A Cyclopedia Of Education Volume Three

A CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY

NEW YORK • BOSTON • CHICAGO
DALLAS • SAN FRANCISCO

MACMILLAN & CO , LIMITED

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THE MACMILLAN CO OF CANADA, Lm

TORONTO

CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION

EDITED BY

PAUL MONROE, PH.D.

PROFESSOR OF THE HISIOKY OF KDUCATION, TKACIIER8 COLLEGE
COJ.UMHIA UNIVERSITY

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF DEPARTMENTAL EDITOES

AND

MORE THAN ONE THOUSAND INDIVIDUAL CONTRIBUTORS

VOLUME THREE

THE MACMILLAN COMPANY
1926

COPYRIGHT, 1912,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Set up and electrotyped Published October, 1912
Reprinted May, 1914; August, 1918. February, 1925;
November, 1926

A CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION

EDITED BV

PAUL MONROE, PH.D.

PROFESSOR OF THE HISTORY OF EDUCATION, TLACHER8 COLLEGE
COLUMBIA UNINLR8ITY

DEPARTMENTAL EDITORS

W

ELMER E. BROWN, PH.D., LL.D. . President of New York University. HIGHER AND

SECONDARY
EDUCATION

EDWARD F. BUCHNER, PH.D. . . Professor of Education and Philoso- BIOGRAPHY,

phy, Johns Hopkins University, PHILOSOPHY
Baltimore, Md.

WILLIAM H. BURNHAM, PH.D. . Professor of Pedagogy and School HYGIENE

Hygiene, Claik University, Worces-
ter, Mass.

GABRIEL COMPAYRE Inspector General of Public Instruc- EDUCATION IN

tion, Paris, Member of the Insti- FRANCE
tute of France.

ELLWOOD P. CUBBERLEY, Pn.D. . Head of Department of Education, EDUCATIONAL

Leland Stanford Junior University, ADMINISTRATION
Stanford University, Cal.

JOHN DKWEY, PH.D., LL.D. . . Professor of Philosophy, Columbia PHILOSOPHY OF

University, New York City. EDUCATION

CHARLES H. JUDD, PH.D., LL.D. . Director School of Education, Uni PSYCHOLOGY

veisity of Chicago, Chicago, 111.

ARTHUR F. LEACH Chanty Commissioner for England MIDDLE AGES,

and Wales, St. James, London. REFORMATION

WILL S. MONROE, A.B Professor of Psychology and History BIOGRAPHY,

of Education, Montclair State Nor- AMERICAN
mal School, Montclair, N.J.

J. E. G. DE MONTMORENCY, M.A., LL.B. BamstPi-at-Law, London ; Assist- HISTORY OF

ant Editor, The (Contemporary Re- EDUCATIONAL

new. ADMINISTRATION

AViLHKLM MUNCH, Pn.D. . . . Late Professor of Pedagogy, Univer- EDUCATION IN

sity of Berlin, Berlin, Germany. GERMANY

ANNA TOLMAN SMITH .... Specialist, Bureau of Education, Wash- NATIONAL

ington, D.C. SYSTEMS

HKNRY SUZISALLO, Pn.D. . . . Professor of the Philosophy of Educa- METHOD OF

tion, Teachers College, Columbia EDUCATION
University, New York City.

FOOTER WATSON, Lirr.D. . . . Professor of Education, University ENGLISH

College of Wales, Aberystwyth, EDUCATIONAL

Wales. HISTORY
v

CONTBIBUTORS TO VOLUME III

Herbert A, Aikins, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor
of Philosophy, Western Reserve Uni-
versity. (David Hurne.)

Roswell P. Angier, Ph.D., Assistant Pro-
fessor of Psychology and Acting Direc-
tor of the Psychological Laboratory,
Yale University. (Topics in Psychol-
ogy.)

Joseph Cullen Ayer, Jr., Rev., Ph.D., Pro-
fessor of Ecclesiastical History, Divinity
School, Protestant Episcopal Church,
Philadelphia, Pa (Topics 'in Early
Christian and Medieval Education.)

Liberty H. Bailey, LL.D., Director of New
York State College of Agriculture, Cor-
nell University. (Horticulture.)

Franklin T. Baker, Litt.D., Professor of
English Language and Literatim*,
Teachers College, Columbia University.
(English Language) etc.)

Maurice A. Bigelow, Ph.D., Professor of
Biology, Teachers College, Columbia
University. (School Gardens.)

Franz Boas, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor and
Head of Department of Anthropology,
Columbia University. (Growth.)

Henry E. Bourne, Ph.D., Professor of His-
tory, Western Reserve University.
(History )

Edward F. Buchner, Ph.D., Professor of
Education and Philosophy, Johns Hop-
kins University. (Educational Philoso-
phers.)

William H. Burnham, Ph.D., Professor ol
Pedagogy and School Hygiene, Clark
University. ( Topics in School Hygiene )

Edward H. Cameron, Ph.D., Associate Pro-
fessor of Psychology, Yale University.
(Topics in Psychology.)

Thomas C. Chamberlain, Ph.D., LL.D ,
Professor and Head of the Department
of Geology ; Director of Museums,
University of Chicago. (Geology.)

Percival R. Cole, Ph D., Vice-Principal of
the Training College, Sydney, Aus-
tralia. (Hcrbart.)

Gabriel CompayrS, Inspector General of
Public Instruction; Member of the
Institute of France. (Education in
France.)

G. G. Coulton, Late Birkberk Lecturer in
Ecclesiastical History, University Col-
lege, Cambridge. (Hall or Hostel.)

Ellwood P. Cubberley, Ph.D., Professor of
Education, Lei and Stanford Jr. Uni-
versity. (Educational Administration ;
State SysteHM of Education.)

Alexander Darroch, M.A., Professor of
Education, University of Edinburgh.
(Scotch Universities and Biographies.)

Henry Davies, Rev., Ph.D., Rector, Easton,
Md. (Educational Philosophers.)

Walter F. Dearborn, Ph.D., Assistant Pro-
fessor of Psychology, Harvard Univer-
sity. (Topics in Psychology.)

John Dewey, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of
Philosophy, Columbia University.
(Topics in Philosophy of Education.)

Richard E. Dodge, A.M., Professor of Geog-
raphy, Teachers College, Columbia
University. (Geography.)

Fletcher B. Dresslar, Ph.D., Expert in
School Hygiene, U. 8. Bureau of Edu-
cation, Washington, D.C. (Topics in
School Hygiene.)

Knight Dunlap, Ph.D., Associate in Psy-
chology, Johns Hopkins University.
(Psychological Topics.)

Charles A. Eastman, M.D., Amherst, Mass.
(American Indians.)

Roland P. Falkner, Ph.D., Assistant Direc-
tor, Bureau of the Census, Washington,
D.C. (Immigration and Education.)

Aristide Fanti, Librarian, United States
Bureau of Education, Washington, D.C.
(Education in Italy.)

Frederic E. Farrington, Ph.D., Associate
Professor of Educational Administra-
tion, Teachers College, Columbia Uni-
versity. (French Educators.)

Lee K. Frankel, Assistant Secretary Metro-
politan Life Insurance Company, New
York City. (Educational Work of In-
surance Companies.)

Fabian Franklin, Ph.D., LL.D., Associate
Editor Evening Post, New York City.
(D. (\ Cihnan.)

Shepherd I. Franz, Ph.D., Scientific Director
and Psychologist, Government Hospital
for the Insane; Professor of Experi-
mental Psychology and of Philosophy,
George Washington University. ( Topics
in Psychology.)

H. B. Frissell, D.D., LL.D., Principal,
Hampton Normal and Industrial Insti-
tute, Hampton, Va (Hampton Institute.)

VH

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME III

Charles Galwey, A.B., Tutor of English,
College of the City of New York.
(Colleges and Universities.)

Thomas D. Goodell, Ph.D., Professor of
Greek, Yale University. (Study of
Greek ; Homer.)

Willystine Goodsell, Ph.D , Assistant Pro-
fessor of the History of Education,
Teachers College, Columbia University.
( Infant Educati on . )

William E. Griffis, D.D., L.H.D , Ithaca,
N.Y. (Korea; Japan.)

Louis Grossmann, Ph IX, Principal, Hebrew
Union College, Cincinnati, O. (Jn/'/.s7/
Education.)

Charles H. Haskins, Ph.D., Professor of
History and Dean of the Graduate
School, Harvard University. ( History )

Ernest N. Henderson, Ph.D., Professor of Phi-
losophy and Education, Adelphi College
(Topics in Philosophy and Psychology.)

Milo B. Hillegas, PhD., Assistant Pro-
fessor of Elementary Education,
Teachers College, Columbia Univer-
sity. (Education in Modern Greece )

Douglas Hyde, LL IX, D.Litt , Dublin,
Ireland . ( Ed u cat io n in Ireland)

Torstein Jahr, Cataloguer, Library of Con-
gress, Washington, D C. (Greenland.)

Joseph Jastrow, Ph.D , Professor of Psy-
chology, University of Wisconsin.
(Hypnosis )

G. E. Johnson, AM., Superintendent,
Pittsburgh Playground Association,
Pittsburgh, Pa. (Games.)

Wm. Dawson Johnston, Litt.IX, Librarian
of Columbia University. (Libraries.)

Charles H. Judd, Ph.D , LL D , Professor
and Director of the School of Educa-
tion, University of Chicago. (Topic*
in Educational Psychology.)

tsaac L. Kandel, Ph.D , Teaching Fellow
in Teachers College, Columbia Univer-
sity. (Topics in Educational History
and Administration )

Kikuchi, D., Baron, Member of Privy
Council, Tokyo. (Education in Japan.)

William H. Kilpatrick, Ph D., Assistant Pro-
fessor of the History of Education,
Teachers College, Columbia University.
(Tofncs in the History of Education )

Helen Kinne, Professor of Household Arts
Education, Teachers College, Columbia
University. (Kitchen Garden, House-
hold Art in Education.)

W. Kirchwey, LL.IX, Kent Professor
of Law, Columbia University. (Legal
Education )

George P. Krapp, Ph.D., Professor of Eng-
lish, Columbia University. (Grammar;
Languages, Artificial, Language, Eng-
lish; Literature, English.)

Cecil F. Lavell, Ph.D., Assistant Professor
of the History of Education, Teachers
College, Columbia University. (Greek
Education.)

Arthur F. Leach, Charity Commissioner for
England and Wales, London. (Topics
in English Educational History.)

James G. Legge, Director of Education,
City of Liverpool. (Industrial Ed a-
cation )

Florence N. Levy, Editor, American Art
Annual. (Industrial Art Schools.)

Samuel M. Lindsay, Ph.D., LL.IX, Pro-
fessor of Political Science, Columbia
University. (Juvenile Delinquency, etc )

Gonzalez Lodge, Ph D , LL.D., Professor of
Latin and Greek, Teachers College,
Columbia University. (Latin Lan-
y u age and Isittratnre)

Arthur O. Love joy, A.M., Professor of
Philosophy, Johns Hopkins University.
«7. M. Leibnitz )

Joseph McCabe, formerly Rector of Buck-
ingham College. (Hypatia.)

Roswell C. McCrea, Ph.D., Professor of
Economics, University of Pennsylvania
(Humane Education )

Millicent Mackenzie, M.A , Professor of
Education, University College, Cardiff,
Wales (Hegel)

John P. Mahaffy, D D., Trinity College,
Dublin, Ireland. (Greek Education.)

George L. Meylan, M.D., Assistant Pro-
fessor of Physical Education and
Medical Director of the* CJyinnasmm,
Columbia University. (Educational
Athleti.cs, etc )

Paul Monroe, Ph.D., Professor of the His-
tory of Education, Teachers College,
Columbia, University (Topics in the
History of Education )

Will S. Monroe, A.B., Professor of Psy-
chology and Education, State Normal
School, Montclair, N.J. (American
Biography, etc.)

Frederick Monteser, Ph.D., Head of Ger-
man Department., De Witt Clinton High
School, New York City; formerly Lec-
turer on Education, New York Univer-
sity (German Educational Biography )

J. E. G. de Montmorency, B.A , LL.B.,
Library Editor of The Contemporary
Review ' Barrister, London, England.
(Topics ni English Educational History.)

Vlll

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME III

H. Kingsmill Moore, Rev., Kildarc Place,
Dublin, Ireland. (Education in Ireland.)

James Bass Mullinger, M.A., Lit! D ,
Librarian and Lecturer in History, St.
John's College, Cambridge University.
(Greek, Study of.)

Wilhelm Miinch, Ph.D , Late Gehemi-
Regierungsrat and Ordentlicher Hon-
orar-Professor of Education, University
of Berlin. (Education in Germany )

Naomi Norsworthy, Ph.D., Associate Pro-
fessor of Educational Psychology,
Teachers College, ( Columbia Univer-
sity. (Infant Education )

William Orr, Deputy Commissioner, State
Board of Education, Boston, Mass
(High School Fraternities )

Jean Phillipe, Ph.D., Associate Director of
the Laboratory of Physiological Psy-
chology, Sorbonne, Paris. (Greard :
French Journals and Journalism )

Walter B. Pillsbury, Ph.D , Professor of
Psychology, University of Michigan.
(Topics in Psychology.)

Alice Ravenhill, Formerly Inspector ^ of
Hygiene and Domestic Economy, West
Riding, Yorkshire (Household Arts )

Wyllys Rede, Rev., Ph D , D.I), Fellow
Johns Hopkins University (Church
Fathers, etc )

Charles R. Richards, B.S., Director, Coopei
Union for the Advancement ot Science
and Art, New York City (Industrial
Education )

Charles L. Robbins, Ph D , Instructor m
History of Education, Manhattan
Training School, New York City.
( Kirchenordnung.)

Arthur K. Rogers, Ph D., Professor of
Philosophy, University ot Missouri.
(Dawd Hartley )

James H. Ropes, D.D., Professor of History
and Dean of Department ot Umvei-
sity of Extension, Harvard University.
( Harvard Um versity. )

Michael E. Sadler, LL.D., Litt.D , Vice-
Chancellor, The University, Leeds, Eng-
land. (English Educational Biogra-
phies.)

Eben C. Sage, D.D., Assistant Secretary
General Education Board. (General
Education Board.)

David Salmon, Principal, Training College,
Swansea, Wales. (Topics in English
Educational History.)

F. M. Schiele, Ph.D., Formerly Private
Docent, University of Tubingen. (Ger-
many.)

Anna Tolman Smith, Specialist in Educa-
tion, United States Bureau of Edu-
cation, Washington, D.C. (National
Systems of Education.)

David Eugene Smith, Ph.D., Litt.D., Pro-
fessor of Mathematics, Teachers College,
Columbia University. (Topics in Math-
ematics )

David Snedden, Ph.D., Commissioner of
Education, State of Massachusetts.
(Topics m Educational Administra-
tion.)

Edwin R. Snyder, Ph.D., State* Normal
School, San Jose, Cal. (Rural High
Schools; State Systems of High Schools )

Steingrimur Steffinsson, Chief Reviser,
Catalogue Division, Library of Con-
gress, Washington, DC. (Iceland)

Thomas A. Storey, M D , Professor and
Director of Phvsical Education, College
of the City ot New York. (Topics m
School Hygiene )

William S. Sutton, LL.D , Dean of Depart-
ment of Education, University of Texas
(Wm. T. Harns )

Henry Suzzallo, Ph D , Professor of the
Philosophy of Education, Teachers Col-
lege, Columbia University (Topics in
Educational Method )

Robert Swickerath, Rev., S J., College of the
Holy Cross, Worcester, Mass (Edu-
cational Work of the Society of Jesus.)

Ralph S. Tarr, Ph.D., Lute Professor of
Geography, Cornell University. (Geog-
raphy )

Frank Thilly, Ph D , LL.D., Professor of
Philosophy, Cornell University ( T. H.
Green , Lanye )

Rudolf Tombo, Jr., Ph.D., Adjunct Professor
of the Germanic, Languages and Litera-
tures, Columbia University. (German
[hi i versifies.)

William Turner, Rev., S T.D., Professor of
Philosophy, Catholic University of
America, Washington, D.C". (Hugo of
St. Victor; St. Jerome; Peter the Lom-
bard )

A. E. Twentyman, Board of Education,
Whitehall, London. (English Educa-
tional Journals.) (Journals and Jour-
nahxw.)

George Unwin, Professor of Economic His-
tory, University of Manchester. (Medie-
val Guilds and Education.)

Nina C. Vandewalker, A.B., Head of Kinder-
garten Department, State Normal
School, Milwaukee, Wis. (Kindergar-
ten.)

IX

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME III

George E. Vincent, LL.D., President Uni-
versity of Minnesota. (WiJham R
Harper.)

J. W. H. Walden, Ph.D., formerly Instructor
in Latin, Harvard University. (Li-
banius.)

Foster Watson, M.A., Litt.D , Professor of
Education, University College of Wales,
Aberystwyth, Wales. (Topics in Eng-
lish Educational History.)

John B. Watson, Ph.D., Professor of Ex-
perimental and Comparative Psychol-
ogy, Johns Hopkins University.
(Habit; Instinct.}

Frank A. Waugh, B.S., M.S., Head of
Division and Professor of Landscape
Gardening, Massachusetts Agricultural
College. ( Horticultural Education in
Europe.)

Walter Williams, LL.D., Professor of the
History and Principles of Journalism
and Dean of the Faculty of Journalism,
University of Missouri. (Education for
Journalism.)

Robert C. Woodworth, Ph.D., Professor of
Psychology, Columbia University.
(Imageless Thought.)

Mary Schenck Woolman, B.S., President
Women's Industrial Union, Boston, and
Professor of Domestic Art, Simmons
College. (Household Arts.)

Robert M. Yerkes, Ph.D., Assistant Pro-
fessor of Comparative Psychology, Har-
vard University. (Topics in Psy-
chology.)

Paul Ziertmann, Ph.D., Oberlehrer in Steg-
litz Oberrealschule, Berlin. (Educa-
tion in Germany.)

FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS

PAljR

SCHOOL GARDENS opposite 11

GREEK GYMNASTIC SCHOOLS " 157

GREEK Music SCHOOL " 159

HAMPTON INSTITUTE " 215

A GROUP OF AMERICAN EDUCATORS " 219

Cyrus W Hamlin; William T. Harris; Mark Hopkins; B. A. Hinsdale.

HARVARD COLLEGE " 229

A GROUP OF AMERICAN HIGH SCHOOLS " 264

INDIAN EDUCATION tt 417

INDIAN RESERVATIONS AND SCHOOLS " 419

INFANT SCHOOLS ............ " 453

A GROUP OF MODERN UNIVERSITY EDUCATORS " 516

Benjamin Jowett; William James; Simon Somerville Laurie; William Rainey
Harper.

JAPANESE EDUCATION opposite 520

A GROUP OF GERMAN EDUCATORS " 586

Immanuel Kant; Georg Wilhelm F. Hegel; Johann Friedrich Herbart; Friedrich
Wilhelm von Humboldt.

KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION opposite 601

A GROUP OF ENGLISH EDUCATORS " 621

Sir William Hamilton; Quintm Hogg; Joseph Lancaster; Thomas Henry Huxley.

LELAND STANFORD JR. UNIVERSITY opposite 626

A CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION

GAILHARD, JOHN — Writer of the Corn-
pleat Gentleman, 1678 This treatise is divided
into two parts, the first containing directions
for the education of youth, in their breeding at
home, and the second concerns itself with their
breeding in traveling abroad Gailhard seems
to have spent a number of years as tutor abroad
to " several of the nobility and gentry " In
the first part, he treats of breeding children at
home, and recommends a wide curriculum sim-
ilar to that of Milton Throughout the stress
is laid upon the bearing and breeding and char-
acter which should be shown by the nobleman
and the best means of inducing it

In the next part, Gailhard points out the
qualifications, duties, and value of the trav-
eling tutor, and his treatise is probably the
most complete on the subject Before trav-
eling, the pupil should learn something of the
language of the country to which he goes He
should, too, know well his own country and
its main characteristics before traveling The
pupil, following the excellent custom noted by
Bacon, is to " take pains in writing in his
Diary Book " all he sees Religious devotions
and reading of the Bible must not bo neglected.
Physical exercises and music must also receive
attention If he comes to a convenient place,
he should learn the general principles of physic,
say at Padua or Montpelher, and Civil Law,
say at Angers or Orleans. Drawing should
also be learned Gailhard suggests three years
as the time for the Grand Tour, of which half
should be spent in France On the whole, Gail-
hard's book gives great insight into the tone
and standards of the young gentleman of the
times and the current English views of foreign
nations F. W

See GENTRY AND NOBLES, EDUCATION OP

GALE, GEORGE WASHINGTON (1789-

1863). — A pioneer m the movement for man-
ual training in the United States, was grad-
uated from Union College in 1814 and from the
Princeton Theological Seminary in 1818 He
was for several years engaged in the work of
the ministry; but, failing in health, he retired
to a farm at Whitesboro, N Y , where he gave
a class of boys free board and tuition for a few
hours of work each day on the farm. Out of
the experiment grew the Oneida Manual Labor
Institute of which he was principal for seven
years (1827-1834). Courses were given'in ap-
plied agriculture and woodwork He was one

VOL. Ill — B 1

of the founders of Knox College at Galesburg,
111., and for a few years a professor there

W S. M.

See INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION; MANUAL TRAIN-
ING SCHOOLS

GALE COLLEGE, GALESBURG, WIS —

See LUTHERAN EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM IN THE
U S

GALEN, CLAUDIUS (131-* 201). — Greek
physician and writer on medical subjects He
was born at Pergamon in the reign of Hadrian
Galen studied medicine at Pergamon, Smyrna,
and Alexandria On completing his studies he
returned to his native city where he was ap-
pointed physician to the athletes in the gym-
nasia He spent a few years at Rome, where his
ability attracted attention In 169 he was sum-
moned to attend the Emperors Marcus Aure-
lius and L Vrrus in the campaign on the north-
eastern frontier He returned to Rome, where
he became for a time physician to Aurelius and
Commodus The exact date of his death is not
known, but Galen certainly lived in the reign
of Septimus Severus

Galen was a prolific writer and is credited
with some 500 works Of the extant works
about 1 1 8 arc considered to be genuine Al-
though known mainly by his medical works, he
wrote many treatises on philosophy and literary
criticism Among his writings are commen-
taries on the dogmas of Plato and on the
Timceus His interest in the works of Hip-
pocrates is shown by the commentaries lie
also wrote on the Ancient Comedy, on Atti-
cisms, and on style But his fame rests on his
works in the field of medicine. He touched on
every aspect of the subject, including anatomy
and ph^ysiology, dietetics and hygiene, pathol-
ogy, diagnosis, pharmacy, and materia mediea,
therapeutics, and surgery He treats of the
anatomical phase most successfully, although
it is not thought that he had any opportuni-
ties for dissecting human bodies He himself
recommended the dissection of animals, and
especially monkeys, as being most like the
human being He is reputed to have performed
some remarkable surgical operations In the
field of pharmacy and materia mediea he seems
to have had more faith in amulets than in medi-
cine, although he was famous for certain pre-
scriptions Galen was the first and greatest
authority on the pulse

GALILEI

GALILEI

Galen'.s works hold the place 111 the study of
medicine in the medieval universities which
Aristotle held in philosophy His authority
was not questioned until the sixteenth cen-
tury In 1559 a Dr Geyner was admitted to
Ihe College of Physicians of England only on re-
canting his attacks on the infallibility of Galen
But from the time of Galen all sects (c q Dog-
matics, Empirics, Eclectics, Pneumatics, and
Episynthetics) were united under the one great
source of medical lore His works were for a
long time read in Latin or Arabic translations
The first edition of the Greek text was pub-
lished by the Aldme pi ess in 1525

References : —

BKKDOK, TO Origin and Growth of the Healing Art

(London, 1893 )
DAKKMBKIU; Exposition de& Connais^ances de Gotten

sur r Anatomit (Pans, 1841 ) Epitome in Kng-

hbh h\ Poxo (Philadelphia, 1840)
ILBKKG Die SchnftMtolloioi doa Klaudios (Jalenos, in

Rhenibihu* Museum fui Phdoxophie 1889, 1892,

and 189G
KIDD Transaction* of the Provincial Surgical A&so-

(tatioti, Vol VI (London, 1837 )
KUHN Complete Works of Galen in 20 vols
MrRAE, C Fathers of Biology (London, 1890 )
MULLKR and HELMRJCH Minor Works of Galen.

(Leipzig 1884 1893 )

GALILEI, GALILEO (1504-1042) —The
famous astronomer was born at Pisa His
fathei , who was skilled in music and mathe-
matics, intended the son for trade, but was pre-
vailed upon to send him to the University of
Pisa to study medicine Galileo was of such
an argumentative disposition that he won foi
himself the nickname oi " the wrangler " But
his bent was not for medicine In 15S2 he made
his first scientific discovery of the principle of
oscillation of a pendulum and invented an in-
strument which was useful to doctois in testing
the beat of the pulse Through poverty he was
compelled to leave the University without a de-
gree in 1585 In 15SO he wrote an essay, not
published until the last century, on the hydio-
static balance, an instrument which he had
invented to measure the specific gravity of solids.
In 1589 he became professor of mathematics
and astronomy in the University of Pisa At
this period began his long senes of experiments
which mark the beginning of modern methods
in scientific study In place of deductions and
reliance on the authority of Aristotle he made
actual experiments as precise as they could be
in his time He devoted his attention to a
study of falling bodies, and concluded, contrary
to the opinion of the day, that the time taken
by falling bodies depended not on their weight,
but on the resistance of the air. Although the
appointment at Pisa was for three years, he
left before his time expired, owing to the attacks
of his opponents In 1592, he was appointed
professor of mathematics at Padua, originally
for a period of six years, later gradually ex-
tended to eighteen years, and then for life
Here he attracted large audiences to his lec-

tures, and devoted his attention to mechanics
and the invention of scientific instruments
His first discovery of importance in astronomy
was made in 1004 when he noticed the appear-
ance of a star in the constellation 8erpentarius
which was more distant than the planets
From this period on Galileo's reputation was
spread over Europe by his telescopic observa-
tions, and his improvements on the telescope
His discoveries he published in 1010 in Sidereus
Nunci MS (Sidereal Messenger) Here he showed
that the markings on the moon were caused by
mountains and their shadows, that the moon
was much like the earth, and that celes-
tial phenomena were similar to those on
the earth The Pleiades and the Milky Way
he proved to consist of numerous stais invis-
ible to the naked eye In the same year he
discovered the Satellites of Jupiter Feeling
the need of more time for his researches and
writing, he returned to Pisa, where he was ap-
pointed professor of mathematics and first
philosopher and mathematician to the Grand
Duke of Tuscany, a well-salaried post with few
duties attached Among his other discoveries
were the sun spots and the fact that Venus
derived light from another body in the same
way as the moon

There were not wanting those who seized an
oppoitunity of assailing Galileo for his over-
throw of the belief in the celestial bodies as
perfect and unchangeable He was drawn into
a dispute on the question of the validity of
reasoning and observation on the one hand, and
scriptural and ecclesiastical authonty on tho
other His attitude is illustrated by the fol-
lowing quotation fiom his writings, u Methinks,
that in the discussion of natural problems we
ought not to begin at the authontv of places
of scripture, but at sensible experiments and
necessary demonstrations." In 1015 he was
denounced to the Inquisition which appointed
a body of theologians to examine the Copermcan
doctrines, as a result Galileo was admonished
by order of the Pope to abandon his opinions
For the next few years Galileo remained in
Rome, where he had powerful friends In 1023
he wrote // Saggiatore (The A^ayer), the final
contribution to a controversy on which he had
entered with a Jesuit m 1618 The book again
brought him into favor with the Pope, to
whom it was dedicated In 1032, after con-
siderable difficulties with the censors at Rome
and Florence, he published a Dialogue on the
Two Chief Systems of the World, the Ptolemaic
and Coper mean, which was a powerful argu-
ment in support of the Copernican theory set
out in a thinly veiled disguise A feeling that
the book treated disparagingly of the Pope
caused the Inquisition to stop the sale of the
book and to compel Galileo to appear for trial.
He was treated kindly during the trial, but was
condemned to prison Through the influence
of his friends he was allowed to remain in con-
finement in a country house near Florence. He

GALL

GALLAUDET

continued his investigations, which, however,
were cut short by blindness in 1636. The chief
work of this period was Mathematical Discourses
and Demonstrations concerning Two New Sci-
ences, relating to Mechanics and to Loral Motion,
written in the form of a dialogue and dealing
with statics, falling bodies, and projectiles In
1642 Galileo died and was buried in the Cathe-
dral of Santa Croce Galileo ranks with Bacon
as one of the founders of modern experimental
science In astronomy he will always have a
permanent place, for many of his discoveries,
despite the lack of exact instruments, were
remarkable for their precision In dynamics
he created an entirely new science which served
as a basis on which future scientists were to
build

References : —

ALBERT Galileo's Collected Works, in 16 volumes
(Florence, 1842-1856.)

BERRY, A A Short History of Astronomy (New
York, 1899)

FAHIE, J J Galileo, His Life and Work (New York,
1903)

The Private Life of Galileo (London, 1870) Anon-
ymous

WEGG-PROHWER Galileo and his Judges (London,
1889.)

GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH (1758-1828) —
The founder of phrenology (q.v.), born at Tiefen-
brunn in Baden, the son of an Italian merchant
named Gallo He received his early education at
the hands of his uncle, a Catholic priest; later
studied at Baden, at Bruchsal, at Strassburg,
where he distinguished himself by research in
natural history, and at Vienna, where he took
his doctoral degree and commenced the prac-
tice of medicine In 1796 he began to promul-
gate his theory in lectures, which were continued
until 1802, when they were forbidden by the
Austrian government as inimical to religion.
In 1805 he left Vienna, in company with his
pupil Spurzheim, and in 1807 established him-
self at Pans In the intervening two years he
lectured m the principal cities of northern and
central Europe, and in 1823 delivered a few
lectures in London. He continued lecturing
at Pans until a few months before his death,
which occurred at Montrouge

The observations on which Gall based phren-
ology began during his boyhood, with the notic-
ing of an apparent relation between the size of
the eye and the retentiveness of memory. At
Strassburg and Vienna Gall was indefatigable
in the examination of the heads of persons who
exhibited striking mental peculiarities, model-
ing many of them in plaster and wax; and
extended his study to the lower animals He
was practically the first to recognize the main
features of the gross anatomy of the brain, and
the function of the fibers and of the cortex.
The importance of his work is indicated by one
of the inscriptions on a medal struck in his
honor in Berlin: // trouva I'instrumente de
I'dme. Gall's most important publications

were the Recherche* xm lc v
general et sur celui du cervcau en particuliei ,
written in collaboration with Spurzheim (q v ),
and published in 1809; and the Anatomic et
physiologic du systemc nerveux, which appeared
in four volumes in 1810-181 9 The latter work
was commenced with Spurzheim, but finished
alone, the two haying quarreled and separated.
An abridged edition was published by Gall in
1822, and an English translation appeared in
Boston in 1835 K D.

References : —

GODWIN, W Thoughts on Man, his Nature, Produc-
tion, and Discoveries Essay on Phrenology
(London, 1831 )

HOEFER, F Nouvelle Biographic Generate B.V. Gall.
(Pans, 1863-1870 )

GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS (1787-
1851). — The founder of the first American
school for the deaf, born in Philadelphia the
10th of December, 1787 He received his edu-
cation at the Hartford Grammar School, Yale
College (graduating in 1805), and Andovoi
Theological Seminary. Becoming interested
in the deaf, and recognizing their need of edu-
cation, he went to England to study the meth-
ods of lip-reading and articulation in use in
that country The selfishness of the proprie-
tors of the British schools made it impossible for
him to study the methods there used, and he
went to Paris, where he was cordially leceived
by the Abbe" Sicard (q.v ), who placed all the
facilities of the French institution at his dis-
posal The manual or sign method was em-
ployed in the Pans school, and this was the
method that Gallaudet brought to America
With the assistance of Laurent Clerc, who had
been associated with the Abbe* Sicard, Gallaudet
organized the American Asylum for Deaf-
mutes at Hartford, in 1816, and continued at its
head until 1830 As this was the first school
for the deaf in the United States, practically
all the instructors in deaf schools in the coun-
try for a half century were trained at Hart-
ford, and the manual or sign alphabet became
the dominant method of instruction During
1832 and 1833 Gallaudet was professor of the
philosophy of education in New York Univer-
sity This was the first professorship of edu-
cation in the United States (See EDUCATION,
ACADEMIC STUDY OF ) He was also active in
the movement which established the first nor-
mal schools in America Besides his writings
on the education of the deaf, he published a
number of essays on the philosophy of educa-
tion and several text-books, including the popu-
lar Mother's Primer and the Child's Picture Defin-
ing and Reading Book His Plan of a Seminary
for the Education of Instructors of Youth (Boston,
1825) gave rise to the normal school idea in
America He died at Hartford the 9th of
September, 1851. W. S. M.

See DEAF, EDUCATION OF THE.

GALLAUDET COLLEGE

GALTON

References : —

BARNARD American Journal of Education, 1850. Vol.

I, pp 433-444.
GALLAUDET, E. M Life of T 77 Qallaudct (Now

York, 1888.)
HUMPHREY, H. Life of T. //. Gallaudet. (N™ York,

1858.)

GALLAUDET COLLEGE, WASHINGTON,
D.C. — A coeducational institution for the
higher education of the deaf, founded in 1864
as the National Deaf-Mute College. The pres-
ent name was adopted at the request of the
alumni m 1894 in howor of Thomas Hopkins
Gallaudet (q v.) The course given by the
college extends over five years, including one
year of preparatory work A general course
in the essentials of a liberal education is given
leading to the degrees of B A and B S A
normal course is maintained for training hear-
ing persons who are already graduates of col-
leges and wish to become teachers of the deaf.
There are fourteen members on the faculty

GALLOWAY, SAMUEL (1811-1872) —A

pioneer of the common school movement m
Ohio ; was graduated at Miami University in
1833. He was teacher and principal of schools
in Ohio, state superintendent of public instruc-
tion (1844-1851), and professor in Miami Uni-
versity He was one of the organizers and the
first president of the Ohio State Teachers'
Association W. S. M.

GALLOWAY COLLEGE, SEARCY, ARK —

An institution for the education of women
under the auspices of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, South, established in 1890 Prepara-
tory, collegiate, and music courses are offered
Twelve units are required for entrance to the
college course which leads to the A B degree.
There are nineteen teachers on the faculty.

GALTON, FRANCIS (1822-1911). — A cele-
brated English scientific investigator, born in
Birmingham, England, in 1822, of a distin-
guished family His paternal grandfather, a
Quaker and a business man of ability, was
interested m the study of birds and in statis-
tics. A cousin, Sir Douglas Galton, was an
eminent engineer This mathematical inherit-
ance was supplemented on the mother's side
by genius in the study of nature. Galton's
maternal grandfather was Erasmus Darwin,
hardly less remarkable a naturalist than his
illustrious grandson, Charles Darwin. Galton
studied at Trinity College, Cambridge, and
took the degree of B A in 1844 He began
his career as an explorer of the upper Nile,
and later of Damaraland in Southwest Africa.
In the latter region he discovered the Ovampo
race, an agricultural people As an explorer
he not only added materially to anthropology,
etc., but also to the methods by which expedi-
tions can most successfully be carried on His
results were published in the Royal Geographi-

cal Society's Journal for 1852, and in his books,
Narrative of an Explorer in Tropical South
Africa, and Art of Travel or Shifts and Con-
trivances in Wild Countries

The second phase of Galton's activity con-
cerns meteorology He invented the graphic
method of indicating weather conditions, which
is to-day used in connection with weather
forecasts It appears in his Meteorographica,
or Methods of Mapping the Weather, published
in 1863 He also developed the theory of
anti-cyclones especially valuable in such prog-
nostications In addition he invented many
instruments useful in meteorologic observa-
tions The phenomena of meteorology are so
complicated that predictions can be made
only in terms of probability and on the basis
of extensive statistical data These methods,
Galton conceived, should be applied to biology,
anthropology, and psychology, for here, too,
the conditions are exceedingly complicated,
and statistical methods and probabilities aie
an appropriate foundation and form of expres-
sion for predictions His work in these fields
constitutes the third phase of Galton's activiU
He began with the study of heredity, and in
1869 published his Hcrcditmy Genius, in which
he demonstrated the inheritance of genius A
child whose ancestors are talented is shown to
have a much greater chance of being well en-
dowed than one not possessing such an heredity
He continued his studies of eminent men in
his English Men of Science, published m 1874
Later he took up the investigation of the nature
of mental powers, arid to get material, devised
the method of the question nane He used this
method especially in the study of mental
imagery, in which his researches, published in
1883 in Inquiries into Human Faculty, are
classic The method of the questionnaire also
gave him his data in regard to family faculties,
by which he was enabled to make a careful
quantitative study of the types and amount of
inheritance In these studies, published in
1889 in Natural Inheritance, he developed an
ingenious method of using the probable chance
distribution of variable factors as a basis for
estimating the likelihood of the presence of
any chance tendency disturbing such a distri-
bution He also laid the foundation for his
Law of Ancestral Inheritance (see HEREDITY),
which he stated in a paper presented before*
the Royal Society In connection with these
anthropological and psychological researches
he invented composite photography, as a
means of bringing out the typical facial char-
acteristics of a group He also discovered the
unique character of the arrangement of the
lines on the fingers of any individual, and his
works on Finger Print* and an Index of Finger
Prints formed the basis of the Bertillon system
of identifying criminals. The latest work of
Galton concerns eugenics (qv), by which he
meant the science ^of controlling mating in the
interest of the preservation and improvement

GALTON'S LAW

GAMES

of the type This practical application of his
studies in heredity has an immediate relation
to education, since it is upon this agency that
the principles of eugenics must in the main
depend in order to reach the individual and
affect practice. It is likely, however, that the
greatest service rendered by Galton to educa-
tion consists in the statistical methods by
which quantitative accuracy can be introduced
into the complicated phenomena of mental cul-
ture Only thus can educational theory and
practice be given the convincing character of
science Galton died on Jan. 17, 1911

E. N. H

See EKKOR OF OBSERVATION; GENIUS;
GRAPHIC CURVE; HEREDITY.

References : —

Curpor Outlook, Vol. LXXVII, Feb. 4, 1011, p 249
(JALTON, F Memories of my Life (London, 1908 )
Scientific Achievements Natuie, Vol LXXXV, Feb. 4,

1911, pp 440-^45
Scientific Career Nation, Vol LXII, Jan. 20, 1911

pp 79-80

GALTON'S LAW — See HEREDITY

GALWAY, UNIVERSITY COLLEGE — See

IRELAND, EDUCATION IN

GAMALIEL — Grandson of Hillel, and the
founder and head of the hbeial school which
bore that name, was one of the most distin-
guished of Jewish scholars and educators In
such high respect was he held that at his death,
according to the Mishna, " reverence for the
law ceased arid purity and abstinence died
a\\av," such was their sense of loss in the
death of their greatest bulwark of learning
and moiality Under his influence instruction
in the Jewish law was more fully imbued with
the spirit of practical life than 'in later times
He was an enthusiastic student of Greek litera-
ture, which was held in abhorrence by the rabbis
and forbidden to the young His influence
appears in the training of St Paul, who prided
himself upon having sat at the feet of this
greatest of Jewish teachers His enlighten-
ment and toleration are apparent in his verdict
as President of the Sanhedrm of Jerusalem in
the trial of St Peter and other Apostles (Acts
v, 33-42} The tradition that Gamaliel be-
came a Christ jan and was baptized by St Paul
is inconsistent with the honors afterwards
heaped upon him by the Jews W. R.

See JEWISH EDUCATIONS

Reference : —

FRANKEL, Z HoflcycUen (Leipzig, 1859 )

GAMES. — A game is a form of play in
which the players adhere more or less strictly
to certain traditions, regulations, or rules,
written or unwritten Games are a latci devel-
opment of play (q.v ) Phylogeneticallv and
ontogenetically informal play precedes formal
play or games

Origin — The origin of most existing games
is obscure Falkener has traced some to cer-
tain rites of divination, and Culm also asserts
that games were derived from serious religious
ceremonies Even as late as the Olympic
games of Greece and the Ludi Apollmares at
Rome athletic games had a religious signifi-
cance Nearly all our existing games are modi-
fied forms of games of great antiquity Culm
says, " It is safe to say that no new game has
been invented during the historic period, and
that all we regard as new are only modifications
of games played before the building of the
Egyptian pyramids " " Among the pictures
of ancient Egyptian games on the tombs of
Beni Hassan " (3000-2500 B c ), says E B
Taylor, " one shows a player with head down
so that he cannot see what the others are doing
with their clenched fists above his back "
This game is played by boys to-day. It is the
American game sometimes called " Biff/' the
English game of " Hot Cockles," the French
game of u Mam-Chaude," and the Greek
" Kollabismos " Tavlor calls attention to
Luke 22 64 " And they blindfolded him and
asked him saying, Prophesy who is he that
struck thee'? " Among the games of the Am-
erican Indians are found the prototypes of
dice, cards, chess, golf, shmney, baseball, and
racket.

Games, like informal play, doubtless gre\\
out of experience Among the first games of
children are games of chasing, throwing, and
striking These suggest the hunting and
fighting experiences of the race A B Gomme
in her notable study of the games of children
has classified games according to the experi-
ence represented, as contest games, marriage
games, funeral games, harvest games, divina-
tion games, etc Many folk dances especialh
suggest experience Among the Indians,
dances represent scenes of the hunt or the war-
path Among civilized people, manv folk
dances represent industrial experiences, as m
the harvest and weaving dances

Practical Uses of Games. — The uses of
games may be divided as follows

A Fundamental B

(1) For conserva-

tion

(2) For develop-

ment

(3) For education

(a) Physical

(b) Mental

(c) Moral

(d) Social

Conservation — It is the ofhce of games to
conserve certain essential characteristics, cer-
tain fundamental interests and powers It is
a principle in evolution that when an organ
develops from a lower to a higher form there is
a tendency toward a loss of some excellence

Incidental

(1) Recreational

(2) Substitutional

(3) Prophylactic

(4) Cathartic

(5) Corrective

(6) Vicarious

GAMES

GAMES

formerly possessed. In any period of rapid
evolution there is always a danger that the pass-
ing of the old may be too rapid or too complete,
that the foundation may be sacrificed to the
superstructure, that the fundamental may be
depleted in the acquisition of the accessory.
It is of great importance in the evolution of a
species that right proportions be maintained
between that which was the old and that which
is the new This danger that is present in the
development of a species is increased in the
ease of the recapitulatory process in the in-
dividual, a fact of tremendous importance in
education

Now .lames has shown that many essential
hereditary characteristics are conserved by
means of instincts That is, what is really
inherited in such cases is only a potentiality
or tendency, and the survival of the character-
istic, or power, depends upon habits formed
through instinctive reaction to the environ-
ment But many instincts ripen at a certain
age, and then weaken or disappear If a habit
has been formed meantime, well and good, if
not, it is likely never to be formed.

It is well understood that there is a progres-
sion of games in childhood and youth corre-
sponding to the progression of interests and
powers through the various periods of growth
and development These various games call
out, exercise, and develop certain fundamental
physical, mental, moral, and social traits of
peculiar interest at the several periods. If
no adequate opportunity be provided for the
kind of play necessary to call out, exercise, and
develop these traits at the time of keenest
natural interest in them, these interests tend
to fade away, as is the case of the instincts
mentioned by James, and the most favorable
opportunity for forming habits of reaction in
accord with these is lost " If," says James,
" a boy grows up alone at the age of games and
sports, and learns neither to play ball, nor row,
nor sail, nor ride, nor skate, nor fish, nor shoot,
probably he will be sedentary to the end of his
days, and, though the best of opportunities
be afforded him for learning these things later,
it is a hundred to one but he will pass them by
and shrink back from the effort of taking those
necessary first steps, the prospect of which at
an earlier stago would have filled him with
eager delight " So, on the moral side, if a boy
grows up alone and does not learn to play
games which call for great activity, competi-
tion, courage, fortitude, perseverance fairness,
generosity, loyalty, cooperation, sacrifice, he
loses the most favorable opportunity for the
development of these traits in him While
it is possible to conceive that work might at a
favorable time provide opportunity for the
exercise of these traits, yet work, in so far as it
departs from play, in the psychological sense,
must in the nature of the case by so much be
educationally less effective
Development — The normal development of

6

an organ depends upon three factors. (1)
natural impulse to growth, or heredity, (2)
nutrition; (3) exercise According to Tyler,
there seem to be three stages of development.
(1) A period of growth in which there is little
or no exercise of the organ. (2) A period m
which growth continues and modification of
internal structure, under the stimulus of exer-
cise, begins. (3) A period after growth in size
and weight has been attained, in which exercise
and structural change continue, as the organ
approaches maturity. When we consider that
the game interests have their genesis in struc-
ture which at its various stages of develop-
ment calls for exercise appropriate to its needs
and powers, it necessarily follows that the kind
of exercise supplied by the games must in turn
greatly stimulate growth and development
Moreover, the emotional accompaniment of
joyous participation in games and the effect
upon the vaso-motor system tend to bring
about a condition of full nutrition of the devel-
oping organs. This explains the exhilaration
which accompanies participation in games like
baseball and tennis, for example In short,
appropriate games provide the exercise which
is suited to the present needs and powers of
the developing organs, the exercise which best
stimulates growth and structural change, and
which also stimulates the vaso-motor system
and tends to bring about a condition of full
nutrition

Education — Physical — The value of
games in physical education is obvious More-
over, it is interesting to note that games have
been the conservative and not the radical ele-
ment in systems of physical training Of the
great systems of the world, the Grecian, the me-
dieval, the British, the German system of Guts
Muths and Jahn, and the Swedish system of
Ling, the exercises of the first three were largely
or wholly games, there was a large element of
games m the fourth, and there is especially in
America a constantly increasing element of
games in the last. It is. now very generally
recognized that specific movements designed
for the development of particular muscles or
groups of muscles and performed while con-
sciousness is largely absorbed in the execution
of the movements, are not, frotn the standpoint
of health and vitality, as beneficial as the cxei-
cises involved in games, in which there is a far
larger clement of pleasure and little or no con-
sciousness of the details of the movements exe-
cuted

Mental — Recent studies of the relation of
motor ability to intelligence have emphasized
the educational value of play activities Mosso
and others have shown that the phenomena of
muscular fatigue and mental fatigue are iden-
tical. Fatigue of the muscles is attended by a
loss of power of attention, and fatigue of atten-
tion by loss of power of the muscles

Educationally, games develop power rather
than extend intelligence, that is, develop an

GAMES

GAMES

ability to apply what one knows rather than
give comprehensive knowledge which may 01
may not be applied Educationally games
excel in this, that they develop a capacity foi
instantaneous and perfectly coordinated reaction
to situations within the field in which the
education applies, however restricted that
field may seem to be. In emeigencies,
crises, in time of stress, excitement, or peril,
within the field of action analogous to that
covered by games, games provide a tiainmg
par excellence For example, games may fur-
nish no definite knowledge that would enable
a lawyer to conduct a case successfully, but
they do provide a training which would enable1
a Iaw3rer, under the strain of an exciting tiial,
in full possession of himself, to concentrate
and coordinate every power to the task in
hand

Moral — The relation of games to moral
training has always been recognized to a cer-
tain extent. However, a fai greater apprecia-
tion of the moral significance of games has
come about in recent years, through the stimu-
lus of a new appreciation of the meaning and
significance of play in general, and notably by
such a study as (juhck's Psychological, Peda-
gogical and Religion* Aspects of Group Garner
The generally accepted theory that evolu-
tionary progress has been from the fundamen-
tal to the accessory and that this same oidei,
in a general way, is observed in the normal
development of an individual, has us apt an
application in the field of conduct as in phys-
ical or intellectual development One readily
recognizes that there are certain fundamental
virtues which are the basis of latei accessory
moral qualities Now, the significance of
games in moral training lies not alone in the
opportunity for the exercise of faiinesLS, coin-
age, cooperation, etc , but especially in the
fact that children and youth have, at a certain
age, an instinctive interest in just these funda-
mental virtues Just as the developing organ*
call for physical exercise of a type appropiiate
to their needs and powers, so also the moial
nature or organism calls for a display of certain
types of character appropriate to the stage of
development For example, the individual
competitive games of boys from ten to twelve
call for such traits as courage, hardihood,
pugnacity, fairness The boy who displays
these qualities is admired by his companions,
and the boy who lacks them is not But phys-
ical courage is a prototype of moral courage,
hardihood of fortitude, pugnacity of righteous
wrath, fairness of justice

Social — A game is socialized play Games
necessitate an appreciation of social relation-
ships, and there were no games until the race
haa developed a capacity for social activities
Since games developed commensuratcly with the
capacity of the race for social activity, there is
in games a review of the social development of
mankind.

There are several obvious applications of the
social influence of games, as for example —

1 In the development of sociability and
sympathy.

2 In the training and contiol of the fight-
nig instinct, or the instinct of competition, as a
basis of noble emulation on the one hand and of
capacity for nghteous conquest on the other

3 In the training foi cooperative action.

4 In providing an outlet for types of ac-
tivity that might otherwise become anti-social

Games might be classified according to social
significance, in tlnee classes —

1 Sociable or cooperative games, such as
the dramatic and imitative games of children,
folk games, dances, group singing

2 Competitive games, such us wrestling,
boxing, racing

3 Cooperative-competitive games, such as
baseball, football, basketball

The emphasis of mteicst in these games is
somewhat as follows In sociable 01 coopera-
tive games, to about seven (possibly, in the
case of girls, at all periods), in competitive
games from about seven to about twelve, in
cooperative-competitive games, from about
twelve on

Incidental uses of games — Recicntionol
— Since games have the uses mentioned under
Conservation, Development, and Education,
they are, foi children and youth at least, to be
regarded as having a far deeper significance
than the merely recreational, yet the reorea-
tional effect of games as a change fiom study
and sedentary pursuits and ita v alue are ob-
vious

Sitb\titnlnt)i<il — (James provide a useful
substitute for what might piove harmful ac-
tivities They also divert from undesirable
states of consciousness, as in disappointment,
anger, morbid introspection and the like
" Horse play," oigies, outbieaks, might often
l)e diverted through the legitimate channel of
games.

Prophylactic — GSames often pi event anti-
social activities and the acquisition of anti-
social habits Boys are ai rested foi rrus-
demeanois in throwing, stoning windows,
snowballing pedestrians, provoking persons,
o\ en policemen, to chase them, etc Ball
games and running games provide the same
activity and excitement in a legitimate form

Cathartic — Aristotle thought that certain
primitive instincts could be pinged away by
harmless means, as by the diama, and in this
way harmful and anti-social expression of the
impulse be prevented Strictly, games should
not be regarded as cathartic so much as direc-
tive Games serve not so much by purging
away as by training and directing the primi-
tive instincts For example, boxing under
right conditions diminishes fighting, not, how-
ever, by purging away the righting instinct,
but by directing and controlling it, making it a
basis for a higher expression in games and in

GAMES

GAMES

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GAMES

GANGLION

the affairs of life All social, moral, and civil
leaders, reformers, and martyrs have possessed
in a high degree this primitive instinct trained
to a higher and nobler expression

Corrective. — Games supply exercises best
adapted to develop in a normal child perfect
physical form and proportion This is ob-
viously so inasmuch as they involve the types
of activity which shaped the body in the pro-
cess of evolution. When the body of a child
has become ill-formed through some cause or
other, games, wisely chosen, may supply a most
valuable corrective

Vicarious. — The value of a game is not
alone to the players. Games benefit those
who only stand and wait The sympathetic
participation of little children in the game
they are watching is evident to the observer.

AGES

7 8

MAXIMUM TIME DEVOTED TO
FORMAL STUDY, RECITATION
AND WORK I E TIME UNDER
FORMAL DIRECTION

MINIMUM AMOUNT OF
TIME FOR PLAY, QAME8
FREE CHOICE OF OCCU
PAT ION

1B

Heightened color, deepened breathing, acceler-
ated heartbeat, joyous emotion, muscular
movements, are all present* The recreational
value of professional baseball to the spectators
is due not alone to a shifting of attention from
ordinary channels to the game but also to a
genuine participation, to a degree, in all the
emotions and movements of the players them-
selves

Practical Application — Games serve a fun-
damental need in education, physically, men-
tally, morally, and socially and should be re-
garded as essential to a school curriculum
For that portion of a community not in educa-
tional institutions, adequate play facilities are
as truly necessary for social order and civic
progress as our lecture halls, reading rooms,
libraries, and museums.

Time to be given to Plays and Games. — The

following diagram suggests the amount of time
that might profitably be given to plays and
games at different ages.

Selection of Games — Games should be se-
lected to meet the peculiar needs and oppor-
tunities of the successive periods of develop-
ment. Physically, they should further the
best physiological growth at the period of their
most rapid development. Mentally, they
should provide expression for the nascent in-
terests and emotions of the period. Morally,
they should stimulate conduct in accord with
the elemental virtues and ideals toward which
there is an instinctive response Socially, they
should involve an expression of the social in-
terests and the form of social organization
adapted to the stage of development

The following chart may prove suggestiVe in
relation to the choice of games G E ,1

For philosophical theory of games, see PLAY

References : —

BADMINTON Library of Sports and Pashmen (London )

BANCROFT, .1 H Games for the Playground, Hotnt ,
tichool, and Gymnasium (New York, 1909 )

BARKER, ,1 S Games for the Playground (London.
1910)

BEL&ZE, G Jeux des Adolescents (Paris, 1891 )

BENSON, ,T K The Book of Indoor Games. (Phila-
delphia, 1904 )

The Book of Sports and Pastime* (Philadelphia,
1907)

CHAMPLJN, J D , and BOHTWICK, A E Young FolkS
Cydopedm of Games and Sports (New York,
1H99)

CRAWFORD, C Folk Dances and Games (New York,
1908)

GODFREY, E English Children in the Olden Time*
(London, 1907 )

GOMME, A 13 The Tiaditional Games of England,
Scotland, and Ireland Dictionary of British Folk-
lore (London, 18<44- 1S9K )

Jahrbuch fur Yolks- und Juyt ndt>/n< It (heiausgi'gHx'n \ on
H \\ickenhagen), Vol XV (Leipzig, 1900)

KmuRLAND, MKH BURTON Th( Kooi ol Jndooi and
Outdoor Games (New Yoik, 1(H)4 )

KREUNZ, FKANZ B< uegunospul und \\ettkfanpfe
(Graz, 1897 )

NEWELL, W W Game* and Songi* of American Chil-
dren (New York, 1903 )

NucjENT, MEREDITH New Games and Amusements
(New York, 1905 )

PotiLHSON, A E Finger Play\ (Boston, 1893 )

Spalding's Athletie Library Publications American

Sports Publishing Co. (New York )
See also the references under ATHLETICS , GYMNASTICS ;
PHYSICAL EDUCATION, PLAY, etc

GAMES, PSYCHOLOGY OF — SIM* Pm

GAMMON THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY,
ATLANTA, GA — An institution for the train-
ing of ministers for the Methodist Church
The A B degree is required from candidates
who wish to proceed to the degree of bachelor
of divinity Diplomas and certificates are
granted for shorter courses

GANGLION — A group of nerve cells See
NERVOUS SYSTEM.

9

GARDENS

GARDENS

GARDENS, SCHOOL; GARDENS FOR
CHILDREN — Most gardens which arc defi-
nitely planned with reference to the education
of groups of children are under the manage-
ment of schools, and hence are usually known
as school gardens. In America and England
many excellent gardens are conducted for
similar educational ends, but quite indepen-
dently of schools Hence the term school garden
has come to be applied rather loosely to any
children's garden designed for educational pur-
poses, especially for teaching about plants and
methods of gardening by the active or labora-
tory method This latter qualification distin-
guishes school gardens from botanical gardens,
which are usually of educational value to
children in that they exhibit plants merely for
observation

As'to the definite educational aims of school
gardens, the great majority of those m con-
tinental Europe were originally intended for
teaching practical gardening and agriculture as
a phase of vocational education; and there is
developing a similar tendency in some villages
and rural districts of America arid England
But the great majority of school gardens in
America and England and many in various
countries of the continent of Europe are now
being conducted as a phase of nature study
with a general cultural rather than vocational
aim. Probably nine out of ten of the children
who have worked in American school gardens
in the past ten years lived in towns and cities
and had little prospect of ever engaging in the
business of raising plants for market; so that
the gardens have obviously not developed in
response to stimulation by the growing agricul-
tural phase of vocational education, but are
now conducted simply as a very practical part
of the larger nature study or general science
movement which aims to present the scientific
study of common natural objects arid processes
from the point of view of general elementary
education. Only a relatively limited number
of gardens in rural districts in America have
been definitely modified to meet the demands
of agricultural education, and this chiefly for
specially selected pupils of high school age

In many cities in the United States, notably
at Cleveland, O., children's gardens have been
made at the homes of individual pupils, but
under the guidance of a teacher who gives
general directions at school, and occasionally
makes a tour of inspection On the whole, the
results from home gardens have been far more
satisfactory than from school gardens, prob-
ably because of the great personal interest
which children take in home gardens, and
because the gardens have a definite influence
in stimulating the desire to beautify home
surroundings School gardens are, however,
needed for giving practical lessons before the
pupils attempt to make gardens at home; and
it seems to be the consensus of opinion that
schools should maintain gardens of limited size

10

for teaching purposes while encouraging the
development of home gardening as far as pos-
sible

Two general plans have been tried in school
gardens: the individual-ownership system, and
the community system Under the first plan
the garden is divided into plots which become
the property of the individual pupils for a
season, and the owners have absolute control
of the produce Under the community system
the produce of the garden is either used for
lessons in the school or is sold and the proceeds
devoted to the school library, a hospital, sick
children, or some other altruistic purpose
The first plan is the easier to administer; the
second gives greater results The two plans
have been combined in some gardens, for ex-
ample, by growing vegetables in plots controlled
by individuals, and flowers in community plots,
in the working of which all pupils cooperate

Comemus, Rousseau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel
recommended the development of children's
gardens for educational purposes In the first-
half of the nineteenth century the educational
authorities of several German states introduced
gardening into rural schools, and the move-
ment later extended to many city schools
Berlin has large grounds outside the city limits,
and any child may have space for a small
garden Several German cities do not place
emphasis upon work by the pupils, but have
botanical gardens for instruction by observa-
tion and for supplying nature-study materials
to the schools In short, the German city
schools maintain gardens for general educa-
tional rather than Tor vocational purposes.
Following the example of German gardens,
Sweden. Austria, Belgium, Holland, France,
Switzerland, and Russia have given official en-
couragement to school gardens within the past
fifty years. In these countries the rural
schools have been encouraged to establish
gardens, and in the beginning the aim seems
to have been entirely vocational. The total
number of gardens connected with schools on
the continent of Europe is now over 100,000
Switzerland requires special training in garden-
ing in the normal schools, and since 1885 has
subsidized elementary-school gardens. For
more than thirty years every rural school in
Belgium has had a garden, and the training in
gardening is believed to have been invaluable
in relation to the chief industry of the country.
The normal schools of France teach agriculture
and gardening, and it is estimated that over
40,000 schools have gardens It is an open
question, however, whether a large proportion
of these have been of much value to the pupils.
Russia has encouraged gardening for more
than twenty years, and many schools assign
small gardens to individual pupils. The normal
schools teach gardening, and special courses
have been given to teachers In Holland the
small children have gardens, apparently in-
tended for nature study, rather than for tram-

The Colorado State Normal.

Brooklyn Tiuant School.

A Girls' Sdiool, Leipzig, Germany.

Garden of a Bo\s' School, Plauen, Geirnany

School Garden, Batae, Ilocos Norte, Philippine
Islands.

Studying Aiboricultuie and Agriculture, Graiimont,
Belgium.

SCHOOL GAHDKNS.

GARDENS

GARDENS

ing in the business of gardening Italy has
within recent years shown interest in school gar-
dens Ten years ago there were less than a hun-
dred gardens in Great Britain, and these not
officially connected with the school system
Since 1904 gardening has been encouraged by
special grants to the schools Many gardens
have been established in connection with ele-
mentary day schools, and also in evening
schools for pupils who must work during tho
day In the day schools tho nature study aims
seem to prevail, but the gardens are expected
to have a vocational influence England has
been often criticized for slow development of
school gardens, but it should be noted that a
widespread popular interest in home gardening
has probably been a good substitute for hun-
dreds of the inefficient school gardens estab-
lished officially on the continent of Europe

In Canada interest in school gardens has
developed rapidly in the past ten years In
1905 there were more than a hundred gardens in
Nova Scotia under the direction of the super-
intendent of education for the province In
each of the other eastern provinces five gardens
were established in connection with the Mac-
donald schools in 1904 Many other gardens
are now an established part of the school work,
and the schools receive special grants from
the education departments There are many
school gardens in the Northwest Territories

Most of the gardens in the United States
have been organized during the past ten years
Among the pioneer gardens which attracted gen-
eral attention were the wild flower garden at Kox-
bury, Mass , in 1891; the gardens of the Na-
tional Cash Register Company, at Dayton, Ohio,
1897; at the Hyanius (Mass ) Normal School,
1897; the home gardens at Cleveland, Ohio, 1900;
the Hartford (Conn ) School of Horticulture,
1900; at Hampton Institute (Va), and the
Children's School Farm in New York City,
1902. Most cities have school gardens, but
they are usually fostered by individuals or
organizations independently of official connec-
tion with the schools As examples of such
outside encouragement of gaidens the follow-
ing have been prominent: Home Gardening
Association of Cleveland, Massachusetts Hor-
ticultural Society, Twentieth Century Club of
Boston, Woman's Institute of Yonkers, Massa-
chusetts Civic League, Missouri Botanical Gar-
den, National Cash Register Company, Vacant
Lot Cultivation Association, United States De-
partment of Agriculture, numerous local agri-
cultural societies, and the Park Department of
New York City In only a few cities have
boards of education helped financially The
Philadelphia school system maintains some
gardens, but private individuals and organiza-
tions outside the system have been active with
smaller gardens in that city Cleveland,
Rochester, and a few other cities officially pro-
vide funds for gardens as part of the work of
schools. Many other cities and towns recog-

nize gardening as part of the course in nature
study, but do not provide for the material
basis for conducting the gardens needed to
carry out the school program. The vast
majority of the school gardens in the United
States are still officially independent of schools
and conducted on the personal responsibility
of teachers, principals, and others who are
interested in the school garden movement. As
an example of good results in spite of lack of
official encouragement, New York City has
over eighty scliolo gardens, many on school
grounds, but conducted by enthusiastic; mem-
bers of the New York School Gardening Asso-
ciation without appropriations from school
funds In fact, most school gardens in the
United States outside the largest cities need
little financial help from the school authorities,
for in most places land is available, the pupilh
do the work, the seeds cost little and the
produce will pay for them, and an energetic
director can usually find ways and means for
collecting the necessary tools There is prob-
ably an ad\antage in that gardens without the
financial support of schools tend to develop the
resourcefulness of the individual pupils and to
awaken the interests of their parents and
friends Instruction in methods of gardening
offers no special difficulties now that garden-
ing is commonly recognized as a very important
phase of nature study and science, and hence
propei ly comes under the direction of teachers
of those subjects The common result is that
the garden work is used and correlated m the
classrooms much more than would be possible
by special garden teachers The fact is that
throughout the United States there is little
demand for special appropriations for school
gardens, except for modest equipment for tools
Much more important is the official recognition
of gardening as a phase of nature study and
therefore a legitimate part of the regular work
of teachers assigned to the classes in that
subject

The care of school gardens during the long
summer vacation is a difficult problem which
has retarded the general success of the move-
ment A hired gardener is undesirable, for in
his work the pupils have little interest School
gardens will be most useful if conducted by
the pupils and for the pupils of the school
The most satisfactory plan, judged by educa-
tional results and pupils' interest, is the com-
mittee4 system This means that the director
of the garden appoints groups of pupils as
committees charged with the care of the entire
garden for set periods during the vacation, and
required to report to the school in September.
Some voluntary supervision by interested
adult citizens is usually possible, especially
where there is some local society uhieh is
interested in the garden movement

With legal d to the general educational
influence of school gardens, it has been claimed
by numerous teachers that many pupils make

11

GARDENS

GAUDEAMUS IGITUR

more rapid progress in their book studies after
being aroused by the garden work Such in-
creased efficiency has been found to have an
indirect moral influence, and in many cities
the boys engaged in gardening seem to have
lost their former interest in mischief making,
perhaps because their time has been occupied
with the interesting work of the gardens
Probably a large part of the advantages
claimed for manual training as a phase of edu-
cation applies to school garden work, and there
is the additional gain from the garden in that
the work is in the open air and combined with
nature study. Under such conditions the gar-
den may become a most important agency for
healthy recreation, for developing an interest
in nature, and for giving the pupil direct con-
tact with a phase of industrial education,
which may be of vocational value to some, but
of far greater importance to the many, in that
it gives them a sense of personal relationship
with that vadt part of the world's work which
is centered around the cultivation of plants for
human use This tendency of gardens to
develop a personal interest in plant growing
outside of the plot controlled by the pupil is
so marked that several societies concerned with
the beautifying of cities by encouraging the
cultivation of plants in both private and public
Bounds, wherever possible, have officially recog-
nized school gardens as very important factors
in developing personal responsibility for better
civic conditions No doubt a garden can be
made very helpful in this direction, but the
result will come from the teaching and not from
mere digging in the soil In fact, the value of
merely working in the garden has been over-
estimated, and the future efficiency of gardens
as part of general education will depend upon
lessons which are drawn from materials and
conditions available in well-managed school
gardens The purpose of school-gardens is not
simply to raise plants, but rather to use the
methods of gardening and the growing of plants
as a concrete basis for one phase of education
Judged by this standard, a large number of
gardens for children are not yet real school
gardens or educational gardens, for efficient
instruction is not given the pupils M A B

References : —

BALDWIN, W. H. Industrial-Social Education (Spring-
field, Mass , 1907 )
DAVIS, B. M. School Gardens for California Schools.

(Chico, Cal , 1906 )
GREENE, M L Among School Gardens (New York,

1910)
HBMENWAY, H D How to make School Gardens

(New York, 1903 )
JEWELL, J. R Agricultural Education U. S. Bureau

of Education Bulletin No 368, 1907
LOGAN, A School Gardens as a Means of Education

School World (London, 1911, Nov pp 421-424 )
MILLER, L K. Children's Gardens (New York,

1908.)
Nature Study Review Manv articles New York,

1905-1910.
PARSONS, H. G. Children's Gardms for Pleasure,

Health, and Education (New York, 1910 )

12

United States Dept of Agriculture. Several Bulletins,

(Washington )
WEED, C M , and EMEKSON, P. School Garden Book

(New York, 1909 )
Also chapters in references under NATURJB STUDY to

Bailey, Coulter, Dearness, Hodge, Holtz.

GARDENS AND GARDENING. — See

BOTANIC GARDENS; HORTICULTURE, EDUCA-
TION IN; GARDENS, SCHOOL.

GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM (1831-1881).
— Statesman and educator, graduated from
Williams College in the class of 1856. He was
professor in Hiram College for three years, and
president of the college four years. As a mem-
ber of the Congress of the United States he
took an active interest in educational legisla-
tion, and was largely responsible for the estab-
lishment of the Bureau of Education. His
Speeches on Education (Boston, 1882) include
his most important contributions to the litera-
ture of education. W. S. M.

Reference : —

HINSDALE, B. A. Oarfidd and Education. (Boston,

1882)

GARLAND, LANDON CABELL (1810-
1895) — College president, educated at Hamp-
den-Sidney College. He was professor of
mathematics in Washington (Va ) College,
Randolph-Macon College, the University of
Alabama, and the University of Mississippi,
and president of Randolph-Macon College and
Vanderbilt University. Author of textbooks
on mathematics W S. M.

GAUDEAMUS IGITUR — Probably the
best known as well as the most frequently sung
of student songs in the world The origin of
this famous poem was long in doubt, but pains-
taking German research has established the
fact that in its present form it does not go back
much beyond the middle of the eighteenth
century. Those who, guided solely by the
content of the song, would refer it back to the
whimsical laments over the vanity of human
wishes and the advice to "eat, drink, and be
merry, for to-morrow we die " found in the songs
of the Goliards (q v. ; see also the article on
CARMINA BURANA), may find some satisfaction
in the fact that the basic element in the Gau-
deamus has been traced back to a song found
m a French Ms of 1267 This is a penitential
psalm, in which the following lines occur: —

Vita brevis, brevitas in brevi finietur ;
Mors venit velociter et neminem veretur.
Ubi sunt qui ante nos in hoc mundo fuere ?
Venies ad tumulos, BI COB vis videre,

which will be recognized as parts of the modern
Gaudeamus. But there seems to have been
a number of songs which opened, at any rate,
with the word Gaudeamus. On this account
probably the well-known verses have been re-
ferred to a greater antiquity than they deserve.

GAUSS

GELASIUS

Sebastian Brandt in the Ship of Fools (ch.
108) refers to the Gaudeamus, and a woodcut
in the edition of 1494 represents the ship of
fools and the words Gaudeamus Omnes issuing
from the mouth of one of the passengers,
written in a notation which does not call up
the modern tune Hans Sachs, in a poem
written in 1568, also refers to a Gaudeamus.
But none of these continues with the vigorous
and meaningful igitur.

The earliest known Latin version (there is
a version in German by ,) C Gunther, written
in 1717, beginning Brudcr lasst ana lustig sem)
of the modern Gaudeamus is found in a (Ms)
copy of student songs in the Royal Library at
Berlin, which was written before 1750. The
version is as follows. —

Gaudeamub igitur
Juvcnos dura sum us ,
Post mnleutum srnoctutcm
Nos huhehit tumulus.
Ubi sunt qui ante nos
In niundo vixero ?
Abeas ad tumulos,
Si vis hos vidore
Vita nostril brovis est,
Bro\i fimetur,
Wmt mora vclociter,
Nommem vcrotur.

On tho basis of this the other versions arose,
each body of students adding something new
or topical, or eliminating something A Latin
and German version is found in a Jena Ms of
1776, showing that, theio was reason in the
or dor issued at Hallo by tho university authori-
ties, forbidding tho singing of the song on ac-
count of its degrading vulgarity The verses
woro rescued from the mire, howevor, in 1781,
by C W Kmdlebon, at one time pastor, um-
versitv docont, and assistant teacher under
Basodow at tho Philanthropmum at Dessau
Kmdleben's leputation was riot of the best;
he lost ovoiy position ho hold through his
dissolute ways But it was this man who
cleansed tho Gaudeamun of its obscenities and
published it with a translation m its present
form in Studcntenhedcr Aus den hintcrlas-
wnen Papicrcn cuies ungluckhchen Philosophen,
Flondo genatint, gesannnelt und verbesscrt von
C W K 1781 Aftor tho student revival
which took place about 1813, tho song found
its way nipidly into all the student song books
and Commors-books, until it became the prop-
erty of students m universities and schools
the world over

References : —

SCHWETCHKE, GusTAV Zur Geschichtc des Gaudeamus-

igitur (Halle, 1877 )
SYMONDS, J A Wine, Women and Song (Portland,

Me., 1899 ) Contains an English translation

GAUSS, KARL FRIEDRICH — One of

the foremost mathematicians and astronomers
of the nineteenth century He was born on
Apr. 30, 1777, at Brunswick, Germany, and died
on Fob. 23, 1855, at Gottingen He was edu-

13

cated at Gottingen, and in 1807 he became
professor of mathematics arid director of the
observatory in that university To him more
than to any other one person is due the promi-
nence that Gottingen attained in the nine-
teenth century as the mathematical center of
Germany There was no field of mathematical
activity in which he was not interested, and
in most of those that were open in his time he
was a successful worker The number of his
contributions was ver^y great, notably in the
theory of numbers, theory of electricity and
magnetism, the interpretation of complex num-
bers, and mathematical astronomy DES.

GAZA, THEODORE (1400-1475) — Greek
scholar and teacher of the Renaissance period,
who came to Italy about 1440 Introduced
to Vittormo da Foltro (r/ v ) by Filelfo (qv), he
studied Latin under him and taught Greek
and copied Mas. in his school at Mantua In
1444 he became tho first public professor of
Greek at Fcrrara, and lectured on Demosthenes.
In 1457 he was summoned by Nicholas V to
Rome, where he taught Greek and assisted m
translating some of the Greek classics In
1455 he translated books for King Alfonso
of Naples; he later returned to Rome, which
he again left before his death, which occurred
in a monastery in Lucama Gaza wroto a
Greek Grammar (y/oa/ufum/ci; eicrayajy?;), which
Erasmus used at Cambridge and translated
into Latin and Budseus used at Puns Copies
of the Iliad written by Gaza are still extant
one in Florence and the other in Venice
In the controversy on thci superiority of Plato
and Aristotle, Gaza stfronglv defended the
latter, several of whoso works he translated

References : —

SANDYS, J E History of Classical Scholarship, Vol II.

(Cambridge, 1908 )
WOODWARD, W H Vittonno da Fcltre (C'anihndgr,

1905)

GELASIUS —Bishop of Rome (492-496),
and author of the Decretum Grla^u <le 7i6n.s
rccipiendis et non recipi^ndi^ The importance
of Pope Golasms in tho history of education
is due entirely to his famous decree on the
canonical books of tho Bible and the authori-
tative and approved writings of the Fathers
of tho Church The decree differs from later
indexes of books in that it not only gave a list
of books which were condemned, but also a list
of books which were approved as standards of
orthodoxy The decree was issued at a Ro-
man synod held by Gel asms, but in its present
form it contains material much earlier and has
been subjected to various interpolations The
final section, however, which gives the list of
books to be received or rejected, was, with the
exception of manifest interpolations, the work
of Gelasius By passing judgment upon earlier
writers determining which should be regarded
as setting the norm for orthodoxy, the decree

GEMMA FRISIUS

GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD

undoubtedly affected profoundly the course
of studies in the Church Among other effects
of the decree was the elimination of the older
Alcxundune influence, eg that of Clement of
Alexandria (q v ) It did not become geneially
known m the Chinch till some time after
Gelasms, it was not until two hundred years
after its publication that it is quoted, and not
until 860 that it was connected with the name of
Gelasius From that time on its influence was
constantly frit J. C. A. Jr

See LITERARY CENSORSHIP.

References : —

IlkFKLE, C Conalicnoe&chichte See 217 (Freiburg,

1855-1890)
MANSI Concilia, Vol VIII (Florence, 1759-1798 )

GEMMA FRISIUS (1 508 -1555) — The fam-
ily name of (lemma the Frisian was Rainer
or Kegmcr He was born at Dockum, m East
Friesland, on Dec 8, 1508, and died at Lou vain
on May 25, 1555 He was a physician, holding
the chair of professor of medicine at Louvam,
but he is better known as one of the leading
textbook writers of his century m France on
arithmetic- and astronomy His most famous
textbook is the Mctliodus arithmetics practices
(Antwerp, 1540), of which there were at least
fifty-nine editions before 1601 Tie also wrote
upon astronomy, and first suggested the idea
of finding longitude by the help of a chronom-
eter in his DC principns astronomic (Paris,
1547) His influence upon arithmetic was
more marked than that of any other Latin
wiiter of his century His son, Cornells (1535-
1577), was professor of medicine and astronomy
at Louvam, and wrote on astronomy and
philosophy D. E. S.

GENERAL EDUCATION BOARD — An

organization chartered by Congress m 1903
and originating with Mr John D. Rocke-
feller's Committee on Benevolence The plan
of such an organization was designed and
adapted to assist Mr Rockefeller in distribut-
ing his gifts to education, but it was also in-
tended to meet a wider need and to afford
a medium through which other men of means,
who desired to piomote education in the United
States, could do so in a systematic, intelligent,
and effective \\ay The gentlemen forming
the first Board were the late William H Bald-
win, Jr , Wallace Buttnck, the late Hon J L.
M Curry, Frederick T Gates, Daniel C Gil-
man, Morris K Jesup, Robeit C Ogden, Walter
H Pago, Ceoige Foster Peabody, John D
Rockefeller, Jr , and Albert Shaw The gifts
of Mr Rockefeller to the Board and placed
under its absolute control amount to $32,000-
000. Others have contributed smaller amounts,
among them a gift of $200 000 for rural negro
education by the late Miss Anna T Jearies

The work of the General Education Board
now falls into four mam divisions: —

1. The promotion of practical farming in the

Southern States — Through the United State?
Department of Agriculture, under an agreement
begun in the year 1906, the Board has made con-
tributions for this work aggregating $405,700,
The method employed is that of demonstration
farms There are now (1911) 196 men at work
supervising demonstration farms, and 19,579
farmers are pursuing agricultural methods
under such direction One hundred and fifty-
four thousand farmers are pursuing similar
work, influenced by those farmers who arc
under the immediate supervision of the agents
Nine thousand eight hundred and fifty-nine
boys, from twelve years of age and up, under
the general designation of Boys' Corn Clubs,
are performing practical agricultural demon-
stration on their fathers' farms, and are making
their experiments the basis of agricultural
study in the schools

2 The promotion of public high schools in
the Southern States — The General Education
Board appropriates to each state university
or to the state department of education a sum
sufficient to pay the salary and traveling ex-
penses of a special high school representative,
who arouses and organizes public sentiment
favorable to public high schools, and who
secures the establishment and maintenance of
public high schools Since the beginning of
this cooperation on the pait of the General
Education Board with state universities and
state departments of education, 703 new
public high schools have been established,
$6,390,780 have been raised by the people of
the several states for buildings and equipment,
and the annual sum available for the support
of public high schools has been increased
by $1,332,667

3 The Promotion of Institutions of Higher
Learning — The General Education Board
uniformly makes its gifts for endowment
Appropriations by the Board for higher edu-
cation have been made as follows* In the
Southern States, $2,309,000; in the Western
States, $2,510,000, in the Eastern and Middle
States, $1,805,000 Total, $6,624,000 These
gifts on the part of the General Education
Board make up an approximate total of
$25,406,000, a sum which represents the in-
crease of educational endowment and equip-
ment of the eighty-two colleges and universities
in the United States to which gifts from the
Board have been made to date (1911)

4 Negro Education — The Board has con-
tributed $473,239 76 to schools for negroes
In this connection it should be said that negro
farmers have shared fully in the cooperative
demonstration work described above It is
the policy of the General Education Board to
work through existing institutions and agencies
and not itself to undertake independent edu-
cational work. E. C. S.

Reference : —

AYRES, L P Seven Great Foundations. (New York,
1911)

14

GENERAL METHOD

GENERIC IMAGE

GENERAL METHOD. — Methods of teach-
ing which are fundamental to all the school
branches, and therefore 111 general use, are
included under the term " general method."
The term is used in contradistinction to
" special method," which is applied to a method
used only in a single subject Sometimes
" principles of teaching " is used synonymously
with " general method/' the former implying
a treatment in terms of theoretic generaliza-
tions or laws, and the latter one in types of
practical procedure. H. S.

See METHOD, TEACHING; SPECIAL METHODS;
TEACHING, TYPES OF; TEACHING, PRINCIPLES OF

GENERAL TERM. — SEE CONCEPT

GENERAL THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY

— Established by the General Convention of
the Protestant Episcopal Church in tho United
States in 1817 and incorporated in 1822 In-
struction began in Now York in 1819 It was
removed to New Haven, Connecticut, in 1820,
but returned to Now York in 1822 It is the
only seminary in the Episcopal Church under
tho control of the General Convention Tho
buildings include a largo chapel, lecture hall,
nine dormitories, library, gymnasium, refectory,
and nine residences for dean arid professors
The halls can accommodate 150 students In
1911 there were 143 students, fifteen professors
and instructors, and one lecturer. It confers no
degree on graduation The degree of Bach-
elor in Divinity is conferred for graduate work
only. The degree of Doctor in Divinity is
conferred for work required or honons causa
There are about 1800 graduates, of whom
nearly 1000 are living, and about 1000 former
students who are not Alumni O. B. Z.

Sec THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION

GENERALIZATION — The process by
which a principle or law is reached, the term
is also used to denote the product Tho term
expresses the use or function of induction,
which endeavors, beginning with a number of
scattered details, to arrive at a general state-
ment Generalization expresses tho natural
goal of instruction m any topic, for it works
a measure of economy and efficiency from
the standpoints alike of observation, mem-
ory, and thought The number of particu-
lars that can be obtained is limited When,
however, different eases are brought together,

— and this bringing together is expressed in
a general principle, — a great variety of cases
are practically reduced to one case, and further
observation is freed to attack 'new particular
things and qualities not yet systematized
Exactly the same holds good for memory
There are a few prodigies who can carry in mind
an indefinite number of unrelated details;
but most persons need the help of generaliza-
tions in order to retain special facts and to
recall them when needed Logically, a prin-

ciple not only sums up and registers the net
intellectual outcome of a great many different
experiences which have been undergone at,
diverse times and places, but is an illuminating
and clarifying means of interpreting new cases
that without it could not bo understood

Because the older deductive, classificatorv
schemes of instruction began with a statement
of the law 01 principle, educational reformers
who were influenced by the scientific movement
toward induction were compelled to emphasize
the later and derived place occupied bv
generalization in the intellectual life Zealots
for the new method sometimes swung to the
extreme of reaction against universals, and,
treating observation and imagination of
particulars as an end in itself, neglected the
importance of generalization as a normal ter-
minus of study Another educational error
is to suppose that generalization is a single and
separate act coming by itself, after tho mind
has been exclusively preoccupied with particular
facts and events To the contrary, generaliza-
tion is a continuous, gradual movement away
from mere isolated particulars toward a con-
necting principle A necessary part of the
work of instruction is, therefore, to make
the conditions such that the mind will move
in the direction of a fruitful generalization as
soon as it begins to deal with and to collect
particulars The resulting generalization will,
of course, be crude, vague, and inadequate, but,
if formed under proper conditions, it will servo
at once to direct arid vitalize further observa-
tions and recollections, and will be built out
and tested in the application to now particulars
This suggests the final educational principle
A generalization or law is such not in virtue
of its structure or bare content, but because of
its use or function We do not first have* a
principle and then apply it; an idea becomes
general (or a principle) in process of fruitful
application to the interpretation, compre-
hension, and prevision of the particular facts
of experience J D

See ABSTRACT AND CONCRETE, CONCEPT,
EMPIRICAL.

