
that soil which contains more than a half per
cent, of salts, capable of being washed out by
water, cannot possibly be productive. Mr. E. C.
Schrottky says that the remedy for this is subsoil
drainage.

Manure. — Next to water in agricultural value
comes manure. The Chinese, of all the eastern
races, are the most successful appliers of manures,
utilizing them from the animal, vegetable, and
mineral kingdoms, and applying them in a skilful
manner, growing green crops for manure, which
they plough down into their fields, and using
recent animal refuse in a greatly diluted state.
Throughout British India, the husbandmen are
thoroughly acquainted with the value of manures,
both fresh and decomposed, but the quantity
obtainable is barely sufficient for their garden
cultivation. Even if all the cattle refuse could
be had, it would still be insufficient; but in most
parts, owing to the scarcity of firewood, dried
cow-dung cakes are the chief fuel. Also, with
every increase of irrigation, manure is necessarily
more and more needed, the soluble parts of the
soils being more easily taken up, and are more
frequently so by the more frequent cropping. The
soils of many parts of British India are thus in
danger of becoming utterly barren. Learned men
from ancient times have been warning agricultur-
ists on this point. In the first century of the
Christian era, L. Junius M. Columella, in a letter
to Publius Silvinus, pointed out that the sterility
of their fields is to be attributed to their own
doings. Mr. H. C. Carey of Philadelphia has shown
that in the States, in the beginning of the 19th
century, 25 to 30 bushels of wheat per acre were
to be got, but latterly only 12 bushels. In Virginia
and Kentucky, tobacco was grown until the soil was
completely exhausted, and had to be abandoned.
In a late Settlement Report in the Hoshangabad
district, it was stated that in the Nerbadda valley,
fifty years before, the rate of produce had been
tenfold, but only sixfold at the date of the report.

Liebig, in his letters on Modern Agriculture
(pp. 176-77), remarks that ' there are fields that
may yield without manuring, for 6, 12, 50, or
100 years successively, crops of cereals, potatoes,
vetches, clover, or any other plants, and the
whole produce can be carried away from the
land, but the inevitable result is at last the same :
the soil loses its fertility, the fields will ultimately
be brought to a state of exhaustion, the corn will
only yield an amount equal to the seed, the
potatoes will no longer produce tubers, and the
vetches or clover will die away after barely appear-
ing above the ground.'

These remarks are admonitory to the cultiva-
tors, the State, and the people. If the land be only
half tilled, and be starved as regards manure, the
share of the produce falling to the State will
appear large; but the more produce it can be
made to yield, the more easily will the land-tax
be paid. Throughout India the ground around
the village site is always resorted to by the
inhabitants, and tobacco is there the most frequent
crop. It is almost the only open field that receives
animal refuse, four-fifths of the cattle droppings
being dried and used as fuel. The average daily
weight of cows' droppings is 4 or 5 lbs. daily,
equal to 15 cwt. per annum ; two-thirds are con-
sumed as fuel, excepting during the rains. How
little the fields receive, is known from the fact
that there is one head of horned cattle to every
two cultivated acres, — plough cattle, milch cattle,
and buffaloes. Even the small portion retained
for manure is wasted, no care being taken to
prevent loss by drainage or evaporation. Mr.
Buck mentions that at Farrakhabad night-soil
has been utilized for ages past, as much as
Rs. 15,000 to 20,000 being paid there by the
cultivators to the sweepers.

In the general non-use of manure, the prevail-
ing practice has been to throw the exhausted
fields out of cultivation for periods of years, after
which it is again broken up into great masses by
iron bars. Full crops are not immediately obtained.
In the Chanda district, it has been observed that
where fresh soil is broken up for rice cultivation,
the ground can never be got into proper order
during the first year, and the yield is less than in
the old fields. In the second year the return
rises to about an eighth above that of the old
fields, and increases gradually year by year until
the fifth, when it reaches 50 per cent, above the
yield of the old fields. It then commences to
decline, and in about another five years has sub-
sided to the level of the old fields. Land yielding
dry crops seems also to reach its highest point of
fertility in the fifth year of cultivation, but it falls
more slowly to the condition of old fields than is
the case with rice lands, and in a field twenty
years old will be more productive than one which
has been twenty years under the plough. When
a cultivator sees a field becoming sterile, he
allows it to be fallow for from two to five years,
in the meanwhile pasturing his cattle thereon ;
and when the land is again sown, it is found to
give a yield equal to its neighbours.

Green manure, ploughed in, has several advan-
tages. It saves transport, rapidly decomposes,
saves all the constituents of the manure ; while
decomposing, raises the temperature of the soil,
protects the soil from the effect of solar heat,
prevents evaporation, retains fertilizing prases, ;end

130

1 1 rsr. as DRY.

pulverizes the noil. The jute and cassia loaves and
exhausted indigo plants are largely utilizod in
this way. Bone-dust is only employed in places
superintended by Europeans.

. S3. — The British have been very desirous
of Improving the husbandry of the people, and
have succeeded to a small extent. Millions sterling
expended in experiments to improve the
staple of cotton ; much encouragement was given
to the silk and lac industries; unsparing and
successful efforts have been made to establish
tea, tobacco, cinchona, hop, and caoutchouc plants ;
opium cultivation has been brought to the highest
pitch of perfection ; the indigo manufacture has
attracted many Europeans, though the manufac-
ture of the last two product* has been left entirely
to native skill ; tobacco varieties have been intro-
duced ; an attempt was made to introduce the fine
cochineal insect ; a little has been done to introduce
improved breeds of cattle and sheep ; much has
Wvn done for fibrous plants ; and by agricultural
exhibitions, agri-horticultural societies, farms, fairs,
and agricultural banks, forests have been pro-
tected, planting of trees encouraged ; great canals
constructed for irrigation ; loans have been made
for well-digging; while railways, harbours, and
improved ocean steamers have aided in the dis-
tribution, and emigrants have been encouraged
and protected. These have been regarded by the
British rulers as their duties.

Ninety per cent, of Indian exports are raw
products, and steady efforts have been made to
improve the means of transit and distribution on
rivers, canals, ocean ships, roads, and railways.
In scarcities and famines, perhaps, no efforts can
stave off the destruction of the cattle needed for
carriage, and a meteorological department has
been formed to watch and give warning of climatic
changes. The countries adjoining Further India,
still sparsely inhabited, can be looked to for years
to come as food granaries, but early effort should be
made to encourage and develope the arts. Railway
workshops, spinning and weaving companies, tea,
cotton, coffee, and cinchona planters have done
much, but the fishermen need to have facilities
afforded for salting their fish captures, which is
the sole animal food that almost all the races eat ;
and the climates of the western coast of India
and of Burma are inimical to cattle and sheep.

Much is still capable of being accomplished in
the way of improving existing and adding new
varieties of fruit and timber trees, root plants,
vegetables, cereals, pulses, and millets, condiment
plants, truffles, mushrooms, with herbage and
fodder plants for cattle.

Trees should be planted in groves and lines, to
afford shelter from drying hot winds. They are a
powerful engine in the production of coolness and
moisture, and their leaves furnish manure. Frizes
and payments should be made to persons who suc-
cessfully raise trees in exposed situations, for a tree
cannot be raised by Government employes under
three to five rupees. Sir George Campbell, when
in the Panjab, issued an order that every man
who cut down a tree should plant five in its place.
The breed of stock, cattle, sheep, and goatB could
be further improved, and better varieties imported ;
ami they maybe persuaded to rear fowls of kinds.
and to add to their stock by domesticating bees.
The preservation of fodder crops by ensillage
night be introduced, and greater care taken, in

181

HWA-KEA-TSZE.

HtoriiiK manure, to arrange for the preservation of
its fluid parts, under-draining being adoj
bring fresh soil under tillage.- Sir Henry I
Supplement; Mr. II. II. Elliut tatd m I . ' '.
Danvtrt in Jo. Soc. of Art*; Cameyy's Karhnhri
Technicalities; li. II. Boat* /WW/, /•;.
Prod, of the Pent fab; Manual <,/ /he Laud /.'
Systems of India ; ft O. Srhrottky, Rational
Aprirulture; Mr. F. N. Wright, Agriculture in
Cawnpore; Mysoreand f'mtrat Provmce* Admini-
stration Reports; Hanoi mn Mueller's Sehct
Plants; MacGregor, pp. 35, 3fi ; 1 17k. Gloss.;
Williams' Middle Kingdom, ii. p. 109 ; Ward, p. 101 ;
Peschel on Man, p. 492.

HUSE, a transparent fabric of Manilla, of
which the shirts of the coloured population are
made. It is made from the fibre of the Muea
textilis. — Oliphant.

HUSKS, on which the prodigal son desired to
appease his hunger, were the pods of the Cera-
tonia siliqua.

HUSN and HASN, pi. Hasnein, sons of AH,
a cousin of Mahomed, by Fatima, Mahomed's
daughter. Husni Syud, a descendant of Ilasnein.

HUSN -ABDUL is a town between Rawal
Pindi and Peshawur. It has a sacred tank,
supplied by many rivulets, and crowded with fish.
A stone there has a rude bas-relief, said to be an
impression of a foot.

HUT or Hoth, a small Baluch tribe in the
Dehra Ghazi Khan district.

HUT-GAR or Hat-gar, a weaver caste in the
Canarese-speaking country about Belgaum.

IIUT'HEELE or Hat'hile,one of the Panchpiri,
or five noted saints of the lower orders of Hindu-
stan. He is said to have been the sister's son of
Ghazi Meean, and lies buried atBahraich, near the
tomb of that celebrated martyr.

HUT-HU, Sansk., in Hindu asceticism, signifies
the external means used to fix the mind upon the
One Spirit. These means are, sitting in a particular
posture, keeping the eyes fixed on the end of the
nose, repeating a particular name, and many other
practices equally ridiculous.

HUTTON, Majok, author of Note on the Cul-
ture of Silk at Kandahar ; on the Wool and
Woollen Manufactures of Afghanistan ; Zoology
of Kandahar.

HUTTON, Dr., a Bombay medical officer, author
of a History of the Kooria Mooria Islands in the
Royal and Bombay Geographical Society's Journal ;
East Indian Marine Survey. — P. P.

HUWANA, Can., the flower fish, occurs in a
curious small lake of fresh water close to the sea,
near Cundapur in N. Canara. They are con-
sidered a delicacy, and used to be sent by runners
to Tipu Sultan. They are caught by a number of
boatmen moving from one end of the lake.

HUZUR. Hum." A respectful form of address
to persons of rank, equivalent to ' presence,' — the
1 m ence, the royal presence.

HUZURASH, name of the translation of the
Zendavesta into Pehlavi, a mixture of Semitic
and Iranian, made in the time of the Sassanidax
Pehlavi was the language used by the Sassanian
dynasty. — Bunseu : Ma i Mnller. See Honover.

HWA-KEA-TSZE, the Chinese cycle of 60
years. The Chineso year commences from the
con junction of the sun and moon, or from the
nearest new moon to the 15th degree of Aquarius.
It has 12 lunar months, some of 29, some of 30

HWANG.

HYDERABAD.

days. To adjust the lunations with the course
of the sun, they insert, when necessary, an inter-
calary month. Day and night are divided into
12 periods, each of 2 hours. — Gutzlajfs Chinese
History, p. 73.

HWANG -te-wang, and Teeu-tsze, are titles
which have been held by Chinese emperors.
Wang is commonly translated king ; the other
emperor. See China, 684.

HWOH-FU, Chinese living Buddhas.
' HWUI - HWUI KEAOU. Chin. The Maho-
medan religion.

HYACINTH, a mineral used as a precious
stone, consisting of silica and zirconia, trans-
parent, and of a red colour.

HYJENINA, a sub-family of the Felidae, digiti-
grade carnivorous mammalia, distinguished by
having their fore legs longer than their hind legs,
by their rough tongue, great and conical molar,
or rather cutting-and-crushing, teeth, projecting
eyes, large ears, and a deep and glandular pouch
beneath the anus. In general form, hyaenas
resemble dogs more than cats ; and Linnaeus
classed them with the former, to which they
appear united by the Lycaon pictus of S. Africa.
There is one species in India, —

Hyaena striata, Zimmer., II. vulgaris, Demarest.

Naukra-bagh, . . Beng. Taras; Hundar, . Hind.

Har-vagh, ... ,, Lakhar-baghar, . ,,

Kirba ; Kat-kirba, Can. Lakar-bag'h, . . „

Korna-gandu, . . ,, Lakra-bag'h, . . ,,

Hera of Central India. Jhirak of . Hurriana.

The striped hyaena is of a pale, yellowish -grey
colour, with transverse tawny stripes, neck and
back maued, and ordinary length is 8 feet 6 inches
to root of tail ; tail 17 inches. It prefers open
country, and generally digs a hole for its den on
the side of a hill or mountain, or lurks amongst
ruins. It is quite a nocturnal animal, sallying
forth after dark and hunting for carcases, the
bones of which it gnaws, occasionally catching
some prowling dog or stray sheep. It generally
returns to its den before sunrise. Its call is very
unpleasant, almost unearthly. The young are
easily tamed, and show much attachment to their
keepers or masters, uttering sounds not unlike
human laughter.

The spotted hyaena (H. crocuta) and the brown
hyaena, which is a third species of the genus, are
restricted to Africa. Their jaws are enormously
strong, and when they bite they hold on obsti-
nately, and can with difficulty be made to let go
their hold. The voice of the spotted hyaena when
excited resembles a laugh, whence it is commonly
known as the laughing hyaena. The hyaena and
lion are eaten by the Arabs. — Jerdon's Mammals.

HYAL.EA TRIDENTATA, Lam., of the seas
of the E. Archipelago, has the power of expaudiug
its keel appendices into the form of large, oval,
semi-transparent leaves of a light green colour. —
Collhtgwood.

HYALONEMA LUSITANICUM, the glass -
rope ; a vitreous sponge of the Japanese seas.
It is small and cup-shaped, pierced through the
centre by a number of clear glass fibres, twisted
together into a column 8 or 12 inches long. It
roots itself in the mud by a twisted wisp of strong
flint needles, somewhat on the principle of a
screw pile. So long as there were only Japanese
specimens to study, which was top and which
bottom, which the thing itself and which para-

sites growing on it, whether it was a sponge or
a zoophyte, or something else, — could not be
settled. But the discovery of the same or a
closely - allied species in abundance, from the
Butt of Lewis down to Setubal on the coast of
Portugal, where the shark fishers call it sea-
whip, has given savans specimens enough on
which to make up their minds, and has added
another form to the list of those common,
strangely enough, to European seas and to those
of Japan. — Capt. St. John, p. 77.

HYAT. Arab. Life, said by Mahomedans
to have been created on the 10 th day of Ma-

HYAT QALANDAR, also Baba Booden, or
Bawa Booden, a Mahomedan devotee, who settled
on the Baba Booden Hills, on the Nuggur district
of Mysore. On his arrival or return from Arabia
he brought with him some coffee berries, since
which time the plant has continued to be grown
in that district.

HYDASPES or Bedaspes, the ancient Greek
names of a river of the Panjab, called in San-
skrit the Vitasta ; it is the Jhelura or Behut of
the present day.

HYDERABAD, in lat. 17° 21' 45" N., and long.
78° 30' 10" E., on the right bank of the river
Musa, is the capital of an independeut inland
kingdom of the same name, in the centre of the
Peninsula of India. The territory lies between
lat. 15° 10' and 21° 41' N., and long. 74° 40' to
81° 31' E., and has an area of 98,000 square
miles, with a population of 11,250,000 ; and since
the 15th century, it has been under Mahomedan
rulers of the Bahmani, Kutub Shahi, and Azof
Jahi dynasties, the second of whom ruled from
the adjacent fortress of Golconda, and was over-
thrown by Aurangzeb, 1687. The Hyderabad
country is in the table-land of the Dekhan, from
1250 to 1800 feet above the sea, and is surrounded
by British provinces. It has been formed by the
preceding and present dynasties out of several
nationalities, viz. part of Gondwaua on the
N.E., Telingaua on the E. and S.E., Maharastra
on the N.W., and the Canarese or Karnatica
speaking country on the S.W. and S. ; and
the four languages of these races are current
in their respective limits, that of the dominant
Mahomedan race being the Urdu or Hindu-
stani, with Persian as the epistolary language of
the court.

It comprehends the seats of some of the greatest
and most powerful ancient sovereignties of the
Dekhan : — Kalyan, the capital of the western
Chalukya and Bijala Raya dynasties ; Devagiri or
Deoghur, the capital of the Yadava; Warangal,
that of the Kakateya ; and the great Mahomedan
principality of Kulburga, which subsequently split
into the subordinate powers of Bijapur (the
Adil Shahi), Ahmadnaggur (Nizam Shahi), Gol-
conda (Kutub Shahi), Berar (Imad Shahi), and
of Beder (Birud Shahi). In the tract lying
between the Mysore, Hyderabad, and the Mah-
ratta country, were several smaller chieftaincies,
such as that of the Nawab of Banagauapilly, a
Syud family in the east of the Ceded Districts ;
the Pathan nawabs of Kurnool, on the right bank
of the Tumbudra river ; farther west, the Reddi
chief of Gadwal ; the Mahratta ruler of Sundur,
one of the Ghorpara family ; the Kshatriya raja,
Narapati of Anagunda, the representative descend -

132

HYDERABAD.

ant of tho great king Rama of Viiayanagar,
who was overthrown by tlio combination of the
Mahomedan kings of Golconda, Kulburga, Bija-

{.ur, and Ahmadnaggur ; the Pathan nawab of
Hbabpor, the Ghorpara chieftains of Ganjander-
girli and Akalkote ; and at Ghurguntah and
eder Sholapnr are tho descendants of Pid Naik,
a Beder soldier, to whom Aurangzeb granted a
■nail territory in the Jiaichore Doab, for the aid
n at the Biege of Bijapur.
The mien of the reigning Asof Jahi dynasty
hare been : —

1. K:wnr-ud-Din, styled Asof Jah, Nizam- 1713-1748

ul-Mulk, subahdar of the Dekhan.

2. Nasir Jang, eldest son of Asof Jah, mur- ...

(Kred by l'athaus.

3. Muzafar Jang, grandson of Asof Jah,

and nephew of Nasir Jang, killed during
a mutiny of his troops.
I. Salabat Jang, third son of Asof Jab, 1761

deposed by his younger brother in 1761,
and died in prison two years afterwards.

5. Nizam AH. younger son of Asof Jah, . 1761-1803

6. Secunder Jah, son of Nizam Ali, . . 1803-1820

7. Nasir-ud-Dowla, son of Secunder Jah, . 1820-1857

8. Afzal-ud-Dowla, son of Nasir-ud-Dowla, 1857-1860

9. Mir Mahbub Ali Khan, Br., infant son 1869-

(2J years) of Afzal-ud-Dowla.

The founder of the present dynasty was a
distinguished officer of Aurangzeb. He was a
Turani noble, whose name was Chin Kilich Khan.
He succeeded Daoud Khan in the government of
the Dekhan. After various intrigues during the
weak reigns of Ferokhsir and of the Syuds, Mir
Hasan Ali and Mir Abdallah, after the assassination
of Ferokhsir in 1718, in the reign of Muhammad
Shah, Asof Jah, in 1720, when governor of
Gujerat, revolted, overran Kandesh, and captured
Asirgarh. He was subsequently appointed vizir,
but, disgusted with the vicious courses of the
emperor, he returned to the Dekhan, defeated
Muharaz-ud-Dowla, and in 1724 re-established the
Hyderabad kingdom near Golconda, where the
Kutub Shahi family had ruled till overthrown by
Aurangzeb.