GENERALIZED HABITS —See HAHFI ;
also FORMAL DISCIPLINE; ABILITY, GENEK\L
AND SPECIAL

GENERIC IMAGE — When one sees a single
object and remembers it, he carries a way a more
or less complete reproduction of the experience
which he derives through contact with this ob-
ject. Tho remembered experience is in the
form of an imago After contact with a num-
ber of different objects closely related to each
other m character, memory reflects certain ele-
ments and drops others Those characteristics
which are common to all of the .specimens stand
out with increasing vmdness, those character-
istics which belong to single individuals tend
to be obliterated There ansc* in this fashion

15

GENETIC METHOD

GENIUS

a generic imago Sir Francis Gallon used the
figure of a composite photograph in describing
these generic mental images The analogy is
undoubtedly justified in certain cases, although
it IH probable that very few such images arc
used by the ordinary observer in his common
experience C. H. J.

See GENERAL IDEAS; IDEATION; IMAGE;
MEMORY; VISUALIZATION.

References : —

HUXLLY, T H Hume (London, 1 SSI )
CJAI/ION, F Jnt/uuu'ti into Human Faculties. (Appen-
due ) (New \oik, 1883)

GENETIC METHOD — Mental processes
can be studied by a variety of different methods
Thus, they may be analyzed or they may be
studied with reference to their relation to the
general life processes of the individual, or,
finally, they may be studied with reference to
their development and the development of the
individual who possesses them The relative
level of evolution reached by the individual may
also be studied Whenever the problem of
development or evolution is foremost the method
of treatment is said to be the genetic method
Thus one may study the growth of a tendency
on the part of children to use abstract ideas
The growth of this tendency is a genetic process,
and the study of the habit constitutes a gen-
etic problem Again, one may study the pres-
ence of ideas in animals There has been le-
ccntly an increasing tendency to recognize the
fact that psychology can be productively ap-
plied to education only through the working
out of genetic methods In some cases the
term " genetic" has been used in a limited sense
to apply to the special problems of child study;
but this restriction of the term is misleading,
and any foim of study of mental development
or mental evolution should be included under
the term "genetic" C. H. J.

See CHILD STUDY; PSYCHOLOGY, GENETIC

References : —

JUDD, C H Genetic Psycholoay for Teachers. (New

York, 1903 )
KIRKPATRICK, E A Genetic Psychology. (New York.

1909)

GENETIC PSYCHOLOGY.— See PSYCHOL-
OGY, GENETIC.

GENEVA. — Sec CALVINISTS AND EDUCA-
TION; SWITZERLAND, EDUCATION IN.

GENEVA COLLEGE, BEAVER FALLS,

PA — A coeducational institution which was
opened in 1849 by the Reformed Presbyterian
Church of North America at Northfield, Ohio,
and moved to its present location in 1880.
Preparatory, collegiate, music, and fine arts
departments are maintained The entrance
requirements are equivalent to about fourteen
points of high school work The degrees of
Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of Science aie
conferred on those who complete the require-

ments, which include residence for at least three
fourths of the college course at an accredited
college with the senior year at Geneva. There
is a faculty of twenty-three members.

GENEVA, SWITZERLAND, UNIVERSITY

OF. — Established in 1873, being the outgrowth
of the Academy founded by the Republic of
Geneva in the yeai 1559 The theological
faculty of the old Academy attained a period
of considerable icnown under men like Calvin
and Bcza During the stormy days of the
seventeenth century the institution entered
upon a decline, but was given a new lease of
life as a result of the persecutions of the Hu-
guenots in France, the Academy gradually
having become the acknowledged center for
the dissemination of Protestant culture in
French-speaking territory. From 1798 to 1814
the Academy was in French hands

The present university comprises the fac-
ulties of Protestant theology, law, medicine
(1876), letters and social science, and pure sci-
ence, the language of instruction being French
Affiliated with the institution arc a natural
history museum, a botanical garden, and an
observatory The library contains over 170,000
volumes and about 1800 manuscripts The
University of Geneva is the second largest
institution of higher learning in the Swiss Con-
federation, being exceeded m the number of
'students only by Berne During the winter
semester of 1909-1910 there weir enrolled 1915
students, of whom about half were women
Of the matriculated students only 23 wen*
registered in the theological faculty, while the
medical school attracts the largest number of
students, viz , 024, including 372 women As
at all of the Swiss universities, the numbei of
non-matriculated students is relatively large,
130 men and 327 women R T., JK

Reference : —

BORGEAIID, C Hist(tire de rUniverettf de Grnin,
Vol I, 1550-1798 (Geneva, 1900) Vol 11,
1798-1814 (Geneva, 1909 )

GENIUS — A term used somewhat loosely
to indicate the highest type of human ability
Below genius comes the grade of talent, and
below talent ordinary ability It is evident,
however, that these grades arc not enough to
indicate very definitely the rank of any in-
dividual Gallon in his study of hereditary
genius distinguishes eight classes above that of
ordinary talent Cattell endeavors to detei-
nune by a statistical study of biographical dic-
tionaries the thousand most eminent men in
history These he ranges in regular order on
the basis of the amount of attention to which
each was deemed worthy by the various editors.
Thus each individual is given a specific place
instead of being assigned to a group He con-
cludes that the ten most eminent men are Shake-
speare, Mahommed, Napoleon, Voltaire, Bacon,
Aristotle, Goethe, Caesar, Luther, and Plato

16

GENIUS

GENIUS

Genius is more commonly tieatod accoidmg
!.o tin1 special soit of ability m\ olved, since men
may show the highest power m eeitam fields
and he commonplace or even defective in other
respects The loading types seem to bo the
artistic, the intellectual, and the practical
The artistic type includes literary genius, the
intellectual embraces philosophic and scien-
tific power, while the practical covers such fields
as statesmanship, business ability, and general-
ship It is possible that outside these powers
there lies another group, the moral and religious
ilowover, m so far as these gifts involve in-
tellectual qualities, they are allied to the phil-
osophic and artistic types On the other hand,
they are usually associated with intensity of
sympathy, a power of self-sacrificing service,
and a firmness of adherence to ideals that con-
stitute of them a somewhat distinct kind

The genius may, from a biological point of
view, be regarded as a vanant from type It
must be noted, however, that his vanation is in
the direction of extraordinary now efficiencies
Much has been made by Lombroso and otheis
of the idea that genius is allied with, if not a
form oi, insanity It is true that many men
of genius have shown signs of insanity It
would seem likely that the marked ascendency
of COT tain powers in genius would involve a lack
of balance which might amount 01 lead to in-
sanity Especially in the artistic type do we
find such abnormalities Nevoitheless, even
the artistic genius must show an excellence of
judgment in reference to his art winch suggests
a *' method in his madnes.s " In general, the
genius owes his success in the field of his pre-
eminence to the sanity which he displays therein,
although his emotional intensity, his nervous
sensitivity, his vigor of imagination, or his
power of concentration may load him into ec-
centricities or undermine his judgment

The interpretation of the genius as a degen-
erate is closely associated with the view that, he
is insane The loosening of inhibitions, the
emotionalism, and the general neuropathic
condition found in degenerates may lead, es-
pecially in art and religion, to results that seem
to have a touch of genius At least, they at-
tract attention, and often help the one who
employs them to get a following On the other
hand, it is quite certain that, in general, the
genius displays variations that aie in advance
of his type He is the superman rather than
the degenerate Like the insane or the eccen-
tric, ho defies rule and precedent, vet m the
interest of greater rather than loss efficiency
His originality is not more variation, but moots
the requirements of judgment

The studios of Gallon and Wood show clearly
that genius is inherited Since, however, it is
rare that both parents possess extraordinary
power, the children of geniuses show, as a rule,
a marked tendency to regress toward medioc-
rity The absence of any form of selection
Mi at favors the survival of the very talented as

VOL. Ill — C

against the common inn of men makes it un-
likely that this tendency fowaid regression *hnl)
be mteiforod with The genius can, ther«,forc,
hardly he taken as a prophecy of tin* typo
toward which the race is tending

On the question of the dependence of the
genius on his environment we have the com-
mon notion that opportunity is essential to
greatness, opposed to the view, championed by
Tarlyle, that genius always creates u,s oppor-
tunities While it is doubtless true that e\-
tiaordmary gifts do not insure their possessor
his proper rating, still the abilities of men of
genius are usually sufficiently broad in scope* to
enable them to attain distinction along some of
the linos of opportunity open to them There
are probably very few " unappreciated "
Amuses, and most of those who rate them-
selves as such are, doubtless, because of their
lack of some qualities essential to efficiency,
properly characterized as "cianks "

Genius is frequently, if not usually, foreshad-
owed by precocity This is especially true of
aitistic genius Many of the greatest musi-
cians have, like Mozart, boon " infant prodigies "
Literary power is the latest, among the artistic
gilts to display itself, but oven hero talent may
}>o shown in childhood, as witness Goethe, Vic-
tor Hugo, Shelley, and Keats Sometimes
scientific and philosophic 01 administrative
power is evinced in early youth Newton,
Berkeley, Horbart, William the Conqueror,
and Alexander the Great are illustrations

It has boon thought that genius does its best
work in the earlier years of life The celebrated
statement of Dr Osier was to the efleet that,
although many groat achievements wore ac-
complished after the ago of forty, still, the world
would be where1 it is, if all great men had died
at that age I)r Dorland's careful study of
the history of eminent men shows, however,
that the greater part of then extiaoidmary
work was done after this age, and indeed, not
a little after the ago of sixty

So far as education is concorru d, the problem
of training the genius doe* not differ from that
of training anv of niou1 than aveiago ability
The tendency toward unifoinutv in 0111 schools
may prove unfortunate for the unusual mind
in two ways It may keep him wasting time
with the crowd, when his abilities would, if
properly developed, put him far ahead It may
lay so much stress on studies in which he is not
capable as sonously to retard the development
of his special power The school refoimers are
actively endeavoring to break up this mechan-
ical uniformity of studios and of progress
through the grades Many devices are being
developed for getting at the individual, for
helping him to find his special bent, and for
putting him in a position to progress as fast
as his talents arid energy will permit All these
will assist in the education of the genius, and
although ho may be less dependent upon en-
vironment than are those of inferior ability,

17

GENLIS

GENTRY AND NOBLES

nevertheless, he luccds and pi outs by the proper
education It remains one ot the leading
problems of the school to discover and properly
train the exceptional man E N H

References : —

CONSTABLE, F C J^overty and Hereditary Gemux ,

a Criticism of Mr Francis Gallon's Thfory of Hered-

ity (London, 1()05 )

GALTON, KR Hcieditaru (JCHIUX (London, 1892 )
Knglmh Men of XiietHe, th( n Nature and Nurture

(London, 1S74 )
HiRHfH, \V (Irniuft and l>t generation (Now York,

1896)
LOMBHOHO, f1 Man of Geniutt (London, 1891 )

GENUS, STEPHANIE FELICITE DU
CREST DE SAINT-AUBIN, COMTESSE DE
— commonly known as MME DE GENLIS

(1746-1830) —One of the leading French
women educators of her day According to
Sainte-Beuve, " She was a woman teacher, she
was born with the sign on her forehead " She
was governess in the family of the Duchesse de
Chartres Although an indefatigable critic
of Rousseau, she vet constantly gives evidence
of his influence She was the author of Theatre
(replication (1779); Adtte <>t Thfodore (1782),
also known as Lettres sur V education; Les
Vet Ufa* du chfttcau (1784) A prolific writei,
she was the author of nearly one hundred
volumes In addition to those noted above,
her works on education include* Di scours sur
la suppression de* convent? dc leligieusev ct sur
I' Education, publique dev fcmmes (1790); Dis-
co urs sur Induration de M le Dauphin (1790);
Lemons d'une gouvernantc a ses Sieves, ou
fragments </' un journal qui a it& fait pour
['education des en f ants de M d'OrUans (1791);
I) i scours sin I' education publique dn peuple
(1791); Nonvelle ntethode d'enscignewent pour
la premiere enfancc (1800); Projet d'une ecole
rural? pour I' education des filler (1802); Les
Dnnanches, ou Journal de la jeunesse (1815),
published for only one year F E F.

References : —

BONHOMME Madame de Gcnlu (Paris, 1885 )
CAULTTE Madame la Cu?nte8i>e dc Gcnh* (Pans,

SAINTE-BEUVE, C A Monday Chats, pp 205-226
(Chicago, 1891 )

GENOA, UNIVERSITY OF — See ITALY,
EDUCATION IN

GENTRY AND NOBLES, EDUCATION

OF — The close connection between education
and politics has been recognized from the time
of classical antiquity Plato in his Republic
and Aristotle in his Politics laid down the prin-
ciple of the vital importance to the state of the
education of children Throughout the Middle
Ages, the education of the actual kings, princes,
and other governors of the state was recognized
as an essential preparation to the child, who
was a prospective ruler Treatises commonly
described the duties of princes, and logically this

18

led to dealing with the question of piepaiation
for such duties Thus, Thomas Aquinas wrote
the de Reginunc Pnncipum Occleve produced
his Regiment of Prince* Italy was especially
distinguished by its books on political philos-
ophy, in the fifteenth century Pontano writing
de Principe, Beroaldo the Libellus de Optimo
Statu et Principe, and Francesco Patrizi his de
Regno ct Regis Institution? In England John
of Salisbury wrote his famous Polycraticus, and
and in 1531 Sir Thomas Elyot (q v.) wrote the
Governour This last-named work is particu-
larly noteworthy because a considerable portion
of the book is taken up with the question of the
education of the prospective Governour This
illustrates the connection which was felt by the
older writers between education and political
philosophy If the prince or the governor, or
by whatever name the ruler was called, had to
rise to the responsibility of governing a country,
then it is clear that the welfare of the nation is
dependent largely upon the excellent training
culture, or, in a word, the education of the prince
or ruler So that in the days of an absolute
Tudor monarch, Erasmus wrote, as a matter of
vital concern, an educational tieatise on The
Institution of a (Christian Prince, and through-
out the sixteenth, seventeenth, and eighteenth
centuries, numberless educational treatises
concerned themselves with the education of the
prince

After the devastating Wars of the Roses in
England, the powei of the old nobility was
wrecked, and under the Tudors a new nobility
and gentry arose, roughly speaking founded
upon personal incut and achievement The
merchant adventurers, bailois, arid wamors
came into the higher classes concurrently with
the development of Protestantism As the new
order of aristocracy came into power in the
state, the books on education concerned them-
selves with the education of nobles Thus
Laurence Humphrey (</ v ) wrote his Nobles or
Of Nobility, and it is interesting to note that
he had written it first in Latin (as Opti mates
in 1560), showing that the Renaissance spirit
was one which could assume that a politico-
educational work to be read by nobles must be
written in Latin The fact that he also wrote
it m English shows the advancing place of the
vernacular also with the upper and governing
classes But the implication was that, as
formerly, the education of the prince was the
most important political aspect of education,
and the desirability of the education of the
nobles as well as princes was recognized as
a national asset. In 1555 was published the
anonymous Institution of a Gentleman (q.v ),
and the significance is that the " gentleman "
was becoming a more noticeable element politi-
cally, and, therefore, nationally claimed a
higher education On this theory, the broader
the basis of the governing power, the wider will
be the demand for education, to meet the re-
quired responsibility, until m an age of demo-

GENTRY AND NOBLES

GENTRY AND NOBLES

cratic government the demand will extend to
universal education since, the power being in
the hands of the people, there, too, must be
placed the education and preparatory instruc-
tion to meet the responsibility. Another ele-
ment in the education must be noted — that
the " gentleman " stood in opposition to the
" poor student " Accordingly, sometimes " the
gentleman " stood outside the university and
public school system, was educated at home by
a private tutor, and afterwards, even if he went
for a time to one of the universities, went also
to one of the Inns of Court, and of course trav-
eled on the grand tour of Europe The edu-
cation of the gentleman, therefore, became dis-
tinguished by its greater breadth At the
period of the Renaissance, too, the tradition of
Italian models set in, as the revival of learning
for Europe had its origin in Italy Tins was
at the very time that the courts of Italy had
developed a standard of courtliness and chivalry
far in advance of what was found elsewhere
The consequence was that England looked to
Italy for the type of nobility and gentlemanh-
ness founded on what obtained at Urbmo, at
Mantua, and elsewhere The effect of these
courtly ideals in education mav be seen in the
educational thought of Vittoimo da Feltre
(q.v) and Guarmo da Verona (q v ) These
ideals found literary expression in Baldassare
Castiglione's Corteguino, 1528 (q v ) Roger
Ascham (q v ) in the Scholemaster (1570) savs
of this book, " To join learning with comely
exercises Conte Baldesar Castiglione m his
book Cortegiano doth trewelv teach, which
book advisedly read and diligently followed
but one yeai at home in England would do a
young gentleman more good, I wisse, than
three years' travel abroad in Italy " Cas-
tiglione's Cortegiano was the climax of books
on manners, which were of long standing (see
MANNERS AND MOU\LS) The Cortegiano was
translated into English in 1561 by Sn Thomas
Hoby Sir John Cheke wrote a letter to Hoby
on the use of English in connection with his
translation (See C \STIOLIONE, BALDASSARE )
After the G over now of Sir Thomas Elyot
in 1531 the next books to notice are the Insti-
tution of a Gentleman (1555) and Laurence Hum-
phrey's Nobles, 1560 (qv) In 1561 Sir Nich-
olas Bacon drew up Articles for the Education
of the Queen's Wards, and about 1572 Sir Hum-
phrey Gilbert planned his Academy for the
Queen's Wards and other youth of nobility arid
gentlemen (See Queen Elizabeth's Academy,
Early English Text Society, 1869) In 1570
" T. B" (? Thomas Blundeville, qv) trans-
lated into English John Sturm's Nolnhtas lit-
er ata or A Rich Storehouse or Treasury for No-
bility and Gentlemen, and m the same year
Blundeville translated from the Italian of
Alfonso d'Ulloa the Prince of Fedengo Funo,
a Spaniard. It will be remembered that Roger
Ascham's Scholemaster (1570) and John Lyly's
Euphues (1577) are largely concerned with the

education of gentlemen Less known is an
anonymous tractate in 1577 entitled Ci/uile and
Uncyuile Life' a Discouise very profitable,
pleasant, and fit to be i cad of all Nobihtie and
Gentlemen Where in forme of a Dialogue is
disputed what older oflyfe best beseem eth a Gentle-
man in all ages and times, as well for education,
as the course of Ins whole life to mahe him a person
fit for the publique service of hts pnncc and
country, and foi the quiet and comlynesse of his
own private estate and calhngc

In 1595 William Jones translated the treatise
of Giovanni Baptista Nenna, under the title
Nennio Or a Treatis of Nobility, wheiein is
discoursed what true Nobility is, with such qual-
ities as are required in a perfect Gentleman
Nenna maintains that a man becomes noble by
the nobility of his mind, and that men and
women equally become noble by leaining In
1598 J Keper translated Count Ilanmball
Romei's Courtici's Academy, the reprosentatn e
book of the court of Fenaia The latei most
representative English books are Henrv Peach-
am's (qv) Com pleat Gentleman (1622) and
Richard Brathwaite's English Gentleman (1030)
and English Gentlewoman (1(531), the foimei
dealing with topics from the point of \icvv of
the Cavaliers, whilst the latter are permeated
with puritanic manners and inoials These
ideals were to some extent combined in the
Gentleman's (Calling, 1659, perhaps the most
popular book on the training of the religious
gentleman which appeared in the seventeenth
century This book was followed m 1673 bv
the Ladies1 Calling, winch has considerable
interest in the histoiv of the education of
gentlewomen There is much controversy as
to the author of these books Thev have olten
been ascribed to Dorothy, Lady Pakington,
but Mr Macray in the Dtctionfin/ of Notional
Biography (in his article on the life of that
lady) considers it is more probable that they
were written by Richard Allestiee, an Oxford
tutor

In 1661 appeared Clement Elhs's Geuiile
Sinner, or England's brave gentleman charac-
terised in a letter to a friend both c/.s he is and r/s lie
should be, 2tl od , 1661 (Oxford), fiom a thor-
oughly puritan point of view In 167S John
(iailhard (qv) wrote his Compleat Gentleman,
which probably gives the best account of the
grand tour as made by gentlemen of the time
About 172S Daniel Defoe (q v ) \\iote his Com-
pleat English Gentleman, first published in
lcS90, edited by Dr Karl Bulbnng, which is
noticeable for its readiness to omit Latin from
the studies of the gentleman " You may,"
sa\s Defoe, " be a gentleman of learning, and
yet reading in English mav do for you all that
you want " After the end of the seventeenth
century with the beginning of the establish-
ment of chanty schools (q v ) and the develop-
ment of technical and trade schools the exten-
sion of the term "gentleman" had widened out
greatly, so that the idea of a " liberal " educa-

19

GENTRY AND NOBLES

GENTRY AND NOBLES

tion and a gentleman's education became much
more approximated.

The distinction between the education of the
scholar and the gentleman in earlier times is
perhaps best indicated by saying that after the
Renaissance the progress of the academic
centers was mainly in the direction of the de-
velopment of the subjects of the medieval
tnvium, viz grammar, rhetoric, and logic,
whereas the great intellectual advances of
the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries intro-
duced what are called " modern subjects/' e g
mathematics, natural sciences, vernacular lan-
guages, foreign and English These subjects
were almost entirely ignored by the univer-
sities and grammar schools. Such " outside "
subjects, together with physical exercises, such
as riding the great horse, fencing, gymnastics,
were precisely the subjects studied by the nobil-
ity and gentry, as is shown in the proposed cur-
ricula of the projected Academies (see GILBERT,
SIR HUMPHREY, KINASTON, SIR FRANCIS, GER-
BIER, 8m BALTHASAR, ACADEMIES, COURTLY)
We are therefore driven to the conclusion that
it is to the records of the education of the gentle-
man and the nobleman that we must refer to
trace the progress of the growing width of the
curriculum rather than to the history of the
universities and the grammar schools

It is important to notice that the develop-
ment of professional education — e g the law-
yer, the physician, and the clergyman — was
often along the lines of the modern subjects
and thus by attraction came into the educa-
tional circle of noblemen's studies much more
readily than into that of the university man
as such, — the physician's studies, for instance,
directly affecting the development of botany
and zoology, winch often were included in the
nobleman's curricula When England became
richer after the increase of trade, consequent
on the expansion of Queen Elizabeth's reign,
the ranks of country gentlemen increased, and
open-air pursuits and knowledge similarly
developed, nobility and gentry joining in com-
mon studies, so that cultured gentlemen of the
type of John Evelyn (q v ) arid the members
of the Royal Society welded together still
further professional and gentlemanly studies,
until at last the universities found the pressure
of inclusion of modern subjects too great to
resist, if they were not to lose the students
preparing for professional life

The importance of the training of the gentle-
man m history and geography must not be
overlooked It is not only that all the writers
on gentlemen's education prescribe these subjects
as gentlemen's studies, but the writers and de-
velopers of the subjects were for the most part
of the gentleman class Both in history and
in geography, also, it is to be noted that the
beautiful folios, m which these subjects were
printed, especially when illustrated with en-
graved pictures and maps, were expensive pro-
ductions and could only circulate amongst men

of means, and of these the nobles and the
gentry were the chief book buyers, scholars
contenting themselves mainly with Aldine
octavos or Elzevir duodecimos, with only occa-
sional folios, and these chiefly of theology or clas-
sical writers Suggestions on the youth's studies
by writers like Francis Osborn in his Advice
to a Son, 1656, J B (Gent ) in Heroic Educa-
tion (qv), and William Higford in his Institu-
tions, 1658, illustrate the permeation of the
gentry class by that time with a belief in the
necessity of knowledge in history and geography

Two other names deserve mention in the
development of the education of the gentleman,
— one m England and the other in the United
States- Lord Chesterfield (qv), (1694-1773)
arid George Washington (1732-1799) In his
famous Letters to his Son, Lord Chesterfield
lays down the laws of worldly success for the
young nobleman or gentleman The youth's
education was to be summed up briefly as
good breeding

Every detail of study, of conduct, of life, was
calculated in the interests of worldly success
Samuel Johnson bummanzed the Letters m the
criticism, " Take out the immorality and the
book should be put into the hands of every
young gentleman, for it would teach elegance
of manners and easiness of behaviour." (See
CHESTERFIELD, LORD )

The Rules of Civility is only a commonplace
book exercise of George Washington, written
when he was fourteen or fifteen years of age
These Rules have been reprinted and edited
by the late Mr Moncure D Conway, who
suggests that the reading and writing of them
probably had effects upon the development and
character of Washington He shows that the
Rules copied by Washington were the work of
a Jesuit, from the College of La Fie" c he, which
was published in 1595, called Bie usance de la
Conversation entre Ics Homines This was
translated into Latin m 1617 by Leonaid
Pe*rm, and was published in English as Youth's
Behaviour or Decency in Conversation amongst
Men, by Francis Hawkins, in 1646, said to
have been translated by him at the age of
eight years (See MANNERS AND MORALS,
EDUCATION IN ) From this book, Dr Conway
urges that Washington was taught that " all
good conduct was gentlemanly, all bad conduct
ill-bred "

The eighteenth-century training in gentle-
manly conduct is probably represented some-
what leniently by the relatively high (!) stand-
ard of Lord Chesterfield The reaction in the
earlier part of the nineteenth century is shown
by the remtroduction of the highest standards
of gentlemanly training in the English public
schools The greatest figure of this period was
Dr. Thomas Arnold (qv) of Rugby. His
standpoint is represented by his dictum lt It
is not necessary that Rugby should have three
hundred pupils, but it is .necessary that it
should have scholars who are Christian gentlo-

20

GEOFFREY THE GRAMMARIAN

GEOGRAPHY

men " The English public schools since his
tune have largely developed physical training
through games, but whether concerned with
intellectual aims or with that of the other
features of school life, there can be no question
that these schools have been, and are, per-
meated with the ideals of producing gentle-
men, in the sense of requiring the code of
honor of " playing the game," in every activity
of life In certain respects they have entered
on the physical side into something of the old
chivalnc ideals, and occupy the place in Eng-
lish life to-day which the old Academies of Sir
Humphrey Gilbert and Sir Francis Kinaston
proposed to do, but failed to effect, for the
training of gentlemen, in the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries F. W

See ACADEMIES, COURTLY, CHIVALRIC EDU-
CATION; MANNERS AND MORALS, EDUCATION
IN, GEOGRAPHY, HISTORY OF THE TEACHING
OF, and the articles on the various writers
mentioned.

References : — -

OONWAY, M D George Washington's Rules of Civility.

(London, 1890 )
GORDON, G 8 Peacham's Compleat Gentleman.

(Oxford, 1906)
HILL, G B Lord Chesterfield's Worldly Wisdom

(Oxford, 1891 )

OpDYrKK, L E The Courtier (Now York, 1903 )
RALEIGH, W Sir T Moby's Translation of the Courtier

(London, 1900)
WATSON, FOHTFR The English Grammar Schools to

1000 (Cambridge, 1908)
Beginnings of the Teaching of Modern Subjects.

(London, 1909 )
WOODWARD, W H Education during the Renaissance.

(Cambridge, 1906 )

GEOFFREY THE GRAMMARIAN (fl 1440).
— An important figure in the age immediately
before the introduction of printing, not because
of the scholar! iness of the book associated with
his name, but because the production of that
book showed that the tide was turning, that
the desire for learning was once again awaken-
ing in England, and that a now educational
method was necessary About the year 1440
a friar-preacher anchorite of Lynn in Norfolk,
called Geoffrey, issued for manuscript circula-
tion a volume entitled Promptuanuin Parvu-
lorurn Clericorum It was not the work of a
scholar in the real meaning of that term It
was written by one whom the Anglo-Saxon
Canons would have termed a " half-learned "
person for the use of the still less learned
The book was a kind of English-Latin dic-
tionary in which the English word is inter-
preted by one or more Latin words whose
gender or declension, etc , is noted, while parallel
English meanings are given It is indeed
curious that a book which did not pretend to
scholarship should, even when the new learn-
ing and the new grammars had appeared and
in the teeth of the condemnation of Erasmus,
have more than held its own The Promp-
tuanum was first printed in 1499 by Pynson.

Julian Notary published an edition in 1508,
and Wynkyn de Worde issued no less than
seven editions between 1510 and 1528 The
book was English-Latin, and for that reason
was of real help to beginners The use of
English in a grammar or wordbook was felt
to supply a fundamental need, and was rapidly
adopted by the new grammarians Thus John
Stanbridge, John Holt, William Lily, and
Robert Whyttington led the new movement
and adopted the new educational idea evolved
by the educational necessities of the " half-
learned " monk Geoffrey In the old gram-
mars or " donats " the use of English was for-
bidden in school time It may be said that
Geoffrey's work inspired all the school books
of the transition period and created a new
didactic method J E. G DE M.

References : —

Dictionary of National Biography

WAY, A. Promptuarium In Camdon Society's Publi-
cations, Vols XXV, LIV, and LXXXIX

GEOGRAPHY — History of the Teaching
of — The practical and theoretical knowledge
of geography extant at any given time consti-
tutes a clear limit to the possibilities of its
being taught, but the extreme importance of
the practical side has insured throughout the
course of history a greater approximation of
teaching to the actual knowledge of the age,
than in many subjects Military arid naval
commanders found it necessary, and administra-
tors required to know it both for home and
foreign affairs The extension of Greek in-
fluence through the establishment of colonies,
and by enterprising navigation, made at least
the Mediterranean Soa well known

The first to systematize geography as a sub-
ject was Hccatams of Miletus (fl 520 B c ),
who thus became the Father of Geography as
Herodotus was the Father of History Herod-
otus, however, by his travels was enabled to
introduce casually, into his histories, much
geographical information as to continents,
rivers, mountains, climate, products etc , of
the countries he had visited, as well as de-
scriptions of the tribes of foreign countries
The famous expeditions of Alexander the Great
opened up knowledge and experience to Egypt
on the south, the Caspian Sea on the north, arid
Persia on the east, revealing the " wealth of
Ormuz and of Ind," and furnishing material
for the imagination throughout the centuries
The greatest Greek geographer was Polybius
(c 210-128 B c ), who traveled in Libya, Spam,
and Gaul so as to " remove the ignorance "
with regard to those lands His opinion as to
Hannibal's route across the Alps was based on
actual travel and inquiries on the spot He
asserted that travel is necessary for the historian
and geographer, and he clearly saw and illus-
trated in his histories the importance of
geography, both physical and descriptive, to

21

GEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHY

intelligent study of history The subjugation
of so large a part of the world by the Romans
gave particular impetus to the extension and
intension of geographical knowledge Caesar's
Commentaries oiier copious illustrations of
the effect of conquests on geographical obser-
vation and interest The explorations of
Posidomus the Greek (130-50 B c ) were of
great importance in developing the knowledge
of physical geography But the great work
of antiquity is the Geography of Strabo (c
63 B c -c 23 A D ), which not only gives a com-
plete survey of the geographical knowledge of
ins times, but also supplies an account of the
preceding writers on the subject Strabo is
a truly comprehensive geographer, taking up
mathematical, physical, descriptive, and his-
torical aspects He traces the influence of the
physical features of a country on the character
of inhabitants and on the course of the history
of the country

The other ancient writers on geography who
require mention aie Pomponms Mela, Pliny,
Dionysius, and Ptolemy The de Choro-
graphia of Mela was a popular account of
geography, and important, not for its contribu-
tions to learning, so much as from the fact that
it lemnmed a scholar's textbook of geography up
till, and even beyond, the sixteenth century.
Pliny's Ih^tonu naturals (79 A D ) had a section
on geography, 'but it was very much a statisti-
cal geography abounding in names, without
anything of the philosophical outlook of a Strabo
Dionysms Pencgetes (reign of Domitian)
wrote a gooRiaphieal poem From the point
of view of the history of geographical teaching
this poem of 1189 Greek hexameters has an
importance altogether incommensurate with
the commonplace nature of its geographical
information Claudius Ptolemy, who wrote
in Greek his famous treatise on geography (c
150 A D ) probably at Alexandria, ranks as the
greatest mathematical geographer of antiquity,
and the ancient view of the solar system as re-
volving round the earth is known as the
Ptolemaic system, in contrast with the modern
view called after Coperrvicus It was as an
astronomer that Ptolemy showed conspicuous
ability, and the great vogue of his books secured
the alliance of astronomy and geography
through the Middle Ages, and part of the Ren-
aissance It was not till the times of the
great discoveries of the sixteenth century that
geography became differentiated from astron-
omy, the combined studies being commonly
known by the name of Cosmography Ptolemy
made the great change in map drawing by
introducing the system of projection, recognizing
the spherical nature of the earth, representing
lines of latitude by parallel curve*, whereas
previously they had been denoted by parallel
lines (See MAPS ) Besides the treatment of
mathematical geography and of maps, the rest
oi Ptolemy's Geography contains tables giving
tho latitude and longitude of the different places

named in his various maps, and noticing the
boundaries of countries, etc The rest of the
work is mainly astronomical

The most intensive geographer of antiquity
was Pausamas, a contemporary of Ptolemy,
and author of an Itinerary of Greece, which
gives a full account of Greek cities and sacred
places, and noteworthy points on the routes
from one to another of these, together with
the legends and memories connected with
each C Julius Solmus (third century A D )
wrote a section on geography in his Memo/a-
biha, which had nothing geographically original,
and but little that is not contained in Pliny,
whence he was known as the " Ape of Pliny "
Nevertheless, the writers of the Middle Ages
who wrote their encyclopedias, such as Isidore
of Seville (q v ) in his Ongines (seventh century)
and Brunette Latim (twelfth century) in his
Tesoro, borrowed directly in their geographical
section from Solmus In the fifth century
A D Paulus Orosms m his Histories, a collection
of annals of universal history, wrote an outline
of universal geography which was very popular
with medieval authors and teachers

The geographical writers of antiquity, Herod-
otus, Polybms, Strabo, Pomponms Mela, Pliny,
Dionysms, Ptolemy, Pausamas, all of whom
wrote in Greek, were lost to the Middle Ages
During the Renaissance period, and none
the less because they wrote rn Greek, they were
restored to general knowledge, and with their
renewed study ancient geography became a
matter of serious study m the schools, both in
the Latin translations and m the Greek origi-
nal, ancient geography thus found a place in
schools long before modern geography

In the Middle Ages the development of
geographical knowledge progressed slowly Its
progress m the period up to the first crusade
of 1096 is chiefly connected in the earlier part
of the period with the religious cosmographies
or geographies, and m the latter part with the
explorations, discoveries, and conquests of the
Scandinavians In the earlier period, as far
as Christian countries are concerned, the cause
of geography was bound up with the pilgrim-
travelers, the convent maps, and the religious
impulses which suggested the conversion of
the heathen The gain to exact knowledge was
not great; the chief result was the development
of geographical myth. The introduction of
the Scandinavian element into European
countries brought a vigor and enterprise,
which communicated themselves in every
direction, leading both to geographical dis-
coveries as far as America and the Northern
seas, and to a rereading and more direct knowl-
edge of that which had already been noted
The work of Arabs in geography, reaching its
height in the ninth century, included transla-
tions of the old Greek geographers, astronomi-
cal calculations, and even o.bservatory work
Arab explorers traversed much of Southern
and Central Asia. Northern Africa, and the

22

GEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHY

Mediterranean Sea coasts From these ex-
periences, with the wonder element thrown in,
arose literature such as that of Smbad the
Sailor Chinese geographical enterprise also
was noteworthy The Crusades led to all kinds
of commercial, diplomatic, missionary, as well
as pilgrim, travel, from which an immense
acquisition resulted to geographical knowl-
edge and tradition Commerce between East
and West Europe, between Mediterranean
countries and northern countries, developed
into a secular organization of merchandise,
which produced an unecclesiastical and more
scientific geography Asia was explored by
men like the merchant Marco Polo arid Friar
Odoric in the thirteenth century, and in the
fourteenth century the Catalan Atlas (1375)
attained a highly creditable form of thorough-
ness, and from that time the production of
more exact maps marked the possibility of the
transition of geography into an exact science
Civilized Europe m the fourteenth century had
discovered the use of compass, astrolabe, time-
piece, as well as maps The art of navigation
went forward by leaps and bounds Oversea
adventure vied with overland enterprise until
in the first quarter of the fifteenth century
Prince Henry of Portugal promoted geographi-
cal journeys, and opened up the era of Portu-
guese enterprise which culminated in 1486-
1499 in the voyage round the Cape of Good
Hope to Calicut by Diaz and Da Gama, and
the discovery by Columbus of America In
1511 Portuguese navigators had reached by the
Eastern route the Molucca Islands, and in 1519
Magellan attempted the journey to them by the
Western route Sir Francis Drake circum-
navigated the globe in 1577-1580, and Vitus
Behrmg discovered the strait which separates
America and Asia Thus by the end of the
sixteenth century, the mam features of the
Earth had been described, the continents had
had their contours defined in maps; travels
and discovery had made known country after
country, people after people, and geography
had come to its own, by practical experience
Much remained, of course, to be done in the way
of filling up, particularly in the seventeenth
century, but by the end of the fifteenth century
and in the sixteenth century geography had
reached the stage of self-consciousness Ex-
ploration had provided itself with instru-
ments and methods, so that by that time
geography may be said to have become a science
in the sense that earth knowledge became an
established subject of study by deliberate
methods, and the ascertained knowledge thence
derived became available for dissemination,
and brought the subject into the pedagogic
survey, at any rate, for those who were at-
tracted to the study of the advance of civiliza-
tion. In England, from the time of Drake
onwards, there was always a school of navi-
gation in training, where students made geog-
raphy in some form or other the study of their

lives, and there was from the time of the col-
lection of travels of Ramusio in 1550, of Hak-
luyt, 1598-1600, and Purchas's Pilgrims, 1613-
1625, a solid body of writers and readers of
travels

Though the development of geographical
knowledge had steadily advanced throughout
the Middle Ages, the literature of the subject
is almost a negligible quantity It was in-
extricably mixed up with biblical, classical, and
legendary material Only one book stands out
as important, viz , Marco Polo's Book (oncern-
ing the Kingdoms and Marvels of the East

In the early Renaissance period those work^
only could be regarded as literature which be
longed to Roman and Greek antiquity In school
teaching, throughout the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries, the study of ancient geography
certainly almost entirely absorbed the attention
of the teachers, as far as this subject was con-
cerned For the most part, the teachers con-
fined themselves to the texts of ancient
geographers, — particularly Pomponius Mela,
Ptolemy, and Dionysius Penegetes, and the
astronomical work of Proclus Of the ancient
geography textbooks, a printed copy of Pom-
ponius Mela was sold in England as early as
1520 In 1585 Arthur Goldmg translated
Pomponius Mela into English, and did the same
service for the Polyhistor of Solmus Of Dionv-
sius theie was an English translation in 1572
by Thomas Twyne A Greek text of Dionv-
sms was published at P]ton c 1607 In 165S
a most elaborate edition of Dionysius was fur-
nished ad u^um tyronum with Greek text and
Latin translation and a most voluminous com-
mentary, by William Hill, MA, of Morton
College, Oxford, and afterwards schoolmaster
at Dublin Philemon Holland's translation
of Pliny's Ihstoria naturahs was published in
1601, the second edition in 1634, and this \vas
recommended for school libraries by Hoole in
1660 A comparative study of various text-
books and authorities enabled Cluvenus in
1624 to produce a geography of ancient Italy,
which Hallam describes as " the great repertory
of classical illustration m this subject " The
only other contemporary author's classical
geography that needs mention is Ferrari us'
Lexicon Geographic 'urn, Poeticum, et Historic urn t
an edition of which was published in London
in 1657 But there were, even at this period,
men of larger vision in geographical study
In 1511 Erasmus (q.v ) advocated the study
on account of its value in reading history and
the poets The school-teachers, however, sup-
ported Erasmus in the view that the chief im-
portance of geography was to illustrate and
elucidate classical writers and to provide copious-
ness of phrase in the descriptions introduced
into themes and exercises in Latin and Greek
writing In 1523 Vives (</ v ) recommended
the pupil to read Strabo and Ptolemy, though
in reading the latter the lately introduced and
more exact maps were to be preferred Vives

GEOGRAPHY

however, further wishes the pupil to add the
" ancient discoveries " in the East and West
" from the navigation of our people " (the
Spanish) and the collections of travels of Peter
Martyr and of Raphael of Volterra, HO that he
may be regarded as the first advocate of the
teaching of modern geography In 1531 Sir
Thomas Elyot (</ v ) m the Govertwur, requires
the pupil to be taught geography, to prepare
him for understanding histories He is an
enthusiastic believer in the value of pictures,
plans, and maps, and insists that cosmography
is a necessary study for " all noble men " In
1560 Laurence Humphrey (q v ) m the Nobles,
speaks of geography as a study that brings
" great delight and profit " In 1622 Henry
Peacham (q v ) in his Cow pleat Gentleman rec-
ommends cosmography as a " science at once
feeding both the eye and mind with such in-
credible variety and profitable pleasure, that
even the greatest kings and philosophers have
bestowed the best part of their time in the con-
templation thereof at home " (See GENTRY
\ND NOBLES, EDUCATION OF) In the same
year Robert Burton (qv), in his Anatomy ^ of
*Melancholy, speaks of the pleasure in studying
geographical maps and praises those of Ortelms,
Mercator, Hondius His bibliographical list of
geographical books includes books of cities by
Braunus and Hogenbergms, descriptive works
by Maginus, Muster, Hen-era, Laet. Mcrula,
Boterus, Leander, Albertus, Camden, Leo Afer,
Adrieomius, NIC Gerbelius, etc ; the famous
expeditions of Christopher Columbus, Amerigo
Vespucci, Marcus Polus, the Venetian, Lod.
Vertomannus, Aloysms Cadamustus, etc He
goes on to enumerate the accurate diaries of
Portugals, Hollanders, of Bartison, Oliver a
Nort, etc ; Hakluyt's Voyages, Peter Martyr's
Decades, Benzo, Lenus, Lmschoten's Relations,
those Hodccpoiicon* of Jod t\ Meggen, Bro-
card the Monk, Bredenbachius, Jo Dubhmus,
Sandys, etc , to Jerusalem, Egypt, and other
remote places of the world Then he names
the Itineraries of Paul us Hentzner, Jodocus
Smcerus, Dux Polonus, etc; — with the read-
ing of Bellomus, Observations, P (iilliuV Surveys.
He then refers to " those parts of America set
out, and curiously cut in pictures by Fratres
a Bey " Such a 'list as that of Burton shows
the vast development of geographical literature
by 1022, one hundred and thirty years after
the discovery of America Among other prom-
inent advocates of the teaching of geography
in schools weie Comenms (qv) in the Great
Didactic, Milton (q v ) in the Tiactate, and
Locke in Thoughts concerning Education

The development of geographical theory
might be illustrated by a comparison of the
first modern geography in England, viz the
Cosmographical G1assc,*\55Q, a very creditable
first production, and the Geography of Nathaniel
Carpenter (qr), fellow of Exeter College,
Oxford, in 1625 In the latter work we have
a comprehensive volume of mathematical geog-

GEOGRAPHY

raphy in the first part, while in the second part
the connections of geography arc carefully
traced in other realms of inquiry, and the idea
of " human " geography is almost as clearly
grasped as in a present-day treatise.

Peter Heylyn had published in 1621 his
Microcosmus, or a Little Description of the
Great World After spending over thirty years
of further work, he produced in 1652 his Con-
mographie, containing the Chorography and
History of the whole World and all the principal
Kingdom*,, Provinces, Seas and Ides thereof.
This is a thick folio, with 1100 well printed,
matterful pages, a handsome volume full of
history and geography for all the known parts
of the world It takes up almost every phase
of geography, in profuse detail It appeals
to those who wish to read the Holy Scriptures
by its sacred geography, to astronomers, to
physicians (who may learn from geography
the different tempers of men's bodies according
to the climes they live in), to statesmen, to
merchants, mariners, and soldiers Cosmog-
raphy, with Heylyn, includes natural and civil
history, descriptive geography, and mathemat-
ical geography The frequency of reprints
of this huge and costly folio, well supplied with
maps and illustrations, shows the vogue of the
subject, especially when we bear in mind the
costliness of production and the leisure re-
quired for reading it It is a gentleman' s book,
geography was particularly a gentleman's
study, and the reprints of Heylyn in 1657, 1662,
1666, 1670, 1674?, 1677, 1682, 1703, are an
indication of the enormous development of the
class of " gentlemen " in Tudor and Stuart times
Returning to the advocates of the teaching
of geography, J A Comemus in his Great
Didactic, written about 1631, includes in the
curriculum of the vernacular school " the mosl
important facts m cosmography, such as the
spherical shape of the heavens, the globulin
shape of the* earth suspended in their midst,
the tides of the ocean, the shapes of seas, the
courses of rivers, the principal divisions of the
earth, and the chief kingdoms of Europe,
but in particular, the cities, mountains, rivers,
and other remarkable features of their own
country" s ^ j .

Sir William Petty (q v ) in 1647 suggested
that in the equipment of his Gymnasium
mechamc'um there should be the fairest
globes and geographical maps, " and he wished
the institution to be an epitome and abstract
of the whole world " In 1649 George Snell in
his Right Teaching of Useful Knowledge
directed that the pupils in the English School
should study the " excellent art of cosmography/'
and " delightful use of topography " and in
1650, John Dury (q v ) in his Reformed School,
suggested that an outline of geography ought
to be taught in schools In 1660, in the New
Discovery of the old Art of Teaching School*,
Charles 'Hoole suggested that " in the upper-
most story of the school there should be o fa«i,
24

GEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHY

pleasant gall or y wherein to bang maps and sot
globes, and to Jay up such varieties as can be
gotten in presses or diawors, that the scholars
may know them "

Of actual geography teaching in academic
institutions in England the first record naturally
enough is that of Richard Hakluyt (q.v ) who
claimed that he was " the first to show the new
lately leformed maps, globes, spheres, and other
instruments of this art for demonstration in
the common schools " It must be observed,
however, that though Hakluyt claims to be
the first teacher of modern geography in Eng-
land, yet in the ordinances of Shrewsbury
School, drawn up in 1571 by the bailiffs of the
town, provision is made that " from the stock
remnant there should be provided a library
and gallerv furnished with all manner of books,
mappes, spheres, instruments of astronomy, and
other things appertaynmg to learning," and
in 1596 the school had obtained " Mullinax
his territonal globe in a frame with a standing
base covered with greenish buckram " In
1597 the statutes of Blackburn giammar
school state explicitly that " the principles of
arithmetic, geometry, and cosmography, with
some introduction 'into the spheres are prof-
itable " In Laud's transcript of the studies
of Westminster School 1621-1628 in the IVth
and Vllth Forms: " After supper (in summer
time) they were called to the Master Chamber
(specially those of the Vllth Form) and there
instructed out of Hunter's \i e Honter's]
Coxniograpfne and piactised to describe and
find out cities and countries in the mappes "
This was the Cosmographie (in Latin) of John
Honter, which contained textbook, atlas, and
index Instruction was probably given at
Winchester College in geography, for in the
Bursar's book for 1656-1657 is the item
£1 176 for a Mappa Mundi It is probable
that in all these cases the systematic geography
taught was that of ancient (Greece and Italy,
as illustrative and elucidatory of the classical
authors, and for composition writing in Latin
prose and verse

It is not improbable that some schoolmasters
outside of the systematic curriculum may have
been interested in and taught geography, as,
for instance, John Langley (qv\ head master
of St Paul's School, who is described as a
"historian cosmographer and antiquary",
William Camdcn (qv), whose topographical
knowledge of England was unique, head
master of Westminster School, Thomas P'ar-
naby (q.v.), master of the largest private school
m England in the first half of the seventeenth
century, who had in 1595 accompanied Sir
Francis Drake on his last voyage

Outside the schools, Hakluyt has already been
mentioned at Oxford In 1654 John Webster
(Examination of Academies) says that in the
universities geography, hydrography, chorog-
raphy, and topography were usually taught,
and he names the textbook used as that of

25

Nathaniel CMipontei, but this was piobably
the mathematical purl, i at hoi astronomical
than geographical The projootois of acade-
mies, Sir Huinphioy Gilbert (q v ), in 1572.
Sir Francis Kmaston (q v ), m 1635, and Sn
Balthasar Gerbicr (q v ), m 1648, all included
cosmography as part of the proposed curric-
ulum

With the groat advance* of maiitimo dis-
coveries and with the constant emigrations-, to
Now Knglaml, a groat naval service arose,
and the preparation of youths in so much of
geography as pertains to navigation became
necessary Boys wore appi enticed in large
numbers to soa captains, serving ospociallv
in the Indian navy In 1673 the Mathemati-
cal School m Christ's Hospital was founded
with a view to preparing boys diroctlv for
soa service, in such subjects as mathematics,
navigation, etc According to the King's
ordinance the Governors wore to fuimsh the
necessary " Books, Globes, Mappos, and other
Mathematical instruments " At sixteen vean-
of ago OT before, if the master of Tiimty House
saw fit, the boys wore to be bound apprentice
for seven yoais to the captain of some ship in the
royal or merchant service In 1681 the navi-
gation class book was issued It was written
mainly by Sir Jonas Moore, assisted by the
famous Flamstood and II alley It was on-
titled A New Kystcme of the Mathematics
arid contained sections on mathematical sub-
jects, as well as cosmography, navigation, the
doctrine of the sphere, astronomical tables, and
geography The latter is described as a " de-
scription of the most eminent countries and
coasts of the world, with maps of them and
tables of their latitude and longitude " The
geography thus was prevailingly mathemat-
ical, and it is interesting to note that one of the
Governors ol the School, and a member of the
Committee at the Visitation of 1697 was Sir
Isaac Newton Many public, schools arose
thioughout the countiy in imitation of the
Mathematical School of Christ's Hospital and
not a few pnvate schools, where navigation
received special attention

In 1674 Joseph Moxon, hydrographor to the
King, published the third edition of his Tutoi
to Agronomy and (leogiaphy, dedicated to
Samuel Popys, " not as what you need
but what may prove an ease to your memory "
Though the official hydrogiapher, Moxon in-
troduces a section on astrological problems
The geographical section is certainly mathe-
matical

Geography was taught, curiously enough,
by foreign language masters Thus Guy Mi6ge
(qv) in 1678 describes himself as professor
of the French language and of geography He
speaks of geography as a subject becoming a
young gentleman, and says he doubts not the
subject " will take root amongst the nobility
and gentry of England as it hath in other na-
tions; especially since the war began" and he

GEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHY

offers to teach geography either in French or
m English In 1682 he wrote a New Cof>-
wogiaphi/ ot fiuivey of the Whole Woild Simi-
larly in 1769, M Jacques do Lavaud was a
teacher of languages and of geography It
seems likely, therefore, that, both French and
geography received stimulus in their teaching
from the Huguenot influence in England

In the eighteenth century the development
of the chronometer introduced more exacti-
tude - - in the fixing of the position of distant
places. Surveys of coast lines and interiors
become more exact, and measurements of the
earth more reliable

In 1729, the Fishmongers' Company m Lon-
don presented their grammar school at Holt,
in Norfolk, with " a valuable and useful library,
not only of the best editions of the Classics and
Lexicographers, but also with some books of
Antiquities, Chronology, and Geography, to-
gether with a suitable pair of globes "

In the century which intervened between
Locke and Vi cesiums Knox (q v ) geography m
England received attention practically as well
as theoretically Thus was particularly the
case in private schools rather than in the public
schools of England Thus John Randall, who
conducted a school at Heath, near Wakefield,
in 1744, and afterwards removed to a school
at York in 1765, wrote a " system " of geog-
raphy, a comprehensive dissertation on the
creation and various phenomena of " the terra-
queous globe," as it consists of " subterraneous
waters, mountains, valleys, plains, and rivers,"
with an hypothesis concerning their causes.
It further contains a description of all the
empires, kingdoms, etc , of the world, drawn
from ancient and modern history, and some
of the most celebrated voyages arid travels
Statistics are comprehensively given of the
" present state " of the various countries and
full details offered as to climate, government,
laws, policy, trade, revenues, forces, curiosities,
population, character, religion, customs, cere-
monies In 1753 another private schoolmaster,
J Burgh, recommends in the study of geog-
raphy the following textbooks: Randall's
System of Geography; Harris On the Use of the
Globe, the Geographical Dictionary; Anson's
Voyages, and Salmon's Geographical Gram-
mar. Of tins list, Harris's Geography was the
book of longest and widest vogue on the subject
The second edition is dated 1712 It proceeds
by question and answer, and it is the first
school textbook (apparently) of purely de-
scriptive geography, and distinctly an interest-
ing and helpful book for the learner In 1746
was published the third edition of an Intro-
duction to Geography on the same lines as that
of Harris, written by J Cowley, " geographer
to his Majesty," a work which is apparently
the first general modern geography explicitly
stated to be " designed for the use of schools."
These textbooks of Harris, Cowley, and Ran-
dall are more modern in scope and outlook

than the later Guides to the Vxc of the Globes,
the series beginning with that of Daniel Fen-
mng in 1760, and continuing to the more matter-
ful and interesting Exerci8cs on the Globe of
William Butler in 1814, designed " for the use
of young ladies " At the beginning of the
nineteenth century, the use of the globe was
an acknowledged part of the curriculum of all
the private schools and academies for young
gentlemen and young ladies, although the
teaching was mainly informational, and had
little mental discipline in it

Two points especially should be noted in
tracing the history of geography teaching
First, its development has taken place outside
of the recognized public schools system, chiefly
m private schools Second, arising m the
mixed subject of cosmography it has become
differentiated as earth knowledge, and its
original partner, astronomy, in the portions
which have especial reference to our earth,
curiously enough, and not altogether advan-
tageously, has been ousted from the study,
even in outline, of the great masses of (at any
rate) British children In the teaching of
geography itself, however, within the last dec-
ade modern aims and methods have improved
almost more remarkably perhaps than m any
single subject in England F. W.

Academic Status — Germany — Geography
as a university subject has long had a prominent
place in Germany A long list of eminent names
attests to the high position of this science in a
nation noted for its scientific achievement
Humboldt, Ritter, Ratzel, and Richtofen stand
out prominently among the great geographers
that the world has produced, and m the Gor-
man universities of to-day are included some
of the leading geographers of the present time
Geography is a recognized and essential part
of the university curriculum, and provision is
usually made for the presentation of various
phases of the subject by two or more specialists
in different parts of the geographic field

The prominence attained by geography in
Germany is the result of a variety of causes,
among which is undoubtedly the strong in-
fluence of a few powerlul men, early m the field,
working in a country where centralized au-
thority has had a voice in university develop-
ment Doubtless also it is partly due to that
keen, clear-sighted recognition of the value of
science, m all its phases, which has placed
Germany in the front rank in science and has
been one of the chief underlying causes for the
wonderful industrial development of that
country The scientific spirit, so noticeable
throughout the German nation, has encouraged
geographical research, thus providing teachers;
and where there are inspiring teachers arid
leaders in research, there are certain to come
students to listen and to investigate. There
are certainly two other prominent factors which
help to explain the importance of geography
in the universities of that country. One of these

26

GEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHY

is the broad intellectual interest of the normal,
educated German; the other is the nature of the
educational system Under more or less com-
plete centralized authority a curriculum below
the university has been developed in which
systematic study of scientific geography has
a definite and prominent place And since
the German teacher must know the subject
he professes to teach, provision is made in the
universities to meet the demand Further,
the breadth of culture among educated Ger-
mans is such that it is fully recognized by them
that geography is a basal science, an under-
standing of which is essential to correct inter-
pretation of much of human history and de-
velopment, and that it is also basal to an
appreciation of the distribution of animals and
plants and to the industries that depend upon
them and upon other products of the earth
Thus it happens that many German students,
whose mam interest is in other lines, seek a
knowledge of scientific geography such as the
German university professor can give

Partly as a result of German influence,
geography has now a high place in other con-
tinental nations, and what has been said with
regard to geography in Germany applies to a
greater or less degree to Holland, Switzerland,
Austria-Hungary, and France But in Europe
it is almost warranted to state that the im-
portance of geography as a university subject
diminishes progressively with the increase in
distance from Germany

England — It is a curious fact that in the one
nation where the strongest reason for geo-
graphic interest would seem to be present —
the British — university geography is almost
at its lowest ebb Only within a very few years
has any provision whatsoever been made for
geography in the great British universities,
and then merely in a sort of experimental way
in the form of lectureships and readerships,
urged and partly supported by geographical
societies

No attempt will be made to consider the
question whether the striking contrast between
Great Britain and Germany m this respect is
in any way ascribablc to a difference in scien-
tific spirit or broad scientific culture There
are other more evident and more easily demon-
strable causes One of these is the fact that
there is no such centralized educational system
below the university; and in the schools
geography has no such rank as in Germany
There is, therefore, no such demand for teachers
with a university training in geography A
second reason is that the British geologist has
taken into his own field some of the best of
scientific geography Therefore some of the
most important geographic work published in
Great Britain is from the pens of geologists,
and is produced as a kind of geological by-
product A third reason for the position of
geography in Great Britain, perhaps the result
of its world-wide colonial interests, is the fact

27

that geography there has come to be corsjdered
as almost synonymous with exploration A
journey to the Arctic or the Antarctic, a trip
across Africa, or an exploration of New Guinea
is ranked as more geographical (if we may
judge by honors conferred) than an interpreta-
tion of a land form, or a scientific study of the
geographical relationships of a known aiea
Geographical publications abound in interest-
ing descriptions of remote regions, little known
people, itineraries of journeys, and associated
incidents, accidents, arid adventures Suth ex-
ploratory work while doubtless important, as
the accounts certainly are interesting and enter-
taining, rarely merits the characterization
scientific, and is not uncommonly even dis-
tinctly unscientific There is certainly little
basis for a subject of this sort to claim a place
in the university, and it is by no means im-
probable that the reputation gained by geog-
raphy as an essential synonym of exploration
is one of the strong reasons why geography has
so tardily won a place in the British univer-
sities

Lest this characterization of geography in
Great Britain be misunderstood, it may be
well to add that there have been scientific
geographers of the very first rank Such names
as Lyell, Wallace, and Geikie rank with the
world leaders in scientific geography , but they
are not, as in Germany, university teachers
The beginning that has been made, notably in
the Oxford and Cambridge Schools of Geog-
raphy, has been admirable and is promising for
the future, while the newer universities have
also made provision for the higher study of the
subject in connection with economies and com-
mercial courses

United State* — In America the recognition
of geographv in the university has been almost
as tardy as m England, and for similar reasons
There have been cases where professors of his-
tory or of political science, usuallv \\ith a
German university experience, have given
brief courses in historical or political or com-
mercial geography to furnish a pait of the
geographic basis needed by then students
There have been a few cases \\heie chairs of
geography were established a generation or
more ago, but these instances have been
sporadic and have represented no well defined
movement toward university recognition of
geography

Perhaps the nearest approach to early recog-
nition of this subject in the university curric-
ulum in the German way was when Guyot
(q v ) was given a chair m Princeton Agassiz
(q v ) found the American field a virgin one
for the introduction of scientific natural his-
tory from its European environment, and uith
his genius, personality, and boundless enthu-
siasm he laid a foundation upon which the
growth of natuial history subjects in the
American university became assured Seem-
ingly equal opportunity existed m the field of

GEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHY

geography, and to it Guyot came at Agassiz*
suggestion and in 1854 became professor of
geography at Princeton, a position which he
held until his death thirty years later Guyot
did valuable and important work, but appar-
ently conditions in America were not favorable
to vigorous spread of scientific geography;
there arose no effective Guyot School and
geography in the American university had
about the same position at the end of his
teaching as at the beginning

In the meantime, the study of geology (q.v.)
spread rapidly, and provision is now made for
it in every college, while the larger universi-
ties have from three to five professors for the
subject This high rank of geology is ap-
parently due in part to the recognized scien-
tific character of geologic study, and in part
to the presence of a demand for men with
geological training Geography, on the other
hand, has had in America, as in Great Britain,
to bear the reputation of being non-scientific,
or, at best, little more than a descriptive
science At the same time some of the most
thoroughly scientific phases of geography have
been annexed by sister subjects, notably by
geology As a result of the confusion thus
arising, there has even been a tendency to
question whether there is a science of geog-
raphy, some holding that ail that is really
scientific in it lies within the province of estab-
lished subjects, such as geology, zoology,
botany, ethnology, history, economics, etc It
is sufficient answer to such a claim to point
to the scientific results of continental geo-
graphic research, and to the contrast in out-
put on such topics between Germany and Eng-
land or America, where geography is not so
organized as a science.

As in Great Britain, so in America, there
has recently come about a change in the
status of geography in the university; but the
nature and underlying causes of the change
have been quite different in the two countries.
In Great Britain geography has gone into the
university as a result of outside pressure; in
the United States it has evolved within the
university, primarily as a result of the dis-
covery that much that had previously mas-
queraded under the term "geology" was really
geography, or needed only moderate change to
enrich it with the true geographic flavor.
Naturally this geography, of geological parent-
age, is dommantly physical geography or
physiography That it should have made for
itself a place in American universities as an
offshoot of geological teaching is natural when
it is remembered that some of the most sig-
nificant basal principles of the evolution oi
land forms have been discovered by American
geologists as a by-product of their geological
work, — notably by Gilbert and Powell.

To Davis of Harvard, more than to any
other one person, is to be credited the evolu-
tion of the geographic phase out of the geologic

teaching, and its segregation into a more or
less definite branch of science teaching in the
American university Other teachers were,
and still arc, teaching geography as geology,
and some have definitely recognized the fact,
— for instance Shaler of Harvard, who in a
large part of his broad scientific interest was a
real geographer, though he ranked in the uni-
versity as professor of geology Having intro-
duced the geographic viewpoint into his teach-
ing as a member of the Harvard Geological
Department, and working in the midst of the
inspiring influence of his geographic colleague
Shaler, Davis has developed an American
school of physical geography whose influence
has spread throughout the whole field of
American education A generation of physiog-
raphers has been reared by the genius and
tireless energy of Davis, and, as m the case of
Agassiz in natural history, the extent of the
influence of the master has been broadened by
the work of his pupils and by others less
recognizably under his direct influence

But this peculiar manner in which geog-
raphy has found a place in the American uni-
versity has resulted in its occupying a rather
anomalous and somewhat narrow position in
the curriculum Ordinarily geography is
merely a part of the course offered by the
geological department, and the teacher of it
may rank as professor of geology, as in fact is
the case with Professor Davis himself, who is
not professor of geography m Harvard, but
Sturgis Hooper Professor of Geology In
some of the better universities and colleges no
provision whatsoever is made for any geog-
raphy excepting such elementary instruction m
physical geography as a professor of geology
can give m addition to his purely geological
teaching In such cases there is little basis
or opportunity for geographic research A
still larger number of the leading universities
have one or more men who give their entire
attention to geographic subjects m teaching
and research; and a few make special pro-
vision for other phases of geography than
physical geography Yet, with but few excep-
tions, this geographic work is offered m the
geological department, or m the department
of " geology and geography " In a very few
cases geography stands as an independent
department coordinate with geology, from
which it has in most instances been recently
divorced.

The evolution of geographic instruction in
the American university, in the main on the
basis of previous university recognition of
geology, has been extraordinarily rapid m the
last ten or fifteen years, during which most of
it has taken place. Whether similar develop-
ment will continue for another decade cannot
be told; but it is clearly evident that geog-
raphy has at last gamed a position m the
American university curriculum from which
there can be no recession. Three or four of

28

GEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHY

the largcM- universities have set an example of
broad policy, recognizing geography fully and
providing for the touching of a number of its
important phases, as in Germany Others,
also among the leading universities, have
scarcely taken the first step, but it is to be
confidently expected that these laggards will
not long remain so far behind. The example
so long ago set by Germany, and now fully
adopted by a few of the more progressive
American universities, may fairly be considered
the goal toward which the best of our univer-
sities will tend

It is to be noted, however, that scientific
geography in the American university is at a
disadvantage as compared to its position in
Germany It is not to be expected that uni-
versity trustees will provide teachers in sub-
jects not demanded by students, nor can they
properly make much further provision for the
expansion of elementary instruction To the
German university there come students with
previous good training in geography, much of
it on a par with some of our elementary uni-
versity geography There is also a body of
earnest students who in their desire to master
special subjects correspond more nearly with
our small group of graduate students than
with our overwhelming numbers of under-
graduates These students are not content
with mere elementary work, even though their
main interest lies in history or in botany.
The point to be noted here is that the teacher
of geography in the American university may
be obliged to justify his appointment more in
elementary courses than in advanced study, —
and an examination of some of the courses
offered seems to indicate that this is the real
condition If so, we may not hope for the
great scientific result in America that recog-
nition of geography in the university has
brought in Germany

Finally, there is the difference in the utili-
tarian influence in Germany and in the United
States There a demand exists for men and
women trained in geography before they are
allowed to teach geography. Here pedagogy
is not commonly placed ahead of knowledge
The principle that " a person can teach any-
thing if only he is a natural teacher " finds far
less encouragement in Germany than in
America Only in our larger cities, and in not
all of these, is knowledge ranked with peda-
gogical power Moreover, almost equally with
England, geography as a school subject is neg-
lected in the United States. A student in his
most immature period has a few years of
geography study, then comes an intermission,
then perhaps a course in physical geography or
commercial geography, or possibly no geog-
raphy at all The high school geography may
be given to almost any one, very likely to the
least burdened teacher, possibly of drawing, or
Latin, or English For those who plan to be
teachers there is little need of studying uni-

versity geography This contiasts strikingly
with Genminy, \\heie then4 is a well devisou
course of geography in the schools, and where
a geography teacher is supposed to know
geography

The condition in America undoubtedly has
had, and still has, a very important influence
in retarding the development of geography
teaching in our universities It will continue
to be a disadvantage as compared with the
conditions in Germany, but there is another
phase which is hopeful With the develop-
ment of geographv in the university curriculum
there will doubtless spread an influence down
through the grades as a result of which the
teaching of the subject will be both extended
and improved Perhaps one of the greatest
reasons for the weakness of our school geog-
raphy is the fact that the subject has not
hitherto found adequate recognition in the
American university R S T.

University Courses — In Germany the offer-
ings in geography vary with each semester For
example, there were in the winter semester ot
1910-1911 seven courses at Berlin, one at Halle
(on Arabian geographies), one at Heidelberg,
five at Leipzig

In the English universities the ad\ance in
the study of geography has been due in the
main to the development of commercial
courses in the newer institutions At Oxford
a School of Geography was established in 1S99
with the aid of the Royal Geographical Society,
and has a faculty consisting of the University
Professor in Geography, an assistant, and lec-
turers in ancient geography, and the history
of geography, an instructor in surveying, and
a demonstrator in geography Diplomas and
certificates are awarded in the subject At
Cambridge a Board of Geographical Studies,
working in conjunction with the Royal Geo-
graphical Society, exists to promote geo-
graphical research and study and to ai range
courses There are a University Reader and
lecturers in geography The subject may be
offered for the ordinary B A degree, the
examination covering physical, historical and
political, economic and commercial geographv,
cartography, history of discovery, and elements
of ethnology Diplomas are also awarded by
the Board of (Geographical Studies At the
University of Manchester courses an* given in
the faculty of arts by the lecturer in geograph>
111 the scope and meaning of geography, in
geography of a special area, political and
economic geography, and a practical course
and a seminar are conducted, while physical
geography is given in the faculty of science
together with geology At the University of
Liverpool courses are given by two lecturers
in classical geography, general principles, phys-
iography, commercial, historical, and regional
geography

The development of the subject in America
has already been dealt with Here « few

29

GEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHY

courses and number of instructors in the sub-
ject will be given from a few representative
universities.

Harvard — Professor, assistant professor, and an assistant
For undergraduates Physical Geography — lectures, labora-
tory work, and hold excursions For graduates arid undei-
graduates Physiography of the United States, Geographic
Influences in North America , Physiography of Europe , Geo-
morphology , Geography of South America , and (for graduates
primarily) a research course in Physiography

Yale — Professor and two assistant professors Undergrad-
uates Physical and Commercial Geography followed by
environmental influences on man's activities, Anthropography ,
Physiography Graduates Physical Geography, Geography
of North America, South America, and Asia

University of California — Three assistant professors and
one instructor Lower Division General physical geography ,
Introduction to Kconomie geography , the materials of com-
merce , Introductory geography , Physiography of the lands ,
Topography maps arid models , Relief modeling , Elementary
meteorology, Geography of Spanish America, Historical
geography (two courses) Upper Division Historical geog-
raphy of Modern Europe, Economic geography of the United
States, General climatology, Oceanography, California map ,
Geography of North America , Geographical influences in the
Western United States, Climatology of the Pacific Coast,
Glacial geography, Geography of California, Geography of
Africa Graduate Courses Physiography of the Pacific Coast ,
the teaching of physical geography , Special studies in physiog-
raphy and climate , Commercial resources of the Spanish-Ameri-
can Countries

Chicago — Professor, two associate professors, and an
assistant Undergraduate Commercial geography, Eco-
nomic geography, Climatology, Influence of Geography on
American history , Political geography , Climate and man ,
Economic geography of North America , Economic geography
of Europe Senior and Graduate Commercial geography
Economic geography of tropical countries, Principles or
geographv, the geographic problems of the Orient, Cartog-
raphy arid graphics, tho historical geography of American
citios , the natural resources of the United States, their exploita-
tion and conservation , some principles of Anthropogeography ,
geographic influences in the history of New England , of the
Interior, of the Middle Atlantic States, History of Geog-
raphv, Research courses Courses m physical geography are
given in the Department of Geology

University of Wwconvin — Given in the Department of
Geology Undergraduate Short course in geography , Physi-
ography and geographv, Physical geography for commerce
students, Economic geographv , Regional geographv

(Inivernty of Pennsylvania — Given in the Department of
Economics Undergraduate Political geography, Economic
climatology , Geography of Europe

Geography in the Schools — United States.
— Geography has long held an important
place in school work in the United States,
both in elementary and in secondary schools
Geography has at times been considered by
some to be the fundamental subject in ele-
mentary schools, about which all other sub-
jects must center (sec CONCENTRATION; PAR-
KER, FRANCIS), by others, geography has been
and still is considered a catch-all subject which
has little inherent strength of its own, but yet
must be given some place. By others, and
the number is constantly increasing, geography
is held to be one of the fundamental subjects
of the curriculum, tested as to its worth and
capable of being developed by good teaching
into one of the most significant of school sub-
jects. Geography as the study of the earth
in its relation to man deals with elements of
the environment of deep significance to all,
and is of great value because of the aid it gives
to other subjects m the curriculum

Geography is no longer generally considered
merely an informational subject which permits
some attention to necessary, detailed facts to
be known by all Although facts are vital
necessary in the subject, geography, as a

30

study of relations between tho physical en-
vironment and life in a causal way, is decidedly
a study of principles of great working signifi-
cance Geography, rightly taught, imparts to
the pupils a knowledge of large relations over
the world, which all must know to understand
current events, world-movements of people, or
the problems of commerce of to-day. Geog-
raphy teaching, therefore, has for its purposes
the imparting of a working knowledge of the
principles of geography and training m work-
ing with geographic relationships and geo-
graphic materials that gives pupils a power to
use their knowledge in later life This view-
point is fundamental and vital in both ele-
mentary and secondary school geography, but
as yet secondary school geography »s so special-
ized that these larger purposes rrc often lost
sight of in the endeavor to give training in
specialized, scientific thinking in a narrow
phase of geography

Elementary School Geography — The char-
acter of school courses in geography is now, as
it always has been, largelv determined by the
content of the textbooks in use In the earlier
part of the last century, the school texts were
topical in order and were planned to cover the
geography of the world in a brief way Later,
the geography course was repiesented by two
books, an elementary and an advanced, or a
first and second book, and that plan holds
to-day. The plan of tho earlier book was to
present the larger, more general items of
geographic interest, to be followed in the
larger book by a moro broad consideration of
the same topics Those books dealt largely
with the facts of political and of physical
geography and gavo little attention to goo-
graphical relationships

The first departure from the earlier plan
was in tho Guyot Geographies of 1866, m
which emphasis was given to human relations
to physical conditions, and in which maps
were made of vital significance Guyot's
books wore, however, ahead ol their time, and
the principles of Guyot, now recognized as of
great significance, wore but little developed by
others. (See GUYOT )

The first groat change from the plan of
these earlier books was in 1894, following the
Report of the Committee of Ten (qv) of the
National Educational Association Owing to
a renewed interest in physical geography, and
to a recognition of tho importance of obser-
vational work in geography, much emphasis
was given to physical geography in all phases
of school work. Tho first geographies which
appeared after this Report gave a new impetus
to school geography and introduced an era of
progress of great significance Although these
early books placed groat emphasis on physical
geography, they did not ignore the life side.,
The now ideas wore grafted on to the old with-
out supplanting it to any great extent. They
proved the importance of thought work as

GEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHY

\gainst memory work m geography, and since
that time the endeavor has constantly been to
make geography more real, more vital, and
more thoughts-provoking to pupils

The recognition of the well-founded educa-
tional principle that pupils' work must be
based on previous knowledge in all fields of
study, has led in the last decade to the inclu-
sion of home geography as the fundamental
phase of school geography work Home geog-
raphy is planned to help children in organiz-
ing their everyday experiences and to see the
simpler relationships of life to its physical en-
vironment illustrated in every locality Simple
generalizations, based on these local studies,
lay a foundation for extending the children's
work so as to include the world whole, which
forms generally the second stage in school
geography work The development of the
simpler ideas of the world as a globe, and of
the distribution of the continents over the
world, gives a background for the earlier study
of certain of the continents and countries of
the world, through maps, pictures, and text
Usually these earlier phases of geography are
followed through the fourth, fifth, and a part
of the sixth year of school life, up to the time
when many pupils leave school

In the later years the continents, or certain
of them, are again studied from a somewhat
different standpoint through the sixth and
seventh years This advanced continental
work, in which much attention is given to
commercial geography, is usually preceded by
a study of certain of the principles of mathe-
matical and physical geography, to lay a foun-
dation for a careful causal continental study
In other cases, this work is placed as the
climax of the course as a specialized phase of
geography In a few instances, geography, as
an all-round subject, is closed in the sixth
year The geography of the later years is very
specialized and is devoted to the commercial
and industrial aspects

In by lar the greater number of large cities
in the country, geography is taught from the
fourth to the seventh years inclusive, though
there is an increasing tendency to restrict
geography work to three or to three and a half
years By far the larger proportion of the
time devoted to the subject is given to the
study of the regions of the world, since po-
litical geography, as it is often called, forms
the larger phase of geography that pupils
come m contact with in after life This
regional work naturally includes the study of
physical and commercial conditions as well as
of political conditions, and involves much
study and training in the use of maps as well
as of text and supplementary materials Such
a course of study is generally followed through-
out the country, according to the plan of the
texts in use In an increasing number of
places the course of study is now specially
planned to meet local needs, and hence the

order of treatment of topics and phases of the
subject may vary extensively In by far too
many localities, however, the text forms the
only course of study used and the yearly pro-
grams are measured m pages of the text

There has been great progress in school
geography teaching in the last few years
Better texts, better maps, better trained
teachers, improved training courses in normal
schools and some colleges, and a larger supply of
valuable and accurate supplementary volumes
have all contributed to the improvement of
the subject The greatest weakness in the
field at the present time is a lack of first-class
wall maps and a dearth of reasonable-priced,
accurate school atlases In these mechanical
attributes of good geography teaching, the
United States is far m the rear as compared
with Germany, France, the United Kingdom,
or even with a small country like Switzerland

The history of the development of elemen-
tary school geography in this country has
shown that progress has always been made
through evolution and not by revolutions m
content or plan It is not likely that the
general content of elementary school work in
geography, the outgrowth of generations of
experience, will be overturned in the future
As old subjects are tested by modern scien-
tific methods and found wanting, they will be
replaced by more rational and vital topics
Much progress has been made in eliminating
from school work topics in geography that are
not pertinent to the needs of pupils, and which
are too adult for school use A conservative
public will, however, permit such changes to
be made only slowly, while the demand that
all that is new and perhaps of little value should
be included, is widespread and insistent The
great problem for the futuie is the judicnus
modification of the course under the expeit
guidance of trained and interested geographers
and leaders in modern education

Secondary School Geography — Secondary
school geography in geneial falls into three
categories, according to whether the work is
presented in the earlier or later years of the
course. Physical geography is the favored
phase of geography in secondary schools and
receives the greatest attention in the first or
second year of the course In many schools,
particularly those preparing pupils for college
entrance examinations, an advanced type of
physical geography or physiography, as it is
often termed, has a place in the later years of
the course Until within recent years, physical
geography has been given a place in secondary
schools because of its informational value, and
its content was determined from that stand-
point As thus presented, it had no unity and
little value as a science The development of
physical geography by American workers in
field and classroom has shown the subject to
be rich and full as a cultural and scientific
study In consequence, the pendulum has

31

GEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHY

swung away from tho older informational sub-
ject toward a newer, rationally organized phys-
ical geography

It is now generally recognized that enthu-
siasm for the newer point of view has carried
us to extremes, and that physical geography
as such has received an undue proportion of
the time that can be given to earth science in
secondary schools If the task of the second-
ary school is to prepare pupils for after-school
life, then obviously the content of geography
and other subjects must to some extent be
determined by the conditions in the adult
world. In these modern days, pupils are going
to be confronted in the business world with
commercial conditions, and through the press
they will constantly be brought in touch with
the general geographic conditions of the great
nations of the world The development of
modern commeice has, since about 1900,
caused an ever increasing attention to be
devoted to commercial geography in second-
ary schools As a rule, this needed phase of
the work has been organized with little atten-
tion to its relations to physical geography
Like the latter work, commercial geography is
found prominent in both the earlier and later
years of the course The rapid development
of commercial geography is indicated by the
fact thut, while but one book was available for
secondary use in 1901, at least ten much-used
books exist m 1911

Commercial and physical geography are so
closely related in a causal way that neither
can well exist independently in a course of
study Hence the demand has arisen that
these phases of the work be coordinated more
closely in secondary schools Two committees,
one fiom the National Education Association
in 1909, and the other from tho Association of
American Geographers in 1910, recommended
that the one year to be devoted to geography
in secondary schools be divided so that one
half the time be given to the essentials of phys-
ical geography and one half to commercial
and regional geography This latter recom-
mendation is based on the conviction that
pupils ought to study the general geography
of the United States Vnd Europe, at least, m
the high school, as a contribution to their
general training and as a basis for efficient work
in history, economics, botany, zoology, and
other subjects that deal with facts of distribu-
tion Physical geography as a college entrance
subject has never held an important place in
secondary schools, and is particularly de-
veloped in large public schools or in private
secondary schools where funds are available for
securing the necessarily inclusive and somewhat
expensive laboratory equipment

England. — School geography in England
has progressed rapidly m the last few years;
though in many ways it is still very unsatis-
factory, as it is in America The modern
development of interest in geography, particu-

82

larly in the higher schools, dates from 1386,
when the classic, report on geographic instruc-
tion was published by the Royal Geographical
Society from the pen of Dr J Scott Keltic,
who made a thorough and painstaking study
of geography teaching in England and on the
continent In general, the plan of work advo-
cated for the elementary schools of England is
similar to that m America, though greater
emphasis is given to physical geography m the
several standards The plan of beginning
with local, observational geography and work-
ing out to the geography of the world, with a
special study of selected countries in later
years, is followed A large number of im-
proved textbooks and books on teaching
makes effective work possible, and the work oi
the Geographical Association has done much
to arouse teachers to a realization of the possi-
bilities of geography.

In the secondary years much more attention
is given to regional geography than in America,
and physical geography, as such, has a dis-
tinctly subordinate place The work is, there-
fore, well coordinated and definite, though its
content is largely determined by the examina-
tions set by the larger universities The out-
lines in present use show great advances over
those of 1885-1886, and indicate how far-
reaching in its influence has been the establish-
ment of geography as a university subject in
the larger universities and colleges Inspira-
tion and guidance have come from the leaders
in the higher fields of geography teaching and
have caused a very significant revival oi in-
terest m school geography Furthermore, the
leading business men have realized that Eng-
land as a commercial nation must give more
attention to geography teaching in the schools
France — Geography m the schools of
France runs in cycles, the climax of the two
cycles being a study of France and its colonies
Beginners are led through an observational
study of the local environment outward to the
world whole This is followed by a study of
the continents, and is brought to a summary
in the fourth school year in a study of France
and its colonies In the second cycle, which is
completed in the eighth school year, the ele-
ments of physical geography are followed by
a study of America, Australia, Asia, Africa,
Europe, and again is brought to a climax in a
more advanced treatment of France This
work is largely presented through excellent
textbooks which order the content of the
course in a definite way In the secondary
school the same idea of cycle is followed In
the first year the history of geography, physi-
cal geography, political and commercial geog-
raphy, and a brief course in geology constitute
the outline of work This is followed m the
second year by a special study of France in
great detail, and the outlines of cosmography.
The character of the geography work in ttV
later years is determined hv the special

GEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHY

ef study followed by the pupils and is in no
case complete or closely related to the earlier
work Thus geography teaching in the ele-
mentary and secondary schools of France is
very largely political and regional geography,
so arranged that pupils will, as the years pass,
become increasingly familiar with the geog-
raphy of their own country and its economic,
political, and physical features

Germany — Probably in no country in the
world is geography in schools so well organized
and taught as in Germany Teachers are
trained for their work, and the supply of
available books, atlases, arid maps is without a
parallel for quality, accuracy, and usefulness
Excursions have been developed generally as
an important phase of school work, and geog-
raphy is thus a matter of things and not of
words or imaginary pictures, as is so fre-
quently the case in America The general
order of the divisions of the course is similar
to that in America Following a study of the
home surroundings by observation and of Ger-
many comes a brief treatment of the several
continents of the world This is in turn fol-
lowed by a study of the continents from the
physical standpoint, in the years corresponding
to our upper grammar grades The climax of
the work is a course in general geography with
special emphasis on physical geography, and of
political and commercial geography As in
America, greater emphasis is, in recent years,
laid on commercial geography from a broad
viewpoint This plan, roughly outlined, differs
little in general plan fiom that of many years
ago Progress is indicated by change of em-
phasis of details, rather than in any variation
in the larger steps of the course A pupil who
completes the nine years of prescribed work in
geography has a good knowledge of elementary
geography in all its branches and has learned
how to use his knowledge in the specialized
later school \\ork, with great profit to himself

Methods of Teaching Geography — Until
within a few years geography teaching in
American schools, both elementary and second-
ary, largely followed one method, — the pupils
memorized the words of the textbook without,
as a rule, any adequate comprehension of the
meaiviig and significance of the material
studied Where maps were involved, these
were studied m the same wav Pupils were
encouraged to search maps to find obscure and
well-known places, with no thought of giving
tlujm any training in the use of latitudes and
longitudes Thus* they gained no assistance
through the exercises that would have helped
them to find other places by the same method
In recent years the character of geography
teaching, in both elementary and secondary
schools, has radically changed, although the
old memonter method still persists in many
school systems where the teachers are not
trained in modern methods or are out of sym-
pathy with their tasks

VOL. HI — D 33

As the former method was uharacton/ed by
memorizing, the new method is characterized
by reasoning The reasons for geographical
facts are studied with the facts and through the
facts, and the " casual notion/' as it has been
so aptly named, is the keynote of geography
work In this study of the relations between
human geographic conditions and the under-
lying physical conditions, much use is made
of maps, riot merely as sources of informa-
tion, but as valuable media for depicting geo-
graphic features of all kinds Map hunting
has given way largely to map reading, and
pupils are taught to use a map as they would
their texts, as one of the most valuable bases
for study In the specialized work in second-
ary schools, great emphasis is given to the
map study of land forms, ocean conditions,
climatic conditions, and to life geography.
The new point of view in reference to geog-
raphy work, and the realization that ability to
work with geographical materials is of greater
value than mere information, together with the
recognition of the importance of making facts
and principles real, has led to the introduction
of laboratory work, particularly in secondary
school geography In some cases laboratory
work merely consists of the desultory study of
graphically presented facts, because the curric-
ulum calls for laboratory work Under these
circumstances laboratory work is often an irra-
tional phase of geography teaching, of little
more real educational value than the busy
work of the primary grades In the better
schools laboratory work, however, is a vital
part of the study and is made the foundation
in the first presentation of most new topics
The influence of laboratory work, which calls
for the study of things and the graphic repre-
sentation of things, has had a large effect upon
the method of study in elementary schools,
where observation of local phenomena, the
study of land features, human relations, and
industrial conditions, through excursions, to-
gether with the study of weather records and
similar work in other fields, have become a
vital supplement to map and text study

Methods in Elementary Schools — There are
many different methods m vogue in elementary
schools, either for portions of the course or
for the course as a whole In general, the best
method is that which permits the individual
teacher to make the best use of his personal
powers m securing the progressive advance-
ment of his pupils with the least waste of
effort on their part A skillful teacher makes
use of many methods in various stages of the
work arid does not attempt to organize the
course of study about some one plan of pro-
cedure Among the various methods that are
used sufficiently to be named, are the obser-
vational method, the journey method, the type
method, the map-drawing method, the topical
method, and the inductive method Masters
of each of these several plans of procedure can

GEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHY

avoid the dangers and develop the strong
features of their plans so that the progress of
the pupils is secured, but mere followers of a
plan, with perhaps little reserve knowledge
and a narrow viewpoint, easily become the
slaves rather than the masters of the method,
and the pupils become the unfortunate victims
of misguided enthusiasm

The observational method, the study of things,
obviously ought to be followed in school
geography teaching at every opportunity, es-
pecially in the home geography work of the
earlier grades and in the study of the atmos-
phere, land forms, and local industries. Modern
education requires that all subjects be made
real to pupils, and in no subject is this need
greater than in geography By emphasizing
similarities or contrasts with local features,
distant geographic conditions may be made
real This requires observational work at all
tunes.

The journey method, whereby countries or
portions of a country are studied in the order
in which they would be seen in an imaginary
journey, is obviously valuable at certain stages
Further, this plan of procedure is interesting
to many imaginative children and permits the
ready use of supplementary materials The
journey method followed 'blindly, however,
does not readily permit the teaching of a
country as a whole and the emphasizing of
causal relations This method, therefore, seems
better adapted to the earlier than the later
grades of a school course Such a method of
procedure causes knowledge to be related to
steamship routes and railway lines, and not to
be centered about political areas, as is generally
necessary and advisable It has a special
value m the early study of the world whole,
and to a certain extent m the later work with
the commercial side of school geography

The type method is found in use m various
phases m American school geography work.
According to this method, one section or area
is studied very fully as a basis for comparison;
and other areas, similar to the selected type,
arc passed over quickly. If the selected area
is a political and physical unit, a lengthy
study of the section may result in an over-
emphasis of minutiae, so that the area does
not stand out m the pupil's mind for its salient
features. If the selected unit area is a section
about which some human interest centers,
and is not a political or physical unit m itself,
it fails to be a geographic unit and hence is a
poor basis for comparison One weakness in
the teaching by such types is that political
areas are studied incidentally and perhaps are
not clearly understood Yet political areas
are foundational m any use that is made of
regional geography m everyday life. The
great advantage of the type area is that it
permits a careful study to be made of a few
sections, so that pupils may get a real com-
prehension of the value of geography and so

34

that it provokes natural reviews. The latter
fact is the strongest argument for following
the type method m certain sections of school
work.

The map-drawing method is now but little
used, though a generation ago it was much in
vogue Pupils, by this method, are taught to
draw maps by a rule of thumb plan and are
trained to visualize their products For pupils
who have a good power of visualization, this
method has its value, provided the maps arc
drawn according to an understandable scale
and on a projection that does not too much
distort areas

The inductive method has never been much
employed in American schools, for the obvious
reason that geography deals with many facts
beyond the students' experience, and a real
comprehension of these impersonal materials
can be more readily imparted by a plan that
consumes less time

The topical method is generally followed in
the upper grammar grades, though the title
covers multitudes of sins, in places The best
use of the topical method is found in the later
years of school life, when a causal order from
causes to consequences can be followed so as
to give training m right methods of working
and thinking The topical method m the
lower grades generally leads to the blind
memorizing of items of information and not
to the development of pupils' powers of work

As a matter of fact, the method followed
should vary with the character of the topics
under consideration, with the age and abilities
of the pupils, arid according to the training of
the teacher Pupils in the early years are
interested in the life about them and should
m general work out in a causal order from the
human and life conditions to the underlying
physical influences; m the upper grades, the
causal older should in general be followed
from causes to consequences Any teacher,
however, who at any time finds himself getting
into a rut through too slavishly following one
plan of procedure, should, for the sake of him-
self, his subject, and his pupils, at once vary
the monotony by changing his method so as
to arouse his pupils into activity

In all school geography work the danger is
that the subject will be presented in so frag-
mentary a way that all the life is taken out of
it The picturesque side of geography should
not be neglected, although it should be sub-
ordinated to a well-considered plan of pro-
cedure This side can be brought out best
through a rational use of pictures, specimens,
and supplementary reading. Obviously, the
excursion should be an important part of
school geography work in this country, as it
long has been in many European countries.
Public opinion must be trained, however, to
the appreciation of the value of excursions,
before they can be generally used in large
school systems School excursions (qv.) are

GEOGRAPHY

GEOGRAPHY

harder to conduct than class recitations, and,
unless in the hands of a wise teacher, degenerate
into picnics and are of little value

One important phase of geography teaching
deserves emphasis because it runs all through
the grades and has been too much neglected in
recent years; that is, training in location Lo-
cation is essential in geography, but it does not
make up the whole subject, as" was so largely
the case in the days of " sailor geography,"
with its lists of capes and capitals Places
and features to be studied as to their location
may be divided into three classes, which will
be found a good working guide to all teachers
The first class would include those names
which should be at the ready service of any
intelligent person, class two would include
those names which ought to be familiar to all
through their school work, so that they can be
readily found on a map, class three would
include those names which are locally signifi-
cant, but which are not of equal importance
in other regions By judging any name accord-
ing to its relative importance, according to this
grouping, any teacher may readily work out
for himself Ins minimum of location which he
will develop m his class

Methods in Secondary Schools — Modern
methods in secondary school geography are
characterized by an emphasis on laboratory
work In many of the larger public high
schools of the country, specially arranged
laboi atones have been constructed and
equipped with extensive collections of maps,
models, diagrams, lantcin slides, illustrations,
and, in some cases, with specially devised
apparatus for experimental work in the develop-
ment of land forms In schools wheie the
commercial or industrial phase of geography is
emphasized, collections showing industrial prod-
ucts and processes have proved most valuable
equipment The laboratory presentation of
topics is sometimes preliminary to the textbook
and class study , in the larger number of schools,
where the program is rigid, the laboratory
work is supplementary to the text arid class
work This relation ought to vary with the
subject under discussion, for obviously some
topics cannot be presented half by laboratory
methods and half by classroom methods, as
would be implied where the subject has two
class hours and a double laboratory period a
week Certain topics m geographv, as the
study of weather, climate, and land forms, can
be more readily approached from the labora-
tory side than can topics dealing with the
ocean or the distribution of plants and animals

Laboratory work may be introductory to
topics and consist of well thought out prob-
lems presented in some graphic form, or it
may be illustrative so as to give defimteness to
the class and text work The excellent supply
of maps from the Weather Bureau and the
United States Geological Survey makes this
work in certain subjects much more feasible

than it was a few years ago The lack of good
laboratory materials in certain of the other
fields has meant, in many cases, an over-
emphasis of the land features, so that, from
text and laboratory, pupils have secured a
warped point of view as to the relative value
of the several phases of physical geography
Newer methods, better laboratory manuals,
wider conceptions of the right content of
geography in secondary schools, have all con-
tributed toward the improvement of labora-
tory work It is now conceded that laboratory
work is supplementary to class and text work,
and not coequal in importance at all stages of
progress

In some schools, where the conditions are
favorable, field work is carried on for a few
weeks during the year, but field work has not
developed to the extent that was hoped, owing
to the difficulties incident to field trips Field
exercises may roughly be classed m two
groups, in the early part of the course pupils
may profitably be taken, afield for " field sight,"
— that is, to get a comprehensive view of a
landscape, see its parts, the problems it pre-
sents in a physiographic and geographic way
Such field exercises form the basis for class
and laboratory work in the closed season of
winter In the open spring season the field
exercises may be really " field work," where
pupils work out simple problems which have
been previously approached through the labora-
tory and text As yet, however, excursions
have not won for themselves a place in either
elementary or secondary school geography, and
arc little used except in the study of industrial
geography through visits to manufacturing and
distributing plant (See EXCURSIONS, SCHOOL.)

Equipment for Teaching — It goes without
saying that in all geography teaching a good
textbook is essential More than one should
be used, if possible The market is now well
supplied with good texts for most of the work
of elementary and secondary schools Labora-
tory guides, supplemental volumes for reference
work, encyclopedias, and books of reference are
adequate. The great lack is good wall maps,
school atlases, and ample illustrative apparatus
for elementary schools The available equip-
ment for secondary work is in some eases
overnch, so that teachers have difficulty m
selecting that which is most pertinent

In elementary schools atlases are practically
unknown, and wall maps arc little seen and
less used Yet wall maps arc of fundamental
importance m school work Every classroom
above the third grade in elementary schools
ought to have as a minimum map equipment
a good Mcrcator map of the world, a political
map of the United States, and maps of the
continents to be studied in the respective
grades In the uppei grades there should also
be physical maps of the United States and
Europe and political maps of all the continents,
not only for use in geography, but in history,

35

GEOGRAPHY

GEOLOGY

literature, and current events Yet this mini-
mum is rarely found except in the best schools
in our larger city systems Outline maps are
also a most valuable adjunct to class work and
are now available in cheap and reliable form
Pictures, lantern slides, stereographs, specimens
illustrating products and industries, models,
and government publications, in great variety,
are now easily procurable They form most
valuable aids to geography study and should
be used wherever possible, provided they arc
selected with care and are used, not for pur-
poses of amusing or merely illustrating points,
but as really definite parts of class work from
which valuable lessons may be drawn in a clear-
cut and illuminating way

Many other valuable forms of equipment
might be cited, but a small equipment chosen
acording to a well-ordered plan and used care-
fully and systematically is better than a mass
of unrelated material used just because it is
available The problem of how to use illus-
trative material profitably is more difficult than
how to secure it R. E. D.

See VISUAL AIDS TO TEACHING.

References : —

History —

BEAZLEY, C R The Dawn of Modern Geography
Vol I, 300 AD to 800 A D , Vol II, 900 A D to
1:200 AD, Vol III, 1260-1420 (London, 1897-
1906 )

EuKitroN, H E The Origin and Growth of the English
Colonies (Oxford, 1904 )

FISKL, JOHN Discovery of America 2 voh> (Boston
1898 )

JOHNSON, CLIFFORD Old Time Schools and School
Bookt, Chap XII, The First American Geog-
raphy, Chtip XIII, Later Geographies (New
York, 1904 )

LITC\H, C P Historical Geography of the British Col-
onies (Oxford, 1887 )

MILL, H R , Ed The International Geography , by
S(vc?ity Author* (New York, 1909 )

TOZRR, H F History of Ancient Geography (Cam-
bridge, 1897 )

WATM>N, FOSTER The Beginning* of the Teaching of
Modern Subjects in England Chap III, Teach-
ing of Geography in England up to 1660 (London.
1909 )

Geography in the Schools —

DAVIS, W M The Extension of Physical Geography
in Elementary Teaching School and College,
Vol I, pp 599 (>OS, 1892

The Progress of Geography in the Schools First
Year Book. National Society for the Scientific
Study of Education, Part II, pp 7-49, 1902

FISCHER, H Methodik des Unterncht* in der Erdkunde.
(Breslau, 1905 )

HALKIN L'fSnseifjnement dc la Geographic en Alle-
magrK (Biuxelles, 1900 )

HARRIH, W T The Place of Geography in the Ele-
mentary School The Forum, Vol XXXII, p.
759, January, 1892

KKHK, G GcsLhichie dcr Methodik des Volksschul-
HHterruhh, Vol II (Gotha, 1888)

KELTIE, J SCOTT Applied Geography (London

1890)
Geographical Education (London, 1886 )

TROTTER, SPENCER The Social Function of Geog-
raphy Fourth Year Book, National Herhart
Society, pp 57-79, 1893

See also, textbooks hy Herbertson, Lvde (England),
Sehrader (France), Kirchhoff, Fischer-Geistbeck
(Gei many)

36

Elementary Schools —

ARCHER, LEWIS, AND CHAPMAN The Teaching of

Geography in Elementary Schools
BAOLKY, W C. The Function of Geography in the

Elementary School Journal of Geography, Vol.

Ill, pp 222-233, 1904,
CALKINS, R D The Text, the Course of Study, and the

Teacher Journal of Geography, Vol. IV, pp. 164-

167, 1905

DAVIS, W M Home Geography Journal of Geog-
raphy Vol IV, pp 1-5, 1905
The Teaching of Geography Educ Rev. Ill, pp

417-426, Vol. IV, 6-15, 1892-1893
DODGE, R E Equipment foi Geography Teaching

Journal of Geography, Vol V, pp 242-250
GEIKIE, ARCHIBALD The Teaching of Geography

(Now York, 1887 )
GIBBS, D The Pedagogy of Geography Pedagogical

Seminary, Vol XIV, pp 39 100, March, 1907
McMuRRY, C A Special Method in Geography

New York, 1903)

MILL, H R Guide to Geographical Books and Appli-
ances (London, 1910)
REDWAY, J W The New Basis of Geography (New

(York, 1901 )
SUTHERLAND, WILLIAM J The Teaching of Geography

(Chicago, 1910.)
Symposium on Results to be Expected from a School

Course in Geography Journal of Geography,

Vol IV, pp 145, 149, 155, 160, 1905

Secondary Schools —

CHAMBERLAIN, J F Report of Committee of National
Educational Association on Secondary School
Geography Proceedings of National Educational
Association, 1909

Committee of Ten, Report

DODGE, R E Report of Committee of Association
of American Geographers on Secoiidaiy School
Geography Jouinal of Geography, Vol VIII
pp 159-165, 1910

TARR, R S , and VON ENGELN, () D Laboiatory Man-
ual of Physical Geography (New York, 1910 )

See also, references to laboratory work and commercial
geography in Journal of Geography and in School
Science and Mathematics

GEOLOGY —Relationship to other fields

— Perhaps no science shares its field with other
sciences to a greater degree than geology As
the science of the earth, it treats in its own
special way subject matter that falls also to
one or another of nearly all the sciences for
treatment in their special ways Obviously in
its function as the history of the earth it be-
comes the province of geology to treat the col-
lective results of innumerable agencies arid
processes that enter individually into the fields
of other sciences.

If a survey of the whole field of science be
taken to bring further into view the genetic
relations of the several subjects of study, it
will be seen that the history of the realm from
which springs the realistic phase of education
discloses two coordinate lines of evolution, each
of which embraces a series of progressive steps
The one scries includes (a) the cooperation of
chemical and physical agents in the formation
of minute integers leading up to molecules;
(b) the combination of molecules in the forma-
tion of crystalloidal, colloidal, and amorphous
aggregates, (c) the assembling of these into
the lithosphere, the hydrosphere, and the atmos-
phere; (d) the coordination of these in the

GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY

formation of the completed planet; (e) the cor-
relation of this with kindred bodies into the
solar system, and finally (/) the assembling of
solar systems into the stellar galaxy The
other series embraces (a) the cooperation of
organic agencies in forming and actuating indi-
vidualized plasms; (6) the union or differen-
tiation of these in the formation of more com-
plex living organisms, (c) the development of
a system of transmittal of organic acquisitions,

(d) the initiation of reflex and sense action,

(e) the development of a system of registry of
sense experiences; (/) the development of
sense action and mental registry into higher
and higher derivatives, until finally (g) they
merge into the declared forms of mental, moral,
and social phenomena; in other words, into
the very working ground of education itself
The word " finally " is intended here to mean
only the last stage of human vision, not at all
the ultimate in any sense. These two series
run closely parallel to one another and are
interdependent They in themselves imply
better than a long discussion the relations of
earth studies to other studies To the student
of earth history in particular, the genetic con-
nections of the two series are themselves the
best expressions of the vital relations of the
sciences and serve as the most reliable guide
in interpreting and evaluating their educational
functions The natural paths for educational
procedure, so far at least as genetic considera-
tions have weight, he up and down the his-
torical lines, for these disclose the real places
that have been taken by the participant factors
in the natural order of things In the details
of a formal study there is a choice between
starting with the more primitive and the more
undifferentiated and thence working toward
the more segregate and the more individual,
and as an alternative, starting with the last
stages, the end products for the time being,
and working backwards along the lines of
genesis toward the more primitive and the
more undifferentiated, but in natural practice
— with little doubt the best practice — both
courses have been followed interchangeably
and often in suoh close succession as to make
the method a type of reversible mental action,
an almost spontaneous gliding from antecedent
to consequent and immediately back from con-
sequent to antecedent, from parent to off-
spring and at once back from offspimg to
parent, and so up and down from one link of
the genetic chain to another in either direction,
as occasion offers

It is of course fully recognized that when
the historical or genetic factor has little in-
structional value, which is perhaps only true
when it is unimportant to know how the sub-
ject or the state under study grows out of or
grows into other subjects or other states, the
educational process may play more freely to
and fro across the lines of natural sequence or
in neglect of them. It is of course recognized

37

that underlying tho whole web and woof of
antecedents arid consequents there are many
factors common to several 01 to all lines of
succession and these may be treated to ad-
vantage independently, artificially, or " ab-
stractly " and precedence given to their own
kinships of qualities rather than their genetic
or historical relationships This mode and the
genetic mode are complementary anol coordi-
nate, not antagonistic or even competitive

The Essential Factors of Earth Study — The
study of our dwelling place involves four main
factors: (1) the study of the birth of the earth;
(2) the study of its structure and composition,
i e. the earth's mechanism, (3) the study of
the energies, organic as well as inorganic, that
actuate it and the modes of their action, / e .
its processes and its dynamics, and (4) the
successive interplay of these, i c its history
From the higher point of view of earth science
neither of these factors by itself can yield the
highest educational results, for neither leads the
mind to all the essentials of a icund view In
world study at least it is not enough to know
the origin or the mechanism alone, nor the
processes and energies alone, there mutt be a
study of the actual workings and, for a rounded,
guarded, balanced view, a study of the long
chain of blended processes and results actually
realized in history.

Historical — The Primitive tftages of Earth
Study — In the primitive education of the
various peoples, the crude products of earth
study, if study it mav be called, had a rather
large place in the small total of educational
agencies that took part in guiding the primi-
tive ways of life Such information as was
picked up and handed down related chieflv to
the immediate needs of life and may be said
to have been forced by daily requirements
rather than sought for the love of knowing
The additions that were slowly made as time
went on more largely took the form of a widen-
ing of imperfect knowledge than of a careful
sifting of what had been acquired It is true
that then as at all times testing by trial sifted,
in some measure, what passed for knowledge,
but it was incidental rather than purposeful,
and the critical spirit of science \\as not vet
born The whole was very crude, yet it was
very necessary The primitive school of earth
lore was the open school of life's necessities
It was indeed so bioad that it was shared by
many of the higher animals, each in its own
peculiar way, and some of the attainments of
these animals in the line of keen geographic
sense and acute knowledge of local topography
compel admiration

The earth lore of the human race in these
early stages was chiefly of the geographic
rather than geologic type (See GEOGRAPHY )
There was, however, some rude beginning of
acquiring knowledge relative to crustal struc-
ture and composition Caverns were explored
and occupied, structural material was chosen

GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY

and built into shelters and ho mcti, stone was
selected and fashioned into weapons and tools,
certain ores were discovered and smelted, and
the use of metals begun. A crude form of
economic geology was thus slowly brought into
being and took part in the rude training of the
primitive races. There can be no doubt, also,
that even the rudest peoples were impressed
by earthquakes and volcanoes, by floods and
landslides, and more or less by the gentler
geological processes, but these impressions seem
to have tended rather to weave themselves
into fantastic conceptions than into sober in-
ductions of the scientific order While these
beginnings of geologic knowledge can scarcely
be classed as science, they cannot be disre-
garded as elements in the primitive education,
for they were in reality germinal. At these
early stages there does not seem to have been
more than vague imaginings of what the earth
as a whole might be, and such speculations as
were indulged in respecting its origin were of the
rnvthical anthropic order

Throughout thin primitive stage no other
concept than that of a flat earth appears to
have had any vogue; and so the belief that
the earth was essentially a plain may be taken
as the most tangible criterion to set off the
primitive stage from the more advanced stage
that followed it It seems strange, and yet is
perhaps not so strange as it seems, that the
geographic dispersion of the race should have
well-nigh wrapped the earth about, while yet
the notion that it was flat prevailed Even
within historic times and among the Medi-
terranean nations of much lauded intellectual
attainments it was regarded as a, great step
toward unity and completeness to be able to
map the land as a circular or elliptical plain,
girt about by the great river, Oceaiius

The Stage of Speculative Extension — When
the epoch of the flat earth, the earth of com-
mon vision, began to give place to the spheroidal
earth, the earth of corrected vision and of
scientific imagination, the unscientific imagina-
tion came also into play and a whole troop of
visionary conceptions of modes of formation
sprang into being There was at first little
restraint from chemical, physical, and astro-
nomical knowledge, or from scientific training,
and so fantastic speculation ran riot for a
time In this the pre-Grecian peoples indulged
freely, while the idealistic trend of the Greek
mind lent itself peculiarly to this indulgence.
A long line of eminent Greeks drew in turn a
varied series of pictures of earth genesis among
which the metaphysical were dominant; but
still these were stimulative and clustered about
some substantial seeds of truth As early as
the sixth century B r Anaxirnander, doubtless
working on germinal ideas derived from
Thales, set forth his conception of a fluidal
evolution of the earth and of the stars He
conceived the earth to be round, and set it in
the center of the universe. Mystical as his

38

view was in most respects, it recognized phys-
ical stages in cosmic development and was the
germ of a new order of thought In the same
century Xenophanes noted the remains of
mollusks and of plants imbedded in rocks and
took a step toward fossil biology This was
scarcely a step in paleontology, even in em-
bryonic paleontology, for Xenophanes seems
to have had no thought of a series of ancient
types leading up to the present types and
making up a biologic genealogy He merely
recognized the burial of existing types of life
during a previous incursion of the sea Xan-
thus, a century later, and Herodotus, still
later, recorded other cases of fossil remains
and strengthened the theory of former inunda-
tions Empedocles, in the fifth century, studied
Etna and noted other signs of internal heat
and became the father of all such as believe in
a molten interior

The doctrine of a round earth grew into the
creed ^ of a school when the Pythagoreans
adopting it gave it a congenial metaphysical
basis and made it popular with the Greeks
The sphere is the most perfect of forms, it is
therefore the fittest form for the homo of
man, hence it is the form of the home of man
The Sophists and the Platomsts as they came
into influence still further pushed into ascend-
ency the dialectic and imaginative tendencies
in earth study, arid the scientific mode of pro-
ceeding by successive tests, never as yet more
than feeble, was overwhelmed There was
some little recovery under the leadership of
Aristotle, who combined in a singular way the
speculative and the empirical methods He
recognized stages of earth development and
some other vital features, but there was little
of the spirit or method of modern geology in
his treatment of the earth Thoophrastus
wrote on minerals, stones, and fossils, and some-
thing approaching a text in geological lines
began to become available

A contribution of the genuine scientific type
came out of P^gypt when, near the middle of
the third century B c , Eratosthenes measured
a degree and thus laid the basis for a real esti-
mate of the size of the earth To this solid
contribution he added various hypotheses of
the more sober order relative to mountain
chains, to the former presence of the ocean
above the continents as implied by fossils, to
the work of water, and to the phenomena of
volcanoes and earthquakes

The Roman period naturally brought a more
realistic spirit and in the course of the wide
expansion of the Empire, a larger need for
geographic and geologic information Strabo
Seneca, Pliny the Elder, and Pliny the Younger
added largely to the stock of earth knowledge
as well as suggestive interpretations of the
more striking of the earth processes. In their
treatment of volcanoes, earthquakes, sub-
sidences, and elevations, as well as the work
of water, they often touched mterpretational

GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY

grounds occupied later by the older school of
geologists

Marinus of Tyre and Ptolemy of Egypt
added much oriental knowledge to the accre-
tions of the Greeks and Romans, and all this
material coming later into the hands of the
Arabs was partially saved from destruction
during the brecciating stages that followed the
downfall of Rome, and thus became the pos-
sible seeds of a revival of earth study in Eu-
rope when it emerged several centuries later
from the shadows of the dark ages In actual
fact the revival was probably more largely
spontaneous than inherited

The Transition to a Truer Basis — The brec-
ciation of the Roman Empire not only involved
the destruction of a large part of the material
for education in earth science that had been
gathered by the Egyptians, Phoenicians, Greeks,
and Romans, but the catastrophe was followed
by the rise of a form of scholasticism that came
to be a grave obstacle to the resuscitation of
earth study on a true basis The obstacle was
not so much a barrier to the regathermg of
statistical data as a restraint put upon the
free interpretation of the processes bv which
the earth had come to be what it is To fully
appreciate the educational contribution which
geology made in rectifying ethical attitudes
and intellectual methods, the sterile obstruc-
tive nature of the retrocession of the Middle
Ages must be duly weighed

The issue of these ages at first centered on
the nature and meaning of fossils, not alto-
gether a new issue, but one revived with new
intensity On the one hand, it was held that
the lifelike shapes in the rocks were the prod-
ucts of a vis plastica, or of some form of
molding force in the earth, or else were a
Mephistophelian device for the deception of
jnan; on the other hand, it was urged that
they were true relics of former life entrapped
in the growing sediments in the natural course
of events It was at bottom an ethical issue,
a question as to the integrity and fidelity of
the record of creation, if not of the honesty of
the creation itself

Although Xenophanes had recognized the
genuineness of fossils in the sixth century B c
and had been followed by many others in the
classical ages, so great was the retrocession
attending the breakup of the Roman Empire
and so deep was the neglect into which deter-
minate data had fallen through the establish-
ment of medieval scholasticism, that Leo-
nardo da Vinci in reaffirming the genuineness
of fossils was perhaps as much a pioneer in the
fifteenth century A D as Xenophanes had been
in the sixth century B c and no doubt had
greater need of courage The views of Da
Vinci were probably original, at least they were
concrete and based on the close and accurate
observations of an engineer and an artist
While Da Vinci clearly recognized that fossils
implied changes of land and sea and were

39

marks of former crust a 1 eventb, it is not cleat
that he saw m them the reeoid of a succession
of different faunas arid floras Besides others,
he was followed by Alexander, who had ob-
served fossils in the Calabnan mountains, and
notably by Francastono, who built a strong
argument on the fossils of the rocks of Verona
As soon as the genuineness of fossils had
made appreciable headway against the imita-
tiomsts or simulatiomsts, the issue took on a
new phase, in which the two parties were those
who assigned the fossils to the Noachian deluge
and those who held that they recorded a much
more ancient historv, the diluviahsts and the
nascent paleontologists In the belief in a
Noachian flood then prevalent there was at
once an element of aid and a deterrent With
such a belief, it was not unnatural that fossils
should at first be thought to be relics of that
flood, and proof of it Not unnaturally this
belief prompted the collection and description
of these diluvu universally tester and so added
data and broadened interest At the bame
tune, the belief developed and deeplv im-
planted an erroneous element of interpretation
that soon grew to be a formidable barrier to
the true view But with the best minds the
very attempt to make the fossils serve as wit-
nesses to the deluge led to observations incon-
sistent with so recent and so brief an event
and turned them toward the true vie\\ Nico-
las Steno, in the middle of the seventeenth
century, followed a little later by Valhsncri,
Moro, and Generelli, gave start to an Italian
school working somewhat on modern lines
They are perhaps entitled to be regarded as
the pioneers of modern historical geology In
the later pait of that century, Robert Hooke
of England became the pioneer of an English
school of a similar type, and here and there in
other parts of Europe there arose centers of
like order which spread the leaven of the
nascent modern movement, so that by the
middle of the eighteenth century the pioneers
of the modern school had gamed a Him foot-
ing Meanwhile the advocates of mystic simu-
lation or of Mephistophelian purpose had fallen
into discredit, but the diluviahsts still retained
a large and influential following This school
can scarcely be said to have lost a place among
contributors to geologic data until the strati-
graphic series had been worked out so fully as
to leave no question that there had been a
long series of successive depositions m which
there was imbedded a like succession of faunas,
a work which, though much advanced by many
workers in the latter part of the eighteenth
century, did not become a declared achieve-
ment until William Smith of England, Cuvier
of France, and others of the early nineteenth
century had brought paleontological science
into clear definition based on irrefragible evi-
dence Meanwhile, however, the diluviahsts
were being gradually replaced by a catastrophic
school who assigned the successions of ancient

GEOLOGY

life io a seiies of creations following previous
general 01 pai lial destiuctioiib

\\hilo those (iiicinl issues lelativc to life
hold the f i out of tlif stage, notable advances
had been made on the inorganic side resulting
in a broader and moie specific knowledge of the
composition and structure of the rocks Tins
was in part incidental to the study of the
strata and the fossils and m part stimulated
by economic considerations, but it arose also
in part from a growing desire to know for its
own sake Leonardo da Vinci, Nicolas Steno,
and others who had taken leading parts in the
organic problem, were large contributors here
also Lchmaim, Fuchsel, Arduino, and others
assembled and systematized the existing knowl-
edge of minerals, rocks, ores, and structural
phenomena, and began tabulations of strati-
graphical sequence

Just at the turn of the century a notable
issue arose between those who held that the
basal rocks were formed by crystallization
from solution in water, the Neptumsts, led by
Werner, and those who held that they were
formed by solidification from the molten state,
the Plutomsts, led by Ilutton The issue
went over into the nineteenth century, opinion
drifting toward the Huttoman side

Concurrent with these special movements
on the biological and physical sides, there was
also a revival of theoretical effort on some-
what firmei grounds than those that stimu-
lated the Cheek speculations Descartes,
Leibnitz, and Buffon gave forth views of the
formative stages of the earth, which, though
inadequate or erroneous, served to gather
the scattered thought of the time into unity,
to enlarge the field of view, and to stimulate
thought in quaiters where the unorganized
details failed to awaken interest These were
followed near the close of the century by the
speculations of Thomas Wright arid Kant and
by the definite hypothesis of the Marquis de
Laplace that later carne to monopolize the
term Nebular Hypothesis Thus the latter
half of the eighteenth centuiy greatly enriched
and gave truer trend to the rather crude
rejuvenations of the three previous centuries,
and in so doing prepared the way for the
more rapid and sounder development of the
geologic sciences m the next century

The nineteenth century was in fact the first
round period of really well-organized, wisely
directed geologic effoit During the early and
middle portions of the century there was a
pronounced effort to harmonize the geologic
record with the interpretation of the biblical
account and with views of creation then widely
prevalent Modified forms of the Laplacian
and Kantian hypotheses of genesis came into
general acceptance and were woven into these
efforts at harmony The leading dynamical
interpretations of the earth were made to con-
form to the contractional postulates of these
hypotheses The molten earth of Empedocles

GEOLOGY

and

wan a scarcely questione fc'
thought to have a him basis in tie ns( ul
internal tomperatme, in volcanic phonomoan
and in the cosmologic hypotheses 1 he early
earth was conceived to have been enshrouded
in hot gases of immense volume and density
which suffered progressive depletion as time
went on Widespread uniform tropical cli-
mates were held to have prevailed in the early
ages and to have been followed by more diverse
and cooler ones in the latei ages Seasons,
aridities, and refrigerations were features of the
later periods alone and by forecast were made
the forerunners of still more complete atmos-
pheric consumption in the future leading on to
a final refrigeration Geological progress was
held to be marked by cataclysms destioying
all life, and these to bo followed by new creations
It is within the memory of the writer that
complete destruction of life at the close of the
Paleozoic and of the Mesozoic eras respectively
was taught in standard American colleges and
by the most authoritative American textbooks
At less important stages partial destructions
and corresponding creations were thought to
have intervened between these greater catas-
trophies All distinct species were then held
to be new creations The whole geological
conception was thus made to consist of a series
of catastroplncs and creations in which the
instructional and creative factors played alter-
nate parts Every tenure of existence was
thought to be uncertain and the termination
of the whole distinctly foreshadowed

There was, indeed, some dissent from the
catastrophic features of these views appearing
now and then far back and growing as time
went on Ilutton had urged the profound
changes that could be wrought in tune by the
ceaseless action of the quiet agencies, and
Lamarck had urged the divergencies of living
forms that might be developed by use Play-
fair had helped on the Huttoman views
Lycll near the end of the first quarter of the
nineteenth century added further to those
views and rounded out the whole into the
doctrine of umformitarianisin which success-
fully contested the field with catastroplnsm
during the second quarter of the nineteenth
century and came to be the creed of the domi-
nant school in the latter half of the centuiy

With the verity of the geological record
firmly established, though incomplete, and
with the competency of gentle agencies cease-
lessly acting sustained by a strong advocacy,
the way was prepared for a favorable recep-
tion of the doctrine of derivation of plant and
animal species through selection when ad-
vanced by Darwin and Wallace near the
middle of the century Though this was essen-
tially biological, the establishment of the
geologic record was scarcely less than an indis-
pensable prerequisite to any wide acceptance at
that time. The profound educational effect
of the doctrine of evolution into which this

40

GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY

has grown is perhaps quite as much due to
geology as to biology so far as current tunes
are concerned The revolutionary effects of
this doctrine of continuity and derivation in
the intellectual world are familiar themes and
need not be dwelt on here further than to urge
their dependence on the verity of the larger
history of which life evolution is a part The
full depth and reach of this revolution as an
educational agency has not yet been realized
and cannot be fully realized until the further
evolutions to which it loads have had time to
take tangible form and pass their trial periods

The opening of the twentieth century has
brought some of these further evolutions into
tangible stages These seem to foreshadow
the issues of the present century From the
mystical ages down to the close of the eight-
eenth century, the earth and related bodies
were commonly assigned a birth from chaos.
During the nineteenth century, belief in a
more orderly birth from gaseous or quasi-
gaseous scimchaotic states replaced these
In the closing stages of the nineteenth century
the dynamics underlying all these* cosmogonies
was challenged and a system of dynamics of
the same order as that which is now in con-
trol, entitled planetosimal because embodied
in minute masses, offered in its stead So
also, instead of the previous assumption that
the present solar system is the first and only
system of its series, the firstborn of chaos,
there was offered the hypothesis that the cur-
rent solar system is but a rejuvenation of an
eaiher system back of winch may he a genealogy
of systems to which no specific limit was
assigned It carries the conception of a slow-
grown solid earth in which a niolton earth or
a general molten interior may probably never
have been a feature The preferential view is
that internal stresses have constantly forced
to the surface molten rock with its included
gases as fast as formed in working volumes,
thus building up the crust and feeding the
atmosphere and hydrosphere, while the solidity
of the interior is preserved The atmosphere
is made the product of cooperative agencies of
supply and consumption whose mutual action
maintains an oscillating equilibrium within
limits congenial to terrestrial life, a system
that presumably may continue to maintain
the conditions of life for eons yet to como
This new phase of umformitananism opens a
forecast of indeterminate duration correspond-
ing to tho enlarged retrospect it opens in the
rejuvenations of past solar systems The
whole1 constitutes a further step in the reduc-
tion of tho catastrophic, factors and the exten-
sion of quiet persistent procedure Kvon tho
rejuvenation of a solar system is made no more
catastrophic than the mutually excitivo effects
of passing stars

A second feature, a contribution of physics
to geology, is tho discovery that some of the*
atoms of the earth arc undergoing spontaneous

disintegration and in doing so are shooting
forth particles at prodigious velocities, imply-
ing energies of like prodigious order This
has laised tho question, as yet unanswered,
whether spontaneous change, and perhaps
spontaneous organization, are not universal
functions of earth matter and of the cosmic
matter to which it is related However this
may be, the new phenomena exalt to the limit
of man's imagination the activities and energies
of common rnattoi In the light of this, the
earth appears to have little need of an inherit-
ance of internal heat, its volcanic displays
may be little more than the product of spon-
taneous disintegration within Tho energies
of the solar system seem adequate for the
greater projections hackwaid and forward which
the later cosmology had already assumed on
other grounds

This sketch of the growth of earth science
implies the course of education through which
the leaders of thought and tho \\oild at largo
have passed in reaching the piesent stage of
world science It is a concrete mode of indi-
cating the place which this science lias occu-
pied in human pi ogress Tho phrase "world
science" is hero used pormissively, for it is thai
rounded conception which embraces the totahU
of the earth and its inhabitants from the begin-
ning till now, that has taken deep hold on the
thought of the world and has influenced its
intellectual development Tho branches of
earth study take their rndmdual places as
special sciences under tho more oompiehonsivo
world studv Those special geologic sciences
embrace the subject-matter of most of tho
courses that form the curricula of the schools
and require technical pedagogical treatment

Deployment of the Geologic Sciences —
While the very essence of idoal geology is the
unitary treatment of tho organized totality of
earth knowledge, its actual giowth as a science
and as a school study has diverged widely
from this idoal Paiticular phases of the sub-
ject have boon taken up moio 01 loss sporadi-
cally as conditions invited, and this has given
a lack of symmetry to its several stages Tho
geographic phase was the earliest, and geog-
raphy might ideally have boon extended to
embrace the earth's composition, structure,
processes, and life history, and so have em-
bodied the whole group of earth sciences and
the whole history of the earth, but in fact
geographic studios wore foi ages so largely
limited to tho surface as it is, and to the
present relations of the creatures that dwell
on it, that the name came* to denote this
specifically and tho term " geology" was coined
to embrace the broader study that arose later

Tho geographic mode of treatment is now
being extended backward into tho " geologic "
ages and the old surfaces of the earth are
being worked out, and so there is in process
of development the now science of paloo-
geography This is worked out almost wholly

41

GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY

by methods known as geologic and still the
results are assembled and interpreted in a
geographic sense and take that name

So, too, while the earlier geography was
mainly descriptive of the earth surface as it is,
with the growth of the spirit of inquiry into
processes and antecedents, there has come
into the later study a search for the origin and
meaning of the surface features and so the old
form of " geographic " treatment has grown
more and more toward the " geologic " treat-
ment, that is, toward the study of processes,
former states, underlying material, structure,
and historical meaning And so the two
sciences run together and overlap, as they
should under the newer view of the true rela-
tions of the sciences and of their educational
functions The real fields of science overlap,
mterdigitatc and interfuse, geography en-
velops the earth in its way and geology
equally compasses the whole in its way; not
a little of their common ground is identical,
belonging equally to both and belonging ex-
clusively to neither.

The ground where geography and geology
most intimately meet is embraced under the
terms physical geography and physiography
These terms are in part used synonymously and
in part distinctively When the emphasis is
laid on the physical features of the surface as
features, the better usage places the study under
physical geography , when the emphasis is laid
mainly on the mode1 of origin and the processes
involved, the study takes on a geological aspect
and is best placed under physiography as that
term is used in America With such a dis-
tinction in mind, physiography was placed in
the geological group by those who were pioneers
in the educational use of the term in America,
while physical geography naturally retains its
place in the geographic group

Physiography is at once a recent school
study and a recent development of geologic
science Powell and Gilbert, pioneers in
enunciating the doctrine of the base level and of
cycles of erosion, arc worthy of being regarded
as the fathers of the science, while Davis,
Pcnck, Salisbury, and others have been efficient
in developing it As a means of training, it
has the advantage of presenting an available
field at the site of every institution, if urban
modifications have not destroyed it The
processes that may be studied in action or
through their recent results include a large
portion of those that enter into stratigraphie
and dynamic geology As respects mental
discipline, physiography is a rather rigorous
naturalistic study of processes leading on to
definite results and forcing rather close inter-
pretations of results m terms of their causes
The actions are measurably complex but not
usually so intricate as to confuse careful stu-
dents. Physiographic study centers on physi-
cal processes and touches the biological and
the human elements incidentally rather than

42

primarily In this limitation it keeps on fairly
solid grounds and trains students to firmness
of mental action and trustworthiness in inter-
pretation These are its virtues. Its self-
imposed limitation lies in leaving the biological
and the human elements to be developed in
similar ways on their own grounds. These
cannot just yet be treated with the firmness and
trustworthiness already attained on the physi-
cal side and, if they could, their fusion in a
single work under a single title at this stage of
educational development would be one of
doubtful wisdom It is therefore a mooted
question how far the stronger treatment with
its limitations should displace the looser treat-
ment of the broader field pending the develop-
ment of the biologic and anthropic elements on
firmer grounds The argument from supposed
superior interest is scarcely pertinent, for su-
perior interest usually lies where intellectual
success finds its most tangible victories The
subject is touched again below

When inquiry first seriously began to pene-
trate the earth, it took note of the composition
and structure of the crust This led to some
knowledge of sedimentary rocks and to the
beginning of stratigraphy and historical geol-
ogy It led also to a knowledge of volcanic,
plutonic, and other crystalline rocks and thus
to the geology of the massive terranes, the chief
held of petrologic geology, the complement of
stratigraphie geology It led also to the
recognition of bowed, warped, crumpled, broken,
and shifted rocks and thus to deformutive
geology (diastrophism) This embraces the
study of mountains (orogeny) and of the more
general elevations and depressions (cpeirogeny)
Inquiry led also to the observation that dis-
torted rocks have usually undergone crystalli-
zation and chemical modification and hence to
metamorphic geology The whole subject of
geologic structure may be embraced under the
sub-science geotectonics, and the whole of
formational geology under that of geognosy
Vulcanology grew up naturally as a special
phase of igneous geology, and seismology grew
as naturally out of the study of rapid earth
movements of which earthquakes are the most
declared form All these phenomena involve
great energies and thus they tie geology to
physics, the common borderland of which is
treated under geophysics

As the studies of the general aspects of rocks
were carried down to detail it was discovered
that the crust is composed of rock elements,
conveniently known as rock species, and that
these could be further analyzed into definite
minerals, hence arose the science of rocks,
hthology or petrology, or, when mainly de-
scriptive, petrography, hence also arose the
science of mineralogy, back of which lie closely
chemistry and crystallography Down to tho
latter half of the nineteenth century the study
of rocks and minerals went but little beyond
naked eye examinations, mechanical tests for

GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY

hardness, cleavage, and other qualities, and
simple chemical tests supported in some degree
by full chemical analyses, but optical methods
were later introduced, particularly the examina-
tion of thin slices of rocks under a polarizing
microscope, and this led to a much closer study
of rocks and minerals and wrought a revolution
in the sciences of mineralogy and petrology
from which arose the sub-sciences optical min-
eralogy and optical petrography

Petrology is almost inseparably connected
with other branches of geology and is generally
grouped with geology in university curricula
The relations of mineralogy are less declared It
is oftener grouped with geology than any other
science, but it is sometimes associated with
chemistry, sometimes made a distinct depart-
ment, and sometimes, though rarely, coupled
with physics on account of the optical factors.
The best criterion in such cases of composite
relationships is the very practical one of letting
the source from which springs the largest stu-
dent inteiest be the guide In this respect the
advantage lies largely with geology, for it is from
geological phenomena that interest in minerals
most largely springs, and it is in geology or in min-
ing that mineralogy finds its largest applications

The industrial and ornamental uses of rocks
and minerals early gave rise to rude forms of
economic geology and these utilities have
steadily multiplied until this phase of geology
has come to be one of wide application It is
the basis of governmental geological surveys
and these have contributed greatly to the de-
velopment of the science, not even excepting
those of its phases that do not for the tune
being seem to have direct industrial importance.
Through its economic phases, geology becomes
related to several oi the technological branches,
as mining engmeeimg, metallurgy, ceramics,
architecture, etc

The fundamental part that life relics played
in the giowth of the sciences implies, as sug-
gested in the historical sketch, the educational
relations of general geology to paleontology
When well deployed in an institution, paleon-
tology usually falls into invertebrate paleon-
tology, vertebrate paleontologv, and paleo-
botany The most recent science on the
border line of biology and geology is ecology,
a composite study of life in relation to its en-
vironment As a study it is close akin to
physiography, and the field work of the two
is conveniently conjoined where both are well
developed in the same institution Physiog-
raphy and plant ecology aie natural running
mates, and when ecology shall be extended to
animals and man and treated on a firm basis,
physiography, biologic ecology, and anthropic
ecology will form a triumvirate of peculiar
educational power and will doubtless set at rest
the mooted question mentioned above by taking
an indispensable position in standard curricula
as effective disciplinary, as well as intellectually
nourishing, studies.

When paleontology shall have gathered and
elaborated adequate data relative to the psychi-
cal phenomena of past life, this will quite surely
form the basis of paleopsychology, which will
bind paleontologic geology to the modern
mental sciences and cooperate with them in
dealing with the earlier stages of mental, moral,
and social development

The study of the hydrosphere is a vital part
of geology, for the activities of water in its
various forms are the special characteristic of
the present geologic eon The geology of the
hydrosphere grades into the special sciences of
hydrology and oceanology, as also into glaci-
ology and into physiography

The atmosphere has long escaped un adequate
treatment as a geological agent, but it is rapidly
coming into its place and paleochmatology
and paleometeorology ai e foreshadowed sciences
Geological evidence of a cogent order is forcing
an abandonment of inherited views on at-
mospheric phenomena and opening a place
for these new sciences It was thought until
recently that the earth was enveloped by a thin
atmosphere only, beyond which extremely
cold and nearly empty space isolated it from
its km of the solar family Closer inquiry
makes it clear that the atmosphere is not so
narrowly limited and that there is some ex-
change of matter between the members of the
solar family While it is not yet dear what
quantitative value this exchange may have, it
serves to bring the study of cosmologic re-
lations into the present problems of geologv,
and to suggest that cosmology may come to
play, in current issues, a part kindred to the
more spectacular function played at the birth of
the earth

Geology in the Schools — While the geneial
geologic knowledge of the earlier ages grew up
from the incidental observations of the multi-
tude as they came into contact with the earth,
geology as a formal study came into the higher
horizons of the schools from the few who
patiently worked it out into science, arid it has
gradually been working downward from higher
to the lower horizons A century ago geology
scarcely had a recognized place in even the
foremost institutions, save in certain economic
aspects in certain schools of mines Its growth
as a distinct school study is almost compassed
within the last hundred years, and inuoh the
most of the growth falls within the last half
centurv At first geology found a place only
in the last years of study, and it has crept for-
ward in the curriculum only slowly The chief
reason assigned for this retention of a late place
is the need of studying so many other sciences
before geology is taken up While there is
reason in this, the logic rests upon the doubtful
assumption that it is best to proceed fiom
science to phenomena rather than from phenom-
ena to science It remains to be seen whether
the advantages of rotation and reciprocity in
cultivating science may not be as conducive

43

GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY

to productiveness as they are in the cultiva-
tion of soils The spread of geologic studies
seems to have been more rapid down the upper
horizons of different grades of institutions
than down the courses of the same institution ;
and so at present, geology finds a place in the
upper grades of secondary schools, while it
rarely appears in the first years of the higher
institutions But m some form it now has
a place in the best schools from the high school
to the university

Geology and Physiography in the High Schools —
A notable percentage of high schools in America
are coming to offei courses 111 which the agents,
processes, and stages of fashioning the earth's
surface are factors Whether this is done
under the name physical geography, physiog-
raphy, or geology is of minor importance
The order named seems to be that of pre-
dominance so far as the name is concerned
It is impracticable to ascertain precisely how
the earth studies are handled on the average.
It is safe to sav, however, that the genetic
phases of surface configuration, the vitalizing
element, have rapidly gained m emphasis in
recent years The number of high schools
that teach geological history is quite a minor
fraction With the growth of the study of sur-
face fashioning processes, m essence dynamic
geology, there has been a tendency to replace
other forms of geology with this more special
phase, a gam in intensity with a loss m breadth
and m the biologic and human elements This
is a step in intensification whose value can only
be fully seen when the complementary intensi-
fication in the biologic and anthropic factors,
the plant, animal, and human ecologies, are
brought into working order coordmately with
physiography Plant ecology is already com-
ing into function as a companion study to
physiography, and both are well adapted to
the earlier years and form an excellent basis
for the higher ecologies These latter are m
process of scientific development and will no
doubt soon enter upon their early trial periods
in the schools These require greater breadth,
equipoise, and maturity of judgment and are
better adapted to the later years They may
well follow or go with historical geology, for
historical geology brings into view the great
facts of past ecological experience The double
couplet, physiography and mscntiate ecology,
earth history and sentiatc ecology, together
cover in a strong way the ground covered in
a more general fashion by physical geography,
and constitute its appropriate successors in an
effective curriculum

Physiography and plant ecology converge
in the phenomena of the soil, which is a special
zone of contact, They come to be particularly
intimate in the ecology of soil life, the critical
point of advance in agriculture at present.
They are the fundamental sciences on which
soil science should rest and are therefore the
sciences that may well be given in the high

44

schools as a preparation for agricultural science
now pressing for a place in these schools Ani-
mal ecology has a similar relation to the animal
industries

The present status of earth science in the
secondary schools is eminently one of transition
which, though marked by elements of con-
fusion and some retrocession, is working rapidly
toward a vitahzation of geography by the in-
troduction of the geologic element all down
through the courses, by the introduction of
physiography, and by the organization of the
ecologies as more thorough treatments of vital
phenomena on the earth's surface

In Normal Schools — There is much dif-
ference in the work of the normal schools, but
the standard state normal schools of America
usually give courses m physiography or geology
or both, and in some schools other geologic
branches of the group are taught The ap-
pointments are generally fair and field and
laboratory work are commonly used as vitaliz-
ing elements The introduction of strong
courses in physiography and plant ecology in
the early years and of historical geology and
the higher ecologies in the later years will
greatly aid in vitalizing geography and in lead-
ing on to the successful treatment of these
subjects themselves m the high schools

In Colleges and Technical, School* — Geol-
ogy has a recognized place m the best colleges
of America and in equivalent institutions else-
where, though there are many weak colleges
in which it has little or no place In the
stronger colleges it is deployed into mineralogy,
physiography, petrology, general geology, and
paleontology Economic geology is not un-
commonly given a place Laboratory and
field work are usual accompaniments Geology
is even accredited as an entrance study to some
colleges All colleges of standing are pro-
vided with mmeralogical and geological collec-
tions In the best colleges the full sorvic.es
of a professor, sometimes, though but rarely,
with an assistant, are given to the geologic
group, in many colleges, however, some other
work is still associated with the geological

In the technological schools not associated
with universities, the place of the geological
sciences varies from an amount comparable
to that of the colleges to an amount comparable
with the provisions of the better universities
Usually the emphasis is laid chiefly on mineral-
ogy > petrography, and the structural, dynam-
ical, and economic elements of geology. For
these branches the appointments are usually
good and the work m graphic, dynamic, and
geometric lines is usually superior to that of
most other institutions

In Universities — The geologic sciences nat-
urally find their largest place and their best
deployment in the universities and in the techno-
logical institutes of comparable grade

To form some idea of the relative place
which the geologic sciences have attained in

GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY

the standard Universities, a series of compari-
sons has been made between the sizes of the
staffs of the several universities of the largest
and of the medium types, and the total num-
ber of students m these institutions. It would
be more satisfactory to compare the courses
and the number of students in geology with
the courses and students in other subjects, but
the data are not available In comparing the
statistics relative to the staffs, teachers of
mineralogy, petrology, paleontology, and geo-
physics are included with those of geology
proper, except where these subjects are taught
in other than the geologic senses, but teachers
of geography are not included The number
of students used is, in all cases, the total
attending the university The data used wore
compiled chiefly from Trubner's Minerva, Jahr-
btich der gelehrten Welt, for the year 1910-1911,
with such revisions and additions as could be
made from the official publications of the uni-
versities and from personal information The
results are to be regarded as a representative
rather than as an exact exhibit.

In the comparison of the largest universities,
an attendance of 3000 students was taken as
the lower limit Of this class there are 43
universities, distributed as follows United
States 16, Russia 6, Austro-Hungary 4, Ger-
many 4, Great Britain 4, Italy 2, Spam 2,
Argentina ], Canada 1, France 1, Japan 1, and
Koumamu 1 In respect to total number of
geologic teachers (those of professorial rank in
parenthesis), the order is United States (57)
96, Austro-Hungary (20) 26, Germany (17) 28,

Russia (12) 21, Great Britain (9), Roumama (5),
France (4) 5, Argentina (3), Canada (3),
Italy (2) 7, Japan 5, Spam (1) 2. The average
number of geologic teachers per university
is- Germany 7, Austro-Hungary 65, United
States 6, France 5, Japan 5, Roumama 5,
Italy 3 5, Russia 3 5, Argentina 3, Canada 3,
Great Britain 2 25, Spam 1

For the medium class, universities whose
students range between 2000 and 3000 were
selected These serve better than the previous
class to illustrate the development of geo-
logical instruction in the smaller countries and
in universities located in the smaller cities where
urban influences are less pronounced There aie
30 universities of this class distributed as fol-
lows Germany 7, United States 6, France 4
Austro-Hungary 3, Belgium 2, Italy 2, Russia 2,
Canada 1, Great Britain 1, Greece 1, Sweden 1

In the aggregate number of geologic teachers
(those of professorial rank in parenthesis), the
order is as follows Germany (19) 28, Italy (5)
15, France (10) 11, United States (9) 10, Austro-
Hungary (7) 9, Russia (3) 6, Belgium (5),
Canada (2), Great Britain (1), Greece (1),
Sweden 1

The average number of geologic teachers per
university in this class is as follows Italy 7 5,
Germany 4, Austro-Hungary 3, Russia 3, Bel-
gium 2 5, France 2 5, Canada 2, United States
1 7, Great Britain 1, Greece 1, Sweden 1

The combined data for the two classes of
universities, which embrace all that arc attended
by 2000 or more, are shown in the following
table —

COMPARATIVE TABLE OF GEOLOGIC STAFFS OF UNIVERSITIES HAVING 2000 STUDENTS OR MORE

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

VII

VIII

IX

COUNTRY

POPULATION

No 0*

UNIVER-
SITIES

TOTAL No
UNIVERSITY
STUDENTS

No OF
GEOLOGIC
PROFES-
SORS

TOTAL
GEOLOGIC
TEACH-
ERS

Av No

PER

UNIVHR-

SITY

RATIO OF
TRACHFRB
TO TOIAL
STUDENTS

RATIO o*
Gi-oiooic
TEA< HERS TO
POPULATION

Auatro-Hungarv

27,995,000

7

31,147

27

35

5

1 890

1 799,857

(1907)

Belgium . . .

7,380,000

2

5272

5

5

25

1 1054

1 1,477,200

(1908)

Canada ....

7,185,000

2

5289

5

5

25

1 1058

1 1,437,000

(1909)

France ....

39,252,000

5

27,882

14

16

32

1 1743

1 2,453,250

(1906)

Germany . . .

(>3,800,000

11

46,379

36

56

5 1

1 828

1 1,139,286

(1909)

Great Britain

45,208.000

5

l.< 752

10

10

2

1 1375

1 4,520,800

(1909)

Italy

84,269,000

4

14,588

7

22

55

1 663

1 1,557,682

(1909)

Japan

49,769,000

1

5649

5

5

1 1130

1 9,953,800

(1909)

Roumama .

6,700,000

1

3878

5

5

5

1 776

1 1,340,000

(1908)

Russia .

126,169,000

8

J7.564

15

27

34

1 1391

1 4,672,92b

(1908)

Spam ....

19,712,000

2

9845

1

2

1

1 4923

1 9,856,000

(1908)

Sweden

5,377,000

1

2056

1

3

3

1 685

1 1,792,333

(1907)

United States

90,000,000

22

87,433

66

106

48

1 825

1 849,056

(1910)

Totals .

516,543,000

73

278,164

206

301

4 1

1 897

1 1,666,268

45

GEOLOGY

GEOLOGY

The average geologic staff for the 73 univer-
sities is 4 1 The largest staff numbers 17.
The average ratio of geologic teachers to stu-
dents in the whole 73 universities is 1 : 897.
The best ratio in a single university is 1 . 250.
The ratio in the university that has the largest
staff is 1:412

An inspection of similar data for previous
years shows that there has been a very rapid
increase in the provisions for geological in-
struction, particularly in the United States

Educational Methods — Geological educa-
tion takes on two distinct phases, (1) instruc-
tion at the institution and (2) training m the
field The intramural work takes the form of
lectures, class discussions, quizzes, conferences,
personal work, seminars, arid clubs Lectures
hold a large place and must apparently con-
tinue to do so in those branches where the
material of instruction is not yet well organized
Systematic quizzes arc used by many teachers
as a supplement to lectures Class discussion
and group conferences are felt by many to be
the most efficient mode of training when the
subject matter is in suitable form Confer-
ences are particularly applicable to map study
where only small groups are permissible Per-
sonal instruction where the work can be made
individual, as m laboratory, experimental, and
thesis work, is widely employed. Seminars
for advanced work and clubs for reports of
individual work, critiques, discussions, lectures
not m course, especially lectures by visiting
geologists, are valuable adjuncts. Courses
m drawing and m graphic work arc given in
some universities (2) Field work is a dis-
tinctive feature of the most effective geologic
training This falls into two classes, the cir-
cum-institutional and the remote The first
is often immediately associated with the class-
room courses and is then arranged so as to fit
in with the program of the latter It is also
arranged independently into systematic courses
occupying certain days of the week Occasional
excursions, not exceeding a day's duration, fall
into the circum-mstitutional class. The dis-
tant field work is handled in a more varied way.
Often it consists only of special excursions of
a few days' duration, which are stimulative
but not adapted to close training. Of the more
systematic work a three-course system is
perhaps the best representative in actual use
(1) In this, the first course is shaped to follow
the earlier classroom courses It consists of
a systematic study of a selected area in the
manner of official geological surveys, and is
followed by a report on the work by each
student participating The time ranges from
a month upward, and the area is preferably one
of the quiet type, not too plainly exposed, nor
too intricate, suited to promote careful search
for data and yet to yield decisive results to
diligent students (2) The second course con-
sists preferably of work on a larger, more com-
plex, and more impressive area suited to develop

46

larger and more intricate conceptions, and to
be the basis of reports of a broader type,
Both these courses are under the immediate
direction of competent leaders, and the num-
bers participating arc limited to those whose
work can be individually supervised. (3) The
third course is individual, arid is often the basis
of the Doctor's thesis The selection of the
area, the plan of work, the choice of problems,
and the style of report are chosen by the student
under the criticism of the specialist m the line
chosen, original independent work being here
the chief end sought The report is expected
to be elaborate and presumed to be repre-
sentative of the student's best capabilities

Special courses in topographic and geologic
mapping are given in the best institutions,
sometimes m connection with these field courses,
arid sometimes independently Special pale-
ontological or other specific field courses are
sometimes given Incidentally, field work is
often done m vacations in connection with
official or other geological surveys

The advanced work in geology is chiefly
done in the graduate schools In the standard
institutions it involves at least three years'
work in addition to the more general and ele-
mentary work of the undergraduate courses
Theses of three kinds are prepared, though
rarely all m the same institution, one prelimi-
nary to the Bachelor's degree at the close of
the undergraduate course, one preliminary
to the Master's degree after one or more years
of graduate work, and one prerequisite to the
Doctor's degree for which three years of gradu-
ate work is usually required

Appliances — Equipment for geological
work centers upon an effort to bring nature
as close to the student as possible, and, next
after field work, three classes of appliances are
resorted to- (1) actual samples, (2) models,
and (3) photographs Collections more or
less vaneo! and extensive aie common posses-
sions. Practice varies in the emphasis laid
on museum exhibits and on classroom and
laboratory collections respectively; a merely
synoptic exhibit in the museum, to give dis-
tinct impressions of the types, and large work-
ing collections and illustrative collections in
drawers and in the classrooms and laboratories
are urged by some experienced teachers A
museum so located that the students are
naturally brought into constant contact with
it is also urged Models play a large part m
a satisfactory equipment, especially relief
models and raised maps Photographic art
has made valuable contributions here as in
other sciences, ample collections of photographs
systematically arranged for study, photographic
wall exhibits and transparencies, and especially
lantern slides with lantern fixtures ready for
prompt use as required are indispensable ad-
juncts.

For special classes of work the requisites for
efficiency generally possessed by the standard

GEOMETRY

GEOMETRY

universities include: For mineralogical, petro-
logic, structural, and paleontological work,
laboratories and laboratory appliances, em-
bracing working collections, models, testing
tools, blowpipe outfits, chemicals, rock-slicing
machines, microscopes, goniometers, photo-
graphic and other appliances; for map study,
conference tables and map stacks in cases that
facilitate access; for classroom work, wall
exhibits of maps, sections, photographs, trans-
parencies, globes, plain and in relief, with ample
lantern outfit: for museum study, exhibit
collections and drawer collections in various
lines; for all classes of study an ample library
well supplied with maps and preferably or-
ganized as a departmental libiary, well situated
in the midst of the geologic rooms and used as
the students' working home

Educational Literature — The available
literary material m the geological sciences has
been greatly enriched in recent years Re-
visions of standard works have been frequent
and new treatises have been added at short
intervals The formulated literature of the
science in its more general aspects does not lag
far behind the science itself These formal
educational works are .supplemented by geo-
logical journals, some of which aie published
under the auspices of educational institutions
and are edited with a special view to educa-
tional service Bulletins giving the results
of researches are published by some univer-
sities In the bioadei educational sense, the
numerous official surveys are effective agencies
and their reports are a leading source of work-
ing material Some of these leports are es-
pecially shaped for educational purposes So,
too, the geological societies, both in themsehes
and in their publications, are great educational
aids, especially in that they are a means of
education of the educators, a function of the
most ladical value T C C

References : —

AbAHhii, L J 11 JBibliufjruphw Zooloym tt Gfofogur,
a gtnital Cntaloyuc of Boohb on Zoology and Geol-
ogy Knt & Kd b\ Strickland, II E , and Jurdmo,
Sir Win (Ray Society Public, London, 1848-
1864)

COTTA, B VON Geolog inches Rt jwitvrium, ni Hi itrttge zur
Gettchichtf dd Geologic (Leipzig, 1877 )

D'ARCHIAC, E J A D DE ST S Histouc da> Proves
de In Geologic (Pans, 1847-1849 )

GEIKIK, SIH A Foundir* of (holoytj (London,

1900)
Encyclopedia Bntanniia, 1 1th od , s \ Gtologi/

HOFFMANN, F Gexchichtc d(r Gfognome (Boilin,
1838 )

Intel national (ieolotfical CoiiKivsh Catalo(ju( (/r,s 13ib-
hogrtiphit'K gtologujm** (Parib, 1896 )

KEI-KRHTKIN, C Gcxchuhtc und Jjikmtut da GiogmtMt
(Halle, 1840 )

VON ZITTEL, K A Gewhuhte dtr Gtoloyic und Pnl-
itontologie (Munich, 1899), tr by Ogihie-
Gordon (London, 1901 )

GEOMETRY. — Etymologically the word
means earth measure, from the Greek y»J, gc,
earth 4- /xcrpov, metron, measure It has come,
however, to mean the general science of form,

47

the words "surveying" and "geodesy" being
applied to the measuring of the earth

History of Geometry —The earliest doc-
uments relating to geometry come to us
from Babylon and Egypt Those from Baby-
lon arc written on small clav tablets, some of
them about the size of the hand, these tablets
afterwards having been baked in the sun
They show that the Babylonians of that period
know something of land measures, and perhaps
had advanced far enough to compute the area
of a trape/oid For the mensuration of the
circle they later used, as did the early Hebrews,
the value TT = 3 A tablet in the British
Museum shows that they also used such geo-
metric forms as triangles and circulai segments
in astrology or as talismans, and a stone
astrolabe in the same collection shows that
they knew something of angle measure

The Egyptians must have had a fair knowl-
edge of practical geometry long before the
date of any mathematical treatise that has
come down to us, for the building of the pyra-
mids, between 3000 and 2400 B c , required
the application of several geometric principles
Some knowledge of surveying must also have
been necessary to carry out the extensive
plans for irrigation that were executed under
Ameriemhat III, about 2200 uc

The first definite knowledge of Egyptian math-
ematics is based on a manuscript copied on papy-
rus, a kind of paper used about the Mediterranean
in early times This copy was made by one
Aah-mesu (The Moon-born), commonly called
Ahrnes (qv), who probably flourished about
1 700 B c The original from which he copied,
written about 2300 B c , has been lost, but the
papyrus of Ahmes, written nearly four thou-
sand years ago, is still preserved, and is now in
the British Museum In this manuscript,
which is devoted chiefly to fractions and to a
crude algebra, is found some work on inensu-
lation Among the curious rules are the in-
correct ones that the area of an isosceles triangle
equals half the product of the base and one of
the equal sides, and that the area of a trape-
zoid having bases b, //, and the nonparallel
sides each equal to «, is \ a (b -f 6') One
noteworthy advance appears, however Ahmes
gives a rule for finding the area of a circle, sub-
stantially as follows. Multiply the square on
the radius by (V)2, which is equivalent to
taking for TT the ^ alue 31605' This
papyrus also contains some treatment of the
mensuration of solids, particularly with refer-
ence to the capacity of granaries There is
also some slight mention of similar figures, and
an extensive treatment of unit fractions, —
fractions that were quite universal among the
ancients (See FRACTIONS ) Herodotus tells
us that Sesostris, king of Egypt, divided the
land among his people and marked out the
boundaries after the overflow of the Nile, so
that surveying must have been well known in
his day. Indeed, the harpedonaptce, or rope

GEOMETRY

GEOMETRY

stretchers, acquired their name because they
stretched cords in which were knots, so as to
t make the right triangle 3, 4, 5, when they
wished to erect a perpendicular This is a
plan occasionally used by surveyors to-day,
and it shows that the practical application of
the Pythagorean theorem was known long
before Pythagoras gave what seems to have
been the first general proof of the proposition.
From Egypt, and possibly from Babylon,
geometry passed to Asia Minor and Greece
The scientific study of the subject begins with
Thales (qv). How elementary the knowledge
of geometry then was may be understood from
the fact that tradition attributes to him only
about four propositions The greatest pupil of
Thales, and one of the most remarkable men
of antiquity, was Pythagoras (qv) In geome-
try he is said to have been the first to demon-
strate the proposition that the square on the
hypotenuse is equal to the sum of the squares
upon the other two sides of a right triangle
The proposition was known in India and
Egypt before hih tnno, at any rate for special
cases, but he seems to have been the first to
prove it To him or to his school seems also
to have been due the construction of the regu-
lar pentagon and of the five regular poly-
hedrons Pythagoras is also said to have
known that six equilateral triangles, three
regular hexagons, or four squares, can be placed
about a point so as just to fill the 300°, but
that no other regular polygons can be so placed
To his school is also due the proof for the
general case that the sum of the angles of a
triangle equals two right angles

For two centuries after Pythagoras geometry
passed through a period of discovery of propo-
sitions The state of the science may be seen
from the fact that Oonopides of Chios, who
flourished about 465 B r , and who had studied
in Egypt, was celebrated because he showed
how to let fall a perpendicular to a line, and
how to make an angle equal to a given angle
A few years later, about 440 B c , Hippocrates
of Chios wrote the iirst Greek textbook on
mathematics. He knew that the areas of
circles were proportional to the squares on
their radii, but was ignorant of the fact that
equal central angles or equal inscribed angles
intercept equal arcs Antiphon and Bryson,
two Greek scholars, flourished about 430 B r
The former attempted to find the area of a
circle by doubling the number of sides of a
regular inscribed polygon, and the latter by
doing the same for both inscribed and circum-
scribed polygons They thus approximately
exhausted the area between the polygon and
the circle, and hence this method is known as
the method of exhaustions About 420 B.C
Hippias of Elis invented a certain curve called
the quadratrix, by means of which he could
square the circle and trisect any angle. This
curve cannot be constructed by the unmarked
straightedge and the compasses, and when we

48

say that it is impossible to square the circle or
to trisect any angle, we mean that it is im-
possible by the help of these two instruments
alone

During this period the great philosophic
school of Plato (429-348 B c ) flourished at
Athens, and to this school is due the first
systematic attempt to create exact definitions,
axioms, and postulates, and to distinguish
between elementary and higher geometry It
was at this time that elementary geometry
became limited to the use of the compasses and
the unmarked straightedge, which took from
this domain the possibility of constructing a
square equivalent to a given circle (" squaring
the circle "), of trisecting any given angle, and
of constructing a cube that should have twice
the volume of a given cube (" duplicating the
cube "), these being the three famous problems
of antiquity One of Plato's pupils was Philip-
pus of Mende, in Egypt, who flourished about
380 B r It is said that he discovered the
proposition relating to the exterior angle of a
triangle His interest, however, was chiefly in
astronomy Another of Plato's pupils was
Eudoxus of Cnidus (408-355 B r ) He elabo-
rated the theory of proportion, placing it upon
a thoroughly scientific foundation It is prob-
able that Book V of Euclid, which is devoted
to proportion, is essentially the work of Eudoxus.

The first great textbook on geometry, and
the greatest one that lias ever appeared, was
written by Euclid (q v ) In his work Euclid
placed all of the leading propositions of plane
geometry then known, and arranged them in a
logical order Mo? *, geometries of any im-
portance written since his time have been
based upon Euclid, improving the sequence,
symbols, and wording as occasion demanded

The Greeks contributed little more to ele-
mentary geometry, although Apollomus of
Perga (q v ), who taught at Alexandria between
250 and 200 B c , wrote extensively on conic
sections, and Hypsicles of Alexandria, about
190 B.C , wrote on regular polyhedrons Hyp-
siclcs was the first Greek writer who is known
to have used sexagesimal fractions, — the
degrees, minutes, and seconds of our angle
measure Zenodorus (180 B r ) wrote on iso-
perimetnc figures, and his contemporary, Nico-
rnedcs of Gerasa, invented a curve known a>
the conchoid, by means of which he could
trisect any angle Another contemporary,
Diocles, invented the cissoid, or ivy-shaped
curve, by means of which he solved the famous
problem of duplicating the cube; that is, of
constructing a cube that should have twice
the volume of a given cube

The greatest of the Greek astronomers,
Hipparchus (q v , 180-125 B c ), lived about
this period, and with him begins spherical
trigonometry as a definite science A kind of
plane trigonometry had been known to the
ancient Egyptians The Greeks usually em-
ployed the chord of an angle instead of the

GEOMETRY

GEOMETRY

half chord (sine), the lattrr having been pre-
ferred by the later Arab writers The most
celebrated of the later Greek physicists was
Heron of Alexandria (qv), formerly supposed
to have lived about 100 B r , but now assigned
to the first century A.D His contribution to
geometry was the formula for the area of a
triangle in terms of its sides a, 6, and r, with s
standing for the semi pen meter ^ (a_ -f b -f c)

The formula is V«(« — a) (x ~~ b) (* — 0
Probably nearly contemporary with Heron
was Menelaus of Alexandria, who wrote a
spherical trigonometry He gave an interest-
ing proposition relating to plane and spherical
triangles, their sides being cut by a transversal
For the plane triangle ABC, the sides a, /;,
and c being cut respectively in X, Y, and Z,
the theorem asserts substantially that

AZ BX

BZ ex

CY
A Y

1.