In 1748, Nizam-ul-Mulk died, aged 104 years.
His second son, Nasir Jang, assumed the govern-
ment; but Muzafar Jang, a grandson of Nizam-ul-
Mulk, took the lead, declared himself subahdar of
the Dekhan, and joined Chanda Sahib and Dup-
leix, and in 1749 fought and won the battle of
Ambur. Various intrigues occurred, in which
Nasir Jang formed friendships with the three
Pathan chiefs of Cuddapah, Kurnool, and Sava-
nore ; but he was attacked by the French before
Ginjie, where one of the Pathan chiefs shot him.
On this Muzafar Jang was released from prison
and declared Nizam. He joined Chanda Sahib
and the French under Dupleix, but he was assassi-
nated by the Nawab of Kurnool on his way to
Hyderabad, in 1751, when M. Bussy declared
Salabat Jang, the youngest uncle of the deceased,
to be the Nawab of Arcot.

Salabat Jang alternately combined with and
opposed M. Bussy, was deposed in July 1761, and
was shortly after assassinated by his brother,
Nizam Ali.

In 1763, Nizam Ali met the army of Madhava
Rao, Peshwa, under Raghoba, on the banks of
the Godavery, and was completely routed. From
that time till the beginning of the 19th century
the French and British influence alternated, until,
under a treaty of date the 1st September 1798,

ii I British surrounded and disbanded tin- Fn-iieh
battalions. Since the tnat\ of the 111 Sept. imImt
1798, uitih t ku.wkI treaties, the Hyderabad
Government has subsidized a brigade of the British
Indian army. It has consisted of all aims, and
has varied in strength from above 4000 to over
15,000. In 1798 they numbered 6801 ; in 1820,
15,489; in 1867, 4494 ; and in 1882, 5683. To
provide for their pay by the treaty of the I2tfa
October 1800, the Nizam ceded all the territories
he had acquired by tho Mysore hpcatfea of I
and 1799, yielding about 17,58,000 pagodas.
These Ceded Territories comprise the collectorates
of Bellary, Cuddapah, and Kurnool; and from
1800-1 to 1880-81, the receipts have been
47,47,53,951, and charges Rs. 16,24,65,997, net
lis. 31,22,87,954 in the 81 years, or annually
Rs. 88,55,406. In addition to the subsidiary force,
the Hyderabad Government has, since 1811, kept
up another armed force, known as the Hyderabad
Contingent. It had its origin in the inefficiency
of the Nizam's troops, and lias been commanded
by European officers, some of whom were lent
from the Indian army; but, after the treaty of
21st May 1853, the officers became entirely of the
latter class, and until that change it was styled
the Nizam's army. In 1811, the strength of its
cavalry was 9000, and of the infantry and artillery
8000, with 25 guns and 20 European officers.
From 1815, there has been a gradual reduction
of the Contingent. In 1853-54, when the change
to the present system was made, the strength was
9799, with 37 guns and 881 camp followers ; and
in 1880-81 the artillery and infantry numbered
5432, cavalry 2200, with 69 European officers,
20 warrant and non-commissioned officers, 16
guns, and 1040 camp followers. The total mili-
tary force of the Nizam has been returned as
consisting of 71 field and 654 other guns, 551
artillerymen, 1400 cavalry, and 12,775 infantry,
besides a large body of irregulars. The state is
entirely enclosed within British territory, and,
with its good police, a very small armed force
is needed. After the third decade of the 19th
century, from the want partly of financial skill on
the part of Chandoo Lai, Peshkar-i-Dewan, and
partly from his general extravagance and retention
of large bodies of foreign mercenaries, the pay of
the Nizam's Contingent fell into arrears, and the
Nizam assigned the Raichore Doab and Berar
valley to provide funds for the pay. Raichore
was early restored, but during all the minority of
Mir Mahbub Ali Khan, the Dewan Regent, Sir
Salar Jung, Bahadur, strove to recover Berar.
This province was administrated by Commissioners,
under the Resident of Hyderabad. In 1871, it
had 17,334 square miles, with a population of
2,231,565. In 1881, the population of Berar was
2,672,673 persons, and the population of the
remainder of Hyderabad territory is estimated in
the same table at 9,000,000.

Berar is, in the main, a broad valley running
east and west, lying between the Satpura range
on the north and the Ajunta range on the south.
The area of Berar may be reckoned at a little
more than 17,711 square miles. The principal
rivers are the Tapti, the Puma, the Wardha, and
the Pain-Ganga or Pranhita.

of the Berar towns, Ellichpur is the largest,
Oomrawati, Akola, and Akote (in the Akola
district) follow.

133

HYDERABAD.

The principal divisions of the people of Berar
as to creed and caste were : —

Christians,
Bralimans,
Rajput, .
Kunbi, .
Wani,

. 1,335
. 65,754
. 44,133
. 834,174
67,071

Mahar 307,994

Other Hindu castes, 871,457
Aborigines, . . . 163,519
Jains, .... 20,020
Mahomedans, . . 187,555

Mali, 195,981

The chief numbers of the other Hindu castes
in 1881 were as follows : —

Teli 75,552

Dhangar, . . . 74,559

Banjara, .... 60,511

Mang, .... 46,366

Mahali (Hajam), . 33,517

Koli 30,398

Gaoli, .... 30,159

Wanjari, . . . 27,495

Ohumar, . . . 26,885

Bari, 23,690

Bhoi, 22,961

Gosawi, .... 13,013

Rangari, .... 12,471

Vidur, .... 11,747

Beldar, .... 11,494

Gurao, .... 9,234

Nath, .... 9,113

Hatkar, .... 8,605

Waddar, . . . 7,596

Pardhi, .... 5,834

Gopal, .
Khatik, .
Dhor, .
Jakinkar,
Manbhao,
Kaikari, .
Bhat, .

4,904
4,487
4,477
4,347
4,111
3,103
2,520

Lodhi, .... 1,773

Bhamti,

Madhaga, .
Bedar,

Burud, . .

Berad, . .

Gujar, . .

Galak, . .

Kapu, . .

Pasi, . . .

Kahar, . .
Mang-garodi,

Ramusi, . .

1,693

1,595

1,273

1,201

330

967

356

340

256

247

218

118

The Aborigines are detailed as under : —

Andh, .... 37,010 Koilabhute, ... 43

Arakh, .... 371 Korku 28,450

Balai, .... 803 Lajar, .... 1,825

Bhil, 4,183 Moghe 344

Gond, .... 64,817 Nihal, .... 2,483

Kolam 12,163 Pardhan, . . . 11,023

The Hindu religious mendicants are, — Byragi,
Bharadi, Dangat, Gondhali, Gosain, Manbhao,
Nath, Sanyasi, and Vasudi. The Mahomedan
fakirs are of the tribes Kadari, Banawa, Madari,
Chisti, Nakshbandi.

All of the Bhil race who live along the skirts
of the Satpura range appear to have embraced
Mahomedanism, though they do not intermarry
with the purer Mahomedans.

The Kshatriya class contains mostly a set of
very dubious pretenders to the honour of Rajput
descent. Mahrattas of no particular family usu-
ally call themselves Thakur ; even a Kunbi will
occasionally try to elevate himself thereby ; while
the Purbho, Kayasth, and other castes of mixed
origin and good social status are constantly invad-
ing the Kshatriya military order. The distinction
is also claimed by the rajas of the Satpura Hills,
who assert that they are Rajputs depressed by
the necessities of mountain life, whereas they are
Gond or Kurku elevated by generations of high-
land chieftainship.

The Sudra caste in Berar, as in Mysore, all eat
together, although they do not intermarry. The
Kunbi and Mali eat flesh, drink liquor moder-
ately, and their widows may always re-marry if
they choose, excepting the widows of Deshmukhs,
who ape high caste prejudices. The Koshti is a
weaving caste. The Banjara are comparatively
numerous in Berar ; their occupation as carriers
is gone, and during their transitional stage they
gave a good deal of trouble to the police. The
Dhangar are sheep farmers, and the Hatkar,
one of their clans, still hold much land on the
border of the Nizam's territory, and were until A.D.
1853 notorious for pugnacity and rebellion. The
Bhoi has recently been supposed to belong to a

widely-spread primitive tribe ; the Garpagari live
by the profession of conjuring away hailstorms.
Any one who has watched the medicine man at
work has witnessed a relic of pure fetishism,
possibly handed down from the pre- Aryan races
and their earliest liturgies. The Vidur and
Krishnapakshi are the same ; they are descend-
ants of Brahmans by women of inferior caste ; and
Krishnapakshi is only an astronomical metaphor
for describing a half-breed, the term meaning
literally ' dark-fortnight,' and referring to the half-
darkened orb of the moon. The Mhar have been
taken to be the same with the Dher, a very useful
and active tribe. The Mang appear to be the
lowest of all in the social scale. The paucity of
the Khakrob or Bhangi, who are so numerous in
Northern India, is a serious sanitary difficulty.
The Kaikari are a tribe formerly well known for
their thieving habits. Of the aborigines, the
Gond, Korku, and Bhil are the only completely
preserved specimens of tribes. The two first
retain their languages, while the Bhil tongue
seems to have become extinct very recently in
Berar, its disuse being probably expedited by
their general conversion to Mahomedanism. The
Ramosi, a predatory race, speak Telugu in their
families, and are doubtless from Telingana. The
original Pardhan among the Gond answered to the
Bhat among the Hindus, but many seem to have
settled in the plains as a separate class of Gond.

The chief towns are Hyderabad, Secunderabad,
Aurangabad, Beder, Mominabad or Amba Jogi,
Ellichpur, "Warangal, Oomrawati, and Nandeir.

Mahomedans, though of the dominant class,
are not numerous in any district of the Hyder-
abad dominions. They dwell in considerable
numbers in Hyderabad, Beder, Kulburga,
Aurangabad, Karinjah, and Ellichpur, — places
where rulers formerly resided ; but in other
places they are few, and everywhere they look to
state employ. They have no lands, but several
of them have the state revenues in jaghir. Out
of 158,721 of these religionists in Berar, only
1296 are professional. The Syuds of Kulburga
and Gogi and Hyderabad seem impoverized ; the
Pathan, Moghul, Arab, Persian, and Habshi Maho-
medans are soldiers, and those of Berar are noted
for their idleness and profligacy, seldom taking
to the plough.

The Godavery, rising on the eastern declivity of
the Western Ghats, disembogues in the Bay of
Bengal. The total length of this great river,
along the Hyderabad border and through the
territory, is about 600 miles, for about 200 of
which it is navigable from June to February.
The Wardha rises in the hills of Betul and
Ch'hindwara. Near the junction of the Pain-Ganga
with the Wardha, and in the valley of the latter
river, there are coal-fields. Those which have
been examined over a small area near Sasti and
Paoni show an average of 40 feet in thickness.

Except in the city of Hyderabad itself, no effort
or attempt had been made to educate the people
of the Hyderabad Territories, though education is
making enormous strides in Berar and in British
Maharastra. There was no proper school met
with in all the Editor's journeys, in 1866-70,
amounting to about 7000 miles, and only occa-
sionally a few lads, children of foreigners, were to
be seen learning in a verandah the elements of
the Hindi or Mahrati.

134

HYDERABAD.

HYDER AM.

l)ewan,SirSalarJung,inl868,madechangcs
in tin- administrative machinery, and five Sudder
{Uakdan or I >i\ i.-.i< >nal Commissioners were ap-
pointed, for Aurangabad, Bir, and Purbhani ; for
Randeir, Naldrug, and Beder; for Nulgonda,

uiinniim ; for LingSUgUT and Kairhore; and
Indore, Meduck, Yelgundul, and Etartpur.
hi tirst three commissioners on Rs. 1500 a
month, and last two on Rs. 1000.

Tl a- people in the first two divisions speak
Mali rati, tho next two the Telugu, and tho last
MM t he Canarc8e districts of the Nizam's Territories.
Kaeh of the above fourteen districts is presided
over by a talnkdar on from 400 to 600 rupeeR a
in.. ntli, assisted by deputy talukdare, who control
and superintend tho work of naibs or tahsildars
of taluk as. The commissioners go on circuit
within their respective jurisdictions during eight
months of the year, spending the remaining four
at some central locality. The commissioners com-
municate with the Minister through the Malguzari
or Civil Secretariat. There is a' separate depart-
ment of police, with a Suddur Mohtamim or in-
spector-general, immediately under his orders
are placed five naib mohtamim or deputy inspector-
generals, to whom the Zillah Mohtamim or the
district superintendents are directly subordinate.
Each district has its Zillah engineer. There is a
Conservator of Forests, and chief inspector of the
medical department.

HYDERABAD, in Sind, in lat. 25° 23' 5" N.,
and long. 68° 24' 51" E., was built in 1768 on the
site of the ancient Patala or Pataleue by Ghulam
Shah, Kalhora. It was the chief town of the
territories ruled by the Talpur dynasty, until
Uth February 1843, when, after the battle of
Miani (Meeanee), it surrendered to the British,
and the capital was transferred to Karachi (Kura-
chee). The Hyderabad country was conquered
■HD the Talpur dynasty, Amirs of Sind, by a
British Indian army under Sir Charles Napier.
The ancient name of Hyderabad was Neroon or
Niruu, and Abulfada described it as almost equi-
distant between Dabul (Dewul or Tatta) and
Mansura, Sehwan, or Minagara, the latitude of
which is 26° 11'. Its territory is of great ethnic
interest, having been a refuge of Aryan, Balucb,
.lat, Moghul, Pathan, and Rajput races for cen-
turies before the birth of Christ ; and Assyrians,
Bactrians, Greeks, Arabs, and Rajputs have
ruled up to and within its borders. The territory
is now a British revenue district, under the Com-
missioner of Sind, between lat. 24° 13' and 27° 15'
N., and long. 67° 51' and 69° 22' E. The popu-
lation consists of Mahomedans, 560,349 ; Hindus,
118,652 ; with other creeds and tribes, 44,882 ;
total, 728,883. Of the Mahomedans, more than
three-fifths, or 373,705, are Sindi, chiefly Sunni
of the Halpotra, Junijo, Dul, Powar, Thebo,
Sumro, Sand, Katiyar, and other claus, descend-
ants of the original population converted to Islam
during the Ummayid dynasty of Khalifas.

The Baluchi Mahomedans (128,785) are in a
great number of tribes, the chief being the Rind,
Bhugti, Chang, Talpur, Jatoi, Laghari, Chandio,
Kaloi, Khaso, Jakrani, Lasbari.

Pathans are found chiefly about Hyderabad and
Upper Sind, along with Bokhari, M atari. Shirazi,
and Lekhiraji Syuds. Together they number
15,815 persons.

The Sind Memons were formerly Kaohhi

Hindus, who emigrated to Sindund. r tin- Kalhora
role, and devoted themselves to agrimiltm
cattle-breeding. The Khwaja are deaeen
of fugitives from Persia when their creed (the
Istnailych heresy) was persecuted byliuluku Khan.
Tho Memons and Khwajas aggregate 1
Sidi, natives of Maskat (Muscat), Zanzibar,
and Abyssinia, who until the British 00OMM
were bought and sold as slaves. The Shikaris
or Daphers of Tanda number 1353. They are
.Mahomedans, but they eat carrion, and are ex-
cluded from the mosques. Among Hindus the
most numerous caste is the Yaisya or Baniya,
aggregating about 85,000, and of these nearly
four-fifths belong to the Lohano tribe, and the
majority of Hindu shopkeepers and traders also
belong to the Lohano caste. In their complex
subdivisions, they are mixed up with the Maho-
medans. Although wearing the thread, they
become the disciples of Mahomedan teachers,
assume their dress, eat meat, drink Bpirits, and
disregard all the customs of orthodox Hindus
with regard to receiving food from inferiors, etc.
Their marriage ceremonies are so expensive that
many of them remain single till late in life.

The canals begin to fill about May, in proportion
to the annual rise of the Indus, and are again dry
by October. None are perennial in the Tando
deputy collectorate, and in Hala only one, — the
Mahmuda. — Imp. Gaz. See India.

HYDER ALI, an officer of the Mysore Hindu
sovereigns, whom he set aside and then ruled over
the country as an independent prince. His great-
grandfather, Muhammad Bahlol, came from the
Panjab, and settled in the district of Kulburga,
about 110 miles S."W. of Hyderabad. He was
accompanied by two sons, Muhammad Ali and
Muhammad Wali, who both married in the Kul-
burga district, but left it for Seera, in Mysore,
where they were employed as revenue peons ; and
here Fatteh Muhammad, son of Muhammad All
and the father of Hyder Ali, was born, a.d. 1702.
Fatteh Muhammad fell in battle, leaving two sons,
Shahbaz and Hyder, at the age of nine and seven
years respectively. Hyder grew up wholly illiter-
ate, but was a brave soldier, and, after the fall of
Devanahully, he was promoted to the command of
50 horse and 200 foot. Hyder shared in all the
wars in which Nun j Raj and Deo Raj were involved ;
and when Muhammad Ali and Chanda Sahib were
striving for the sovereignty of the Karnatic, he
assumed the Mysore Government, a.d. 1761, the
raja Nunj Raj taking a jaghir of three lakhs of
pagodas. Hyder Ali's great success was the taking
of Bednore. or Nuggur in 1768, in which he is said
to have found twelve kror of rupees. Raja Nuni
Raj died childless, and a distant relative named
Cham Raj was selected by Hyder. Bartolomeo
(p. 8) mentions that Hyder Ali in early life stood
sentry at the west gate of Pondicherry.

Hyder Ali was severely curbed by the Mah-
rattas, and entered into an alliance with Nizam Ali
to attack the British, but the allies were defeated at
Changama in August 1767, and again at Trin-
comalce. The war continued, however, and Hyder
Ali, in March 1769, arrived within ten miles of
Madras, but on the 4th April a treaty was con-
cluded. Hyder Ali conquered Coorg in 1772,
and in 1773 and 1774 he recovered all the terri-
tories which tho Mahrattas had seized. In 1775
he captured Bellary from Bassalut Jang. In

lo5

HYDER. MIRZA, DOGHLAT.

HYDROCHARACEjE.

1776 he extinguished the power of Morari Rao
and the independence of Savanore ; and in 1779
he annexed all the dominions of the Nawab of
Cuddapah. On the 21st July 1780 he invaded
the Karnatic, plundered Porto-Novo, laid siege to
Arcot, and on the 10th September 1780 totally-
destroyed the force of Colonel Baillie at Peram-
baukum. Sir Eyre Coote arrived from Calcutta
on the 5th November 1781. While Hyder was
surrounding five forts, Coote captured Carungally
and overthrew Hyder's forces in a general battle
at Porto-Novo, on the 1st July 1781, on which
Hyder's investment of Trichinopoly, and that of
Wandiwash by his son Tipu, were abandoned.
Coote met Hyder at Pollilore, but again, on the
27th September 1781, at Sholingur, Coote com-
pletely defeated Hyder, and compelled him to
raise the siege of Vellore. Hyder Ali died, aged
80, on the 7th December 1782. His death took
place in camp at Chittore, near Arcot, but was
concealed until his son Tipu could arrive. At his
father's demise, at the close of a virtual reign of
thirty years, the army consisted of a hundred
thousand well-trained men, with about five millions
sterling of money in the treasury. He left at his
death a compact kingdom, and was succeeded
by his son Tipu, known as Tipu Sultan. He was
interred at Seringapatam, and a dome was erected
over the tomb.

HYDER MIRZA, DOGHLAT, author of the
Tarikh-i-Rashidi, an active, bold, adventurous
officer, who held high commands under the emperor
Babar ; and his book, the Tarikh-i-Rashidi, a his-
tory of Central Asia, shows that he was a learned
and accomplished man. He was the son of
Muhammad Husain Mirza, who was the eldest
son of Hyder Mirza, Doghlat, Amir of Kashgar.
Muhammad Husain Mirza married the younger
sister of Baber's mother, and he was put to death
at Herat, a.h. 914 (a.d. 1508), under the orders
of Shaibani Khan.

HYDNOCARPUS ALPINUS. W. Ic. tab. 942.
One of the natural order Pangiacese, the Maratatti
of the Neilgherries, a very handsome tree with a
beautiful foliage, common on the Neilgherries up
to nearly 6000 feet, and at 1500 feet on Calcad
Hills, Tinnevelly, and in Ceylon. On the Neil-
gherries the wood is much used as beams and
rafters for native houses ; it answers as deal for
general purposes, packing-cases, etc. ; it splits
readily, and is a good firewood. The tree flowers
in July and August.— Beddome, Fl. Sylv. p. 77.