The most popular writer on astronomy
among the Greeks was Ptolemy (Claudius
Ptolemseus, q v , 87-165 AD), who lived at
\lexandria He wrote a work entitled Megale
Ri/ntaxis (The Great Collection), which his fol-
lowers designated as Megixtox (greatest), on
which account the Arab translators gave it the
name Almagest (al meaning " the ") He ad-
\anced the science of trigonometry, but did
not contribute to geometry At the close of
the third century Pappus of Alexandria (q v )
wrote on geometry Only two other Greek
writers need be mentioned Theon of Alexan-
dria (370 \ D , qv), the father of the Hypatia
(qv ) who is the heroine of Charles Kingsley's
well-known novel, wrote a commentary on
Euclid to which we are indebted for some his-
torical information Proclus (412-485 \ D ,
q v ) also wrote a commentary on Euclid, and
much of our infoimation concerning the first
Book of Euclid is due to him

The East did little for geometry, although
contributing considerably to algebra The
first great Hindu writer was Aryabhatta (q v ),
who was born in 476 A D He, or a later name-
sake of his, gave the very close approximation
for TT, expressed in modern notation as 3 1416
He also gave rules for finding the volume of
the pyramid and sphere, but they were incor-
rect, showing that the Greek mathematics had
not yet reached the Ganges Another Hindu
writer, Brahmagupta (born in 598 AD, qv),
wrote an encyclopedia of mathematics He
gave a rule for finding Pythagorean numbers,
expressed in modern symbols as follows. —