HYDNOCARPUS INEBRIANS. Vahl
H. venenata, Gcertner.
Kowtee, . . . Mahr. I Makulu, . . . Singh.
Moratti, . . Maleal. | Marra vattay, . . Tam.

A large tree, growing in Ceylon on the banks
of rivers up to an elevation of 2000 feet, also in
Malabar, in Tinnevelly, and Travancore. It is a
common tree on the west coast, not so in the
Coimbatore jungles. The tree is hardly found in
the Bombay northern jungles on the coast ; more
frequently in those south of the Savitri river.
The wood is not used for any purpose. Flowers
small, white. Fruit used for poisoning fish.- The
seeds of the fruit afford the Thortay oil of Canara,
called also Neeradimutu oil. It is a very valuable
vegetable solid oil, of the consistence of ordinary
hard salt butter, and is used as a remedy in scabies
and ulcers of the feet, also internally. — Thwaites;
Voigt ; Gibson ; Wight.

HYDNUM CORALLOIDES. Scopolt. A
mushroom, called the Koho khur in Kashmir. It
grows in the hollow trunks of Pinus Webbiana.
When cooked, its taste is excellent. There are
many European species. — Von Mueller.

HYDRANGEA, a genus of hardy shrubs. One
species commonly cultivated for the sake of its
beautiful flowers, is a native of China and Japan.
Loureiro took it for a primrose, and called it
Primula mutabilis ; and Commerson subsequently
named it Hortensia, in compliment to Madame Hor-
tense Lepleautc. H. hortensis is the Guelder rose.
It is from 'Udor, water, and Aggion, a vessel,
in allusion to some of the species growing in water,
and the resemblance the capsule bears to a cup.

H. paniculata is the Nori-nori of Japan ; a gummy
matter is obtained from its bark, by decoction,
used in sizing paper.

H. Thunbergii, Siebold. Yan-siu-kiu, Chin. ;
Amats-ja, Japan. A shrub of E. China, Japan,
and Java, is used as tea, and called in Java tea
of heaven. — Sir J. E. Reed, p. 43.

HYDRAOTES, the ancient Greek name of a
river in the Panjab, the modern Ravi ; known
also as the Rhoas. Two separate words forming
the Greek name are 'Udor and Raotes ; its Sanskrit
name is Airavati.

HYDRAULIC CEMENT, the finer kinds of
lime and cement on the coast of the Peninsula of
India are made from shells. A piece of ground
about ten feet square is laid down even and
floored over with clay ; an upright pole is placed
at each end of this, and a sheet stretched out
with back stays spread between the poles, which
are steadied with strings. On the floor a bed of
shells and rice-chaff alternately, about ten inches
thick and eight feet by six, is spread neatly out.
Some firewood is placed along the windward side
of this, and when the sea-breeze sets in the wood
is kindled. As the heat extends to leeward, and
the shells become calcined, the lime-burners draw
off the fore parts of them with a stick, and so
soon as they have cooled on the floor sufficiently
to allow them to be handled, they are placed in a
scoop basket, and the dirt and epidermis winnowed
from them. The shells, now white and pearly,
are next thrown into a small-sized vat partially
filled with water ; here they for some time boil
from the effects of the heat and slaking. The
whole in a short time settles down into a fine
semi-fluid mass, which is taken out and slightly
dried, and is now ready for use. A good hydraulic
cement is formed of the blue clay of Madras and
shell-lime. Bitumen or asphalte seems to have
been employed in Babylon as a cement.

HYDROCERA TRIFLORA. W. and A. Water
oleander. This is the Domuti of Bengal, the
Noli me tangere, one of the Balsaminacese. It
expels its seed at a mere touch. The Turks
regard it as a symbol of ardent love.

HYDROCHARACEjE, a natural order of float-
ing or water plants ; six genera with eleven
species occur in the East Indies, viz. species of
Ottelia, Vallisneria, Hydrilla, Blyxa, Enhalus,
Boottia, and Hydrocharis. Hydrilla verticillata,
along with similar plants, is employed by sugar
refiners for covering the surface of their sugars,
to permit the slow percolation of water. Enhalus
acoroides has a sulphurous smell. Its fruit is
eatable, raw, boiled, or roasted ; if boiled, the nuts
acquire the taste of boiled chesnuts. The natives

136

HYDKOeOTYLE ASIATIC A.

HYLOHATES AGILIS.

of the lloluoeai make net* of the tougli threads
wliirh remain after the put rifled leaves ; these nets
aro said to be very durable in sea water. Blyxa
ootsodra, Rich, grows all over India; Boottiacor-
data, Watt., a plant of Promo and Taong-Dong.
Knhalus acoroides, Linn. (Acorus marinus, Humph.,
Siiiitiotes acoroides, Linn.), grows in the Konkans
and Moluccas.

Ilyilrill.i \crticillata, Linn.
S«<r]>iculaverticillata,X. /. I Udora vetticillata, Ekwtnff.
Vallisneria verticillata, R. \ Hottonia serrata, Willde.
Kurelee, . . . HlND. | Jhangh, .... Panj.
Jal.i Panj. I Punachu Tel.

This, with other aquatic plants, is used by the
snirar- refiners of Saharunpur for covering the
surface of sugar, in order to allow the slow
percolation of water when refining it. It is com-
mon in water in parts of the Panjab plains up to
Peabawnr. It is used east of Sutlej for refining
sugar, but at Multan, west of that river, it is not
obtainable. — Stewart, Panj. Plants, p. 241.

Hydrocharis cellulosa, //. B.

( >ttelia alisraoides, Pers.
Stratiotesalismoide8,//in?i. Damasonium Indicum,
Hymenotheca laxifolia, Willde.

Saii$. D. alisraoides, R. Br.

It is the Panee-kula of Bengal, and grows in
most parts of India.

Vallisneria alternifolia, Roxb., the Rusnojhangi
of Bengal, grows there and in the Konkans and
Coromandel. V. physicura, Juss.,' is' & plant of
Cochin-China.

Vallisneria spiralis, Linn.
V. spiraloides, Roxb. | V. Jacquiniana, Spreng.

A plant of Europe, America, and India.

HYDROCOTYLE ASIATICA. L. Pennywort.
Hydrocotyle rotundifolia, Wall,

Thulkuri, . .
Kodagam, . .
Munduka purni,
Heen-gotu kola,
Vullari kire, .

. Beng.

Mai. k\i..
. Sansk.
. Singh.
. Tam.

Munduka brummi,
Bokkudu, . . . ,
Pinna yelaki chettu, ,
Babbasai elaka, . ,
Elika chavi kura, .

Tel.

A small herbaceous creeping plant with little
purplish red flowers, a native of Africa and
America, and in moist shady places all over
Southern Asia. It has long been employed in
medicine, its leaves applied to bruises, and its
virtue in leprosy has been latterly again much
lauded. An infusion of the toasted leaves is given
to children in fever and bowel complaints. — Ainsl.

HYDROCYANIC ACID, Prussic acid. Several
species of the rose order of plants contain a con-
siderable amount of Prussic (hydrocyanic) acid ;
the oil of the common laurel and bitter almond is,
owing to its presence, a virulent poison.

HYDROLEA ZEYLANICA. Vahl.
Nama Zeylanica, Linn. | Steris aquatica, Burm. .

A herbaceous plant, grows in water and marshy
Bound in the East Indies. The leaves beaten
into a pulp and applied as a poultice are deemed
useful in cleaning and healing ill-conditioned
ulcers in which maggots have formed. — Voigt.

HYDROPHIDJC, the family of sea-snakes.
A principal habitat of Bea-snakes is the ocean
between the southern shores of China and the
northern coast of New Holland. They frequent
the seas that separate the islands of the Pacific,
but they have never yet been found in the Atlantic.

They are found on all the coasts of the East
Indies within soundings, and are supposed to live
on sea-weed. Sir J. E. Tennaut says he has sailed

through large shoals of them in the Gulf of
.Mannar, close to the pearl batiks of Aripo. The
fishermen of Calpentyn, on the west of Ceylon,
live in perpetual dread of them, and believe th«ir
bite to be fatal. In the course of an attempt to
place a lighthouse on the great rocks of the south-
east coast, known by seamen as the Basses or
Baxos, the workmen who first landed found that
portion of their surface liable to be covered by the
tides, honeycombed and hollowed into deep holes
filled with water, in which were abundance of
fishes and some molluscs. Some of these cavitien
also contained sea-snakes from four to five feet
long, which were described as having the head
hooded like the cobra di capello, and of a light
grey colour, slightly speckled. They coiled them-
selves, like serpents on land, and darted at poles
thrust in among them. The Singhalese who accom-
panied the party said that they not only bit
venomously, but crushed in their coils the limb
of any intruder. About the year 1834, a mid-
shipman, the boatswain, and a seaman of one of
H.M. war ships at Madras were all bitten by a
sea-snake, and died. — TennanCs Ceylon.

HYDROPHOBIA. Dr. A Gibson says the
Notonia corymbosa, native name Wandur Rotee,
is useful as a prophylactic in hydrophobia. It
grows rather plentifully on the stony parts of the
high hills near Jooner, and also in some parts of
the Northern Dekhan, Kandesh, etc.

HYDROPHYLAX MARITIMA. Linn. A
straggling herbaceous plant, native of the shores
of Coromandel and Malabar, where it shows its
pale lilac blossoms a great part of the year. The
branches run over the sand, sometimes under the
surface, and strike root at the joints. It answers
well as a sand-binding plant where the sand is
moist. — Roxb. i. p. 373.

HYDROSAURI, or water lizards, live on the
margins of springs and on low river banks. Hydro-
saurus salvator, Lour., occurs in Bengal, Assam,
Ceylon, Malaeca. Tail compressed, fingers long,
nostrils near the extremity of the snout. A black
band on each temple, round yellow spots disposed
in transverse series on the back ; teeth with the
crown compressed and notched. H. marmoratus,
a huge lizard of the Philippines. — Tennant.

HYKSOS, or shepherd kings, were Semitic
tribes from the N.E. of Egypt, that is Canaanites,
associated with Bedouin tribes of Northern Arabia
and the peninsula of Sinai. They held Memphis,
but their stronghold was a fortified camp on the
border of the Syrian desert.

HYLOBATES AGILIS, the gibbon, one of
the Simiadie, occurs in the Malay Peninsula, and
several other species in the Archipelago.

Hylobates Hoolook, the Simia Hoolook, Harlan;
H. seyrites and H. coromandus, Ogilby ; H. Hou-
loch, Lesson, a native of Assam, Sylhet, Cachar,
and Khassya Hills. Its howlings are very extra-
ordinary.

Hylobates Lar, Homo lar, Linn.; Simia longi-
mana, Schreb. ; S. albimana, Vigors and Hors. ;
Le grand gibbon of Buffon. A native of Ten-
asserim and Malacca, wbere it is known as the
white-handed gibbon. The contrast which this
animal offers with H. hoolook is very remarkable.
The body is proportionally much shorter, and it is
quite incapable of walking in the erect attitude
commonly assumed by H. hoolook, always creeping
forward when on the ground in a crouching position.

137

HYLOBII.

HYPERICUM PERFORATUM.

Hylobates Leuciscus, the silvery gibbon, the
Wow-Wow or Wa-Wa, Simia leucisca, Schreb.,
Moloch, Audeb., native of Malacca. The Wa-Wa,
or long-armed ape, is the most beautiful of all the
monkey tribe. The fur of this gentle little animal
is grey ; its face, hands, and feet are jet black ;
in features it more resembles those of the human
race than the orang-outang. — Low's Sarawak,
p. 80 ; Jerdon.

HYLOBII, a sect of ascetics mentioned by
Megasthenes as living in the woods, clothed with
the bark of trees, and living on fruits and leaves.
Hylobios is a literal translation into Greek of
Vanaprashtha, Sansk., dweller in the woods,
which is the usual designation of a Brahman in
the third stage of his life.

HYMENjEA COURBARIL. Linn. The locust
tree, gum-anime tree, or courbaril locust tree,
is a fine colossal spreading tree, growing in the
tropical parts of America, in Jamaica, and in
Tenasserim, where it was introduced by Major
Macfarquhar. The tree is easily propagated.
The timber of the old trees is very hard and
tough, and is in great request for wheel-work,
particularly for cogs. The wood is so heavy that
a cubic foot is said to weigh a hundred pounds ; it
takes a fine polish, and is used by cabinet-makers.
When in a sickly state, the resin called Western
anime, also W. Indian copal, exudes from between
the principal roots. It is fine and transparent, of
a red or yellowish-red colour, and in large lumps.
It resembles amber, is very hard, and sometimes
contains leaves, insects, or other objects imbedded
in it. It burns readily, emitting a very fragrant
smell. Dissolved in rectified spirits of wine, it
makes one of the finest kinds of varnish. — Eng.
(.'ili\ ; O'Sh ; Mason's Ten.; Voigt; Von Mueller.

HYMENODYCTION EXCELSUM. Wall.

Cinchona excelsa, Roxb. Cedar wood.

Kalabachnak,DUK.,HiND. Burja ; Burija, . Tel.

Barthoa ; Thab, . Panj. Cbetippa, ... ,,

Sagapu maram, . Tam. Bandaru, Pundaru? „

A very large tree belonging to the Cin-
chonacea;, common all round the foot of the
Neilgherries, and in the mountainous parts of the
Circars, but chiefly in the valleys. The wood is
firm, close-grained, of a pale mahogany colour,
and very useful for many purposes ; much used
and esteemed for inside work, such as drawers,
etc. The bark, Dr. Roxburgh informs us, possesses
both the bitterness and astringency of the Peruvian
bark, and, when fresh, even in a stronger degree.
The two inner leaves of the bark possess great
bitterness and astringency ; the bark is used by
the tanners, and also as a medicine among the
Hindus, in eases requiring astringents. Dr.
O'Shaughnessy analyzed the bark from the Botanic
Garden of Calcutta, but could detect no alkaline
ingredient. Nevertheless the trees of hilly regions
may furnish the valuable desideratum. The
stamina being contained within the tube, affords
much ground for expecting the discovery of a feb-
rifuge alkaline in this species. — Roxb. ; O'Sh.

HYMENODYCTION OBOVATUM. Wall.
Karwai ; Karwye, Mahr. I Malay tanah, . . Tam.
Yellamala, . . . Tam. |

This large, beautiful tree is not uncommon in
the sub- Alpine forests from Canara down to South
Travancore, up to elevations of 4000 feet. It is
less common, however, than the H. utile, Wight.
Dr. Gibson says this and H. utile grow on the

Bombay side of India, but that the wood of
neither is fit for anything but fuel. Colonel
Beddome says the timber is used by the natives
for a variety of purposes, and is probably equal
to that of H. excelsum. — Wight; Gibson; Beddome.

H. thyrsiflorum, Wall., grows at Rajmahal,
Chittagong, and at Rangoon. — Drs.Wight, Gibson,
and Voigt.

HYMENODYCTION UTILE. W. Ic 1159.
Kurwye, . . . Mahr. | Pirunjolay maram, Tam.

This tree attains a large size, and the heart-
wood is red: Dr. Wight was informed that it
furnished the wood called bastard cedar, and he
afterwards found two other trees similarly re-
ported. Dr. Gibson says the wood of this tree is
never used in Bombay except for firewood. The
tree is common enough, in rocky slopes, mostly
iu or near thick forests. It does not stretch
inland beyond the limits of the ghat ravines. —
Wight; Gibson.

HYMENOPTERA, an order of insects charac-
terized by the majority of them having stings.
See Insects.

HYOBANS. The raja of Huldee or Hurdee in
Ghazipur is of this conspicuous clan, which once
held large dominions on the banks of the Ner-
badda. — Elliot, Supp. Gloss. ; Jour. Beng. A. S.

HYOSCIAMUS NIGER. Linn. Henbane.

Sapht, .... Egypt.
Uoskuamos, .... Gr.
Adas-pedas, . . Malay.
Dentura of . . . Ravi.
Kborasani omum, . Tam.

Bunj, . . Arab., Pers.
Siekran, ... ,,
Dandura, . . Chenab.

Bazr-bang ,

Yang-cbih-chuh, . Chin.
Nau-yang-bwa, . ,,

The Seed.
Khurasani ajwain, Hind. I Tukhm-i-bunj-i-Rumi,
Bazr-ul-Bunj, . . Pers. | Pers.

The henbane plant is a native of Europe and
of Asia Minor, and in the Panjab Himalaya is
frequent in waste ground near houses from 5000
to 10,000 feet. The seeds are officinal in India
for their narcotic effects, and it is cultivated in
several parts of India. In physiological action
this plant and its preparations seem intermediate
between belladonna and opium, combining great
soothing and anodyne power with the property
of dilating the pupil. An alkali has been obtained
termed hyosciamia, which differs little, if at all,
from atropia. A dry inspissated juice of the leaf
was prepared by exposing the juice in thin layers
on a shallow earthen vessel to the intense heat of
the sun in April and May. Dr. O'Shaughnessy
deemed this extract far superior to any imported
from Europe or prepared in India by other pro-
cesses. In three-grain doses its soporific and
anodyne effects were most decisive, and its use
rarely if ever followed by any headache or other
unpleasant symptoms. — 0\Sh.; Stewart: Spry.

HYPERICUM CHINENSE. Smith. Kin-sze-
ts'au or Kin-sze-t'au, Chin. A beautiful flowering
plant of China.

HYPERICUM PERFORATUM. Linn. St.
John's wort. Bassant of Ravi, Bassant dendlu
of Beas. Common in the Kashmir mountains.
In Arabian medicine it is recommended to expel
intestinal worms and to cure piles, prolapsus uteri
et ani. In European practice St. John's wort
was regarded as a mild stimulant tonic, diuretic,
emenagogue, etc. The dried herb boiled in alum
water communicates a yellow or yellowish - red
colour to wool, silk, etc. St. John's wort plants

138

IIVNUAi:

.ill boar yellow flowers, with one exception from
liina. — h'i-lilell; Stewart; llan'ujb.

II Vl'll.KNE, a genus of dicotomous ]>alm8 of

i. but growing in India. H. argun, Martins,

in Nubia. II. coriacea, Gwrtn., the Doum

palm of equatorial E. Africa and Upper Egypt,

attains a height of 80 feet. It is common at

Multan. H. crinita, Gmrtn., of Egypt and Abys-

.Mnia. If. thebaica, Mart., tho Doum palm, or

1 1 tread tree of Egypt, grows at Okamundel

and on Diu Island. Exceptional in the palm order

from its branching truuk.

IIVrilANTIDIl'MSERICARIUM. Bennett. A
lejiidopterous insect of Australia. Its larva?
.0 a beautiful silken web.

HVi'lIASIS, the ancient Greek name of the
river of the Panjab, called in Sanskrit Vipasa. It
is the modern Gharra.

IIVTOLITE DESIDERI, a traveller who set
out from Goa on the 27th November 1713, and
reached Lahore in October the following year.

HYKCAXIA, the hilly region south of the
Caspian Sea, the country about Mazenderan, which
has much forest. It is the Greek corruption of the
word Korken or Gorghen, the name of a river
which rises in the Kurdish mountains, traverses
this region, and falls into the Caspian Sea. —
Outeley's Trav. i. p. 188, ii. p. 59.

HYSSOPUS OFFICINALIS. W. Hyssop.

Zufaiy yeabua, . . Arab. I Hyssope, Fa.

Zufye yabia, ... ,, | Isop, Ger.

Ushnaz Daoud, . ,,

Used, in infusion, for coughs and asthma ; also in
toothache, uterine or vesicle affections, and in-
durations of the liver or spleen. Hyssop that
cometh out of the wall, alluded to in 1 Kings iv.
33, was probably a lichen or moss, probably the
Gymnostomum fasciculare, a moss common in the
Holy Land.— Powell, i. p. 365.

HYSTRICIDiE, a family of mammals of the
order Rodentia. The sub-family Hystricinae em-
braces the animals familiarly known as porcupines,
of the genus hystrix of Linnaeus. They are
rodents, whose covering consists for the most
part of offensive and defensive armour, in the
shape of spines or quills, instead of hairs.

Hystrix Bengalensis, Blyth.
H. Malabarica, Sclater. | Bengal porcupine, . Eng.

This is smaller than H. leucurus, the head and
body being about 28 inches, and tail 8 inches. It
is found in South Malabar, Lower Bengal, Assam,
and Arakan ; doubts, however, exist as to the
identity of H. Bengalensis and H. Malabarica. Dr.
Day states that he procured specimens of the
orange porcupine from various parts of the ghats
of Cochin and Travancore, ana that the flesh of
this kind is more highly esteemed for food than
the common variety. The native sportsmen
declare that the aroma from these burrows is
quite sufficient to distinguish the two species.

Hystrix Leucura, SyJces. Indian porcupine

H. birauti-roatria, Brandt.
H. criatata Indica, Gray.

Sajru Beng.

Yed, Can.

Hoigu, .... Gond.
Saori, GUJ.

II. Zeylanensia, Blyth.
H. cauda-alba, Sykcs.
Sahi, Sayal, Sarael, I Fin n.
Salendra, .... Mahk.
Dumsi, . . . Nepal.
Yoddu pandi, . . TKL.

HYUL.

The white-tailed or Indian porcupine m found
over a great part of India. It forms extensive
l.urrowB, often in societies, in the sides of hills,
banks of rivers, nullahs, and tanks, or old mud
walls. Its length is about 90 inda-s, tail 7 inches.
In some parts of the country they never issue
forth till dark ; dogs take up the scent readily.
Tin- porcupine charges backwards on its assailant*,
with erected spines, and dogs frequently get severe
wounds, the strong spines beiug driven deeply
into them. The meat of the porcupine is white,
tasting something between pork ana veal, and is
not bad eating.

Hystrix Longicauda, Marsden.
H. alophus, Hodgson. I Acanthion Javanicum,

H. Hodgaonii, Gray. F. Cuv.

Creatleaa porcupine, Eng. O'e of Limbu.

Sathung of . . Lepcha. | Achotia dumai, . Nepal.

The crestless porcupine is found in Sikkim, in
Nepal, at Darjiling, up to 4000 and 5000 feet. In
the Eastern Himalaya it is about 24 inches long,
tail 4 and quills 5A. inches. They are very numerous
and very mischievous, committing great depreda-
tions in the edible root crops.

Atherura fasciculata is of the Tiperah Hills and
southwards to the Malay Peninsula The tail is
much longer than in the true porcupines, and ends
in a tuft of long bristles, and the spines of the
back are less elevated. — Jerdon ; Mason.

HYSUDRUS, the name by which the Greeks
designated the Sutlej river.

HYTA-BASHI, a leader of the Hyta troops,
Turkish irregular cavalry, called Hyta along the
valley of the Tigris and at Mosul, and Bashi-
bazouk in Roumelia and Anatolia. They are
collected from all classes and provinces. A man
known for his courage and daring is named Hyta-
Bashi or chief of the Hyta, and is furnished with
tazkara or orders for pay and provisions for so
many horsemen, from four to five hundred to a
thousand or more. He collects all the vagrants
and freebooters he can find to make up his
number. They find their own arms and horses,
although sometimes they are furnished by the
Hyta-Bashi, who deducts a part of their pay until
he reimburses himself. The best Hyta are Alban-
ians and Lazes, and they form a very effective body
of irregular cavalry, their pay at Mosul is small,
amounting to about eight shillings a month ; they
are quartered on the villages, and are the terror
of the inhabitants, whom they plunder and ill-
treat as they think fit. When a Hyta-Bashi has
established a reputation for himself, his followers
are numerous and devoted. He wanders about
the provinces, and, like a condottiere of the
middle ages, sells his services and those of his
troops.

HYUGOR. Biiot. A mantle of sheep-akin or
goat- akin.

HYUL or Jiul, of the northern European
nations, is the Hindu sacranta, and is supposed
in Tod's Rajasthan (i. p. 24) to be derived from
Hya, Sansk., a horse, El, sun, whence /xxo; and
faio;. Ha appears to have been a term of Scythic
origin for the sun ; and Heri, the Indian Apollo,
is addressed as the sun. Hyul may be the Noel
of France.— Tod's Raj. L p. 24.

139

IBN BATUTA.

I. This letter of the English alphabet has, in
Englaud, four sounds. As an initial and medial
letter, it has a long sound, as in iron, fine, isinglass ;
a second is short and acute, as in sit, infant, indi-
gent ; a third sound is that of the letter u, as in
stir ; and the fourth sound is close and slender,
though long, like ee, as in fatigue, intrigue. The
three first sounds are peculiar to the English
language, but the last long sound, as of ee, is
represented in all the tongues of the south-east of
Asia.

IANTHINA, the violet snail, a genus of mol-
luscs, of the family Haliotidaa. There are six
recent species, ■widely distributed in the four
quarters of the globe. They are seen floating on
the ocean, but are often driven on the shores by
tempests. The beach at Madras is strewn -with
them after a gale. The Ianthina has occurred on
the coasts of Britain. In warm climates it is very
plentiful. — Eng. Cyc.

IARVINI. Tam.?
Crawn, . . Dut., Port. | Yarvaney, .... Tam.

A Ceylon tree which grows tall and straight,
from 20 to 45 feet high, and from 12 to 30 inches
in diameter. It answers many purposes in ship
and house work. — Edye, Timber of Ceylon.

IBADIYAH, a Shiah sect of Mahomedans which
was founded in Oman by Abdullah-ibn-Abad.
They elect their own imam.

IBERIA. This ancient kingdom is the modern
province of Kartelania in Georgia. Ptolemy
describes it as bordered on the north by the Sar-
matian mountains, to the south by a part of
Armenia, to the east by Albania, and to the
west by Colchis, the present Immeretia. He
mentions many of its towns and villages. Strabo,
who travelled in these countries, speaks of this
being a flourishing and even luxurious state. In
western emigration, the Iberians and Cantabrians
preceded the Celts, and their language is preserved
in the Basque (Biscayan). — Porter's Tr. i. p. 110 ;
Latham in Brit. Assoc. Journ., 1845, pp. 77, 78.

IBEX. This name is given in India to several
animals of the genus Capra or goat. C. Sibirica
(I. Himalayana, Blytli) is the Himalayan Ibex, the
Skeen, Skyn, Sakeen or Sikeen of the Himalaya,
the Kyi of Kashmir, Jerdon. These are the
names of the male ; that of the female, in Tibet, is
L'danmo. It inhabits Ladakh and Kashmir east
to Nepal. It is agile and graceful in its move-
ments. They are hunted and shot in the winter
for the sake of the soft under-fleece, which in
Kashmir is called Asali tus, and is used for lining
shawls, also for stockings, gloves, and is woven
into a fine cloth called Tusi. No wool is so rich,
so soft, and so full. The hair is manufactured
into coarse blanketing for tents, and twisted into
hair ropes. The sportsmen of Southern India
give the name of Ibex to the Neilgherry wild goat,
Hemitragus hylocrius. See Goat.

IBI-GAMIN, a glacier in Eastern Tibet, in
height 22,260 feet English = 20,886 French feet.

IBIS, a familiar name applied to species of
birds of the tribe Cultirostres ; the Pelican Ibis
is Tantalus leucocephalus, extremely common
throughout India, Ceylon, and Burma. The Shell
Ibis is the Anastoma oscitans, Boddacrt, very

abundant in the lake and river districts. The
Ibisinae or true ibis, of which three species occur
in India, and are there called curlews, from which,
however, they differ in breeding on trees, and
feeding their young till full grown.

The White Ibis is the Threskiornis melano-
cephalus, Linn., and is found throughout India ;
the Warty Black Ibis, Geronticus papillosus,
Temm., also of all India, feeds chiefly on dry land ;
and the Glossy Ibis, the Falcinellus igneus, G'melin,
occurs in vast numbers in India in the cold
weather. It occurs throughout the whole world,
and is very common in India. It is called in Tamil,
Arroova mooken, literally sickle-nosed, from its
long curved beak. The nest contains from three
to five eggs, which resemble in size and shape a
medium-sized hen's egg, but are of a dirty-white
colour. The birds are white, with black head,
feet, and neck, and have a long curved black bill.
The head and neck are naked, and the tail-feathers
of rather a rusty-brown colour ; the lower sides
of the wings, from the axillae to the extremities,
are naked, and the skin in the old birds is of a
deep scarlet colour ; in the young this is absent,
although the part is naked. The young are fully
fledged in March, and take to the wing in April.

The Sacred Ibis, Ibis religiosa, had great honours
paid to it by the ancient Egyptians. It extends
across the whole African continent in the same
latitude, and is found on the west coast also. — Jerd.

IBLIS. Arab. The devil, one who despairs
of God's mercy.

IBN ASIR, author of the Kamil-ut-Tuarikh, a
general history of the Ghaznavites.

IBN BATUTA, born a.d. 1304, died 1377-78,
was one of the great travellers of the Arab race.
He spent 24 years (from 1325-49) in travelling
throughout the east, from Tangiers across Africa
to Alexandria, and in Palestine, Syria, and
Arabia ; down the east coast of Africa to Quiloa ;
across the Indian Ocean to Muscat, Ormuz, Kish,
Bahrein, and El Catif ; through Central Arabia to
Mecca and Jiddah ; and again in Egypt and Asia
Minor, and across the Black Sea to Caffa or
Theodosia, and by Azov or Tanna, on past the hills
of the Russians, to Bolgar on the Volga, — but not
daring to penetrate farther northwards into the
' Land of Darkness.' Returning south to Haj-
Tarkhan (Astracan), he proceeded, in the suite
of the wife of the Khan of Kipchak, the daughter
of the Greek Emperor Andronicus, westward to
Soldaia and Costantiniah (Constantinople ; he
mentions Istambul as a part of the city) ; whence,
returning to Bolgar, he travelled on eastward to
Bokhara, and through Khorasan to Kabul,
Multan, and Dehli, where he remained eight
years, 1334-42. Being sent by the Sultan
Muhammad Taghalaq on an embassy to China,
he embarked from Kinbaiat (Cambay), and, after
many adventures at Calicut (where he was honour-
ably received by the Samari or Zamorin) and
Hunawar (Onore), and in the Maldive Islands, and
Ceylon and Bengal, he at last took his passage
toward China in a junk bound for Java, as he
calls it, but in fact Sumatra. 'Returning from
China, he sailed direct from the coast of Malabar
to Muscat and Ormuz ; and, travelling by Shiraz,
Isfahan, Bussora, Baghdad, Tadmor, Damascus,
Aleppo, Jerusalem, and (for the fourth time)
Mecca, Egypt, and Tunis, at last reached Fez
again, after an absence from Morocco of half his

140

IBX HAUKAL

ICE.

me. Subsequently ho Hpent six years in
Spain anil Central Africa, where he was

i guest nf the brother of a countryman of his
in Ceuta, whoso guest ho had been in
'liina. ' What an enormous distance lay between
two!' he exclaims. He says that in his
time Cairo was the. greatest city in the world out
uf China, ami that the finest trading ports he had
seen were Alexandria in Egypt, Soldaia or Sudak
in the Crimea, Koulani (Quilon) and Calicut in
India, and Zayton (Chinchau) in China. He
escribes Aden as a place of great trade, to
which merchant ships of largo burden resorted
bom Carabay, Tanna, and all the ports of Gujerat
and Malabar. Among the productions of the
Indian Archipelago, he describes gum-benjamin,
aloes-wood, cloves, camphor, and sandal-wood ;
and enumerates also cocoanut palms, areca-nut
palms, jock trees, orange trees, mangoes, and
tamuns (Eugenia jambolana). Porcelain, he says,
is made in China nowhere except in the cities
of Zayton and Sinkalan (Canton). It was exported
to India and elsewhere, passing from country to
country until it reaches Morocco. The first de-
tailed account of his travels was published in
Europe in 1808. They were translated from the
Arabic, with Notes by S. Lee, London 1829.
He enumerates many large and populous towns,
and gives a high opinion of the state of the
country. He speaks of Madura as a city like
Dehli, and that through the whole of Malabar,
for two months' journey, there was not a span
free from cultivation ; everybody had a garden,
with his house placed in the middle of it, and all
surrounded by a wooden fence. And the ports
were frequented by ships from China, Persia, and
Arabia, and other neighbouring countries. — Lee's
Ibn Batata ; BirdieooiVs Report ; India in the lbth
Century; Tr. of a Hindoo; Yule's Cathay.

IBN HAUKAL, an Arab traveller who visited
India a short time after Masudi. He wrote the
Ashkal-ul-Balad, or Kitab-ul-Masalik-o-ul-
Mamalik, or descriptions of countries, in which
occur notices of most of the Mahomedan king-
doms of his day. His real name was Muhammad
Abu-1-Kasim, and he was a native of Baghdad.
He left Baghdad a.d. 943 (A.H. 331), and he
continued travelling till a.d. 9G8. He notices
his obligations to Ibn Khurdadbah, and he
copied likewise from Istakhri. He finished his
book a.d. 970, and it was translated in 1800 by
Sir William Ouseley. — Ind. in lbth Cent.; Elliot;
Hist, of India.

IHN HISHAM, a.d. 833 (a.h. 218), author of
Sirat-ur-Kasul, translated by G. Weil, Stuttgard
1864. It contains the earliest and most authentic
history of Mahomed, and was founded on a book
by Ibn Ishaq.

IBN ISHAQ, died a.d. 7G8 (a.h. 151). He
wrote traditions of Mahomed.

IBN KHALLIKAN. This well-known work has
formed the basis of almost all that has been written
on the personal history of remarkable men of Islam.

IBN KHURDADBAH, died a.d. 912 (a.h.
300), wrote a work on roads and kingdoms. He
attained high office under the khalifs. He was a
Zoroastrian. He is the first who makes mention
of galangal and kamala, and he also mentions
porcelain, sugar-cane, pepper, aloes-wood, cassia,
silk, and musk. — Elliot.

IBN SAAD, a.d. 844 (a.h. 130), secretary of

Waqidi (Katib-ul-Wakidi), died a.h. 130-114.
He wrote a life of Mahomed.

IBN-ZAIN-ul-TABARI, a physician of Bagh-
dad of the early part of the 10th century.

IBN ZOHAU, the name of two distinguished
A ral> physicians, father and son, who flourished
in Spain during the 11th and 12th centuries, and
who are known to Western Europe by the name
of Avanzoar. They were Jews by descent and
profession. The father was born at Seville about
a.d. 1072-73, and died there a.d. 1162. He was
physician at the court of Cordova, and had charge
of an hospital. His most celebrated book, the
Tasir, is one of the most valuable in the possession
of the Arabian physicians. It displays much
origiuality and discrimination. It contains a
compendium of medical practice, including many
facts and observations not found in preceding
writers. He also wrote on Calculus and on
Regimen, and some of his books were translated
into Hebrew and Latin. He was the teacher of
Averhoes. The son, 1114-99, also wrote several
medical works, one of them on Diseases of the
Eye. He died at Morocco, a.d. 1199.

IBRAHIM, founder of the Roushenai sect of
Mahomedans ; died at Cairo, A.D. 1529.

IBRAHIM KHAN of Gour had 7000 families
of Taymuni under his rule ; but about the year
1838 Yar Muhammad of Herat completely devas-
tated the country which they occupied, and
removed them to Herat, where he established
some of them in the city, and some in the suburbs.
In 1846, however, they took advantage of Yar
Muhammad's absence on the Murghab, to decamp
into the Persian territory.

IBRAHIM LODI, king of Dehli, was defeated
at Panipat by Baber.

ICE.

lis, Dan. I Glacies, Lat.

Ijs, Dut. Gelo, Caramelo, . Port.

Glace, Fe. Teodt, .... Rus.

Hi- Geb. I Hielo Sp.

Yakh, .... Hind. Is, Swed.

Ghiaccio It. |

In many countries, the command of a proper
supply of ice or snow for cooling water or other
liquids in summer, has long been regarded as one
of the necessaries of life. There are even allusions
to it in the Proverbs of Solomon : — 'As the cold of
snow in the time of harvest, so is a faithful mes-
senger to them that sent him ; for he refresheth
the soul of his masters ' (xxv. 13).

The Chinese in the north of their country form
ice-houses, about Ningpo, 60 feet long, 42 feet
broad, and 12 feet high.

Ice is of great importance to the Chinese, who
depend much for their food upon the fish which
are caught in their waters. They are enabled by
its means to keep their fish during the hottest
weather for a considerable time, and transmit
them in this way to different ports of the country.
Ice has become an article of commerce. This traffic
commenced in Wenham Lake, about 18 miles from
Boston, in the United States of America, and
subsequently some of the Norwegian lakes have
furnished abundant supplies.

Between 1874 and 1880, the imports into India
ranged from 147,360 to 268,011 cwt, and value
Rs. 2,11,675 to 12,51,902, from all quarters. The
Rubattino Company tried to convey Alpine ice
from Genoa to Bombay.

141

ICELAND MOSS.

ICHTHYOPHIS GLUTINOSUS.

Ice is now largely made in India by machines.
The Peninsular and Oriental Ice Company at
Bombay, in 1868 made five tons at a cost of five
pie the lb. Private manufacturers sell it at two
annas a lb. at a profit. The smaller machines
turn it out in cylinders, the larger machines in
slabs. On the recommendation of Colonel (Sir
George) Balfour, C.B., the Indian Government
sanctioned an ice machine, value Es. 7000, for
each European regiment. — Tomlinson ; Fortune.

ICELAND MOSS is the lichen (Cetraria Is-
landica), Ach., common in the north of Europe
and North America. It yields a nutritive starchy
substance, sometimes employed to make bread
and gruel. — Waterston; Faulkner.

ICELAND SPAR, a variety of calcareous spar
found in rocks near Kabul, and is extracted and
broken into crystalline rhombohedral fragments,
more or less opaque. It is employed by the
natives as an astringent in ophthalmia, gonor-
rhoea, and other fluxes, in doses, internally, of 7
grains, and also externally as a iocal application.
It is called Surma safed, or white antimony, from
being thought to be similar to black antimony,
the common tersulphide of that metal. Price 3d.
per lb.— Cat. Ex., 1862.

ICHNEUMON, a genus of insects which belong
to the order Hymenoptera, section Terebrantia,
and family Pupivora, in the classification of
Latreille.

The species are many. They have a slender
shape. The female, by means of its ovipositor,
deposits its eggs into the body of a caterpillar,
previously stupefied, so that the larvse find food
as soon as they are hatched, and devour the
interior bit by bit. They are also often deposited
into the larvas of coleoptera, hemiptera, aphides,
and weevils. The ichneumon forms small nests of
clay, into which they deposit the infected insect.
— Eng., Cyc.

ICHNEUMONS, a group of carnivora, spread
over Africa and Southern and Eastern Asia. The
Egyptian ' ichneumon very closely resembles the
European species. It was one of the animals
held sacred in ancient Egypt. It is of common
occurrence throughout North Africa, and particu-
larly abundant on the Nile, where it is said to
attack the crocodiles, and where, without doubt,
it destroys great numbers of eggs. The Ichneu-
mons are all extremely fond of eggs, whether of
reptiles or of birds. They break them very cleverly,
by tapping one end on the ground ; and through
the small aperture thus effected they suck out the
whole of the contents. There are several species of
Herpestes in India, called Mongoose or Mungus ; H.
Javanicus of Java and Sumatra ; H. griseus, Geoff.,
of continental India and neighbouring countries ; H.
Nipalensis, Gray, of Nepal; H. neyula, Hodgson,
of the Terai ; H. Malaccensis, Jerd., of Bengal;
H. monticolus, Jerd., hills of Eastern Ghats ; H.
fuscus, Jerd., of Neilgherries ; H. vitticollis, Jerd.,
of Western Ghats; H. brachyurus and H. exitis
of Malay Archipelago. The Egyptian species,
Herpestes ichneumon, celebrated for destroying
serpents and crocodiles, was called Ichneumon
Pharaonis. See Mongoos.