He also generalized Heron's formula by assert-
ing that the area of an inscribed quadrilateral
of sides a, b, c, d, and semiperimetcr ,v, is

~~~~~ ""

The Arabs did much for mathematics, trans-
lating the Greek authors into their language and
also bringing learning from India Indeed, it is
to them that modern Europe owed its first knowl-
edge of Euclid They contributed nothing of
importance to elementary geometry, however
The greatest of the Arab writers was Moham-
med ibn Musa al-Khowarazmi (820 A D . qv.),
who lived at Bagdad and Damascus Although
chiefly interested in astronomy, he wrote the
first book bearing the name algebra (Al-gebr
w'al-muqabala, Restoration and Equation),
composed an arithmetic using the Hindu
numerals, and paid much attention to geometry
and trigonometry

Euclid was translated from the Arabic into
Latin in the twelfth century, Greek manu-
scripts not being then at hand, or being neg-
lected because of ignorance of the language
The leading translators were Adelhard of Bath
(1120, qv), an English monk, Gherardo of
Cremona (1160), an Italian monk; and Johannes
Carnpanus (1250), chaplain to Pope Urban IV
The greatest European mathematician of
the Middle Ages was Leonardo of Pisa (See
FIBONACCI, LEONARDO ) He was very in-
fluential in making the Hindu-Arabic numerals
known in Europe He wrote extensively on
algebra, and was the author of one book on
geometry, but he contributed nothing to the
elementary theory The first edition of Euclid
was printed in Latin in 1482, the first one in
English appearing in 1570

There has of late arisen a modern elementary
geometry devoted chiefly to special points and
lines relating to the triangle and the circle,
and many interesting propositions have been
discovered The subject is so extensive that it
cannot find any place in our crowded curricu-
lum, and must necessarily be left to the special-
ist Some idea of the nature of the work
may be obtained from a mention of a few prop-
ositions

The bisectors of the various interior and exter-
ior angles of a triangle are concurrent by threes in
the mcenter or in one of the three excenters of the
triangle

The common chord of two intersecting circles is
a special case of their radical axis, and tangents
to the circles from any point on the radical axis
are equal

If 0 is the orthoceriter of the triangle ABC,
and X, 7, Z are the feet of the perpendiculars
from A,B, C respectively, and P, Q, R are the
mid-points of a, /;, r respectively, and L, M, N
are the mid-points of OA, OB, OC respectively,
then the points L, M, N - P, Q, R, - X, Y, Z,
all lie on a circle, the " nine points circle "

Reasons for Studying Geometry — It has
always been held that geometry is studied
because of a peculiar training and pleas-
ure that this science gives, and that other
sciences do not give, at least in the same degree
With the investigations of modern psychologists
there has come a doubt as to the value of the

VOL in

49

GEOMETRY

GEOMETRY

ti aiiiing that it gives, and this has led many
emotional followers of new doctrines to pro-
claim that geometry has no such claim upon
the pupil's time as the advocates of this value
assert. Modern educators do not claim, how-
ever, that geometry has no value per *e, but
rather that the methods of presenting the sub-
ject that have obtained in the past can be
improved, and that certain of the values for-
mally claimed for it do not exist. To this the
more thoughtful teachers of the subject have
long since assented For example, it was poor
policy to memorize all of geometry, for this
plan took away the pleasure of the study, and
it did not give the pupil any power that he
could carry over into other lines of work, save
as he acquired facts which he could have
obtained as well without the labor of memoriz-
ing the proofs of Euclid.

The advocates of a substantial geometry,
as opposed to the mere acquisition of a few
rules of mensuration, claim that the study of
geometry brings great pleasure and an inspir-
ing mental uplift, when the subject is properly
presented They place it in this respect upon
a plane similar to that upon which the study of
literature and music rests. They further claim
that through geometry a student acquires
a knowledge of space relations that he does not
acquire from other subjects, which knowledge
he carries over into the study of the graphic
and plastic arts, of geography arid astronomy,
and of the science of mechanics They also
assert that geometry is the onlv subject in
the secondary curriculum that gives a specific
training in deductive logic, and that this train-
ing gives a habit of thought that is carried
over into other lines of mental activity And
finally they claim that habits of persistence,
of using only the necessary steps in an argu-
ment, of holding to that which is true, of seek-
ing for exact truth, and of arranging work in
logical order, are instilled by the study of geom-
etry, and that these habits are unconsciously
transferred to other fields of work In other
words, they claim that the pleasure and the
profit of approach to exact truth give a power
that makes the pupil stronger in his other activ-
ities. This claim is sanctioned by the opinions
of most people who have studied geometry
under a worthy teacher, and no investigations
thus far made have shaken it. The statement
that geometry has no value as a mental discipline
is usually found to mean that there is no such
thing as mental discipline as defined by the
antagonist, to which most people would heartily
agree

Development of the Teaching of Geometry.
— Little is known of the teaching of geometry
in very ancient times, but its nature can be
inferred from the teaching that is still seen in
the native schools of the East Here a man,
learned in any science, will have a group of
voluntary students sitting about him, and to
them he will expound the truth Such schools

50

may still be seen in India, Persia, and China,
the master sitting on a mat placed on the
ground or on the floor of a veranda, and the
pupils reading aloud or listening to his words
of exposition

In Greece it was taught in the schools of
philosophy, often as a general preparation for
philosophic study Thus Thales introduced
it into his Ionian school, Pythagoras made it
very prominent in his great school at Crotona
in southern Italy (Magna Grsecia), and Plato
placed above the door of his Acadeima the words,
" Let no one ignorant of geometry enter here "
— a kind of entrance examination for his
school of philosophy. In these gatherings of
students it is probable that geometry was
taught in much the same way as that already
mentioned for the schools of the East, a small
group of students being instructed by a master.
But with these crude materials there went an
abundance of time, so that a number of great
results were accomplished in spite of the diffi-
culties attending the study of the subject. It
is said that Hippocrates of Chios (c 440 B r )
wrote the first elementary textbook on mathe-
matics and invented the method of geometric
reduction, the replacing of a proposition to be
proved by another, which, when proved, allows
the first one to be demonstrated A little
later Eudoxus of Cmdus (r 375 B c ), a pupil
of Plato's, used the red net 10 ad absurd unt,
and Plato is said to have invented the method
of proof by analysis, an elaboration of the plan
used by Hippocrates Thus these early phi-
losophers taught their pupils, not facts alone,
but methods of proof, giving them power as
well as knowledge. Furthermore, they taught
them how to discuss their problems, investigat-
ing the conditions under which they are capable
of solution This feature of the work they
called the dwrismus, and it seems to have
started with Leon, a follower of Plato Be-
tween the tune of Plato (c 400 B c ) and Euclid
(c 300 B c ) several attempts were made to
arrange the accumulated material of elementary
geometry in a textbook Plato had laid the
foundations for the science, in the form of
axioms, postulates, and definitions, and he had
limited the instruments to the straightedge
and the compasses Aristotle (c 350 B c )
had paid special attention to the history of the
subject, thus finding out what had 'already
been accomplished, and had also made much
of the applications of geometry

Of the other Greek teachers there is but little
information as to methods of imparting in-
struction It is not until the Middle ^gea
that much is known in this line Whatever
of geometry was taught seems to have been
imparted by word of mouth in the way of
expounding Euclid, and this was done in the
ancient fashion. The early Church leaders
usually paid no attention to geometry, but as
time progressed the quadrwium, or four sciences
of arithmetic, music, geometry, and astronomy,

GEOMETRY

GEOMETRY

came to rank with the tnvium (grammar,
rhetoric, dialectics), the two making up the
seven liberal arts (q.v.). All that there was
of geometry in the first thousand years of
Christianity, however, at least in the great
majority of Church schools, was summed up
m a few definitions and rules of mensuration.
Gerbert (qv.), who became Pope Sylvester II
in 999 A D , gave a new impetus to geometry
by discovering a manuscript of the old Roman
surveyors and a copy of the geometry of
Boethius (q.v ) who paraphrased Euclid about
500 A. p. He thereupon wrote a brief geometry,
and his elevation to the papal chair tended to
bring the study of mathematics again into
prominence

Geometry now began to have some place
m the Church schools, naturally the only
schools of high rank in the Middle Ages The
study of the subject, however, seems to have
been merely a matter of memorizing Geom-
etry received another impetus in the book
written by Leonardo of Pisa (see FIBONACCI,
LEONARDO) in 1220, the Practica Geometries
Euclid was also translated into Latin about
this time (strangely enough, as already stated,
from the Arabic instead of the Greek), and
thus the treasury of elementary geometry was
opened to scholars in Europe From now on,
until the invention of printing (c 1450),
numerous writers on geometry appear, but
so far as is known the method of instruction
remained much as it had always been The
universities began to appear about the thir-
teenth century, and Sacrobosco (qv), a well-
known medieval mathematician, taught mathe-
matics about 1250 in the University of Paris
In 1336 this university decreed that mathe-
matics should be required for a degree In
the thirteenth century Oxford required six
books of Euclid for one who was to teach,
but this amount of work seems to have been
merely nominal, for in 1450 only two books
were actually read The universities of Prague
(founded in 1350) and Vienna (Statute* of 1389)
required most of plane geometry for the
teacher's license, although Vienna demanded
but one book for the bachelor's degree So,
in general, the universities of the thirteenth,
fourteenth, and fifteenth centuries required
less for the degree of master of arts than is now
required from a pupil in American high schools
On the other hand, the university students
were younger than now, and were really doing
only high school work

The invention of printing made possible the
study of geometry in a new fashion Jt now
became possible for any one to study from a
book, whereas before this time instruction was
chiefly by word of mouth, consisting of an ex-
planation of Euclid The first Euclid was
printed in 1482, at Venice, and new editions
and variations of this text came out frequently
in the next century. Practical geometries be-
came very popular, and the reaction against

the idea of mental discipline threatened to
abolish the old style of text Such writers as
Finseus (1556), Bartoh (1589), Belli (1569),
and Cataneo (1567), m the sixteenth century,
and Capra (1673), Gargiolli (1655), and many
others in the seventeenth century, either
directly or mferentially took this attitude
towards the subject

The study of geometry in the secondary
schools is relatively recent The Gymnasium
at Nuremberg, founded in 1526, and the Cathe-
dral school at Wurttemberg (as shown by the
curriculum of 1556), seem to have had no
geometry before 1600, although the Gvmnasium
at Strassburg included some of this branch
of mathematics in 1578, and an elective course
m geometry was offered at Zwickau, in Saxony,
in 1521. In the seventeenth century geometry
is found m a considerable number of secondary
schools, as at Coburg (1605), Kurpfalz (1615,
elective), Erfurt (1643), Gotha (1605), Giessen
(1605), and numerous other places in Germany,
although it appeared but rarely in the secondary
schools of France before the eighteenth century,
In Germany the Reahchulen came into being
in the eighteenth century, and considerable
effort was made to construct a course in geom-
etry that should be more practical than tha>
of the modified Euclid At the opening of t! «
nineteenth centurv the Prussian schools we*^
reorganized, and from that time 011 geometry
has had a firm position in the secondary schools
of all Germany In the eighteenth eentu*;,
some excellent textbooks on geometrv appeared
in France, among the best being that of Le-
gendre (1794), which influenced in such a
marked degree the geometries of Amenca
Soon after the opening of the nineteenth cen-
tury the lycees of France became strong in-
stitutions, and geometry, chiefly based on
Legendre, was well taught in the mathemat-
ical divisions A worthy rival of Legendre V
geometry was the work of Lacroix, who called
attention continually to the analogy between
the theorems of plane and solid geometry, and
even went so far as to suggest treating the
related propositions together in certain cases ,

In England the secondarv schools, such as
Rugby, Harrow, and Eton, did not commonly
teach geometry until quite recently, leaving this
work for the universities In Christ's Hospital,
London, however, geometry was taught as early
as 1681, from a work written by several teachers
of prominence The highest class at Harrow
studied " Euclid and vulgar fractions " one
period a week m 1829, but geometrv was not
seriously studied before 1837 In the Edinburgh
Academy as early as 1835, and in Rugby by
1839, plane geometry was completed

Not until 1844 did Harvard require any
plane geometry for entrance In 1855 Yale
required only two books of Euclid It was
therefore from 1850 to 1875 that plane geom-
etry took its definite place in the American
secondary school

51

GEOMETRY

GEOMETRY

Present Status of the Teaching of Geom-
etry — Plane geometry is now commonly
taught in the United States in the tenth
school year, the second year of a four-year
high school This is usually followed by a
half year of solid geometry, frequently elec-
tive. It is not the universal custom to finish
all of plane geometry in a single year, although
this is done in many of the best schools, and it
probably represents the future curriculum as
to the amount of time to be allowed to the sub-
ject There is at present a tendency to reduce
the number of basal propositions and to in-
crease the number of exercises, so as to give
a student more opportunity for independent
work The Eastern colleges do not require
solid geometry for entrance to the arts course,
while the Western ones frequently do require it
This means that more work is covered in plane
geometry in the secondary schools of the Eastern
states, the amount of time spent on the entire
subject of geometry being about the same
From every standpoint it would be better that
a pupil should sacrifice some of plane geometry
for the purpose of having an introduction to
solid geometry, if he could acquire the latter
only in this manner.

Certain attempts have been made to teach
algebra and geometry simultaneously, or even
to fuse them into a single subject This has
usually met with only sporadrc success That
the foreign schools have usually run geometry
over several years, as opposed to the American
plan, is liable to be misunderstood Where
serious demonstrative geometry has been begun
early and extended over several years, the
results have not been satisfactory Usually
the early geometry has been mere mensuration,
a subject that is taught in the American arith-
metic, and that is coming to be very satis-
factorily taught It may therefore be said that
in America geometry extends over several years,
culminating in a year or a year and a half of
serious demonstrative work As to the fusing
of the two subjects of algebra and geometry
in one, this seems destined to meet with success
only m schools in which nothing but a little
practical geometry is studied

The question of the nature of the textbook
is one that is periodically agitated Several
types have been suggested: (1) A book with
the basal proofs substantially in full, to serve
as models, and a large number of well-graded
exercises for original work; (2) a syllabus
of basal propositions; (3) a book of suggested
proofs, heuristic in nature Of these the first
has been the one almost universally used, the
objections to it having little force with a good
teacher, and the other forms being useless with
a poor teacher

Reforms and Improvements. — Numerous
reforms and improvements are being suggested
for the treatment of geometry at the present
time, and a few of these will be mentioned.
(1) That geometry and algebra be fused into

a single subject, an effort that takes no ac-
count of the fact that the two subjects are
distinct in purpose, in results, and in diffi-
culty, and that each has a peculiar interest
that is lost when it sacrifices its individuality
(2) That the two subjects be taught simultane-
ously, two days of one and three of the other
during each school week This has often been
tried in the United States, but in the main with
unsatisfactory results Psychologically the
argument is that the pupil is not mature enough
for this plan, his interest being better main-
tained by concentrating his energy on either
the one or the other The argument that he
would see the relation of one science to the other
better by the simultaneous than the tandem
arrangement is offset by the custom of the best
teachers to bring into algebra as much of the
mensuration learned in arithmetic as possible,
and to introduce into geometry as many appli-
cations of algebra as seem adapted to this pur-
pose (3) That geometry be converted into
an applied science, joining the general industrial
movement of the present This would mean
that geometry would cease to exist, since the
applications of the subject are merely the rules
of mensuration learned in arithmetic, and
learned bv a natural form of induction If
geometry were abolished it would be possible
to introduce other lines of mathematics, such
as trigonometry (which requires only very
little geometry), calculus (which requires prac-
tically no geometry beyond elementary men-
suration for a large number of its applications),
and some little work in the practical pioblems
of vector analysis Foi the great majority
of students this seems unwise, since they have
little interest in these applications, but in
certain forms of technical high schools such an
arrangement may prove necessary (4) That
algebra be taught for a half vear, followed by
geometry for the same length of time, and tins
by another half year of algebra, followed again
by a half year of geometry This plan has
certain advantages over the year arrangement,
but as yet it has to justify itself, the general
feeling being that the pupil would lose more
in immediate interest in a topic than he would
gain in sustained interest in mathematics as
a whole

While these suggestions for reform are open
to question, other reforms are meeting with
general acceptance and are improving the cur-
rent teaching of geometry (1) It is universally
agreed that Euclid is undesirable as a text-
book for beginners, and, even in England
where it has so long been the standard, it is
now superseded by books more suited to the
youthful mind. (2) The propositions of the
textbook are coming to be considered more in
the light of basal truths, and the proofs as
models, and the serious work of the pupils is
coming to be more and more in the realm of
exercises (3) The exercises are coming to
be more carefully grouped and graded.

52

GEOMETRY, ANALYTIC

GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC

(4) Such legitimate applications as can be found,
and as give interest to the study of geometry,
are being sought for and introduced

(5) More attention is being given to geometric
design, so long as this does not detract from
the scientific work. (6) In brief, serious effort
is being made to make geometry more interest-
ing and useful, and to recognize its game ele-
ment and its utility, without destroying the
values that have long made it a recognized
standard subject in the curriculum

D E S
References : —

On the History of Geometry consult —

ALLMAN, G J Greek Geometry from Thales to Euclid
(London, 1889)

BALL, W W H History of Mathematics (London,
1908 )

CAJORI, F History of Mathematics (Now York,

1890)

History of Elementary Mathematics (New York,
1897)

CANTOR, M Gexchichtr der Mathematik (Leipzig,
various editions, 1880 1()08 )

FINK, K History of Mathematics (Chicago, 1903 )

Fit \NKLAND, W S The Firs/ Boole of Euclid's Ele-
ments (Ciimbridgo, 1901 )
Theories of Parallelism (Cambridge, 1909 )

Gow, J History of Greek Mathematics (Cambridge,
1884)

HEATH, T L The Thirteen Books of Euclid'* Ele-
ments (Cambridge, 1908)

Other standard works on the history of mathematics

On the Teaching of Geometry consult —

HUANKORD, B A Study of Mathematical Education

(Oxford, 1908 )

SMITH, D E Teaching of Geometry (Boston, 1911 )
Teaching of Elemental y Mathematics (New York,

1900)
YOUNG, J W A The Teaching of Mathematics

(New York, 1907)

On the Foundations of Geometry consult —

CAKUH, P Foundations of Mathematics (Chicago,

1908)
HILBERT, D Foundations of Geometry (Chicago,

1902 )
RUHSELL, B Foundations of Geometry (Cambridge,

1906)

GEOMETRY, ANALYTIC. — See ANA-
LYTIC GEOMETRY

GEORGE III

See LANCASTER, JOSEPH

GEORGE JUNIOR REPUBLIC, FREE-
VILLE, N.Y — An organization of boys and
girls modeled on the government of the United
States It arose out of the summer camps
first begun in 1890 by Mr William R George,
who had for several years studied the " boy
problem " among the New York street urchins
One experience after another with the worst
type of city boys who regarded charity as their
right, who had no moral sense, whose chief
aim was to secure something for nothing, led
Mr. George from one system of control to an-
other, until he recognized that boys, and girls
too, must own something which they valued,
that the basis of government is property, that
there should be nothing without labor, and that

his small community must learn to govern
itself. The permanent Republic was launched
in the summer of 1895, five boys remaining
with Mr George after summer camp This
number gradually rose until now the village
numbers about 150 citizens In 1896 the
George Junior Republic Association was in-
corporated and a farm was purchased The
government was placed in the hands of the
community, a president, vice-president, judge,
chief of police, secretary of state, and secretary
of the treasury, and a legislature were elected,
important practical questions arose and were
settled, such as the question of currency,
woman's suffrage, and trusts When it was
found that the members of the legislature were
not always disinterested, a monthly town
meeting was substituted In all other respects
the village is a copy in miniature of the outside
world with its trade, commerce, and industries.
The citizens are drawn from all classes; boys
and girls committed by sentence of a court,
wayward juveniles sent by their parents, boys
and girls who come voluntarily to the Re-
public to find there a start which is so difficult
for them outside But there are no distinctions
of class, all must work to support themselves
or bo maintained in the workhouse or jail,
whore they aro compelled to labor The chief
industries of the Republic are farming, car-
pentry, plumbing, printing, baking, road-
mending and building, laundry and domestic
work for the girls The community is housed
in ton cottages arid hotels, and is provided with
board and lodging according to their means
There is a special currency and a bank, the
savings may be redeemed in United States
currency on leaving the village A school is
maintained which provides instruction up to
college entrance requirements There is a
chapel in which each denomination has its own
service An interesting feature of the Republic
is the court in which offenders are tried by a
jury of then peers, the judge is an elected
officer Law-breakers may be fined or im-
prisoned in the jail which adjoins the court
Mr George attributes the success of the ex-
periment to the absence of an adult-manu-
factured system Those characteristics which
mark boy and girl life generally are seized upon
as the foundation There is no adult inter-
ference with the exception that the larger in-
dustrial undertakings are m the charge of adult
and experienced helpers, while the spirit of
home life is introduced into the cottages by the
presence of adult proprietors The institution
is maintained through payment for board by
parents, guardians, societies, or county officials,
annual contributions, a small endowment,
payment towards teachers' salaries from the
State Education Department, and income from
sales of products made by the citizens The
success of the institution is evidenced by the
fact that of those who have been through the
Republic only about two per cent have turned

GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY

GEORGIA

out to be failures, while the rest are to be found
in all walks of life, a few having proceeded to
Cornell, Harvard, Columbia, and other colleges.
In 1908 the National Association of Junior
Republics was formed to encourage the estab-
lishment of republics in other parts of the
country The Carter Republic at Redmgton,
Pa , and the National Republic at Annapolis
Junction, Md , may be mentioned as carrying
out work on the same principle as the George
Junior Republic

References : —
ABBOTT, L A Republic in thp Republic Outlook,

Vol LXXXVIII, 1908, pp 350-354
American Journal of Sociology, Vol IV, pp 281, 433,

703

BARRAN, R C Thr George Junior Republic Nine-
teenth Century, Vol LXV, 1909, pp 502-508
GEORGE, WILLIAM R The Junior Republic, its His-
tory and Ideals (New York, 1910 )

GEORGE WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY,
WASHINGTON, DC— The successor of the
Columbian College of the District of Colum-
bia, an institution chartered by Congress on
Feb. 9, 1821 On March 3, 1873, the name
was changed to the Columbian University and
on Jan. 23, 1904, to The George Washing-
ton University. The old Columbian College
was organized and controlled by the Baptist
denomination In 1898 the sectarian control
was modified, the president and two thirds of
the trustees remaining Baptist In 1904 with
the adoption of its present name the institution
became nonscctarian Its present board of
trustees is a self-perpetuating body of twenty-
two members, divided into three classes, seven
trustees being elected each year The uni-
versity has a department of arts and sciences
— consisting of the graduate school, the
College of Arts and Sciences, the College of En-
gineering and Mechanic Arts, the College of
the Political Sciences, and Teachers College —
and professional departments of law, medicine,
and dentistry Also it embraces the National
College of Pharmacy and the College of
Veterinary Medicine, institutions organized
under its charter as separate corporations with
independent financial foundations but educa-
tionally parts of the university The en-
dowment of the university has through past
administration been greatly impaired, the loss
in it being now covered adequately but unpro-
ductively by a deed of trust on the medical
school and the hospital buildings The uni-
versity is therefore to a great extent dependent
financially on tuition fees and subscriptions
pledged by friends The instructing staff, 1910-
1911, numbered 176, but m many instances
members of it give only part time to the uni-
versity. The students', 1910-1911, were 1277,
divided, including 13 duplicates, as follows
Graduate School 54, College of Arts and
Sciences 281, College of Engineering and Me-
chanic Arts 176, College of the Political
Sciences 77, Teachers College 93; Dcpart-

54

mcnt of Law 343, Department of Medicine 98,
Department of Dentistry 40, National College
of Pharmacy 63, College of Veterinary Medi-
cine 65. C. H. S.

GEORGETOWN COLLEGE, GEORGE-
TOWN, KY — A coeducational institution
established in 1829 under the auspices of the
Kentucky Baptist Education Society Pre-
paratory and collegiate departments are main-
tained The entrance requirements are equiv-
alent to some twelve points of high school work
Degrees of Bachelor of Arts and Bachelor of
Science are conferred on completion of the re-
quirements, which include at least one year of
work in residence There is a faculty of twenty
members in the college

GEORGETOWN UNIVERSITY, WASH-
INGTON, DC — See JESUS, SOCIETY OF,
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF

Reference : —

SHEA, J G History of Georgetown University (Wash-
ington and New York, 1891 )

GEORGIA, STATE OF — The southern-
most of the original thirteen states Rati-
fied the Federal constitution in 1788. It is
located in the South Atlantic Division, and hah
a land area of 58,980 square miles In size, it is
nearly equal to the six New England States
For administrative purposes it is divided into
145 counties, and these arc in turn divided mtc
cities and school districts In 1910 Georgia
had a population of 2,609,121, with a distribu-
tion of 44 4 persons per .square mile

Educational History — In laying out the
original towns, considerable bodies of land were
set aside by the trustees of the colony for the
support of church and school Schools were
maintained by the trustees and charitable
friends of the colony, at Savannah and else-
where In 1754 the crown took over the colony
and agreed to continue the " allowance here-
tofore usually given by the trustees to a
Minister and two school-masters " The agiee
ment so made waa kept until the Revolution,
the only case on record where the Parliament
of England supported schools in the colonies
The most notable educational activity in the
colony was the orphan house founded in 1739
by the evangelist George Whiteficld (q v ), upon
which he had expended by 1764 some £12,000
sterling This institution was in avowed imi-
tation of Francke's orphan house at Halle, and
in it were taught such trades as carpentering,
weaving, and tailoring.

The Society for the Propagation of the
Gospel (q.v ) also gave some assistance to
schools in the colonial days

The first educational interest of the state as
such was in a system of county academies.
The constitution of 1777 provided that " schools
shall be erected in each county, arid supported

GEORGIA

GEORGIA

at the general expense of the state as the legis-
lature shall hereafter point out " As soon as
the Revolution was ended, the legislature char-
tered (1783) academies for three of the counties,
giving to each a landed endowment, and granted
further " one thousand acres of vacant land for
erecting free schools " in each of the remaining
counties. The " free schools " here contem-
plated were of the county academy type In
1792 the land endowment was changed to
£1000 worth of confiscated property; a pro-
vision which remained in force until 1835.

The county academies were, in 1785, formed
into an administrative system under the newly
created state university. In 1784 (Feb 20) a
state " college or seminary of learning " had
boon chartered and endowed with 40,000 acres
of land, being thus the first chartered of Amer-
ican state universities (See GEORGIA, UNI-
VERSITY OF ) In 1785 this charter was en-
larged so as to include " as parts or members
of the university all public schools instituted
or to be supported by funds or public moneys "
The Senatus Academicus of the university was
required to advise " not only upon the affairs
of the university, but also to remedy the de-
fects and advance the interests of literature
through the state in general " In pursuance of
this end it should " recommend what kind of
schools and academies shall be instituted, agree-
ably to the constitution, m the several parts of
the state, and prescribe what- branches of edu-
cation shall be taught and inculcated "; should
" also examine and recommend the instructors
to be emploved in them, or appoint persons for
that purpose " The president of the univer-
sity was required to visit the schools regularly
and " examine into their order and perform-
ances " This plan, remarkable both for its
mrlusiveness and for its centralization of au-
thority, was in these respects never much more
than a legislative dream The university did
not begin work until 1800, the county acad-
emies were too widely scattered and the frontier
spirit of freedom too strong to allow a central
body to exercise real control By 1820 thirty-
one academies had been chartered In 1821 an
" academic fund " of $250,000 was set aside,
the income of which should be divided among
the counties The quota of any county should
normally go to the countv academy, but it
might by special enactment be divided among
certain authorized academies in the county, or
be given to elementary education (poor school
fund) The effect of this " academic fund "
appears in the fact that during the next ten
years more than three times as many acad-
emies were chartered (107) as in the preceding
forty years; while the next decade (1830-
1840) saw this number more than doubled
(256). The " academic fund " was in 1837
transferred to the " common school fund," and
the chartering of academies shows an immediate
decline Some of these academies from the
first had "female departments ", and beginning

about 1825 a number of distinctly " feniaif
academies " were chartered In the smaller
places, however, coeducation was the rule
A curriculum of 1806, probably typical of the
best, included " English, Latin, and Greek,
writing, arithmetic, geography, astronomy,
mathematics, and Roman antiquities " Later,
elementary education received increased atten-
tion in the academies, which thus formed unti>
the Civil War the chief dependence of the statt
for education

Prior to the Civil War free schooling was
for the most part, confined to the poor and
given to them as a charity from state and
county " poor school funds "* In 1817 $250,000
was set aside by the state " for the future es-
tablishment and support of free schools through-
out the state " The next year lots 10 and 100
of each " surveyor's district " in about one third
of the state were reserved " for the education of
poor children " In 1822 the income from these
funds was directed towards paying the tuition
of any poor child in whatever school he might
chance to be Special schools were neither
established nor contemplated The working of
this plan was at no time satisfactory, and many
efforts were made to improve it When the
"surplus revenue " was received from Congress
in 1836, one third (about $350,000) was set
aside for school purposes, and a committee was
appointed to visit the various sections of the
country " particularly the New England
states " and report a plan of " common schools "
As a result there was adopted in 1837 a thor-
ough system of schools, free to all white chil-
dren and supported from the income of a " com-
mon school fund " (of nearly $1,000,000), this
to be supplemented bv a county tax (amend-
ment of 1838), if locally desired Whether the
scheme was too radical a step or whether the
panic of 1837 was too disastrous, does not now
appear; but m 1840 the " common school "
system gave place to a renewal of the 4< pool
school fund " plan This was improved in
1843, 1849, and m 1852

Parallel with this gen end state law were to
be found various local efforts Savannah from
1818 and Augusta from 1821 had " free school
societies affording education to the children of
indigent parents " These were supported in
part by state and county funds Glynn (1823)
and Emanuel (1824) counties had free schools
for needy children, Gwmnott (1826) " for the
education of the youth of the county " Mc-
Intosh county m 1830 had a free moving school
The " academy funds " were in several instances
used m connection with such free school sys-
tems These local efforts continued more or
less sporadically until the permanent establish-
ment of a common school system in 1870

In 1845 and again in 1856 efforts were made
before the legislature to establish a general
system of free schools; but not before 1858 was
auy real progress made In that year there was
elected as governor a man from the plain people

55

GEORGIA

GEORGIA

through whose influence the school fund was
much enlarged with provision for its further
increase, and an annual appropriation of
$100,000 was made " for the education of the
children of this state " This marks the dis-
appearance of the word " poor " from his legis-
lative enactments By this act each county
was to adopt its own school plan; and a county
tax was authorized The next year county
boards of education were provided to disburse
the funds and examine teachers As a result
of these acts a number of counties organized
common free school systems The war of
course stopped this development; but the
constitutional convention of 1861 added to the
general educational provision, which has been
in force since 1798, a clause authorizing the
General Assembly " to provide for the educa-
tion of the people " This clause was retained
in the constitution of 1865 (contrary to the
statement in Barnard's American Journal)

Immediately after the war and before the rad-
ical Reconstruction was begun, the legislature
adopted (1866) an act establishing a " general
system of Georgia schools " in which was pro-
vided a state " superintendent of public edu-
cation," free schooling for all white children,
local taxation to supplement state funds, and
in general, all the machinery for an efficient
public school system The scheme was to go
into effect in 1868 Before that time Congress
overturned the existing state government, and
placed in power the radical rcconstructiomsts
In 1868 the constitutional convention (more
than half of whom were Southern whites)
adopted without division an explicit provision
for " a thorough system of general education
to be forever free to all children of the state "
For the first time in the state schooling was
provided for the negro

In 1869 the State Teachers' Association was
formed, and this body practically outlined the
school law of 1870, which was the first public
free-school law passed under the now constitu-
tion The new school system did not escape
the mismanagement which characterized the
reconstruction period, the school funds, were
diverted and spent, a large debt was contracted,
and as a result, the schools were closed during
the year 1872 In 1872 the school law was
revised and amended, and this law lias formed
the basis of the present school system for the
state. In 1877 another new constitution was
adopted, and, in this, still more explicit in-
structions were laid down with reference to
education. New provisions with reference to
state and county taxation for schools were
inserted, separate schools for the two races were
required, the local school systems in existence
were legalized, and an additional mandate
was laid upon the legislature to provide " a
thorough system of common schools," " as
nearly uniform as practicable," for the educa-
tion of the children of the state. Side by side
with this general school system, established by

56

the law of 1870, there has grown up a series ol
special school systems, regulated and controlled
by local laws Chatham County (in which is
Savannah) was the first to have a separate
system, followed closely by the city of Colum-
bus, both being created in 1866. In the same
year as the new school law, 1870, Atlanta was
created a special school system, Richmond and
Bibb Counties following in 1872, Glynn County
in 1873 Other cities followed, until practically
every town of any size has its local system.
Local taxation elsewhere practically forbidden,
was possible in these local systems and has been
the chief incentive to their formation Some
of the best schools of the South are to be found
in the counties and cities of Georgia operating
under local and independent laws

In 1887 the school law was revised, and a
number of important changes made The
preparation of all questions for teachers' ex-
aminations was placed with the State School
Commissioner; the election of teachers by
county boards was changed so as to give them
discretionary power m elections, instead of
being required to elect those nominated by the
district trustees, the boards of district trustees
were abolished, and the county was made the
unit in admirnstiation The state appropria-
tions have been gradually increased until now
$2,500,000 is annually disbursed from the state
treasury In 1891 a State Normal School was
established by legislative act, and county
teachers' institutes were created In 1903 the
State Board of Education was created a State
Textbook C Commission as well, with power to
adopt a uniform series of textbooks for the
schools of the state In 1904 the state con-
stitution was amended so as to make feasible
the levying of county and district school taxes,
and this permission has been made use of by
many of the counties and districts since that
time In 1906 eleven agricultural high schools
were established, one in each congressional dis-
trict, for instruction in agricultural science
In 1906 the school districts were re-created and
trustees appointed, and, in 1905, local district
taxation for schools was established for the
first time

In 1910 constitutional provision was, for the
first time, made for the state support of secondary
education The next year 0911) provision was
made for state inspectors of elementary schools;
and the state school board was changed from an
ex offiao body of statehouse officers to a body
appointed by the governor, while the power of
the board was much increased

Present School System. — The school system
of Georgia, as at present organized, is as fol-
lows: At the head of the system is a State
Board of Education and a State Superintendent
of Schools The State Board of Education is
a body composed of the Governor, the State
Superintendent of Schools, and four others ap-
pointed by the Governor. The Governor is
president, and the State Superintendent of

GEORGIA

GEORGIA

Schools is the chief executive officer of the
Board The Board regulates the supervision
of all schools in the state, supervises all certifi-
cation of teachers for all public schools, pro-
vides the course of study for all common and
high schools receiving state aid, adopts uni-
form textbooks, and acts as a court of final
appeal from the decisions of the state super-
intendent Counties, cities, and towns that
levy a local tax for schools and maintain a
term of eight months are exempt from the
provisions of the law requiring uniformity in
textbooks The State Superintendent of Schools
is elected by the people for two-year periods
and receives a salary of $3000 a year He
has " a general superintendence of the business
relating to the common schools of the state,"
and is " charged with the administration of
the school laws " He prepares blank report
forms, visits the different counties, and examines
into the administration of the school law,
delivers popular addresses in the interests of
education, and makes an annual report to the
General Assembly He is also a member of
the State Geological Board There are three
state school supervisors appointed by the state
Superintendent, who under his direction hold
teachers' institutes, grade papers for state
licenses, and " aid generally in supervising,
systematizing, and improving the schools of the
state "

In each county there is a county board of
education and a county superintendent of
education The County Board, except in the
four special systems of Bibb, Chatham, Rich-
mond, and Glyrin, consists of five freeholders
appointed by the grand jury of the county,
for four-year terms, and removable for cause
by the county judge They receive $2 per
day for their services, and are required to lay
off their counties into school districts, to estab-
lish at least one school for white and one for
colored children in each, to employ the teachers
for the schools, to fix the time and length of
the school term, and to act as a judicial tri-
bunal for school affairs in the county The
board may also disapprove of any district
trustee elected, and order a new election
The county superintendent of education, is
chosen by popular election from among the
citizens of the county, for a four-year term,
and acts ex officio as secretary of the board
He acts further as a medium of communication
between state and district officers; must visit
each school m the county at least once every
sixty days; acts as the agent of the county
board in purchasing furniture and supplies;
makes an annual report to the grand jury
and a monthly report to the State Superin-
tendent of Schools; issues certificates to school
trustees; and examines teachers for licenses
The minimum salary for this office is $600 per
annum, but the county board may make such
additional compensation, " as may be m their
judgment proper and just " County boards

may employ him to take the school census,
for which he may be paid $2 a day

Each county, not under local laws, is divided
into school districts of at least sixteen square
miles, though smaller districts may be laid off
if conditions require it For each district, three
trustees are elected for three-year terms, one
each year In incorporated towns, five trustees
arc elected for three-year terms These
boards of trustees are to supervise the school
operations in their districts, may make recom-
mendations to the county board as to their
choice for teachers, and must make an annual
report to the county board In districts
which vote a local district tax, the boards of
trustees may make all rules and regulations
for the government of the schools, may build
and equip their schoolhouses, subject to the
approval of the county board, and may fix
the salaries of their teachers Any city of
over 2000 inhabitants may organize an inde-
pendent school system and report direct to the
State School Commissioner, and any county
may be so organized by an act of the General
Assembly Such independent systems make
their own course of study, and may by per-
mission of the state board certificate their own
teachers

School Support. — The state appropriation
constitutes about 65 per cent of the total school
revenue for the state, and is apportioned to the
counties and local systems on the sole basis of
the number of children 6-18 years of age In
each county not operating under special laws, an
election to vote a countv tax inav be called bv a
petition signed by one fourth of the voters, and
a two-thirds majoiity of those voting enacts the
tax The county board determines the amount,
not to exceed five mills By a similar petition
and election, any district rnav vote a similar
district tax, the local boar a of trustees detei-
mmmg the amount up to five mills A con-
siderable amount is still contributed from
private sources, and in some districts a species
of the rate tax LS still allowed, by common
consent, in the form of a small incidental fee
to cover the cost of school supplies, fuel, and
janitor service, though pupils who are unable
to pay are excused from the fee, and the courts
do not recognize the right of the districts to
exact the fee

Educational Conditions — Of the population
of 1910, 45 1 per cent were negroes and 99
per cent were native born But three states
(Louisiana, Mississippi, and South Carolina)
have a larger percentage of negroes in the total
population In one half of the counties the
blacks outnumber the whites, and in one
fourth of the counties they outnumber the
whites two or more to one The percentage of
children, 5-18 years of age, m the total popu-
lation (334 per cent), is high, being larger in
but four states, and all of these in the South.
While the state has made rapid advances in
manufacturing within recent years, it is still

57

GEORGIA

GEORGIA, UNIVERSITY OF

largely an agricultural state, as 84 4 per cent
of the total population live in rural districts,
and but 11 per cent in cities of over 8000
inhabitants.

In illiteracy, Georgia stood sixth in 1900 in
its percentage of the total population, ten
years or over, who were illiterate By race,
the state stood third in illiteracy for the negro
population and ninth for the white population,
and by percentage, 11.9 per cent of the whites
and 52 4 per cent of the negroes were illiterate
There was little difference in illiteracy between
the sexes. But 1.1 per cent of the total popu-
lation of the state was of foreign birth

Outside of the towns and cities, the state
has little material equipment for the work of
education. The average value of all publicly
owned schoolhouses in the state during the
last year for which statistics are available was
about $1800 Much of the money for repairs
and for new buildings in the rural districts is
raised by private subscription The school
term, too, is commonly lengthened by the same
means, many communities providing what are
called long-term schools by private subscription.
The subject matter of instruction embraces
agriculture, civil government, and physiology
and hygiene, in addition to the common school
branches The State Board of Education
adopts a uniform system of textbooks for the
schools of the state, but counties, cities, and
towns that levy a tax for graded schools and
maintain an eight-months school are not re-
quired to use the uniform series Each county
board is authorized by law to establish one or
more manual labor schools, but such schools
must be self-sustaining As in Alabama, the
elementary school system of Georgia is just
now being rounded out and classified.

Teachers and Training — For the training
of future teachers, the state maintains or helps
to maintain four institutions, one of which is
for the colored race, and there arc also three
private normal and industrial schools, all of
which are for the colored race Of the state
schools, the Georgia Normal and Industrial
College for whites at Millcdgeville, and the
Georgia State Industrial College for negroes
at Savannah, are partly normal and partly
industrial institutions, and of a type common in
the South The law of the state still authorizes
two forms of teachers' contracts, one the usual
Jorm by the month, and the other where pay-
ments are made to private school teachers who
take public school r-uoils at a certain rate
based on enrollment and attendance, and thus
conduct a long-term school. The wages of the
teachers are low

Secondary Education. — Georgia has its high
school system better developed than any of
the neighboring Southern States, the state re-
porting 231 public and 48 private high schools
Of the public high schools, 12 were in cities of
*>000 inhabitants or over, while 219 were in
imaller places. Six of the total number of

58

high schools were for the colored race The
ptate has recently (1910) authorized state aid
to high schools, such aid having been expressly
forbidden by the Constitution of 1877. With
the development of the agricultural and natural
resources of the state, and the consequent in-
crease in the amount of money available for
education, conditions may be expected to im-
prove very rapidly

Higher and Technical Education — The
University of Georgia (q v ) at Athens, founded
in 1784 and opened in 1800; the Georgia State
College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts,
also at Athens, and opened in 1872; the
Georgia School of Technology, at Atlanta,
opened in 1888; and the North Georgia Agri-
cultural College at Dahlonega, opened in 1872,
stand at the culmination of the public school
system of the state The Georgia State In-
dustrial College, at Savannah, offers somewhat
similar instruction for the colored race Georgia
has a large number of colleges, nearly all
denominational, some of them for the negro
race, which offer preparatory and collegiate
instruction Few of them have much endow-
ment or high standards The state also main-
tains the Georgia Academy for the Blind, at
Macon, the Georgia School for the Deaf at
Cave Spring, the Georgia Normal and Industrial
College for girls, at Milledgeville; and eleven
district agricultural schools for the teaching of
the elements of agriculture The Normal and
Industrial College is one of a type of institu-
tions found in the South, which offers training
to girls along vocational, industrial, normal, and
musical and artistic lines

W H K and B P. C

References : —

Annual Reports of the Department of Education, State of

Georgia, 1873-dutr
Constitutions of the State of Georgia, adopted in 1777,

1789, 1798, 1861, 1865, 1S68, and 1877
JOHNSTON, R M Early Educational Life in Middle

Georgia, in Reports, U S Corn J£C?MC , 1894-1895,

Vol II, pp 1699-1733, 1895-1896, Vol I, pp

839-886
JONEH, C E Education in Georgia Circ Irif U S

Bur Eduo , No 4, 1888 (Washington, 1889 )
Laws Relating to the Common School System, 1909
Legislative Enactments published annually

GEORGIA, UNIVERSITY OF, ATHENS,

GA — The earliest state university in the
United States, chartered in February, 1784,
while the University of the state of New York
received its charter in May, 1784. By the
amended charter of 1785 all public education
m Georgia was made a part of the University
(see GEORGIA, STATE OF) The early studies
provided m the University were mainly literary,
and only the arts degree was conferred The
land grants made by Congress in 1862 made
the establishment of the Georgia State College
of Agriculture and the Mechanical Arts and
the provision of modern scientific studies pos-
sible In 1867 the Lumpkm Law School was
incorporated as a department of the University;

GERBERT

HERBERT, MARTIN

the* North Georgia Agricultural College fol-
lowed m 1872; and in 1873 the Georgia Medi-
cal College at Augusta became a department
of the University The following institutions
are also branches or departments of the Uni-
versity: Georgia School of Technology at
Atlanta, 1885; Georgia Normal and Industrial
College for Girls at Milledgeville, 1889; Georgia
Industrial School for Colored Youth at Sa-
vannah, 1890; and the State Normal School,
near Athens, 1895 More recent extensions
are the School of Pharmacy, 1903; the Sum-
mer School, 1904; Georgia State College of
Agriculture; the School of Forestry, 1906; and
the School of Education, 1908 Franklin Col-
lege is the college of arts The government of
the University is in the hands of a Board of
Trustees appointed by the Governor. The sup-
port comes from state taxation, federal grants,
and private gifts. The University campus
extends over an area of 132 acres, and the Uni-
versity farm covers 830 acres. The mam build-
ing equipment comprises fifteen buildings The
admission requirements are fourteen units,
four conditions being allowed The degrees of
Bachelor of Arts, Bachelor of Science, Bachelor
of Science in Civil Engineering or Agriculture,
Bachelor of Law (after a two years' course),
are conferred on completion of the appro-
priate courses Degrees are also conferred by
some of the affiliated institutions, as the North
Georgia Agricultural College, the Medical Col-
lege, the Georgia School of Technology The
enrollment of students at Athens in 1910-11 was
940, distributed as follows- graduate school, 7;
college, 180; science and engineering, 176; agri-
culture, 223; law, 55; pharmacy, 19; summer
school, 337 The University at Athens has a
faculty of 46 members, of whom 25 are profes-
sors and 9 adjunct professors David Cren-
shaw Barrow, LL D , is the chancellor

GERBERT, or GERBERTUS — One of the

most remarkable scholars of the Middle Ages,
and a man who had a marked influence upon
mathematical instruction He was born at or
neai Aurillac, about 950 Richer, his pupil
and friend, to whom we are indebted for most
of our knowledge of his life, speaks of him as
an Aquitanian, and relates that as a child he
entered the monastery of Saint Ge*rauld
Other writers speak of his family as being re-
lated to royalty, but in spite of careful research
his parentage still remains obscure He seems
to have been a brilliant student, and one of
agreeable manner and without forwardness.
In 967 Borel, Comte d'Argel, lately become
lord of Barcelona, visited Aurillac and saw the
youthful Gerbcrt The abbot, informed by
Borel that Spain at that time had a number of
distinguished scholars, confided Gerbert to him
in order that the boy might acquire the learn-
ing of that country Borel gave Gerbert into
the charge of Hatton, Bishop of Vich, under
whom, Richer tells us, " he made rapid progress,

particularly in mathematics " Gerbcrt 10-
mamed three years m Barcelona, and in this
time he may possibly have learned the Hindu-
Arabic numerals (see NOTATION), since he
knew something of them later in life After
this sojourn he accompanied Borel and Hatton
to Rome, where m 970 he was presented to
Pope John XIII The Pope *vas so pleased
with the young monk's proficiency in music
and astronomy that he spoke of him to Otho I,
a monarch with great interest in education,
although himself illiterate Through these
circumstances and by means of his natural
abilities, Gerbert obtained the favor of both
Pope and emperor, and m 972, at his request,
he was allowed to go to Rheirns with the arch-
deacon Garamnus in order to study logic under
this scholar The diocese of Rheims at that
time possessed 700 cures and 23 monasteries,
the most important of the latter being that of
St Denis Here it was that Gerbert carried
on his later studies, and here he made a brilliant
reputation as a teacher His chief work in
the lecture hall was m rhetoric, but he acquired
a great renown as an arithmetician from his
use of a special form of the abacus (</ v ) , a
form that may have been invented bv him
He also used certain numerals known as the
apices (see NOTATION), forms that are often
attributed to Boethius (q v ). He also had a
great reputation for his work in astronomy,
which subject he taught at Rheims After a
brilliant period of teaching in this monastery
he was made abbot at Bobbio (982), one of the
most important church positions in Italy, and
nine years later (991) he became Archbishop of
Rheims In 998 he became Archbishop of
Ravenna, and a year later he was elevated to
the papal chair as Sylvester II He reigned as
Pope only four years, dying on May 12, 1003
His mathematical works include a treatise on
the abacus, a work DC numcrorum dwiswne,
and a work De geometria DBS

References : —

BALL, W W R History of Mathematics (London,

1908)
OAJORI, F History of Mathematns (New York,

1890 )
CANTOR, M Gemhuhte der Mathematik (Leipzig,

188O 1908 )
HOCK, K VON Gerbert otier Papal Sylvester yrui sein

Jahrhundert (Vienna, 1837 )
OLLERIS, A Oeuvrea de Gerbert (Pans, 1867 )
NAQL, A Gerbert urul dn Rechenkunst de* 10 Jahr-
hunderts (Vienna, 1888 )

GERBERT, MARTIN, BARON OF HOR-
NAU AND PRINCE-ABBOT OF ST BLAISE

(1720-1793) — One of the most learned and
saintly Roman Catholic prelates of the eight-
eenth century He was educated at the Jesuit
College at Freiburg and in the cloister of St.
Blaise and enriched his mind by varied culture
and by travels, from which he brought back
abundant spoil of MSB from the libraries of
Europe Historical research, especially in

59

GERBIER

GERMAN INFLUENCE

music, was his favorite pursuit. He formed
relations with learned societies everywhere, and
made many important discoveries in this field
His treatise De Cantu et Musica was published
in two volumes in 1774 and has ever since formed
the basis of all musical scholarship The
Scriptores Ecclesiastic?, de Musica Sacra (1784)
created a sensation in the musical world and
was of the highest value for the study of music
It was a collection of all the ancient authors
who had written upon musical subjects from the
third century to the invention of printing and
whose works had remained in manuscript and
were for the most part unknown. W. R.

Reference : —

Catholic Encyclopedia, s v Gerbert

GERBIER, SIR BALTHAZAR (?1591-1667)
— Painter, architect, and courtier He de-
vised schemes for the education of noblemen and
gentlemen's sons m an Academy m Bethnal
Green Gerbier was a Dutchman and came to
England m 1616 and entered the service of George
Vilhers, afterwards Duke of Buckingham In
1631 Gerbier was King Charles I's agent at
Brussels and in 1641 Master of the Ceremonies
He issued prospectuses, June 28, 1648, and in
1649 on June 18, August 4, October 31 The
prospectus for June 28, 1648, is addressed to
" all Fathers of Noble Families and lovers of
Virtue," in which he stated he was founding an
Academy in which would be taught French,
Italian, Spanish, German, and Low Dutch,
both ancient arid modern histories, jointly with
the constitution and government of the most
famous empires and estates of the world
Courses were given in experimental Natural Phi-
losophy, mathematics, including arithmetic,
bookkeeping " by double parties," geometry,
geography, cosmography, perspective, and
architecture, practical mathematics, to include
fortification, besieging, and defending of places,
fireworks, ordering of battalia, and marches of
arms; rnusic, playing of all sorts of instruments,
dancing, fencing, riding the erect horse, to-
gether with the new manner of fighting on
horseback Permission was also to be made
for teaching drawing, painting, limning, and
carving Gerbier announced that he was him-
self preparing treatises for the study of modern
languages. He was also prepared to lodge the
sons of gentlemen in his own house at Bethnal
Green He thus promises to parents an edu-
cation for their sons at home in England, sim-
ilar to what they could get in academies abroad
and the avoidance of the " dangers and in-
conveniences " of education abroad, " in these
evil times " In the prospectus of August 4,
1649, Gerbier provides a time-table The
regulations are modeled to some extent on
those of Sir Francis Kinaston's (q v ) Musaeum
Minervae On December 21, 1649, he issued
a notice that ladies might attend his lectures,
and adventurer as he was, he is probably to be

60

credited with being the first in England to en-
courage the idea of men and women attending
academic lectures together F. W.

See GENTRY AND NOBLES, EDUCATION OF;
ACADEMIES, COURTLY

References : —

ADAMSON, J W Pioneers of Modern Education. (Cam-
bridge, 1905 )

Dictionary of National Biography

WATSON, FOSTER Beginnings of the Teaching of Mod-
em Subjects in England (London, 1909.)

GERMAN INFLUENCE ON AMERICAN
EDUCATION — German educational ideas
and methods have profoundly influenced all
parts of the American system of education, but
especially its top and its foundation, the uni-
versity and the elementary school, including the
kindergarten, both of which have been either
created or fashioned on the model of the corre-
sponding German institutions

This influence has been exerted through five
different channels, which, of course, frequently
run into one another and cannot be entirely
separated, namely, (a) through the work of
German-Americans and of German-American
schools; (b) through American students edu-
cated in German universities (see Rep U S
Corn Ed, 1897-1898, Vol I, pp 610-013);
(c) through reports on German education pub-
lished by American and other visitors of Ger-
man schools; (d) through the study of German
pedagogy, psychology, and philosophy on the
part of Americans in this country; and
(e) through the work of German lecturers
brought over either as exchange professors or
by invitation of such bodies as the Ger-
mamstic Society of America (q v)

Of these, the direct influence of German-
Americans and of the German-American schools
has been comparatively small, certainly not so
great as might have been expected, considering
the numerical proportion of the German ele-
ment, which is estimated at about 27 per
cent of the total population. The chief
reason for this lack of direct influence lies
probably in the difference of language, which
separated the German- American schools from
the mam current of national education, and
also in the fact that nearly all of these schools
were either private or parochial schools. Still
a large number of German-American teachers
have played an important part in American
education Among these are Franz Daniel
Pastonus (1651-1719), the first German teacher
m America, the founder of Germantown; Carl
Follen (1795-1840), the first professor of the
German language in Harvard; Francis Lieber
(1800-1872), who introduced gymnastic train-
ing into Boston and afterwards became one of
the greatest jurists of America, H E. von Hoist,
the author of the Constitutional History of the
United States; William N. Hailmann, super-
intendent of public schools at La Porte. Ind.
(1883-1894), afterwards national supermteri-

GERMAN INFLUENCE

GERMAN INFLUENCE

dent of Indian Schools; and many others
What was perhaps the earliest book of a peda-
gogical nature to appear in this country was
from the pen of a German, Christopher Dock
(qv), a master of one of the early Pennsyl-
vania schools (See PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF,
PAROCHIAL SCHOOL SYSTEM )

Among the first American students matricu-
lated in German universities were George
Tichnor, Edward Everett, George Bancroft,
and Joseph G Cogswell, all of whom studied in
the University of Gottmgen Everett was the
first American who received a Ph D degree from
a German university (1819) Previous to this,
Benjamin Smith Barton, of Lancaster, Pa ,
had obtained the degree of Doctor of Medicine
from the same university (1799) Bancroft
and Cogswell founded (1823) the Round Hill
School, near Northampton, Mass , the first
school in this country thoroughly impressed
with the German ideas During the remaining
part of the nineteenth century and up to the
present an increasing number of American
students have pursued advanced studies at
Gottmgen, Berlin, Halle, and later on also at
Leipzig, Bonn, Heidelberg, Jena, and other
German universities Hundreds of these have
become professors in American colleges and
have transplanted German ideas of advanced
instruction and German methods of research
upon American soil Through their students
in the graduate departments of universities
and colleges this influence has been very widely
extended The foundation of Johns Hopkins
University in 1876 marks an epoch in American
university education This institution was,
in its fundamental ideas, largely modeled on
the pattern of the German university, and most
of its early professors had been students in
Germany (Sec COLLEGE, AMERICAN, UNI-
VERSITIES, AMERICAN )

The most important reports on German
education which influenced American schools
were those of John Griscom (q v ) (1819), Alexf-
ander D Bache (q v ), and C E Stowe (q v )
(1833), but particularly that of Victor Cousin
(q v ) (1831), which was translated into English,
and published in the United States m 1835
The American publication of Cousin's work
proved to be of enormous influence on educa-
tion in the Middle West Equally important
was the famous Seventh Annual Report of
Horace Mann (1843), which, among other
things, called special attention to the methods
of the Prussian normal schools

The study of German literature and phi-
losophy among English-speaking peoples may
largely be traced back to the influence of Cole-
ridge and Carlyle In America these studies
received an impetus through Emerson, Theo-
dore Parker, Margaret Fuller, Frederick H
Hedge, Henry Barnard, William T Hams,
Elizabeth Peabody, Charles De Garmo, and
others. Barnard, in his Journal of Education,
published translations from Karl von Raumer's

History of Pedagogy; Harris studied the
philosophical system of Hegel and the peda-
gogical philosophy of Karl Rosenkranz, Miss
Peabody became an enthusiastic follower of
Froebel and founded (1867) the American
Froebel Union ; Charles De Garmo, the
McMurrys, and others, introduced American
teachers to the pedagogy and philosophy of
Herbart

The custom of bringing over German lec-
turers on educational subjects is of recent
origin, so that the results of this activity still
lie with the future Yet an important influ-
ence may be expected at least in two directions,
namely, towards vocational training, through
the work of the Munich school superintendent,
Dr Georg Kerschenstemer, and towards the
improvement m teaching modern foreign lan-
guages through the inspiration given by Dr
Max Walter, director of the Musterschule in
Frankfort a M F. M.

See under separate titles for further account
of the persons mentioned m this article, esp ,
PESTALOZZIAN MOVEMENT IN AMERICA, MAN-
UAL LABOR INSTITUTIONS, FELLENBERG, FROE-
BEL, KINDERGARTEN; COLONIAL PERIOD IN
AMERICAN EDUCATION; etc

GERMAN INFLUENCE ON ENGLISH
EDUCATION —At the time of the Reforma-
tion, German influence, commingled with that
of Erasmus, Calvin, and Sturm, made a deep
and lasting impression upon the course of
study in English schools and upon the
English idea of the relation between the
state and education Luther's Schrift an
die Rathxhenen allcr Stadtc Deutschlands, daw
vie Chribttiche Srhulen aufnchten und halten
xollen, written in 1524, had its echo in the pre-
amble to the Chantry Act passed m the first
year of King Edward VI (1547), and in the
Constitutions and Canons Ecclesiastical of
the Church of England, 1603, especially Can-
ons LIX and LXXVII-LXXIX There are
traces of the same influence in English Poor
Law administration ah early ah the reign of
Elizabeth and pnoi to the Poor Law Relief Act
of 1601, which first recognized the public obliga-
tion to supply elementary education in the case
of the children of the destitute poor In the
curriculum of the English Grammar Schools
the educational influence of Melanchthon (qv),
combined with that of Maturm Cordier (qv.)
of Geneva, is clear, especially in the emphasis
which was laid upon religious instruction as a
dominant feature in the course of training.

The influence of Protestant Germany was
deepened in English education in the seven-
teenth century by the study of the works of
Comemus (q v.), 'and especially of his Great
Didactic (first published in Latin, 1657), and of
the Januae Linguarum Vestibulum (English
translation, 1647) and Orbis Pictus (1657) At
the invitation of his friend, Samuel Hartlib,
Comemus visited England in 1641, and, if the

61

GERMAN INFLUENCE

GERMAN INFLUENCE

disturbed political condition of the country had
not prevented it, might well have been engaged
to take a leading part in the reorganization of
English education. Comemus's work was well
known to Milton, and he is referred to in the
latter's Tractate an Education (1644) as " a
person sent hither by some good Providence
from a far country to be the occasion and the
incitement of great good to this island." The
Civil War, however, and the reactionary ten-
dencies of the Restoration period prevented
the influence of Corncmus from bearing full
fruit m the educational life of England.

In the last years of the seventeenth century,
1698-1699, Dr Bray (q v ) and his associates
established a Society for Propagating Christian
Knowledge (q v.), one mam purpose of which
was " to set up catechetical schools for the edu-
cation of poor children in reading and writing,
and more especially in the principles of the
Christian religion " In the movement for
the reformation of English morals and for the
establishment of charity schools (q.v.)t the in-
fluence of the German Pietists was strong
August Hermann Fraricke (q v ) was asked to
send over two Germans to help in the setting
up of Charity Schools, and these two visitors
attended a meeting of the Society on May 11,
1699, to give an account of the school which
had been erected at Halle by A H Franckc,
who was at the same meeting chosen a corre-
sponding member of the Society

The educational efforts of John Wesley
(1703-1791), especially during the years 1742
onwards, were greatly influenced by what he
saw among the Moravians during his visit to
Herrnhut in 1738 The Moravian polity,
influenced by Pietism (q v), made the Orphan
House, which aimed at giving a Christian educa-
tion to boys and girls, an essential part of the
organization of the Church From 1760 Mora-
vian schools in England have exercised a quiet
but beneficial influence in English education

The next great wave of German influence
came into Englihh education through S T
Coleridge, who, in 1830, in his essay on The
Constitution of the Church and State according
to the Idea of Each, echoed the teaching of
Fichte (q v ) that the aim of statesmen should
be "to form arid tram up the people of the
country to obedient, free, useful, and organi-
zable subjects, citizens and patriots, living to the
benefit of the state and prepared to die in its
defence." Throughout the great speeches on
education made in the English Parliament by
Brougham (qv.), Roebuck, and others during
the years 1833-1835, German precedent for com-
pulsory education was quoted as a convincing
proof of the practicability of making elementary
instruction obligatory by law After Cole-
ridge, Thomas Carlyle (q v ) did much to famil-
iarize the English public with German ideals
of state-organized education, especially in Past
and Present (1843) and in Latter-Day Pant-
phlets (1850). It was, however, through Albert,

62

the Prince Consort (who married Queen Vic-
toria in 1840), that enlightened German ideas
as to the action of the state in public education
became most widely extended in England.
During the twenty-one years of his residence
in England, Prince Albert succeeded, with the
help of Lyon Playfair and others, in develop-
ing the State Department of Art and Science
and in promoting wise extensions of state ac-
tivity in elementary and technical education.

The success of the Prussian army in the war
with Austria in 1 866 drew attention to the mili-
tary and social value of the intelligence and
discipline which had been diffused throughout
the German people by the elaborate organiza-
tion of state-aided schools The impression
thus produced upon the public mind was one
factor which led to the carrying of the Ele-
mentary Education Act in 1870 and to the sub-
sequent adoption in 1876 of the principle of
compulsory education (See ENGLAND, EDI-
CATION IN )

Since that time German influence in English
education has been persistent and penetrating
At every point German methods have been
investigated and German precedents quoted
Of all English writers, Matthew Arnold (q v )
was the most successful in attracting the atten-
tion of responsible English administrators and
statesmen to the value of the German methods
of educational organization Since 1880 Ger-
man influence has consequently been note-
worthy in English policy as regards secondary
education, technical instruction, and university
development The latest illustration of the
same influence is found in the movement for
the enforcement of attendance at continuation
schools, part of the Scottish Act of 1908 having
been avowedly modeled to some extent on
German precedent, and the latter being con-
stantly quoted in favor of the adoption of a
similar policy in England.

In four respects German influence has been
especially strong in English education (1) From
the Reformation to the present time it has
tended to strengthen the view that religious
teaching should be part of the regular curricu-
lum of state-aided elementary and secondary
schools (2) Throughout the nineteenth cen-
tury it has supported the idea that the state
should take an effective and, indeed, deter-
minative, part in the regulation of all grades of
national education (3) It has stimulated in
the highest degree the scientific study of meth-
ods of teaching and of the philosophy of educa-
tion (4) It has secured general acceptance
for the view that the state can help in develop-
ing the economic prosperity of a nation by
the systematic encouragement of technical and
commercial instruction. M. E. S.

References : —

ALLEN, W O B and McCLURE, E A History of the
Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge, 1698-
1898. (London, 1898 )

GERMAN LANGUAGE

GERMANY

ARNOLD, MATTHEW Report on the System of Educa-
tion for the Middle and Upper Clauses in France,
Germany, Switzerland, and Italy. Schools Inquiry
Commission, 1868, Vol VI, especially pp 548 ff

COLERIDGE, S T. The Constitution of the Church and
State according to the Idea of Each

KEATINGE, M W The Great Didactic of John Amos
Comenius (Especially Introduction ) (London,
1896)

LAUKIE, S S. John Amos Comenius (Cambridge,
1899)

M A.RTIN, THEODORE Life of the Pnnce Consort (Lon-
don, 1875.)

SADLER, M. E Problems in Prussian Secondary Edu-
cation for Boys, with special Reference to similar
Questions in England Board of Education, Spe-
cial Reports on Educational Subjects, Vol III, 1898
Continuation Schools in England and Elsewhere.
(Manchester, 1907 )

WATSON, FOHTEK The English Grammar Schools to
1660, their Curriculum and Practice (Cambridge,
1908)

Wesley's Journal

GERMAN LANGUAGE AND LITERA-
TURE IN THE SCHOOLS — See MODERN
LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES IN THE SCHOOLS.

GERMAN WALLACE COLLEGE AND
NAST THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, BEREA,
OHIO — See DEUTSCHE WALLACE KOLLEG-
IUM

GERMANISTIC SOCIETY OF AMERICA,

THE — Organized in New York City in 1904
to promote the knowledge and study of Ger-
man civilization in America and of American
civilization in Germany, by supporting uni-
versity instruction in these subjects, by arrang-
ing public lectures, by publishing arid distribut-
ing documents, and by other means adapted
to the ends for which the Society is established.
In accordance with this program a lectureship
on the History of German Civilization has been
maintained at Columbia University since 1905,
while during the first term of the academic year
1907-1908 a similar course of lectures was
delivered at Yale University Other German
scholars and authors invited by the Society to
lecture in New York and other cities before
colleges and universities and German societies
include Professor Fnedrich Dehtzsch, Berlin,
Dr Ludwig Fulda, Berlin; Professor Otto
Hoetzsch, Posen; Professor Hermann Anders
Kruger, Hanover; Dr Carl Hauptmann,
Mittel-Schreiberhau, Professor Max Fried-
laender, Berlin, Professor Rudolf Lehmann,
Posen ; Ernst von Wolzogen, Darmstadt , Profes-
sor Wilhclm Paszkowski, Berlin; and Rudolf
Herzog, Rheinbreitbach. Similarly a number
of American scholars have lectured in Germany
under the auspices of the Society and of the
Prussian and Saxon Ministries of Public In-
struction. In addition a large number of
single lectures and courses of lectures on Ger-
man literature, music, education, art, history,
politics, etc., have been provided in New York
City (including Brooklyn), both in German
and in English In 1908 the Society inaugu-
rated a series of publications, which include

lectures delivered by Professor John W Bur-
gess, Columbia, on Germany and the United
States, and on The German Emperor and the
German Government, and by Dr Carl Haupt-
mann on Das Geheimms der Gestalt The pub-
lication of a quarterly journal devoted to the
interests of the Society and to the promotion
of the aims mentioned above is contemplated
The first president of the Society was President
Nicholas Murray Butler of Columbia Univer-
sity (1905-1907), who was succeeded by Pro-
fessor John W Burgess (1907-1909)* and
Edward D Adams, Esq (1909-1911), donor
of the Deutsches Haus at Columbia Uni-
versity arid Professor William H Carpenter of
Columbia University (1911- ) R. T., Jr.

References : —

The Activities of the Oermanistic Society of America,

1904-1910 (New York 1910)
The Activities of the Oermanistic Society of America, 1910

(New York, 1910 )

GERMANY, EDUCATION IN. — GEN-
ERAL CHARACTERISTICS. — The German
educational system, more than that of any
other country, has been formed on the one
side through the definite plans of the gov-
erning body and on the other through the
ideas of philosophic thinkers, and has always
remained m a condition of progress and de-
velopment, although it has often been criticized
as torpid There have appeared in this country
neither such absolute centralization nor such
sudden transformation as in France The im-
portance of the German educational system
rests mainly on the elementarynschools, the
gymnasiums, and the universities But be-
sides these many other types of educational
and training institutions have been developed
and at present are increasing, while influences
from abroad are constantly being felt and fol-
lowed Multiplicity of types and a variety
of finer distinctions between them are promoted
by the existence of the German states side by
side, for they are entirely independent in their
domestic affairs It is true that the smaller
states have frequently followed the example of
the largest federal state, Prussia, but gen-
erally this has not been done without con-
siderable departures Hence an understanding
of the German system has by no means been
acquired after a glance at the Prussian, and
there is as little justification for thinking that
a knowledge of the Prussian schools of one
particular type has been obtained after obser-
vation of one individual instance, — a mistake
which is easily made by foreign visitors. Even
where the regulations are at bottom similar,
individual institutions may show considerable
divergence from each other according to the
personality of the directors and teachers, or
their particular tradition, or the spirit of the
locality and its people At present also the
bodies controlling education are explicitly
favoring greater independence in the mdi-

63

GERMANY

GERMANY

vidual schools The period of greatest uni-
formity has passed for Germany, while in
France this ideal is still maintained to a large
extent The establishment of uniform types
of schools is never prompted merely by the
desire for control; rather is this based on a belief
that the ideal has been discovered and a desire
that this ideal should be put into practice every-
where Owing both to external (economic and
other) arid internal reasons some hesitation is
apparent in relation to the new movement
Foresight and discretion are particularly nec-
essary in the face of the ever increasing clamor
which with passionate excitement demands the
complete overthrow of the present organiza-
tion Further, the feeling that the youth of
the nation should not be hghtheartcdly made
the subject of experimentation must meet with
approval. Moreover it is an undeniable fact
that Germany owes the importance which
she has gamed in recent times in part to the
character of her educational system Not
rigidity, but flexibility; not hghthearted de-
struction, but thoughtful reorganization, these
may be said to characterize the fundamental
attitude of educational administration in Ger-
many

HISTORY — While a correct appreciation
of the educational system of the present is
impossible without a knowledge of its history,
but the briefest outline will be given here with
reference to the titles under which the subjects
are discussed In the Middle Ages education
and culture in Germany, as m all other Euro-
pean countries, lay in the hands of the Church;
this period is described under Middle Ages
and the various topics to which cross reference
is there made This education was accom-
panied in the case of the upper classes of society
by another training for physical and military
ability and excellence, arid at the height of the
medieval period the ideal of chivalnc training
was introduced from France, an aim which
included polite conduct, feeling for the social
accomplishments, an understanding of poetry
and music. (See CHIVALRIC EDUCATION ) For
the people as a whole, that is the lower class
of society, beyond the general religious and
moral influence, nothing was clone (Sec,
however, the CHARLEMACJNE AND EDUCATION
for the period of revival which included the
Germans ) For the simplest needs of economic
life writing and ciphering were taught in private
schools, while on the other side out of a num-
ber of the most important ecclesiastical in-
stitutions of learning there grew the universities
which, however, bore no national character,
but reproduced a fairly similar type in France,
Italy, Spain, England, and Germany, and in
consequence of the universal prevalence of
Latin were visited by members of the different
nations. (See below GERMAN UNIVERSITIES )

For the close of the Middle Ages the discus-
sions under SCHOLASTICISM, RENAISSANCE
PERIOD, HUMANITIES, CICERONIANISM, and

64

especially the REFORMATION AND EDUCATION
relate to Germany Also the history of Uni-
versities (q v ) is closely related to the Teutonic
peoples The development during the Refor-
mation is further discussed under Luther,
Melanchthon, Sturm, and other leaders

An opportunity for the founding of a large
number of important schools in the century of
the Reformation was afforded by the dissolution
of wealthy monasteries by the authorities which
had adopted Protestantism Several of the
schools organized at that period attained con-
siderable reputation, educated men of renown,
and in a modified form are still in existence;
examples are the Klosterschulen (see Cloister
Schools) in Wurttemberg and the Fursten-
schulen (q v ) in Saxony At the same period,
too, the ruling princes began to undertake the
task of educating their subjects, not as might be
thought merely from ideal motives, but with
the not unpraise worthy object of insuring for
their countries capable officers, judges, preachers,
and teachers Hence in the course of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries there were
issued in the different states of the Empire
well-planned school ordinances; in other
words, a definite, universal organization of the
school system, including courses of study and
instructions on method, took place Saxony,
Brunswick, Wurttemberg, and Saxe-Gotha de-
serve special mention here (See ERNEST THE
Pious, GOTHA, SCHOOL REFORM IN.) The
amount of industry applied by teacher and
taught in schools of that period to the attain-
ment of the established humanistic aim, the
number of periods, and the extent of the read-
ing, can cause nothing but astonishment The
educational actions in Catholic Germany dur-
ing this period is also treated under JESUS,
SOCIETY OF, EDUC \TION\L WORK OF, and re-
lated topics

In trre seventeenth century the eccentric
Wolfgang Ratke (q v ) and the broad-minded
and keen-sighted J Amos Comemus (q v ),
who proposed entirely new ideas and plans for
the aims and methods of instruction, restored
the vernacular to its more important place,
sought more correct, psychological foundations,
made learning easier for the young, and hoped
with some assurance to help towards a hu-
manity that would be more valuable. These
practical efforts were influential only for a brief
period and over n small section of the German
schools

From the humanistic pedantry a departure
was made towards the end of the seventeenth
century in the direction of versatility and
practicality of social requirements by the edu-
cational system of the so-called Ritterakademien,
that is, institutions for the sons of the nobility.
(See ACADEMIES, COURTLY.) Here instruction
was given in several modern languages as well
as a variety of recent sciences and many
chivalric and practical accomplishments,
generally in a cursory and superficial manner.

GERMANY

GERMANY

The majority of these institutions, however,
did not enjoy a long existence But their aims
were partially and gradually adopted in the
other institutions for higher education, while
even the educational organizations of the
Pietists (qv) (c 1700), especially the school
system established at Halle by A H Francke
(q v.), now included a variety of real knowledge,
offered an opportunity for learning different
types of manual and industrial occupations,
introduced easier methods to facilitate the
learning of Latin, made room for exercises in
the vernacular, and, as is to be expected, made
religious and moral education the mam object
From this point Real schools were developed
since about the middle of the eighteenth cen-
tury, the earliest of which in a modified and
improved form still continues to exist m Berlin.
(See HECKER ) The pedagogy of the Pietists
equally promoted opinion in favor of the right
of the lower classes to education

After compulsory school attendance had
already been introduced in the seventeenth
century in some of the small Thurmgian states,
as, e g in Saxe-Gotha, such compulsion was
definitely imposed from 1713 in the rising state
of Prussia by the energetic, yet reckless king,
Frederick William I Under his greater suc-
cessor, Frederick the Great (q v ), the ele-
mentary school made hardly any progress.
There was a feeling for a long tune that duties
of an elementary school teacher should be
intrusted to anybody of the most modest
personal education, such as artisans, or non-
commissioned mihtarv officers, while instruc-
tion was limited to the elements of reading,
writing, and arithmetic and questions on the
Catechism The view that religious knowl-
edge or even only .verbal formulae are a guar-
antee for Christian feeling and God-fearing
conduct was only gradually superseded, or
perhaps has riot vet altogether disappeared
The first actual normal school was established
towards the end of the reign of Frederick the
Great at Halberstadt in 1778, and that through
the efforts of a private person, the noble phi-
lanthropist and friend of youth, Eberhard von
Rochow (q v ), who found a supporter of his
principles in the Minister of State, Freiherr von
Zedlitz (q v ), whose highly meritorious activity
was devoted to the perfection, internally arid
externally, of the whole public educational
system. Both men were influenced by the new
spirit of Philanthropmism (q v ) which m its
turn had partly been aroused by Rousseau
(q.v ), but in several points had deviated
widely from his views With a new view of
the aims and means of education not only the
founder of the movement, J B Basedow
(q.v.), established an institution at Dessau,
styled the Philanthropmum (1774), but a num-
ber of similar institutions followed, and there
was no lack of active followers (See CAMPE,
SALZMANN, etc ). With Rousseau they shared
the belief in the original goodness of human

VOL. 1X1 — F 65

nature; they desired to subordinate the im-
portance of instruction to that of an education
for other valuable qualities, recognized the
natural rights of youth, and hoped to dispense
almost entirely with pressure, compulsion, and
punishments In the spirit of the time they
saw m happiness the true end of all human
education. Quite in opposition to Rousseau,
however, they always thought of the ability
of their pupils in reference to the enlarged
society, arid social usefulness was to be com-
bined with happiness Throughout they also
stood for authority and obedience But while
they turned all learning to play, swept away
all real difficulties from before their pupils,
were satisfied with all kinds of superficial
knowledge, were willing to stimulate by a sys-
tem of external rewards, they m no way pro-
moted true character-formation, and called
out the strongest opposition, while their in-
stitutions only attained a slight importance
It must at once be said, however, that several
of their principles have recently again come to
the front and receive wide recognition

The most determined opponents of the Phi-
lanthropmists were the representatives of the
New Humanism, who then won a decisive
influence over the organization of higher edu-
cation, which continued for a long time (See
NEO-HUMANISM ) The earliest leaders in this
movement, including, from about 1730 on,
J. M Gesner, Ernesti, Heyne (qqv), also had
their broad pedagogic convictions and desired to
win over the student body by beauty of content
in the subject-matter, that is, essentially the
classical antiquities From this time on, it
remained the program of the new humanistic
educators to inspire enthusiasm for the lan-
guage, literature, thought, and character of
antiquity, and to promote the moral develop-
ment of their pupils by the study of a no-
bler human type In this attitude the great
poets, as for example, Herder (q v ), were either
in agreement with or even anticipated the
philologians, as Fr August Wolf or Fnedr
Thiersch Influential statesmen, top, adopted
the same views, and a particular instance is
William von Humboldt (q v ), who about 1810
directed the Prussian educational system,
and together with several important councillors
exercised the decisive influence in the organiza-
tion of the gymnasiums And yet the philo-
logically trained teachers, to whom instruc-
tion in the classics was intrusted, failed in the
subsequent period to arouse that expected
enthusiasm, since they restricted their pupils
too much to the linguistic difficulties. Nor
could the view that the ancients presented the
highest type of humanity be maintained accord-
ing to the modern conception of Greek and
Roman antiquity

Equally significant was the influence exer-
cised on lower education in Germany at about
this time (1800) by the great-hearted Swiss,
Pestalozzi (q v.). His efforts, although applied

GERMANY

GERMANY

only in small private undertakings, were very
soon recognized and fully appreciated by rep-
resentatives of the Prussian state and were
adopted as the standard for the internal organi-
zation of their elementary schools. With this
there began not only a new and better period
for these schools, not only were their services
increasingly valuable, not only did the new
and idealistic class of elementary school
teachers arise in the one state, but this state,
Prussia, where at the same time that new class
of high school teachers had arisen, acquired a
position as leader and guide of Germany,
while Germany itself in the subsequent period
stood out as the country of the most intensive
pedagogical interests and the most consistent
educational organization. Many differences
remained in the last few centuries between
North and South, and particularly between
Protestant and Catholic territories, but in the
educational sphere there gradually appeared a
satisfactory assimilation. The Roman Catholic
Church, indeed, has never ceased to claim
all school education for herself and her min-
isters, and the German governments have never
ceased to admit to the Christian churches a
right to share within well-defined limits in
the supervision of the schools and to utilize
the assistance of their representatives But
on the whole the schools have more and more
become a matter for the state alone, even in
cases where the maintenance and direct sup-
port were undertaken by individual com-
munities.

The external organization of the lower as
well as the higher schools (the latter being
styled in South Germany " middle schools "
with reference to the Universities which are
the real " high schools ") continued in the
course of the nineteenth century to be carried
on predominantly on the plan that typical
forms must so far as possible be made univer-
sally binding, with the result that flexibility in
the individual schools, teachers, and even pupils
was temporarily checked It is noticeable,
however, how this whole tendency is gradually
giving place since the last century to another
which is opposed to it The number of edu-
cators who took part in perfecting the system
has always been great at this period and the
investigation for better methods has scarcely
ceased for a single moment The strongest
impulse in this direction was afforded by Her-
bart's (q.v.) pedagogy (first published in 1806),
even though his psychological principles have
been shattered since then and their too mechan-
ical formulation, which was the work of his
disciples, especially Ziller (q.v.), is at present
being attacked or rejected on all sides. But
the careful research into the teaching and
learning processes which since that time is be-
ing pursued with still greater psychological
thoroughness is the undoubted contribution of
this great educator

So far as the further development of the

66

external organization is concerned the ele-
mentary schools with universal compulsory
attendance have not only been increased from
decade to decade, but have been more care-
fully articulated into classes, the hitherto poor
material conditions of the teachers have been
improved, the training of teachers in numerous
normal schools and the preparatory institu-
tions preceding them have been perfected, and
a large variety of schools for pupils deficient
in some personal equipment have been erected.
New cultural subjects have been added to the
simple, traditional elements in the curriculum
of the ordinary elementary schools, and in
recent years the care for the further education
of pupils from the age of fourteen, the leaving
age for the elementary school, up to sixteen or
eighteen, is a matter of considerable discussion
and experimentation Attendance at continua-
tion schools has already been made compulsory
in many places, since intellectual and moral
neglect, particularly at this age, is fraught with
much danger to national life.

For higher education it was particularly sig-
nificant that the transition from the gym-
nasium, which had gradually increased to nine
classes, to the university was since the end of
the eighteenth century (1788 in Prussia) made
dependent on an exacting leaving examination
(Matuntatsprufung) and has so remained.
Further, there was introduced a difficult ex-
amination pro facilitate docendi (1810 in Prus-
sia) which called into existence a well-defined
and trustworthy profession of high school
teachers For the supervision of the teachers
and administration of school affairs the gov-
ernment bodies established their own, purely
state authorities, as for example the Ober-
Schul-Kollegium, since 1825 Provinzial-Schul-
Kollegien (Provincial School Boards) with a
comparative amount of independence under
the Minister of Instruction Lastly, certain
state privileges, especially the right to one-
year service in the army (emjahnger Mill-
tardienst), were attached to attendance at cer-
tain types of the higher schools That this
last provision contributed largely to uplift
general education in the nation is undeniable.
It embodies, moreover, a democratic principle,
since no distinction of rank or wealth is con-
sidered in connection with that privilege,
which may be attained by any person through
individual merit

The curriculum, the selection of subjects,
the amount of time to be devoted to each in
each grade, the regulation for the decisive
examinations, have all naturally been frequently
revised and altered in the course of time, as
changes in the sciences, cultural life, and needs
of the time demanded. The last regulation of
the courses of study in Prussia dates from
1901. The other German states approximate
Prussia in their organization A controversy
extending over several decades centered round
the relation of the Real schools (that is, schools

GERMANY

GERMANY

with a modern curriculum, modern languages,
natural sciences, etc ) to the schools which
had their origin in the humanistic period, the
gymnasiums; although these have in the
course of time adopted subjects of more modern
content, they are particularly marked by their
serious study of Greek as well as Latin, having
recently dropped the early rhetorical-stylistic
aim of the study of Latin Real institutions,
with an equally long curriculum of nine years,
were first recognized in Prussia as Realschulcn
I. Ordnung, or Realgymnasien Since 1901 the
Gymnasium, the Realgymnasium, and the Ober-
realschule, with a Latinless nine-year course,
receive fundamentally the same recognition
All these types of schools are regarded as
general educational institutions rather than as
preparatory schools for any special professional
course, and the ever-increasing simpler Real-
xchulen, with a six- year course for pupils be-
tween nine and fifteen, show the same tendency.
It is especially difficult for Germans to think
of any educational ideal that is not general and
valuable in itself The utilitarian standpoint
meets with only slight recognition anywhere
Hence the formal side of education is regarded
as more important than the material equip-
ment for life, while linguistic and grammatical
instruction has ceased to be regarded as the
sole means for developing the powers of the
pupils

All the higher schools in common pursue
with the same objects the study of German
(linguistic and literary) and history, while
religious instruction is everywhere obligatory.
It is demanded in certain quarters that the
last should be left to the religious corporations,
but the feeling neither of the authorities nor of
the teachers is favorable to such a view

The multiplicity of institutions for instruc-
tion and education has increased rapidly m the
last decade The increasingly popular Reform
Schools, with the postponement of Latin by
several years, arc only one type Although
coeducation of boys and girls has up to the
present not been introduced in most German
states, the question of an equal and compre-
hensive education of the female youth has been
seriously discussed and curricula and courses
of study have recently been prepared to meet
the situation, so that this side of national
education seems to have a brilliant future
Another entirely recent tendency is the reestab-
lishment of boarding schools (Internale, Alu in-
nate) to be connected with the higher schools,
or at least to adopt their curricula and to bear
a different character from the earlier boarding
schools of an institutional character or the
French Iyc6es Most of these institutions up
to the present are private undertakings But
all private establishments for education and
instruction are under state supervision The
idea of national education must outweigh that
of individual education. Individual powers
must be developed, but at the same time

altogether in the interests of the nation as a
whole.

And nationalism no longer means the obsti-
nate and unquestioning acceptance of tradi-
tional peculiarities Attention is in recent
years being frequently directed to foreign
countries and the good points in England and
America m particular arc studied with a view
to some extent to their adoption Thus some
experiments have been made in self-govern-
ment of pupils A wider power of election is
to be permitted to students, at any rate in the
upper classes of the higher schools Bv the
side of gymnastics, which have long ago found
a home in Germany, athletics and manual in-
struction have been increasing But caution
and discretion in the recognition and adoption
of now ideas remains the principle with educa-
tional authorities in Germany Hence they
have rarely been compelled to retrace their
steps

There has been no lack of alternation be-
tween more liberal and more conservatu e
points of view in the last century At times
some very reactionary measures were in force,
as in 1850, for the training of elementarv
school teachers, while at the present moment
from the socialistic standpoint \erv revolu-
tionary demands are being made Hence the
proposal for a uniform school (Emhcitfischule),
with one and the same foundation equallv
obligatory on all children of the nation, and
the free access to all educational institutions
for the able, — demands against which strong
reasons have been brought On the other Hide
an attack is made on class instruction which
favors only the mediocre, and special schools
are now and then demanded for the specially
gifted m order to create a national dite

To hold that the German system is at a
standstill, or to form the idea of a rigid organ-
ism from isolated impressions or exaggerated
judgments, it must again be emphasized, would
be particularly unjustifiable It is merely
that the present advance is less noisy than
elsewhere The protests against present con-
ditions, which at the moment are raised ex-
citedly in certain quarters and especially m the
daily press, are going too far. With unfounded
optimism there is talk of the value of un-
checked, unregulated development of the im-
mature person, while the effect of the present
system is regarded with unjustified pessimism
Confidence in these schools, whose value was
previously accepted without question, has dis-
appeared because families were too long kept
at a distance from them, and the establishment
of confidential relations between teachers, par-
ents, and scholars forms one of the greatest
tasks of the future On the other hand criticism
is frequently due to the subjective instability
and nervous discontent of educated people of
to-day, and serious charges are brought against
j) resent education in the family But each
individual thinks that he ought to judge of the

67

GERMANY

GERMANY

scope of education on a basis of disposition,
casual experience, and ideas of the moment

It must, however, be recognized that the task
of the future is to provide for the introduction
of the field of educational science more gen-
erally in the highest educational institutions,
the training grounds for the most intensive
thinking (See EDUCATION, STUDY OF.) At
the same time it is regarded as an equally im-
portant need of the educational system to place
a professional expert at the head of the whole
department which up to the present has been
under a Minister merely as one section of his
work But that desires are unfulfilled and that
important demands for the future remain, is
not a sign of an actual standstill. The great
problem of education is always unending and
ever gives rise to new questions. That the
highest object must under all circumstances be
the training of the will is self-evident. But by
which system this can best be attained may be
left as a subject of competition between the
nations W. M

PRESENT SYSTEM. — As in America, the
control of education is constitutionally in the
hands of the individual states and is almost
entirely removed from the imperial or federal
government The Imperial Chancellor, as
representative of the Empire, has only the
right of defining the qualifications Tor the priv-
ilege of the one-year service in the army and
to bestow to individual schools the right of
granting such certificates For this purpose
he is supported by the Imperial School Corn-
mission, consisting of about seven members as
representatives of different states, and holding
a short business meeting usually once a year.
Its functions are inconsiderable The Cadet
Corps, which always include a higher school,
are under the control of the Emperor as
supreme head in military affairs Thus there
is no uniform and unifying imperial authority
in German school affairs, and the German
educational system is far more varied than
appears to a foreigner on a brief visit. The
extent of this diversity cannot be wholly pre-
sented in this account, which will be devoted
primarily to a survey in outline of the school
system of the largest federal state, Prussia,
and only incidentally to that of other states.
Further, Germany does not possess a bureau
of information such as the United States
Bureau of Education, and it is difficult or even
impossible to afford a complete description of
the present situation

While in America there is an educational
ladder leading directly from the primary school
to the university, no German state has a uni-
form school system in this sense On the con-
trary, two systems must be constantly distin-
guished, the lower or elementary school system
and the higher school system. A transference
from one to the other is only possible at one
point, viz. after the third or fourth school
year. All other types of schools or curricula

68

are connected more or less closely with these
two.

Legislative Principles. ~ As will have been
noticed above an imperial educational code
does not exist, although the Imperial Law on
Child Labor in industrial occupations, March
30, 1903, refers indirectly to education. In
addition there are agreements between the fed-
eral states for the mutual recognition of exam-
inations, particularly the Abitunentenexamen
(q.v.) for entrance to the universities These
agreements, which have been entered into by a
majority of the states, have at any rate in higher
education as unifvmg an effect as imperial laws,
much in the same way as the College Entrance
Requirements Board in America

In the individual states education is regulated
either through a comprehensive education code
(Schulgesetz) , as m Saxony and Wiirttemberg,
in which case the lower and higher systems are
generally treated in separate laws and occasion-
ally only one system is dealt with uniformly;
or the most important sections are embodied
in special laws while the rest is supplemented
by the government through ordinances, as
particularly in Prussia. But with the rapid
and progressive development of Germany, even
where uniform educational laws exist, special
laws and various ordinances are necessary to
adapt the school system to the changing con-
ditions Elementary education is based on
laws more than higher education, which more
frequently, and especially in Prussia, is regu-
lated by ordinances The following questions
are the subjects of legislative enactment in
almost all the states, the training, appointment,
and conditions of service of the teachers, their
pay, pensions, and provision for their depend-
ents, the maintenance of schools, school in-
spection and attendance, as well as the denomi-
national organization of schools

Prussia has no school code The legislative
foundations of her school system, apart from a
few earlier regulations for individual sections
of the kingdom, are contained m Articles 20-25
of the Constitution of January 31, 1850, which
run as follows: —

(20) Knowledge and its dissemination are free (21) Satis-
factory provision for the education of youth shall be made
through public schools Parents and their representatives
must not allow their children or wards to be without such in-
struction as is prescribed for the public elementary schools

(22) Every one is free to give instruction and establish educa-
tional institutions, provided he has proved his moral, intellec-
tual and professional fitness to the proper state authorities

(23) All public and private educational institutions are subject
to the inspection of authorities appointed by the state. Public
teachers have the rights and duties of civil servants (24) In
the organization of public elementary schools denominational
conditions must be considered so far as possible Religious
instruction in the elementary schools is under the direction
of the religious corporations concerned The management
of the external affairs of the public schools is m the hands of
the community. The state with the legally regulated participa-
tion of the communities appoints teachers from a list of suit-
able candidates (25) Funds for the erection, maintenance,
and extension of public schools are raised by the communities,
and where inability to do so is proved the state may give sup-
plementary aid The duties of third parties based on special
titles remain as before The state guarantees the teachers a
fixed income according to local circumstances. Instruction in
public elementary schools is free

GERMANY

GERMANY

In addition the Law for the Maintenance of
Public Elementary Schools of July 28, 1906,
which includes far more than the title implies,
is of importance Its contents are as follows:
(1) Maintenance of schools. (2) Distribution of
the cost of elementary schools; maintenance of
the schoolhouse; building fund; state sup-
port. (3) School property; aid from other
sources. (4) Denominational conditions (5)
Administration of elementary school affairs
and appointment of teachers (For the foreign
observer sections (4) and (5) are particularly
noteworthy )

Higher education in Prussia is regulated by
ordinances or decrees of the Minister or through
the supreme decree of the King, while Saxony,
for example, has a law also for higher education.
(See Lexis, Vol III, p 65; Von Bremen;
Morsch )

Administration of Education — Central Au-
thorities — The supreme direction of the inter-
nal organization of the schools is in all the states
in the hands of state authorities; in Prussia
this is provided by Article 23 of the Constitution
mentioned above This power no longer rests
as previously with the church, nor, as is gen-
eral in America, with the local communities
In no state has there yet been developed a cen-
tral authority whose only concern LS school
matters Generally public worship, occasion-
ally a still wider sphere of duties, as, for ex-
ample, justice in Baden, are under the charge
of the same minister; sometimes, as in Hesse,
education falls to the share of the Minister
of the Interior; a simpler organization is, of
course, possible in the smaller states (Hesse has
a little over one million population).

The highest authority in Prussia is the Min-
istry for Public Worship and Education; m
Bavaria the Ministry of the Interior for Public
Worship and Education; in Wurttcmberg the
Department for Ecclesiastical and School Af-
fairs. When the Prussian ministry became
independent in 1817, it was still quite possible
to supervise the whole field assigned to it This
is no longer possible at present, and since 1911
the Department for Public Health has become
a separate body, while the demand for a sepa-
rate Ministry for Education is constantly be-
coming stronger At the head of this office
stands the Minister, usually called Kultusmm-
ister, who is supported by the Under-Secretary
as his deputy The ministry is divided into
three departments: (1) Department for ecclesi-
astical affairs. (2) First department for educa-
tion (higher and girls' schools) (3) Second
department for education (elementary schools).
A ministerial director stands at the head of each
department. Further there are attached to the
office from thirty to thirty-five special council-
lors and from ten to fifteen assistants. The
majority of these officials so far, always includ-
ing the Minister himself, are jurists or adminis-
trative officials. The organization in the other
states is much simpler. In several of these, as

in Bavaria and Baden, almost all the councillors
are jurists In addition to the routine adminis-
trative duties various conferences take place m
the ministry, at which questions are determined
not by majority vote, but by the decision of the
presiding official Responsibility, however, is
formally borne by the Minister, to whose notice
important matters are accordingly brought for
his personal decision Since the Minister can-
not supervise the details of his wide field, and fre-
quently has not the necessary acquaintance with
persons or the professional knowledge, an ex-
traordinarily wide influence is often exercised
by the experienced directors, although the scope
of their duties is entirely dependent on the will
of the Minister As an instance may be men-
tioned the late Fr Althoff (q v ) Where wider
changes are contemplated, the Minister sum-
mons a consultative conference to which leaders
m all walks of life are invited Such confer-
ences, for example, took place in 1907 on the
reform of the education of girls, as well as m
1890 and 1900 on the reform of higher educa-
tion.

Intermediate Authorities — In the larger Ger-
man states there are between the central board
and the individual schools state intermediate
boards, which, although differing everv whore
in composition and functions, always have the
constitution of boards Examples of these arc
m Bavaria the Supreme School Council (Oberste
Schulrat), in Wurttemberg the Superior School
Council (Oberschulrat) , in Prussia the Provincial
School Boards ( Provinzial-Schulkollegium) As
a rule the members are not elected, but appointed
by the central authority, and number variously
from five to ten or more The composition of
these boards shows great variety, m Bavaria
the board includes two university professors,
two professors of technical high schools, five
directors of classical gymnasiums, two directors
of realgymriasiurns, a rector of a real-school,
one superior medical councillor Baden shows
a similar constitution In the free town
of Hamburg, which in other ways also pos-
sesses a very peculiar school organization,
there are lay representatives on this board as
well as on the communal education committees
But in Hesse and, particularly, m Prussia,
neither university professors nor laymen nor
practical schoolmen sit on this board, although
a number of members have been in the teaching
profession The sphere of duties of these au-
thorities is as varied as their composition In
Bavaria the Superior School Council has only
the management of the internal affairs of the
higher schools, while everything of an external
character comes under the control of the county
administration In WUrttemberg only the
higher schools are under the intermediate
board, while elementary education is adminis-
tered by the ecclesiastical authorities. In
Baden the Superior School Council has charge
of both higher and elementary education, in-
cluding the administration of external as well

69

GERMANY

GERMANY

as internal affairs. In these states the inter-
mediate authorities are in intimate relations
with the ministry, and with the exception of
Bavaria a number of the members belong to both
boards. Decisions are reached in Baden and
Wurttemberg by resolution of the intermediate
authority, but are subject to the decision of the
Minister

The intermediate authorities m Prussia are
organized on a different plan They are en-
tirely separated from the central board, and
between individual institutions and the central
authority, the Minister, there are no direct
business relations On the whole, their or-
ganization follows that for the administration
of internal affairs The Prussian monarchy
is divided into twelve provinces, each under a
president Each province is subdivided into
from two to six counties under a county presi-
dent; the office which administers these dis-
tricts is known as the County Government
(Regierung). The county is further divided
into town communities, under a mayor,
and districts under a chairman ( Landrat) ;
these districts are again made up of rural com-
munities under an overseer, and estates also
under a similar official The duties of inter-
mediate authorities for lower or public elemen-
tary education are undertaken by authorities
for internal administration, that is, the County
Government (Regicrung), a department of
which is devoted to ecclesiastical and educa-
tional affairs. The County Government has
the supervision of all school activities, while
external administration falls to the share of the
community authorities with the approval and
confirmation of the county government The
officials of the County Government for the
inspection of elementary schools are the District
School Inspectors (Kreuschuhnspektoren), the
majority of whom up to the present are clerics
primarily and exercise their inspectorial duties
incidentally, although the number of definitely
professional inspectors is gradually increasing,
especially in the towns Under the District
School Inspector stands the Local School In-
spector (Ortsschulinxpektor), an office usually
exercised by the pastor or priest of the place,
or by the principal for his own school The
principal is the director of the individual schools,
in so far as they consist of several classes, and
under him are the teachers

The intermediate authorities in Prussia for
higher education, including also normal schools
and preparatory training institutions, and, in
Berlin only, the elementary schools, are the
Provincial School Boards already mentioned,
of which there are twelve, one for each province.
They are presided over by the Chief President
of the respective provinces, who is assisted by
a varying number of councillors who have been
in the teaching profession. These officials
exercise the inspection of higher schools, which
are occasionally visited also by ministerial
councillors. On the whole, however, the super-

70

vision of higher schools is of little value, and
inspections take place comparatively rarely, with
the result that each school enjoys a great deal
of freedom The duties of the Provincial
School Boards are described as follows by
Morsch (p. 343), and include: —

(1) All matters bearing on the educational aim of the institu-
tions, (2) the examination of organizations and statutes of schools
and educational institutions, (3) the examination of new and