ICHNOCARPUS, a genus of plants belonging
to the order Apocynaceae. I. fragrans, Watt., is
grown in Nepal and Kamaon. It has large hand-
some flowers ; I. Loureirii is a native of Zan-
zibar.

ICHNOCARPUS FRUTESCENS. R. Br.

Echites frutescens, Roxb.

Shyama luta, . . Beng.
Shama-lata, ... ,,
Pal-vulli, . . . Maleal.
Nalla tiga, . . . Tel.

Grows all over India.

Apocynum frutescens, L.

Nalla tige, .... Tel.
Illukatte, ....,,
Munta gajjanamu, . ,,

According to Royle, it
is sometimes used in India as a substitute for
sarsaparilla ; 12 annas per lb. — O'SIi. p. 442 ; Cal
Cat. Ex., 1862; Don; Lindley.

ICHTHYOCOLLA, a named derived from i X 8v;,
a fish, and *oAX«, glue, is translated isinglass, a
word derived from the German Hausenblase, from
Hausen, the great sturgeon, and Blase, a bladder,
being one of the coats of the swimming-bladder
of fishes, chiefly of the genus Acipenser or
sturgeon, and of which the best qualities are
exported from the rivers of Russia, flowing into
the Black and Caspian Seas, but also from the
Sea of Ural and the Lake Baikal. — Royle. See
Air-bladder ; Fish-maws ; Isinglass ; Sounds.

ICHTHYOPHAGI, a fisher race of the ancients,
on the coasts of Persia, the Sir Matsya or Ser-
mahi. Fish to this day is the staple article of food
of the inhabitants on the sea-coast of Baluchistan.
In the Shatt-ul-Arab, fish are caught and cured,
and sold at one shilling the cwt. ; for six months
the people of Basra live on almost nothing else, and
also from Basra to Hormuz, the sea-coast people
principally five on fish ; and manuscript dictionaries
describe the bread or food called Mahi-abah or
Mahi-ashnah, used chiefly among the people of
Lar, as prepared from fish (more particularly a
small kind found near Hormuz), dried by exposing
it to the sun. Strabo and Arrian relate that the
ancient Ichthyophagi made into bread the fishes,
which they had dried and roasted in a similar
manner. The region of the Ichthyophagi com-
menced at Malana, near Cape Arabah, and ended
between the ancient Dagasira and the place now
called Cape Jask, or more properly Jashk. Church-
ill's Collection of Voyages mentions that 'the
coastes of Persia as they sailed in this sea, seemed
as a parched wildernesse, without tree or grass ;
those few people that dwell there, and in the
islands of Lar and Cailon, live on fish, being in
manner themselves transformed into the nature of
fishes. So excellent swimmers are they, that,
seeing a /vessel in the seas, though stormie and
tempestuous, they will swimme to it 5 or 6 miles
to begge almes. They eate their fish with rice,
having no bread ; their cats, hennes, dogges, and
other creatures which they keepe have no other
dyet.' Nieuhoff, who travelled in 1662, says that
about Gambroon ' the common people make use
of dates instead of bread or rice ; for it is observ-
able that the ordinary food of the Indians all
along the coast from Basora to Sind is dates and
fish dried in the air ; the heads and guts of the
fishes they mix with date-stones, and boil it all to-
gether with a little salt water, which they give at
night to the cows after they come out of the field,
where they meet with very little herbage.' — As.
Res. ix. p. 68; MacGregor; Taylor's Travels from
England to India, i. p. 266 ; Churchill's Collection
of Voyages, ii. p. 230 {first ed.) ; Ouseley's Tr. i. p.
228 ; TownsencVs Outram and Havelock, p. 297.

ICHTHYOPHIS GLUTINOSUS, an immense
earth-worm, common in Sikkim. It is a native
of the Khassya mountains, Singapore, Ceylon, and
Java. — Hook. Jour. p. 25. See Reptiles.

142

ICIOA INDK A

IDOLS.

K'K A IN DIC A. W.andA.

l!nr»«r»i«rr»tft, Wall. I Sohinus Mheria, H. H.
Sohiiiua Hcngaleniia, H. B. | 8. Niara, „

The Nayortrec of Assam and Chittagong. grow-
ing 7<i feet high ; timber close-grained and hard,
It as oak, but heavier, and used for furniture
l.y the natives. In South America are several
of Icica, all of which yield a transparent

lid. resembling turi>entine in many of ite pro-

■riies, and tiny might be introduced into India.
(iuvana, I. altissima, I. heptaphylla, I. hetero-

ivlla, I. decandra ; and I. icecariba in Brazil.
ID, Arab., written Eed, a religious holiday of

le Mahomcdans. Of these, two Eidein are farz or
absolute, being enjoined by texts in the Koran ;
these are the 'ld-ul-Fitr and the 'Id-us-Zoha. The
Id-ul-Fitr, called also the 'Id-us-Saghir and
I lamazan-ki-'id, is held on the 1st day of the month
Shawal, in commemoration of breaking the thirty
days' fast of the Ramazan. It is held with prayers
and rejoicings and distribution of alms to the poor.
The 'Id-us-Zoha, or 'Id-ul-Kurban, or Bakr-eed,
the meanings being the festival of the forenoon,
of sacrifice, or the bull-festival, is observed in
commemoration of Abraham's sacrifice of his son,
whom the Jews and Christians say was Isaac, but
Mahomedans say was Ishmael. It begins on the
9th of the 12th month, Zulhijja, with prayers and
offerings, and is continued on the morning of the
10th with public prayers, after which a sheep, an
ox, or a camel is sacrificed, and the meat of the
sheep and oxen eaten by the offerers, or distributed
to their friends and the poor.

IDA, one of the daughters of Daksha, who was
married to Kasyapa.

IDAAN, called also Merut or. Murut r a race in
Borneo who inhabit the more billy districts to-
wards the north, in the vicinity of Kina Balou.
They resemble the Kadyan, some of their tribes
are near the capital ; they are said to have sacri-
ficed human victims, like the Kyans. The Idaan
of different places go under different denomina-
tions and have different languages, but in their
manners and customs they seem to be nearly alike.
The name Idaan is in some measure peculiar to
those of the north part of Borneo ; the inland

Ejople of Passir are called Darat ; those of Benjar,
iajoos ; the Subano of Magindanao appear to be
the same people. The Idaan are reckoned fairer
than the inhabitants of the coast; this has given
rise to an opinion, seemingly wholly unfounded,
that they are the descendants of the Chinese. The
custom obtained of arranging human skulls about
the houses of the Idaan as a mark of importance. —
Journal Indian Archipelago, 1849, p. 557.

IDA CHETTU. Tel. A very small variety
of orange, growing in all the hilly country of the
Ci rears, both cultivated and wild. Perhaps the
original of the Citrus aurantium, Linn., C. variatro,
lit i/ m', p. 57, musk orange, Chota kichili, Hind.,
Kiri kittali, Can.— Fl. Andh.

IDAIN, Idankai or Iddakai, Tam., Idagai,
K\i:x., the left side; the left-hand castes of the
Hindus.

IDAIYAN. Tam. Cowkeeper. The cowherd
race in the southern districts of the Peninsula of
India. They have as their tribal titles, Khone,
Kone, or Konar, meaning king, also Karialan
meaning landlord, and Servakaren meaning cap-
tain ; but those in the northern districts adopt that
of Pillai. The race are very numerous, but take

lJild, Gotze,

, ,

. Gen.

KbenbiM, .

, .

• >!

But, . . .

Hind

, l'KK-i.

Imagine, ,

, .

. Ir.

Idolo, , .

. .

It., Bp.

a lower place in social life than the agricultural
Vellaler, who generally take the title of Mudali.

IDIGA. Karn. A toddy-drawer; a caste who
sell toddy, the fermented palm wine, etc., also
employed as palanquin bearers. — Wilt.

IDOLS.

Imagen, . . , . Si\
Vigraham, Halai, . Tam.
Vikramu, Vigram, . Tel.
Prattima, ....,,
Tut, Sumt, . . Turk.
SP.

The idols of the Hindus are made of gold,
silver, and copper, or their alloys, — one alloy of
frequent use being that called pauchalaka, of gold,
silver, copper, tin, and lead; but iron, brass,
crystal, stone, earth, cow-dung, and wood are also
often employed, the red sanders wood and the
woods of the Cupressus torulosa, Macrotomia
euchroma, and Melia nzedarach. Many of the
idols in India are monsters, many are mere shape-
less masses of stone with a smearing of red lead,
or a log of wood without shape or form, or a
stone from the river-bed; others, like the bull
Nandi or Basava, the vahan of Siva, are beautifully-
formed models of that quadruped. The forms of
Siva and of his wife Parvati and of the cobra
serpent are usually well portrayed, as also of the
peacock in the Saiva temples. The horse is formed
of wood, plated with silver and gilded ; occasion-
ally well-made figures of the elephant are to be seen.

The images made of gold are generally those
of Durga, Lakshmi, Radha, Krishna, and Saras-
wati ; they are kept in private houses, and wor-
shipped daily, and weigh from one to four tolas.

The image of Sheetula, of 10 or 12 tolas, is
often made of Bilver, kept in the house, and wor-
shipped daily. Ward mentions that at Kidder-
pur, adjoining to Calcutta, was a golden image of
Puti-tupavuni, 2 cubits high. Near Sarampur
was a golden image of Jagadhatri, about 1£ cubits
high. Very small copper images of Surya, and of
Siva riding on a bull, are preserved in private
houses, and worshipped daily.

The images of all the gods and goddesses may
be made of stone, generally of a black, but some
of a white colour ; the greater number are placed
in temples ; a few small ones are found in private
houses. All images of stone are worshipped daily ;
the greater number areof the lingam, or the various
forms of Vishnu. A few exist of the lingam, nine
or twelve cubits high. Throughout I^ower Bengal
and all the south of India, every village has its
guardian idol, generally one or more rough stones
smeared with red lead, and placed under an aged
banyan or pipal tree. In one single street of Cal-
cutta there are more images of Krishna and em-
blems of Siva than perhaps in the whole length of
the Doab. A lingam at Benares requires six men
to encircle it. The clay and composition images
made in the vicinity of Calcutta for the annual
festivals (some of which have a very splendid
appearance, and are of large dimensions), after the
ceremonies are over are cast into the river. The
modern manufacturers of the deities are artisans
in gold, silver, and other metals, stone-cutters,
and potters. Some of the modern oasts are hand-
some, but the modern sculptures are commonly
(Mntcniptible. Some of the ancient Hindu sculp-
tures are magnificent, and in minute ornamental
and floral decorations almost unrivalled.

143

IDOLS.

IGUANA.

In Burma the images of Gaudama are made of
wood, marble, and the precious metals. In Siam,
Japan, etc., images are made of the ornaments,
precious metals, etc., collected from the ashes of
the funeral pile of a deceased person ; and others
again from the pulverized fragments of the bones
kneaded with water into a paste, baked, and after-
wards'gilded.

Images of snakes are common. The idea of
their curative virtues is very old in India : a
Hindu attaoked by fever or other diseases, makes
a serpent of brass or clay, and performs ' certain
ceremonies to its honour, in furtherance of his
recovery. Such ceremonies are particularly effica-
cious when the moon is in the Nakshatra (mansion,
sign, or asterism) called Sarpa or the serpent,
called also Ashlesha. Dhanwantari is the Escu-
lapius of the Hindus, but has not an attendant
serpent like his brother of Greece ; the health-
bestowing Dhanwantari arose from the sea when
churned for the beverage of immortality. He is
generally represented as a venerable man with a
book in his hand.

Every Hindu house has at least a picture ;
many have idols ; apd every man of the Vira Saiva
or Jangam sect, of whom there are many millions
in India, always wears the liugam in a silver or
gold casket, suspended from his neck or tied round
his arm. The lingam inside is a small stone
cylinder embedded in the yoni. The ordinary
lingam, of which there are millions in India, is a
stone cylinder rising from the yoni, a stone plat-
form marked with circular markings ; usually in
front of it is a figure of the bull Nandi in stone.
Ganapati or Ganesa, with the head of an elephant
and the body of a fat man, is an idol frequently to
be seen. As the god of wisdom, he is worshipped
at the beginning of every undertaking by almost
all Hindus. When a Hindu boy or girl begins to read,
they make a Ganesa in the form of a small cone
of cow-dung, which they place on a purified spot,
and ornament it with flowers and naragam and red
kanganu, and offer a sacrifice by burning camphor
and frankincense, also offering betel-nuts and
plantains, cocoanuts and jagari, then bow rever-
entially and pray for the god's aid. The pyramidal
figure is then kept for a time or thrown into the
water. Any person may see them.

In a Hindu temple, the idol is kept in the
centre of the temple, called Sanadi. Daily the
Brahman servants anoint it with oil, cleanse it
with sikaia, wash it with water, then with curds,
milk, lime-juice and honey, and cocoanut water.
Before it the dancing girls of the temple, the deva-
dasa, dance and sing to music morning and evening.
On certain festivals, the idol is taken from the
temple in a palanquin or on a car, and made to
perambulate the squares and the streets.

Idols are frequently objects of litigation, and
sacrifices of human beings are occasionally made
to them. In a village called Kishnagur, some 30
miles from Bikanir, there lived one Maya Ram, a
Jat by birth, in whose house was an image of stone,
which Maya Kam and his family used to worship.
It was a tradition in the village that the idol had
been kept formerly in several other houses, one
after the other, but that all who worshipped it
had come to a violent end ; and Maya Bam one
day was seen behaving very strangely before the
idol, dancing frantically, says the report. He
then forbade the other villagers to enter the house.

He seemed under the influence of some religious
homicidal mania, attacking his kinsmen, and
threatening to kill them unless they conformed
to his worship of the stone image. He killed the
child of his elder brother. Suddenly the contagion
of madness seemed to seize the whole family :
Maya Ram, with two male kinsmen and seven
women, threw themselves into a well all together,
and shouting ' Swarga chalo ! ' — Come to heaven !
— the whole ten were drowned.

The Jain idols are usually naked figures of men
and women, of gigantic proportions, often erect,
but in every attitude. The Buddhist idol is usu-
ally Buddha or Gaudama, recliniog, or sitting in
the attitude of preaching. Some of the figures
of Gaudama at the great Shooay dagon temple at
Rangoon are of vast dimensions. — Moor; Ward's
Hindus; Tr. of a Hind. ; Coleman.

IDRISI or Al - Idrisi, the surname of Abu
Abdullah Muhammad, author of the geographical
work Nuzhat-ul-Mushtak-fi-Ikhtirak-ul-Afak. He
was born at Ceuta, in Morocco, towards the latter
part of the 11th century. He travelled in Europe,
and eventually settled in Sicily at the court of
Roger it. He describes the countries in the S.
and E. of Asia. — Elliot.

IFTAH. Arab. The evening meal of the
Mahomedans during the Maharram.

IGHIR. Arab. Acorus calamus.

IGNATIA AMARA. Linn. The K'u-shih-pa-tau
of the Chinese. Ignatius bean, syn. of Strychnos
sancti ignoti.

IGUANA.

Zib, Abab.

Iguana or Inguana, Eng.

Lizard, ,,

Ghorepore, Hind., Duk.
Biyawak, Bewak, Malay.

Iguana is the popular name for species of
reptiles of the genus Varanus, family Varanidae,
order Sauria, of the section of scaled reptiles.
Baron Cuvier classed them under his Iguaniens ;
others have arranged them under the Agamidse.
Varanus flavescens, Gray, inhabits Bengal ; V.
dracaena, Linn., Bengal and Agra, and also V.
nebulosus, Dum. et Bib.

Varanus Dumerilii attains a length of 7 feet ;
it frequents the neighbourhood of houses, to rob
hen roosts.

The Basilisk of the Eastern Archipelago is
the Basaliscus Amboiensis, Daudin, one of the
Iguanidse. Messrs. Dumeril and Bibron, in their
Erpetologie (1837), treat of these reptiles under
the name of Lizards, Iguaniens, or Sauriens
Eunotes. In the catalogue of the specimens of
lizards in the British Museum, the Iguanidse with
the Agamidse constitute the tribe Strobilosaura.

The Iguana of India, generally found about old
walls and ruinous buildings, is about two foet
long ; tail long, round, and tapering ; back, tail,
and throat are serrated ; and its whole surface is
covered with shining scales. The flesh is eaten
by the Mahomedans of India, and in the West
Indies it is salted and barrelled for exportation.
In India the body of the dried Iguana is made
into an electuary, with a certain portion of ghi r
and used as a strengthening medicine in consump-
tive complaints. An animal oil is obtained from
it. The Iguana of the Europeans of Ceylon, the
Talla-goyaof the Singhalese, is the Monitor bracaana,
Linn. It is 4 to 5 feet long. 1 he Singhalese and)

Manawak, Manuwak.MAL.
Ghoda-sala, . . Sansk.
Talla-goya, . . . Singh.
Udumu, . . . . Tam.
Udumbu, . . Tel.

144

IIIKAM.

ilah.

Ttmiil racca of Ceylon believe the tongue of tho
Iguana to lie a specific for consumption, if plucked
from the living animal and swallowed whole. —
'I'lJimiiit's ( 'i ijlint ; Faulkner; Knij. (';/<•.

1IIKA M. Ai: vii. Tile 1 1 icss worn by Mahomedan

pilgrims at Mecca. See Harm. Lane says (Mod.

i. p. l.'il), during his performance of the

required ceremonies in Mecca, and also during

irney to Arafat, and until his completion

the pilgrimage, the Muslim pilgrim wears a

^nliar dress called Ehram (vulgarly Heram),

insisting generally of two simple pieces of cotton
linen or woollen cloth, without seam or orna-

lent, one of which is wrapped round the loins,

id the other thrown over the shoulders; the

istcp and heel of each foot and the head must
bare. After the recitation (a Khutbah on
fount Arafat), the sacrifice, and other ceremonies
on the return journey to Mecca, in the valley of
Mcna, every one resumes his usual dress, or puts
on a new one, if provided with such.

I. U.S. This sacred monogram, arranged in
cypher, is the Chinese Buddhist's sacred symbol
of Buddha.

IJARA. Hind. A contract. Ijaradar, a con-
tractor. — W.

IJMA. Arab. Lit. collecting or assembling,
in Mahomedan theology, means the unanimous
consent of the Mujtahadin or learned doctors.
See Jama.

IJTIHAD. Arab. Carrying on war against
non-Mahomedans and infidels. See Jahad.

IJU, also written Eju, the horsehair-like sub-
stance which grows on the gomuto tree, the
Arenga saccharifera, Labill. This substance is
also called gomuto ; part of it is a stiff bristle,
but the bulk more resembles horsehair, and it is
largely made into cordage. See Arenga; Gomuto.

IK AX. Malay. A fish; also a crab. The
word is always prefixed or added to the specific
name of the fish, as ikan-bawal, the pomfret ;
tulor-ikan, fish-roe ; sirip-ikan, fish-fins ; sisek-
ikan, fish scales.

Ikan dori, a small dark-coloured fish, of about
a pound weight. Great caution is necessary in
handling it, because it is armed with poisonous
spikes under the pectoral and dorsal fins, the
wounds from which are extremely painful. It is
not much esteemed.

Ikan mi mi, the king-crab.

Ikan saladu and Ikan surdudu, Arius Alius.

Ikan sambilang, literally fish of nine, from the
nine barbs on its head. It is found in the ponds
of the Malay Peninsula, and is largely eaten. —
Earl; Cantor; APNair, p. 83; Simmonds.