the revision and confirmation of already existing ordinances
and regulations no leas than the provision of suitable recom-
mendations for the removal of abuses and defects which have
crept into any educational or school system , (4) examination
of school textbooks in use , the decision as to which arc to be
dispensed with or introduced with the previous approval of
the superior ministry , (5) examination of new textbooks ,

(6) another and more influential means of school inspection is
the Abitunenten-Examen, at which a commissioner from the
Provincial School Board is generally present , (7) the appoint-
ment of commissioners to hold the Abitunenten-Kxamen, and
inquiry into the transactions of the examination commission
in the schools , (S) the supervision, direction, and inspection of
schools which lead to the universities, (0) the appointment,
promotion, discipline, suspension, and dismissal of teachers in
those institutions

Further to these boards is assigned the super-
vision of all the external administration, the
finances and budget, which in schools main-
tained by communities are administered locally
Each higher school is administered by a Direc-
tor, who is assisted by the Oberlehrer The
private higher schools, of which there are only
a few, are subject to state supervision equally
with the public schools

All these above-mentioned authorities are
state officials In addition there are local or
communal bodies, parts of the local adminis-
tration of communities Here the multiplic-
ity of deputations, commissions, governing
boards, councils, committees, etc , is so great,
and their constitution so diversified and fre-
quently so complicated, that any attempt to
describe them would be futile, even if the ma-
terial were available In general it may be
said that only the external administration is the
business of the community, such as the erec-
tion, equipment, and superintendence of build-
ings, the sanitary arrangements, financial
management, rarely the questions of discipline
in the schools, although all these activities
are always subject to the approval of the su-
perior state boards The most important right
of the Prussian community is the selection and
nomination of the whole teaching body, but
here, too, the appointment of every teacher
must be confirmed by the state Towns with
larger systems appoint a school superintendent
as a professional adviser. This office will in-
crease in importance with the rapid growth
of German towns, and the significance which
such a position can attain in the hands of an
energetic man is shown by the example of Ker-
schensteiner in Munich. The local bodies do
not have the rights of supervisors over teachers
and school directors The higher institutions
of learning maintained by the state, of which
there are quite a number, are naturally not
subject to local control.

Teachers and Conditions of Service. —
Teachers, whether male or female, whether in

GERMANY

GERMANY

state or communal schools, have in Germany
the position and character of civil servants,
whose rights and duties are definitely laid down
by general service regulations. Accordingly,
they receive their appointments only on the
basis of the state-regulated preparation, of
which evidence must be given by a state exam-
ination (towns have not the right to hold exam-
inations); they have a definite career, definite
titles which express their duties or position
within the official organism; their position is
for life and not terminable by notice, they re-
ceive a definite, annually increasing salary;
they are entitled by law to a definite pension
and to provision for their dependents on their
death The titles and career of teachers in
Prussian elementary schools are as follows:
immediately on their appointment they are
called Teachers, if they have charge of a small
school of one or two grades, Principal Teachers,
on appointment after the appropriate exam-
ination to the direction of a larger elementary
school, they are called Rcktor; finally they can
become District School Inspectors Up to the
present female teachers do not advance to
higher positions In the higher schools after
the state examination during the period of
preparation the title is Candidate for Higher
School Appointment, between the period of
preparation and appointment they are known
ah assistant teachers (Wt*xenttchafthcher Hilfx-
lehrer), in the nineties this period was quite
long, often up to ten years, but in recent years
appointment has followed immediately after
the preparatory period as a general rule; after
appointment they are called Teachers (Ober-
lehrer), of whom the older members receive the
title of Professor, which, however, does not carry
with it any other duty or a higher salary The
teacher may rise to the prmcipalship of a higher
school with the title of Director Further they
can become Provincial School Councillors, or
Special Councillors in the Ministry A change
of career, which is so frequent among teachers
in America, is very rare in Germany This is
due to the many rights which the official has
and acquires, as well as to the exclusive and
specialized preparation foi every profession

Every official may resign his position, but
surrenders all the rights which go with it No
official may be given notice, dismissed, or re-
tired on a pension except after a disciplinary
inquiry. Disciplinary courts of first instance
are the direct superior authorities for officials
of the middle class, including the Oberlehrer,
while for the higher officials, including directors,
there is a special court in Berlin; neither of these
are the ordinary courts When proceedings are
brought against an official merely for a breach
of duty, in so far as it does not trespass the
penal code and is only subject to the superior
authorities, the case is withdrawn from the
ordinary courts.

The income of officials consists usually of
several items. The fixed minimum and the

increments make up the salary proper; to these
must be added the compensation for rent, which
varies with the cost of living m different places,
and occasionally local additions. The officials
move up automatically on the salary scale
according to years of service The salary of
elementary school teachers is given in the
following table (4 20 M - 1 dollar): —

INCREMENTS AFTKR YEARS OF SERVICE

\ftcr 7 10 13 10 19 22 25 28 31
years of service

Minimum

Salary

1400 M 200 200 250 250 200 200 200 200 200
Total salary 1600 1800 2050 2300 2500 2700 2900 3100 3300

The compensation for rent, which is additional,
amounts to from 200 to 800 M , and the local
additions, in towns of over 10,000 population,
up to 900 M , so that the highest possible in-
come is 5000 M Female teachers receive a
somewhat lower, middle school teachers a some-
what higher salary The salary of principals
consists of the same minimum as that of teach-
ers, i e 1400 M , to which is added from 500
to 1000 M more in virtue of his position (Amix-
zulage), and a compensation for rent which is
more by 25 per cent than that of teachers, viz
250-1000 M And finally the salaries of Dis-
trict School Inspectors amount to from 3000 to
7200 M , which may be reached in six stages oi
700 M each The compensation for rent is
from 560 to 1200 M The compensation for rent
varies with the cost of living in different towns
In Prussia the localities are by law divided into
five classes (A to E) To class E belong those
places where the cost of living is lowest, so that
the rent indemnity is lowest there Class A
stands at the opposite extreme The rent
indemnity is thus a means which, keeping the
minimum salary everywhere at the same level,
seeks to adapt the total amount of income to
local circumstances

The salary of teachers m higher schools
(Oberlehrer) is indicated in the following table :

Salary initial after 3 6 9 12 15 21

years of service
2700 M . 3400 4100 4800 5400 6000 7200

To this from 560 to 1300 M must be added as
compensation for rent The salary of female
teachers is somewhat lower The directors
in complete institutions receive. —

Salary initial
0600 M

After 3
7200

6 years of service
7800

The rent indemnity amounts to from 900 to
1800 M The salary of Provincial School
Councillors is 6300 M , rising in three stages
to 8000 M., with a rent indemnity of from 900
to 1800 M. The Special Councillors in the
Ministry receive 7000 M., rising in three stages
to 11,500 M. after twelve years of service The
rent indemnity is 2100 M

Pensioning of teachers is dealt with by the
Prussian Pension Law, Section 1: " Every

71

GERMANY

GERMANY

civil servant who drawn his salary from the
state receives from the same a pension for life
when he is incapacitated for the performance
of his duties after at least ten years of service
in consequence of physical disability or other
infirmity or intellectual failing, on account of
which he is retired. Where the incapacity is
due to illness, wound, or other accident, with
which the official has met in the exercise of his
duties or through contributory cause with no
fault of his own, the right to a pension becomes
due even before the completion of ten years
of service "

Section 7. " Where an official is incapac-
itated before the completion of ten years
of service and is on that account superan-
nuated, except under circumstances referred
to in the second half of the first paragraph, in
case of destitution a pension for a definite
period or for life may be granted with the ap-
proval of the King "

When an official is sixty-five years old the
claim for a pension is not conditional on in-
capacity. The amount of the pension is deter-
mined as follows- "Where the retirement takes
place after the tenth, but before the completion
of the eleventh, year of service, the pension
amounts to £J and rises with each completed
year up to the thirtieth year of service by ^
and thereafter by T^ of the income But there
is no increase beyond f g of this income " In
calculating the pension the whole income last
received inclusive of the rent indemnity is
used as a basis; local additions are as a rule
subject to pensions In 1906 there were in
Prussia alone 10,02f> teachers from elementary
schools in receipt of pensions, of whom 8381
were male, and 1644 female The total amount
of pensions was 15,007,764 M (13,562,980 M
for male, 1,444,784 M for female, teachers);
the average pension for males was 1618 M
and for female teachers 879 M Widows and
children of deceased officials have also a claim
to a pension, m the calculation of which the
following provisions are made in Prussia
" The amount received by the widow is 40 per
cent of the pension to "which the deceased
would have been entitled, if he had been
superannuated at the time of his death The
sum for widows must riot be less than 300 M
nor more than 3500 M The allowance for
orphans is. (1) For children, whose mother is
living and at the time of the death of the
official was entitled to the widow's allowance,
a fifth of that allowance for each child (2)
For children whose mother is no longer alive
or at the death of the official was not entitled
to the widow's allowance, a third of that allow-
ance for each child The allowance for widows
and orphans must not exceed the amount of
the pension to which the deceased was entitled
or would have been entitled if he had been
superannuated at the time of his death "

The conditions treated in the foregoing
account are as a whole similar in the rest of the

federal states, although differing in details in
many ways, which cannot be entered upon
here It may be mentioned, however, that
occasionally teachers, as other officers, have
to contribute to pension funds, in which case
the maximum pension is usually higher, as in
Bavaria

Arising out of the fixed and definite position
already described and the high professional
efficiency due to the thorough preparation, the
social standing of teachers in elementary and
higher schools is high For the same reasons
these teachers have developed a strong pro-
fessional feeling, even though it is at present
confined to each grade respectively. Just as
there is no bridge leading from the ranks of
elementary school teachers to higher school
teachers, so both regard themselves as separate
professions, and the professional organiza-
tions of both work entirely independently of
each other; but since higher and lower educa-
tion are separate systems, each with different
problems, this separation is not such an evil

TABLE I

Number of men m the army

Without schooling

Per cent of whole number

1901

1891

1881

260,410
131
0 05

182,827
824
045

150,130
2,332
1 55

TABLE II

School population

of whom there were

1 In public elementary schools

Per cent

2 In other schools

Per cent

3 Temporarily excused from at-

tendance, hut duly regis-
tered
Per cent

4 Not registered on account of

physical defects
Per cent

5 Illegally kept away from school

Per cent

1891

1901

4,464,906

6,103,745

3,900,655
8736
222,211
408

5,670,870
9291
339,017
5 55

312,219
(>99

82,638
1 35

9,038
020
20,783
047

10,672
018
548
001

72

(Based on Lexis' Public Education in the German Empire,

Attendance — In all German states com-
pulsory school attendance prevails, lasting
generally eight years (seven in Wurttemberg),
and beginning with the sixth year. In Bavaria
there is compulsory attendance at Sunday
school from fourteen to seventeen The ex-
tension of school compulsion to the continua-
tion school (q v ), that is, beyond theiourteenth
year to the eighteenth, or up to entrance into
the army (which is in itself a powerfu1 educa-
tional institution), has not yet been introduced
everywhere, but is earnestly striven for.
Much remains to be done in this field, particu-

GERMANY

GERMANY

larly for girls Legal compulsory attendance
is everywhere strictly enforced in Germany,
and in the last resort is secured with the aid
of the police and the courts Only on proof
that children are receiving satisfactory in-
struction privately is exemption from school
granted Hence the percentage of illiterates
in Germany is almost nil, as may be seen from
the tables on page 71

School and Church. — The opposition be-
tween the Protestant arid Catholic denomina-
tions (Germany is about one third Catholic
and two thirds Protestant) has been one of
the greatest influences in German history, and is
still one of the most important factors m do-
mestic politics, No wonder then that this is
reflected in education The public higher
schools are almost wholly interdenominational
or undenominational (wmultan)', the lower
schools are undenominational in only a few
states, as in Baden and Hesse, while the de-
nominational elementary schools exist in the
largest states, especially Prussia The most
important legislative enactments on this ques-
tion read as follows. " Public elementary
schools are to be so organized that Protestant
children receive their instruction from Protes-
tant teachers, Catholic children from Catholic
teachers " " In public schools with several
teachers, either only Protestant or only Catho-
lic teachers are to be appointed " Finally,
" when in any school community, which has
only elementary schools staffed with Catho-
lic teachers, the number of local Protestant
children of school age for five consecutive years
is over 60, or m towns and rural communities
of more than 5000 inhabitants, over 120, then,
provided that the legal representatives of more
than 60, or more than 120 children of school
age of the class mentioned, make recommenda-
tions to the supervising educational authorities,
instruction is to be arranged in schools wholly
under Protestant teachers," and vice versa
Jewish pupils are received into the* elementary
schools; where a Jewish community is large
enough, it may erect a separate school, al-
though their number is in any case very few
In 1906 the percentage of children who were
in schools of their own denomination was as
follows: —

IN TOWNH

Per cent

Protestant . .

92 20

Catholic . . .

87 25

Jewish ....

3003

IN

COUNTRY

Per cent

0727

91 47
2037

Coeducation — For boys and girls in higher
education separate institutions are provided
almost everywhere, only a few South German
states (Baden, Hesse, Wurtternberg) admitting
girls into the boys' schools; up to the present

this has not been done in Prussia In the ele-
mentary system special girls' schools or girls'
classes are provided when the numbers are
large enough In 1906, 05 per cent of the ele-
mentary school classes in Prussia were mixed,
containing 64 per cent of ail the children
There were 40,376 separate classes and 75,526
mixed classes In the towns, of all the children
1,669,286 were in separate classes and 636,979
in mixed, in the country, 561,537 were in
separate and 3,296,596 in mixed classes Thus
m the towns sepaiatc classes, and in the coun-
tries mixed classes predominate

Cost of Education — The maintenance of
elementary schools as a general rule falls by
law on the communities, the state enters
only in case ui need and gives assistance only
to smaller communities The terms of the
Prussian law on the subject are- " The erection
and maintenance of public elementary schools
falls, with the exception of the provisions of
this law, on the municipal communities

and the independent districts Communities
(or districts) either are independent school
districts or may be united for the maintenance
of one or more schools into one common school
district (Gcsamtbdndverband) One community
may belong to several union school distncts
Even when it forms one independent school
district, it may belong at the same time to one
or more union districts" (Section 1) Ac-
cording to Section 7, " Where the inability of
a school district to raise the cost of maintain-
ing an elemcntarv school is proved, subsidies
are given by the state Furthei the state
grants to smaller communities a part of the cost
for new school buildings " The amount of
expenditures for the purposes of elementary
education is indicated m the following tables
(from Ktati st inches Jahrbuch f d deulschc Reich,
Vol XXIX (1908), p 153) —

EXPENDITURE FOR PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOIH
(1 Dollar — 4 20 Marks)

Total

Amount contrib-
uted bv the
State

Cost p >r
Pupil in

States

(in 1000 Marks)

Marks

1901 1 190f>

1

1901

l')0(>

1001 190<»

Prussia

269,417 32S.247

73,0u6

82,378

48 r)i

Bavaria

,*9,70b 1 52,080

14,206

18,937

4<> r»"»

Saxony

36,548 15,364

6,998

10,391

f>3 59

WUrttemberR

12,2651 15,809

3,748

5,333

42 ,50

Baden

10,9991 16,033

2,396

4,472

40 , 52

Hesse

7,875 10,170

2,506

48 54

Alsace-Lorraine

8,869LuUi77

2,630

ySfOWl

39 44

German Empire

421,31^22lgffl

122,898

(jojgp

47 54

Sum total of state expenditures of Prussia1
(the expenses of the communities nob included)
for public elementary instruction, training of
elementary school teachers, etc

1 Figures taken from Etat des Mimntenurrts tier geistl , etc
Angelcprnheilen, 1910

73

GERMANY

GERMANY

MARKS
I. Current expenses

Normal schools 11,106,232

Preparatory institutions . ... 2,247,673

For both groups to be added . . 757,539

Normal school for gymnastics . 333,880

School supervision . ... 4,422,420
Elementary schools . . . .141,417,317

School for defectives . . . 304,632

Sum total of current expenses . . 161,586,776

II. Single expenditures for elementary schools . 6,265,440
To the communities for education of negligent

dependent and delinquent children . 6.000,000

Instruction in prisons and jails 203,500

Sum total of single expend it tires 12,468,940

politics also demands the creation of such a
system in the growing towns, for this attracts
settlers to the town A few of the higher schools
are under royal patronage and possess consider-
able endowments; a larger number are main-
tained by the state, but by far the largest
belong to communities or towns. There are
comparatively few private high schools for
boys, although they are slowly increasing in
number. Further details of the expenditure
for this branch of education are indicated in
the table on page 75.

EXPENDITURK OF STATE AND COMMUNITIES FOR PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS IN THE ClTlEB
AND IN THK COUNTRY IN PRUSSIA (iN MARKH)

Cities

Country

1896

1906

1896

1906

1. Total (including building ex-

penses)

83,129,558

163,252,542

102,787,937

153,956,514

Of this sum

Halanes

60,545,580

1 1 1 ,208,768

73,367,542

107,670,644

Equipment
2 Total contributed

22,083,078

52,043,774

29,420,395

46,285,870

By the state
By the communities, etc
3 Percentage of cost contributed

13,327,759
67,426,515

16,175,140
142,621,306

*9,6 10,836
49,913,141

53,095,034
82,528,465

By state

1603

991

3854

35 79

By communities

81 11

87 30

48 50

5360

4. Average cost

Per school

19397

33786

32 23

46 75

Per class

2757

38 11

1(>62

2107

Per child

47

71

30

40

Per capita of population

641

967

544

75i

5 Total income of teachers

Male

2,282,462

81,278,964

62,173,450

90,587,619

Female
6. Average income of teachers

8,984,671

19,996,533

4,120,765

7,839,999

Male .

2,029

2,567

1 ,357

1 742

Female

1,361

1 ,700

1,132

1,370

To the figures for 1906 under No 1, 11,-
110,091 M ought to be added; this sum com-
prises contributions by the state for city and
country schools which cannot be separated
The total expenditure for public elementary
schools for 1906 thus amounts in Prussia to
328,319,147 M.

The single expenditures of the state amounted
to 1,408,560 M in 1910 (Etat, p 238); the
amount spent locally it is impossible to give,
but it was certainly far larger, since many new
schools are being established, — more by the
communities than by the state.

The higher education of girls has up to the

COBT OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS (1906)

Cities

Country

Together

1901

1 Current expenses for public

elementary schools in 1905,

without the cost of new

buildings, repairs, or exten-

sions

139,354,504

132,947,954

283,412,549

227,621,597

Salaries
Material equipment, etc
2. Cost of new buildings, repairs

111,208,768
28,145,736

k 107,670,644
25,277,310

229,989,503
53,464,245

186,873,192
40,748,405

and extensions in 1905
Amount of building debt for

23,898,038

21,008,560

44,906,598

42,296,821

school buildings in June,

1906 . . .

110,428,352

99,499,637

209,927,989

155,288,394

Figures taken from Statuttisches Jahrbuchftir den preusswhen Stoat, Vol XXX (1909)

The duty of maintaining the higher schools
is not definitely determined by legislature in
Prussia. So far as possible the towns main-
tain their own secondary schools, and frequently
make it a matter of great pride to possess
a highly developed system of education. Local

74

present been mainly in the hands of private
institutions, the number of which will in con-
sequence of the recent regulations show a rapid
decline, and the burden will fall almost en-
tirely on the communities. The current ex-
penses of the state for these schools amounted

GERMANY

GERMANY

SURVEY or THE PBRMANENT INCOME AND EXPENSES OF HIGHER EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION* FOB BOYS IN PKUHHIA, ACCORDING TO

THE BUDOET FOR 1910 (iN MARKS)

INCOME

EXPENDITURE

TYPES AND NUMBER
or INBTITUTIONS

State
Fund

Private
Property

Private
Revenue
(Fees)

Municipal
Fund

Endow-
ment

Total In-
come also
Total Ex-
penditure

Payment
Limit
of Hal an es

Remun-
eration
for In-
structors

Administra-
tion and
Equipment

A 5 institutions under

royal patronage

60,765

688,235

320,298

147,321

1,216,620

556,452

20,360

639,808

B 243 state-main-

tained institu-

tions

11,516,441

773,395

9,078,194

1,276,092

637,914

20,282,030

22.S48.327

677,478

2,750,23)

C 5 institutions main-

tained by the

atate and others

in common

.123,995

26,087

261,656

219,823

1,787

732,611

572,100

12,866

147,744

D 400 institutions

maintained by

other means, but

supported by the

state and exclud-

ing institutions

otherwise main-

tained

3,105,603

955,288

21,173,406

22,683,672

965,322

48,883,284

38,503,040

1,401,848

8,888,305

Total, including other

small sums tor 711)

institutions

17,016,154

2,443, 006

30,833,555

24,178,848

1,752,346

77,123,011

62,560,020

2,112,553

12,441,437

Average per school 24,918

3,397

42,884

33,628

2,437

107,265

87,023

2,038

17,303

Gymnasium at Kteglitz
near Berlin

3,393

101,618

79,652

184,664

149,662

4,060

30,941

The 35 municipal

schools in Berlin

(with six and nine

classes) (See D ) 8,219

35,242

2,137,346

3,160,755

68

5,341,631

4,479,580

337,820

524,231

l

. —

Figures from Etat des Minister d geistl etc , Angel f d Etatajahr 1910, Betlage

in 1910 to 1,079,583 M (in 1906 only about
330,000 M ), single expenses are not yet to hand ,
the corresponding local expenditures cannot
be given but were certainly very considerably
higher

ELEMENTARY AND INTERMEDIATE
EDUCATION — The lower schools (offenthchc
Volksschulen, public, common, or elementary
schools) are wholly public, and there are prac-
tically no private schools of this type As a rule
no fees are charged Instruction begins at
seven or eight m summer, and eight or nine
in winter, and includes four or five, rarelv six,
periods a day. While the number of pupils
may rise to a maximum of 1000 (a figure very
rarely attained), the minimum number is small,
and in remote places is from ten to twenty
Separate schools for boys and girls are main-
tamed only in larger communities, where the
number of pupils is large enough to warrant a
separation, and this is the usual practice
(See above.)

The teachers by a large majority are men;
in 1906 there were in Prussia 138,216 men
and 23,708 women teachers But the percent-
age of women teachers is gradually increasing.
The men teachers give from twenty-six to
thirty or thirty-two lessons, the women twenty-
two to twenty-six or twenty-seven per week.
The division of schools into classes varies ac-
cording to the size of a community. In the
country single and two-class schools with one
or two teachers are common, while in the towns
systems with eight or nine classes and from

twenty to thirty teachers have been developed
Some details are given in the following table
(based on Statist Jahrb / d preu^ Staat,
Vol VII, 1910, p 166) —

IN THE TOWN

IN THE COUNTRY

1806

1006

1800 1900

Average per school of
Classes

7 11

H87

1 04

222

Teaching positions
Children

7 05
41H

002
177

109

1 80
117

Average per teat her of
Classes

1 01

008

1 25

1 23

Children

59

53

70

65

Average number of
children per class .
Number of classrooms

59
30,090

54

42,882

50
50,221

53
59,565

Number of children

not received on ac-

count of over-

crowding

57S

245

18 U

674

75

Curriculum — Such a variety of external
conditions is naturally accompanied by a
variety of curricula and standards in the in-
dividual schools The single-class schools in
which children of all ages are taught together,
cannot perform the same type of work as the
fully graded school But all schools of what-
ever size must conform to certain minimum
requirements, of which those of Baden may
serve as an example, similar regulations being
found in the other states: " The education of
the elementary school shall train the children
up to be intelligent, religious, and moral persons
and upright members of the community. It

GERMANY

GERMANY

must cover the following subjects: religion,
reading and writing, German, arithmetic,
singing, elements of geometry, geography,
natural history, and nature study, and history,
with physical exercises for boys, and for girls
instruction in female handicrafts The num-
ber of periods per week shall be at least sixteen,
and from the fourth year on at least twenty,
with a maximum of thirty for any class "
The following time-table of the Berlin ele-
mentary schools may be taken as representative
of a large school system —

COURSE OF STUDY OK THE ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS AT BERLIN

VIII

VII

VI

V

IV

III

II

I

Religion

3

3

.1

4

4

4

4

4

German

8

7

7

f>

6

6

6

6

Object lessons

2

2

2

History

—

—

—

2

2

2

2

2 (2)

Arithmetic

4

4

4

4

4

4

4 (2)

4(2)

Geometry

—

—

—

—

—

3 (0)

3 (2)

3 (2)

Nature study

and science

—

—

—

2

2

4

4 (3)

3

Geography

—

—

—

2

2

2

2

2

Drawing

—

1

2(1)

2

2

2

2

2

Writing

—

2

2

2

2

1

1

1

.Singing

1

1

2

2

2

2

2

2

Gymnastics

2

2

2(1)

2

2

2

2

2

Sowing,
noodle-work

—

—

(2)

(2)

(2)

(3)

(4)

(4)

Total

20

22

J4

__/

38
fim

28

( U\\

.32

,12

32

Lower Stage v • •* Upper Stage

Middle

Stage

(The figures in brackets denote deviations m the girls'
schools )

The work of these schools may be indicated
by the scope of some subjects in the upper
grades of a Berlin elementary school —

Gorman the pupils must attain to thorough sound-
in oral and written use of the vernacular Com-

plete thoroughness in orthography and the elements of
grammar are expected and reached

Arithmetic for Class II includes the rule of three,
sums with compound numbers, proportion, calculations
of everyday life, excluding exchange, discount, and part-
nership, together with insurance Class I exchange,
discount, and partnership ; comprehensive and final
drill in calculations of everyday life ; anthmetic and
algebra (except in girls' schools) , the theory of denomi-
nate numbers , algebraical addition, subtraction, mul-
tiplication, and division , proportion , equations of the
first degree with one or more unknowns

Nature study (physics) in the bo>s' schools, Class II
lessons in inorganic chemistry and mineralogy, mag-
netism , electricity , galvanism Class I completion
of inorganic chemistry , introduction to organic chem-
istry , mechanics completed , sound arid light In the
girls' schools, Class II Lessons in organic chemistry,
especially in its application to foodstuffs, elements of
mechanics of solid, liquid, and gaseous bodies Class I
magnetism , electricity , galvanism , sound , light

Little can be said about the methods of in-
struction The teachers are somewhat more
restricted than m the high schools, yet not so
much as to crush individuality Closer insight
into the methods can only be secured by visit-
ing the classrooms and a study of the text-
books

The elementary schools do not grant any
privileges m the same sense as the higher
schools Some workmgmcn's guilds demand
that then apprentices shall have completed
the first class of the elementary school; and
such requirements arc laid down occasionally
in other occupations The tables given below,
compiled from various sources, give additional
statistics of elementary education in the most
important German states and the Empire as a
whole

Special Provisions for Abnormal and Super-
normal Children — In an increasing number
of towns special schools or classes are being es-
tablished for the backward (Schwachbegabte) .
In 1905 such arrangements existed in 97 Prus-
sian communities with a school population of

STATISTICS or GERMAN ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS
A 1901 or 1900, B 1906

Prussia

36,756

37,761

2 7

76,342 84,980

11 3

13,866

17,784

283

Bavaria

7,280

7,434

2 1

12,184 12,559

3 1

2,715

3,861

422

Saxony

2,273

2,304

1 4

10,003 12,068

206

401

653

628

Wurttemborg

2,353

2,382

1 2

4,615 4,890

60

494

615

24 5

Baden . . .
German Empire

1,677
50,187

1,688
60,584

0 7
24

3,631 ' 3,983
124,027 137,213

97
106

418
22,513

856
29,384

1048
305

TOTAL NUMBER
OF TEACHERH

NUMBER OF PUPILH

No OF PUPILS
PER TEACHER

PERCENTAGE OF MEN AND
WOMEN HOLDING FULL TIMK
APPOINTMENTS

A

R

Increase

Increase

A

p

A

B

per cent

per cent

Men Women

Men

Women

Prussia

90,208

102,764

139

5,670,870

6,164,398

87

63

60

85

15

83

17

Bavaria

14,899

16,420

102

873,399

958,037

97

59

58

82

18

76

24

Saxony

10,404

12,721

223

655,771

775,098

130

66

61

96

4

95

5

Wttrttemberg

5,109

5.505

78

295,325

315,778

69

58

57

90

10

89

11

Baden
German Empire

4,849
146,540

4,039
166,597

195
137

273,149
8,924,799

308,884
9,737,262

13 1
9 1

67
61

64

58

90
85

10
15

82
82

18
18

76

GERMANY

GERMANY

1,224,146. The following table gives the num-
ber of classes and pupils specially provided for:

BOYS

GIRLS

TOTAL

Special classes m public
schools
Number of classes m sepa-
rate schools ....

Total

1841
388)

1837
5084

1418
4044

3255
0128

672

6921

5452

12,383

TIME-TABLE IN A SPECIAL SCHOOL AT HALLE

Subjects

V

IV

III

II

I

Religion
Arithmetic
German . .
Writing

3

4

9

3
4
6
2
4

3
4
6
2
4

2

4

7
1

2
4 (5)

1

Drawing .
History
Geography
Natural history

1

1
2

2
2
2
2
2

2(1)

2
2
2

Gymnastics
Manual work

2
4

2
4

2
4

2
4

2
4

22

26

28

30

30

The Mannheim system created by Superin-
tendent Sickmger has aroused considerable
attention and much imitation It not only
provides for schools for backward, but also
attempts to provide special means for the
education of the very bright and gifted pupils
This aim is attained by dividing the school
system not only vertically into classes, but
horizontally into various types of classes and
institutions, and by assigning children to dif-
ferent schools not alone according to the dis-
tricts in which they live, but according to their
ability By this system the very able children
come after two years' attendance at school
into classes which prepare them in one and a
half years for the gymnasium Pupils above
the average have a richer curriculum, including
a foreign language; the normal pupils go
through the usual eight years' course, while

the backward and dull receive courses of from
four to seven years

The following table gives a schematic view
of the whole system, the eighth class being
the lowest: —

HID,
ra

Column .4 Regular grades containing more than 90% of the

pupils

Column B Grades for temporary aid
Column C Auxiliary grades or special schools
Column D Preparatory classes of high schools
Id Institution for idiots C G\mnasium Kg Realgymnasium.
O Oberrealsrhule R Reformgymnasium

•<— • Regularly promoted
•<— Placed temporarily in separate classes for individual atten*

tion and returned to regular grades

^- -- Placed in special classes owing to defective mentality
(From Maennel, The Auxiliary Schools of Germany.)

PUBLIC MIDDLE SCHOOLS IN PRUSSIA, 1901 AND 1906. (See p 78 )

Boys

Girls

Mixed

Total

1901

1906

1901

1906

1901

1906

1901

1906

Number of schools . .

217

202

137

137

102

120

456

459

Number of classes

1,605

1,659

1,279

1,408

876

1,140

3,759

4,207

Number of teachers
Number of assistant teachers

1,682
266

1.750
292

1,406
295

1,579
263

895
152

1,212

188

3,983
713

4,544
743

Number of pupils . . .

57,082

57,295

47,680

49,603

16,371

20,140

73,549

78,443

+ 96 m

+ 8 in

+ 6 m

boys

boys

boys

boys

Current expenses in marks .

*erU'.

schools
5,645,985

girls'
schools
6,540,017

boys'
schools
4,207,225

5,198,082

13,512
girls
2,663,421

17,578
girls
4,092,858

61,192
girls
12,516,631

67,187
girls
15,830,957

Average cost :

per school

26,018

32,376

30,710

37,942

26,112

34,107

27,449

34,490

per class ....

3,518

3,942

3,289

3,692

3,044

3,590

3,330

3,760

per pupil

99

114

88

105

89

106

93

109

77

GERMANY

GERMANY

Middle Schools (Mittelschulen, Biirger-
schulen, or Higher Elementary Schools) — This
type of schools is intermediate between the
elementary and higher schools, and is distin-
guished from both chiefly in teaching not more
than one foreign language While they are
very frequent in the South German States,
sucn as Baden, and in Saxony, and there form
an important part of the school system, they
are not so well developed in Prussia, as is
indicated in the table at bottom of page 77.

It will be seen from this table that there
are middle schools for boys, for girls, and for
both together The expenditure on this type
of schools is much less than for higher or ele-
mentary schools The reason for the com-
parative failure of these schools in Prussia,
although such an intermediate stage was really
a strong necessity, was that they did not
convey any privileges nor prepare for or articu-
late with the higher schools Now courses of
study were, however, issued in 1910 for Middle
Schools which mark a great step in advance
While privileges were not granted to these
schools, the curriculum has been so arranged
that it can prepare for the higher schools
They comprise nine classes or years, and are
based on the elementary school in so far as
both have a common course in the lower stage
Fees are charged, but a suitable number of
free places arc maintained. Except in the
lower stage thoro is an average of five periods
per day Good pupils may study a second
language from the seventh school year on In
principle every pupil is expected to take only
one compulsory subject By the establish-
ment of minimum and maximum standards,
every school has sufficient scope to adapt the
curriculum to special needs These arc new
principles in the Prussian educational system;
moreover the new schedules approach much
more nearly to the principle of election and
elasticity than any other part of the system
They are accordingly given here m greater
detail.

Training of Elementary School Teachers —
Special institutions have been established for
the professional training of teachers for ele-
mentary schools, distinct for males and females
The normal schools for men are part of the
elementary school system Between the ele-
mentary school and the normal school there is an
intermediate school, the preparatory institu-
tion (Praparandcnanstaft). Normal schools
and preparatory institutions (of which there are
at present only a very few for girls) are usually
residential institutions (Internate). The prepar-
atory institutions are cither attached to or sep-
arated from the normal schools proper They
receive pupils from the elementary schools at the
age of fourteen and keep them for three years. At-
tendance at the preparatory institution is not a
requirement for entrance to the normal school,
arid candidates may prepare privately, but must
show by examination " that they have attained

*2

I

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the knowledge and ability specified m the course
of study for preparatory institutions " The
transfer from a higher or middle school to the
institutions for the training of teachers is, m
Prussia at any rate, not provided for, and pupils
who wish to transfer must pass an entrance
examination for admission to the class they wish
to enter. Pupils come in some cases from a
middle or real school, but rarely from a higher
school The course of study of both institu-
tions is given in the following scheme; the
normal schools for women deviate somewhat,
but only slightly, from this.

78

GERMANY

GERMANY

TIME-TABLE PREPARATORY INSTITUTIONS AND
NORMAL SCHOOLS

PREPARATORY
INSTITUTIONS

NORMAL SCHOOL

CLASS

III

II

I

III

II

I

Pedagogy ...
Lesson-plannmg and
model lessons
Practice teaching
Religion
German .
Foreign languages
History
Mathematics
Science and nature
study .
Geography
Writing .
Drawing .
Gymnastics
Music . . .

Agriculture . . .

4

5
3

4
5
3

3

r>

3

3

3
5
2

3

4
6
2

3

4-0
32
3»
2

5

2
2
2
2
3
3

5

4
2
2
2
3
4

r>

4

2

1
2
3
5

5

4
3

2
3
4

5

4
2

2
3
4

1
4

34 37 37

1
38

1
38

33-35

» Included with subject matter
8 One hour for method

a Method

The requirements in the normal schools are
given in detail in a few subjects and classes —

I Pedagogy (A) Theory of Education First \ear (J
bourn a week) — General instruction in psychology and logic
and thoir application m didacticH and methods Second \ear
(3 hours a week) — Theory of education , history of education
from the second semester Third year (3 hours a week)
Continuation of history of education up to the present timn
School organization, hygiene, management and regulations
Advice in regard to further study aft PI graduation

(R) Training in School Practice Second year — In con-
nection with model lessons in the practice school given b\ the
practice teachers the students of the normal school are given
opportunities all through the year to gi\e lessons which they
have prepared, and they receive instructions us to how to pro-
ceed Third year — All the students of this third grade an;
intrusted with giving lessons and IK ting .is clnsy teachers in tho
practice school throughout the ycni under supervision of the
regular instructor Each student must have from four to six
hours a week of independent teaching Two hours a week are
to be devoted by the students to preparing lessons with atten-
tion to method and subject matter, criticizing lessons given bv
the students and discussing the school pltwit, administration,
discipline, etc Besides, these two periods are set aside for
model lessons and practice lessons to be given in the different
branches by the practice teachers, in which didactics or meth-
ods are exemplified The normal students itlso arc required to
attend the lessons given by their colleagues affording to pre-
viously determined rotation The practice and special teach-
ers arc to familiarize the students with the methods used in each

branch of study

* * *

III German Language and Literaturt — Third year ('i hours
a week) — The most notable contemporaries of Goethe and
Schiller in connection with their works and their time Some
of the noted modern poets in biographies and in connection
with the reading of their works The German folk song
Dramas Wallenitetn and one, drama of Shakespeare Pi one
reading, preferably Herder's and Schillei's prose works Home?
compositions once a month Two compositions in class
Methods of teaching One hour a week throughout the year

IV Foreign Language** (\) French First year (2 hours
a week) — Review and completion of accidence, the position
of words , the use of tenses Reading Simple stories m prose ,
easy poems Second year (2 hours a week) — The use<< of
moods , infinitive and participles , declensions and words gov-
erning cases Reading Easy historic prose author of modern
times , poems Third year (2 hours a week) — Syntax com-
pleted and reviewed Reading Some historians of modern
times , poems

* * *

VI Mathematics (A) Arithmetic and Algebra First year
(3 hours a week) — Powers and roots, logarithms, equations
of the first degree with several unknown quantities Second
year (3 hours a week) — Equations of the second degree
Arithmetical and geometrical progresnions Compound in-
terest, computing revenues, annuities, etc Third year (1
hour a week for arithmetic, algebra, and geometry) — Meth-
ods of teaching arithmetic and geometry

(Bj Geometry First year (2 hours a week) — Proportional-

ity of straight lines and similarity of figures Stereometry
Second year (2 hours a week) — Continuation of stereometry,
construction of algebraic formula? , trigonometric functions
and computation of plane figures Third year (1 hour a week)
— See above

At the end of the course the first teachers'
examination is held at the normal school in the
presence of a commissioner of the government,
the regulations for which are as follows —

The standards of knowledge and ability which are to be
required are defined bv tho course of study of the normal school
The written examinations include (1) an essay on a topic taken
from the theory of education or method, history of education,
or Gorman literature , (2) and (3) the preparation of an essay
m religion arid one m history , (4) a translation from the for-
eign language into German, (5) the preparation of a chorale
for those who have taken lessons m organ playing and harmony
For the first essay four hours, for the rest two hours are allowed
Tho oral examination deals with the positive knowledge in
pedagogy, religion, German, history, and the foreign language,
and methods of different subjects of the elementary school
Further, those students who showed at the promotion from the
second to the third class an unsatisfactory knowledge m nature
study arid geography are also to be examined in these subjects
A model lesson must be presented

Candidates prepared outside the normal schools must bo
examined in all the subjects of the curriculum

The first examination, however, is not a quali-
fication for appointment as teacher. Such
qualification is only obtained by the second
examination, which may be passed not less than
two nor more than five years after the first
This is not a repetition of the first examination
but aims to discover the ability of the candidate
to hold a school appointment. The examina-
tion consists of three parts the written work,
which consists in the preparation of an essay
on an educational subject, this is followed by
the presentation of a lesson on a topic assigned
one day in advance, and the oral examination,
which begins with pedagogy covering mainly
the history of education, principles and method,
a.nd school management; the examination m
method may include all the subjects of the ele-
mentary curriculum, but, as a rule, each candi-
date is only examined in three subjects On
passing this examination the candidate receives
a ceitificate for permanent appointment as
teacher m the elementary school

Two further examinations may be taken by
the teachers The examination for teachers in
middle schools qualifies for appointment in
middle schools and girls' high schools The ex-
amination for principals, which may only be
taken after that f 01 middle school teachers, qual-
ifies for appointment as directoi or instructor in
normal schools, district school inspector, direc-
tor of preparatory institutions, middle schools,
and elementary schools with six or more classes

The examination for middle school teachers
consists of pedagogy and two of the following
subjects religion, German, French, English,
history, geography, mathematics, botany and
zoology, physics and chemistry A thesis, for
which eight weeks are allowed, must be pre-
pared by each candidate on a topic from one
of his two subjects Further, there is a written
examination of four hours on the two subjects.
The oral examination consists of the presenta-
tion of a lesson, and an examination in pedagogy
and the two selected subjects.

79

GERMANY

GERMANY

The principal's examination covers only the
field of education in its broader sense A topic
is assigned for a thesis, for which eight weeks arc
allowed, on the theory and method of education
and school management The oral examina-
tion covers tho whole field of general theory arid
method, special method of the separate sub-
jects, their history, school ordinances and school
management, school apparatus, and aids for in-
struction, popular and children's literature, etc

Continuation Schools ( Fortbildu nqwch idcn )
— Those schools do not form a part of tho school
system proper, and differ from that in orgam/a-
tion and aims For further treatment soe
CONTINUATION SCHOOLS, KVKNINO SCHOOLS;
and especially INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

SECONDARY EDUCATION — Tho school
year is divided in tho same way as tho elemen-
tal y schools In Bavaria, however, the school
yoar runs from the end of September to tho
beginning of July School opens, as a rule, at 7
or 7 30 m summer, at 8 or 8 30 in winter, with
five or six periods of forty-five to fifty minutes,
occasionally there are some afternoon periods.
In tho smaller towns there are often four periods
in the morning and one or two in the afternoon
The size of the schools is smaller than in Amer-
ica, tho maximum, which is rarely reached, being
probably 1000 pupils, 400 to 500 being the nor-
mal number, while schools with 150 pupils are
rarely found

Tho higher education of boys and girls is
quite distinct, and the two have developed his-
torically along different linos In a fow states
(Baden, Hosso, Wurttomboig) tho girls tiro ad-
mitted to tho boys' schools, and tho tendency
to admit girls to boys' schools in small towns,
whore the numbers are not great enough to call
for separate schools for girls, is gradually, but
surely, making itself foil

The boys' high schools arc, as a rule, public,
there being very fow private schools Tho
entrance requirements arc the successful passing
of tho third or fourth class in tho elemental y
school Frequently preparatory schools which
do this work in three years are attached to the
high schools; such schools ( Vorschulcn) in
which fees are charged are preferred by tho
wealthier classes Every high school is divided
into six or nine classes or school years In the
larger institutions each class is duplicated, — •
tho autumn class for those pupils who are pro-
moted in October, and the Easter class for those
who are promoted at Easter In Radon pro-
motions take place only once each yoar, in July,
and the classes are then divided into parallel
sections The following are the names of the
classes, their abbreviated form, and the age of
entrance into each : —

Lower

Stage

fScxta VI 9

Qumta V 10

I QuartalV 11

Intermediate I ggJ^rtST O HI 13
Stage { Uritersekunda U II 14
( Obersekunda O II IT)

PPP-BU,. teT o!!S

I Abituricatcuezajoueu 18

Thus VI 0 is the Easter group of Sexta; U I M
the Michaelmas group of Unterprhna Parallel
classes, as, for instance, VI O and VI 02, are
found only in exceptional cases where the classes
are too large The three stages as a rule form
one institution, although there are schools con-
sisting of only the lower and middle stages.
Every class is passed m a year, and it is very
rarely that a pupil can accomplish the work of
a class m half a yoar, nor is this encouraged.
Those who do not reach the standard of a class,
that is, are deficient m two major subjects, fail
of promotion and repeat tho work of that class
for a whole year Promotions are by classes
and never by subjects, and aro made on a pupil's
standing for the whole yoar and on the opinion
of tho teacher, examinations for this purpose
rarely take placo Tho marking is at present
on the following basis. 1, very good; 2, good;
3, satisfactory, 4, deficient, 5, unsatisfactory
In a fow states another mark, 3, good as a whole,
is inserted between 2 and 3, and 6 becomes the
lowest Generally a pupil fails of promotion
when ho is deficient in two major subjects Tho
maximum size of a class is 50 in the lowor, 40
in tho intermediate, and 30 m the upper, stage
Those numbers aro frequently reached in the
lowor, rarely in tho upper, stage If more pupils
enter u class, then a division into two parallel
classes is made

Curriculum — There arc three types of higher
schools with nine-year courses: the gymna-
sium, tho oldest form, with the classical lan-
guages as the distinguishing characteristic,
the realgvmuasium, with Latin, modern lan-
guages and natural science, the oberrealschule,
without Greek or Latin, but with the modern
languages and stronger emphasis on mathe-
matics Gorman, mathematics, history, and
religion aro common to all Tho following time-
tables of the three kinds of schools in Prussia
show the distribution of the subjects and the
number of periods of recitations each week:

GYMNASIUM

VI

V

IV

UII1

OIII

UII

on

HI

01

To-
tftl

Required

Religion

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

10

GeriTvm

4

3

3

2

2

3

A k

3

3

2ft

Latin

s

S

8

X

s

7

7

7/

7 1

68

Creek

—

—

—

0

6

r>

«

«l

b{

36

Frrnrh

—

4

2

2

,i

.{

.i

3

20

History

—

—

2

2

2

2

3 [

3/

3 J

17

Geography

2

2

2

1

1

1

[

i

9

Arithmetic

mid Math-

ematics

*

4

4

3

3

4

4 )

4)

4 )

34

Natural aei-

cnce

2

2

2

2

2

2

2 '

2 J

2)

18

Writing

2

2

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

4

Drawing

—

2

2

2

2

—

— .

— .

—

S

Gymnastics

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

27

Singing l

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

18

30

30

34

35

35

35

35

35

35

304

Optional

Draw mg

2

2

2

2

Hebrew

2

2

2

English

2

2

2

1 From IV onward only for pupils with vocal ability.

80

GERMANY

GERMANY

The brackets denote the possibility of a tem-
porary alteration of number of periods within
the same group of subjects In classes IV and
U III a special class is arranged for pupils
whose handwriting is bad

The following changes in the curriculum are
admissible. In Oil, III, arid OI, English
may take the place of French, in which case
French may remain an optional subject with
two hours a Veek. In U III, O III, and O II,
other subjects may be substituted for Greek;
in which case three hours are given to English,
and generally in U III and 0 III two houis to
French, and one hour to arithmetic and mathe-
matics, while in U II one hour is given to French
and two to mathematics and natural science

REALGYMNASIUM

VI

V

IV

U III

GUI

UII

Oil

UI

OI

To-
tal

Required

Religion .

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

O

2

H>

Gorman

4

3

3

3

3

3

3

{

3

Latin

8

8

7

5

r>

4

4

4

4

11)

French

—

—

5

4

4

4

4

4)

41

29

English

—

—

—

3

J

3

1

Jl

3|

IS

History

—

—

2

2

2

2

3

n

II

17

Geography

2

2

2

2

2

1

—

j

11

Arithmetic and

A

A

4

A

Natural sci-

ence

2

2

2

2

2

4

r>

">

^

2f>

Writing . .
Drawing .

2

2
2

2

2

'>

—

>

' 2

2

4
1(1

Hinging » . .

2

2

o

2

2

2

2

2

2

18

30

30

34

35

35

35

36 ^

3<>

307

Optional
Geometrical

drawing

2

2

2

~

2

1 Afl in the Gymnasium
OBERREALSCHULE

VI

V

IV

UIII

OIII

UII

on

UI

01

To-
tal

Required

Religion

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

19

German

5

4

4

3

3

3

4

4

4

34

French . .

(i

6

G

0

b

5

4

4

4

47

English

—

—

—

5

4

4

4

4

1

25

History

— -

—

3

2

2

2

3

3

3

18

Geography

2

2

2

2

2

1

1

1

1

14

Arithmetic and

Mathematics

5

5

0

6

r>

5

5

5

r>

47

Natural sei-

enoe

2

2

2

2

4

0

(i

(>

{>

30

Writing

2

2

2

— .

—

—

—

—

—

0

Freehand

drawing

—

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

16

Gymnastics .

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

27

Singing l . *

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

18

30

30

34

35

"35

35

Jb~

30

30

307

Optional

Geometrical

,

drawing

2

2

2

2

1 As in the Gymnasium

The extent of the knowledge which is to be
transmitted will be indicated through the
scope of the curriculum of the highest class
in a few of the chief subjects and through the
requirements of the final examination (Based
on Lexis, Vol. II )

TOL. in — a 81

(Irrtl Snbi«'t<< i» fiuwnntinm — Heading: Homer's Jhml,
Soph<>< Ics, Euripides, Plato, selections from Thuoyelules, and
Demosthenes , other. pros*1 valuable for content , appropuate
selections of Greek lyric pootr> Grammar, revision, and
rocapitulatioiiH of the whole subject, as found necessary
Practice in unsoon translation Written translations from and
into Greek

Latin in the Gymnasium — Reading, 5 hours Cicero (eg
in Verrem IV or V, pro 1'lanao, pro •SV-rtio, all with omissions,
pro Murtna, selections from Cicero's philosophical and rhe-
torical writings, also from his letters, Tacitus' Germania (at
least till Chap 27), also Af/ncnla, or parts of the Dialofjuf, selec-
tions from the Annalfv (especially the sections referring to
Germany) and from the J/i^tonri, selections from Horace,
memorization of Home of the Od<* Occasionally, unseen
translation Private reading, especially also of writers read
in previous (lasses, i,s to be encouraged and fostered, but is
not required as obligatory Grammar, 2 hours revision with
special attention to the more important and difficult syntactical
rules, recapitulating explanations of specially prominent
stylistic peculiarities Translation into Latin, written class
and home exercises

The requirements in Latin in tho real gymnasium are
somewhat lowei

French in the Realoj/mnamum — The reading, which, as in
tho gymnasium, occupies a central position, is treated more
extensively and intensively than in the latter, so that the pupils
may acquire a broader notion of the special qualities of French
literature in the last centuries, as well as some knowledge of the
national culture and character Revision and completion of
the more important sections of the grammar An outline of
the laws of versification The essentials of svnonvmy and of
the laws of stylo Extension of the vocabulary, including ulso
technical and scientific terms Written and oral exercises
Exercise in essay writing, from frequent brief production of
what has boon road, up to «i freer treatment of definite concrete
subjects Conversational exerc ises at every lesson, not merely
in connection with the reading and incidents of daily life, but
also on the history, literature, and culture of the French nation.

Frriuh in (k< Oberruih<hiih — -In these schools the teaching
nims at imparting a knowledge of the more important French
writings of the last three centuries, insight into the grammatical
system of the' language, some knowledge' of the most important
sections oi French literary tind soc nil history, and practice in
speaking and \\iit ing

The scope in English is similar, although essays are not re-
quired in thin language Tho scope of those subjects is corre-
spondingly smaller in the gymnasium

Arithmftu in the Rml{/i/rnnai)urn and Ohcrreahrhulc — The-
ory of combinations, andnpplic ation to the theory of probability
The binomial theorem for any exponents, and the simplest
infinite series Repetition and continuation of the arith-
metical course (extension of the notion of numbers bv alge-
braical operations, from the* positive integral to the complex
number) Cubic equations Elomontar> exercises in maxima
and minima Spherical trigonometry with application to
mathematical geography arid agronomy

Geometry — Elements of desenptiye geometry The most
important problems in conic sections in elementary-synthetical
treatment Analytical plane geometry Revision, recapitu-
lation, and exercises in all branches of the subject taught ill
previous classes

Methods of Teaching — No account can here
be given of the methods of instruction in the
German schools; an insight into them can
only be obtained by a visit to the schools and
by a study of the textbooks General regu-
lations on method are found only to a small
extent; like the choice of textbooks, the
method of teaching is left to the individual
schools Since school inspection, which might
serve to secure uniformity, is very slight in
higher education, the vaiiety found in teach-
ing is exceedingly gieat, and a somewrmt firmer
restriction placed on the individ .aJ teacher
would at times not be out of place A certain
amount of uniformity is secured within each
institution through the use of the same text-
book by different teachers, and in the system
itself through the prescription of definite aims
whose attainment is assured by means of the
final examination, at which an inspector is
frequently present.

GERMANY

GERMANY

Progyiunasiums ami iriilptu^viiina.siums,
which are not \<»rv numerous, and the very
numerous real schools have each the same
curriculum, differing only in that they lack the
three, occasionally (especially in Baden) the
two, highest classes. Only the Berlin real
schools have a somewhat different curriculum
for purposes of better articulation with the
common schools. French LS here begun in
Quarta, and more attention is given in the
lower stage to arithmetic and mathematics

Reform Schools — From the accompanying
table it can be seen that the transition from
the gymnasium to the realgymnasium is quite
possible in the first three years, but a change
from the oberrealschule and the realschule to
the gymnasium or realgymnasium or vice versa
is entirely impossible Hence parents must
decide quite early, when their children are nine
or ten years of age, on the type of school to
which they are to be sent The feeling that it
would be better to postpone a decision which
is irrevocable has led to the organization of
the reformgymnasiurn and realgymnasium A
common foundation is laid for the three types
of high schools, for which purpose the lower
stage of the real school or oberrealschule is
employed At the end of three years theie is
a bifurcation; one section begins English and
continues later with a stronger emphasis on
natural sciences (realschule arid oberrealschule),
the other begins Latin, and after two years is
again split up, the one division (gymnasium)
beginning Greek, the other (realgymnasium)
English. This is the Frankfort system, from
which that of Altona deviates somewhat Ac-
cording to this system either separate institu-
tions may be established for the three types of
schools, gymnasium, realgymnasium, realschule,

or oberrealschule, or two or three different
types may be united into one institution.
The following is the time-table of an institution
consisting of a reformgyrnnasium and real-
gymnasium (the Leibnitz School at Hanover,
wheie also a special method is employed in
teaching Greek, the pupils beginning with the
Homeric dialect and poems m U II, and going
on to the Attic dialect in O II): —

The following scheme shows a * combination
of the realgymnasium with the real school
according to the Altona system : —

TIME-TABLE OF THE REALGYMNASIUM AND
REALSCHULE IN ALTONA

TOTAL

FOUNDA-

RKAL-

FOR

TION

8CHULE

REAL-

FOUNDA-

(JlMNAfllUM

TION AND
RKAL-

GYMNA-

VI

V

IV

III

II

I

81UM

Required
Religion

3

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

19

German

ft

4

4

3

A

3

2

2

3

3

3

3

29

Latin

_

—

—

—

—

0 6j 0

0

0

6

30

Freneh

()

1)

r>

()

5

5

4' 4| 3

3

3

3

37

Englwh

—

4

ft

4

ft

3

3

3

3

3

3

22

History

—

2

2

<>

2

2

2

2

3

3

3

17

Geogruphv

2

2

2

2

2

1

2

1

1

—

10

Arithmetic

—

3

2

1

1

1 —

\AA

Mathematics

r>

5

3

4

ft

ft

4 4

ft

4

ft

ft

)44

PhvHieH

—

—

—

2

31—

21 2

3

2

2

11

ChcmiHtrv

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

2

2

2

0

Nature study

2

2

2

2

2

—

2

2

2

12

Writing

>)

<.)

Drawing

3

'>

i)

2

2

2

2

2

i>

?

?,

16

Gymnastic-H

3

A

i

3

3

3

3

3l 3

3

3

27

Singing

2

2

3 Choral Hinging

23

30

30

'ift

30

30

37)30

30

37

37

37

37

315

Optional

Geometrical

drawing

—

—

—

—

—

—

—

9

2

2

2

2

SpuniHli

~

2

2

2

2

2

2

TIME-TABLE OF THE LEIBNITZ SCHOOL IN HANOVER GYMNASIUM AND REALGYMNASIUM

WITH A COMMON FOUNDATION

FOUNDATION

REA! OYMNA8UTM

G YMNASIUM

VI

V

IV

nil

OIII

I 11

on

III

01

Total

UII

Oil

UI

01

Total

Required

Religion

3

2

2

2

2 I

2

2 ! 2

2

19

2

2

2

2

19

German

5

4

4

3

3 i

3

3

3

3

31

3

3

3

3

31

Latin

—

—

—

10

10 1

ft

ft

5

40

8

8

8

8

51

Greek

—

—

—

—

—

—

8

8

8

8

32

French

0

G

6

3

3

4

4

3

4

30

2

2

2

2

32

English

—

—

—

—

—

0

4

4

3

17

History

lo

\

3

2

2

2

3

3

3

2

2

2

3

Geography .

J "

1

3

2

2

1

—

i 30

27

Arithmetic
Mathematics

ft

1 6

r

4

4

4

ft

ft

ft

42

3

3

3

3

35

Nature study

2

2

3

2

2

—

—

11

,

. v

___

11

Physios

—

—

—

—

—

3

2

3

3

11

2

2

2

2

g

Chemistry

—

—

—

—

—

—

2

2

0

Writing

2

2

—

—

—

—

. —

4

4

Drawing

—

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

10

8

Singing
Gymnastics . .

2
3

2
3

2
3

2
3

2 1
3 I

2
3

2
3

2
3

2
3

10

27

2
3

2
3

2
3

2
3

18
27

30

30

33

35

35

37

37

37

37

311

35

35

35

35

303

Optional
Hebrew

English

Geometrical

drawing

~

~

"

~

2

2

2

2

2

—

—

2

2

2

2

82

GERMANY

GERMANY

The aim and, as a rule, the methods of the
reform schools are the same as in the corre-
sponding schools of the old type. They are
thus by no means new schools, but merely
differ in postponing certain subjects in favor
of others Two principles are, however,
adopted, new to the traditional German schools
which had and still have a fixed course: these
are the principles of a common foundation and
of bifurcation Two important changes are
thereby effected; first the decision on the
choice of an educational course is postponed
for several years, and secondly more types of
courses can be offered in the same institution
and under the same direction These prin-
ciples find even wider application m the reform
of girls' schools and middle schools They
indicate that the German educational system
is gradually abandoning the principle of a
fixed curriculum and is accepting the principle
of election, — a movement of the highest sig-
nificance The Frankfort Plan was originated
by Dr Remhardt, now at Berlin

The tables in the next column show schemati-
cally the relations between, and the articulation
of, the three types of higher schools in the old
and reform system

Leaving Examination (Abituricntcnprufung)
— The requirements correspond to the pro-
gram of instruction of Pnma The written
examination comprises, for all the schools, a
German essay and the working of four mathe-
matical questions, each dealing with a different
branch, further, (a) In the gymnasium, a
translation from German into Latin, and an-
other from Greek into German (6) In the
realgy rrmasium : a translation from Latin into
German; according to the curriculum of each
separate institution, a French or an English
exercise, viz , either an essay or a translation
from German; and a question in physics
(c) In the oberrealschule a French and an
English exercise, an essay in one of these two
languages and a translation from German into
the other language, and a question in physics
or in chemistry

The oral examination comprises, for all the
schools, Christian religious teaching, history,
mathematics, and further: (a) in the gym-
nasium: Latin, Greek, and according to the
curriculum of each separate institution, either
French or English; (6) for the realgy mnasium
Latin, French, and English, and physics or
chemistry; (c) for the oberrealschule'' French
and English, and physics or chemistry

Statistical. — The tables on page 84 will give
some information on the number of the dif-
ferent schools, the number of teachers, of
pupils, etc ; material of a more exhaustive and
detailed character is not available

Privileges — Two kinds of Berechtigungen,
or of certificates that entitle the holder to cer-
tain important privileges, can be acquired in
the higher schools : the certificate of admission
for the one year volunteer service in the army,

A ACCORDING TO THE OLD SYSTEM, THE CRITI-
CAL POINTS BEING AT THE AGES OF 9 AND 11,
\S A RULE EACH TYPE BEING A SEPARATE
INSTITUTION

GYMNA-

RfcALQYM-

OBERKLAI- AOE AT

SIUM

NAS1UM

SCHLLE ENI-KANCE

OI

01

OI 17

Upper Stage
(3 years)

Ji

A

UI 16

(Privilege of one

1

year volunteer
military service)

Oil

on

1

Oil 15

Middle Stage
(3 years)

U II

14

U II Science U II

I | begun I

OIII OIII OlllSciencelS

| | | begun

U III Greek U III

I begun I

UIII

12

Lower Stage
(3 years)

IV French
I begun

'. Latin
begun

IV

11

VI French
I begun

Preparatory school or
Public elementary school

O years) or
(about 4 yeais)

B ACCORDING TO THE REFORM SYSTEM, THE
CRITIC \L POINTS BEING AT THE \GES OF 11
AND 13, TWO OR EVEN THREE TYPES FORMING
ONE INSTITUTION

G\MNA- RbALGVM-

OHEKRKAL-

BIUM NASIUM

8CHULL

AGF AT

ENTRANCE

01 01

01 17

Upper Stage
(3 years)

J, Jl

1 1

UI 16
1

(Privilege of one
yoar volunteer

on on

O III 15

military service)

1

UII Greek U II English U

II 14

begun begun

Middle Stage

(2 years)

OIII

01

II 13

U III Latin

IT I

flEng- 12

| begun

lish begun

Lower Stage
(3 years)

11
10

[ V I French begun 9

The age at graduation in both systems is 18 or 10

Einjahrigenschein, and the certificate of ma-
turity for higher piofessional studies, Reife-
prufimgszeugnif; or Zeugnis der Rcife fur hohere
Berufsstudien

a The FJinjahigenschein is obtained in the
schools with a course of six years or classes
(rcalschulcn, etc ) by the final examination at
the end of the course, in the schools with a
course of nine years (the three preparatory
years not counted in either case) or classes
without an examination by the promotion from

83

GERMANY GERMANY

PRUSSIAN HIGHER SCHOOLS ON FEB. 1, 1909 »

TTPB OP SCHOOL,

Gymnasium
Proary mnasi urn
Keulgymnaamm
Healprogymnasium
Oberrealsrhule .
Uealvchule

336
35

138
45
85

169

NUMBER or TEACHERS

NUMBBR OF PUPILS

PI

|f|

||

OI

TIT

Oil

UII

om

UIII

IV

V

VI

TOTA.L

111

IF

IN

4848
1851
1(532
195

613
37
305
50

385
20
103
10

6068
1338

7116
1830

8724
2748

11,461
510
4,360
346

12,486
676
5,050
667

13,215

740
5,853
736

14,560
828
6,417
946

14,020
838
6,577
1,040

14,646
905
7,029
1,243

102,297
4,497
41,202

4,878

1212
911

259
300

96
95

898

1276

2144

3.504
3,594

4,286
4,654

4,823
5,817

5,014
6,127

5,976
6,246

6,214
6,912

34,735
33,350

1 From Centralblatt, etc , Ery<tnzungaheftt 1910, p 50
PRUSSIAN HIGHER SCHOOLS ON FEE 1, 1908 (A) AND 1909 (B) '

Schools (including
reform school)

Teachers

Teachers in pre-
paratory schools

PupiUs .

Pupils in prepar-
atory schools

CYMNAHIUM

RE

OYMN
A

Al-
AMIUM

OBER-
KFAI HCHULK

Pi

GYMN

A

10-
ASIUM

REALPKO-

GYMNASIUM

REAL.SCHULE

TOTAL

A

332
0,262

B

B

A

B

B

A

B

A

B

A

B

336
6,388

124
2,029

138
2,243

75
1,626

85
1,716

40
318

35

287

39
250

45
312

171
1 ,540

169
1,501

781
11,925

808
12,447

353
101,094

366
102,297

180
37,683

199
41,202

137
30,702

lp)r»
34.7J5

3
4940

1
4497

20
4225

35

4878

1J8
33,405

126
33,350

837
212,115

872
220,959

13,006

13,309

6,905

7,424

4,924

5,044

98

JO

88Q

1177

5,009

4,898

30,831

32,441

OTHER STATES

Bavaria (1909) 46

4

9

32

51

141

Wurttemberg

(1909) . 14

6

10

5

7

88 »

129

Saxony 19

12

2

~"

~

30

1 From Centralblatt, etc , 1909 • Twenty-one of these schools have one or two upper classes (oberaekunda and unterpnma)

untersekunda to obersekunda, which takes place
after successfully completing the first six
years or classes of the whole course (of nine
years) The most important privilege acquired
by this certificate is the right of serving only
one year in the army, whereas otherwise every
German has to serve at least two years The
service is voluntary (Einjahng Frciwilliger) in
so far as the time of service and the regiment
may, within certain limits, be selected by the
individual holding the privilege This is of
course of economic importance, but besides it
means a social distinction, especially as the
officers of the reserve, a much-coveted dignity,
are taken from the Einj&hrige only At the
same time this certificate will show that the
bearer possesses a certain amount of knowledge
and intellectual training, and so a publicly and
officially recognized standard of education is
established by it which easily can and actually
does serve as the entrance requirement for
many official and private careers So this
certificate is the indispensable entrance require-
ment for the intermediate careers (as official
or clerk) in the post office, telegraph and tele-

84

phone service, in the service of the judicial,
the provincial, and the local administration,
and the state railway service (the higher
careers being always filled by university-
trained men, the lower ones with men who
have had an elementary school training) In
this respect the Einjahngemchein takes the
place of the civil service examination m America.
Large business houses and especially banks
generally do not take apprentices who have
not at least this certificate, sometimes they
require even more The natural result is that
a large number of boys remain at school only
for the purpose of getting this certificate and
leave as soon as they obtain it (sec the figures
under U II and O II m table above).

6 The Reifeprufung is the examination at
the end of the full course of nine years of the
three different types It gives the right of
admission to the careers of officer in the army
and navy, and above all the right of admission
to the universities and technical Hochschulen,
that is, ultimately to the state examinations
at the end of the university or technical course.
So the Reifeprufung is nearly the only entrance

GERMANY

GERMANY

to all higher walks of life, and certainly to all
higher positions of honor and trust in the
service of the state ; and the social recognition
in which it is held is correspondingly high

The criticism which is sometimes made by
foreign observers of the system of privileges
shows a failure to realize the function and the
importance of this system It certainly has
drawbacks; it is a heavy burden on the boys
and on their parents; it keeps many boys in
school who ought not to be there any longer,
and is therefore a burden on the school But
infinitely greater are its advantages for the
life of the nation as well as for the work of the
school By this system definite educational
standards are secured throughout the nation,
in a reliable way it provides young men with
a broad knowledge and thorough intellectual
training for the higher as well as for the middle
careers in life, it relieves the higher institu-
tions of the burden of elementary work and
lays a good foundation for their own work.
It puts the examinations where they belong, —
at the beginning and not at the end of the
course; and though it sifts thoroughly, it
avoids the tremendous waste of entrance ex-
aminations; it does not place the examinations
in the hands of persons who have never seen
the boy, but leaves him to his teachers, who
have known and worked with him for years;
and the boy is not judged by the written work
of a few hours, but by the oral and written

RESULTS OF THE REIFEPRUFUNG IN PRUSSIA,
EASTER, 1907-1Q08 »

AT TUB

AT THE

AT THE

REAL-

OBER-

GYMNA-

GYMNA-

RFAL-

SIUMS

BIUM8

8CHULJBN

g

3

S

"5

jjj

J

£ s

J £

$ *->

- 5

Si 2

H 2

M *

2 W

w OJ

S w

a w

1907 1908

1907 1908

1907 1908

Number registered for the

examination .

11205133

239 1053

117 745

Number not admitted or with-

drawn

412

79

60

Number examined

5841

1213

802

Number passed .
Of those successful there were

5022

1183

779

Protestants

3397

971

648

Catholics .

1862

131

97

Jews . .

357

77

27

Number under 18 years of age .
18 years old

278
1497

48
356

27
206

1 9 years old

1698

412

268

20 years old

1127

220

186

21 years and over
Number of successful candidates

1022

147

92

who went to the universities

4042

632

353

To the technical high schools
Entered military career

487
349

204
58

164
22

Entered higher forestry, cus-

toms, postal and other

state service

151

42

36

Other occupations and unde-

cided

593

247

204

lFrom Centralblatt, etc., 1908.

85

work of a year and by his whole personality.
The system secures the willing, though not
always the hearty, cooperation of the parents.
Last, but not least, it exercises an automatic
pressure on the boy, which causes him to work,
— a pressure which otherwise the teacher would
have to exercise by his personal efforts. Thus
the school system becomes more efficient. It
would be difficult to devise another system
which could bring about these same results as
economically ana as thoroughly Far from
being the " bane of German secondary educa-
tion," the system of privileges — Einjdhngen-
schein, Reifeprufung, Staatsexamen — is, there-
fore, the most important reason for the effi-
ciency and thoroughness of the German schools,
more important than even the preparation of
teachers, which is partly secured only with the
help of this system

The extcrns, Extraner, those who prepared
outside of the schools, are not counted in this
list In 1907-1908 at the gymnasiums 368
extcrns registered, for the examination of whom
253 were admitted and 150 passed; 88 of them
were 21 years of age and over, and 85 entered
a university At the realgymnasiums the
corresponding figures were, 205, 162, 123, 73,
61, and at the oberrealschulen, 186, 97, 67, — ,
23.

Cadet Schools. — These schools are to be
found in Prussia, Bavaria, and Saxony They
provide for the general training of future offi-
cers in the army and are generally boarding
schools, with the curriculum of the realgym-
nasium combined with military practice In
Prussia there are eight preparatory institutions
with lower classes (Sexta to Obertertia) only,
and one central institution with the upper
classes (Untersccunda to Oberprima), which is
at Bcrhn-Grosslichterfelde This horizontal di-
vision into lower and upper sections is a special
feature of the cadet schools, distinguishing them
from the other higher schools In 1893 m
Prussia the number of pupils in the preparatory
institutions was 2470, in the central institution
1000 Many officers come also from the regu-
lar higher schools, with or without the Reife-
zeugnis. (Sec MILITARY EDUCATION )

Higher Education of Girls. — For a long
time the higher education of girls was not so
well cared for as that of the boys, and at times
it was almost neglected But in recent years
a strong reform movement has thoroughly re-
organized these schools and placed them on a
much higher level Whereas most of them
were formerly in private hands and were
money-making institutions, a rapidly growing
percentage is now supported by the communi-
ties; the state, at least the state of Prussia,
supports only very few (see p. 74). As to
promotion, division of school year, etc., see
the general remarks on the higher schools for
boys. The classes are generally named 10th
class, 9th class, etc , the 1st class being the
highest.

GERMANY

GERMANY

Organization and Curnrula — There are
separate higher schools for girls in all the
states of the empire. Their curriculum, with
the exeeptiori of riathcmalics and science, is
not widely different from that of the realschu-
len, and, though frequently one year longer
(10 years or 7 without the 3 years of the
preparatory school), it is not quite so broad
and the teaching not so thorough (partly on
account of the absence of privileges, Berech-
tigungeri) Those girls who desire to get an
education equal to that of the boys or who
wish to pass the tteifeprufuiig arc, m some of
the smaller (lei-man states, either admitted to
the boys' schools (as in Baden or Saxony), or
to M&dchen-gi/m Hasten or real-gymnasien, which
are in no way different from the corresponding
schools for boys in Baden In Prussia, accord-
ing to the regulations of 1908, the girls arc not
admitted to the boys' schools, and the new
higher girls' schools are different from the
boys' schools As these regulations of 1908
will be the starting point for a new develop-
ment and will be more or less adopted by
other (i or man states, their most important
features must be given here.

In Prussia the higher girls' school proper
contains a course of 10 years (or 7 without the
3 years of the preparatory school), which is
nearly equal to the 9 (or 6 respectively) years
of the realschule On this course two others
are built, both comprised under the name of
Lyceum' one of two years, to be known as
Frauennchule, a very undefined course; the
other, one of foui years, called hokeres Lchrenn-
ncnscintnar (training college for women teachers
at the higher girls' schools proper) After the
seventh and eighth year of the
higher gills' school proper three
other courses branch off which
lead to the different kinds of
Rcifeprufung These courses are
known as Studienanstalt. The
provision of adequate facilities
for preparation, corresponding to
the education of the gymnasium,
will lead to the admission of
women to the universities as fully
recognized students, and has al-
ready led tf> new regulations, to
take effect in 1913, of demanding
university study from teachers in
the higher girls' schools (See
Prettyman, C W , Higher Girls'
Schools in Prussia Teachers
College Rec , May, 1911) The
influence of the Reform Schools
and the principles therein ex-
pressed, a common foundation
and bifurcation, will be easily
recognized.

The following tables show the
system, the articulation of its
parts, and the different curric-
ula:—

LYCEUM

STUDIENANSTALT

a

b

a

6 c

Age

Frauen- Hbheres-Lehrer-

schule mnensemmar
Oberreal- Realgym- Gym-

Minimum age sehule nasium naamm

at

final exami-

na

tion, 20 yeara

19

P Practical

Minimum

age at final

1 year

examination, 19 years

18

[ I

1

]

17

I

1, I

i i

,

I ]

I

16

h

ill IJ

I . I

I ^ — -l

I

1

Vlmimum |

a

ge,

10 years 1

Higher Gir

\ls' School

15

Upper f

: r

T T

/ ^ IV

14

stage
4 yrs

i

f ,

HT^

13

iji i|i

12

. IV Engl.sh br«un

Minimum age

12 years

11

Middle

\

r NOTE The

perpendicular

stage

st

rokea (|) de

note tranm

tion

3 yrs

fr

om one clas

s to auothe

r or

to another department,

the

h<

3nzontal br

ackets ( — .

' — )

.,

indicate the

possibility

of

giving instruction in common
in certain subjects to pupils

10

\

I in

different c

lasses.

0

.vJ

I French begun.

Minimum age,

9 years

8

Prepar-

VIII

7

atory
school

!

L

G

X Entrance age.

6 years

COURSE OF STUDY OF THE HIGHER GIRLB' SCHOOL PROPER
a Literary and Scientific Subjects

LOWER

STAGS,

MIDDLE
STAGE

UPPER

STAGL

TOTAL

X

IX

VIII

VII

VI

V

IV

III

II

I

VII-I

1. Religion

3

3

3

3

3

A

2

2

2

2

17

2. German

10

9

8

6

5

5

4

4

4

4

32

3 French

—

—

6

5

5

4

4

4

4

32

4 English

—

—

—

—

—

4

4

4

4

16

6 History and Art

History

—

—

—

—

2

2

2

2

2

3

13

6 Geography

—

—

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

14

7 Arithmetic and

Mathematics

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

3

21

8 Natural Science

2

2

2

3

3

3

2

17

Total

Ib

15

16

22

22

22

24

24

24

24

162

b. Technical Subjects

9. Writing

3

2

1

1

1

_

3

10. Drawing

i

i

i

2

2

2

2

2

2

2

14

1 1 Needlework

2

2

2

2

2

i

2

2

t

6(14)

12. Singing .
13 Gymnastics .

i

!

1

2
2

2
2

2
2

2
3

2
3

2
3

2
3

14
18

Total .

2

7

6

9

9

9

7(9)

7(9)

7(9)

7(9)

55(63)

1 In the clasps X-VIII occasional drawing
object lessons in German

2 Needlework is optional in the upper classes

and olay modeling during the

GERMANY

GERMANY

COURSE OF STUOY OK THU, LICEUM
A. FraueriHchule

11

I

Total

1 Pedagogy

2

2

4

2. Household Arts

5

5

10 Including practice m

cooking and house-

3 Kindergarten-

hold management

teaching *

4

4

S Including practice work

4 Hygiene and

in kindergarten

care of chil-

dren

4

4

8 Including practical work

in creches, day nurs-

eries, and nunung

5 Civics and eco-

nomics

2

2

4 Including vimtn to phil-

anthropic institutions

and missions

6 Bookkeeping

(household)

1

1

2

7 Needlework

2

2

4

S Religion

9 German

10 French, English,

Latin, or Ital-

ian

11 History. Geog-
raphy, Sci-

Each subject ar cording
>• to circumstances and

ence

needs , two hours

12 History of Art

each per week

l.J Gymnastics

1 4 Drawing and

painting

1 "> Music

1 Household arts and kmdf rgarten teaching may be HO ,tr-
rariged that In the first >ear only the former, in the second only
the latter, are taken with 9 hours per week

H Training College for Teachers (Hnhere* Lchrennnenseminar)

Ac ADEMIC CONTINUATION

" '

CLASHES

^tademic Subjects

PRACTICAL

YEAR

III

II

I

Total

Religion

3

3

,J

9

1 2

German

,}

3

3

(1

•}

French

4

4

4

121

1 2

Kngiish

4

4

4

12f

H istorv

2

2

2

61

1 2

Geography

2

1

1

4

Mathematics

4

4

4

12

1 s

Natural Science

2

3

3

8

1 •

Pedagogy
Method and Model

2

2

2

6

J

Lessons

(4) i

4

Practice Teaching
Reports and Dis-

4-6

cussions

8

26

20

26

78

26

(25-27)

Technical Subjects

Drawing
Singing
Gymnastics . .

2
1
3

2

1
3

1
1

r>
,j

9

3

1 Method and model lessons in Class I are included in the
periods given to each subject and are given in place of the re-
spective subjects rather than as separate courses

2 Method and introduction to professional literature
* Method and introduction to experimentation

The curriculum of the Studienanstaltcn is
almost the same as those of the eoi responding
boys' schools, but us the whole course lasts

87

thirteen years (instead of twelve as in the boys'
schools), the number of recitations per week is
a little less Those who have completed the
course of any of the Rtudicnanstaltcn may entei
the highest class, practical year, of the Seminar

The higher girls' school proper and the
Frauenschule have no privileges, the Reifcpru-
fung at the end of the Studicnamttalten grants
the same privileges as that of the gymnasium,
etc As at present there are only about 35
Studienanst alien in Prussia, and as the girls
are not admitted to boys' schools, manv girls
who desire a higher education can get it only
with difficulty, especially in the smaller towns
Financial or other statistics m suitable form
are not available, as the whole system of girls'
schools is in a rapid process of reorganization
and readjustment, it would m any case be
useless to quote statistics

Training of Teachers for the Higher Schools
— The teachers m boys' schools are men, most
of them with university training, in the girls'
schools there are partly men and partly
women teachers, most of the women being
trained m the training colleges mentioned
above, though an increasing number of women
are receiving the same university training as
the Obcrlchici Admission to the profession
of teaching in all the states is dependent on the
passing of a special examination for teachers m
higher schools, e g in Prussia (Prufunq fur
r/r/.s Lehramt an hohcren Kchnlen), held by
special examining boards and independent of
the universities, and also a course of practical
preparation of from one to two years A uni-
versity degree is not a qualification for a teach-
ing appointment, although professors of the
universities are frequently members of the ex-
amining boards

The Examination in Prussia — To be ad-
mitted to the examination a candidate must
hold a certificate of graduation from a German
higher school and must have studied for at
least six semesters at a German university
As a rule the period of study lasts from four to
five years or more The examination consists of
two parts, general and special, and both are
written and oral The subjects of the general
examination are the same for all candidates
and include, philosophy (the most important
facts of its history, the chief principles in logic
and psychology, the knowledge of an important
philosophical work) , pedagogy (the philosophi-
cal principles underlying the most important
facts of its history since the sixteenth century) ,
German literature (general development from
the eighteenth century, the knowledge of a few
important works) , religion (content and co-
herence of the Bible, general outline of the
history of the Christian church, the principal
doctrines of the denomination of the candidate)
In the special examination there must be one
of the following combinations* Latin and
Greek, French and Kngiish or Latin, history
and geography, religion and Hebrew, Greek,

GERMANY

GERMANY

or German, pure mathematics and physics;
chemistry, including mineralogy, and physics,
or, in place of physics, botany arid zoology
Other possible subjects are applied mathe-
matics, and, occasionally, Danish and Polish
In the first three combinations German may
take the place of any one subject The re-
quirements in any of the subjects mentioned,
except Hebrew, are divided into two stages
the second grade covers the lower and middle
classes including untersecunda (minor subjects);
the other, the first, includes also the upper
classes (major) A candidate is successful
when he satisfies in the general examination,
and passes in at least one major (first grade,
Lchrbefahigung fur die crttte tilufe) and two
minor subjects A large number of subjects
may, however, be selected by the candidate,
as, for instance, two major and one or two
minors The examination is conducted as fol-
lows The candidate must in the written
examination prepare pnvatolv two essays, one
for the general and the other for the special
examination The wishes of the candidates
are considered so far as possible Sixteen
weeks are allowed for the preparation of these
essays, although an extension of sixteen moie
weeks may easily be obtained A doctor's dis-
sertation or some other printed work may be
accepted in place of one of the two essays A
further written test of at most three hours'
dmation may be imposed, and is in any case
required in modern languages This is fol-
lowed by the oral examination which lasts
about an hour for each major subject and half
an hour for each minor, although these periods
are nowhere presmbed definitely Jteexarui-
nation, extension and supplemental y examina-
tions are permitted, but not more than twice
for each one of these

The following requirements of the Prussian
Examination Ordinance in a few important
subjects are added to indicate the scope of
knowledge expected —

Latin and (Irtrk — (a) Second grade A sound knowledge of
(Jreek and Latin grammar, ability in the written use of both
languages so far as to translate suitable passages with gram-
matical correctness and, in Latin at any rate, without any strik-
ing defects of style, ability, on tin basis of systematic and
thorough reading oi the classics, to understand, and, omitting
passages of .special difficult, to translate readily, selections
from works suitable for Hekunda in the gymnasium Candi-
dates must possess sueh a knowledge of Greek and Roman
histoi\, unhiding the history of literature and antiquities,
mythology and prosody, an to give the necessary explanation on
those points of authors to be read in the middle stage, and to he
abk to i mplo\ intelligently good reference works in the prepa-
lation of lessons

For the hrst grade the additional requirements are a thorough
ncicuttihc knowledge of grammar , teadiness m the written use of
Latin, grammatical coi reel ness in the written use of Greek, and
ability to apeak Latin, wide reading knowledge of the Greek
and Roman classics, especially such as serve to enrich the les-
sons in the gymnasium, and scientific training m tho method of
explanations, acquaintance with prosod\, so far as it bears on
the poets to bo read in the gymnasium, and practice ID appro-
priate rendering of verse , a knowledge of the general literary
development, particularly the best periods, sufficient acquaint-
ance to guarantee further systematic study of the principal
periods m Greek and Roman history, political institutions, pri-
>atc life, religion and mythologv, and philosophy of the CJiceks
and Romans, a knowledge of ,ir< hteotogy so far as necessar\
for effective illustration of lessons by mtt lligent employment of
an appropriate solution of objetts The candidates must also

give evidence of a knowledge in outline of the development of
philology

Enylmh — After giving evidence of a knowledge of elemen-
tary Latin grammar and ability to understand and to translate
at least easy passages in the snhool authors, such as Cmsar, the
requirements, in this subject are (a) for the second grade A
knowledge of the elements of phonetics, correctness and
thorough familiarity in pronunciation, a knowledge of acci-
dence and syntax, and elementary s\nonymik, the possession
of a broad vocabulary and knowledge of idiom, and some abil-
itv in oral use of the language , a knowledge in outline of the
development from the lime of Shakespeare of English literature,
in which the works of the most important writers in prose and
verse must be read , readim ss m eorree t translation of the usual
authors into German and in free, written composition in the
foreign language without serious errors of expression and style
(The rcquiiementM in French are very similar )

(b) For the first grade In the written and oral use of the
language there is expected not only complete grammatical
correctness based on a scientific study of gnimmar, hut a thor-
ough acquaintance with UK \oc.thu1ar\ and the peculiarities
of idiom, togcthc rwith a satisfactory abilitv to employ them for
purposes of instruction , a knowledge in outline of the develop-
ment of the language fiom th< Old Tjighsh period, and the
general development of literature together with a detailed stud}
of the moit important works in the past and present . familiar-
ity with the rules of Knglish prosody in the early anel modern
periods, acquaintance with the histor\ oi Knglarid so far as
necessary for the material explanation of the common school
authors Where the knowledge of the historical elevelopment
of the language i^ not so detailed M v< ry able und thorough
knowledge of modern lit< ratun and an excellent command of the
modern language may be aceepteel MS an equivalent

Pure MathfmaticK — (a) For the second grade A sound
knowledge of elementary mathematics and acquaintance with
analytical plane geometry, especially with the chief qualities
of conic sections and the pnncipli s of differential anei integral
calculus (6) For tin first grade Su< h a familiarity with the
principles c»f lugh< r gi omet r;y , arithmetic , algebra, higher analv-
sis, and analytical mechanics, that the candidate can solve a
not too difficult proble rn out of this he Id

/Vi//siry — (n) F<ir the Hecond grade A knowledge of the
more important principles and IRWH out of the whole held of this
science, and ability te> pn>y< they* laws mathematical^ , so lar
as possible without the application of higher mathematics, an
acquaintance with the instruments necessary for school instruc-
tion and practice in using them (6) For the first grade A
more detaileel knenvlc dge of experimental physics, and its appli-
cations, acquaintance with the fundamental investigations in
one of the more- important branches of theoretical physics, and a
general view of the whole field

The requirements described are those of
Prussia, and they are snrnlai in other states
with noteworthy differences in Bavaria and
Wuittemberg In both those countue.s eveiy
candidate has to pass two examinations at an
interval of two or more years, and the prepara-
tory work to be done at the university is more
strictly prescribed, while the oral and written
examinations are conducted differently (see
Morsch) Only the following states have
agreed to mutually recognize their respective
examination certificates, Piussia, Saxony, and
the smaller Saxon states, Meeklenburg-
Schwenn, Brunswick, Alsace-Lorraine, and
some of the smallest states which have no
examining boards of their own

Practical Picparatwn — The ceitihcatc of
success in the written examination does not
qualify for the appointment of teacher. Such
qualification is obtained only by practical train-
ing of one, but generally two years This con-
sists, according to the Prussian legulations, of
a Seminar year and a probationary year

A The Sernmarjahr — During this year
candidates must become acquainted with the
theory and principles of education in their
application to the higher schools and with the
method of individual subjects of instruction,
and must, be introduced to practical work as
teachei and educator For this purpose they

88

GERMANY

GERMANY

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arc assigned in groups of eight, or ten to a school,
where* at least two hours of discussion take
place each week chiefly on the following sub-
jects: principles of education and instruction
and method, especially of the subjects of the
candidates; historical survey and discussion
of contemporary questions, the character,
organization, and curriculum of the higher
schools; the school ordinance, principles of
school discipline, hygiene, etc , administrative
authorities and their organization; service regu-
lations of teachers; and, finally, directions
for observation of lessons The candidates
must bring short reports or deliver oral lectures
on all these subjects In their particular work,
they must acquire by class-room visitation a sur-
vey of the tasks of the whole school The trial
lessons of the candidates begin as soon as pos-
sible, and the problems, which at first are kept
within narrow limits, are generally made
broader and more extensive Each candidate
must give a trial lesson about once in four weeks,
at which all the candidates, the director, and
the subject teacher must be present This is
followed by a general discussion and criticism.
About two months before the close of the year
every candidate must hand in a somewhat
larger dissertation which demands theoretical
considerations and practical applications and
should be based on the candidate's own ex-
perience and observation

B The Probationary Year (Probejahr) —
This period serves mainly to afford the candi-
dates practice in. the application of the educa-
tional knowledge and ability acquired in the
seminar-year, and is usually spent in another
institution. The candidates are intrusted with
larger, more continuous problems for eight or
ten hours a week, always under the more or less
strict supervision of the director and those teach-
ers in whose classes the candidates are teaching.
As evidence of the amount of pedagogical in-
sight attained the candidates must hand in a
report of their own work as teachers It is only
then that the certificate qualifying for ap-
pointment in a higher school can be granted,
and with it ends the training of the young
teacher

Reform in the Higher Schools — Only the
most important of the reform movements and
ideas can be mentioned here without any
further discussion The following are move-
ments which have been realized here arid there
without any general acceptance as yet the
introduction of boarding schools; the admis-
sion of girls to boys' higher schools the in-
troduction of biology, philosophy, and civics;
closer attention to the modern scientific theology
in religious instructions, and, above all, greater
freedom and consideration of the interests of
the pupils in the upper stage Possibly there
should also be added here the frequent demand
for more professorships of education The
following opinions, which have remained noth-
ing more and of which one or the other may be

93

realized in the future, mav be referred to
lessening of the home work and the number of
subjects in the curriculum, establishment of
vocational classes, special promotion of pupils
of more than average ability, separation of the
upper stage and the establishment of an inter-
mediate institution between the school and the
university, somewhat like the American college;
and a number of other radical ideas which can-
not be mentioned here It is a pretty generally
accepted opinion that the German higher school
system, as at present organized, cannot last any
length of time, but how it is to be reformed
is a problem But those concerned in it are
convinced that reform will not be brought about
by a revolution, but by gradual, even slow, but
unceasing development P Z

UNIVERSITIES — Historical — (I) Al-
though the German universities are con-
siderably younger than the famous Studia
gc net all a of Italy, France, England, and Spam,
Germany fiom the beginning played an im-
portant part in medieval culture At Bologna
and Paris German students and teacheis made
very creditable contribution to the universities,
and in Germany itself schools of the orders like
the Dominicans and Franciscans at Tologne,
where men like Albertus Magnus, Thomas
Aquinas, and Duns Scotus taught, were close
rivals of the foreign universities But the uni-
versities proper only sprang up in Germany
in the middle or, if the whole of present Ger-
many is considered, towards the end of the
century

In order 'of tune two groups may be dis-
tinguished (1) 1340-1415 Prague 1349,
Vienna 1365, Heidelberg 1385, Cologne 1388,
Erfurt 1392, Leipzig 1409, Rostock 1419
By the establishment of a xludnim general?
at these places the educational organization
of Southern and Western Europe was tiaris-
planted into German territory (2) 1456-
1506 Greifswald 1456, Freiburg 1457, Basle
1459, Ingolstadt 1472, Trier 1473, Mainz 1477,
Tubingen 1504, Wittenberg 1504, Frankfort-
on-the-Oder 1506 (q v) The establishment
of these institutions was a natural consequence
of the new intellectual movement of the time,
the Renaissance, but a greater cause was the
concentration of political power in the hands
of territorial princes To strengthen their
influence these rulers confined the clerical and
intellectual life within their own borders and
found need for their own territorial university
All these universities, including the older,
did not originate independently as did Pans
out of the association of famous teachers and
their students, but definite political aims con-
tributed to the rise of each Hence the life
of the students was not regulated by a demo-
cratic constitution similar to that at Bologna,
but the* statutes were imposed from above,
generally modeled on those which had in the
meantime been developed in Pans However
much the secular power may have done for the

GERMANY

GERMANY

establishment, granting of privileges and or-
ganization of a university, in its whole work
and character it was regarded entirely as an
ecclesiastical and clerical institution Not only
did the faculties receive the right to teach
and grant academic honors through the papal
bull, but in its general attitude and sympathy
the university belonged to the clerical estate
The success and influence of these numerous
universities on the culture of Germany, in
spite of the ridicule of the humanists and the
charges of the Reformers, were both very great
Neither movement would have been possible
without the preparatory work of scholasticism
fostered by the universities. According to
Eulenhcrg's investigations about the year 1500
there were from three to four thousand natives
and some two thousand foreign students in Ger-
many How great must even then have been
the number in the German population of uni-
versity-trained men !

(II) At the beginning of the sixteenth cen-
tury scholasticism was driven out m Germany
as elsewhere by the humanistic movement.
But just as the triumph of humanism seemed
about to be completed, a new and stronger
movement, the Reformation, began and de-
stroyed almost entirely the hopes of victory.
Since all intellectual activity had until then
been clerical, the general attack on cleri-
calism was bound to lead to a vast upheaval
of the whole educational system But the
confusion was soon overcome, for in the first
place the German Reformers required for the
success of their work a far better educated
clergy than the old church , to be able to preach
the " pure word of God," the pastor must have
studied Secondly, the secular powers also
needed a thoroughly well-trained legal pro-
fession for the new duties which were thrust
on them by the increase of territorial rights,
confiscation of church property, and the accept-
ance of Roman law Under pressure of these
needs the crisis was overcome and the univer-
sities in Germany became tenitonal institu-
tions for the purpose of meeting the demand
for theologians and lawyers The deeper the
cleavage between the Catholic and Evangeli-
cal (including Lutheian and Reformed) churches
became, the more rigorously was the terntoiial
principle applied to the universities New
universities were added in great numbers;
Protestant were Marburg (1527), Komgsberg
(1544), Jena (1558), and Helmstedt (1576),
Catholic included the two Jesuit universities
of Dillmgen (1549) and Wurzburg (1582) (qq v ).
The older universities were also reorganized
to meet the new requirements The smaller
principalities and free towns added to their
gymnasiums a course of academic lectures,
for such an " academic gymnasium " enabled
the poorer states to train up theologians and
jurists above suspicion from among their own
sons. While m the medieval period the ma-
jority of the students had been content with

a training in the fourth and lowest faculty,
arts, they now sought a professional training
in law and theology, with the result that the
numbers m these superior faculties increased
Medicine and science still remained almost
insignificant. Instruction in all the faculties
had taken over from humanism the watch-
word " Back to the sources," a worship above
all of the three sacred tongues, and for daily
use a number of new textbooks, but m practice
there continued, even m Protestant Germany,
the characteristic forms of scholastic method
throughout the whole of this period. The
intellectual standard of the universities rose
somewhat during this period as compared with
the earlier, but hardly at the same rate as the
general intellectual progress The epoch-mak-
ing science of the day, 1he mathematical, was
excluded from the universities, and the con-
tributions of Copernicus, Galileo, Kepler,
Descartes, Newton, Leibnitz, were made out-
side of these institutions Exhausted as they
were by the devastation of the Thirty Years'
War 0618-1648), the universities were not
111 a position to continue their progress

(III) Research in modern science, which
in France, England, and Italy was promoted
by academies or societies, m Germany gradually
began to center round the universities Leib-
nitz, it is true, had already in J700 called into
existence at the Royal Court in Berlin an acad-
emy modeled on the Academic des Sciences
in Paris, and the Royal Society m London,
followed m 1757 by the establishment of the
Gescllschaft der Wissenschaften at Gottmgen
m the Kingdom of Hanover But the intel-
lectual modernization of culture in Germany
did not proceed from the associations of in-
vestigators, but from the professonal chairs.
Hence the academies in Geimany are up to the
present but of secondary mipoitance and consist
of associations of university professors meeting
for definite and specialized lesearch

The new era was opened by the establish-
ment of the Prussian University of Halle in
1694 as a conscious protest against the tradi-
tional studies The modern movement was
there inaugurated by three professors' (1) The
pietist, August Hermann Francke (q v ), who
broke through the pievailing theological ortho-
doxy, (2) the leader in the enlightenment,
Christian Thomasius (qv), who swept out
of existence the prevailing forinahstic preju-
dices and superstitions in political and ecclesi-
astical law; (3) the rationalist, Christian Wolff,
who tore down the scholastic barriers between
philosophy, mathematics, and natural science.
The modern principle of academic freedom
now begins its triumphant course Instruction
is now marked by the lecture method with
which is introduced the use of the vernacular.
While French culture above all had exercised
a profound influence on Prussia, the University
of Gottmgen, founded in 1737, was influenced
by the connection between the kingdom of

GERMANY

GERMANY

Hanover and England (iottmgen look Halle
as a model, and in addition to jurisprudence
promoted the study of the natural sciences and
introduced the modern study of the classics;
not the mere imitation of ancient models m
poetry and eloquence, but a complete entering
into the spirit of classical antiquity from the
literary, historical, and aesthetic standpoints
Halle and Gottingen were followed in 1743
by the foundation of Erlangen At the end
of the eighteenth century the new ideas had
become firmly established in the German
universities

(IV) At the time that Napoleon reorganized
the French universities on the principle of the
strictest possible control of academic learning
and teaching (1808), Prussia, conquered and
deprived of all power, established the University
of Berlin (1810) on the widely different basis
of the greatest academic freedom Intellectual
power was to replace what Prussia had lost
materially, and the training in pure idealism
was to be left entirely to the influence of truth
and freedom While the universities had
hitherto been conducted like schools, with the
professors as masters and the students as ap-
prentices, the University of Berlin was to be
a free intellectual working community with the
professors as masters and the students as their
assistants, both occupied in common with the
solution of the same tasks This principle
soon found its way into all German universities
and laid the foundations on which was built
up Germany's unique position in international
culture Soon after Berlin, Brcslau (1811),
Bonn (1818), and Munich (182fi) were founded
A number of the older and smaller universities
had disappeared in the Napoleonic period No
new foundations were made in the nineteenth
century in spite of the great increase in popu-
lation It is only within recent years that it
has been proposed to add to the existing num-
ber of universities. In 1902 Munster was
transformed from an Academy for Catholic
Theologians into a university Recently it
has been agitated to establish universities on
a basis of voluntary endowments and munici-
pal grants, arid m 1914 such an institution will
be opened at Frankfort-a -M (qv), while an-
other is proposed in Hamburg, Hitherto it
has been unnecessary to increase the number
of universities, since m their inherent organiza-
tion the existing institutions have been much
extended and have become specialized The
two great tendencies of the nineteenth century,
the great specialization in the intellectual work
especially and the remarkable development of
natural science, led to a demand not only
for a great increase of instructors and a narrow
specialization of studies, but also for a develop-
ment and a constant increase of all the numer-
ous intellectual institutions connected with a
university Since the chief aim of university
instruction is to make men of the students, not
only imbued with the spirit of their subject,

bill ready 1o rairy it forward step bv stop, the
German university loquires in the first place
learned seminars and scientific laboi atones
In the philosophic-historical subjects in theol-
ogy, jurisprudence, philology, etc , the seminars,
in which the master and his assistants investi-
gate the problems in their field, necessarily re-
quired in the course of the nineteenth century
more complete equipment, while in medicine
and the natural sciences more suitable and
more specialized clinics, laboratories, and ex-
perimental institutes had constantly to be pro-
vided Since the expenditure on the institutes
is much greater in the larger than the smaller
universities, a certain amount of inequality
arose among them, only compensated for by
the fact that the student is enabled to be more
directly arid personally associated with hie
director in the smaller than in the larger in-
stitutes As far as the quality of professors
is concerned there is no distinction at the dif-
ferent universities It may be that a few
places have one or two men of repute or even
geniuses among their professors, but Germany
is thus distinguished from other countries by
the fact that in essence all the universities are
alike, and the same may be studied m Freiburg
or in Komgsberg as in Beilm

Present Position — Relation to the State —
Universities may be established only by the
state or with the approval of the state All
the existing umvcisities arc state institutions,
and as such juristic persons in public law
Their rights, however, as a lesult of the federal
character of the German Empire vary some-
what As a rule they are not based on legis-
lation but on special privileges, statutes, and
ministerial decrees The income of the uni-
versities is very slight, and only a few have
sufficient interest-bearing property to bo able
to covci an appreciable portion of then main-
tenance at their own expense Generally they
arc maintained by the state The state uni-
versity budget must, like the state budget,
generally receive the approval of the regular
representative bodies, and at the discussions
the public can, through its representatives,
make its wishes with icfeience to the univer-
sities felt The states do not allow any one
to hold an appointment in the church, in the
judiciary or higher administrative service,
and permit no one to practice law or medicine
who has not studied in a German umvcisity
and then passed the prescribed state examma
tions These state privileges arc more im-
portant for the universities at present than the
right to grant academic degrees The au-
thority in Prussia to which the universities are
subjected is the Mmistiy of Public Worship
and Education, which appoints a representative,
Curator, or Chancellor for each university, with
charge of the external affairs

The internal administration is in the hands
of the universities themselves through the
Rector and Senate. The Senate consists either

95

GERMANY

GERMANY

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TOTAL, IN PRUHMJAN IJNIVfcHBI riV H (l>rruxt< Stdtmtlk, \ol

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Cost of build-

ing rates

taxes , . .

.i 10

2 4r>

{ 01

.i 7 i

4 17

420

(Covering of de-

creuHi'M in

receipts un-

foreneen and

mirpluH ex-

penditure
Rent iridernin-

442

3 03

271

254

227

227

tieH for in-

structtirH

002

5 38

5 12

4 77

452

of several full professors (ordentlichc Profrtt-
soicn) or generally of annually changing com-
mittees of the same body The Rector or,
in some states where the hereditary ruler holds
this position, the Proreetor is elected annually
from the ranks of the full professors, arid his
election must receive the approval of the state
He presides over the senate The professors
are civil servants with certain privileges. Full
professors are appointed by the state or the
ruling prince on the responsibility of the Min-
istry, when as n rule the suggestions of the
Faculty or the university are respected The
state also appoints associate professors (a?/,s-
KprordcTitlichc Profektwren) and confers the pro-
fessorial) title Again the universities are rep-
resented in the legislature of the state by each
sending one professor ex offieio to the Diet
(uppei House) of their respective state

Relation to the Church — This in Germany
is in some ways simplei, in some more compli-
cated, than elsewhere It is simpler in that
both university and church are under the same
authority, both being state institutions Other
denominations than the evangelical or Roman
Catholic are of little significance, since their
membership is too small But it is this very
close connection between Church and State that
leads to great complication The Catholic
Church is opposed to the fundamental principle
of the German universities, absolute academic
freedom, while a strong section in the evangeli-
cal church is at any rate not friendly to it
This m view of the strength of the Catholic
party in politics leads to parliamentary con-
flicts on the question of intellectual prescription
and on the so-called destructive activity of the
" atheistic " professors So far as individual
theological faculties are concerned, the op-
ponents of academic freedom in the evangelical
church seek the cooperation of the local synods
in filling theological chans Hitherto the state

authorities liuvc opposed Ihese tendencies.
Yet in practice some concession was made to
them in filling chairs not m accordance with
the qualifications of candidates and the sug-
gestions of the university, but on the basis
of distributive justice (jutititia chstributiva)
between the right and left wings of the clerical
political parties, with the result that science
invariably suffered In the Catholic theo-
logical faculties the present modernist move-
ment has caused the state authorities con-
siderable difficulties; what, for instance, should
be the attitude of the state when a professor
of theology, appointed by the state with a
guarantee of academic freedom, refuses to
accept the prescription of his church in his
teaching ? or again, when a university receives
into its midst professors who have taken this
oath and thus have abjured their freedom?
A solution of this situation has not yet been dis-
covered The following Prussian universities
have evangelical theological faculties: Berlin,
Bonn, Breslau, (Ireifswald, Halle, Komgs-
bcrg (all for the old Prussian state church),
Gottmgcn (for the state church in the Prussian
province of Hanover), Marhuig (for the state
church in the province of Hesse-Nassau), and
Kiel (foi the state church in the province of
Schleswig-iiolstein) Besides there are evan-
gelical theological faculties at Erlangen
(Bavaria), Leipzig (Saxony), Tubingen (Wurt-
temberg), Heidelberg (Baden), Giessen (Hesse),
Rostock (Mecklenburg), Jena (Thurmgian
States), Strassburg (Alsace-Lorraine) Cath-
olic theological faculties exist m Prussia at
Bonn, Breslau, and Munster, in Bavaria at
Munich and Wurzburg; in Wurttcmberg at
Tubingen, in Baden at Freiburg, in Alsace-
Lorraine at Strassbuig These university
faculties, however, do not suffice for the demand
for the Catholic clergy in Germany, and there
are in addition six state Lyceums (five in Bava-
ria and one m Prussia) in which the professors
are appointed by the state, one espicopal
Lyceum in Bavaria, and seven episcopal theo-
logical institutions (six in Prussia and one in
Lorraine) in which the professors are ap-
pointed by the bishops Athough several
universities retain their denominational title
from their origin, e g the Evangelical Univer-
sity of Halle, they are in fact wholly unde-
nominational Jews are admitted to the teach-
ing bodies everywhere m a percentage far above
their number m the population However,
the complaints of the Jews that they are over-
looked for promotions are not rare and fre-
quently not without reason.

Organization — The universities are still
organized according to tradition into four
faculties. No university has less than four
faculties, only the recently founded University
of Munster is still without a medical faculty.
In single instances only is there a faculty of
political science as distinct from that of law,
and a mathematical-natural-science as distinct

GERMANY

GERMANY

from the philosophical. In a broader sense the
faculties include the whole corpus acadenucutn,
the teaching body as well as the students
In the narrower sense the faculty consists only
of a section of the teaching body, the full pro-
fessors in the respective faculty These elect
annually from their midst a dean as director
of their business They are responsible for
the regular conduct of instruction in their field,
suggest names to the Minister in filling vacant
chairs, for the distribution of definite courses
to other instructors, for the promotion of pri-
vate docents (q v ) and associate professors,
etc They further arrange the schedule of
lectures and arrange the hours among them-
selves, determine on the admission of private
docents, and aic the authority responsible for
the conferment of academic, degrees

The full professors (ordenthchc Professor en,
otdmarn) are almost the sole and exclusive
bearers of all the rights of the academic teach-
ing bodies Each of them has a teaching com-
mission foi a definite subject and is as a rule
bound to conduct a more comprehensive private
course in his field and one free public lecture
of one 01 two hours He receives, first, a defi-
nite salaiy, as a rule 4000-6000 M ($800-
1200) a vear, and a slight indemnity for rent,
secondly, the fees paid by the students for the
private courses, usually 5 M an hour each
semester (although in Prussia when fees exceed
3000 M , half of the excess must be paid into
the treasury), thirdly, increments granted at
the discretion of the Minister who wields a
great power, fourthly, fees for graduation and
examinations Professors of medicine conduct
to some extent then private practice, and as
compared with the great income from this
source then salary is insignificant Similarly,
professors in other applied sciences frequently
have considerable additions to their salaries

In addition to the full professors there are
a number of others: (1) Honorary full pro-
fessors who have the rank of full professors
but nothing more; (2) titular professors or
private docents who have only the title of pro-
fessor but nothing more (3) Associate pro-
fessors (amserordentliche Profexxorcn, ertraor-

dinaru} are divided into two classes according
as their salaries arc or are not permanently
included m the university budget The latteV
receive no salary, though they often receive a
remuneration, as when they are assigned to
give a definite course Such assignments are
also made occasionally to private docents
The deciding question in this confusion of
titles and positions is whether an instructor is
provided for m the budget, for although he does
not as a consequence receive a seat or a voice
in the faculty, yet his teaching is recognized
as within the university Of greater impor-
tance, however, in the applied sciences is it
that he conduct his own institute, and is thus
independent of other professors In the case
of private docents it is to some extent a limita-
tion of this academic freedom that they are
dependent on the good will of full professors
for the use of equipment in the applied sciences
The number of associate or extiaordmary pro-
fessors is very large, since with the constant
specialization in all sciences and the com-
paratively slow increase of full professorships
the work of the university could certainly not