1 1\ A UNA, a pargana in Bahraich district, Oudh.
The Brahmans, 13,986, are the most numerous
caste ; the Ahirs and Kurmis coming next, with
9740 and 7615 respectively. The village of
Tandwa is identified by General Cunningham
•with the Tu-wei of Fa Hian and Hiwen Thsang,
"where Kasyapa Buddha was born and lies buried;
■while a statue of the mother of Sokya Buddha is
now worshipped in the village as Sita. — Imp. Gaz.

IKRAR. Arab. A promise, an agreement.
Ikrar-nainah, a deed of settlement.

IKSHWA'CU, one of the ten sons of Manu
Vaivasvata, considered to have been tho first of
the Solar dynasty, offspring of the sun. He reigned
at Ayodhya, the capital of Kosala, in the second
X)r Treta Yuga. As the offspring of the sun, his

posterity was called the dynasty of tho Solar
princes, in the same manner as Budha was
reputed the head of the Lunar line, fcfodert
commentators bring the time of his accession
down to tho year 1320 before Christ. A passage
in tho Agni I'urana indicates that the line of
Surya, of which Ikshwa'cu was the head, was
tho first colony which entered India from Central
Asia. But the patriarch Budha was his con-
temporary, he being stated to have come from a
distant region, and to have been married to Ha
(Ella), the sister of Ikshwa'cu. Max Midler says
this name is mentioned only once in the Rig Veda,
and he and others suppose it is the name not of
a king, but of a race occupying the northern or
north-western part of India.

The lineal descent from Brahma Bharata was
Bramha, Marichi, Vaviswat, Manu, Ikshwa'cu,
Kukshi, Vikukshi, Vanu, Anaranya, Prithu, Tri-
sanku, Dhundumar, Yuvaneswa, Mandhata, Sis-
andhi, Uhruvasandi, Bharata.

Nimi, one of Ikshwa'cu's hundred sons, founded
the Mithila dynasty. — Dowson.

IL pronounced also Ilhat or Iliat, a term ap-
plied to the nomade tribes of Persia. It is also
a Semitic for m of God. See Iliyat.

ILA, sister of Ikshwa'cu, of the Solar race, was
married to Budha of tho Lunar race, and these
were the ancestors of the Lunar line of kings. In
Hindu mythology, Budha, son of Atri, son of
Brahma, was husband of Ha, the earth, daughter
of Spatembas. Budha was Mercury, son of the
moon.

ILA or Ilita, mentioned in the Vedas as a
goddess, may possibly be the same as the Baby-
lonian goddess Hi or Bilat Hi, queen of gods.

ILA, in the Rig Veda, is food personified as
the goddess of speech. According to Sayana, she
is the goddess presiding over the earth. The
Satapatha Brahmana represents her as springing
from a sacrifice which Manu performed to obtain
offspring, and she had offspring to Manu. Ac-
cording to the Puranas, she was the daughter of
Manu Vaivaswata, wife of Budha (Mercury), and
mother of Pururavas ; but, through the favour of
the gods, her sex was changed to a man, but again
became a woman, and she married Budha, to
whom she bore Pururavas. — Dowson.

ILACHI. Hind. A generic term for the fruits
of several plants producing cardamom, viz. :

Bari-ilachi or Ilachi-kalan, Amomum cardamomum,

the large rough-shelled variety.
Choti or Khurd-ilachi, Elettaria cardamomum, tho

small cardamom.
ILAH, the name of an old Arabian deity, and
is more properly and more usually applied to a
pagan god, than to Allah, God supreme over all,
— composed of Al, the, and Ilah, God. Hence
the Mahomedan profession of faith says, La Ilah
il- Allah, etc., which in the ordinary translation
of ' There is no god but God,' conveys no precise
meaning, and involves an obvious truism, which
Mahomed would never have enunciated. The true
reading would be, 'There is no deity but God.'
From some passages in the early Indian historians,
it would appear that they supposed the famous
Somnat to be the Arabian Ilah or Hat. Notices
of it occur in the Rauzat - us - Safa, Habib-us-
Sair, and Ferishta, the passage quoted from
1 •'arid-ud-Din Attar ; Sale's Koran, i. p. 23, ii. p.
390 ; Hyde, dc BeL Vet. Pere. p. 130 ; Pococke,

VOL. II.

145

ILAHABAD.

ILIYAT.

Spec. Hist. Arab. pp. 4, 92, 110 ; Bird's Gujerat,
p. 39 ; D'Herbelot, Yoce Lat. ; Al-Makkari, Ma-
hometan Dynasties in Spain, i. p. 346 ; and
Herod, iii. Alihat, the gods ; Ilahat, a goddess ;
Ilahi, divine. — Elliot.

ILAHABAD or Allahabad, a city of the N.W.
Provinces of British India. Before Akbar's time,
this place was known as Preag or Prayag ; by
him it was denominated Allahabas, which subse-
quently became Allahabad. The name is more
correctly Ilhabad or Ilahabad, but the usual
practice of writing it is Allahabad. The article
' al ' coalesces with the substantive in Allah, and
represents the Almighty. — Elliot.

ILAHI. Arab. The title of an era, now ob-
solete, invented by the emperor Akbar, commenc-
ing with the first year of his reign, a.h. 963 or
a.d. 1556. It was on his coins. The Ilahi gaz is
the standard gaz, or yard, of forty-one fingers,
instituted by Akbar. After much controversy
respecting its length, it was authoritatively de-
clared by the British Indian Government to be
33 inches long ; and the declaration has been
attended with considerable convenience to revenue
officers, as a bigha measured by this yard consti-
tutes exactly five-eighths of an acre. — Elliot.

ILAKA. Arab. A dependency. Ilaka-dar, a
person in possession.

ILAKA-BAND. Hind. A silk fringe, silk
girdle, and tassel maker. Ilaki, a square scarf of
Multan.

ILA KURA. Tel. Salsola Indica, Willd.
This is occasionally used as a vegetable, and, being
naturally salt, has given rise to the Teling saying,
' The carping husband (finding fault without
cause) says to his wife, There is no salt in the Ila
kura.'

ILAM, said by some authors to be the Tamil
name of Ceylon, and to signify gold ; but gold in
Tamil is Ponnu.

ILAMBADI. Tam. Corruption of Lambady,
the Banjara race, so called in the south of India.

ILA-PANANKI JANGU MAVU. Tel. A
farina is obtained from this root by treating it
the same as in manufacturing manioc. It is very
nourishing.

ILAVRATA. In an ancient Hindu geography,
one of the divisions of the known world ; its
mountains are called Tien-chan, Kiloman, Tan-
grah or Tangla. — As. Res. viii. p. 311.

ILCHI, a town in High Asia, with 40,000 in-
habitants.

ILEX, the holly genus of plants. Dr. Wight
mentions I. Gardneriana and I. Wightiana. Mr.
Thwaites names, as growing in Ceylon, I. den-
ticulata, a large, and I. Walkeri, a small tree.
Mr. Hodgson, in his Nagasaki, mentions eight
species in Japan, viz. crenata, Thbg., microphylla,
Bl., integra, Thbg., latifolia, Thbg., rotunda, Thbg.,
serrata, Thbg., aquifolium, L., var. heterophylla.

Ilex denticulata, Wall, is a very large timber
tree, not uncommon on the higher ranges of
the Neilgherries and Animallays at 6000 to 8000
feet, and at similar elevations in Ceylon; its
timber is much valued, and is said not to warp or
crack ; it has serrated leaves. — Bedd. Fl. Sylv.

Ilex dipyrena, Wall. Himalayan holly.

Ravi.

Dodru, Dinsa, .

. Beas.

Kanjru, Karelu,

Krucho, . . .

■

Drnnda, . . .

Kimelu, . . .

Chamba.

Kalucho, . ,

Shangala. . .

Chenab.

SUTLEJ.

This moderate-sized tree grows at Mussoori and
everywhere in the Himalayas to 5000 or 9500
feet. The wood is heavy, hard, and fine grained,
much like common holly, and used for various
purposes of carpentry. It bears a very close
resemblance to the holly, especially in November
and December, when it is covered with clusters of
scarlet berries. — Steivart.

Ilex Malabarica, Bedd., a large species growing
in the Wynad.— Bedd. Fl. Sylv.

Ilex serrata is a lofty species found in Mussoori,
and I. excelsa in Nepal. — Boyle, 111. p. 167 ;
VS.

Ilex "Walkeri, Wight, Gardn., is a small tree in
the Central Province of Ceylon, growing at an
elevation of 5000 to 8000 feet.

Ilex Wightiana, Wall, is a large umbrageous
tree, with small white flowers and red berries,
growing in the Neilgherries and in the southern
and central parts of the island of Ceylon up to an
elevation of 4000 feet.— Thw. Zeyl. p. 183.

lid, a valley and town in Central Asia, from
which Lassen supposes the Szu Tartars were
expelled by the Yue-tchi or White Huns, B.C.
150. He supposes the Szu Tartars to be the
Sacse, and the Yue-tchi to be the Tochari. After
occupying Tahia or Sogdiana for a time, they are
stated by the Chinese to have been driven thence,
also, by the Yengar, some years afterwards, and
to have established themselves in Kipen, in which
name Lassen recognises the Kophen valley in the
Kohistan. The great Kirghiz horde is adjacent
to Hi and Tarbagatai. It is under the dominion
of China, and exchanges large quantities of cattle
on the frontier for silk goods. The Tsiankiun
has authority over the Eluth and Chahar of his
own central province of Hi, who have also
Chinese ministers ; also over the Eluth, Chahar,
and Hassack, under the Tsantsan minister resi-
dent at Tarbagatai, and over the Mahomedans of
the eight cities in Hi, south of the Tien-shan,
who are under resident ministers of different
degrees.

ILIYAT are tribes in Persia and Khiva, some of
whom are nomade, dwelling in tents, and others
reside in towns. The word Iliyat is derived from
II, a Turki word signifying tribe, equivalent to the
Arabic Kabilat, to which 'aut,' an Arabic ter-
mination of the plural, was added, — a combination
not uncommon. The Iliyat tribes in Persia are
mostly of Arab, Kurd, and Turkoman descent ;
along with tribes from the Bakhtiara mountains,
who are of a race totally distinct from the
northern hordes, and probably something more
indigenous to the soil than any of the other
wanderers, but all lead the same manner of life,
and bear the common name of Iliyat, their
pastoral habits little distinguishing them from
the Bedouin Arab or the nomade Tartar. The
subjects of the Persian empire therefore appear
to consist of the stationary inhabitants of towns
and cities, and the wandering dwellers in tents
and temporary villages. The Iliyat comprise
a very large portion of the population of the
country, though their actual numbers are not well
known. They are Mahomedans of the Sunni
sect. Many of the best families in Persia are of
Iliyat origin. The present royal family is of the
Kajar tribe, a Turkish II, which came into Persia
with Timur. The principal Iliyat tribes are said
by Morier and MacGregor to be —

146

1 1. 1 VAT.

ILLICIUM ANISATUM.

llayat. Kurd BoobeL

l'.ili. Lak.

Arab. lliu.iir,i. Mama Seiiui.

Kajar. Shah Sevan,

tiari. Klnida liandi. | Shokagi.

Baluoh. I Kurd. I

Frazcr mentions that .in his time 195,000
lliv.it families were tributary to Khiva, viz. : —
Ynmiit, .... 15,000 Knzak, .... 40,000

Ooklan, . . . . 20,000 Ikdar 15,000

Chudar, . . . . 2,000 Sarokh 15,000

Ealpak, .... 30,000 i Uzbak 40,000

Tin- Chudar are said to have been brought
r i ..in tin farther borders of the Oxus by Muham-
mad Babim Khan. In the 10th century, they are
wiid tn have comprised 500,000 families within
tin' province of Fars alone. Although much
inferior in numbers, many of the present Uiyat
tribes are very considerable ; and since the
destruction of Hai, and the decay of Isfahan,
Shiraz, and all the other great cities throughout
the empire, they constitute a principal source of
population, and the best nursery of its soldiers.
Bone of their chiefs are men so powerful that
the king attaches them to his court by honourable
and lucrative employments, or detains them about
his person as hostages for the loyalty and good
conduct of their respective clans. We find them,

they were 800 years ago, unmixed with the
'ersians who inhabit cities ; retaining their pas-
aral and erratic habits, and using among them-

lves a dialect different from the language of the
juutry, which, however, most of them can speak
id understand. They are an independent and
hardy race, inclined to hospitality. Two or three
families in little groups, preparing or enjoying
leir simple meal by the roadside, or proceeding

their journey, the wife carrying one child, two
three others packed in baskets on an ass,
rhich the husband drives before him, are usual
pictures to be seen.

Iliyat tribes have each their own history. They
mnge their places of encampment with the
>n and climate, going in the summer to the
Ulak, or quarters where pasturage and water
are to be found in abundance ; and when the
cold of winter sets in, adjourning to the Kishlak
or warmer region, in which their flocks and herds,
as well as themselves, are better sheltered. The
tribes adhere to their respective districts, but the
distances that some of the tribes have to perform
in their annual migrations are really wonderful.
From the southern shores of Fars, the Kashgoi
arrive in spring on the grazing grounds of Isfahan,
where they are met by the wandering Bakhtiari
from their warm pastures of Arabistan, near the
head of the Persian Gulf. At the approach of
winter both these tribes return to their respective
Kishlak or Garm-sair. In each province of Persia
there are two chiefs, elders, acknowledged by all
the tribes who roam in that province. In their
conduct and morals the Iliyat women are vastly
superior to those of the towns and settlements.
They are chaste and correct in their lives, and
faithful to their husbands. They are Sunni
Mahomedans, but are by no means particular in
their religious observances, and are not ruled or
influenced by the maula as townsmen are. They
are all, in a greater or less degree, professional
robbers, — some tribes living solely by rapine and
plunder, and others resorting only occasionally to
such means. They have large flocks and herds,

which they often augment by taking possession

j of their neighbours'. The oivilised population

hold them in great dread on this account. The

ll-khani of Fan is the chief of the K;ishgoi tarib*

The nomades breed camels, caul.-, and I
mules and asses. Their tents are made of goats'
hair. Often on approaching an Iliyat encamp-
ment, the stranger is met by the women of tin-
tribe, who burn aromatic herbs in honour of the
guest, and as a token that he is welcome to then-
hearth. Mr. Bickmer observed a similar practice
among the Kuldi in Kurdistan. This custom
must be very ancient, for we find Fardusi allud-
ing to it in his descriptions of the early heroic
ages of Iran.

The usual drink of the Luristan Iliyat consists
of buttermilk weakened with water ; a little salt
is added to it, and it is then called Ab-i-dhung.
It is generally sour. There is nothing so effica-
cious for the purpose of slaking thirst on a hot
summer's day as this ab-i-dhung. — De Bode'*
Travels; Ouseley's Travels; Rich's Kurdistan;
Frazer's Travels; Morier; MacGregor.

ILLAM. Maleal. A house, a dwelling, a
household.

ILLANUN, also Lanun, a maritime race of the
Archipelago, formerly addicted to piracy. In the
year 1837, the schooner Maria Frederica, Captain
Gregory, was cut off in Ampanam roads ; and in
1840, the English whaler Mary, Captain Blosse,
while at anchor at the North Islands, near the
N.W. point of Lombok, was surprised and taken
by a fleet of Lanun prahus (See Moniteur des Indes
for 1847-48, pp. 17-21) ; but the vessel and crew
were soon afterwards ransomed for a large sum in
Spanish dollars by Mr. King, who subsequently,
finding that the pirates still remained there, fitted
out an English merchant brig, that was then
loading rice for England, with guns and men
supplied by the king of Lombok, and succeeded
in driving them away for a time. Traders visit-
ing any of the ports east of Java should take
every precaution to prevent surprise. Their
course along the north-west coast of Borneo to
the coasts of Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula is
now obstructed by the settlement of Labium.
which they cannot pass without some intelligence
being received of their motions, and this being
conveyed speedily to Singapore, would inevitably
lead to their being sought out and destroyed.

ILLECEBRACEjE, the knot-grass tribe of
plants, comprises thirty-nine genera. Of these,
three species are found in Arabia, one in Persia,
one in China and in continental India. Seventeen
forms have been discovered in the E. Indies of
Herniaria, Hapalosia, Illecebrum, Polycarpcea,
Drymaria, Mollugo.

ILLICIUM, a genus of plants belonging to
the order Winteracese of Lindley. The order
contains four genera and twelve species, shrubs
or small trees; one of them, the Illicium anisatum,
grows in Japan and China ; one on the Khassya
mountains, and one in New Zealand. The
general properties of the order are stimulant and
aromatic. — Voiqt, p. 18.

ILLICIUM ANISATUM. L. Star anise tree.
Badian i-khatai, . Arab. | Chinese anise, . . Eng.

Hwai-hiang, . . Chin.
Tadiwui-hiang, . . „
Pah-koh-hwui-hiang, „
An«B phal, Dukh., HtND.
Aniseed tree, . , Eng.

skiiniui, . . . Japan.
Sau-ki, . . Manilla.

Anasi pu Tam.

Marati mogga, . . Tel.

147

ILOCO.

IMAM.

The star anise tree is a native of the countries
extending from lat. 23^° to 35° N., or from
Canton to Japan. The designation star is applied
to the fruit from the manner in which they grow,
the pods being in small clusters, joined together
at one end, and diverging in five rays. They are
prized for the volatile oil obtained from them,
and for their aromatic taste. The barks have a
more aromatic flavour than the seeds, but they
are not so sweet. In China, their most common
use is to season sweet dishes. In Japan they are
placed on the tombs of friends, and presented as
offerings in the temples. They are chiefly ex-
ported direct to India, England, and the north of
Europe, at the average value of 8£ dollars per
pikul. In India they are used in seasoning curries
and flavouring native dishes; and large quantities
are used in Europe in the preparation of liqueurs.
The capsules constitute in India a rather im-
portant article of commerce, and are sold in all
the bazars. Both capsules and seeds evolve a
powerful odour of anise ; the taste is similar, very
mild, sweet, and somewhat acidulous. The cap-
sules and seeds abound in an essential oil, easily
procured by distillation with water ; this oil is
rather brown, lighter than water, more difficultly
congealed than the true aniseed oil, but in other
respects exactly of the same properties. The
powdered capsules are used by the Mahomedan
practitioners as stimulant carminatives. For the
colics of children, the essential oil is given with
advantage. The tree might be introduced into
India. — O'Shaagh. ; Thunbenjs Tr. iii. p. 227 ;
Morrison's Comp. Sumrn. ; Simmonds ; Faulkner ;
CTSh. Beng. Phar. p. 412 ; Roijle, H. B. p. 58.

ILOCO, one of the languages spoken in the
island of Lucon. In the Philippines are many
separate nations or tribes, speaking distinct lan-
guages, unintelligible to each other. The principal
tongues of Lucon are the Tagala, the Pampanga,
the Pangasinan, and the Iloco, spoken at present
by a population of 2,250,000 people ; while the
Bisaya has a wide currency among the southern
islands of the group, Leyte, Zebu, Negros, and
Panay, containing 1,200,000 people. Mr. Craw-
furd says that it does not appear, from a com-
parison of the phonetic character and grammatical
structure of the Tagala with those of Malay and
Javanese, that there is any ground for fancying
them to be one and the same language, or lan-
guages sprung from a common parent, and only
diversified by the effects of time and distance,
and that an examination of the Bisaya dictionary
gives different results. See India.

ILOL, a native state within the political agency
of Mahikanta, in the provinoe of Gujerat, Bom-
bay. Pop. (1872), 5511.

IMAD SHAHI, a dynasty of Berar, founded
by Fattah Ullah, a descendant of a Hindu con-
vert.

Fattah Ullah,
Ala-ud-Din,
Deria,
Burhan, .
Tufal, .

. A.D. 1484 A.H. 890

. „ 1504 „ 910

(about) „ 1529 „ 936

„ 1560 „ 968

Merged into that of Ahmadnaggur, a.d. 1572,
a.h. 980.— Elph. p. 676.