be carried on The salary of an associate pro-
fessor who is paid by the state rises in Prussia
from 2000 M to 4000 M in twenty years
Many piofessors never rise above the grade
of associate professor because there is no full
professorship at all in their subject

The ranks of the piofessors are as a rule
filled from among the private docents (See
DOCENT for method of appointment, etc ) It
is the exception for a man to be called from
practical work as pastor, judge, doctor to fill
a chan, but in some faculties is not quite so rare
an occurrence*

A number of young scientists are also em-
ployed to assist the .professors Frequently
in the applied sciences a pnvate docent is also
appointee! as assistant, in such cases his de-
pendence on the full professor is thus corre-
spondingly greater

Student Bodi/ — The requirement for ma-
triculation as student m a German university
is the possession of the maturity certificate
(Rcifuzeugms) of a secondary school (Gym-

NUMBER OF INSTRUCTORS IN THE GERMAN UNIVERSITIES

(Prcuim Statmtik, \ol '22 3, p 26)
a. Full Professors b Associate Professors c Private Docenta

E\ ANGELICAL
THKOLOGY

CATHOLIC
THEOLOGY

LAW

MEDICINE

PHILOSOPHY

TOTAL

Winter

Semester

a

b

r

a

6

c

a

6

c

a

b

(

a

b

<

a

b

c

1896-7

101

22 »

27

51

7

6

143

25

35

198

16,*

223

521

242

280

1015

459

571

4-5

4-1

4-5

4-5

4-34

4-50

1896-7

109

32

31

55

11

5

155

26

40

215

213

289

556

293

388

1090

575

753

-1-5

4-2

4-12

4-11

4-46

4-76

1908-9

119

41

34

63

16

19

104

51

47

251

2(>0

497

650

403

511

1247

771

1108

4-5

4-5

4-17

4-34

4-oO

4-121

i

VOL in — H

The addition iek»rs m ever> r.is< lo Honorai \ Professors

97

GERMANY

GERMANY

nasium, Realgymnasium, or Oberrealschule) The
certificate of certain professional schools is
also accepted in some universities for further
study in the special subjects; thus, the gradu-
ates of industrial schools are under certain cir-
cumstances permitted to take up the study of
mathematics and natural science, or graduates
of normal schools for elemental y teachers may
be admitted for the study of pedagogy, e g at
Leipzig, Jena, Giessen, and Tubingen. Women
who have fulfilled the same requirements as
men are also matriculated, although there
arc individual profossois who do not admit
women to their classes Foreigners are ad-
mitted everywhere, if they can show satis-
factory preparation Besides the students
there are further registered auditors (Horer)
At Giessen permission to visit is granted by
the Curator for four semesters, which may be
extended to six Such registration is only
allowed in the faculty of philosophy Almost
universally the students enjoy complete free-
dom of study (Lcrnfrcihcit), but since the leg-
ulations for the professional examinations,
which are taken at the close of the academic
career, prescribe a definite course, the students
in most subjects, and especially law, are confined
to a more or less regulated curriculum

The enrollment in the summer semester of
1011 was 57,330 distributed as follows Evan-
gelical theology, 1834, Catholic theology, 2825,
law, J 1 ,023 , medicine, 1 1 ,927 , philosophy,
20,721 These figures include 2522 women In
addition there were 4060 auditors The stu-
dents were distributed as follows in the indi-
vidual universities: Berlin, 6039, Munich
6942, Leipzig, 4888, Bonn, 4174, Freiburg,
3080, Halle, 2681, Broslau, 2586, Gottmgen,
2492, Heidelberg, 2452, Marburg, 2302, Tub-
ingen, 2118, Strassburg, 2071, Minister, 2009
Kiel, 2001, Jena, 1902, Komgsberg, 1517,
Wur/burg, 1449, Giessen, 1315, Greifswald,
1180, Erlangen, 1104, Rostock, 920 (See
also COLLEGE \ND UNIVERSITY STUDENT AT-
TENDANCE )

NUMBER OF STUDENTS COMPARED WITH THE EX-
PENDITURE OF THE PRUSSIAN UNIVERSITIES

(7'rn/sA Stuttntik,V<>\ 22i, p 7)

1808-1800
1877- 1H7H
1887-1888
18% 1897
1005- 1900
1908 1000

No o> j To MI 1<J\-
HTUDENIH ppNDiiuui1

7 US

s;>io

13 720
U,8t>l
20,25r>
22717

M
3,SS(> 63 i

7 007,047

0 ISO 003

11 117345

1r>,42(>,084

17,428,242

STUDENT

M
530

823
(>G9
824
762
700

i Covered in the ninin bv thr stnto fund partly from the
property of the um\ersit> In 1'nissia, two thirdn m IKON, and
,n 1008 1909 thret qmuters <>f tin expenditures were borne bv
the stnle The expetiditiiM s <>| tin non-Prussian unixeisitiiH
ure UH high as thiwe ot Pmssi i

The students are partly organized in free
societies (Corporahonen), partly unorganized
The method by which the student organiza-
tions among themselves or for the whole stu-
dent body form committees for the supervision
of student interests vanes from place to place.
The German student does not live in college
or similar hostels, but in private houses Hos-
tels exist only for Catholic theological students,
and at Tubingen also for a number of evangel-
ical students. Elsewhere there are small en-
dowments for students of small means. Fees
and dues are low Umveisity life only be-
comes expensive when the student, only just
out of school and entenng on independence
but with high spirits and small financial ex-
perience, adopts an expensive mode of life
Extravagance, however, is foreign to the Ger-
man student or is confined to a small circle, as
at Bonn and Heidelberg But generally the
men lead a steady life and work with a will,
despite their great freedom

The period of attendance at tho university
varies with the different faculties. The follow-
ing are the number of semesters spent on the
average in the last decade* Evangelical the-
ology, 737, Catholic theology, 704, law,
686, medicine, 11 00; philology and history,
910, mathematics and natural science, 888
The academic degree which pievails m the
legal, medical, and philosophical faculties is
still only the Doctorate (Di Jui , Dr Med.;
Dr Phil ) In the theological faculty there
are two degrees, the licentiate and the doc-
torate (Lie Theol and D Theol ) All these
degrees are of practical significance only to
those who look to an academic career, other-
wise they are merely ornamental They may
be obtained in course by tho presentation of
an independent work of scientific value and
an oral examination before the faculty, or they
are conferred honoris causa The doctoiate in
theology LS now only conferred as an honorary
degree The technical term foi graduation is
Promotion Modeled on the university degrees
is the title of Doctor of Engineering (Dr. Ing ),
conferred by the technical high schools

In addition to the universities there is an
appreciable number of technical high schools,
commercial academies and high schools, acade-
mies of forestry and mining, veterinary and
agricultural high school To these must be
added the military school, such as the war
academy, artillery and engineering schools
More intimately connected with the universi-
ties, in aiming not at professional education, but
at intellectual advancement, are the public lec-
ture couiscs at the institutions at Frankfort-a.-
M (</?'), Cologne, and Hamburg, the Royal
Academy at Posen, arid the Berlin Academy
for Medical Training for the Army, equivalent
to a medical faculty In university extension
work significant beginnings hu\c been made
in Berlin (Humboldt Academy, Free High
School, Society for Popuhu Course by Berlin

GERMANY

GERMANY

University Instructors), at Dresden (Gehcstif-
tung), and at Frankfort-a -M

LEARNED SOCIETIES —The societies
and associations for the advancement of learn-
ing are divided into two classes: the academic
or royal societies subsidized by the state, and
the general associations founded privately to
promote some branch of study Such associa-
tions vary in the character of their work and
contributions from the small local society of
amateurs and public school teachers to the
academic society consisting of carefully trained
specialists It is calculated roughly that there
are about one thousand associations founded
for purposes of promoting studies throughout
Germany None of these attempt any in-
struction beyond the reading, discussion, and
circulation of reports among members Some
offer prizes for works of original research on a
prescribed theme, others for woiks on any
topic, others again subsidize the cairvmg out
of some piece of research 11 is impossible
here to do more than to mention the state en-
dowed academies

The earliest German academy is the Kaiser-
lick Leopoldmisrh-Karnlimsrhr dcutuhe Akade-
mie der Naturforschcr founded in 1062 as the
Aeademia nature? curiowrnni, which was at
first devoted to the study of the medical
sciences and now covers the sciences generally
The academv has no pennanent location,
except for its library in Diosdon, arid its seat
changes with the home of the president for
the time being. The Koiuqhehe Akndemic der
Wi88en*rhaftcn was established in ISerlm in 1700
by Fiedonck I on the suggestion of Leibnitz,
its first president It Avas reorgani/cd after a
period of decline in 1744 and opened with gieat
ceiemony by Frederick the Gieat (f/v) The
fields of knowledge which arc coveicd by the
academy arc mat hematics, physics, philosophy,
and history-philology The niembeis are di-
vided into ordinary, foreign, honorary, and cor-
responding Transactions and proceedings are
published To the credit of this academy fall
the publications of the CM pus Invert phonum
Groeearum, Corpus Inscnptumum Latinarum,
Corpus Insert phonum Attiearinn, the woiks of
Aristotle, and the Momnnenta Germarnoc 7//<s-
tonca, all woiks which can be better undoi-
taken by an institution having some continuity
than by an individual The Koruglxhe GewU-
sehaft der Wiwnwhaften was established at
Gottingen in 1751 and reorganized m 1893
It consists of two classes, — mathematical-
physical and philological-historical At Munich
there was founded in 1759 the Komglirhe
Bayer ische Akadcmie der Wisxensrhaften which
devotes itself to mathematical-physical, philo-
sophical, and historical studies, although origi-
nally founded for the last only The Konig-
hche Sachbtsehe Geselhchaft der Wissenschaftcn
at Leipzig was established in 1840 and incor-
poiated with itself the Fui^thch Jahlonoa-
GcMilwhufl der WiSNCtibchaften (founded

in 1708) for the study of mathematical-physical
and historical-philological subjects There are
further the academies which arise out of the
connection m modern times between the arts
and sciences, e g the Academy at Heidelberg
(f. 1909), and the Kaiser- Wilhelm Academy in
Berlin (f 1910) F. M. S.

References : —

History —

BARNARD, H German Educational Reformers (Hart-
ford, 1878 )
German Pedagogy, Education, the School, and the

Teacher in German Literature (Hartford, 187f> )
BARTHOLOME Die Ford(rung dc& V 'oik t>vchulwr t>en\ im

Staate der Hohenzollcrn, gevchichthcher Rilckbhck

(Duasoldorf, 1()07 )
BEYER, O. W Deutsche tfchulwelt dtt> l^ten Jahrhun-

derts im Wort und Bild. (Leipzig, 1903 )
DEUTSPHMANN, E Du Schidcera Folk (Frankfort-

u -M , 1884 )
DITTES, F Gcschichte der Erziehung und des Ihiter-

richts (Leipzig, 1878 )
DORPFELD, F W Kin Beitrag zur Leidcn^gesehichtc

der Volkwchule (Barmen, 1892 )
FISCHER, K Gesehichtc dcs dcutschen VolkssthuUchr-

crt,tandeK (Berlin, 1898 )
HKKILNMOOHER, J und BOCK, A Gtschichte der

Padagogik und Uberbhek der Gcachichle d(.r Pada-

gogik (Mumrh, 1909 )
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wesens (Ootha, 1858 )
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acit der Mitte d 17 Jahrhundnts (Berlin, 1906 )
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Vom Anfange dtt> 13 bis gegcrt die Mitte d<.s 19

Jahrhunderts (Ixjipzig, 190(J)
KAMMFI^, H J Ge^chiehU dfx deutsehen Schulwcv rc\

(Loipzig, 1882)
KEIIR, K Gfvehithtc der Methodik an Volkbbchulen

(Oothu, 1888- 18<)1 )
KE.LLER, 1^ 1C Ge<n)nchtc dei preu$sit>chen Volk*-

schulwewriA (Jierhn, 187,^ )

MERTZ, CJ K Da* tithulwcscn der dcutschen Reforma-
tion irn Ihtcn Jahihundert (Heidelberg, 1902)
PAT /OLD, W Gfbchichte des Volksschulwttitnts im

Komgrmih KcHhstn (Leipzig, 1908)
PAULHEN, FR GctcJnchti dc\ yelehrtui Vnteiruhts

vom Anyang dtt> Mittelallvrn bib zur gtgtnwart

(Leipzig, 189(> )
7>a-> deutbche Dildun(jswfi>cn m scintr g< bchichtln hen

Kntwuklung (Leipzig, 190f> ) Transl l>v Lorenz,

Th , as (rtrrnan Education Past and Present (New

York, 1908 )
PETERSILIK, A Das offenthchc Ihitcjuchtzwcuen im

deutmhcii Ret (he <(( (Leipzig, 1897 )
KAUMER, K VON Gwhichted Padagogi k vow Wieder-

aufhluhen d klut>*> fltudieri />/,s auf unsert Ztit

(Gutersloh, 1877 1880)
REICKE, EMIL Lehrer und Untctnthtswesen in dct

d<utRchen V <rgari(/enh( it (Leipzig, 1901 )
Der Gelehrte in der deutvhtn Vergang( nhtil (Leip-
zig, 1900 )
RhiN, W Kn<ydopt)di*chi8 Handbwh der Pddagogik

(Larigensnlza, HUM )
RK'IHWIHCH, (" Duttbchlandb hohertt* tfthulweacn im

neunzehnten Jahihundert (Berlin, 189i )
SANDER, F Gt. \chichte der Vottt>schulc, btsonders in

Deutsehtand , in iSehmid, K A , (je&chichte der

Erziehung, Vol V, Pt 3, pp 1-291 (Stuttgart,

1884-1902)
SCHMID, K A Encijclopadu' dc\ geiammten Erziehungs-

nnd Untemehtswesens (Gotha, 1876 1887 )

Gesehichte der Erziehung (Stuttgart, 1884-1902 )

SCHUI./E, F , und SHYMANK, P Das deutwhe titudtn-

tentum (Leipzig, 1910 )
SEILER, F Gesehnhte de\ deutsehen U ntemchhwctenh

(Leip/ig, 1906 )
SPR.CHT, F A Ge^(hiehte r7fs Unttn ichtswesens in

Dfntttthhrnd bits zur mttk den !.-< Jahrhundt it*

(Stuttgart, 1885)

99

GERMANY

GERMANY

BHRANUER, E Wilh r Humboldt und die lit form ties

BildungnweiH'tiN (Berlin, 1910)
STRACK, K Gcschuhte den deuttschen Volkuschulwesens

(Gtitersloh, 1872 )

General —

Baynache Untemchtmttahatik fur 1407- 190S Voroff d
Kgl Ba>i HtatiHt Landesamts 1904, NOB i and 4
England, Hoard of Education, Xjmml Re/writ, Vol IX,
Education in Germany, Vol XI\, School Train-
ing for Homo and Duties of Women, Pt III
FoERHihii, F \\ ./ufjendtthn (Berlin, 1407 )
GURU 11, L Der Deutache und ueuie S<hulc (Berlin,

1900)

Erzichung zur Mannhn/t (Beihn, 1907 )
HUUIIEH, H E Schools at Home and Abroad (New

York, 1902 )
KERMrHLNHTLiNk.it, (1 GrundfraQen der Schulorgani-

8(ition (Leip/ig, 1004 )

D Hear iff d NtaatNhurgerl Krziehuny (Leipzig, 1910 )
Die stdatHburgerhcHf Erzuhung dei deutbthfn Jugtnd

(Erfurt, 1909 )
KitfciZHCHMAii, F Handhiuh d<r prcu88it>ihcn Sthul-

rrthts (Leipzig, 1X99 )
KHUKLNBKIK., E Jugi ndcrziehung und Volkttwohl-

fahrt (Beilm, 1908 )
L\ACKL, K , und UbBLiMriiAKH, M Sihulrt ( ht*-

Lexiron (LHiigcrisalia, 1906 )
LLMH, W l'tit(irichtt>uwn mi deutschen Reich, 0 \olh

(Berlin, 1904 )

A (fr rural Vnw of th( History and Organization of
Pubh( Kdu<ation in the (ffnnan Kmpiu (A whorl
abstract of the former ) (Berlin, 1904 )
Lh\ih, ^ , and others Die allgcmemcn (rrundlagen dtr

hultnr dcr Gcvenwuit (Berlin, 1906 )
MATTHIAS, A Pinktischc Padty/ogik f hoh Lchran-

Klaltin (in Baumeister, Handbuih II, 2)
MUTMANN, E Vorlcttung<H zut fitnfuhrung in die

<JCJH rum nttll( P(idd(/o(/tl\ (Leip/ig, 1907)
NAIOKP, P hozuiljrtdagogik (Stuttgart, 1904 )
Padagogwhrs Jahrlnuh (Borhn, annual )
PadayofjixctH1 Jahn'NM huii (Leip/ig, annual )
PAMZKOVVHKI, V\ Ihrltn in VV /*«( tischa/l u Kun.^f

(Beilin, 1910 )
RLIN, W I'tidagogik in *yntcrnati8cltcr Dai bit Hung

(Langenwalza, 1902 and 1900)

KKIN, W, PICKFL, A, Sc IIELLKH, E Thioru. und
Prajrix det* \ olkxbihu/untcrrichts ( Dresden, 1SS4
1SSS)
ROBKHIS, T? 1) Kdiuution in tin Ninctttnlh Century,

pp 240271 (( 1am bridge, 1900)
SHADVVKLL, A Industrial MjfficiitMy 1900
Statistik d( r prru*xib(h< u I'olkbKtftult (published eveiv

five vear.s, eg 1901, 190(i) (Berlin )
»SVa/iN/f/i ulwr die I^ur^orgterzi(hun(j Mindt ijahrigcr und
ubcr die Zwung8trztehung Jugcwthcfut B< ar-
beitet irn Kgl Preuss Miniatenuin des Inneren.
(Berlin, annual )

Ktatisfixihcx Jahrhui h fur din prtua^ischin titaat (Ber-
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STEIN, LOULN/ VON Vcrwaltunvslthn, Vol V J)aa

Bildungswescn (Stuttgart, 1883)

TKWH, J Rchulkampfi dvr Gegenwart (Leipzig, 1900)
WILLMANN, O DidaktiL altf Btldungslehre (BiuiiH-
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Elementary —

BREMEN, VON Die /treu^iitthf Volhs8<hule, Gwtzc
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Das gtsamti Erzichunga- und I'ntonchttiwrscn in den
Landern dt utt-chei Zungt , bibltographischets Vcr-
zetchtun dir Bucfur zur dcutbchcn Ei zic-

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1899 )

England, Board of Education, Special Reports, Vol
XXII, Provision made for Children under Com-
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ENGLMANN, J. A , und STINOL, E Ifandbuch des
bayerischen Volksschulrechtx (Munich, 1905 )

Handhuch fur Lehrer u Lchrcrinnin (Leipzig, 1903 )

HEINEMANN, C) Hantibuch tihcr die Organisation und
Verwaltnng der offtntlithen Vntcmchtwinstalttn tn
J>r<u^<n (Potsdam, 190<s )

HEINZE, W 1m Ami (Gorlar, 1906 )
HLUMANN, W Die nationals VolksHchttle, tun \M
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1900 )

KANDEL, I L The Training of Elementary School
Teachers in Germany Bibliography. (New York,
1910)

KLHR, K Die Praxis der Volksxchule (Gotha, 1897.)
KERHCHENBTEINER, G Grundfragen der Schulorgan-

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KRLTZSCHMAR, F Handbuih c/es preussischen Schul-

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LEXIB, W Dan Unterruhtswetten irn deutuchen Reich,

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LEZHTS Das Gtsetz betr d Unterhaltung d offentl

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MULLER, I'' A Dax preuitincht Disciplinargeatez fur

Lehrer u Lehrenniun (Berlin, 1908)
PFAFFHOTH Preut>i>i8< he Bcamtenge^etzgebung (Berlin,

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PLUHfHKL, P DK xttidtiMhen S(huldtputationcn u

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StHNMDhR, K , and BULMEN, E VON Dan Volks^hul-
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SrHOPPA, C Du KeRtimmungcn df\ homghcht n preutt-

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SCHWARTZ, E Organisation und ( rntt rru htttfrfolgt
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SEELEY, L Common School System of tin many (New

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SEYDEWIIZ, P VON Da^ kunigliche we h \ivche Volks-

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STOTZNER, P /A;.x nffcntltctu linttrrnhtawwn Deutttch-

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\\LBER, E Zum Kamjtf urn die allgcntcmi Volks-

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AViNrn, W H Note* on Gtrnmn Schools (London,
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Secondary —

Asbibtant Master's \ssociation, England, Conditions of
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BAUMEISTER, K A Handbuch dcr Erziehungs- und
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BAUMER, GLRTR Genchithtr der Gymnasialkurse ftir
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BMER, A Die hoh Sihuhn in Preuvstn (f d nidnn-
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Berhn-Schulkonferenz, 1900 Verhandlungen uber
Fragcn den hoheren Vntcrnchts (Halle, 1902)

BOLION, F E The Secondary School System of Ger-
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BROWN, J F The Training of Teachers for Secondary
Schools in Germany and the V nited State* (New
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CAUER, P Siebzehn Jahrf im Kampf um die Schul-
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CRAMER, F Die freierc Behandlung des Lehrstoffe*
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England, Board of Education, Special Reports, Vol I,
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GERMANY

GERMANY

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The Teaching of Classics in Prussian Secondary
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FEHLEISEN, G Sammlung der BeMimmungen fiir
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FICK, R , and others Auf Deutschland** hohen Schulcn

(Berlin, 1900 )

FISCHER, A Dan alte Gyrruiasium und die neue Zcit
Gedanken tiher Vergangenheit, Gent u wart und
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FUUER, J Die Schulordnungen fur die humanist itchen
Gymnasien etc im komgreich Bayern (Wurzburg,
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Handbu( h fiir Lehrer hoherer Schulen (Leipzig, 1900 )

HORN, E VerzeichniK dcr in den hoh Lehuin,stalten

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Das hoh Schulwfsen Europas, cine Zuftammenbtellitng

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KRETZHCIIMAR, J F Das hohere Schulwewn im kontg-

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LANUE, H , and others Die hohere M tldthenbildimg

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LKARNED, W S An American Teacher's Year in a
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LIERMANN, () Heformm hulen nath Frank f niter uud

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LYSTER, M A Higher Schools for Girls in Gnniamj
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MULLER, II Das hohtrt Schulireien Deutschlandt, ant

Anfange des 2()t<>n Jahrhnndtrts (Stuttgart, 1(M)4 )

Mi'NCH, W Geist dex Lehramt*, cine Hudegrtik (Be/-

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ZukunfUpadaQooik (Berlin, 1908)

NLFF, K Dai, padagogibche Seminar (Munn h, ]9()S )
NORWOOD, C , and HOPE, A H Hiyhei Eduuition of

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PAUI.HRN, F Richtlimtn der jurtgstcn Bewegung im

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PEIZOLDT, O SondcrsthuU?i f hervorragend Bcfahigte.

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PRETTYMAN, C W Higher Girls' Schools of Prussia

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RUHHELL, J E German Higher Schools (New York,

1907)

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Statistwches Jahrbuch der hoheren Schulen (Leipzig,

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Verhandlungen ub Fragen das hoh. Unternchte (De-
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WEIBSLNKELS, O Kern/ragen des hoheren Unternchts

(Berlin, 1901-1903 )
WiE8E-KuBLER V erordnungen u Gewtze far die

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WiESE, L Das hohere Schulwesen in Preusucn His-

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WYCHORAM, J Vortrdge u Aufa&tze zum Madchen-
schulwesen (Berlin, 1907)

Continuation School* —

Beilm (Stadt) (Vrs?r/// itbfr <lav FortbildungxHchnl-

we.scn etc (Annual )
England, Board of Education, Special Report*, Vol I,

The Continuation Schools in Saxony
GILLERT, E Organisation nniger Fortbildung^chulen

deutxthtr Gro^t>tfidt( (Beihn, 1903 )
GRUMBACH, H Du Entwicklung det, berhrnschen

Fortbildunyssrhul uwi>en (Berlin, 1898)
KERSC HENSIEINER, CJ Jahrcvbenchte d mannhchcn

Fortbildujigs- und Gewerbettchulen (Munich )
Organisation und Lchr plane der obligator] 8chtn Fach-

und Fortbildungsschuhn fur Knaben in Munchen

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Mmiateiialblatt d [>ieuss Handels- und Gewerbeve»-

waltung Die Entwuklung d pjeu^ft Fath-

und Forthildungwhulen von 1884-1909
PAC'HB, () liandbuch (Jet* deutschen Fortbildungttachul-

wcsDiv (Wittenberg, 1905)

S \DLER, M Continuation Schools in England and Else-
where (M-mchcHter, 1908)
SCHILLING, F Das deutiche Fortlnldungsichufwesen

(Leipzig, 19()<) )
SlERrKft, H Das deiit.^chc Fortbildung^Kchulwcaen nach

,s( itu'r fjext huhtln h< n Kntwicklung Bihhogtui>hy

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SNOWDLN, A A Industrial Improvement S< hooln
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V< nraltunushcnchtt des kgl Landirgewerbeatntx (Bei-
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EJT< i pt tonal ( rh ddnn —

Deuts< he Zentiak' f J ugcndjui^oige, J ahre&beni hte

(Berlin )
KROHM Die Erziehungxunstalten fut die pertabstni,

vtrwatnloste und gefahrdde J ugend
MALNNEL, li The Auxiliary School* of Germany

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Periodical* (See 'irti< le on JOURNALISM, Emir ATIONAL )
PETEHHKN, I Die offentluhe Fui^ngef d htlfNhedurf-

liue und fui du <stltli(h gcfahrdelc J ngend Bibliog-
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University Education —

ARNOLD, M Ifiuhci School* and Universities in Ger-
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BAUMGAUT, M Grutidbtotze und Bedingungcn der

Ertheilung der Doctorwurde bei alien Facultatf n

der Vntoersiluten tie* deuttahen Reicha (Berlin,

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Die Stipendien und SUftungen zu Guntten der

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BERNHEIM, E Der Vnirersitatsunttrinht uud die

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BUSH, G Origin of the First German I niMiuities

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(CONRAD, J German Umvernitu a for thelant Fifty Years.

Tr by J Hutchison ((Jhibgow, 1885 )
Deutsdier Vfitrerttttatitkalfnder (Leij)Zig, annual )
JL")REY*us-BRisSA( , 10 L" I* n loerisiti' de Bonn et i En-

seignement sup/ntur enAlleniagne (Pans, 1879 )
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ERDMANN, ,1 E Vorlevungenuberukademmchea Leben

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ERMAN, W , and HORN, E Bibliographic der deulschen

Universittiten, sustcrnatisch geordnetes Verzeichms

der bts Ende 1899 gedruckten Bucher u Auf&atze

uber das deutache Tfniversittitswesen (Leipzig,

1904 )
FIOK, R , and others A uf Deutschlands hohen Schulen

(Berlin, 1900 )
FLACH, H. L M Der deutache Professor der Gegenwart.

(Leipzig, 1886 )

101

GERMANY

GERMANY

HART, J M German Univcrmtiex, a Narrative of Per-
sonal Experience (New York, 1K<)7 )

HELMHOLTZ, H VON On Academic' Freedom in Ger-
man Universities In Popular Lectures on Scien-
tific Subjects, pp 237-266, 1901

HEWITT, W. Student Life of Germany (Philadelphia,
1842)

HORN, E Kolleg und Ilonorar, em Beitrng zur Vei-
faanungsgeschichte der deutschen Universitaten
(Munich, 1897 )

KAUFMANN, G Die Geschichtc der deutschen Univer-
sitaten. (Stuttgart, 1888-1896)

LEXIS, W Die deutschen Universitalen, fur die I'niver-
sitatsauastellung in Chicago, 1893 (Berlin, 1HW )
Das Unternchtswi'sen im deutschen Reich Vol I
(Berlin, 1908 )

MINERVA (1) Handbuch der gelehrten Welt (1911) , (2)
Jahrbuch der gelehrten Welt (Strussburg, annual )

MUTHER, TH Ann dem Umversitats- and Gelehrten-
leben im Zeitalter der Reformation (ErlaiiRon,
1866)

PAULSEN, FR Die deutschen Untversit&tcn und das
Universitals-Studium (Berlin, 1902 ) Tr by
Thilly, F , and Klwang, W. W , German Universities
and University Study ' (New Yoik, 1900 )
Geschichte de# gelehrten Unternchtm vom Aut>gang des
Mittelafters bis zur Gegenwart (Leipzig, 189S )

HAUMER, K G VON German Umiwmfics, Contribu-
tions to the History and Jwprovctntnt of, edited by
Henry Barnard (New York, 1859 )

SCHEIDLER, K H Jenaische Blatter fur Gcsthnhte
und Riform dcs deutschtn i'nioer vitals we bent*,
insbesondere des NtudentenlebcHS (Jena, 1859-
1800)

SCHRUUEK, O Die Erteilung der Doktonnirde an den
Universitaten Deutschlands , ?7iit Textabdiuik der
amtlichen Satzungen (HaJle, 1908)

SCHDLZE, F., und SSYMANK, P Dtis dcutsche Ktuden-
tentum (Leipzig, 1910)

SCHWARTZ, P Die Gelehrtenschulen Preussens imt(r
dem Oberschulkollegium (1787 1806) und das
Abiturientenexamen In Monument a Geimaniw
Paedagogica,Vol XLV1 (Beihn, 1910)

STEIN, F Die ahademische Genchtsbarl\eit in Deutt,ch-
land (Leipzig, 1891 )

GERMANY, EDUCATION IN THE COLO-
NIES OF — The colonial possessions of Ger-
many by their position and natural conditions
of soil and climate represent strategic rathei
than commercial value, and the Home Govern-
ment has no motive for educational efforts in
any part of these possessions, comparable, as
regards scope and system, to those maintained
by the British, or even by the P>ench govern-
ments in their foreign dependencies

Beginning with Togolarid on the slave coast
of Upper Guinea, the German colonies com-
prise a succession of " spheres of influence "
bordering on the ocean-washed coasts of West,
Southwest, and Eastern Africa, together with
groups of small islands in the Pacific Ocean,
and the port town and district of Kiau-Chau
in the Shantung province of China With the
exception of the last named, the conditions of
German occupation are practically the same
in all the colonies At the seat of government
reside the imperial governor and his staff,
military posts and courts of justice mark the
principal places, and at these points center the
schools, government and missionary These
are all educational influences as well as direct
incentives to progress. Native interpreters
are needed for the governor's service, natives
are trained for the military and police corps,

and are subject to criminal processes in the
courts, and native teachers are employed in
the schools Thus individuals selected from
the mass of rude tribal peoples become familiar,
in some slight measure, with the institutions of
orderly society In the East African colonies
the German government encounters strong
Mohammedan forces, and consequently formal
education becomes a matter of serious im-
portance An effort has here been made to
establish compulsory school attendance in re-
stricted measure

It was undoubtedly the impulse of commer-
cial rivalry that prompted the colonial enter-
prises in which Gcimany engaged in the last
quarter of the nineteenth century, but neither
Africa nor the Pacific islands have so far
yielded laige returns for business energy or
capital Meanwhile the military advantage of
these possessions has become more and more
evident Science has also been brought to the
aid of ad ven tin c m efforts for utilizing the
natural resources of these lands, constructing
roads, and supplying commercial facilities,
these late efforts aie giving industrial aim to
the schools that have been established under
German influences The following statistics
and context summarize the mam particulars
lelative to the educational woik in the several
colonies

SCHOOL STATISTICS AFRICAN POSSESSIONS

POPUL \IION

GOVEHN-

MICNT
SCHOOLH

MISSION
SCHOOLS

COLONY

Date

WhiU

Native

vJtf" °f

™° j.PH/H/0

No

No of
IJu/nl*

Togoland . .

1909

JJO

1 ,000,000

2

275

1 f»0

0057

Kameruii

1909

112713,000,000

4

2200

19,000

Gorman South-

west Afriou

1900

13,701

17S.OOO

11

377

3000

Gorman East

Afriou

1909

3387

1,000,000

3821

~

16,500

The German possessions in the Pacific
Ocean comprise two groups of islands, to the
first group belong, German New Guinea
including Kaiser Wilhehn's Land, Bismarck
Archipelago and the small adjacent islands,
Caroline, Pelew Marianne, Solomon, and Mar-
shall; the second is the Samoan group includ-
ing 8avan and TJpolu The estimated native
population of the two groups is about 450,000,
the non-native colored population, mostly
Chinese, numbers about 2000, the white popu-
lation, chiefly German, about 950 Mission-
ary societies, both Protestant and Roman
Catholic, are active on all the islands The
Samoaii group was formerly under the joint
protectorate of Great Britain, the United
States, and Germany, but was ceded entirely
to the latter power by the Anglo-German
agreement of Nov. 14, 1899, ratified the
following year by the United States As a

102

GERMANY

GERMANY

result of the prolonged iclalion \\itlr Western
Powers, the natives of these islands have been
Christianized and are very receptive subjects
of missionary instruction A (Herman govern-
ment school with about 90 pupils is maintained
on the island of Upolu, and in 1909 nearly
9000 pupils were under instruction in mis-
sionary schools of the two Samoan islands

The seizure of Kiau-Chau by Germany m
1897, and the subsequent transfer of the town,
harbor, and district to that Power by treaty,
were events of great importance m the move-
ment which is gradually transforming the
Orient The entire area of the German Pro-
tectorate is 200 square miles exclusive of the
bay, which is also about 200 square miles in
extent The civil organization, • established
before the German arrival, comprises 33 town-
ships The native population of Kiau-Chau
is estimated at 120,000, and the European at
about 1200, of whom 1000 are (Hermans This
number does not include soldiers At Tsmgtau
the government has established a college for
which elaborate plans have been formed
Two departments are provided for, namely, a
preparatory school and a school of science
The preparatory school course extends over six
yeais, taking young Chinese of at least thirteen
years of age These students must have had
a good Chinese education and be qualified foi
the lower classes of high schools A certificate
relative to his qualifications must be sub-
mitted by the scholar seeking admittance,
obtained after examination, which is indis-
pensable, before the Chinese examiner at
Tsman and the inspector of studies of the
college at Tsmgtau Knowledge of the (Her-
man language and modern sciences is not
required for the preparatory school, but if
newly entering scholars have such knowledge,
they will be admitted to the higher classes
An examination is held before graduation from
the preparatory school, which must be passed
m order to obtain admission into the higher
second department

The school of science consists of two divi-
sions (1) A department of law and political
science, and (2) a technical department, in-
cluding natural history The program of the
first department comprises international law,
general state and administrative rights, state
laws, railway, mining, and maritime law,
political economy, finances and comparative
cases of real property The general outlines
of a process or suit and the features of police
administration are also included in the course

In the technical department there are
laboratories for chemistry, phvMcs, electricity,
mineralogy, and geology, machine building,
mining, etc Students of the higher college*
are at liberty to choose their vocations, but
must then strictly comply with the schedule
The students of the first term class admitted
are expected to remarn at college for four
years, out, later, discrimination will be made

when the students eritei, according to their
knowledge of the (Jet man language, so that
the courses will occupy the following periods:
Legal course, three years, forestry, three years,
building, two years, technical, four years

The philosophical course will be taught by
Chinese teachers, a medical branch is also
projected, and a subeourse will be given in
gymnastics, music, and art The minimum
age for the school of science is twenty years, and a
good knowledge of the preparatory courses is
essential to admission If a student wishes
to join the school of sciences without having
attended the preparatory school, he must first
pass an examination in both Chinese and West-
ern sciences, including the Chinese and (Her-
man languages

The present staff comprises twelve German
tutor sand ten Chinese teachers and interpreters,
as the number of students grows the staff will be
increased A translation office will be opened
in conjunction with the college to piepare the
necessaiy material Arrangements have been
made by the managers of the (Herman-Chinese
high school to open a free course of lectures
on popular scientific subjects, illustrated with
pictures and experiments, for the benefit of
the foreign residents Besides these lectures,
an evening course in the Chinese language and
•script, as far as necessary for daily use, will be
given for the benefit of the (Herman community

A colonial department was organized in the
Foreign Office at Berlin in IS90, and in 1S99 a
colonial school was established at Witzen-
hauscn, near Gottmgen, with the express pur-
pose of preparing practical farmers, planters,
stock-raisers, and fruit growers who may be
inclined to settle in some one oi the (TCI man
colonies In all the colonies, graduates of the
school are found to-day acting as business
managers for (Herman tiading companies,
owners and managers of plantations, clerks in
the government service, etc The course of
the colonial school lasts two years and is so
arranged that the theoretical instruction comes
in the winter and the practical instruction in
the summer The subjects chosen for lectures
are those which will add to the pupils' knowl-
edge of tropical plants and agriculture and of
colonal enterprises and politics The studies
include such branches of learning as chemistry,
botany, and physics The institution is well
supplied with laboratories and has a large
farm and gardens and wood land for the study
of forestry, vine growing, etc The trade
shops of Witzenlmusen are also open to the
students for practical instruction

It is noticeable that while graduates of the
colonial school are found in the African and
Asiatic colonies, they piefei the German settle-
ments in the new world, especrally in Brazil,
Argentina, and Chile, and their expert knowl-
edge and skill are proving of immense value
in the commercial and industrial development
of those countries

103

GERRY SCHOOLS

GESNER

The growing importance of German colonial
enterprise- is illustrated in the proponed plans
of the new um\ersity at Hamburg, which shall
include a faculty ol colonial science This
faculty will constitute the distinctive feature
of the new institution A. T. S.

References : —

Deutsche Kolomalzeitung (Berlin, Fortnightly )

FITZNEU, H Kolouialhamltnn k

Germans, The, in Anrialtt of the American Academy of

Political and Social Seience, Vol XIX, Now 1 tmd 2
HKHHE-WAKTKCH}, K \ON Mamon, HtMnartkarthipel

and NOL Gained (Leipzig. 190J )
JOHNSTON, H H A History uj Colonization of Africa l>y

Ahrn Races (CambndKo, 189*' )
REINKCKE, F Samoa (Berlin, 1901 )
Statiitt'iacheit Jakrbuch fur dan deutnche Reich (Beilin,

annual )

GERRY SCHOOLS —See HUMANE EDU-
CATION

GERSON, JEAN CHARLIER (1 363-1420) —
Teacher, theologian, and ehancelloi of the Uni-
veisitv of Paris, horn at Gerson, educated veiy
probably at Rheims, and studied at the Col-
lege of Navarre in Pans He eailv devoted
himself to theology, and obtained the degree of
doctor in that subject At the eai ly age of thirty-
two he became Chancellor of the University of
Pans in succession to his friend and teachei ,
Peter d'Ailly His standing as a theologian
was high, and he soon gained the title of Doctor
Chiistiamssunus Breaking from the scholas-
ticism and dialectic methods of his day, his
writings show a return to source material and
the Church fathers, and a good knowledge of
tho classics, while his philosophy was nominal-
istic colored by mysticism At the Councils
of Pisa and Constance he was an important
factor, and his general influence was consider-
able lie preached to the people in the vernac-
ular, mainly on questions of practical morality,
and took a gieat interest in the young students
of Pans, wheie he tried to introduce' some sort
of guidance and a moial spmt among them
In a lettei he lecommended to such a student
a study ot Gieek and Latin works for their
content, and for style As a teacher himself,
he looked to (Jumtiliaii for the ideal in his
held His chief educational work was the
Tractate on Leading the Little Ones to Christ
(Tntctatu* dt' l*auniliv tradcndis ad Chribtum\
which, as is indicated in the title, concerns
itself wholly with ichgious and moral educa-
tion The woik, which has as its text Mat
xix, 14, is divided into four parts, each with its
own text (1) The necessity and means for
educating the young foi reverence of God,
religion, humanity, and civilization on a basis
of habit (La ui, 29) The means are sermons,
private admonition, discipline, and the confes-
sional. (2) On those who offend young chil-
dren by bad examples (Mat xvm, 16) (3) On
the great service performed by the religious
teacher (James, v, 20) (4) Self-defence and

apology (Gal M, 1) The laM, ten yeais of his
life he spent in a consent ol Ccolestine monk.s
and devoted much time to teaching childien

References • —

Catholic Kmydopediu, s v G(rson

FRMTNDCJEN, J Jnhtntnfft Certton, Vol XXIII of

Sammlung dcr bedrutentlshn padagogischen Schnf-

ten (Parlor born, 1N96)
TOWNHKND, W The (treat Schoolmen of the Middle

Agctt, pp 29 1-309 (London, 1SS1 )

GESNER, CONRAD (1510-1565) —Called
by llallam " a man ol prodigious erudition "
lie was born at Zimch. His parents being
unable to educate him, he was befriended,
housed, and educated by Ammian, the profes-
sor of rhetoric, foi thiee yeais He resolved
to travel, and enteied the semce of Capito, a
Hebrew scholar, at Strassbuig After furthei
travel, he was placed at the head of a school at
Zurich After studying physic, he resigned his
school teaching, and, having had a small pension
allotted him, he set to woik at leading the Cheek
physicians Foi a time he was professor of
Greek at Lausanne, and was piofessor of philos-
ophy at Zurich foi the last twenty-foui yeais
of his hie Gesner wiote his Bibhotheca U mver-
.sa/*,s in 1545 This was a catalogue of books in
Latin, Greek, and Hebiew, and ga\re cuticisms
and specimens of man\ of the works cited lie
wrote a continuation of the work in the Panda toe.
Univei sales, 154S-1555 These two woiks at-
tempted to do foi general literature what the
Digest of Justinian had done foi Civil Law
Thus Gesnei's books aie of the greatest value
as a bibliographical encyclopedia of hteratuie up
to his tunes In J555 he published Mittnidates
dc differentia linguaunn tutu veteium, tuni qua
hodie apud diversas natwnes ni toto orbe terrai um
ni nsii Mint, observation's This is the first great
modern book on comparative philology, and
attempts a characterization of all ancient and
modern languages from the Ethiopic down to
the gipsy language Gesner also wiote the
Hi^tonoe Annnahuni published in 1551-155G,
containing a critical account of all that had
been written and done on zoology by his prede-
cessors. His Icones Ammalium is a volume
of woodcuts and names only As a naturalist
Gesner emphasized the method of peisonal ob-
servation instead of relying on the observations
of the old classical writers, though he did a
great deal in promoting the close* study of those
writers He planted a botanic garden for his
observation and experiments lie formed a
museum in connection with his professorial post
and obtained contributions of some specimens
from most parts of Europe He made the
ascent of Mont Pilatus near Lucerne and ex-
amined all the specimens he could find there,
in spite of the superstitions concerning the
mountain. He visited patients in Zurich at
the time of the plague and devoted himself to
the study of the best cures, but he was over-
taken by it and died in his Museum in 1565.

104

GESNEH, JOHANN MATIIIAS

GETHSKMANI COLLEGE

He was the greatest encyclopedist of the Renais-
sance p. W.
References : —

Allgemcinc Deutsche Biographic

JARDINE, SIR WM The Naturalistic Library, Edinburgh,
Vol XII

SMITH, LIEUT -(\>L T HAMILTON The Natural His-
tory of Hordes (with memoir of Gesnor) 1841

WATSON, FOSTER IteffinniHon of the Teaching of Modern
Subject** in England (London, 1909 )

GESNER, JOHANN MATHIAS (1691-
1761) — Prominent philologist and reformer
of higher education in Germany; was bom the
son of a pastor in the small city of Roth m
Francoma and received his early education at
the gymnasium in Ansbach In 1010 he went
to the university of Jena, in 1715 ho was ap-
pointed teacher of the gymnasium m Weimar,
in 1729 he accepted a call to the prmcipalship
of the gymnasium in Ansbwch, but finding that
this position did not allow him sufficient leisure
for his literary activity, he left it Ihe following
year arid became the head of the old Thoma**-
schulc in Leipzig He reestablished the icpu-
tation of the school by restoring the study of
the classics, by enriching the course of study,
especially through the emphasis laid on mathe-
matics, and by improving the discipline1 In
1734 lie was called as Professor of Rhetoric to
the newly established university of Ciottingen
and remained there until his death He lec-
tured on Latin and Greek literatuie and on
classic archaeology, but, at the same tune,
kept up his strong interest m pedagogy He
was the inspector of the Brunswick gym-
nasiums and conducted, from 173S on, a philo-
logical seminar in which candidates for the
teaching profession icceived a geneial educa-
tion togethei with theoietical and piactical
training in pedagogy For this purpose he
wrote lus PtimcB hnccc i*ago(je\ ui cruditioneni
unwcrsalvm (Outlines of an introduction to
geneial education, paiticulaily to philology, his-
toiy, and philosophy), which appealed in 1700
As eaily as 1715, he had written his Institu-
twncb rci scholastics, a treatise on education,
which shows the influence of the ideas of
Ratke, Comenius, and Locke

Gcsner's educational activity marks an
epoch in the history of classical education in
Germany He is the founder of that great
movement in German education which is
known as Neo-Humanibm (q v ) and which con-
trolled the aim and methods of the most influen-
tial of the higher schools, and through them the
educational ideals of the leading classes of the
nation, down to the last quarter of the nineteenth
century He revived the study of Greek, which
in Germany at that time had been almost totally
neglected, and insisted on the study of the
classics for the bake of their great thought con-
tent and their ethical and aesthetic value He
believed in arousing in the pupil a pleasurable
interest in his work, and, for this reason, he ad-
vocated the teaching of the elements of Latin

through usage only, and without the help of
formal grammar In this way he was a
forerunner of Basedow and of the modern
reformers of foreign language instruction
Next to the study of the classics, he empha-
sized instruction in the mother tongue, in
French, mathematics, natuial science, history,
and geography Gcsner's educational views
were backed by a rare combination of great
erudition, not only m philology but in several
other fields of knowledge, with a long prac-
tical experience in teaching and fine pedagogic
tact Through his connection with the Bruns-
wick schools and his training of teachers, he
had constant opportunities of testing the
actual operation of his theories m practice
It is owing to these favorable circumstances,
arid to the fact that his work was carried on
by such brilliant successors as Erriesti (q v )
in Leipzig and Hevnc (q v ) in Gottmgen, that
the movement initiated by Gcsnei acquired
such a great and lasting influence on the higher
education of Geimany

Among the will ings of Gesner, besides the
works already noled, may be mentioned his
various editions of Latin authors, as well as
his selections from (-icero, Pliny, and from
Greek authors (Chrcstomathia Ciceionuina 1710,
Phmana 1728, (iicsca 1731), the last of which
contributed greatly to the impiovcment of the
study of Greek in Germany, his Thc^auru* of
the Latin language, published in 1745 m four
volumes, and his Geiman A\v,sa//,s (Klntn
Dentschc Schnftcn 1756), which contain much
of pedagogic value F M

Sec NED-HUMANISM.
References: —
T'AULSKN, FR Gc.Hchufikjdet>(jclehrten Vnternchts Vol

II, pp 15-2S (Leipzig, 1896)
POHNKRT, K H 15 ,/ M Gesner und t>em Verhallrns

zuni Phdanthropini.imu\ und N euhumanwmux

(Leipzig, 1898 )
HKIN, W EncyUopbdibLhes Handbuch der Padagoyik

«.v (irvner
ZIEOLER, TH Gcxthtchlt'dcrPadagoffkk (Munich, 1895 )

GESTURE LANGUAGE — A method of
communication m which movements of the
hands or other organs of the body are em-
ployed instead of the ordinary movements of
articulation This is a primitive form of lan-
guage and undoubtedly exemplifies a simpler
stage of psychological development than that
which is exhibited in articulate language

C 11 J.

See LANGUAGE

References : —

JUDD, C H Psychology, General Introduction (New

York, 1907 )
WUNDT, W V biker pay chologie, Vol I (Leipzig, 1900)

GETHSEMANI COLLEGE, TRAPPIST

P O , KY — A Catholic college connected with
the Abbey of CJethsemam Preparatory and
commercial departments are maintained, di-
plomas being conferred in the latter.

105

GHENT

GILBERT

GHENT, UNIVERSITY OF See

GIUM, EDUCATION IN

GHERARDO OF CREMONA — A distin-
guished scholar and teacher of mathematics in
the twelfth century He was born m 1114 at
Cremona, in Loinbardy, and died there in
1187 He is known chiefly for his work in
astronomy, which included several transla-
tions from the Arabic, the Almagest (see
PTOLEMY) among them D K S

GIBBS, JONATHAN C (1K31-1H74) —A
colored educator, educated at Dartmouth Col-
lege (graduating in 1852) and at the Prince-
ton Theological Seminary He was in charge
of the educational woik organized by the Pres-
byterian church among the fteedmen (1<S(>3-
1808), secretary of state in Florida (1868-1872),
arid state superintendent of public instruction
in Florida (1872-1874) W S M

GIDDINESS —See DIZZINESS

GIESSEN, THE GRAND DUCAL HES
SIAN LUDWIG UNIVERSITY OF —The
University of Gieswn was founded by Land-
grave Louis V, the Faithful, in the year 1(>07,
and owes its origin to the leligious conditions
of the period (See GERMANY, EDUCATION IN,
section on Universities ) Giessen, from its in-
ception, possessed the chaiacter of a uimer-
sity, although m the beginning the theological
faculty was by far the largest and most re-
nowned, the institution being known fai and
wide as a Lutheran stronghold To this cir-
cumstance may be attributed the fact that at
the outbreak of the Thirty Years' War Giessen
was one of the most frequented universities in
the whole of Germany, being exceeded in size
probably only by Leipzig and Jena As a
direct result of political changes, the univei-
sity was transferred to Mai bin g in 1(52.5, a
ichgious controversy at the lattei institution
twenty years previous having led to the seces-
sion that was responsible for the organization
of a university at Giessen At the close of the
war, another political transfer brought about
the reestablish men t of the institution at Gies-
sen, and from that time to the present day the
university has had an honored, albeit some-
what modest existence

A faculty of political economy was estab-
lished at the university in 1777 and may be
regarded as the forerunner of the faculties of
political science, but it was disorganized eight
years later In 1829 a school of forestry was
established as a branch of the university, and
from 1837 to 1875 Giessen also possessed a
technical school (at Darmstadt since 1877),
both departments being included in the faculty
of philosophy This fact is worthy of com-
ment, as the schools of technology are not affili-
ated with the um\ersities m Germany The
faculty of medicine includes a college of veteri-

BEL- nary medicine, which is the only school in Ger-
many to award the degree of Dr Med. Vet.
From 1830 to 18,59 Giessen also supported a
Catholic theological faculty

A new hbiary building was completed in
1904, having, been elected at a cost of $125,000,
it contains over 230,000 volumes and over
100,000 dissertations and programs The
annual university budget amounts to about
$375,000 Giessen is one of the smallest of
the German universities in point of attendance,
there being 1249 students enrolled in the winter
semestei of 1910-1911, of whom more than
half aie legistered in the faculty of philosophy,
this being followed by medicine, law, and
theology, in the order named

Among former teachers of the university
may be mentioned the celebrated jurist Rudolf
von Jhenng, and the renowned chemist Justus
von Liebig, Robert von Schlagmtweit, the
explorer, served as docent at Giessen from 1863
to 1885 R T , Jr

References : —

Die Vmorr\itat Giewn von 1607 b?s 11)07 Fe^chnft
inr dnttin Jain hunclcrtft iir ((jirasen )

LEXIS, A\ 7>as I f Htcrncht^wctiCti itn (itulKth(n Kcu h
Vol I, pp ,r>(>2 574 (Berlin, 1901 )

NLUEL, K L \V Kurz< Vber^tcht on(r Gcxchichte der
Irnioer8it&t GubAcn (Ma/ burg, 1SJS )

GIFTS — See FHOEBEL, KINDERGARTEN

GILBERT, SIR HUMPHREY (1530-1583)
— The navigator and stephrothei of Sn Walter
Raleigh In c 1572 he devised a scheme for
" the erection of an Academy in London foi
the education of hei Majesty's Wards and
others the youth of nobility and gentlemen/'
which was edited fiom the Lansdownc Ms
by Dr F J Furnnall for the Early Knghsh
Text Society in 1809 Gilbert bewails the I act
that the wards of the Ciown were often in the
hands of those of evil religion or insufficient qual-
ity, and since these waids weie chiefly resident
m London, he pioposes that an Academy be
erected and suggests not only the subjects to be
taught therein but also the salaries to be paid to
the teachers and ushers A new type of educa-
tion was proposed, based on a cuinculum differ-
ing fiom that of the humanistic schools of the
day Milton's Ti act ate shows a remarkable
similarity to Gilbert's work Masters were to
be engaged to teach Latin, Gieck, and Hebrew,
although a sufficiently important place is
assigned to the vernacular, for " in what lan-
guage soever learning is attained the appliance
to use is principally m the vulgar speech as in
preaching, in parliament, in council, in com-
missions and other offices of common weal "
Readers were to be appointed for moral philoso-
phy to read " the political part thereof", for
natural philosophy, for mathematics to deal
with military art, cosmography, astronomy,
and practical navigation A doctor of physic
was to teach physic, ehirurgcry, and medicines,
and v\as to have a garden and simples Civil

106

GILCHRLST

GILDS

law, divinity, and common law were each to
have a reader. Provision was to be made for
the teaching of modern languages, dancing,
heraldry, defence, horsemanship, stiategy, and
tactics.

The arrangements for the libiaiy are par-
ticularly interesting The keeper is allowed
£26 a year After every mart he "shall
cause the bringers of books into England to
exhibit to him their registers, and thus to have
first choice of books to buy Foi the buying
of books, etc , for the library £40 was to be
allowed But in addition it is to be noted,
"All printers in England, shall be foiever
charged to deliver into the library of the
Academy, at their own charges, one copy,
well bound, of eveiy book, proclamation, or
pamphlet printed " The tic-usurer's salary was
to be £100 The chief governor was to be the
rnastei of the wards, assisted by the rector
who was to have personal supervision ovei the
pupils The public readers of arts and com-
mon laws weie to publish some new book
eveiy six years, and eveiy thiee years to issue
a translation of some good book F W

See ACADEMIES, COURTH , GERBIER, GEN-
TRY VND NOBLES, EDUCATION OF, MILTON

References : —

Didionaiu <>f National Jlioi/raphi/, Vo] XXXI, p ,'J27
FUHNIV\LL, F ,1 , of! Qun n Eltzahitlus Achadcmy
Kurly English Text Sotiotx (London, lSb(J )

GILCHRIST, JOHN BORTHWICK - See

GILCHRLST EDUCATIONAL TRUST

GILCHRIST EDUCATIONAL TRUST —

An institution established by the \vill of John
Borthwick (iilchnst (17.59-1841), a sen ant of
the East India Company and an orientalist
He was professoi of Hindustani at London Uni-
versity and took an interest in educational and
philanthropic efforts, being associated with
George Unkbeek (qv) in some of his work
He left his propeitv to trustees for " the
benefit, advancement, and propagation of edu-
cation and learning in every part of the world
so far as circumstances \\ill permit 11 He left
every arrangement to the discretion of his
trustees The will was the subject of litiga-
tion which lasted twenty-five years, and only
the fortunate circumstance1 that pait of the
property was on the site of Sydney, Australia,
rapidly increasing in value, seemed any means
for the tiustecb to proceed with their work
The trustees adopted the principle of doing
pioneer work in promoting education arid learn-
ing where other efforts were not being employed
In this way numerous movements have been
started, and as soon as they have been taken
over by other bodies, the Tiust has diverted
its support to some new object Thus, scholar-
ships to aid Indian students to study at Eng-
lish universities were established until the woik
was taken up by the government arid umvcisi-

ties were erected in India Colonial scholar-
ships were also instituted When Girton College
and other institutions were established for the
higher education of women, scholarships were
provided as well as in training colleges for
secondary school teachcis Traveling scholar-
ships for secondary school teachers were estab-
lished for professional purposes Reports have
been published on educational topics in foreign
countries including Educational Systems of
Sweden, Norway, and Denmark, French Sec-
ondary Education, The Teaching of Literature
in Girls' Schools in Germany, Manual Instruc-
tion in France and Switzerland; The Teaching
of Geography in Switzerland and Italy
When the Board of Education undertook the
Special Reports, the Trust discontinued the
traveling scholarships, just as the system of
exchange teachers between England, France,
and Germany was begun by the Trust until
taken over by the Board University Exten-
sion, the Workers Educational Association
(q v ), the National Home Heading Union
(q v ), and the Recreative Schools Association
have also been assisted by the Trust At
present the Trust money is being used to en-
courage a system by which young teachers
rnav be afforded opportunities of spending
some time1 in the classrooms of expert and
more mature colleagues A scheme is also on
foot for the establishment, of a school of Ori-
ental Languages to commemorate the woik of
the foundci The remarkable success of the
Trust has shown the importance of freedom in
the management of Trust funds for public
purposes More good \\ork has been accom-
plished and moie success has been achieved in
this way than would ha\e been possible under
the restraint of the " dead hand " of regulations
and provisions, which only too often harnpei
such bequests, not only in England but in
America The Right Honorable Lord Shuttle-
worth is at present chairman of the Trust,
which has its offices in London

Reference : —

Times (London) Educational Supplement, Ocl 4,
1910

GILDS, MEDIEVAL, AND EDUCATION

— To conceive of the gild as the technical
school of the middle ages LS to icalize only very
imperfectly its impoitance for the history ol
education The gilds of merchants and ctafts-
men which regulated commerce and industry
from the eleventh and twelfth centuries onward
were only species in a groat genus which ern-
biaced such widely different institutions as the
Universities, the Inns of Court, the Colleges
of Physicians and Surgeons on the one side,
and the humblest parish burial club or rural
cooperative society on the other The re-
ligious fraternity supplied the only available
foim and sanction for every kind of free asso-
ciation, whatever its aim political, social,

107

GILDS

GILDS

economic, recreative, educational, religious In
its main aspect it may he regarded as the main
instrument in the formation of that series of
middle classes by whose efforts the principle
of self-government was first realized in the
narrower sphere of civic life and thence trans-
planted to the wider sphere of the national
state

Although it is generally confined to the pro-
fessional and technical aspects of this develop-
ment, the term "education" applies m a large
sense to the whole process of class formation,
and a few words may he said as to the social
arid political education afforded by the gilds
Socially their primary function was to facilitate
a transition from the tie of kinship to that of
a fellowship based on neighborhood or a com-
mon profession The Saxon gilds of thanes
which Maitland has likened to a " county
club", the "frith gilds" of London and the
Knights' gilds which in some cases perhaps
formed the first nucleus of free civic associa-
tion, all served this purpose and are connected
by it as one continuous social development,
both with the merchant and craft gilds and with
the pansh gilds in town and country By their
instrumentality the process described by Fustel
de Coulangos as taking place in the city state
of antiquity was carried a stage further What
the fiction of adoption and the artificial widen-
ing of the ancestral cult were to the earlier
phase of civic expansion, the more attenuated
fiction of fraternity, and the foundation of
cooperative chantries weic to the medieval
city Closely connected with this was a more
consciously educational development The
wealthy city gilds took over the halls of feudal
magnates and cooperatively emulated their
style of life They feasted kings, and drew
nobility, gentry, and clergy into their honorary
membeiship, and were thus one of the main
agencies in removing social exolusiveness and
in transmitting social manners and ideals from
a narrower to a wider circle

In the political education of the middle ages
the gilds played an unique part They were
the main channels through which new classes
of the population were drawn into the field of
political activity Their internal affairs fur-
nished an excellent training in self-government
and administration, whilst their intervention
in municipal and occasionally in national
politics gave their ambitious members a wider
scope for their powers The disputes that have
arisen as to the part played by the gilds in the
earliest phases of civic organization turn upon
questions of constitutional form and leave
untouched the primary importance of the gilds
as generators of political force and organs of
political change In many leading cases at
least it is highly probable that the gilds of the
twelfth century had as large a share in mold-
ing the earlier patrician rule in the cities of
Western Europe as the craft gilds of the thir-
teenth and fourteenth centuries had in trans-

108

forming it. The proceedings of the gilds, as
such, were secret, but they provided periodi-
cal opportunities for freely debating questions
of policy or of principle, and there can be little
doubt that towards the end of the fourteenth
century, when the gilds became more numerous
and active both in town and country, they often
served as centers of political, social, and religious
propaganda

Turning now to education in the stricter
sense it is well to emphasize the fact already
noted that the greater part of the organized
higher education of the middle ages was based
on a social structure provided by gilds " The
rise of the universities," says Rashdall, " was
merely a wave of that groat movement towards
association which began to sweep over the
cities of Europe in the course of the eleventh
century " (See UNIVERSITIES ) The federated
gilds of scholars or teachers or both, of which
the universities wore composed, perfoimed the
same functions in regard to the higher educa-
tion of the piofcssional classes as the later gilds
performed in regard to the technical education
of the merchant and the craftsman (See
DEGREES, INCEPTION ) The completed gild
structure of a London livery company towards
the close of the fifteenth century is closely
analogous to that of one of the Inns of Court
(q v ) or one of the Oxford colleges of the same
period

A link between the universities and the gilds
is furnished by the civic corporations of the
learned professions The notaries formed one
of the greater gilds of Florence, and probably
the regulations imposed by the civic authorities
of London in the thirteenth century on pleaders
and attorneys were drawn up by a profes-
sional gild In fifteenth-century London the
professions of medicine and surgery received
from the city a set of ordinances which placed
them under the rule of a Rector who must be
a Doctor of Medicine, a Master of Arts and
Philosophy, or a Bachelor of Medicine of long
standing, and the last-named degiee was only
to be accepted as a temporary makeshift The
gild insisted on previous graduation for full
membership, imposed examinations in medicine
and surgery, and provided a hall for reading
and disputation Later on, in the seventeenth
and eighteenth centuries, the Barber-Surgeons
of London, Pans, and Edinburgh provided
regular demonstrations in anatomy for the
instruction of their members The London
gild of Apothecaries has retained its examin-
ing functions down to the present day. (See
PHARMACEUTICAL EDUCATION )

Whilst the medical and surgical gilds were
thus able to delegate many of their educational
functions to the universities, the gilds of mer-
chants and craftsmen were the sole repositories
of the traditional lore of their several callings.
It is very probable that they were the main
channels by which that lore was transmitted
from the East to the West and from the later

GILDS

GILDS

days of the Roman Empire to the earlier middle
ages Dr L M Hartrnann has recently es-
tablished a strong case for the continuity of
the gild tradition at Rome and Ravenna The
style of the earliest cathedral builders has been
traced continuously back to the school of
" Comacme " masters, whom the Lombaids
found working in North Italy The dedica-
tions of the gilds of the five fundamental
medieval handicrafts afford corroborative evi-
dence which has been hitherto ovei looked
The patron saints of the masons — the Quatuor
Ooronati — were Roman martyrs of the third
century, those of the shoemakers — St Ciispiu
and St. Crispiman — are said to have been
martyred at Soissons at the same period St
Aubert, the patron saint of the bakers of Flan-
ders and Scotland, was Bishop of Cambrai
and Arras in the seventh century St Kloi,
universally venerated by the smiths of the
middle ages, was a goldsmith of Limoges who
became a missionary Bishop at Noyon under
Dagobert But perhaps the most interesting
case is that of St Sever us, a woolcomber, who
was Bishop of Ravenna just before the fall of
the empire and whose body was afterwards
carried, first to Mainz — the place of the first
recorded weavers' gild in (Jermany — and thence
to Erfurt, another weaving ceritei, and who is
subsequently found as the pat ion saint of
weavers throughout the Netherlands and Scot-
land A similar significance attaches to the
spread of the cult of St Nicholas of Myra, the
patron saint of Levantine commcicc and navi-
gation, which is exactly contemporaneous with
the settlement of a hitherto hugely nomadic
trading class and the rise of the merchant gild
There aie early churches of St Nicholas in
close connection with the poits or markets of
London, Bristol, Yarmouth, Newcastlc-on-
Tync, Liverpool, (ihent, Brussels, Utrecht,
Berlin, Frankfort, Leipzig, Hamburg, Prague,
Stockholm, Bergen

It is thus probable that the most important
educational service of the gilds was removed
before their lecorded histoiy begins In the
later period, inaugurated by the grant of royal
charters or civic ordinances in the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries, the growth of the system
of apprenticeship is the central feature of gild
history from the educational point of Mew
The earliest extant records of apprenticeship
arc private contracts between individuals
Nvhich stipulate for a premium or certain years
of service in return for specified teaching The
authorized regulation of the conditions of ap-
prenticeship by the gilds begins in London,
Pans, arid elsewhere in the last quarter of the
thirteenth century The urban population was
then rapidly increasing Division of labor was
giving rise to new trades for which the ciaft
gild furnished a ready organization, and during
the two following centuries a steady stream
of rural labor was drawn by this agency into
the channels of a higher technical training

109

The education provided by the gild rested en-
tirely on a domestic basis As a rule the master
craftsman might teach his trade to as many
sons as he pleased, but could only have one
other apprentice who received board and lodg-
ing, clothing and discipline as one of the family
In entering the new household the apprentice
passed under the protection of the gild which
revised the terms of his contract, furnished a
court of appeal against ill usage or defective
training, and guaranteed the ultimate attain-
ment of mastership This produced uniformity
within each craft, but the variations of usage
between different crafts and different cities
remained very wide throughout the middle
ages In Pans the cooks required two years'
service, the carpenters four, the chandlers six,
the embroiderers eight, the goldsmiths ten.
A seven years' apprenticeship, which had be-
come universal amongst London crafts, was
adopted as the national standard in the sixteenth
century On the continent a much shorter pe-
riod of from two to six years was supplemented
by the requirement of from three to five years'
travel in search of fuller experience Some of
the Rhine cities were much frequented by
journeymen as the finishing school of their
several trades

Besides regulating access to the only techni-
cal school, the workshop, the gilds largely
determined the nature of the instruction thus
afforded, not only by an official examination
of the aspirants to mastership, but also more
effectively by the regular inspection of their
trades, backed by civic authority, in which the
collective technical conscience of the gild was
brought to bear on the methods of the individ-
ual craftsman False work and bad materials
were seized and judged by juries of experts
In some crafts, e g the goldsmiths, the gild
affixed its stamp to sound work, in others, eg
the blacksmiths, the pewter ers, and even the
bakers, each master must have a mark of his
own, whilst in the cloth manufacture it be-
came usual to insist on inspection and official
sealing at each stage Technical rules multi-
plied under the control of the gilds and were
afterwards in many cases codified in national
legislation The Act of 1603-1004, which pre-
scribes in fifty-two elaborate sections the in-
dustrial technique to be followed by the Eng-
lish leather trades, is an interesting illustration
of the cumulative power of gild tradition It
is very difficult to appraise justly the educa-
tional value of this tradition In its later
phases, when we know it best, it was almost
wholly a hindrance to industrial progress
It. was in the earlier and less recorded phases
that the gilds performed their real educational
service by disciplining crude labor, checking
dishonest impulses, and gradually forming a
professional sense of honor But even then
the gild's powers of search were often used to
exclude the competition of foreign wares
Later on, when the craft gilds acquired pre-

GILDS

GILDS

dominance in city government, their policy
as embodied in their ordinances, their methods
of inspection, and their regulation or apprentice-
ship exhibited a narrower spirit of corporate
egotism. The two opposite abuses to which
the system of apprenticeship is liable-- undue
restriction as a means of limiting the number of
masters and entire absence of lestnction as
a means of exploiting youthful labor — both
became common in the fifteenth century

The ordinances of the majority of gilds at the
close of the middle ages exhibit a compromise
between these conflicting tendencies New
masters are often forbidden to take any ap-
prentices for several years, and then restricted
to one, whilst those who sit on the governing
body may take two, and those who have held
the highest office three By this time the en-
trance to mastership had likewise become
restricted, partly by the growth of industrial
capital, but also by the imposition of artificial
conditions Foremost among these was the
institution of the masterpiece, which did not
become widespread till the sixteenth century
Originating in simple tests of competent work-
manship this developed into the imposition of
a task sometimes occupying many months and
requiring the use of expensive material besides
the payment of heavy fees to the official ex-
aminers The extant rules for the execution
of the masterpiece — which in the case of a
wide range of Pans crafts cover a period of
four ceiituncs — form a valuable contribution
to the history of technical education A jury of
scriveners examined candidates in cahgiaphy,
orthography, and casting of accounts The
printers and booksellers required a knowledge
of Greek and Latin, the masterpiece of the
pinners was a thousand pins, of the shoemakers
a pair of boots, three pairs of shoes, and a pair
of slippers, of the butchers the dressing for
sale of the carcases of a cow, a calf, a sheep, and
a pig But in many cases much more elaborate
tests were prescribed or were left to the discre-
tion of the gild authorities who deliberately
used them to exclude candidates from the
mastership At the same tune the sons of
masters arid those who could pay a large en-
trance fee were exempted altogether or sub-
jected to a nominal test Whilst, therefore,
the educational functions of the gilds attained
their most explicit and impressive form in the
masterpiece, they were simultaneously ceasing
to exercise an appreciable influence on the main
course of industrial development which by this
time was escaping from the corporate lestric-
tions imposed in the older urban centers and
seeking a freer environment in the country
However regrettable, it was no doubt natural
that the pioneers of the next phase of industrial
progress and especially the inventors of labor-
saving machinery should have found their
chief obstacle in the handicraft traditions of the
gilds (See APPRENTICESHIP AND EDUCATION,
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION ) G U

110

The gilds were, however, more intimately
associated with school education in England.
Many gilds maintained one or more priests to
minister to the members of the fraternity, the
practice arose for these priests to keep school
for children of members or of the whole town
In time money was left to gilds for the express
purpose of engaging a clerk to keep school,
elsewhere the gilds paid the schoolmaster out
of their funds Thus at Barnard Castle the
Gild of Trinity was " founded and endowed
with certain lands, by gift of the brethren and
other benefactors of the sons of ancient time
to find a priest to say mass and to

keep a free grammar school and a song school
for all the children of the town " Of 33 gilds
investigated by Leach, " excluding the Craft
Guilds of London and Shrewsbury, and the
Merchants' (hid at York, 28 kept grammar
schools, arid to them may be added the
Drapers of Shrewsbury, who kept a grammar
school, while the Mercers of London were
trustees for three schools mentioned, and the
Goldsmiths foi two " In many instances the
gild corporations were appointed as trustees
of schools and with them were vested the right
of appointing or dismissing the schoolmaster,
the superintendence of repairs, the school
property, the admission of pupils, the drawing
up of statutes for the better government of
schools, or appointing boards of governors for
schools The Skinners' Company of London
became trustees for Tonbndge School in 1552
with powei to draw up statutes for the school,
and the practice grew up for the governois to
pay an annual visit to the school With the
decay of the gild system most of the schools
maintained or supervised by the schools be-
came private endowed schools, while only a few
schools in London have remained under the
control of gilds, c g Merchant Taylors' School,
Stationers' School, and the Meicers' School

Of recent years, some of the wealthier London
companies have devoted large sums to the endow-
ment of technical and university education

References : —

AHHLEY, W .1 An Jntroduetion to English Economic

History and Theory (Now York, 1898 )
DOU&N, A ,J Das Flonntiner Zunftwettcn (Stuttgart,

190S )
FRANKLIN, A Diet ion naire histoi KJUC ofrv Art*, Metiers

ft Profession* exeiee* dans Pa) is (PariH, 1906.)
CiHOHM, C. The (hid Men haul (London, 181)0 )
LEACH, A F English School^ at tht Reformation

(London, 1896 )
LOKHCH, H VON DH Kdhier Zunfturkiuidcn (Dua-

aoldorf, 1907 )
MAREZ, G DEH L' Organisation d( Ti avail A Bnij.cllt8

an XVc XiecU* (BniBttolH, 1904 )
SCHMOLLER, C? Die HtraKxburQCT Tuchcr- ujid Wcbcr-

zunft (Strasbourg, 1879 )

STALKY, E Gild* of Florence (London, 1906.)
STOWK, A M English Grammar Schools in the Reign

of Qua n Elizabeth (New York, 1908 )
UNWIN, CJ Gilds and Companies of London (London,

1908 )

Report of the Citu of London Livery Companies' Commis-
sion (London, 1884 )

GILDvS, TEACHERS'

OILMAN

GILDS, TEACHERS' —Those were as-
sociations which arose in the sixteenth century
to protect those teachers of primary subjects
who had municipal recognition against the com-
petition of the wandering scholars, dame and
hedge-schools (Wmkehchulen) Such organiza-
tions were confined to German v, though at least
one is found in Holland- Harlem There is
definite information bearing on the gilds in
Munich (1564), Nuremberg (1013), Frank fort-
a.-M (1613), and Lubeck (1053), while they
also existed in Augsburg, Lands!) ut, Hamberg,
Stuttgart, Tubingen, Urach, and Kiunswick
At Lubeck a second gild of teachers of reading
and prayers was also orgam/ed Their oigan-
ization was similar to that of other gilds, which
were practically on the decline when the
teachers oigamzed A period of apprentice-
ship, varying from three to nine years, and begin-
ning with the sixteenth or eighteenth year, was
imposed An examination had to be passed
to become a journeyman or assistant teacher
The assistant could be employed for pay by
a master and could also give private lessons,
part of the proceeds going to his master When
a vacancy occurred in the gild, it was filled by
the oldest assistant on proving his ability,
usually by writing out, with great flounshes
a signboard, a Latin motto, eg I'ahentm
omnia vtucit, or a Biblical quotation, and the
master's name foimed the content The gilds
struggled with difficulty against competition
but without success, in spite of piotests to the,
municipal councils, which supervised and in-
spected their schools On the whole their
influence was baneful, they kept down the
number of schools by increasing the number
of pupils in the few fa\ ored institutions with-
out adding to the accommodations, the quali-
fications for membership weie not alvuus
strictly adhered to, the sons, widows, 01 daugh-
teis of deceased members \\eic sometimes
allowed to continue schools without, being ic-
quned to go through the legulai loutme
Materially the gilds did not impiove the posi-
tion of their members, for manv had to supple-
ment their slight income by alms One ad-
vantage, however, did accrue, members of the
gilds were tpso facto citizens The gilds lin-
gered on ineffectually until the end of the
eighteenth century * The Munich gild was
finally dissolved in 1801, the capable teachcis
being incorporated into the state system At
Nuremberg, the gild was driven out in 1X18
on the introduction of paid teachers, while at
Lubeck the last was heard of the gild in the
same year

Sec TEACHERS' VOLUNTARY ASSOCIATIONS

References ; —

FISCHER, K Ge&chichtc dc8 deutxchen Volkt>t>chul-
lehrer»tatidu>, Vol I, rh S (Berlin, 18i)S )

JVANDEL, 1 L Th< Training of Elementary School

teachers in Germany (Nc«w York, 1910 )
N, W EncyUo}Mi8ch<K llandbuch der
s.v. Zunjtweaen der Lehrer

m

GILL, ALEXANDER (1565-1635) - Head-
master of St Paul's school, London, from 160S
till 1635 He had John Milton as pupil m the
school from 1620 to 1625 (Jill continued the
tradition of Mule-aster's (q v ) interest in the
study of the English language as shown in
Mulcaster's Elemental ie 1582, and in 1619
published the book for which he is best known
— LoqoHomin Anglica.qua Genii* tiermofacilm*
addiscifur He advocated the phonetic spelling,
and suggested a reform of the alphabet with
that purpose, by introducing the two Anglo-
Saxon signs foi th and other Anglo-Saxon signs,
together with dots over the vowels to represent
then various sounds, he gets his adequate al-
phabet Tn the feeling of pride in our old
Saxon tongue Gill ranks as a pioneer. The
most interesting section of the Logon omw
Anglica is the part devoted to Syntax, where
he begins to treat of the figures of speech
Following on the lines of Abraham Frauncc
(q v\ Gill quotes fiom English writers to
illustrate the English usage in ihetoncal
figures The significance of the book is the
establishment of Ramus's method of illustra-
tion of rhetorical figures from modern sources,
the drawing of attention to the beauties of the
English literary writers, and the beginnings of
the study of English literature in a school
textbook The curious point must be borne
in mind, that (Jill's Logottonna is wiitten in
Latin (Jill's son, also called Alexander (1597-
1642), in 1621 became under usher of St Paul's
school to his father, and was teacher and friend
of Milton Gill fell in disgiace in 1628,
through drinking a health to Felton, the assassin
of Buckingham, and belittling the king Even-
tually forgiven, he is said to have been an usher
in Farnaby's (</ v ) school, and in 1635, succeeded
his father as High 01 Head Master of St Paul's
School He died in 1642, having gamed the
reputation for great severity in connection with
school teaching p. w.

References . —

Dictionary of National Biography, Vol XXI, p ,353
MACDONNELL, M F J History of St Pauls School

(London, 1'WW )

WATHON, FOSTEII Bi ginnings of tht Tenth IHQ of Mod-
ern Subject* in England (London, 1907 )

OILMAN, DANIEL COIT (1831-1908) —
The first president of Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity, and one of the leading influences in Ameri-
can educational development during the greater
part of his career He was born in Norwich,
Conn , July 6, 1X31, and was of old New Eng-
land ancestry on both sides (liaduatmg at
Yale in 1852, he pursued graduate studies at
Harvard for a year, residing in the home of
Arnold (Uiyot, the geographer, then he spent
two years in Europe, where, though an attache
of the United States Legation at St Peters-
burg, he found opportunities foi seeing and
leaimng much of England, (reimany, and
France, as well as of Russia Returning in 1855,

OILMAN

G1RARD COLLEGE

he took an active part in advancing the per-
manent organization of the Sheffield Scientific
School at Yale, and became one of the chief
promoters there of the ideas of Ll the new learn-
ing." He was an ardent champion of scientific
studies as a means of culture, though he fully
recognized the claims of the classical education;
and it was precisely this attitude that he after-
wards manifested in shaping the character of
Johns Hopkins University He was made as-
sistant librarian of Yale College in 1856, and
afterwards librarian and professoi of physical
geography Duung his connection with Yale,
which ended in 1872 with his acceptance of
the presidency of the University of California,
he was one of the chief influences making for
progress generally, and in particular for the
building up of the Sheffield Scientific School
He was also actively connected with the public
school system of Connecticut, in which he
introduced important improvements The
University of California, under his presidency,
from 1872 to 1875, underwent a most remark-
able development, in spite of the obstacles intei-
posed by political interference He became
president of Johns Hopkins University in 1875
The establishment of Johns Hopkins Univer-
sity in 1876 marks an epoch m the history of
education and learning in America, and it is to
Oilman that the determination of its character
must be ascribed From the beginning, he set
before himself the object of making the new in-
stitution a means of supplying to the nation
intellectual training of a higher order than could
be obtained at existing American colleges and
universities, and at the end of a yeai of travel
and inquiry he had gathered, as a nucleus, six
piofessors of eminent ability, under whom,
with the aid of younger associates, there was
launched, for the first time in this country,
a university whose standards and activities
weie on a level with those of the great institu-
tions of Europe The establishment of full-
fledged " graduate schools," the naturalization
of research as a leading element in American
umvcisities, and the development on a great
scale of scientific and scholarly publications,
date from the loundation of Johns Hop-
kins University And a singular testimony
to the importance of Oilman's influence in
hastening this development is furnished by the
fact that, although it was not until seventeen
yeais later that funds were available for the
opening of the Johns Hopkins Medical School,
no othei institution in the meanwhile attempted
to bring about '* the prodigious advancement
of medical teaching" — to quote President
Eliot — which was there effected under ( hlman's
guidance, and in accordance with the aim that
he had cherished from the beginning

In 1901 Oilman resigned the presidency of
Johns Hopkins In 1(M)2 he became the fust
president of the Carnegie Institution, he le-
signed that office in 190*1, but continued as a
trustee* of the institution until his death

112

Throughout his life, in addition to his educa-
tional activities, he was deeply and actively in-
terested in public improvement and in practical
philanthropic effort, being, in particular, one
of the pioneer workers in charity organization
and in civil service reform He succeeded Carl
Schurz as president of the National Civil Ser-
vice Reform League , his connection with the
Peabody Fund, the Slater Fund, and the Rus-
sell Sage Foundation was of great importance;
and he served on many public and semi-public
commissions His contributions to periodical
literature* were numerous, and he was one of
the chief editors of the New International
Encyclopedia He wrote a Life of Janice D
Dana and the volume on James Montoe in the
" American Statesmen " series He edited
the Miscellaneous Witting* of Francis Licber,
and prepared an edition of De Tocqueville's
Democracy in America, for which he wrote an
elaborate introduction Two other volumes
published by him are University Addresses and
The Launching of a UnivciMty He died at
Norwich, Conn, Oct 13, 1908* F. F.

See JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY

Reference • —

FRANKLIN, FABIAN Life of Daniel Coit Oilman (New
York, 1910)

GILPIN, WILLIAM (1724-1804) —School-
master, author, and aitist He graduated B A
at Oxford in 1744 and was ordained in 1746
A few years latei he took over a boarding school
at Cheam, Surrey, which he kept successfully
for neaily thirty years and handed on to his
son The school is still in existence under the
charge of a descendant of (Jilpm The distin-
guishing marks of the school were the study of
the vernacular, of gardening and business,
the boys engaging m practical commerce on
then own accounts, the elimination of corporal
punishment, replaced by tiial by juiv and fines
which were1 spent for the general welfare of the
whole school, and confidence in and i chance on
the boys' sense of honor As Vicai of Bold re
(Jilpm took an active mteiest in the social
welfare of his panshioneis and gave a number
of his pictures to endow a pansh school In
1779 he published Lecture^ on the Church
CatechtKtn, which had been prepared earliei
for his pupils His writings consisted of bi-
ogiaphies of eminent English Churchmen, in-
cluding his own ancestor Beniard Gilpm, and
descriptions of points of artistic interest in
England accompanied with his own sketches

Reference : —
Dictionary of National Biography

GIRARD COLLEGE, PHILADELPHIA, PA

— An institution founded by the will of Stephen
(iiraid (<//>) for "poor white mule orphan"
childien, and opened in 1S4S The institution
was placed in tiust of the Councils of the City
of Philadelphia, and is now managed by the

GIRARD, JEAN BAPTISTE

GIRARD, STEPHEN

Board of Directors of City Trusts Alexander
Dallas Bache (q v) WHS appointed the fust
president and was soul by the trustees to Fur ope
to make a survey of the educational institutions
and systems By one of the teims of the will
" no ecclesiastic, missionary or minister of any
sect whatsoever" is admitted in anv capacity
within the premises of the institution An
attack on the will failed in the courts on the
ground that the exclusion of ministers was not
necessarily an attack on religion or bioad
religious teaching Orphan 0 (' fatherless)
boys are admitted between the ages of six and
ten years and receive a training such as will
enable them to earn their own living at fourteen
to eighteen years of age The enrollment in
December, 1911 was 1491.

References : —

BARNARD American Journal of Education, Vol
XXVll.pp 593-01(1

Report of the Bouid of Dnectot^ of ('it}/ 7'/u,s^s of th( City

of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, annual)
Httni-Centenntnl of Girard ColUf/i, 1848-18^)8 (Phila-
delphia, 1<S()8 )

GIRARD, JEAN BAPTISTE (1765-1850)
— Better known as Pere Gre"goire Chi aid, a
contemporary and fellow-countryman of Pesta-
lo/zi Bom in Fieiburg, he attended the
Jesuit school there and at the age of seventeen
joined the Franciscan Order lie spent his
novitiate in Lucerne and thence pioceeded to
the University of Wurzburg, where he studied
theology \\hen the Swiss government had
the reform of public education under considera-
tion, he drew up a plan foi primary, secondary,
and cantonal schools and a national Swiss
university, as a result of which he was ap-
pointed secretary to the Minister for Culture
and Education, to act as advisor in the Catholic
interests Finding that his advice was raiely
sought, he became pastor in Berne (1800-1804),
where his broad humanitarian sympathies cut
acioss denominational limitations and en-
deared him to everybody He devoted him-
self mainly to the study of education and was
inspired by the efforts of Pestalo/zi at this
period His opportunity came in 1804 when
he was called to his native city to organize
public education For more than twenty
years he strove with great success to reform
educational practice and theory Starting
with 40 pupils, the school in 1820 had 400
pupils, and the idea of education became estab-
lished as essential to public welfare, not only
m the minds of most of his fellow-citizens, but
also m the surrounding cantons The school
was much visited by foreign observers But
the work of Pestalozzi tended to overshadow
that of Girard who aimed to put the master's
theories into practice so far as possible In
1809 he was sent with the commission appointed
by the government to Yverdun, and his report on
the whole was satisfactory (Rapport sur I'ln-
vtttut dc Pestalozzi prfaente a la haute Dtete de

la N///,s,xr) Unfortunately the labois of Giraid
were suspended by the reactionaries as tending
to undermine religion and as being i evolutional > ,
and in 182,* the school was closed (lirard ic-
tired to Lucerne, when* he devoted himself to
writing and recommending educational rcfoim

Girard was strongly influenced m the direc-
tion of the moral and religious end of educa-
tion. Pestalo/zi's work he criticized on the
ground that too much emphasis was laid on
the intellectual and too little on the emotional
and volitional aspects He accepted the theoiy
of harmonious development as the aim of
instruction, but here again he held that Pesta-
lozzi overemphasized the mathematical sub-
jects, which he feared would lead to material-
ism Nature study, history, and geography
were all to lead to a recognition of God, much
in the same way as Froebel proposed The
lack of teachers compelled Girard to adopt the
monitorial system (1810), which, strangely
enough, formed the center of attack on the
part of his opponents His school was divided
into four grades, and each subject was reviewed
anew and expanded m each grade He won
the affection of hus pupils to a remarkable degree,
and on his way to and from school he was
always attended by a large gioup of them

His chief work was the Langne materncllc
enseignee a la Jcu7ie.\\e com me Moi/en dc De-
veloppement intellect uel, moial ct ichgicui (The
veinacular taught to the i/oung «.s a mean* of
intellectual, moral, a?id religious development), in
seven volumes, the first dealing with his peda-
gogical views Here he recogm/es the loosen-
ing of the bonds of family, church, and state,
arid for that reason urges control through
moral and religious education This work
secured him in 1844 the prize awarded by the
Paris Academy Other works were Dialogue*
sur I'l institution dex Eiohsdc Campagnc, Diver*
7)/,srowr.s et Dissertation* sur Jr.s fin jets de Peda-
gogic gencjaej, De* Moi/en* d'attacher la Jeu-
d ,srs Etude* et d'activei .srs Progiev

References : —

LtiTHi, K Pain Grvgor Girard (Brrrio, 1^)
NAVILLK, E Ptrt Girard, in Hctutil dt Mo

Pudayo(ji(ju<j\, pp 72-9() (Lausanne, 1S1)(> )
Notice but la VK tt /cs () u vi aye** dtt P Girard (P.'irih,

n d )
SCHNMIWL\, J Ecolr du Put Girmd (Freiburg,

1905)

GIRARD, STEPHEN (1750-18.il) —
Founder ot Girard College foi Orphans,
attended the schools of France, but was largely
self-educated He was foi many yeais engaged
in commercial pursuits, and left Ins fortune to
various philanthropic and educational institu-
tions He bequeathed $2,000,000 for the
establishment of a college foi orphans in Phila-
delphia W. S M

See GIKARD COLLEGE

References : —

AREY, HENRY W Girard College and its Founder.
(Philadelphia, I860)

VOL ill — I

113

GIRLS

GLADSTONE

HENRY Aim man Joninul of Ktliuuhou,
1S77, Vol XXVII, pp .VM-hll.

SiMi'MON, HTEPHKN- Af/V »f Mt ph( n <,'nnr</ (T'hilu-
dolphm, 1S,'12 )

GIRLS, EDUCATION OF - The various
aspects of tins subject are treated under sepa-
rate titles. The existing practices concerning
the education of girls with boys are presenled
under the title COEDUCATION One phase of
this question is discussed briefly under SEGRE-
GATION The histoiy of the education of girls
in America is included in the article on CO-
LONIAL PERIOD IN AMERICAN EDUCATION.
The early history of European practice is in-
cluded m the article on MIDDLE AGES, EDUCA-
TION IN The general place of girls* education
in various countries at the present time is
given in the articles on the separate national
systems, The entire subject of higher educa-
tion is treated in ertenw under the caption
WOMEN, HIGHKR EDUCATION OF

GIRLS' PUBLIC DAY SCHOOL TRUST.

— An organization founded in England in 1872
to provide secondary education for girls It-
was an outcome of the larger movement which
centered in the National Union for Improving
the Education of Women The Trust num-
bered among its promoters Mis William (trey,
Miss Gurney, and Sir J P Kay-Shuttle worth.
The work was organized on a commercial basis,
and the shareholders receive a dividend of five
per cent, any surplus being devoted to im-
proving the schools The first school was
opened at Chelsea The aim of the Trust is
declared to be to provide for girls opportunities
similar to those open to boys in the great
Public Schools <l Particular stress is laid on
the formation of character by moral and
religious training and for fitting gnls for the
practical business and duties of life " A full
secondary school course is provided in all the
schools, which number more than thirty and
have over 7000 pupils A training department
for teachers in secondary schools, as well as in
drawing and music, is maintained at the Clap-
ham High School, which also prepares foi the
Teachers' Diploma of London and Cambridge
Universities and the Froebel Certificate
Special courses in domestic economy are given
in some schools to pupils who have completed
the legular courses The fees charged vary
according to the age of the pupil from £9 9.si.
to £15 15.s. ($47-478 a year) A few scholar-
ships are maintained at each school

References : —

BREMNER, C S The Education of Gnls and Women

(London, 1897)

Girl*' tirhool Yeai Book (London, annual )
SCHMID, K A (Jetichichtc dn Erzithnng, Vol V, Pt 2,

pp 298-.iOO /-)«* MadchenBihulwetten in England.

(Stuttgart, 18*4-11)02.)

GIRTON COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE, ENG-
LAND — An institution founded in 1869 at

114

Henslow House, Hit chin, foi the higher educa-
tion of \\oinen T1 \Mit> the outcome of the
efforts of Miss Kinilv DHVICK who had unsuc-
cessfully tried to influence the Schools Inquiry
Commission (1865-1S67) to support the estab-
lishment of such an institution Through her
hook The Higher Education of Women (1866)
she had contributed to the progress of the
women's educational movement in England.
In 1808 she secured influential support and
subscriptions which led to the opening of the
house at Hitchm with six students. In 187.3
the college was moved to (iirton College, near
Cambridge. Instruction was given by the
resident tutors and several professors of the
University along the lines of the university
requirements, and the students were admitted
to university lectures by courtesy In 1881 the
Senate granted permission to the students to
present themselves for the university Tripos
examinations for degrees, the College grants
degree certificates, but not degrees on the
results At the1 same time the lectures were
tin own open to the women The remarkable
successes of the students gave a considerable
impetus to the cause of higher education of
women, a large majority of the alumnae hav-
ing devoted themselves to teaching in girls'
secondary schools The enrollment of the
college in 1909-1910 was 158

Reference : —

DAVIEH, EMILI Questions relating to Women, 1860-
1908 (Cambridge, 1910 )

GLADSTONE, WILLIAM EWART (1809-
1898) — The great English statesman did not
play as gi eat a part in the development of Eng-
lish education as might be expected from his
general interest in national welfare and progress.
He approached the question of elementary ed-
ucation almost entuely with a strong belief
in the claims of an established church In
1888 he was a member of the Select Committee
for the Education of the Poorer Classes ap-
pointed to consider the best means of provid-
ing useful education in large towns Gladstone
insisted on religious education as a basis for
state aid It was about this time, too, that
lie proposed the establishment of teachers'
training schools in every diocese, and the
licensing of teachers by bishops In 1854 he
was instrumental in removing tes-ts on admis-
sion and graduation at Oxford, although he
insisted that the teaching and governing re-
main functions of the Church of England.
He was opposed to a Crown Commission to
inquire into the universities and would have
preferred reform from within When the
Education Bill of 1870 was brought forward by
Forster (qv), Gladstone was lukewarm in his
support As he himself admitted later in a
review of a biography of Forster (Nineteenth
Century, September, 1888), his views " were by
no means identical with the views of Forster "

GLASGOW

GLASGOW

" My responsibility," he writes, " is that of
coneurrenee rather than of authorship " He
would have preferred a system of local option
on the question of religious instruction, for, as
he says, u in all things, including education, 1
prefer voluntary to legal machinery, when the
thing can be well done either way." In 1873
he undertook the difficult question of Irish
University Reform, and in attempting to com-
promise met with the opposition of both Catho-
lics and Protestants on account of his " gigan-
tic scheme of godless education "

As a scholar Gladstone stood high His
love for the classics ranked almost next to his
devotion to his religion Any proposal to in-
tioduce pure science, natural science, modern
languages, and modern history as subjects
equivalent to Latin and Greek he refused to
consider as possible, all of the new subjects
he regarded as " auxiliary " to classical train-
ing And his argument for classics was based
not only on their cultural and disciplinary
value but on the fact that u European civiliza-
tion from the middle ages downwaids is the
compound of two great factors, the Christian
religion for the spirit of man, and the Greek,
and in a secondary degree the Roman, disci-
pline for his mind and intellect " At the same
tune lie recognized that such an education was
for the elite only, " it can only apply in full
to the small proportion of the youth of any
country who are to become in the fullest sense
educated " While Gladstone's influence on
English education was very slight, the point
of view of the leader demands attention, for it
is representative of the opinions prevailing in
England in the middle of the nineteenth cen-
tury

References : —

B \HNARD American Journal of Education, Vol XXII,
pp 433, 4.i4 , Vol XXVI, pp 7(»1 766 (Speech 011
Irish Umvoisity Question)

Journal of Education (London), June, 1898, pp 329-330.

MORLLY, LORD Life of Gladstone (London, 1903 )

GLASGOW, THE UNIVERSITY OF. — A

coeducational institution situated in Glasgow,
Scotland, founded (1451), like most other ancient
universities, by the authority of the Church of
Rome The Bishop of Glasgow and his suc-
cessors in office were appointed to rule over
the college Up till 1460 the university seems
to have had no permanent home, but in that
year, James, Lord Hamilton, bequeathed to the
Principal of the College of Arts, and his suc-
cessors m office, a tenement with four acres of
land adjoining, situated in the old High Street
of the city In buildings on this site, the
classes of the university continued to meet for
upwards of four hundred years, until the new
university buildings situated at Gilmorehill
were ready for occupation in 1870 Owing to
the ecclesiastical changes, and the political
conditions of the country, the university passed
through many vicissitudes during the first two

hundred years after its establishment, and it
was not until the beginning of the eighteenth
century that it began to make steady, con-
tinuous, and permanent progress This mani-
fested itself in (1) the specialization of the
teaching within the University, and (2) in
the establishment of new chairs During the
last Decade of the seventeenth century and
the whole of the eighteenth century, eight
new professorships were established, viz .
mathematics (1691), humanity (1706), oriental
languages (1709), civil law (1712), medicine
(1712)," history (1716), anatomy (1718), and
astronomy (1760) Thereafter, for nearly fifty
years, no additional chairs were added, but
beginning with the establishment of the chair
of natural history (1807) there came the estab-
lishment of professorships in surgery (1815),
midwifery (1815), chemistry (1817), botany
(1818), matena medica (1831), institutes of
medicine (1839), forensic medicine (1839), civil
engineering (1840), conveyancing (1861), Eng-
lish language and literature (1861), biblical
criticism (1861), clinical surgery (1874), clini-
cal medicine (1874), naval architecture (1883),
history (1893), pathology (1893), and political
economy (1896) During the present century
separate chairs have been founded in geology
(1903), zoology (1903), and mining (1906)
Further, since 1892 many additional lecture-
ships have also been established, the more im-
portant being those of French, German, Italian,
and Celtic in the Department of Language and
Literature, education, psychology, and political
philosophy in the Department of Philosophy,
constitutional law and history, and economic
history in the Department of History and
Law In addition, both in medicine and in
science, lectureships in the more specialized
departments of these subjects have been re-
cently instituted

The present buildings in the west of 1he
city were opened in 1870 In addition to the
buildings used for teaching, there is also the
Bute Hall, the gift of the late Marquis of
Bute. Here are held the graduation and
other important ceremonies of the university
Residences are provided within the grounds
for the principal and several of the professors
In 1893, as a result of the admission of women
students to the universities of Scotland, the
Governors of Queen Margaret College, an
institution for the higher education of women
and housed in North Park, handed over to the
university its buildings and grounds for the
use of the women students Since then Queen
Margaret College has ceased to be an inde-
pendent institution and has been wholly incor-
porated with the university Within recent
years, extensive additions have been made to
the original buildings at Gilmorehill, including
(a) classrooms and laboratories for the teach-
ing of engineering ; (&) lecture rooms, a museum
and herbarium for the teaching of botany,
and (c) an extension of the anatomical depart-

115

GLASGOW

GLOMERY

men! Two other groups of buildings have
lately been added, one for the teaching of
physics, the other to provide better accom-
modation and equipment for the teaching of
physiology, matena medica, and forensic medi-
cine.

The present constitution of the umveisity
dates from the passing of the Universities
(Scotland) Act of 1858, and as amended by the
Act of 1889, and is similar to that of Edin-
burgh (q v ) and other Scottish universities
The University Court, now composed of four-
teen members, representative of the General
Council of graduates of the Senatu* Academicus
and of the students, is the chief governing and
administrative body; the duties of the Scriatus
being mainly concerned with the regulation and
superintendence of the teaching and discipline
within the university The woik of the univer-
sity is, at present, divided into live faculties or
departments, viz : the faculties of (1) arts, (2)
science; (3) medicine, (4) law, and (5) divinity

The Faculty of Arts is the largest in the
university and is attended by more than 1200
students yearly It provides a course foi
graduation in aits The work of the faculty
is divided into four departments, vi/ : those
of language and literature, of mental philoso-
phy, of mathematics and science, and of history
and law The course for graduation may be
taken either in five or six subjects, provided
that when a course of five subjects is taken,
two of these must be studied dining 1wo
sessions, and an examination passed on a
higher standard than in the other thiee sub-
jects of the course If a curriculum of six sub-
jects is chosen, one of these must be studied
duimg two years, and of the other five, two
must be cognate (c g logic and moral philoso-
phy) and miiht be taken up in separate sessions
A further regulation enacts that eveiv cur-
riculum for the ordinary degree in arts must
include a philosophical subject, either logic or
moial philosophy The degree with honors in
arts may be taken in the following departments
of study, viz : (a) classics, (6) philosophy,

(c) mathematics and natural philosophy,

(d) English, (e) history, (/) economics,
(g) French and German, (/?) French, Italian,
Latin (any two), (0 Germanic language and
literature (with English), (j) Celtic language
and literature (with Latin), (A) Semitic lan-
guages (Hebrew and Arabic)

In the Faculty of Science, in addition to the
course leading to the degree of Bachelor in
Pure Science, courses are also provided in
applied science, leading to the bachelor's degree
in (a) engineering, in (b) agriculture, in (c)
public health, and in (r/) pharmacy Higher
degrees in both science arid arts may be con-
ferred on graduates on the presentation and
approval of a thesis after five years from the
date of their graduation

In the Faculty of Medicine, courses are pro-
vided for students leading to the degree of

Bachelor of Medicine and Bachelor of Suigerv
(MB, CM) The couise normally extends
over live years Holders of the lower degree
may on certain conditions proceed thereafter
to the degree of Doctor of Medicine (M D )
or Master of Surgery (M Ch )

The Faculty of Law provides two degree
courses, one open only to graduates and lead-
ing to the degree of Bachelor of Laws (LL B ),
and the other and lower degree of Bachelor of
Law (B L ) open to non-graduates m arts on
certain conditions The faculty of divinity
provides a course for graduates in arts leading
to the degree of Bachelor of Divinity (B D )
Honorary degrees may also be conferred in
law (LL D ) and in divinity (D D )

The total number of students in attendance
during session 1909-1910 was 2728, made up
as follows arts, 1253, medicine, 698, science,
443, law, 204, divinity, 61 Enrolled in more
than one faculty 20, single-course students, 48
Since 1892, when the University was thrown
open to women students, the number has
gradually increased In session 1909-1910
women students numbered 642, of whom 534
were enrolled in the Faculty of Arts and 71 in
the Faculty of Medicine * The staff of the
University, at present, embraces 32 professors
and 52 lecturers (exclusive of assistants to
proiessois) A D

References . —

OOUTTH, ,J A History of the University of Glasgow from
th Foundation in 14,11 to 1909 (Glasgow, 1<KW )

Glasgow Unix orsitv Rccoid of th< Ninth Juhilrt , /^7/
1901 (CJhiHKow, 1901 )

K&itii, J Kcottibh Education, School and Untvcr\tti/
fiont Early Tnnct, to 1908 (C'amhrul^c, 11)10)

STRONG, J A ///s/u/v of tiwondun/ Education in Scot-
land from th< Earliest Tunes to 19O8 (Oxford, 1 909 )

GLENALMOND, TRINITY COLLEGE —

See GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, ENGLISH, COLLEGES,
ENGLISH, PUBLIC SCHOOLS

GLOBES —See MAPS

GLOMERY — This word is simply a cor-
ruption of the word" grammar/' dating (appar-
ently) from the thirteenth century Owing to
its use at Cambridge as late as the sixteenth
century, where the Master of Glomery (Magistei
ghmcrice) in 1533-1544 exercised the* functions,
afterwards performed by the professor of Greek
and the Public Orator, of presenting for degrees,
a great deal of wild guessing took place as to
its meaning Fuller, in his History of the Uni-
versity of Cambridge, published in 1659, leaves
it as a mystery " Let it suffice us to know
that the original of the word seems barbarous,
his office narrow and topical (confined to Cam-
bridge) and his certain use at this day anti-
quated and forgotten " Even Dr Rashdall, in
his Universities of Europe, speaks of the Master
of Glomery as a " wholly peculiar Cambridge
institution " Dr (Jams, the Elizabethan his-
torian of Cambridge, had derived the name " as

116

GLOMERY

GNOSTICISM

if so c'iillrcl a glomeiando from ' going round
about ' the Regent-houses to collect the votes
at congregations , or from ' gathering their
votes glomcrated/ that is, rolled and lounded
up in a piece of paper "

In point of fact the Master of Glomcry at
Cambridge was at first nothing more than the
grammar schoolmaster The first extant notice
of him is in a document of the year 1276, m
which the Bishop of Kly regulated the rela-
tions and defined the area of jurisdiction of the
Master of Glomcry, the Chancellor of the
university, and the Archdeacon of Ely The
grammar master is to have exclusive jurisdic-
tion in all cases in which grammar scholars
(glomerelh) are dependents, as other masters
have in the cases of their scholars, so that
whether university scholars or laymen wish to
convene grammar scholars or get anything
from them by judicial process they shall do it
before the Glomery Master unless it be a ques-
tion of rent of lodgings or involving loss of
university rights when the Ghawelloi is to
decide The grammai beadle was not to carry
his mace in university convocations nor before
the Chancellor, but he might continue to do so
elsewhere, especially when executing his office
This document is of great interest in the his-
torv of universities as it showed how the later
juiisdiction of the Chancellor of the students
of the higher or university faculties had
eclipsed the glory of the pieexisting giummar
schoolmastei That the Glomery Master was
nothing more is clear from the oath which he
took on admission by the Archdeacon of Kly
to discharge all the duties of the glomery
school of Cambridge (opera scolarum glomence
CantibriguB) without any extortion from the
scholais The oaths and names of the Glomcrv
Masters until 1437 are preserved in the Aich-
deacon of Ely's book now at Cams College
The (ilomery School was, undei the title of
Gramer Scolc, granted to trustees of King's
College and incorporated in its site in 1440,
but the lane in which it had stood was still
called Glomery Lane* when Dr Cams wrote in
the reign of Elizabeth After 1437 the Glomcry
Master appeared to have been meicly the super-
intendent of the grammai schools in Cambridge
and head of the grammar faculty presenting
candidates for the degree in grammai The
last who enjoyed the title was Sir John Chcke
(q v ) in 1533-1534, and it is piesumod that
his office was deemed to be merged in that of
the Professor of Greek That the term is
not peculiar to Cambridge appears from the
earliest account roll of the grammar school
attached to Merton College, Oxford In the
year 1277, 20s was paid to the grammai master
(magistro glomcne) for five boys for one term,
or at the rate of 4,s. a head At Bury St
Edmunds, in 1288 or 1289, an official issued
a mandate against certain pedagogues wrong-
fully usurping the title of master who pre-
sumed to keep adulterine schools, pretending

to teach dialecticians, grammar scholars (<,L>
mercllos) against the will of the schoolmastei
of St Edmunds, and directing then excom-
munication A similar mandate, a few years
later, was directed against John Harrison for
teaching ffloniMcllvb and other pupils At
Salisbury in 1308 the grammar schoolhousc is
described as *cole glomcnv, which in 1322 appears
as scolt gfamaticales, thus establishing the
identity of meaning beyond doubt

The corruption is probably of French origin
as it appears in the Battle of the Seven Aits
of Henry d'Andelv written about 1250 (ed A
Ileion, 1881) in which the glomerians assemble
at Orleans, where classics were still the pre-
dominant study, under the banner of giammar,
to attack the logicians intrenched at Pans

A F L

GLOSSARIES,

VOCABULARIES

GR^CO-LATIN — See

GNOSTICISM — During the second cen-
tury of the Christian Era there arose a strange
medley of doctrinal speculations, known as
Gnosticism, which disturbed the peace of the
Church and necessitated the development of a
Christian theology They represented a sys-
tematic eliort to fuse Christianity into the vast
fabric of speculation erected by philosophic
thought Men of keen intelligence, having
embraced Clnistiaiuty, naturally applied to its
investigation the methods of Jewish learning
and Greek philosophy There soon sprang
into existence a multitude of pantheistic-
idealistic sects, varying widely in their ideas,
but agreeing upon certain basic principles
They all piofessed a <7?w,s/,s 01 spiritual en-
lightenment They regarded Christianity as a
system of metaphysics to be expressed m the
categories of specula! ne thought They held
that the soul attains its nghtful end, not by
faith and woiks, but by receiving a tradition of
knowledge, communicated only to the initiated
few and to which the masses of mankind
could not attain This doctrine of salvation
by knowledge limited the enjoyment of reli-
gion to a few illummati The Gnostics were
" those who knew," a superior order of beings
apait from ordinary believers Most of them
wore dualists Adopting the familiar axiom
of the philosophers, " evil inheres in matter,"
they despised the physical world as the creation,
not' of the Supreme Deity, but of a Demiurge,
a limited secondary god Some said matter
was eternal, others explained it as rubbish
remaining after the completion of the spiritual
phioma, the result of accident or negligence m
the process of creation They regarded the
human body as an incumbrance in which the
soul is held captive and from which it will
escape at death They denied the resurrection
of the body and explained away the Incarnation
of Christ, geneially adopting the docetic theory,
that Christ was a pure spirit with a phantasmal

117

GODDARD

GODWIN

or appantional body. To account for the evo-
lution of the universe, they called into exist-
ence a series of " endless genealogies," a long
chain of lower gods or aons, connecting the
world with God The Demiurge and the
material world were more or less antagonistic
to God, and this present existence was essen-
tially evil Thus Gnosticism was a philosophic
and religious pessimism It was too specula-
tive to be bound by scriptures, creeds, and
sacraments There was no central authority
Every Gnostic teacher shaped his theories to
suit himself and garnished them with " great
swelling words " The Gnostics were more
active than the orthodox Christians in literary
and educational work Their great teachers
— BasilidcH (c 125), Valentmus (125-140),
Bardesanes (154-222), Heiacleon (c 1GO), ami
Marcion (c 150) made many disciples who
became famous educators and founded colleges
in Antioch, Alexandria, and other centers of
learning to which multitudes of students were
drawn They produced a vast and varied col-
lection of writings, most of which have perished
The Gnostic theories possess a curious interest
for the scientist, and especially the psychologist,
because of their original and often fantastic
efforts to solve the great problems of life and
mind W R

See ALEXANDRIA SCHOOLS OF

References : —

Anlc-Nitene Father*, under Irentcus, Trrtulhan, and

HippolytiiH (Now Yoik, 1890)
HAHNACH, A History of Dogma (London, 181)4 )
KING, C W The Gntntici* and their Remmnb (London,

1887.)

LJPHUJH, R A Der Gnosticismun (Leipzig, 1800)
RA!NY, R Ancient Catholic Chunk (Now York,

1902)
ROUTH, M ,T Reliqutff Sacrce. (Oxford, 1848.)

GODDARD, WILLIAM STANLEY (1757-
1845) — One of the most influential Head-
masters of Winchester College Himself edu-
cated at Winchester and Morton College,
Oxford, where he graduated BA in 1781, he
became usher or second master at his old
school in 1784 Under l)r Warton, head-
master at this time, the numbers had dwindled,
discipline was lax, and scholarship was low
As a result of a " rebellion " of the pupils, Dr
Warton resigned and was succeeded bv Dr
Goddard in 1796 He introduced a new spirit
into the school; the numbers increased, the
standard of scholarship was raised, but above
all he showed great tact in managing boys, in
putting trust in them, and in permitting a
certain measure of self-government Dr Ar-
nold was a pupil at Winchester under Goddard,
and there can be no doubt that he owed much
to his influence arid to Winchester traditions,
to Goddard's tact Dr. Arnold frequently re-
curred A large number of boys educated at
Winchester at this period attained eminence in
later life Dr Goddard retired in 1809, became
prebendary of St Paul's in 1814, canon of

118

vSahsbury in 1829, and died in 1845 He gave,
during his lifetime, £25,000 to his old school
to be used for masters' salaries in place of the
iniquitous system of gratuities
See WINCHESTER COLLEGE

References : —

ADAMH, H C Wykehamica (Oxford, 1878 )
Dictionary of National Biography

LEACH, A F A History of Winchester College (New
York, 1899)

GODWIN, MARY WOLLSTONECRAFT

(1759-1797) — An English author, the wife of
William Godwin (qv), whose political and
social theories she shared Impatient with a
system of female education which made puppets
of girls and killed individuality, she wrote, in
1792, the Vindication of the Right* of Women,
a remarkably capable plea for the political,
social, and intellectual enfranchisement of
women Her geneial thesis is 41 make women
rational creatures and free citizens and they
will quickly become good wives and mothers;
that is, if men do not neglect the duties of hus-
bands and fathers " Women should be " free
from all restraints by allowing them to par-
ticipate in the inherent rights of mankind "
Hence she was strongly opposed to the type
of education proposed bv Rousseau for Sophia
In a chapter on National Education, Miss
Godwin takes occasion to criticize seveiely
private education and private and boarding
schools, which arc marked bv tyranny and
slavery to forms The private schools give
little thought to inoial tiainmg, the masters
considering then duty done if they teach Latin
and Greek and send a few good scholars to the
universities But "it is not foi the benefit
of society that a few brilliant men should be
bi ought forward at the expense of the multi-
tude " Hence she advocat.es a system of
national education in the first years, at least,
on a puielv demon atie basis A national
system should provide a common school foi
children of all classes from the age of five to
nine Reading, writing, and arithmetic, natural
history, simple experiments in natural philoso-
phy, botany, mechanics, astronomy, religion,
history, and politics would make up the cur-
riculum, but play m the open air must novel
be neglected After the age of nine the poorer
children would go to industrial schools for
vocational training, while the rich would study
languages, science, history, and politics. Both
sexes were to be educated together, for coedu-
cation serves to perfect both not only morally,
but for companionship through life

In her other work, Thoughts on the Education
of Daughter* (1787), she also attacks the nar-
row training of girls for the drawing room,
which was HO characteristic of the tune Sug-
gestions are here offered for the education of
girls which would leplace the prevailing super-
ficiality, weakness, dependence, and affectation
of women by a healthy independence and desire

GODWIN, WILLIAM