IMAM. Arab. A leader ; the president of a
mosque ; the person who leads the daily prayer
and is in receipt of the revenues of the mosque ;
also the title of the four great doctors of the four

orthodox Sunni sects ; also the title of the twelve
great leaders of the Shiah sects ; but it is also
given to any great religious leader, head, or chief
in religious matters, whether the head of all
Mahomedans as the khalif, or the priest of a
mosque, or the leader in the prayers of the con-
gregation. Imam answers to the Latin Antistes.
In the Koran (chap. ii. vers. 118-20), ' God said
unto him, Abraham, I constitute thee Imam unto
men,' that is, a model of religion.

After the death of Mahomed, his successors,
the khalifs, became his delegates or lieutenants,
and were also termed Imam or leader. When Ma-
homedans meet together for prayer, an Imam is
chosen who leads the prayer, and the congrega-
tion regulate their attitudes by his, prostrating
themselves when he does so, and rising when he
rises. In like manner the khalif is set up on
high as the Imam or leader of the faithful in all
the business of life. He must be a scrupulous
observer of the law himself, and diligent in en-
forcing it upon others. The election of an Imam
is imperative (p. 229). The fourth Sura says,
' Obey God and his prophet and those of your
people who exercise government over you.' The
qualities of an Imam are knowledge, integrity,
mental and physical soundness.

Imam is a sacred title with the Shiahs, and is
given only to Ali and the immediate successors of
the Prophet, who were twelve in number, their
Bara-Imam. The last of these, the Imam Mahdi,
is supposed by them to be concealed (not dead),
and the title which belongs to him cannot, they
conceive, be given to another. Among the Sunni
Mahomedans, however, it is a dogma, that there
must be always a visible Imam or father of the
church. It was long maintained that the Imam
must be descended from the Arabian tribe of
Koresh ; but the emperors of Constantinople
(who are of a Turk family) have assumed the
sacred title, which they claim on the ground of
the formal renunciation of it by Muhammad the
twelfth, the last khalif of the race of Abbas, in
favour of Selim the first. The acknowledgment
of this title renders the emperor of Turkey the
spiritual head of all orthodox Mahomedans.

The sect of Mahomedans who believe that the
Imam Mahdi has come and gone, are the Mahdavi,
or, as others call them, Ghair Mahdavi, i.e. people
without Mahdi. About the year 657 a.d., or some
twenty-five years after the death of Mahomed, his
son-in-law Ali met Muavia, and fought the battle
of Siffin. Displeased at the conduct of Ali on
that occasion, about twelve thousand men deserted
him. Some years after, they were nearly all de-
stroyed by Ali ; but a few survivors fled to various
parts. Two men settled in Oman, and there
preached their distinctive doctrine of the Imamat,
that is, they taught that the office of ' Head of the
Faithful ' was elective, and not hereditary. They
thus differed from the ordinary Shiahs, who hold
the doctrine of divine right in its entirety, and
never can acknowledge any khalif or chief who is
not descended from Ali. Some fifty years after
this, one Abdullah-ibn-Abad vigorously preached
the doctrine of the right of the people to elect
the khalif, or, as they would call their head, the
Imam. It is from him that the sect of the
Ibadiyah, an offshoot of the Shiahs proper, takes
its rise. They elected their own Imam, and thus
arose the jurisdiction of the Imam of Oman. From

148

IMAM.

IMMOLATION.

lis potentate came the Sultan of Zanzibar. 'litis

tows how entirely free they are from any
c ho the Htiiini khnlif. No Ibadiyah ever
mow lodged tin* khnlif of Baghdad as his spiritual
chief, much less is ho likely to recognise one in
stirli a doubtful successor to tho office as tho
mi Sultan. It in not known that the ruler
at Muscat has ever laid claim to the title of Imam,
jjtaagh Europeans invariably confer it on him.
Imam is, however, said to be now adopted as a
royal or dignatory title by several Arab and
African sovereigns. The successors of Mahomed
continued to exercise their religious functions in
proof that they enjoyed spiritual as well as
temporal power, and took the title of khalif ; but
varioume
of tie Miihammailaii conquest, the country about
Basrah was called Arz-ul-Hind, the Land of India.

There were other three names by which India
was known to the western Asiatics. One of them
originated from most of the traffic with India
having at one time been by way of the Persian
Gulf and the Red Sea. The Tyrians established
depots on the shores of the Persian Gulf, and the
course of trade being through the land of the
Cushdi, the races in India came to be included
under the ethnological title of Cush (Genesis x.
6) ; and hence the Persian, Chalckean, and Arabic
versions of the Bible frequently render that term
by India (Isaiah xi. 11).

Another ancient but local term for India is
stated to have been Kolaria, and numerous Kol
tribes are scattered through the country to the
present day. Bharata or Bharata-varsha is like-
wise mentioned as an ancient local appellation.

In recent times success in wars and diplomacy
has placed under the dominion of the United
Kingdom of Great Britain, or in alliance, nearly
all the territories lying between the Indus and the
Himalaya on the N.W., to Cape Comorin and
Singapore on the S.E., and that part of Southern
Asia has come to be spoken of as British India,
and the British Empire in India also as Her
Majesty's Eastern Empire. But British India,
Netherland India, the Spanish Indies, Portuguese
and French India, are but portions of the region
iu Eastern and Southern Asia known to Europe
as the East Indies, and which include all the
countries from Arabia and Persia eastwards
through Baluchistan, Hindustan, the Malay Penin-
sula, Siam, the Indian Archipelago to New Guinea,
China, and Japan. With the Portuguese, the
northern part of Hindustan held by the Moghul
sovereigns was styled Mogor, and Goa and the
western coast of the Peninsula was to them India.
With the Dutch, India means Java, Sumatra, and
other Netherland possessions in the Archipelago.
French India is in the Western Peninsula, and
in Annam and Tonquin in Ultra-India; and the
Spanish Indies are in the Philippine Islands in the
far east.

The ancients termed the Ultra-Indian region
India beyond the Ganges. Leyden included it and
the Indian Archipelago under the name of the
I lindu-Chinese countries. Malte Brun calls it Chin-
India. Ritter, the greatest of geographers, prefers
the German name Hinter-Indies. But inBtead of
Further India, Trans-Gangetic India, the Eastern
Peninsula of India, etc., the single words Ultra-
India and Trans-India have been proposed by Mr.
Logan, as they admit of the ethnic and adjective
forms of Ultra-Indian or Trans-Indian ; and for
the insidar region of the Eastern or Indian
Archipelago, Mr. Logan proposed the term Indo-
nesia. Mr. Logan's names are well chosen, be-
cause several of the islands have been occupied
by Indian races. Java was long under a race
from Hindustan, and Bali still professes Hinduism.
The whole of the East Indies, therefore, consist-
ing of the continental portions bisected by the
Bay of Bengal, and the eastern islands, may be
comprised under the three names of India Proper,
Ultra-India or Trans- India, and Indonesia

151

INDIA ; ITS IMMIGRANT RACES.

Populations.— 1\\q regions thus defined are
occupied by races of Negroid, Mongoloid, Aryan,
Turanian, and Semitic descent, and this article is
restricted to the ethnic relations of the populations.
It is generally accepted that a great part of the
inhabitants of Hindustan and the Peninsula are
of Scythic, Mongoloid, or Turanian race, and were
the earlier occupants of the country. This con-
clusion has been come to from their linguistic
and physical affinities. Some of them seem to
have been pastoral tribes from the north and
north-west, who were subsequently pushed aside
or pressed farther on by races in possession of a
higher civilisation and a knowledge of agriculture.
The successive arrivals have been supposed by
Dr. Caldwell to have been — first and earliest, the
Kol, Santal, Bhil, etc., who, he supposes, may
have entered British India from the north-east.
After them, but from the north-west, came the
Dravidian races, who now occupy the south of the
Peninsula, into which they voluntarily migrated
or were driven by the pressure of subsequent
hordes. Then there came Scythian or non-Aryan
immigrants, also from the north - west, whose
language afterwards united with the Sanskrit to
form the Prakrit dialect of Northern India ; and
lastly came the Aryans.

From time immemorial the region between the
Euphrates and the Indus has been held by suc-
cessive Turanian, Iranian, and Semitic conquerors.
In historic times Scythic tribes have invaded
India, — Getse, Takshak, Sakae, Su, Yu-chi, Naga,
Ghakar, Jat, Asi, Kathi, Rajpali, Hun, and
Kamari. They seem to have brought with them
a worship, out of which ultimately was formed
the Buddhist religion as promulgated by Sakya
Muni. These Indo-Scythic tribes also brought
with them their northern custom of using tribal
designations, taken from the names of animals, —
Varaha, the hog ; Numri or Lumri, the fox ;
Takshak, the snake ; Langaha, the wolf ; Cutch-
waha, the tortoise ; Aswa or Asi, the horse ;
Sisodya, from Sisoo, the hare, etc., — and several of
them still hold large possessions in the western
parts of Central India, Sind, and Baluchistan.
Some of them even carried their names into
Europe. Asi was the term by which the Getae,
Yeut, or Jat were known when they invaded
Scandinavia and founded Yeutland or Jatland ;
and the Asi and other nomades who took Bactria
from the Greeks, Mr. Prinsep considers to have
been Scythians of Azes, who overpowered the
Greek dynasties in Sogdiana and Northern Bactria,
between 140 and 130 B.C. And Asia seems to
have been so called in ancient times from this
great Asi race, whose name is said by Remusat
to have been applied by the Chinese almost pro-
miscuously to the nations between the Jaxartes
and Oxus, as far south as Samarcand. In one of
his quotations it is applied to the people of
Khokand, and in another to the people of
Bokhara. Kanishka, B.C. 40, formed a powerful
Scythic dynasty in the N.W. But Vikramaditya,
king of Ujjain, B.C. 57, stemmed oi, • Scythic inva-
sion, and in a.d. 78 Salivahana choked another
inroad ; yet during the next seven ^ '
Sah, the Gupta, and Valabhi establish^
in Northern and Western Indies.

The Dravidian race preceded the UltL T ndian,
Tibetan, and Aryan, and their language ]L T ailed
everywhere to the southward of the Hia ^yas

nturies the
c dynasties

Their route seems to have been from the north-west,
where, Chevalier Bunsen says, the two great nations
once centred, the one in the Altai and the pasture
land towards the Himalaya, the other haviug its
centre in the Ural mountains, and now appear in
Asia as the subdued or primary element, as the sub-
dued substratum of Iranian civilisation ; and the
aboriginal languages of India which attained their
full development in the Dekhan dialects belong to
that stock. Also Dr. W. W. Hunter's philological
investigations permit the conclusion that the
fragmentary peoples still to be seen in India, who
have preserved their ethnical identity in sequestered
wilds, or have merged as helots or low castes into
the lowland Hindus, form the debris of a widely
spread primitive race ; and from the northern
shores of the Indian Ocean and the China Sea,
traces have been exhumed by him of ethnical
evolutions, and the ebb and flow of human speech
far more ancient, and on a grander scale, than the
pre-historic migrationsof the Indo-Germanic stock.
Successive Turanian and Irano-Semitic races
have in turn influenced all the great outlying
southern provinces in Africa, India, and Ultra-
India ; but from the formation of the language, the
older intrusive people, the Scythico-Semitic and
pastoral, found India less Scythic and more African
than it became under their influence. And the
land routes from the north-east, north, and north-
west were not the only highways to the East
Indies. Mr. Logan is of opinion that several of
the races now dwelling in the south and east of
Asia, in British India, Ultra-India, and Indonesia,
reached their present localities by sea. Certainly,
amongst all the foreign influences acting on the
south of India proper, of which the presence can
be clearly traced, two are of the widest extent.
The first is entirely African and Indo- African in
its character. It embraced the whole Indian
Archipelago, Australia, and Papuanesia, and the
races to which it must be referred appear to have
prevailed along the shores and islands of the
Indian Ocean from Africa to Polynesia, their
limits being those of the monsoons.

There was prolonged commercial intercourse
between the western and eastern parts of the
Indian Ocean, from the Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf,
Red Sea, and Africa, to the Mozambique channel on
the west, to the Indo-Australian seas on the east.
And when they were spreading over E. Africa,
India, and the Indian Archipelago, there could
have been no civilised Semitic, Iranian, Burmese,
or Siamese races to hinder them. The strong
Africanism observable in some of the lower South
Indian castes is seemingly the remnant of an
archaic formation of a more decided African
character. India proper lies between two great
Negro countries, that on the west being still
mainly Negro, even in most of its improved races,
and that on the east preserving the Negro basis
so near India proper as the Andamans and Kidah.
It is therefore highly probable that the African
element in the population of the Western Penin-
sula has been transmitted from an archaic period,
before the Semitic, Turanian, and Iranian races
entered India, and when the Indian Ocean had
Negro tribes along its northern as well as its
eastern and western shores.

In the southern parts of the Western Peninsula,
amongst the races speaking the Tamil language,
are many who have African features in all their

152

iNhIA; ITS AFRICAN, SCYTHIC, AND AKYAN R.\< I ..-.

The mixed Labbi and Moplah races of

ctreme south of the Peninsula may be of

African ami of Arabian descent. Hut the Siili of

.laiijii-iili are recent arrivals; the Negroes of tlio

>amlilli Hills of N. Canara arc of unknown

>rigin ; the African slaves of the MuhammadanH

ichistan, Sind, the Dekhan, and Kamatie

classes regarding whose African and Arabian

light there are no differences of opinion; also

u Kader of the Animallay Hills file their teeth

a point like some African tribes; the Mincopi

the Andaman Islands, the Scmaug of the

-tern Peninsula, the Negrito and Papuan races

>f Indonesia and Papuanesia are recognised

tranches of the Negro race ; while farther to the

H.rtli, the Kisan or Nagesar, a broken tribe in the

lasiij.ur highlands, have Negroid features; and

the Bbuiher of Palamau and Jashpur reminded

Colonel Dalton of the representations he had seen

of the Andamanese.

The vernacular of a people can only be taken
as a test of descent along with their physical
characteristics. The languages of conquered
and of such conquering races as become
associated with a higher civilisation, are liable
to disappear. There cannot be any doubt that
physically the Tamil Pariah, the Mhair of the
Muhratta country, the Dher of the Dekhan, the
Holiar of the Canarese, the Paravan of the
Malealam territory, and the Malla of Teiingana,
re of the same Dravidian stock, though they now
■ak five different tongues. Some broken tribes
Bengal speak a dialect of Hindi ; but their
ihysical characteristics, some of their customs,
ie remnants they have preserved of their primit-
ive paganism, and in some cases their traditions,
to the conclusion that they are the residue of
people who, together with the Kolarian races,
occupied India proper prior to the appearance of
the hist Aryan invaders. It is now known that
there are many Oraon villages in Chutia Nag-
pur in which the Oraon language is quite lost,
but the inhabitants nevertheless speak two tongues,
Munda and Hindi. The languages of the Hin-
duized aborigines of Chutia Nagpur appear to
have followed their religion. All the tribes that
have became Hindu in faith have lost their old
language, and speak a rude dialect of Hindi. The
Oraon in Chutia Nagpur follow the Munda pagan-
ism, and adopt the Munda languages ; while the
Munda, Ho, Santal, and other Kolarian tribes,
who adhere to their ancient faith, have preserved
their old language, or at all events a pre-Aryan
tongue. Alaung Phra (Alompra) subdued the Mon
or Talaiug race in 1757-58, from which time the
Burmese Btrongly discouraged the Mon language ;
and after the first war between the British and
the Burmese in 1824-26, the Burmese forbade
the Mon to be taught in the monasteries or else-
where. The result has been that in little more
than a century, the language of a million people
has become extinct. In 1870, there were not
one hundred families in Pegu in which it was
used as their vernacular tongue, though still
spoken in Martaban and in Mamlam-yang by the
descendants of immigrants who reappeared there
when the British became supreme. But it is not
merely the language that is disappearing, — the
Taking people themselves are being absorbed by
the more powerful Burmese race.

History. — No one of the races who were occupy-

ing India and South-Eastern Asia prior to the
Muhainmadan invasious, retain any strictly histor-
ical record of the routes by which they reached
their present localities, or of tho date of their
respective advent. From tho geographical dis-
tribution of the Kol and Dravidian languages,
Mr. 1 1 isle, p formed the opinion that while the
stream of Dravidian population, as evidenced by
the Brahui in Baluchistan, entered India by the
north-west, that of the Kol family seemed to have
found admission by the north-east ; and as the one
flowed south towards Cape Kumari (Comorin),
and the other in the same direction towards Cape
Koumania, a part of each appears to have met and
crossed in Central India. The Karen of Ultra-
India have a tradition of crossing a sea of sand,
which is supposed to mean the desert of Gobi ; but
they have no knowledge as to the date of their
migration. That the Mongoloid races have made
great efforts to reach more hospitable climates, is
shown by the presence of many tribes wedged into
the mountainous region on the frontiers of India.
On both sides of the Indus, in Baluchistan, Lower
Sind, in Nepal, Bhutan, and Sikkim, are many
hundred tribes, some of almost similar origin, yet
forming distinct nations and using dialects unin-
telligible to each other, though of the same family
of languages.

The linguistic affinity of many of the non-Aryan
peoples of India, is shown by the fact that they
take their tribal designations from their word for
man in their respective dialects, — thus Bala-li,
Mola-li, Dhima-li, Santa-li, Banga-li, the people
of Bala, Dhima, Banga, etc. ; and the very general
term Mi (man) supplies the basis of the race
name to not less than forty ascertained tribes, —
thus the Du-mi, Ka-mi, Anga-mi, Mi-than.

The prior immigrants from the north have been
termed Scythic, Turanian, Mongolian, Kolarian,
Tannilian, and Dravidian. All these designations
distinguish them from that branch of the Aryan
races (Iranian, Indo- Atlantic, Caucasian, Medi-
terranean) now dispersed through India proper,
called by Humboldt East Aryans or Brahuianic
Indians. The West Aryans or Persians had
separated and migrated into the northern country
of the Zend, where they combined a belief in
Ormuzd and Ahriman with a spiritualized venera-
tion of nature. But the East Aryans came through
the Panjab into India proper, and they have con-
tinued up to the present time to exert a great
influence on the people. It was an immigration
on the borders of historic times. Much connected
with this people remains in obscurity, for they
have been a non-recording race. Chevalier Bun-
sen supposes that they reached the land of the
Five Rivers some time between 4000 and 8000 B.C.;
but we have no standard whatever, from our
present point of view, by which to estimate the
length of the period from their immigration into
the country of the Indus down to their farther
advance to the laud of the Saraswati. All we can
say regarding them is, that peculiar habits of lifo
were contracted in the laud of the Five Rivera, and
that, out of the elemental religion there instituted,
allusions to which are found in the oldest Vedk
hymus, the Brahmanical system, with a new
mythology and the introduction of castes, gradu-
ally grew up on the eastern Bide of the Sutlej.
That author is, however, of opinion that the period
of the passage of the Sutlej and immigration to-

153

INDIA ; ITS ARYAN, RAJPUT, AND JAT IMMIGRANTS.

wards the Saraswati occurred from B.C. 3300 to
B.C. 3000. Whilst they dwelt in the country of
the Five Rivers, from B.C. 4000 to 3000,_ little
change in their habits and belief seems, in his
opinion, to have occurred. But about B.C. 3100
or 3000 their power on the Indus appears to have
been broken, in consequence of some war with
one of the surrounding kingdoms, and from the
latter date India east of the Sutlej up to the
extent of the Aryan conquests adopted Brahman-
ism. From that time the religious views, forms,
and habits of Bactria were for ever abandoned by
the East Aryan immigrants, and between B.C. 3000
to B.C. 1900 they extended their Brahmanical
religion from the Saraswati to the Doab. It was
this race who called the portion which came under
their own rule by the name of Aryavarta, the
abode of the Aryans. In classical Sanskrit it was
also known as Bharata and Bharata-varsha, and
also Jambu-Dwipa. But by the western nations,
India east of the Indus was always India, and
was never called Arya by any writer.

This Aryan or Sanskrit speaking colony of
Brahmans, Kshatriyas, and Vaisyas found the
greater part of Northern India peopled by rude
tribes, whom they designated M'hlecha, Dasya,
Nishada, etc., and it is the received opinion that
many of those prior occupants were of Scythian,
or at least of non-Aryan origin. But to a much
later period, and when the Aryans were in full
occuption of the country from the Indus to the
Ganges and into Bengal, all to the south of the
Vindhya mountains continued to be occupied by
Turanian races. An immigration into Ceylon of
a colony of Aryans from Magadha took place
about B.C. 550 (B.C. 543) ; and Wajeya, the
leader of the Ceylon expedition, is said in the
Mahawanso to have married the daughter of the
king of Pandu. But now, unless Travancore be
an exception, there is no large Aryan colony in
any part of the south of the Peninsula of India,
individual members of that race alone appear-
ing scattered amongst the nations occupying it.
There is nothing in history to show, nor is there
in the physical appearance of the races to the
east of the Ganges and of the Bay of Bengal any-
thing to warrant, the belief that these East Aryan
immigrants ever advanced, in masses, beyond
their present locality north of the Vindhya
range.

Brahnwnic Life. — They brought with them
views as to the gradations of social rank, against
which, up to the present day, all other races and even
their own reformers have been repeatedly striving ;
but they likewise brought larger intellect, letters,
and a higher civilisation, not only enabling them
to hold a position of superiority, but to inspire
the prior races with the desire to be enrolled
amongst the Aryan classes of Brahmans,Kshatriya,
Vaisya, and Sudra. These East Aryan immigrants
throughout all India proper possess the lands best
suited for tillage, and in Travancore they are
the sole landlords. When they first reached the
Panjab, they depended on their horses. Arrived
in India, they tamed the elephant, which finally
rivalled the chariot. In the time of the Maha-
bharata, B.C. 1400 ? Bhagadatta, Uttara, Duryodh-
ana, Anvinda, and others fought on elephants.
At the time of Alexander's invasion (b.c. 327)
elephants had almost completely superseded cars.
And in their wars they placed the infantry in the

centre, and the horse and elephants on the flanks
of their armies.

The date of the Rajputs' appearance in India
proper is even more obscure. The Lesser Sind
river now marks the eastern boundary of Raj-
putana, as does the river Indus that to the west,
its limits being lat. 23° 15' to 30° N., and long.
69° 30' to 78° 15' E., an area of 123,000 square
miles, inhabited by a population of ten millions
of souls. The north - eastern Panjab and Cis-
Sutlej district seems to have first been a Brah-
man before it became a Rajput country, and
subsequently to have been advanced upon by
the Jat. The great seat of Rajput population
and ancient power and glory was, however, on
the Ganges. AVhen vanquished there by the Mu-
hammadans, after the 12th century, the principal
Rajput families retired into the comparatively
unfruitful country to which they give their name.
But even in Rajputana proper, though it has
Rajputs for the dominant race, the population is
much more Jat than Rajput, the Jat extending
continuously from the Indus to the Ganges.
Before the Rajputs were driven back from Ayodhya
and the Ganges, Northern Rajputana had been
partitioned into small Jat republics, and the Jat
still form the most numerous part of the popu-
lation and possess the largest share in the culti-
vation, though they share the more open parts
with the Mina, the remains of the Saraswati
Brahman population, and the dominant Rajput.
The southern and more hilly parts of Rajputana
are much occupied by the Mina, the Mhair, and
the Bhil, and Malwa is occupied by Rajput,
Kunbi, and Jat, the Charun and the Bhot races
being also there. Rajputs and Jat occupy the
plains south of the Salt Range. In the valley of
the Ganges, the body of the Rajput population lies
next to the Jat race to the east ; in the Middle
Doab, Rohilkhand, and Oudh, and still farther east,
the country is shared by a Brahman population.
In Lower Rohilkhand, where they are called
Thakur, as also in Western Oudh, Rajput com-
munities are strong and numerous ; in Eastern
Oudh, especially on the broad tracts between the
Gogra and Ganges, there is a great Rajput popu-
lation, and they are pretty numerous to the east
of Oudh, in Azimghur and Ghazipur. They are
also numerous in Mynpuri, Futtebghur, and Etawa;
and Baiswara, the country of the Bais Rajputs,
lies almost parallel to the Brahman country of the
Lower Doab.

The Getse, the Jat, Jut, or Jit, and the Takshak,
from the Sakatai or Chaghtai region, now occupy
places amongst the 36 royal races of Rajputana.
The Puranas furnish certain points of information
regarding their earliest migrations, and the histories
of Mahmud and Timur acquaint us with their later
efforts. They expelled the Greeks who remained
after Alexander's departure. Between the time of
Cyrus, six centuries before Christ, when Tomyris
fought for independence, and the rise of Timur
(a.d. 1330), although twenty centuries had elapsed,
the great Getic nation was little circumscribed in
power. Under this last prince of the Getic race,
Taghalaq Timur Khan, the kingdom of Chaghtai
was bounded on the W. by the Dhasht-i-Kipchak,
and on the S. by the Jaxartes or Jihun, on which
Timur, like Tomyris, had his capital. Kojend,
Tashkand, Ootrar, Cyrapolis, andthe most northern
of the Alexandrian eities, were within the bounds

154

INDIA; KATIll. PABSEE, MUHAMMADANS, CHRISTIANS.

Chaghtai. The Massagotaa, Gets or Goths,
in gradually to liavo advanced from thoir ancient
miti into the more fertile districts of Asia, and
t<> bare been driven in successive wars across the
Sut le j. They are now spread throughout the Indus
valley, from the mountains of Joud, through
Min I. to the shores of Makran, and up to the
valley of the Ganges. They long preserved their
ancient habits; appearing as desultory cavaliers
under the .lit leader of Lahore, they made a brave
>tand for independence against the British under
the Jat ruler of Bhurtpur and the successors of
Kan jit Singh, while Dholpur state is still Jat. In
Hikanir and the Indian desert, in the desert tracts
E. and W. of the Indus, they are camel and cattle
breeders, but cultivate in the valleys and fertile
oases wherever tillage is possible.

The Kathi, another ancient Scythic race, are the
ruling tribe in Kattyawar. The Malli and the
Katheri of Multan opposed Alexander's advance ;
1800 years afterwards, Mahmud was opposed by a
race of the same name, and they must have pre-
served their ancient spirit to have been so long
able to offer a front to the formidable armies of
so furious an enthusiast. Their laureate bards
still style them • Lords of Multan and Tatta,' and
they repeat couplets descriptive of their emigra-
tions from Multan, their temporary settlement in
the tracts called Pawin, N. of the Runn, and tell-
ing of their leader, Megum liao, conducting the
first Kathi colony across the gulf into Saurashtra,
eight hundred years ago ; and so predominant was
their power, that it changed the ancient name of

It he Peninsula from Saurashtra to Kathiwar.
J'arsees occupy a prominent place in the W. of
India. In the eighth century (a.d. 717), a small
body of W. Aryans emigrated from Ormuzd, and
landed at Sanjan, 25 miles S. of Damaun. They
were a mere remnant of the ancient followers of
Zoroaster, and though still few in number (69,000),
they have distinguished themselves in W. India
by commercial enterprise.

The information regarding the more important
immigrations into W. India, as will have been
observed, is still so vague as to justify Mr. Elphin-
stone's remark (i. p. 19), that until Alexander's
conquests, the dates of events are all uncertain ;
and again, from that time till the Muhammadan
invasion, a connected history of this country cannot
be given.

A Bactrian dynasty for nearly a hundred years
held a considerable portion of the Indus territory,
but in the early centuries of the Christian era
there was a great upheaving of the nations in
India proper. During the khalifat of Umar,
history records an expedition from Arabia by the
route of Baluchistan. From the eleventh to the
eighteenth centuries there were repeated inroads
of Moghuls, Turks, Persians, Afghans, and Arabs,
led by Mahmud, Timur, Baber, Nadir Shah, and
Ahmad Shah. Their military followers seized on
kingdoms, provinces, and royalties, and in British
India, in 1881, their descendants and those of their
convert* numbered 50,121,585 souls.

As the Muhammadans' power declined, the
Mahrattas, a Turanian race, led by Aryan Brah-
mans, rose to full, though brief, dominion, and
have been succeeded by Christian races from W.
Europe. The Danes have ceased to retain any
territory in the E. Indies. The French, however,
in India proper still hold Chandernuggur, Kari-

kal, Pondicherry, Yanaon, Mane, with eight other
smaller settlement*, comprising an area of 178
square miles, and a population of 285,022 souls,
and they are now dominant on the Mekong river
in Ultra-India. Portugal, on the W. coast of
the W. Peninsula, at Goa, Damaun, and Diu,
has luiW) square miles, with i population of
369,788 souls, and that nation occupies Macao in
China. The Dutch have left India proper for In-
donesia, where their great possessions amongst the
Archipelago islands from Sumatra to New Guinea
occupy 455,411 square miles, with a population
of 17,952,803 souls, — Malay, Negrito, Papuan,
Muhammadan, Christian, ana Pagan. The Spanish
Indies are likewise in Indonesia, in the Philippine
Archipelago, most of the population being of
the Negrito race, and almost all proselytes to
Christianity. Nothing is known of the date of
advent of the multitude of peoples of Mongoloid
origin occupying the region from the N.E. part of
the Himalaya, southwards to the seas of the Archi-
pelago.

Language. — Dr. Hunter, at page 20 of his Com-
parative Dictionary, has put forward the opinion
that the aboriginal races of the E. Peninsula,
Burma, and India N. of the Vindhya range derived
their speech from a source common to them and
the Chinese (p. 22), — not only the terms for
common natural objects and for the civil institu-
tions of a primitive race, but also a part of the
nomenclature of tillage, and even such terms of
civilisation as road, yam, etc.

The Jaina aud Buddhist religionists number in
British India 4,640,780; the great bulk of them
(3,251,584) being in British Burma. The Sikh
religionists, converts from the Jat race, are
almost two millions (1,853,426), and are nearly
all in the Panjab ; and of the Christians, 1,862,684
in number, 711,080 are in Madras, in which
tradition asserts there have been converts since
the days of St. Thomas the Apostle. The small
body of Parsees, and a still smaller number of
Jews (7600), are mostly in the west parts of the
Peninsula.

Amongst most of these eastern races, the birth
of a boy is greatly more prized than that of a
girl. Their daughters are occasionally neglected,
and, amongst some of the Rajput tribes, even
destroyed. The proportion of girls to boys was
found by the census of 1871 to be low. Amongst
Hindus the range in the several provinces was
from 72-95 to 97'37 girls to 100 boys, and
amongst Muhammadans from 80"92 to 95'18.

It is quite an oriental custom for the population
to arrange themselves into separate communities,
each with an independent life, and intermeddling
as little as possible with events that do not disturb
its internal condition. Under this system a man's
country is the guild or community in which he is
born, and the people recognise as the supreme
authority whoever happens to be de facto ruler.
Such race and communal isolation is common to
all the populations of British India proper, but it
has been widely extended by the system of minute
castes which the East Aryans brought into India.
Many of the prior races, while continuing the race
guild, or clinging to a religious sect, resent the
Brahmanical arrangement, and the census of 1871
showed in British India 8,712,998 persons not
recognising caste, or designated out-castes. The
geographical, historical, and economic notices of

155

INDIA ; ITS AFRICAN RELATIONS.

the countries in Eastern and Southern Asia will
be found under their alphabetical arrangement.
This article relates solely to their ethnic features.
— Logan in Journ. Ind. Archipelago ; Bunsen ;
Max Midler ; Hunter's Comparative Dictionary ;
Tod's Rajusthan ; Humboldt's Cosmos ; Dalton's
Ethnology; Yule's Cathay; Raivlinson's Herodotus;
Dr. Caldwell ; Sir Walter Elliott ; Prinsep's
Antiquities; British India Census; Elphinstone's
Hist, of India.

AFRICA. From pre - historic times, Iranian,
Turanian, Mongol, Turk, Hamite, Semite, and
Negro races have been continuously adding to the
inhabitants of India and the Eastern Archipelago.
Of the races occupying Africa, ethnologists re-
cognise three distinct ethnical divisions, — that of
the woolly fleecy-haired, woolly tuft-haired, and
lank curly-haired ; and six linguistic divisions, —
Semitic, Hamitic, Fulah-Nuba, Negro and Negroid,
Bantu, and Hottentot Bushman.

The Fulah of Senegal and the Upper Niger, as
well as the Nuba of the Nile region of Darfur
and Kordofan, are considered of indigenous
African race ; but they are very superior to the
Negroes, and seem to be the intermediate agents
of Muhammadan civilisation. South-Western Asia
is the original home of the Hamite and Semitic
branches of the Caucasian race ; but they have
intruded into Africa, and now occupy the whole
of its northern part as far as the Soudan and
the east coast districts north of the equator. Of
the two, the Hamite were the first to become
dominant there, but they are in no way akin to
the pure African.

The Semitic populations in Asia are the Arab-
ians, Syrians, and Samaritans ; in Africa, the
Abyssinians of Tigre and Amhara, Agow, Falasha,
and Gafat. Several branches of this race have
played a distinguished part in the history of the
world. Conquest and commerce, but chiefly the
former, have greatly diffused them. They have
gone northward and eastwards into Persia, Cen-
tral Asia, India, and China ; small parties are
located in India proper, Ultra- India, and Indon-
esia. In Asiatic Turkey, there are about
1.500,000 Arabs and others of the Semitic group.
They conquered and migrated westerly along the
north of Africa and into Europe, and they ruled
in Spain for 700 years, but were again driven
back into Africa ; and now representatives of
the Semites and Hamites are found differently
mixed in Egypt and Abyssinia, all over the
Sahara, and in the Arab and Moorish states ;
and the races in Morocco have been stated as
under : —

330,500

120,000

300

Jews,

Negroes, Mandingos,
Christians,
Renegades, . .

Berber and Tuarik, 2,300,000
Shelluk or Shellook, 1,450,000
Moor andmixed Arab, 3,555,000
Bedouin and other Renegades,

pure Arabs, . . 740,000

The Berlxr include the Libyan, the Moor, the
Numidian, and Gaetulian of the old geographers.

The Berber and Shelluk are untamed, war-
like tribes, dwelling in the mountains; when
possible, rovers of the sea ; claiming fanciful
origins, but impatient of any subjection. They
are the same race as those whom the French call
Kabyle and Zouave. The Moors are little idle
men, who grow fat from indolence; they are
lowlanders, traders, dwellers in cities, avaricious,
perfidious, cowardly, cringing, and insolent. The
Riff-dwelleis of Kalhiya, Cape Tres Forcas, corre-

j spond to the Arab Suaheli on the Red Sea coast,
the names being from Ripa, a bank, and Sahilah, a
sea-shore.

In Morocco, the Berber continue pure, free
from Arab blood, and still call themselves Mazig.
Their language is termed Shelluk, or Tamashigt.
The Algerian Kabyle or Qabail are pure Berber.
They are the old Numidians, and differ in lan-
guage, form, and habit from the Arabs of the
plains. Their number is about 700,000; they
have a federal republic, the old Quinque-gentes
who gave so much trouble to the Romans, who
tried the soldiership of Maximilian, and sixty
years afterwards again revolted.

In Tunis the Berber are called Suawua, and
south-east of Tunis they receive the name of
Jabaliya. The inhabitants of Suiva, the oasis
of Jupiter Ammon, the Garamantes of ancient
geography, are likewise of Berber origin, as also
are the Teda or Tibbu of the Eastern Sahara.

The Sanhadsha of the Western Sahara are
Berber. The Tuareg of the central region of the
great African desert, who call themselves Imoshag,
are Berber.

The Tuareg nomade in the Great Desert are very
fair, with long hair, aquiline noses, high fore-
heads, and thin lips. They say their prayers in
Arabic, and speak a Semitic tongue. Their arms
consist of a long lance with a broad head,
javelins 6 or 7 feet long, with jagged hooks at
the pointed end, a round buckler (darega) of
buffalo or elephant hide from Soudan, and a
poniard and broad-bladed scimitar.

The Arabs of Morocco are the Moors of Spain,
the Saracens of France, — tall, graceful sons of
the desert, courteous, brave, hospitable, and con-
fiding, — descendants of the conquerors who in the
first ages of the Hijira propagated the religion
of Mahomed, crossed the Straits of Gibraltar,
destroyed the Gothic chivalry, reigned in Spain
for 700 years, invaded France, devastated Italy,
and pillaged the suburbs of imperial Rome.
When the last Arab king submitted to Ferdinand
and Isabella, and the Moorish palaces of Granada
were surrendered to the Christians, the old con-
querors went back to Africa, and resumed their
nomade life. In Tripoli, the Arab has mono-
polized the country. In Tunis, the native reappears
in a smaller proportion, and in Morocco he is very
scarce.

Abyssinia was peopled by Southern Semites,
who crossed the Red Sea from Yemen and Had-
ramaut before the Arab conquest of Egypt.
They were converted to Christianity in the 4th
century of the Christian era, and in the 6th they
re-crossed over to Arabia, to avenge the persecu-
tion of Christians by a Jewish ruler, conquered
Yemen, and marched to the gates of Mecca, where
they were overthrown two years before Mahomed
was born. Such partial migrations and con-
quests have left tribal bodies from other races in
the land.

The A da /tribes, also said to be a Semitic race,
dwell on the west of the Red Sea. They call
themselves Afer, but by the Arabs they are
called Danakil, from their chief tribe Ad- Alii ;
and Dr. Krapf was of opinion that this Afer is
the Ophir of Scripture.

The Danakil, pi. Dankali, are a Hamite race who
inhabit the most southerly African shores of the
Red Sea as far as the Straits of Bab-el-Mandeb.
6

INDIA; ITS AFRICAN DELATIONS.
Eloikob or Wn-kunji and the Masai, also reduce*! to one system ; but the people themselves

■mite races, nro tho terror of nil Negro tribcfl in

sqoatorial Hast Africa, on account of their wars

<1 kidnapping expeditions.

Tin- Somali, another Hamite race, occupy the

rn promontory of Africa from near Bab-el-

odeb to the Juba on the Indian Ocean, and

.-V border on the <lalla district on the west.

rv havr a woolly head of stiff thick hair from

to s inches long, and which is said to be always

hoped.

Tlie Fdiahet n peasantry of the Lower Nile, and

e Coptic Christians of the towns of Egypt,

present the ancient Egyptians. These are also

uted by the Berabra or Berber of the

ubian Nile districts, who were Christians until

the fall of the Berber-Nilitic empire of Dongola

in A.p. 1820. Between the Nubian Nile and the

Bed Sea are the Bisharin, the Hadendoa; and

some of the Beni Amer, who, in addition to a

corrupt Arabic, speak Tobedauie, a more ancient

Hamite language with three genders.

The inhabitants of Shoa are about 2,500,000, of
whom one-half are Christians, the Amhara, and
the remainder partly Muhammadan and partly
alia. The Christians are a stout, well-formed
ce, from 5 feet 7 inches to 5 feet 9 inches in
ight, with luxuriant silky black hair.
The Galla, a Hamite race, call themselves Orma
Oroma. The word Galla means immigrants,
d Orma means strong, brave men. They are
rtly distributed in Abyssinia, and partly in a
<mpact body in the east of the interior of Africa,
ey live in a beautiful country, extending from
,t. 8° N. to 3° S., with a climate not sur-
passed by that of Italy or Greece, and speak a
language as soft and musical as pure Tuscan.
They are from six to eight millions in numbers.
They are one of the finest races in Africa, of a
dark-brown colour, with strong hair, and well
limbed. They are a warlike, manly people, con-
scious of their own strength, and of a moral and
noble character. Their beards are tolerably
luxuriant, and their features regular and agreeable.
With the exception of the south