GODWIN, WILLIAM

to share m the world's work as the companions
of men. Mrs Godwin, always devoutly reli-
gious, took a strong interest m moral training
of children, and translated Salzmann's Moral-
isches Elcmentarbuch (Elements of Morality,
1790), with modifications to suit English con-
ditions (See SALZMANN, CHRISTIAN GOT-
THILF )

References : —

Dutionary of National Biography

GODWIN, \\ Memoirs of Mary Wollxtonetraft Godwin.

(Philadelphia, 1799)

JEIIB, C Mary Wollntom craft (London, 1912 )
PAUL, r KEG AN Mary Wollytonecraft (London, 1870 )
PLNNELL, E It Life of Mary W ollat oncer aft (Boston,

1884 )
TAYLOR, CJ R S Mary Wolhtonccrnft, n Htudy in Kco-

nonnrx and Jtomancij (London, 1911 )

WOLLSTONECKAFT, MARY (MRS GODWIN) Vindxa-

tioti of the HiykU of Women, edited with introduc-
tion by Mrs Henry Fawcett In Humboldt
Library of Science, Vol XV (London, 1891 )

GODWIN, WILLIAM (17:>6-1836) - Eng-
lish political philosopher, novelist, and anti-
quarian, the son of a dissenting minister and
himself a minister from 177$ to 17X3, when he
came under the influence of the Fiench phi-
losophers and English republicans lie sym-
pathized with the theory of the Fiench Revolu-
tion, but hardly with the methods of procedure
He associated with the most prominent Eng-
lish radicals, and m 1793 his Enquiry concern-
ing Political Justice and its Influence on Morals
and Happiness placed him at the head of the
extremists This work, which attracted con-
siderable attention and was a source of inspira-
tion to many young men, was an attack on all
forms of government as means of constraint
and control The relations of individuals in
society should be regulated on a basis of justice,
" a principle which proposes to itself the pro-
duction of the greatest sum of pleasure and hap-
piness," and this principle in turn depends on
reason Godwin's belief in the perfectability
of man was connected with his belief that reason
could be improved indefinitely Hence he be-
lieved in the boundless possibilities of educa-
tion, of which all alike were capable In this
work Godwin held that the differences between
individuals due to heredity were of small ac-
count and would disappear under the influence
of a common education The administration
of education he would not leave in the control
of a national government, since it would tend
to perpetuate its own opinions and would pre-
vent the development of an open mind ready
to search for truth rather than to accept opin-
ions, and, further, private endeavor on the
part of teacher and taught would be accom-
panied by " enthusiasm and energy " But
while this work was evidently written under
French influence, there is little trace of Rous-
seau in Godwin's educational writings- The
Enquirer, Reflections on Education, Manners,
and Literature (London, 1797), and Thought*
on Man; his Nature, Production, and Dis-

coveries (London, 1831) In the Preface of the
earlier work the author declares his belief in
the intimate connection between the cause of
political reform and the cause of intellectual
and literary refinement The objects of edu-
cation arc the attainment of happiness, virtue,
and wisdom, each of these depending on the
other In discussing the value of private
(tutorial) or public education (i <' m school)
Godwin argues in favor of the latter on social
grounds, for " to practice upon a smaller theater
the business of the world must be one of the
most desirable sources of instruction and morals,"
and further, the child learns more fiom mtei-
course with his companions than from the
teacher The purpose of education is to " pro-
vide against the age of five and twenty a mind
well regulated, active, and prepaied to learn "
Hence the importance which he attaches to
habit formation in the young; the school is not
to impart knowledge so much as habits of in-
tellectual activity Godwin accepted the dis-
ciplinary value of the classics, for the retention
of which he states arguments which have not
since been improved upon by their advocates
But the most remarkable pronouncement is
that on method in the essay Of the Communi-
cation of Knowledge, an anticipation of the
doctrine of interest " The best motive to
learn is a perception of the value of the thing
learned, the worst, motive may well be

affirmed to be constraint and fear, there is a
motive between these desire not springing

from the intrinsic excellence of the object, but
from the accidental attractions which the
teacher may have attached to it " If his plan
of giving the pupil a motive to learn and smooth-
ing out his difficulties is adopted, the author
believes that the face of education will be
changed and " no such characters are left upon
the scene as either preceptor or pupil " Ac-
cording to the new method " the pupil should
go first and the master follow " While he
admires " the treatise of Rousseau upon edu-
cation " as " probably a work of the highest
value," he criticizes his system severely be-
cause of lack of frankness on the part of the
tutor and because of the deception played on
the pupil, for " his whole system is a series of
tricks, a puppet-show exhibition, of which the
master holds the wires, and the scholar is never
to suspect in what manner they aie moved "
In the Thoughts Godwin has clearly made
some advance in educational theory While
he still has faith in the great educational value
of the classics, he advises that a pupil who has
no ability for language should be taken away
from those studies More respect should be
shown to individuality; the capacities of a
scholar should be studied and his career and
education should follow accordingly. An ill-
adapted curriculum is frequently at fault
rather than innate stupidity, for " nature never
made a dunce '' Godwin is thus compelled
to recommend a wider curriculum, including

119

GOETHE

GOLDSMITH

14 the rudiments of all the sciences that are in
ordinal y use," than he had done in the En-
quirer Tn this volume there is also an attack
on phrenology and insistence on the unity of
the mind The author discredits the view
put forward by the phrenologists that an indi-
vidual is endowed with special abilities, and
shows that a child may be born with general
ability which can be directed to special ends
(Godwin's political work was soon forgotten, and
his educational writings, though full of sound
common-sense views and sympathy, did not
exercise* any marked influence
References : —

J)i(tionnry of National Biography

HAZLITT, W The Spirit of the Age, pp 27-54 (Lon-
don, 1S25)

RLUAN, C K William Godwin, htx Friends and Con-
temporaries (London, 1876 )

STEPHEN, SIK LESLIE Hours in a Library, Vol III,
pp 04 100 (London, 1892)

GOETHE, JOHANN WOLFGANG (1749-
1832) — Although Goethe has not formu-
lated any connected system of education, his
works contain some of the deepest and most
fruitful pedagogic thoughts His interest in
education was early aroused through the woiks
of Hasedow and Rousseau, in Weimai he di-
rected the education of the son of Frau von
Stem, a young man of rather mediocie talents,
whom Schillei, however, pronounced a " peda-
gogic masterpiece", and, as a minister, he
exerted a great influence on the educational
affairs of the duchy of Weimar Above all,
Goethe studied the development of his own
mind, striving to laise himself to higher and
higher levels This conscious process of self-
education, coupled with the poet's profound in-
sight into human life, invests Goethe's ideas on
education with a great interest and significance
Goethe realizes the necessity of education, al-
though he believes that the educatoi cannot
put anything into the mind which is not aheady
there by nature The method of education
must be self-activity, education must be posi-
tive and not repressive, education through
feai is the worst of all

The object of education, according to Goethe,
is the development, from within, of all the
powers of the human mind, so as to produce an
harmonious personality which will be active
in the service of society This social view of
education finds expression in the description
of the " pedagogic province " of his novel
Wilheltn M cistci '« Wander jahrc In this prov-
ince, which forms a small state in itself, and
from which all unpedagogic influences are care-
fully excluded, boys are educated in common,
each for that kind of occupation for which he
seems to show the greatest aptitude Then-
education is thoroughly practical, and is per-
meated by an ethical spirit to which Goethe
gives the name of " reveience " Thiee kinds
of reverence aie inculcated: for that which is
above us, that which is around us, and that

120

which is beneath us, in other words, for God,
Humanity, arid Nature From these three
reverences springs the highest, which is self-
reverence These ethical teachings are em-
bodied in appropriate symbols and transmitted
by song F. M.

References : —

LANUOUTH, A Goethe alt, Padayvg (Halle, 1886 )
MUNZ, B Goethe cdt> Krzicher (Leipzig, 1904 )
OLDENBLWJ, A Grundhnien der Padafjogik Goethes.

(Zittau, 1858 )
REIN'S Encyklopadischct* Handbuch, sv Goethe a/«

Padayoy
SPALDING, J L Opportunity and Other Essays, pp 142-

189 (Chicago, 1900)
VENABLE, W H Let Him First be a Man, pp 195-212

(Boston, 1894 )

GOLDEN SECTION. — When a spacial
figure is so divided that it obeys the formula

the longest side is to the shortest side as the
sum of the two sides is to the longest side,
the division is especially pleasing to the ob-
server and is designated the golden section
This formula is obeyed by oinamental crosses,
by books and pictures, to such an extent that it
is evident that the relation is common and nat-
ural to oven untrained individuals The ex-
planation of the satisfactory chaiactei of this
division is not easy to give Such a division
departs from absolute symmetry enough to give
variety, and it is near enough to symmetry so
that neither dimension is extiavagantly different
from the other C H J.

See ESTHETICS

Reference : —

FECHNER, G T Zur experimcntalen Aesthetik (Leip-
zig, 1871 )

GOLDSMITH, OLIVER (1728-1774) —

The English poet and writer has left among his
wiitmgs some excellent descriptions of the life
of an assistant 01 usher and a criticism of the
education of his day As a boy he had been
moved about fiom school to school with but
little intellectual profit from any of them It is
supposed that it is the master of the second
school which he attended, Thomas Byrne, a
retired soldier, who is the prototype of the
Village Schoolmaster in the Deserted Village: —

"And still they gazed and still the wonder grew
That one small head could carry all he knew "

As a student he was at Trinity College, Dublin,
at Edinburgh, and at Louvam For a time he
assisted in a school kept by his brother, served
as private tutor in Ireland, and was usher at
Pcckham Academy, so that his account of the
humiliating position of the usher is based pos-
sibly on first-hand experience It is in the same
essay that he criticizes the declamatory style
of educational writings and asks for a more
scientific manner of presentation and for
44 didactic simplicity " (loldsmith attacks the
numerous private boai ding schools of the period.
"Is any man unfit for any of the professions,

GOLDTHWAITE

GOODRIOH

he finds his last lesource in .setting up school,"
with no small profit to himself The state
should interfere and at least " cast its eye to
their instructors," a suggestion which still
remains to be put into effect in England
Better salaries are required to secure1 abler men
for the teaching profession The public schools
are superior to private schools, for " it is riot
from their masters, but from their equals youth
learn a knowledge of the world " Tempeiance
and frugality, qualities which (ioldsrimh had
negatively discovered to be desirable, should
be taught m school, and moial tales should be
introduced (loldsmith fuither attacks the
teaching of rhetoric and elocution, where con-
viction and a knowledge of the subject and
language are of greatei value He was also
opposed to the encyclopedic curriculum of his
day, by which " the child soon becomes a talker
in all and a master in none " Clearly some-
thing of " soft pedagogy " was already creeping
into the schools, for Goldsmith mentions the
futility of teaching language through textbooks
with text on one side and literal translation on
the other Further, he says, " attempting to
deceive children into instruction is only

deceiving ourselves, and I know no passion
capable of conquering a child's natural laziness
but fear" In another work (Present State of
Polite Learning) the author discusses the rel-
ative merits of travel and study in college, and
decides m favor of the lattei for the young man
The universities lie divides into three groups
those which retain the scholastic tradition, —
Prague, Louvam, and Padua, those which do
not prescribe the length of residence for a degree
nor control the students, — Edmbuigh, Gottin-
gen, Leyden, Geneva, and those which have a
prescribed period of study and some control, —
Oxford, Cambudge, and Dublin Dealing with
the general characteristics of the universities
he controverts the belief that they are places
to advance learning, for " new improvements in
learning are seldom adopted in colleges until
admitted everywhere else And this is right,
we should always be cautious of teaching the
rising generation uncertainties foi truth " And
lastly this modern touch may be added,
" Learning is most advanced m populous cities,
where chance often conspires with industry to
promote it "

References : —

BAKNARD, H American Journal of Education, Vol

XIII, pp 347-358

BLACK, W Goldsmith (London, 1883 )
DOBHON, A Life of Olive? Goldsmith (London, 1888 )
IRVING, WASHINGTON Oliver Goklxmdh

GOLDTHWAITE, WILLIAM C (1816-
1882). — Educational author, educated m the
public schools of Massachusetts and at Amherst
College He was engaged m secondary school
work in Virginia and New Jerscv for a number
of vears and was principal of the academy at
Westfield, Mass , from 1844 to 1868 He was

one of the founders and editors of the A/Vz,s-
bachusett* Teacher, and the aulhoi of geograph-
ical textbooks W S M.

GOLIARDS — The name of a class of wan-
dering students of the middle ages They were
drawn from the clerical orders and consisted
of those who had no cure or office The term
is derived, according to Wnght, from quid, and
refers to their gluttonous and intemperate
habits They wandered from univeisity to
univerMty as hangers-on of the higher clergy,
01 fiom one couit to another, and led a riotous
existence, living geneially fiorn hand to mouth
The bond which bound those who adopted this
form of life together into a sort of fraternity
was adherence to a mythical patron, Gohas or
Golias the Bishop, refeired to also as primas
and archipoeta In his name and m his honor
were perpetrated all the vices and pleasures
which \\ere incidental to a tramp life To him
were dedicated all the songs and literature which
originated with this class, and under his patron-
age were made all the attacks against- ecclesi-
astical authority and e\eiythmg that was con-
sidered sacred, as, foi example, the Apocalypse
(rolioe, a parody on the Apocalypse of St. John
The songs have been collected and published
under the title of Cannina Burana (q v )

See BACCHANTS

References : —

BARNARD. American Journal of Education, Vol V, pp.

6(M f
GIKSEBRECHT, W Die Vagantcn und Gohardcn und ihre

Liedcr (Berlin, 1853 )
LAIHTNER, L GWms Studtn1(nli«hr dtt, Mittclalters

(Stuttgart, 1S7<) )

MONROE, P Thoma* Plaitir (Now Yoik, 1904 )
SCHULZE, F , and SSYMANK, P Dat> drutsihe Studcnten-

turn von denaltesten Ztttcn bis zur Gtyinwart (Leip-
zig, 1910 )
SYMONDS, J A Wmet Women, and tiong (Portland,

Mo , 1HG9 )
WRKJHT, T Latin Poems commonly attributed to Walter

Mapes (London, 1841 )

GONZAGA COLLEGE, SPOKANE, WASH.

— Sec JP:SUS, SOCIETY OF EDUCATIONAL WORK
OF

GONZAGA COLLEGE, WASHINGTON,

DC — See JESUS, SOCIETY OF EDUCATIONAL
WORK OF

GOODNOW, ISAAC T (1814-1891) •—
A pioneer of the common-school movement in
Kansas , was educated at the Wesleyan academy
at Wilbraham, Mass , and was engaged m second-
ary school work first in Massachusetts, Maine,
and Rhode Island, and later in Kansas. He
was president of Bluemont College from 1856 to
1863 and state superintendent of Kansas from
J863 to 1807 W. S. M.

GOODRICH, CHAUNCEY ALLEN (1790-
1800) — Lexicographei ; graduated from Yale
College in 1810 lie was tutor at Yale from
1S12 to 1814 and professor from 1817 to 1839.

121

GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD

GOTHA

He was the authoi of seveial Greek and Latin
textbooks, edited the Qnartcili/ Sfwtutoi, and
brought out, numerous revised editions of the
dictionary of his father-in-law, Noah Webster
(q.v.). W. S.M.

GOODRICH, SAMUEL GRISWOLD (1793-
1860) -— Author of the Peter Parley books,
published eighty-four textbooks and reading
books for children His textbooks include,
besides readers and primers, histories, geog-
raphies, spelling books, and science books

W. S. M.

GORDON, ROBERT (1668- 1731) —Founder
of Robert Gordon's College, an institution for
the education of boys in Aberdeen, Scotland;
was born in 1668 and died m 1731 For many
years he carried on business as a merchant in
Dantzig and amassed considerable wealth.
On his death, he let! his fortune in trust to the
magistrates and ministers of Aberdeen for " the
building of an Hospital and for the maintenance
and education of boys whose parents are poor
and indigent and not able to maintain them at
school, and to put them to trades and employ-
ments " The erection of the Hospital build-
ings was begun soon after the testator's death,
but it was not until 1750 that the school was
formally opened with fourteen boys, under the
mastership of a Robert Abercrombie, minister
at Fortdee From its foundation down to 1881,
the institution was conducted on the basis of the
original foundation as a hospital or boarding
school for the sons of indigent burgesses In
the latter year, acting under powers conferred
by the Endowed Institutions (Scotland Act),
it was agreed to convert the Hospital School
into a college or day school in which the chief
subjects of instruction should be the English
language and literature, history and geography,
modern languages, mathematics, and the ele-
ments of physical and natural science. Pro-
vision was also made for the establishment of
evening classes for youths and adults The in-
stitution was hereafter designated as " Robert
Gordon's College in Aberdeen " Quite recently,
in 1910, the Constitution of the College has
again been changed, and, in the future, Robert
Gordon's College will become an integral part
of the Aberdeen and North of Scotland Techni-
cal College, an institution designed to provide
higher technical education for the North of
Scotland, similar to that provided in the Glas-
gow and West of Scotland Technical College
and m the Edinburgh Heriot-Watt Technical
College A D.

Reference : —

ANDEHHON, ROBERT The History of Robert Gordon
Hospital (1729-1881). (Aberdeen, 1896.)

GORDON COMPREHENSIVE METHOD

— See READING

GORDY, J P (1851-1908) —Educational
writer and professor, educated in the western
University of Pennsylvania arid the University
of Leipzig He was professor of the history of
education in the Ohio State University (1886-
1900) and New York University (1901-1908)
Author of Growth and Development of the
Normal School Idea in the United States;
Education in the Elementary School; and Text-
booh on Psychology W S M

GORHAM, JOHN (1793-1829) — Author
of textbooks m chemistry and physics; was edu-
cated at Harvard College and the University
of Edinburgh and was professor at Harvard.

W S M.

GOTHA, SCHOOL REFORM IN — The

small state of Saxe-Gotha, situated almost in the
center of Germany, holds a position in the his-
tory of education which is almost unique The
earliest record of a school in the duchy is in
1299 when reference is made to a school in con-
nection with the church in the town of Gotha
In 1327 two schools are mentioned, and a few
years later a school of girls is referred to Con-
siderable activity was shown during the peiiod
of the Reformation Myconms, a friend of
Luther, became pastor and superintendent in
Gotha m 1524 Influenced by Luther's Letters
to Councilors and the Letters to Pastors, My-
conms attempted to introduce some form of
elementary education The elements of a sys-
tem arc found in the instruction in reading
which the pastors and sextons were ordered to
give on Sundays This lasted until the Thirty
Years' War, when the small duchy was reduced
to poverty and chaos like so many of her neigh-
bors But from this state of depression Gotha
was raised through the efforts of a ruler whose
interest m the welfare and education of his
people placed him in the forefront With a
firm belief in education imbibed from his mother,
Dorothea Maria, pupil and patron of Ratkc
(qv\ Duke Ernest the Pious recognized that
this was the only means for the regeneration of
his country Already in 1640 he ordered a
school and church visitation to gather informa-
tion as a basis for further action He himself
made some visits personally For the reform
of schools and the establishment of a system
of education he summoned to his aid Andreas
Reyher (q v ) who had been a member of the
philosophical faculty at Leipzig, rector of a
gymnasium, and author of several school texts
Reyher was appointed rector of the gymnasium
at Gotha in 1640 lie was abreast of the best
educational thought of his day, and was ac-
quainted with the work of Alsted, Ratke. and
Comemus (q v.) The Duke commissioned him
to draw up a Methodus docendi primarily for
lower forms of the gymnasium, but useful also
for other schools of the state The result was
the Schulmethodus (School Method or Special
and particular report, stating how, under the

122

GOTHA

GOTHENBURG

protection of the Lord, the boys and girls of
villages , and the children belonging to the lower
class of the population of towns, of this princi-
pality of Gotha can and shall be plainly and suc-
cessfully taught. Written by the order of his
Grace the Prince and printed in Gotha by Peter
Schmieden in the year 1642) This work, which
was carefully revised by the Duke, appeared
in 1642 and again in 1648, 1658, 1662, and 1672
Attendance at school was made compulsory
on pain of a hue not only for absence but for
tardiness The teachers were ordered to be
humane, and to avoid abuse and seventy A
fully prescribed time-table was issued The
chief stress was laid on religious instruction, and
the teachers were to avoid mere memory drill
Writing, spelling, reading, and arithmetic be-
came regular subjects for the elementary school
The most remarkable addition was the study of
natural and other useful sciences, including
mensuration and surveying for boys, natural
phenomena, geography, zoology, information
was to be given on all natural objects in
the neighborhood " Everything that can be
shown to children should be shown " The
oldest children were to be taught civics, some-
thing, about the government of the state and
the importance of education. An annual ex-
amination was to be held at which the super-
intendent was to examine the records of the
previous year and compare with the progress
made at the time of the examination

Twenty model schools were established, new
inspectors were appointed, better teachers were
secured, textbooks were written and distrib-
uted gratis to school children Among the
textbooks which were written by Reyher may
be mentioned the Deutsch ABC- und Syllaben-
buchlein fur die Kinder tm Furstenthumb Gotha
( The German Hornbook and Speller for Children
in the Principality of Gotha) 1641, Teutsche
Lesebuchlein (German Header) 1642; Arithme-
tics, and in 1 ().">() the Kuitzer Unterncht (Short
Instruction in natmal objects, ui some useful
sciences, in ecclesiastical and secular institutions
of the country and in som,e domestic rescripts)
For the training of children in manners a Short
instruction on the behavior of children was pub-
lished in 1654 on conduct of children on rising,
dressing, at meals, at school and church, at
play, and among strangers The teachers were
advised to study by themselves or with pastors
and inspectors Their salaries were raised,
a sick fund was established, and some provision
was made for the maintenance of teachers'
widows and orphans Although he realized
the importance of training teachers, Duke Ernest
could only charge his successors with the duty,
since his own means would not permit the estab-
lishment of a system in his own day

But reforms were not confined to the ele-
mentary schools alone Under Reyher the
gymnasium at Gotha gained a great reputation,
and pupils were drawn from the noble classes
from all parts of Europe The number of

classes was increased, and special attention
was paid to the preparation of the older schol-
ars for the university. The Duke frequently
visited the school and took a special interest in
the conduct of the pupils Many of these
proceeded to Jena, but, while the influence of
the Duke was limited in this university, he
issued a regulation in 1657 for those of his own
subjects who attended there, dealing with the
aim of studies, the means to tins end, and the
distribution of time For the education of his
own children, of whom he had eighteen, he drew
up a rigorous regulation dealing with eveiy
hour of the day

But such a system could only last so long as
he who inspired it lived The " Prince among
educators and educator among Princes " died
in 1675 and had already been preceded by his
able assistant, Reyher, in 1673 Fiom that
date until the middle of the last century the
educational history of Gotha is one of con-
tinued decline, due in some measure to the fact
that the duchy was divided among the sons
of Duke Ernest, and largely to the extnn a-
gance of the petty rulers who spent the coun-
try's wealth in cheap imitations of the Court of
Versailles The decline was arrested for a brief
period under Ernest the Wise ( 1772-1S04), who,
assisted by Haun, inaugurated a reform of the
decayed schools of the state, teacheis were
trained, schools were inspected, luush discipline
was stopped, the appointment of old servants
to schools was checked, better methods of teach-
ing were introduced by the issue in ISO I by
Ilaun of The common school method u? or prac-
tical instruction for inspectors and teacher* of
every kind of elemental ij schools, also for pnvate
teachers, illustrated by correct tables constructed
by J. E. Christian Haun But the party of
reaction again seized control on the death of
Duke Ernest the Wise, and a real and lasting
reform was not introduced until 1863, on the
basis of which a system has been evolved which
places the small duchy of Gotha among the
leaders in the German educational system See
ERNEST 1, THE PIOLS; ERNEST II

References : —

BARNARD, H American Journal of Education, Vol XX.

p 572

SCRMID, K A Oeschichtc der Erziehung, Vol IV, Pt. 1,

pp 1-74. (Stuttgart, 1884-1902)

GOTHENBURG, UNIVERSITY OF, SWE-
DEN — An institution founded in 1SS7 and
opened in 1891 as a result of municipal aid and
private beneficence Lectures and courses had
been organized in the town since 1841 under
the auspices of the Royal Society for Science
and Literature, and these had been subsidized
by the municipal authorities since 1874 The
university at present has only the faculty of
arts Although it is not a state university,
the professors at Gothenburg must be approved
on appointment bv the King, and since 1909,
when the institution received permission to

123

GOTTINGEN

GOUCHKR COLLEGE

conduct certain examinations, it has been
placed under the authority of the Chancellor
of the State Universities In 1910 there was
an enrollment of 166 matriculated students and
41 auditors

Reference : —

Minerva, Handbuch der gelehrten Welt, Vol I (Strass-
burg, 1911.)

GOTTINGEN, THE ROYAL GEORGE
AUGUSTUS UNIVERSITY OF —Founded bv
King George II of England, in his capacity
as Elector of Hanover, the opening of the in-
stitution being celebrated with great ceremony
m 1737, although instruction had actually be-
gun three years prior to this date The uni-
versity forged to the front rapidly, and is to
this day one of the most renowned of the (Jer-
man institutions of higher learning, having
attracted a large number of English and Ameri-
can students, among the latter being Emerson,
Longfellow, Bancroft, and Motley Benjamin
Franklin paid a visit to the university as early
as 1766, and was made a member of the Rovai
Society of Science

The university in its beginnings differed
from those established during the second half
of the sixteenth and during the seventeenth
century in that the theological (Protestant)
faculty was not emphasized to the detriment
of the others, the healthy early development
of the institution being attributable in large
measure to the excellent administration of the
Hanoverian minister, Von Munchhausen (until
1771) During the years of stoim and stress
at the beginning of the nineteenth century,
Gottmgen was included for six years in the
Kingdom of Westphalia, but after the War of
Liberation it was reunited to Hanovei, which
had been raised to the rank of a kingdom A
new era of prosperity was now ushered in,
which unfortunately received a severe setback
as a result of the dismissal in 1837 of seven of
the most celebrated teachers of the university
who had opposed the government in the con-
stitutional conflict, the number including
Jakob and Wilhclm Grimm and the historians
Dahlmann and Gervinus In 1866 Gottmgen
became a Prussian institution, but its loss of
independence — it had been the sole Hano-
verian university — was by no means accom-
panied by a decline in efficiency, as the Prussian
Ministry has always evinced a warm interest
in the institution, which has been manifested
in recent years by the erection of a number of
splendid medical institutes

The faculty of philosophy is by far the
largest branch of the university, and includes
the oldest philological seminar in Germany, as
well as a picture gallery and a collection of
engravings as adjuncts of the work in the his-
tory of art The anatomical institute contains
Blurnenbach's famous collection of skulls
Considerable emphasis has been and is still
laid at Gdttmgen upon the subject of mathe-

124

matics, while the departments of physics and
physical chemistry are also widely known
The university library, an important collection
from the very first, contains over 550,000
volumes and almost 7000 manuscripts, it being
the largest university library m Germany.
The university also contains a riding academy
and a swimming pool A German institute for
foreign students, the Bottmger Studienhaus,
established by an Elberfeld merchant in 1909,
was transferred to the university of Berlin (1911)
The annual budget of the university amounts
to about $400,000 The town is also the head-
quarters of a famous "Royal Society of Science
(Gc*ell*chaft der WisscnKrhaften— 1751, 1893),
and contains a professional school for Feinme-
chanik

In addition to the scholars referred to above,
mention may be made of Albrecht von Haller
in science, Heyne in philology, Wilhelm Weber
in physics, Wohler m chemistry, Gauss in
mathematics, Curtius, Waitz, arid Roscher in
history, Jhermg and Planck in jurisprudence,
and more recently Montz Heyrie in Germanic
philology llemnch Heine was a student at
Gottmgen from 1820 to 1821, Bismarck from
1832 to 1833

During the winter semester of 1909-1910
Gottmgen ranked seventh in point of attend-
ance among the German universities, enrolling
2342 students (217 women), of whom 112 (57
women) were auditors As at a number of
other German uruveisitics, there are more
students (1419) enrolled in the faculty of
philosophy than in all of the others combined,
including the great majority of matriculated
women The law faculty, which enjoys a high
reputation, also has a large attendance (432),
the school of medicine attracting 262 students
and that of theology 117 In the winter
semester of 1910 there weie 2233 students m
attendance R T , Jr.

References : —

Chronik der Gt'org-Auguatw-Unwcrsitttt fur 1889-1890

Mil Ruckbhcken auffruhere Jahrzehntf (Gottmgen,

1SCH) ) Continued annually
Minerva, Handbuch der geluhrtin Welt, Vol I (Strass-

burg, 1911)
PUTTER, J ST Versuch euier akademiSLhen (JeUhrtcn-

Geschichte von der G cor g- August us- Universittit zu

Gottmgen (GottmRcn, 1705-1838)
ROSSLER, E F Die Grdndungder Unwersitdt Gottmgen

(Gottmgen, 1855 )

GOUCHER COLLEGE, BALTIMORE, MD.

— An institution for the higher education of
women, founded in 1X84 by the Baltimore
Conference of the Methodist Episcopal Church
as the Woman's College of Baltimore The
college was opened in 1888 The present name
was adopted in 1910 The entrance require-
ments are fifteen units of high school work,
and the A B degree is conferred at the end of
a four-years course, consisting of certain re-
quired and elective subjects, with a major in
one department. In cooperation with Johns

GOUGE

GRADE MEETINGS

Hopkins University a College Course for
Teachers is conducted by the faculties of both
institutions, women students satisfying the
requirements of these courses are admitted to
the A B. degree of Goucher College The
number of students enrolled in 1909-1910 was
367. There were thirty-three members on the
instructing staff

GOUGE, THOMAS (1609-1681) — Dis-
senting minister and philanthropist, educated
at Eton and Cambridge Until the Uniformity
Act of 1662 he held a living in London, in
which he conducted catechetical classes and
employed the poor in spinning flax and hemp,
a type of poor relief taken up on a wide scale
by Ins friend Firmin (q v ) Gouge's most
important work, however, was the evangeli-
zation of Wales, which he undertook in 1672
He established schools, and employed teachers
to give instruction in English and the catechism
Ultimately about three hundred schools were
established In addition he also distributed,
mainly at his own expense, religious literature
In 1674 a trust for this purpose was estab-
lished, including eminent churchmen and dis-
sen^ers, and the Bible, Book of Common
Prayer, Church Catechism, and other woiks
were made accessible to the Welsh either
through free distribution 01 at a very low
price So far as Gouge's schools are concerned,
it would seem from Strype's evidence that
they continued aftei his death until the
Society for the Promotion of Christian Knowl-
edge (q v ) became active in Wales (1730)
Gouge, piobably through the influence of
Firmin, a governor of the institution, also
devoted himself to catechizing the scholars of
Christ's Hospital

See CHARITY SCHOOLS

References • —

Dictionary of \ational Biography

MUNTMOHLNC v, .1 E G dr State Intervention in Eng-
lish Education (Cambridge, 1902)

GOULD, BENJAMIN APTHORP (1787-
1859) — The author of a series of Latin text-
books, was educated at Harvard and was
headinastei of the Boston Latin School from
1814 to 1829 W 8 M

GOVERNMENT AID — See ENGLAND,
EDUCATION IN; NATIONAL GOVERNMENT AND
EDUCATION

GOVERNMENT OF CHILDREN —See
REWARDS AND PUNISHMENTS; SCHOOL MANAGE-
MENT.

GOVERNMENT, SCHOOL — See SCHOOL
MANAGEMENT

GOVERNMENT, SELF, IN SCHOOL.—

See SELF-GOVERNMENT OF PUPILS; SCHOOL

MANAGEMENT.

GOVERNMENTAL PUBLICATIONS ON
EDUCATION. — See OFFICIAL PUHLICVTIONS,
and articles on National Systems of Education

GOVERNORS, BOARDS OF —See HOARDS
OF CONTROL

GOWNS — See ACADEMIC COSTUME

GRACE — A term which originally meant a
dispensation granted by a university or some
faculty in it from the " elaborate and compli-
cated regulations " required fiom candidates
for degrees In the early period few candi-
dates required " graces," but by the fifteenth
century the " grace " was asked for as a icgu-
lar practice At Oxford it was granted by the
Congregation of Regents Conditions were
frequently imposed on the gi anting of graces
involving the performance of some action or a
contribution for some purpose, charitable or
otherwise Later a grace came to mean anv
decree of a university which involved a dispen-
sation from statutory requirements The term
is still used in this sense of decrees of the
Senate at Cambridge A further use of the
word is with reference to the permission given
by a college or hall for one of its members to
take a degree

References : —

RASHDALL, II Universities of Europe in the Middle

Agt* (Oxford, 1895)
WELLH, J The Oxford Degree Ceremony (Oxford,

1U06)

GRACELAND COLLEGE, LAMONI, IA —

A coeducational institution opened in 1S95
under the auspices of the Reorganized Church
of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints Prepuia-
tory, collegiate, normal, commercial, music, and
oratory departments are maintained An in-
dustrial department is provided to enable
students to defray part of their expenses
The entrance requirements are equivalent to
twelve units of high school work The degrees
of A B and B S are confericd on completion
of the requnements There is a faculty of thir-
teen members

GRADATION, GRADES, GRADED
SCHOOLS. — See GRADING AND PROMOTION

GRADE GROUP PLAN —See GRADING
AND PROMOTION

GRADE MEETINGS — Teachers in service
are given instruction through teachers' meet-
ings variously composed When the basis of
determining the attendance is the grade or
grades taught by the teachers, the name
" grade meeting " is applied Thus, there are
first grade meetings, third and fourth grade
meetings, or grammar grade meetings. H S

See SUPERVISION OF TEACHING; TEACHERS IN
SERVICE, TRAINING OF.

125

GRADING AND PROMOTION

GRADING AND PROMOTION

GRADING AND PROMOTION —As

school systems become organized, the neces-
sity of teaching children in groups composed
of those of substantially equal attainments
produces the graded system or graded school
An ideal system of grades presupposes that
all the children in a given group shall be about
the same age and of equal capacity for school
work A system of grading or classification or
grouping by classes begins with the entrance
into school of a large number of children not
yet trained in school subjects Those who
advance regularly through a course of study
have their progress marked at certain intervals
by promotion, which is essentially a stage when
reclassification seems desirable Naturally the
course of study is the foundation of grading
This program of work and of standards to be
reached indicates divisions appropriate to each
year or other interval The course of study
may be so framed at any given stage as to be
capable of mastery by a large or small propor-
tion of the children It may lay stress on
formal elements of subjects in which special
details may be placed at a premium, thus
resulting in the failure of a considerable num-
ber of ungifted children

At any stage the object of a system of grad-
ing is to produce groups or classes that are
fairly homogeneous as regards attainments at
the moment, and also capacity to make a cer-
tain rate of progress throughout the course of
study as organized Grading and promotion
thus come to be focusing points of a variety
of problems growing out of the teaching of
children in groups Mechanization of school
work first expresses itself in an inflexibility of
grading and in a rigidity of promotion from
one stage to another in the course of study

The first fact to be noted is that the homo-
geneousness of any group of children can be
approximate only Children of the same age
not only differ among themselves as regards
attainments in general, but also vary largely
according to the particular type of attainment
considered, for example, of two children A
may be inferior to B in arithmetic, but superior
to B in music Furthermore, children of sub-
stantially equal attainments at a given time
may differ considerably as regards their rate
of learning the subject matter The rate
commonly employed in practice is that which
has been determined by experience as one
suitable to a majority of normal children
Manifestly such a rate must fail to take account
of individuals who differ considerably from the
normal In general, consideration of the
individual pupil tends to produce criticism of
the graded system, because in any such sys-
tem it will be found that not only are numerous
individuals quite unsuited to its requirements,
but that every individual at some point loses
in opportunities because of the system em-
ployed. On the other hand it must be recog-
nized that a system of grading is a necessary

126

of economy wherever children must
be dealt with in large numbers

Starting with the assumption that some
system of grading is necessary and that the
end of a system of grading is to produce
groups so homogeneous as to make the maxi-
mum progress of all the individuals composing
the group possible, the various attempts to
modify the effects of its too great mechaniza-
tion may be discussed If, from a large num-
ber of children, there be removed the com-
paratively small number of individuals who
vaiy greatly from the normal, there is a system
of grading and promotion supplemented by the
existence of special classes (q v ), into which
might be put those who by reason of excessive
age are ill adapted to given grades, or those
who, having deficient sense organs or being
weak mentally, are manifestly incapable of
keeping pace with any group of normal chil-
dren This removes from the grades the
strongly marked variant cases, and gives the
teacher opportunity to devote her efforts to a
class more nearly homogeneous Similarly
such pupils as may retard the work of a class
through increasing the difficulties of discipline
may be put into special disciplinary classes (q v )

Even among fairly normal children it is
found that not all can make the same rate of
progress Where a pupil is so obviously unable
to maintain progiess in his grade, without
being in any sense defective, he may be trans-
ferred to a grade lower than his own (See
DEMOTION ) A system of grading has been
devised whereby groups shall proceed, as it
were, along paiallel lines This is sometimes
known as the Cambridge system, and may be
so systematized that a given course of study
shall be completed in respectively seven, eight,
or nine years, so fai as given individuals are
concerned Fully carried out, this system not
only provides for pupils who are persistently
unequal in their ability to make progress, but
also for those who at one stage of their school
career may proceed rapidly and at another
slowly In large schools it is possible to still
further extend the principle involved in the
Cambridge system. Under close oversight of
principal and teacher, pupils may be formed
into groups as nearly homogeneous as possible,
and the rate of progress may then be deter-
mined without reference to any fixed program,
but with reference solely to the capacity of the
group The system has been made so elastic
that individuals may be frequently shifted
from one group to the other, according as they
manifest capacity to proceed more rapidly or
to require more time. This is sometimes
referred to as the group system, and provides
the maximum degree of elasticity in this
direction. In a few instances it has been
carried so far as to allow for a measurable
shifting of pupils from group to group accord-
ing as different subjects are being taken, but
this requires extremely close supervision, and is

GRADING AND PROMOTION

GRADING AND PROMOTION

possible only in a school of very large size
Such classification or grading pupils by sub-
jects is an arrangement which is more possible
in schools with the departmental system (q v )
than in others Not only is such a system an
element in flexible grading, but in the later
years it makes articulation with the high school
possible

Flexibility of grading is sometimes attained
by varying the demands made upon pupils for
amount of acquisition in any given grade
This takes several forms The class may be
carried over a given section of the course of
study at such a rate as to allow the more
capable pupils to meet all the requirements,
but the less capable to require a review The
first group may then be promoted, or, more
commonly, may take additional work in the
ground covered, while those less capable are
acquiring necessary proficiency in the essential
subjects A more extended form is found
where two groups of pupils are carried along
side by side, the one containing the more
capable, the other the less, the latter being
required to take only the minimum amount of
work and to reach the minimum standard
required for promotion, while the former takes
an enriched course of study, not necessarily
advancing them in the essential branches Both
divisions are expected to cover substantially
the same ground in the subjects essential to
promotion A further modification of this
plan rests on a differentiation of teaching It
is sometimes known as the Batavia plan (q v ),
involving two teachers in a room, the first of
whom gives mainly class instruction, while the
second coaches individuals who need additional
assistance in order to make the required rate
of progress A plan which is very similar is
the division of a class into two groups, each
alternately receiving the attention of the
teacher, so that while one group is studying,
the other is reciting (See ALTERNATING SYS-
TEM )

All these systems are yet more or less in the
experimental stage, and some of them involve
administrative difficulties which can be met
only in exceptional situations. It is evident,
however, that all of them constitute important
attempts to produce a system, which, while
utilizing the economies and efficiency that
result from a training of children in homo-
geneous groups, shall nevertheless have due
regard to the individual in respect to those
points at which his interest demands some
variation from the standards imposed upqn the
group

It should be noted that a few educators
believe that a radically different system of
grouping children may eventually prove more
satisfactory. Instead of a homogeneous group,
the late Professor Jackman of Chicago Univer-
sity believed that a group heterogeneous so
far as the years and attainments of individuals
were concerned could yet be formed into an

organic umtv which would result in the maxi-
mum opportunities for progress of the individ-
uals composing it From his point of view a
system of training based laigely on activities
would find in a given group old and younp;
children, some bright and some dull, but each
carrying on learning activities m conjunction
with others in such a way as to finally attain
a maximum result This system of classifica-
tion would naturally require the elaboration of
pedagogical theories which are yet very hypo-
thetical

The passage from one grade to another in a
systematized course of study is commonly
called promotion The failure of a child to
pass this stage gives the phenomenon of retar-
dation (q v ), which is by some assumed to be
an index of the efficiency of the results of
teaching In the search for incentives among
school children, promotion and non-promotion
are often utilized as sources of motive The
fear of non-promotion among some children
can be the most powerful incentive to exertion,
while with others who are inclined to be mis-
chievous it may serve as an excellent deterrent
to insure good conduct At certain stages in
the educational career of youths where promo-
tion means advancement into other types of
schools or into other types of opportunity, the
event becomes comparable in its importance to
the ceremony of initiation in primitive life
The ability of the German boy to pass the im-
perial examination, which entitles him to ex-
emption from compulsory military service and
barrack life, becomes an important factor in the
social standing of the vouth and his family

Tests for promotion from one grade to an-
other become important features not only in
the administration of schools, but m deter-
mining fundamental characteristics in the
course of study itself A highlv mechanical
system tends to introduce external examina-
tions as a basis for promotion and graduation
A system in which the teachers must be
stimulated by external aids makes free use of
written examinations These developments
were best exemplified in the English practice
during the period of the so-called " payment
by results " plan and in American cities dur-
ing the period from 1870 to 1895 Even
slight consideration will show that a system
of written examinations will test certain forms
of learning only, and will quite fail to test
others Where written examinations prevail,
subjects susceptible to this form of test will
be at a premium Present American practice,
however, tends not only toward flexible grad-
ing, but toward flexibility in the conditions
for promotion The teacher's judgment of the
pupil's ability to proceed enters as a factor, as
do also formal records made of a term's work.
(See EXAMINATIONS )

In secondary school* there is an increasing
tendency to guide the pupil on his ability in
an individual subject rather than in all subjects

127

GRADING AND PROMOTION

taken together Promotion by subject then
comes to be the nile, and graduation is possible
when a definite number of units have been
reached

The future development of grading and pro-
motion will rest more largely than in the past
on a study of the needs and possibilities of
children. The study of letaidation (qv) is
serving to analyze the causes of the non-
promotion of children Some of these causes
are found in the course of study itself, some
in matters like illness and irregular attendance,
over which the school may have little contiol,
and some in a failure to reach the individual
as far as possible by more scientific grading
It is possible that future developments will
show that certain of the subjects recognized in
a course of study are of such a nature that
definite stages of attainment or power not-
only can, but must, be recognized as a basis of
grouping, whereas other subjects have only a
secondary bearing on the ability of the child
to work in one group rather than in another
Tins differentiation may indeed rest, to a cer-
tain extent, on the social importance of the
subjects For example, arithmetic is a subject
lending itself easily to a graduated statement,
and is also sufficiently important to be imposed
as a condition of promotion Nature study,
on the other hand, is not easily graded, and its
importance may be such as to make it a
matter of indifference whether the pupil has
completed it or not when the question of pro-
motion is being considered In some school
systems a deliberate differentiation is now
being made between " essential " and " addi-
tional " subjects, the former only being con-
sidered in connection with questions of pro-
motion

The operation of a flexible system of grading
as described above will be affected by conclu-
sions yet to be reached as to the number of
different groups of pupils which a teacher in a
given room may handle to advantage Prac-
tice in many places now assumes that a grade
to a room is the desirable condition It is
not clear, however, but that a more effective
mastery of the art of teaching might not
enable a teacher to carry at least two different
grades or groups along side by side, with the
maximum advantage to all concerned D S

See GRADING, HYGIENE OF, RETARDATION,
ELIMINATION AND ACCELERATION OF PUPILS

References : —

BAOLEY, W, O Classroom Management (New York,

1907)
DUTTON, S T , and SNEDDLN, I) Administration of

Public Education in the United States (Now York,

1908)
GILBERT, C B The School and its Lift (New York,

1901.)
HOLMES, W H Plane of Classification in the Public

Schools. Fed Sem , Vol XVIII, pp 475-522
SEARCH, P W The Ideal School (New Yoik, 189S )
SHEARER, W T 7 V« G™ dmu of School* (NowYoik,

1898)
United States Bureau of Kdueation THORNDIKE, K L ,

GRADING, HYGIENE OF

The Elimination of Pupils front School Hullctin,
No 4,11)07 WHTJL, K K Promotion and Kxamina-
tionH in Graded Schools ('in of Inform, 1891
Reports of th<> Cninnnwoner, 1S01 1892, pp 303-356,
1808-1899, pp 601 fl36

GRADING BY PROMOTION. — See

GRADING AND PROMOTION

GRADING, FLEXIBLE —See GRADING
AND PROMOTION

GRADING, HYGIENE OF — Modem in-
vestigations have revolutionized the problem
of grading With the older pedagogy it was a
relatively simple thing to classify pupils merely
according to their scholastic attainments
Now manv other factors must he considered,
— physiological age, psychological age, abihtv
to work and to resist fatigue, general physical
condition, mental type as regards imagery,
attention, and the like Hence to-dav the
problem of gnuling is quite as much an hygienic
as a pedagogical one

Roberts, the English anthropologist, was one
of the hrst to put special emphasis on the need
of considering physical development in allot-
ting pupils to the different grades lie made
out a table giving the statures and weights of
boys at different ages and the amount of time
that should be allotted foi study and sleep
and rest, and he maintained that age alone is
not sufficient to determine a child's position in
such a table, that u A child who is much below
the mean height and weight of his age should
be placed a year below, and one who is a good
deal above the mean, especially if the weight
be good, may be advanced a year above that
which his actual age requires," and that the
same principles should be considered in the
grading of girls as in the grading of boys Dr
Hrahn and others have maintained that chil-
dren should be graded according to their
ability to work and to resist fatigue Recently
a demand for more than this has arisen The
studies by (Hampton and others have shown
the hygienic necessity of considering physio-
logical age in all questions of grading and the
like His study was based on investigations
oi high school students, and his general con-
clusion was that, " In future all our thought
concerning the years nine to seventeen must be
released fiom the idea of chronological age
Statistics for groups or individuals respecting
weight, height, strength, scholarship, mental
oi physical endurance, medical or social con-
ditions, that arc not referred to physiological
age are inconsequential and misleading "

Dr ('rampton'a investigations were based
on actual physical examinations Sometimes
under present conditions this is not practicable,
and in lieu of this Mr Foster maintains that
height is a good index of physiological age,
and the investigations by Quirsfeld support
this view Professor Rotch of Harvard strongly
maintains that the appearance and ossification

128

GRADING, HYGIENE OF

GRADING, HYGIENE OF

of the cpiphyseH of the wrist and fingers are a
trustworthy index of the general osseous devel-
opment, and this in turn of general physio-
logical development Hence he takes X-ray
photographs of these bones, and determines
physiological age from them He distinguishes
chronological age, anatomical age, physiological
age, and functional cerebral age, arid main-
tains that the normal correspondence of all
these ages should be the standard for giad-
ing children, and that any other method of
grouping is unpractical and illusive There
is at present no consensus in regard to what
is the best method of determining physiological
age More studies of this problem are greatly
needed

Psychological age also must of course be1
considered But though tests of psychological
ability and maturity have been advocated,
none altogether satisfactory have yet been
devised. The most important practical at-
tempts have been in the use of mental tests,
particularly the Bmet tests, for detecting cases
of arrested mental development While idiots
are not likely to be found in the public schools,
imbeciles and feeble-minded of the higher
grade, the so-called morons, are not infrequently
found The importance of detecting such cases
has been vividly shown by I)r (loddard, and
further investigations and the perfection of
such tests is greatly needed

The public school must provide for three
main classes of pupils, — the normal child of
good ability, including the supernormal, on
the one hand, the defective children on the
other, including those mentally and physically
deficient, and between these two groups the
laigc class of children who are more or less
backward from various causes All these
cases will be found discussed under the scpa-
late titles as BACKWARD PUPILS; BLIND,
rODiir \TION OF THE , ('RIPPLED CHILDREN, EDU-
CATION OF THE, DE\F, EDUCATION OF THE,
DEVF-BLIND, EDUCATION OK THE, DEFECTI\ES,
SCHOOLS FOR, EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN, NER-
\ous CHILDREN, EDUCATION OF, OPEN-AIR
SCHOOL, RETARDATION AND ELIMINATION OF
PUPILS, SPEECH DEFECTS, EDUCATIONAL TREAT-
MENT OF, SPECIAL CLASSES, SUPERNORMAL
CHILDREN, TURERCULOUS CHILDREN, EDUCA-
TION OF, etc

Many special plans have been adopted The
plan which has received the widest attention,
and which in a general way illustrates the
principle upon which there is now a consensus,
is the system of grading that has been used
for many years in the schools of Mannheim in
Germany The main features of it are as
follows, there is the ordinary school course of
eight years, and besides the course for defec-
tives, H ilfiwch aim , such as are found in many
Gorman cities, with a Tour years' couise, and
between the ordinary course4 and the //W/,v-
vhulen a course of six veais which covois the
same ground as the oidinary school course,

but has to do less with details, has smaller
classes, and specially equipped teachers Trans-
fer from the shorter course to the fuller course
or the reverse is easy at the end of each year
(See GERMANY, EDUCATION IN ) There have
been many criticisms of this Mannheim system;
but some plan of this kind is obviously neces-
sary, and such a system seems to come nearer
than any other which has been tried to meet-
ing the demands upon which there is a con-
sensus This will not, however, solve the
deeper problems of grading While, if the
plan is carried out with the cooperation of a
school physician, as Dr Moses maintains is
always necessary, physical conditions will be
regarded in the grading, nevertheless much
more than this is desirable and some plan of
grading that shall be based upon classification
according to physiological age and ability sci-
entifically determined must be devised

While there is at present no consensus in
regard to the methods of determining such
development, the announcement of the prin-
ciple is an important contribution Grading
merely according to scholastic attainments and
chronological age can no longer suffice Even
pedagogical efficiency demands more than this
From the point of view of hygiene it is impera-
tive that both in the vertical and the horizontal
grading regard should be had foi the physical
condition and the stage of development
Modern studies have shown that from a third
to one half of the children in any school are
likely to be physically defective or suffering
from chrome disease Serious lesults are likely
to follow when the \\eak and defective are
required to do what the strong ought, to do
Home of the noimal have much greater endur-
ance than others, some of them belong to one
mental type, others to different types, and
besides all this theie are great individual dif-
feiences If we are to make any pretense to
scientific pedagogy, to say nothing of hygiene,
we must consider these facts and have a
thoroughly different plan of grading based upon
physiological and psychological age as well as
scholastic attainments W. H B.

References : —

AYHEH, LEONARD P Layvardx in Our Kchooh (New
Yoik, 1909)

BHMIN, M Die Trcnnung der Schulei muh ihrcr LCIN-
UmgHfahigkeit Zakihrift fur Sdmlycsundhnh-
pfleui 1897, Nos 7 M \ pp -*H5 398

CKAMPTON, C W The Influence of Physiologic al Age
upon Scholarship Proc of the Ft,r\t, S(condt and
Thud Conyicwc^ of fhc American School Hygiene
A Donation (Springfield, 1910)

FEILCKK, F Zur Fragf der Organisation der Volks-
schnle in Mannheim Zeit f Pad Ptjfchu , Patho-
logic untlHt/aurn, 1902, pp 307 ,*41

FOSTER, W L Physiological Age as a Basis for the
Classification of Pupils Entering High Schools —
Relation of Pubescence to Height The Psycho-
logical Clinic, May 15, 1910 Vol IV, No .*,
pp S3 hS

CJOUDMID, H If Two ThouH.md Noimal Children
Measured l>v the Hinet Measuring Scale of Intclli-'
gence Pid Sew , June, 1911, pp lM2-'2fi9

VOL. Ill — K

129

GRADUATE SCHOOLS

GRADUATION

HEYDNER, G Die Scheidung der Schiller nach ihrer
Begabung Em Wort wider das Mannheimer Schul-
system. (Nurnborg, 1904 )

JONES, W. F. An Experimental-Critical Study of the,
Problem of Grading and Promotion The Psy-
chological Clinic, May 15, 1911, Vol V, No 3,
pp 63-96

MAENNEL, B The Auxiliary School* of Germany Tr.
by F B Dressier (Washington, 1907 )

QUIRSFELD, E. Zur physischon und geistigen Entwick-
lung des Kindes wahrend der ersten Sehuljahre
Internahonalcn KonyrtxN fur ftchulhygienr \ Dntter
Band, pp 128-134 (Niimberg, April, 1904)

ROTCH, T M Roentgen Ray Method Applied to the
Grading of Karly Life Proc of the Fourth CVw-
gresb of the American School Hf/gune Ansoc , March,
1910, pp 1S4 206

SICKINGER, A Organization grosser Volksschulkorper
nach der riatUrhchen Leistungsfahigkeit der Kinder
Jnteniatwnalen Kongrexs fur Schulhygiene, 1904,
Vol I, pp 173-195

TEWH, J Trennung der Schuler nach der Begabung
Padagogische ZeUung, 1900, Vol XXIX, No 12,
pp 190-194

GRADUATE SCHOOLS, GRADUATE
STUDY. — - Sec UNIVERSITIES

GRADUATE WORK —A term commonly
used in America to indicate work done in the
combined university-college institutions beyond
the bachelor's degree, in other words, univer-
sity work as opposed to collegiate work

See UNIVERSITIES, AMERICAN

GRADUATION — See COLLEGE, AMERICAN,
section on length of College Course, COM-
MENCEMENT, DEGREES, also GRADUATION, AGE
OF; GRADING AND PROMOTION, UNIVERSITIES.

GRADUATION, AGE OF, FROM AMERI-
CAN COLLEGES. — The question of age of
graduation from college has constituted an
important factor in the discussion of many
college problems of the present. It has been
popularly supposed that the age of graduation
from colleges had gradually risen from genera-
tion to generation, and that the typical college
student of the present is more mature than in
the past; consequently that the college course
of the present together with its administration
might and should be a very different thing
from that of the past and that the relation of
college course to secondary school on the one
hand and to the professional school on the
other should be determined altogether irre-
spective of past conditions The further
assumption was that such relationships were
not so determined, and that existing problems
(see Problems of the College, under COLLEGE,
AMERICAN) were thus created.

The accurate investigations into the facts do
not reveal grounds for this general assumption
On the contrary, while there is a certain con-
flict of tendencies in different institutions, the
slight preponderance of the tendency is toward
a decrease of age rather than an increase
The most extensive investigation made was
that by Professor W S Thomas, in 1903,
involving eleven institutions and more than
20,000 students, and covering substantially the
entire nineteenth century The actual results
of this investigation shown by ten-year periods
is given in the following table: —

MEDIAN AGES OF GRADUATION BY DECADES

DARTMOUTH

MlDDLLBURY

BOWDOIN

UNIVERSITY of

V>RMONT

ADELBEHT

Age No

Age

No

Age

No

Age

No

Age

No

1770-1779

23- 0 • 78

1780-1789 ....

23- 1 J50

1790-1799

23- 2

336

1800-1809

22- 6

.*9.<

>2 jo

76

1810-1819

22- 9 3-*n

23- 1

194

20— 4

106

1820-1824 . .

23- 1

328

23- 0

187

20- 8

258

22-4

59

1830-1839 . ...

22- 5

381

23- 4

242

21- 7

289

22-7

80

23- 0

41

1840-1849

23- 1

586

22- 8 j 109

21- 9

356

22-0

184

23- 2

125

1850-1859 . .

24-8 558

23- 3 | 121

22- 1

335

22-4

168

23- 0

98

1860-1869

23- 1 491

23- 5 132

22-10

348

22-6

91

22-10

160

1870-1879 . . .

22-10 593

23- 4 111

22- 5

321

22-6

9K

22- 9

217

1880-1889

22-10

527

22-11

86

°2 8 303

2'' -8

108

O J f \

•>r:i

1890-1899 . . .

22- 9

678

23- 2

125

22- 7 , 481

22-9

215

22- 9

156

UNIVERSITY
OF ALABAMA

NEW YORK
UNIVERSITY

WLSLEYAN

OBERLIN

DL PAUW

SYRACUSE

Age No

Ago

No

Age

No

Ago

No

Age

No

Age

No.

1830-1839 .

20-4 57

20-2

73

23-0

107

24-11

34

1840-1849 .
1850-1859
1860-1869
1870-1879
1880-1889
1890-1899

20-3 126
20-9 173
20-0 48
20-3 66
20-0 209
20-2 270

20-3
20-7
20-8
21-6
21-1
21-8

147
102
128
141
154
115

23 3
2i-4
24-0
23-8
23- ?
23-1.

231
231
260
325
32 1
!.")<,

25- 6
25- 2
24- 0
24- 3
24- '\
2J-11

122
120
176
270
267
403

21-7
22-9
23-2
23-1
23-2
23-9

63
89
115
230
317
371

23-11
24- 0
24- 6
23- 9
23-U

28
29
138
224
264

130

GRADUATION

GRADUATION

This table indicates that the median age for
Dartmouth has fallen (three months in one hun-
dred and thirty years) ; that for Middlebury has
risen (two months in seventy years) , for Bowdom
the median age has risen two years since 1810,
but has been falling for the past sixty years In
only two of the eleven, institutions, the University
of Alabama and Syracuse University, has the
median age remained unchanged It is evi-
dent that, whether this slight change has been
an increase or a decrease, it is chiefly a matter
of the individual colleges

An averaging of the median ages of the several
colleges also shows that since 1850 there has
been a gradual but slight decline in the age of
graduation, amounting to two months in all
A study of the average ages of graduates in-
stead of the median ages brings the- same rela-
tive results, though the arithmetical average
runs a few months higher throughout the entire
period than does the median age This is be-
cause the few students that are relatively much
older than the average of the group, of whom
every college has some, diverge much more from
the median than do those below the median,
and tend to bring up the average dispro-
portionately It is the gradual disappear-
ance of this group of very mature students
during the past half century that is tending
to lower both median and average age of
graduation

Of greater importance than the average or
median age of graduation is the distribution of
the graduates by years A comparison of the
aggregate of all graduates of those eleven col-
logos for the decade at the middle of tho century
with the decade at the close shows that
not only the average and the median have
remained practically the same, but that the
distribution of the students is becoming far
loss wido This is indicated by the following
diagram, which pves the distiibution of all
students graduating in these eleven institu-
tions for the two decades under consideration

IB tO If 24

While the median age of graduation remains prac-
tically the same, 22 -f- years, the greater num-
ber are concontratod in tho twenty-first, twenty-
second, and twenty-third years A furthor change-
is indicated by this diagram, which seems to bear
out tho old contention that tho age of graduation
was rising The modo, indicating tho yoar in
which the greatest number of students graduated,
falls in the first diagram in tho twenty-first yoar,
in the second in the twenty-second

The significant fact which is indicated by
this as woll as by other data is that the student
body is being unified and standardized as to
age, as it never has been before, and that the
entire group of college students is coming to
be a body of young men between the ages of
eighteen and twenty-three or twenty-four The
graduating body is largely concontratod in the
years twenty-one to twenty-four

The following chart giving the distiibution
for these colleges for the two decades, half a
century apart, indicates this very definitely. —

The gradual disappearance of the vei y matui e
student accounts in a large measure for this
aspect of the change While the median age
has remained approximately the same, the num-
ber graduating before the twenty-third year has
greatly increased The following chart shows
this distribution for the past fifty years for the
entire group of colleges studied

The percent ago of the graduates under twenty-
three has nsen from 50 to 57 per cent, indicat-
ing again that the impression, so generally hold,

131

GRADUATION

GRAMMAR

that the age of graduation had increased was
based on the extreme or isolated instances.

sr •
sg- -

JS- -
54
S*
ft

SI

Cntluttiaj uncttr £3 yttrs
Ml Co//tj*9.

n&o - nto - 1970 - t*6o- nw- noo-

A more recent investigation by Professor
George D Strayer, based upon ninety-three
selected colleges and covering the first decade of
the present century, shows substantially the
same conditions. The median ages of gradua-
tion for the middle 50 per cent of the colleges
are included within the limits, 22 years and 6
months and 22 years and 9 months For
women the median ago is 22 years and 8 months,
the middle 50 per cent falling between the limits
22 years and 23 years and 3 months

The investigations conducted each quin-
quennial period by the authorities of Harvard
University into the ago of the entering class
support substantially the same results The
average age of tho entering class was 18 years
and 9 months in 1876, and from that tune to
1900 gradually increased to 19 years and 4
months, since which time it has, with slight
variations, gradually decreased

In general wo may say that the assumption
that theie has boon a groat advance in tho aver-
age age of the college graduates was an error;
that there are but few institutions where such an
increase has occuired, that this is oflset by
a coi responding decrease in other institutions;
and that the change either way for tho larger
part of the nineteenth century was very slight.
What is occurring is the elimination of the very
young students and the very mature, and the
standardizing of the entire group

As in the early part of tho nineteenth century
the curriculum itself had a fixed organization
and the student body was much differentiated
in age, the reverse comes to be true toward
the close of the century the curriculum loses
its fixed character and becomes fluid, but, the
student body becomes standardized as to age
and tho college comes to take a veiy definite
place in our system of education of foui years
in length following four years of high school or
preparatory and eight years of elementary
school work, and approximating the eighteen to
twenty-two years of the student life

References : —

THOMAS, W S Change in the age of college graduates.

Report of the U *S Commissioner of Education, 1902,

Vol II, p 2199

Report of President of Harvard College, 1904-1905,
1909-1910

132

GRAFE, HEINRICH (1802-1868). — A
German teacher and educational writer, born
in Buttstadt in Thunngia After studying
mathematics, philosophy, and theology in the
University of Jena (1820-1823), he first became
a clergyman, then the principal of the city
school at Jena In 1840 he was appointed pro-
fessor of pedagogy in the University of Jena,
a position which two years later he changed for
the principalship of a Realschule in Cassel.
He took part in the political struggles of the
year 1848, which caused his imprisonment, and
afterwards forced him to flee to Switzerland.
From there he was called as a principal to Bre-
men in 1855, and remained there until his death
His chief works are: Allgemeine Padagogik
(General Pedagogy, Leipzig, 1845), and Die
deutsche Volksschule (The German Public
School, Leipzig, 1847). F. M.

GRAMMAR, ENGLISH — Historical De-
velopment — The first work on this subject was
actually written in Latin, viz the Giammatica
Anghcana by P G , who is supposed to be a cer-
tain P Greenwood, in 1594 It is a booklet,
containing short chapters on letters, syllables,
parts of speech The book professes to deal
especially with those points m which English
differs from Latin grammar It IK of interest
because it contains a vocabulary of Chaucerian
words, together with their signification There
is also the first ticatment of the parsing, or, as it
is called, " analysis " of English In 1624 John
Hewes published A Perfect Survey of the Eng-
lish Tongue He claims that his book serves
for the exposition of Lily's Latin Grammar
rules The author endeavors to deal with
English expressions, a posteriori, as the ground-
work for the Latin Hewes thus treats of
moods, tenses, cases as found in English, and
thus leads on to the Latin Hewes was suc-
ceeded by William Walker (1623-1682), who
follows the same method, but. develops it more
fully m his famous Treatise of English Particles
(published before 1660) Walker expounds
English particles as the preliminary to learning
to write Latin composition In 1633 Charles
Butler wrote the English Grammar, a work
which gives a real English accidence independ-
ent of Latin It goes into questions of spelling
and gathers from Sir John Prince the story of
four good secretaries writing in English from
dictation, making many differences of spelling,
whereas four noblemen writing the same in
their language all wrote exactly the same letters.
Butler traces the uncertainty in English spell-
ing to the imperfection of the alphabet. Both
Butler and Gill utilize the Anglo-Saxon signs
for the different sounds of th In 1640 Simon
Dames published a book, exactly described by
the title: Orthoepia Anghcana, or the first
principall part of the English Grammar Teach-
ing the Art of right speaking and pronouncing
English, with certaine exact rules of Orthography,
and rules of spelhng or combining of syllables,

GRAMMAR

GRAMMAR

and directions for keeping of stop* or points
between sentence and sentence A work in itself
absolute, and never known to be accomplished
by any before ' No lesse profitable than neces-
sary for all sorts, as well Native as Foreigners,
that desire to attains the perfection of our English
Tongue Methodically composed by the in-
dustry and observation of Simon Dames, School-
master of Hintlesham in Suffs Lond 1640
The next English grammar was that "made"
by Ben Jonson, the dramatist, " for the benefit
of all strangers out of his observation of the
English language how spoken and in use "

The grammar unfinished and not published
until 1640, three years after Jonson's death,
is accompanied with a Latin commentary
Jonson quotes first the older writers, e g Chaucer,
(iower, Lydgate, Foxe, More, Ascham, Cheke,
Jewel, so as to illustrate and authorize particular
usages of grammar, and supplies items of his-
torical treatment of syntax In 1653 was pub-
lished A New English Grammar by J. Wharton
This was piofessedly useful for scholars before
entrance on the Latin tongue, and therefore
starts a new period in the teaching of English
It was also devised, like Jonson's, for the use of
strangers learning English Wharton points
out that English is " happy beyond both Latin
and CJreek," in that it " needeth little or no
grammar at all " In the years 1711 and 1712
no less than three English grammars were
published, viz that of John Bnghtland (q v )
and Michael Maittaire (q v ) and that of James
Greenwood (Essay towards a Practical English
Grammar) These grammars provoked an
attack bv the anonymous writers of Bellum
Grammatical?, consisting of reflections on the
three English grammars " published in about
a year last past" in 1712 In 1762 Robert
Lowth, Bishop of London, published A Short
Introduction to English (ham mar, which strongly
emphasizes the question of good use in grammar.
This was -a work of considerable merit, ran
through many editions in England, and was
republished at Cambridge, Mass, in 1811
Lowth's work was criticized by William Cob-
bett in his well-known Grammar of the English
Language in a scries of letters, 1818 Cob-
bett states that his Grammar was intended for
the use of schools and of young persons, " but
more especially for the use of soldiers, sailors,
apprentices and plough-bo vs " But still more
popular than Cobbctt's book was the English
Grammar of Lmdley Murrav (</ v ), published
m England in 1795. Both in England and
America this was for many years the chief, al-
most only, English grammar used, particularly
in girls' schools, for which it was first written
It went through some fifty editions, and an
abridgment, first published in 1818, reached
over 120 editions of ten thousand each (See
Dictionary of National Biography) The^ first
writer of an Anglo-Saxon grammar was Eliza-
beth Elstob (qv), 1715 The pioneer in the
school teaching of historical English grammar

in England was I)i Richard Moms, Head-
master from 1875 to 1888 of the Royal Masonic
Institution for Boys at Wood (irecn near Lon-
don In 1872 he wrote his Historical Outlines
of English Accidence, which went through
twenty editions before his death, and, making
the subject matter more and more elementary,
he published in 1874 his Elementary Le.ssvw.s
in Historical English Grammai , and in the same
year the Primer of English Grammai F W

Grammatical Study - The grammar of the
vernacular has not usually been regarded as a
subject for scientific consideration in itself, but
the views which have been held with respect
to it from time to time, and which have guided
instruction in the subject and the composition
of textbooks intended for use in instruction,
when they have not been merely utilitarian,
have been rather a reflection of the prevailing
modes of philosophical or linguistic thought
in general Moreover, methods of instruction
in English grammar, as exemplified in the text-
books, have been extremely traditional, and
have followed a few established models, with
the result that though the number of English
grammars is legion, they have added relatively
little to the development of serious and inde-
pendent theory with respect to the subject

Two schools of thought in especial have ex-
erted a powerful influence upon the conception
of grammar, first, the systematic philosophic
thought of the eighteenth century, and secondly,
the modern scientific thought, as exhibited
mainly in the sciences of psychology arid his-
torical linguistics The principal inheritance
of grammar from philosophy is to be found in
the grammatical definition The conventional
definition of the sentence, for example, or of the
parts of speech, is based upon the assumption
of a correspondence between the forms of speech
and the categories of a foimal logical system
A grammatical statement of a language, ac-
cording to this conception, would consist of
a statement of all the modes of thought possible
in that language Several important conse-
quences and corollaries have followed from
this a priori, logical way of regarding the classi-
fications of grammar. In the first place, if
there is one logical form of thought to which
the forms of speech each respectively belong,
manifestly theic is one and only one possible
definition of a grammatical group of phenomena,
and this defmit ion is absolute and right Thei e
thus has arisen in grammar the feeling for the
dogmatic character of the definition or rule,
and the desire to make the phenomena of lan-
guage conform forcibly to the rule if they seem
to differ from it So much the worse for the
language, says in effect the logical grammarian,
if it docs not conform to the fundamental laws
of the mind This has been the main defect
of the logical method in grammar, that it has
preferred a specious appearance of regularity
and system to the actual variety and unsys-
tematic wealth of detail of real speech r|M

The

133

GRAMMAR

GRAMMAR

forms of speech do not fall into simple cate-
gories, but, as obseivatmn quickly shows, they
overlap and often shift their functions in a way
which can be described adequately only in the
terms of a system too complex for practical
grammar.

Disregarding the so-called " fundamental
laws of the mind," the scientific grammarian
has tended to approach the subject from
an inductive point of view, and has studied
the individual forms of speech m relation to
their corresponding moments of mental activity,
rather than in relation to any supposed per-
manent characteristics of the mind The sig-
nificance of the definitions, according to this
conception of grammar, is something quite differ-
ent from the significance of the definition accord-
ing to the philosophical or logical method of
systematizing language The scientific gram-
marian regards his definition as merely a con-
venient summary statement of the facts he has
observed It has no final sanction of any sort,
but is open to alteration and to extension as
new facts are added to the field of observation
The spirit of this method of grammatical study
is consequently not dogmatic, but is the spirit
of all inductive science in which generalizations
are regarded as the summary statements of
accumulated details It follows that the
definition, rules, or generalizations which the
grammarian of this way of thinking wishes to
make must be definitions or generalizations
of only such phenomena as those for whom
his grammatical system is intended are capable
of observing and understanding for themselves
A completely scientific grammar of English
would neglect no phenomenon of the speech,
no matter how insignificant intrinsically or
how limited the extent of its use The ideal
of the philosophic grammarian is to formulate
all the activities of the mind into logical defi-
nitions, and then to illustrate these definitions
by means of examples taken from the practice
of the language The ideal of the scientific
grammarian, as unattainable as that of the
philosopher, but perhaps a safer guide in actual
practice, is to observe all the phenomena of the
language as they are exhibited in use, and then
to arrive at such principles or rules as will come
without misrepresentation of the phenomena
upon which they are based This ideal aim
of the grammarian must necessarily be modified
in practice to accord with the more limited
purposes of teaching and the more limited
capacities of students No matter how ele-
mentary the effort, however, the evidence of
the vast number of contemporary or older
English grammars goes to show that one or
other of these two conceptions was uppermost
in the minds of the writers, either that the
grammar presented illustrations of the ob-
servation of immutable, logical laws of thought,
or that it was a series of observations, classified
and designated on the basis of their similarities,
the classification being subject to modification

according as the area of observation was in-
creased or decreased The grammars of the4
first type are represented by Murray's and by
the large number of grammars which assume
the position of arbiters of good use. The
grammars of the second type, unfortunately
not yet the prevailing one, are represented by
modern historical grammars, the purpose of
which is to make a descriptive statement of
the past facts of the language, and also by an
increasingly large number of practical school
grammars written not from the point of view
of dogmatic good use, but with the purpose of
training the student in the observation and
valuation of the processes of language. The
earliest English grammars were written from
the point of view of the Latin and for the pur-
pose of making the study of the Latin easier

During the larger part of the nineteenth cen-
tury, grammar held — next to spelling — not
only the principal place in English instruction,
but, in the upper grades, the principal place
in the curriculum of the elementary school
The two most famous grammars of the early
days were Noah Webster's and Lmdley Mur-
ray's, both published near the end of the eight-
eenth century Murray's grammar became,
like Webster's spelling book, the standard;
and the authority of Lmdley Munay was
sufficient to settle any point of disputed usage
or doubtful syntax

The curriculum of the common schools in-
cluded, up to the last quarter of the preceding
century, little besides reading, spelling, arith-
metic, geography, and grammai In the upper
grades grammar vied with arithmetic in the
amount of tune and energy devoted to it, and
in the value and respect accorded to it m the
schoolroom and in the community To be
known as a good " grammarian," that is, as
a student versed in the grammatical rules as
given in the textbook, and skillful in parsing
and in syntactical analysis, was to win, in effect,
a kind of intellectual preeminence Moot
questions of grammatical construction were
often the subject of excited debate, like diffi-
cult, or u catch," problems in arithmetic
Grammar was, in brief, the intellectual joust-
ing ground of many sharp and eager, though
underfed, intellects (3 P K

Content and Nature of Grammar — Di-
versity of purpose, of method, and of content
are the most striking characteristics of modern
English school grammars viewed as a whole.
The constant features are discussions of the
parts of speech, of inflections, and, to some ex-
tent, of syntax. Some grammars add phonetics,
others the composition of words by prefixes
and suffixes, or prosody, or the rules of spelling,
or of paragraphing, or forms for letter writing,
or symbols for proofreading, or tables of
weights and measures, etc This variety in
the content of modern school grammars is
partly due to the presence of survivals from
older and outgrown conceptions of grammar.

134

GRAMMAR

GRAMMAR

Thi' old-fashioned village grammar of general
information, planned for students whoso entire
English training was obtained through the study
of English grammar, accounts for some of the
topics Others, like prosody, for example, are
merely survivals from the old Latin grammars
In the classical and Renaissance conception of
grammar as an art comprehending the appre-
ciation and practice of literature as well as
the elementary rules of the language, prosody
logically had a place It survives now in gram-
mars only because there is no other convenient
place to put it Of similar origin is the divi-
sion of etymology, which is still used to describe
a section of English grammar having to do with
the forms of words, including inflections, deri-
vation, and composition In the old Latin
school grammars, as for example in Lilv, the two
mam divisions of the subject were etymology,
i c accidence, etc , and syntax, i e concord
But the modern sense of the word " etymology "
is something very different from this traditional
use of the word, and what the old grammais
call etymology would now be called morphol-
ogy

An examination of those modern grammars,
written by persons of some independence of
purpose and of scholarship, shows that three
main conceptions of the subject, mixed in vary-
ing proportions, are prevalent The first is the
conception of grammar as a guide to good use,
the second as the study of the system of the
language m its broadest meaning as an expres-
sion of thought, and third a narrower definition
of the system of the language, corresponding
practically to the usual popular understand-
ing of the term " grammar " The conception
of grammar as a guide to good use no longer
enjoys the favor it once received This con-
ception is also in large measure an inheritance
from the Latin grammar of the Renaissance,
in which grammar was defined as u the ait of
correct speaking or writing " This theory was
hrst taken over explicitly into English grammar
by Bishop Lowtli in his tihoit Introduction to
English Gramma i (17(i7) In his preface,
Bishop Lowth declares that " the principal
design of a Grammai of any Language is to
teach us to express ourselves with propriety
in that language, and to enable us to judge of
every phrase and form of construction, whether
it be right or not " In other words, according
to this theory, the purpose of grammar is to
serve as a handmaiden to the art of speaking
and writing In communities of mixed racial
and social provenience, in which there exists
a confused and uncertain use of the idiom in
colloquial speech, as is the case, for example,
in most American city schools, it is necessary
to give much attention to drill in the details
of propriety of expression Yet the tendency
of modern theory and practice, which seems to
be in the right direction, is to place less stress
upon good use as the mam principle of the study
of grammar. It is coming to be recognized

that the rules of use are so complex and so far
beyond the grasp of the child that, to place them
in a grammar which makes pretense to a reasoned
system is bound to end in confusion Pre-
sented merely dogmatically, without attempt
at rational or historical explanation, the rules of
use find a more justifiable place in the study
of written composition or in the drill of the
daily colloquial intercourse of the classroom
Although the end, therefore, of inculcating
good use may be to some extent attained by
the study of grammar, it is now usually assumed
that this end should be one of the by-products
of such study, and not its mam purpose and
justification Such being the case, the custom
of introducing examples of bad use into the
study of grammar is one of doubtful expediency
The safest rule seems to be to include in the
system of elementary grammar only what is
recognized as the normal use of educated
people, with an exception perhaps in favor of
occasional instances of divided use

The two remaining theories concerning the
teaching of grammar have this in common, that
they both endeavor to approach the subject in
a measurably scientific and systematic spirit
They differ widely, however, in the theoretical
limits which they place upon the subject In
the broader conception of the two, the limits
of grammar are made commensurate with those
of the science of language, or the relations of
speech to thought Thus, according to one
writer, " Grammar mav be defined as the study
of the relation between mental action and the
forms of language expression " (Davenport
and Emerson, Pi maple* of Grammar, p 1),
the mam stress being here placed upon logic
Another declares that " Grammar is a sys-
tematic description of the essential principles
of a language or a group of languages
English grammar gives a systematic account
of the English language" (Carpentei, Prin-
ciples of English Grammar, pp 1-5) A broad
theoretical definition of this kind is manifestly
impossible in practical execution No elemen-
tary grammar can attempt to study in any
systematic way all the principles, either logical
or historical, which he at the base of a language
Whitney (Kttwnttals, p III), with his usual
wisdom', states the only position which the
scientific study of elementary giammar can
maintain He avoids a positive theoretical
definition of the subject, but announces his
practical purpose to be *' to put before the
learner those matters which will best serve him
as a preparation for furthei and deeper knowl-
edge of his own language, for the study of other
languages, and for that of language in general "

The study of elementary giammar, either as
the science of language or as preliminary prepa-
ration to the science of language, is a way of
regarding the subject which has arisen naturally
from the modern science of linguistics It
would seem, however, that the content and
purpose of the teaching of elementary grammar

135

GRAMMAR

GRAMMAR

should be determined by the possibilities and
needs of elementary instriielum rather than
by scholarly theories of the subject In an-
swer to this conviction, we have a third con-
ception of grammar, which still endeavors to
be systematic, but does not try to cover the
whole held of linguistics According to this
understanding of the subject, elementary
grammar is defined as " an account of the re-
lations which words bear to one another when
they are put together in sentences " (Huehler,
A Modern Enqlixh (irammw ,\) 11) Or again,
it is " the science which treats of the nature of
words (i c the parts of speech), their forms
(inflections), and their uses and relations in the
sentence " (Baskervill and Sewell, English
Grammar, p 12) A third definition makes
grammar " the science which treats of the Forms
and the Constructions of words " (i e. of in-
flections and syntax) (Kittredge and Arnold,
The Mother Tongue, Book II, p xv-) Gram-
mar, as thus defined, takes account chiefly
of the relationships of words to each other in
groups The unity which it attempts to im-
press upon the mind of the student is the unity
of the word group, and ultimately of the sen-
tence A unified conception of a science of
language, either from the logical or historical
point of view, is not implied in these treatments
of the subject, and though historical and other
considerations may be admitted, if it seems ad-
visable to admit them, it should be recognized
that the unity of the sentence is the essential
element which determines both the content and
method of such teaching of the elements of
grammar Thus limited, the subject becomes
practically syntax

In a strict application of the theory of the
study of grammar as the syntax of the sentence,
a number of features commonly included under
the heads of grammar will be seen to be out of
place In the classification of the noun, for
example, the distinctions of concrete arid ab-
stract, of common and proper, etc , have purely
logical and not syntactical value Some gram-
mars give a class of "material nouns/' glass,
wood, iron, etc , which suggests to what ex-
tremes a logical classification of nouns could go
In the same way, the gender of nouns is of
little syntactical significance In the gram-
mar of the earlier periods of the English lan-
guage, when gender was still a grammatical,
not merely a natural distinction in nouns, the
rules of concord made gender very important
syntactically. Hut in modern English the ques-
tion of gender in nouns is raised only when the
agreement of the personal pronoun of the third
person singular with its antecedents is to be
determined, and here also the feeling is for
logical rather than formal grammatical agree-
ment. The same principles apply to many
of the subclassifications of the other parts of
speech, e.g of the adverb, as of time, place,
manner, degree, distance, etc ; of the conjunc-
tion, as concessive, causal, temporal, local, etc.

136

In a rigid definition of grammar as the study
of words in the context of the sentence, such
logical subelassification can find a justifiable
place only when they make clearer the functional
nature of the part of speech in question

The task of teaching elementary English
grammar is harder than it would be if every
syntactical construction told its meaning by
the forms, or inflections, of its words English,
however, has lost practically all of its inflections,
and it is in the necessity of apprehending func-
tion, whether with the aid of form or without it,
that the teacher finds his main difficulty, as
also his greatest opportunity Hy a process of
abstraction, words are taken up and discussed
as parts of speech as though they could have
meaning and function independent of their com-
binations with other words In considering
inflections, this abstract discussion is continued
by associating with the noun, for example, the
formal marks of numbers, with the pronoun
the marks of numbers and case, with the verb
the marks of person or tense, in each instance
as though number, person, tense, etc , were
characteristics which may have existence apart
from context These abstractions, however,
are merely the way of approach to the vital
organization of the parts ot speech mutually
dependent upon each other Having analyzed
the elements of speech, the student is then
brought to synthesize them in the formation of
speech. The language upon which study
should be based obviously should not be too
remote from the experience of the student —
not puzzles of grammar, or the language of
literary prose and poetry It should be normal
language of daily use, and the student should
realize that the real life of language passes not
only in the minds of authors and scholars, but
in his own and in the mind of every one who
uses the language

The completed sentence is the largest term in
which the language consciousness of the naive
speaker or writer moves, and beyond this, in
the group of sentences, in the paragraph, and
in the essay, etc As a whole, there is unity,
but it is unity of an entirely different kind
from the unity of the sentence One may
think and write the English language without
the paragraph, but not without the sentence.
The sentence is the necessary unit of expres-
sion, and the mastery of it entails at least a
practical command over the English language.
It is in this way that grammar, considered as
the study of the sentence, connects with the
study of the art of expression It should be
the result of the study of grammar that stu-
dents become aware of the plastic nature of
language, and although questions of effective-
ness in speech are not primarily questions of
grammar, they are close and material se-
quences of grammatical speculation Though
the conception of grammar as the study of the
functions and the forms of words in sentence-
forming combinations may seem narrow as

GRAMMAR

GRAMMAR

compared with the broad program of the
science of language, it nevertheless leads to
what is the practical end and reason for the
existence of all language, the expression of
thought by means of the giouping of words
The teacher of elementary grammar has no
need to feel that he has set his mark too low
in endeavoring to bring his students to an
intelligent conception of what is meant by the
sentence in the study and in the use of the
English language (i P K

Methods of Teaching Grammar The prcs-
ent tendency in the teaching of English gram-
mar is greatly to contract the instruction,
both in time and content, a tendency arising,
first, from the current, practice of requiring a
new educational justification foi all subjects
in the curriculum, and, secondly, from the
crowding of the curriculum bv new subjects
In many of the best schools formal grammar
occupies not more than three lessons per week
for two years, and in some schools even less
time Many distinctions and classifications,
such as are referred to above, are omitted,
either as having no practical value or as being
without meaning to an immature mind The
general value of grammai as formal discipline
is now largely disci edited Its \\orth to the
student seems to he in thiee things its occa-
sional guidance in matters of incorrect or
doubtful usage, its training in the process of
thought, as cast in the forms of the sentence,
and its assistance to the student in the studv
of a foreign language To these mav be added
its tendency to arouse intelligent interest in
language as a subject worthy of intelligent
attention, especially when some of the historical
features have been incidentally introduced into
the study

The long-recognized difficulty of teaching
giammar successfully is due mainly to its
abstract nature \ oung pupils do not easily
or naturally grasp grammatical abstractions,
hence the necessity for limiting the amount,
foi selecting those principles that are simplest
or nust necessary, for frequent repetition, for
confining the work to intelligible sentences, for
abundant drill and frequent icpetitions, and
foi connecting grammatical study as closely as
possible with the pupils' oral and written use
of the language Even under t he best instruc-
tion it is to be expected that pupils will often
en, often be confused, and generally forget
much that they once knew rather well, for
abstractions are neither clear nor permanent
in most minds

The order of procedure in the instruction
has been under much discussion, two general
plans being suggested from the word to the
sentence (the oldei, and former ly the invari-
able, plan), and from the sentence to the word
In the former the pupils first learned the pails
of speech, that is, noun, \erb, etc , vMth then
definitions and with 01 without examples in
sentences; that is, they began with the so-

called etymology In the second plan the
study begins with the sentence (? c with syn-
tax), considering first the general subject and
general predicate, then viewing the sentence
as consisting of strict subject and strict predi-
cate (noun and verb), each of them possibly
with or without a modifying word or phrase,
and so proceeding by steps of analysis to the
ultimate elements, / c the words (see Bar-
bo ur's The Teaching of English Grammar, 1901)
Various modifications of this second plan, in
combination with the first, are now in general
use, textbooks and teachers differing mainly
in the stages at which they introduce the
detailed study of the various parts of speech
This plan makes it possible to introduce some
of the simpler elements of grammar as early
as the fifth or sixth year in connection with
the pupil's writing, and so to prepare him
gradually foi the more difficult study of formal
grammar in the textbook

A considerable amount of drill is necessary
in all teaching of grammar Hut certain
changes have been made in the matter and
substance of drill It is important to proceed
not merely from the examples to the principles,
but also from the principles to the examples,
the pupils being required, for instance, not
merely to identify adjective clauses and adjec-
tive phrases, but to write sentences containing
these elements Parsing, that is, identifying
the part of speech of a word and pointing out
its relations, has no longer the large place it
once had Its value is doubtful as a means
to the real function of giarnmar, i e the study
of the sentence, and its propriety or even
possibility must often be questioned Then4
are many single words that cannot be parsed
They miist be taken in connection with other
words, as a group, before their relation to the
sentence can be indicated Nor is it permitted
to change the forms of expression to bring
words under the rules Such a change onh
makes a new sentence It must furthermore
be noted that certain conventional explana-
tions of construction were made before the
study of English philology had explained then
real origin An example is the so-called " re-
tained object " with the passive voice, as in
the sentences I wan qiren a book and in the phrase
one bi/ one Many instances could be cited show-
ing the disappeaiance of inflectional indications
of agreement or concord, and othei departures
from the Latinized conceptions on which oui
older English gi ammai s were based (See ( ioold
Brown, Gi annual of Gi am matt*, Introduction )

In general, therefore, teachers at home in
the subject are inclined to doubt, the advis-
ability of much " parsing " Drill in syntax
has come to occupy a much more important,
place, and " diagraming " is still in favor
as a short and convenient way of indicating
relationships In the study of both etymolog\
and syntax the old logical conception is rapidly
giving way before the more scientific view of
137

GRAMMAR GRADES

GRAMMAR SCHOOL

English as an idiomatic1 speech whose special
features are to be explained only by a knowl-
edge of their origins

One important question of method remains
to be considered How far should the study
be inductive7 We proceed in the man\ from
examples to principles and definitions, but
principles must be reeriforced by, and reinter-
preted in terms of, examples Some of the
more difficult conceptions, as those of verb
phrase, conjunction, preposition, are best
taught almost exclusively by examples

F T B

References : —

HARBOUR, F A The

(Boston, 1901 )
BROWN, GOOLD Grammai of Grammars

Teaching of English Grammar.
(New York,

CAKPENTLH, BAKER, and SCOTT The Teaching of Kng-
huh in the Elementary and the Secondary School
(New York, 1902 )

CHUBB, P The Teaching of English in the. Elementary
and the Secondary School (New York, 1902 )

LEONARD, M H Grammar and ?/& Reasons (Now
York, 1908 )

ONIONH, O T An Advanced English Syntax (London,
1904 ) In thi» Parallel Grammar Series

ROEMER, J Principles of General Grammar, Compiled
and Arranged for the Use of College? and Schools.
(New York, 1884 )

Teachers College Record, November, 1906 HOYT, F. S ,
The Place of Grammar in the Elementary Curriculum ,
and COAN, M S , Historical English Grammar in the
High School, also Januar>, 1911 Report on the,
Teaching of Technical Grammar (New York )

WATHON, FOSTER Beginnings of the Teaching of Mod-

ern Subject*, in England (London, 1909 )
See also the introduction to the various school gram-

mars.

GRAMMAR GRADES —The elementary
school normally covers eight years of work,
which may be begun at about the age of six
years The upper four vears of the elementary
school are known as the grammar grades, as
the lower four are called the primary grades
Sometimes, because of exceptional administra-
tive conditions, the fifth year of school may be
included among the primary grades, as m the
case where a primary school building includes
the first five years of work, or where these first
five years of work are set off because the
departmental system of instruction by special-
ized teachers does not cover more than the
sixth, seventh, and eighth years The gram-
mar grades, while normally covering four
years, may be four or eight in number, depend-
ing upon whether or not the graded system
provides for annual or, as is the usual' case,
semi-annual promotions H S

GRAMMAR-HIGH SCHOOLS — A term
used in the school laws of California to desig-
nate a two-year high school, to which state
aid is given Such schools represent the first
two years of the regular high school, and are
to be established where full four-year high
schools are not as yet needed The term cor-
responds in a general way to the term Town-
ship High School, as used m the upper Mis-

138

sissippi Valley to designate short-course schools
which have not been " accredited " or " com-
missioned " as full high schools. (See HK;H
SCHOOLS, RURAL ) E P C.

GRAMMAR SCHOOL - To write the his-
tory of grammar schools would be to write
the history of elementary and secondary edu-
cation from their dim beginnings in Hellas in
the fifth or sixth century B c to 1850, when
the greater number and the chief of the second-
ary schools on both sides of the Atlantic were
still called Grammar Schools Even where
the title has been dropped for that of Public,
School, Latin School, Academy, Gymnasium,
High School, Lyce*e, Ginnasio, these are still
essentially grammar schools, and, what is more,
the chief of them still Greek Grammar Schools
The term Grammar School (y/m/A/Attrciov)
simply meant a Letter School, a place in which
letters (ypa/z/Luxra), that is, spelling arid reading,
were taught But it has always been found
that it is impossible to teach even reading
properly without teaching much more, and the
term grammata soon came to connote an ever-
widening circle of learning till it became
identical with literature in its widest sense
Already in the sixth century B c , the vases
show the boys learning writing as well as
reading, and standing up to say their repetition
of Homer, while in later days they received
prizes for public competitions, not only in
" rhapsody," but in successive stages of recita-
tion of tragic, comic, and lyric verse Natu-
rally, poets had to be explained and understood
for effective recitation, and the whole of
literary comment, the science* of grammar, the
art of scholarship, criticism, and composition
was developed from the grammar school

Grammar and the grammar school were
developed at Alexandria, where the Mace-
donian variety of Doric-speaking students of
Attic writers perhaps required more assistance
from grammar proper The grammar school
was transplanted full grown to Rome Plau-
tus, c 210 B c , used the term in its Latin trans-
lation of ludus literanuK (For the develop-
ment of this school, ludus hterarut*, and the
later rhetoric schools, see ROMAN EDUCATION;
QUINTJLIAN; ENDOWMENTS, EDUCATIONAL ) A
Greek grammar school had been set up by
Livius Andromcus, a Greek, in 272 B c At
Rome the early grammar schools were more
advanced than those of Gieeee, when* the
grammar schools were confined to literary ex-
planation and criticism, while according to
Suetonius the early grammar schoolmasters at
Rome also taught rhetoric and " many of their
treatises include both sciences/' i e. grammar
and rhetoric In later days at Rome, as in
Greece, the two were separated, the grammar
school teaching the* Inn s till about fourteen and
confining themselves to literary construction,
the rhetoric school including every study
which could fit a youth to become a good

GRAMMAR SCHOOL

GRAMMAR SCHOOL

speaker Qumtihan, whose Institutes of Ora-
tory is the only complete ancient educational
work which has come down to us, shows that
the grammar school had extended its bound-
aries to include, for instance, the teaching of
history and the elements of philosophy, leav-
ing the rhetoric school to he more professionally
and professedly a " talking shop " The gram-
mar school and the rhetoric school were
ubiquitous through the Roman Empire From
the end of the first century A D they came to
be largely provided at the public expense by
the municipalities or by endowments (see
ENDOWMENTS, EDUCATIONAL), while the later
Emperors, and particularly Gratian in 376,
charged their maintenance on the fiftcu* or the
rates and fixed the salaries payable When the
barbarian kingdoms began to settle down, the
grammar schools became moie than ever
necessary, in a sense, for teaching Latin as
the foreign tongue, in which new nations
found their religion and their law enshrined
and administered While the rhetoric schools,
therefore, disappeared, the grammar schools
went on, and, so far as the higher studies of
the rhetoric school were needed, they were
studied in the grammar schools, which passed
under the control of the bishops It is diffi-
cult to say when they ceased to be public
schools and became episcopal schools, if indeed
it is possible to draw any such distinction, for
the bishop seems to have stepped into the
place of the civil magistrate in respect to pub-
lic older generally as much as to education
(See BISHOPS' SCHOOLS ) The eai host mention
of a school in England distinctly calls it, a
grammai school It was when Hede (Red
Hi^t 111, 15) i elated how in 631 Sigbert, King
of the East English, who had been converted
to Christianity when an exile in France, desn-
mg to imitate what he had seen well arranged
there, set up a school in which boys might- bo
taught grammar (httcu* crudircntut), and got
masters and ushers for the purpose from
Canterbury Alcum would no doubt have
called the school of famous Cathedral York,
which he describes a century later (731 to 7SO),
a grammar school For, though its curriculum
included law, music, astronomv, geometry,
arithmetic, and theology, yet grammai and
rhetoric arc put first, the master industriously
giving to these the art of the science of gram-
mai and pouring on those the rivers of rhetoric,
while the wnteis on grammar from the Ver-
gihan commentator, Servius, to Pro-bus and
Pnscian bulked most largely in the school
library At the end of the eighth century
(c 796), Alcum recommended his quondam
pupil, the then archbishop, to separate the
grammar school (qui libros legant) from the
song and the writing schools (qui cwitiknac
iHxcrviatU, qui xcmbwidi studio depmtentur)
The current custom for bishops to maintain
grammar schools at their sees was made general
law by the canon of Pope Eugemus in 826,

ordering all bishops to maintain giammar
schools (studw hteiaium) in which the principles
of the liberal arts should bo taught, an enact-
ment repeated by Pope (Irogory in a synod at
Rome, r 1073 It is stated in Assor's Life of
Alfied (c. 1001) that the King's youngest son
Ethelward was sent, to the grammar school
(ludif* hteianac dmcipliruie) with nearly all the
noble children of the realm and many \\ho
were not noble, a statement which is at least
rendered probable, and probably taken from
the educational program sot forth by Alfred
himself in the introduction to his Translation
of (Iregorv's Pastoral (1mc Alfred (</ r )
desired that all the young English freeman
should be set, to learn to road English, and
those who wanted to continue in learning and
reach higher rank should learn Latin Alfred
the Great (q v ) is credited with the estab-
lishment of grammar schools, while ^Elfnc's
(q v ) tiaxon-Latm Grammar (c 1005), being
excerpts from Priscian's grammar, purports
to bo a grammar as taught in the school
of Etholwold, Bishop of Winchester So
too the Danish king, Canute, is credited
by his eleventh-century biographer with found-
ing public schools (publican sro/us) to teach
boys grammar (httens imbuendos) In the
school attached to the collegiate church of
Waltham, founded by King Harold when carl,
grammar and Latin verse-making were learnt
The earliest use of the actual words " grammar
school," M'ola gramatice, as distinct from its
Latin equivalent, ludus hterarum, is in a
charter of the last half of the twelfth century,
in which Henry, Count of Eu and Lord of
Hastings, confirmed the foundation by his
grandfather Robert, Count of Eu, who received
Hastings from the Conqueror, of the Collegiate
Church of St Mary in Hastings Castle and
the division of its possessions into separate
prebends among the several canons or pre-
bendaries, including u Ausoher's prebend to
which belongs the keeping of the grammar
school (legnnvH .sro/< giawaticc)," while " to
Wyming's prebend " pertains " the keeping ot
the Song School (leginwn scoh (antu\} " It is
not clear whether Count Henry is quoting the
words of Count Robert or translating them
into the language of his o\vn time Hut it can
hardly be doubted that the Warwick School,
Gloucester School, Pontofract School, Thctford
School, St Paul's School, St Alban's School,
Huntingdon School, Dunstablo School, and
Reading School, — to mention some which are
so called in extant grants of the latter part of
the eleventh and first part of the twelfth cen-
tury — would have meant the grammar schools
of those places, just as in the present century
they would bear the same meaning, though for
the most part the masters aspire to drop the
qualifying epithet and call them by the place
name £o ul court In the thirteenth to the nine-
teenth centuries inclusive it was thought more
honorable to insert the qualifying epithet of

13d

GRAMMAR SCHOOL

GRAMMAR SCHOOL

" grammar " school This became necessary
in the thirteenth century to distinguish gram-
mar schools from the schools of the higher
faculties at the universities, and the Theo-
logical Schools, to which the schoolmasters of
cathedral and collegiate church grammar
schools, when they changed their name to the
less known and intelligible, and therefore more
magnificent title of Chancellor (q v ), confined
their ministrations A notable illustration of
the way in which the Cambridge School was
shorn of its prestige and glory by the side of the
university is to be found m the order made by
the diocesan of Cambridge, the Bishop of Ely,
in 1276 From this it appears that the Master
of Glomery (q v ) had still jurisdiction to hold
legal pleas in which grammar scholars were
concerned, as the Chancclloi of the University
had in those to which university students wore
parties He too had a bedell or beadle to bear
a mace before him, not only honors cau^a, but
also as the physical implement with which to
enforce his jurisdiction, just as the Chancellor
had, who was in fact only a highei school-
mastei Similarly the Canterbury grammar
schoolmaster in the years 1310 to 1327 exercised
jurisdiction in cases between Ins scholars and
the laity, enforcing by excommunication the
sentences he imposed as judge of his court,
in school, sometimes expressing his acts as
" done in Canterbury school," sometimes " in
Canterbury Grammar School " In London,
what was called in 1138 the " School of the
Arches/' or St Mary-le-Bow, appears in 1300
on the appointment of a master as " the Gram-
mar School of the Church of St Mary-le-
Bow or of the Arches " (See ARCHES, SCHOOL
OF THE ) So at St Alban's, the school over
which the famous Alexander Neekham (q v )
presided in the thirteenth century as St
Alban's School, is in 1309 called St Alban's
Grammar School In that year its master,
sitting " as Judge of the law of the Grammar
School of St Alban's," made statutes in and
for it in quasi-regal style " by the unanimous
consent of the Master and all the Bachelors "
of it He too exercised his jurisdiction over
laymen as well as clerks, forbidding any one to
assault or defame any of the scholars on pain
of excommunication Z/MO facto, while if anv
one assaulted the mastei himself, not only was
he excommunicated, but was also subjected to
"salutary chastisement in the4 school from all
the Bachelors of it, unless IK* had previously
made satisfaction to God and the church"
The common notion, derived ehieflv from a
misinterpreted passage in Richard of Burv's
Phdotnblon lefernn^ only to the masters of
small village schools, that the grammar school
master was of no importance, a person looked
down on, is contradicted by these documents,
which also correct the erroneous notions as to
the limited character of the curriculum of these
schools No one could become a bachelor in
St Alban's Grammar School unless he first

140

obtained from the master a proverb, on which,
as a theme, he had to compose verses, prose,
and rhyme ( Leonine or rhyming Latin verses?)
and also make an oration publicly in the
schools Nor was any bachelor coming from
elsewhere to take a seat in the school, unless
he had first been examined in the rules of
grammar by examiners appointed by the mas-
ter and was prepared to dispute publicly in the
school on them " or any other subject put
forward," just as in the university At
Beverley the newly created bachelors had to
make presents of gloves to a large number of
the officials of the minster, just as they did at
Cambridge University But the growth of the
university seems to have stopped this practice
of creating bachelors in grammar schools, and
we hear no more of them after the fourteenth
century

While the universities competed with the
grammar schools in their upper portions, the
song schools, which became to a large extent
also reading schools, competed with them for
their lower boys Thus at Warwick about
1316 the Dean and Chapter made statutes to
define the provinces of the grammar and music
schools, assigning the Donatists, or those learn-
ing the elementary parts of Latin grammar,
the Donat, to the grammar school, while
confirming the music master in the possession
of those learning their first letters, the yi(nn-
mata of the original Greek grammar school
Similarly at Canterbury the parochial school,
maintained by the rector in connection with
St Martin's Church, was impeached by the
rector or master of the Archiepiscopal or Citv
Grammar School for competition with him in
taking grammar scholars, and was after trial
bv jury found to be customarily entitled to
take thirteen grammar scholars only, though
it might receive an unlimited number in the
alphabet, psalter (? e reading Latin), and sing-
ing A century later, the grammar school-
master at Saffron Walden obtained a decice
from the Abbot as Ordinary of Walden pro-
hibiting the priests of the chantries connected
with the parish church from teaching grammar
or any higher subjects than the alphabet and
the graces (alphabetic^ et graciib] i e the
graces before and after meat, for long misin-
terpreted as graces, and alleged to show a
Greek-teaching school in 1425

As somo indication of what was learned in
the grammar schools at this time, it may be
mentioned that a feeble, or tattered (rlebili*)
Horace was bought for the Meiton Grammar
School boys in 1348 for a half-penny, while
several pairs of white tablets for reporting
arguments cost 2ir/ , showing that the dialectic
method was applied to grammar as to other
subjects. The master of this school at the
time was Master John Cornwall (see CORN-
WULE, JOHN) The successive attacks of the
plague in the Black Death (q v ) in 1349, the
Second Plague in 1361, and less well known

GRAMMAR SCHOOL

GRAMMAR SCHOOL

but still destructive outbreaks in 1369 and
1380 made such havoc in the knowledge of
Latin that special new endowments appeared
necessary to restore it Hence the great in-
crease of endowed grammar schools (see ENDOW-
MENTS, EDUCATIONAL), of which Winchester
College, founded in 13S2, was the leading
example Never, perhaps, had the supenoi
efficacy of grammar as " the foundation, gate
and source of all the liberal arts " — the essen-
tial element of a liberal education — been more
emphatically proclaimed than in its foundation
charter For the first time a grammar school
was made the principal or indeed the sole
object of a collegiate church, as important a
step forward in educational provision as the
foundation of the first collegiate church as a
university college in Merton College had been a
hundred years before It is much to be regretted
that the object and curriculum of a grammar
school was so well understood at the time that
the elaborate code of statutes made for " Sainte
Mane College of Wynchester " in 1400 contains
riot a word as to the content of the curriculum,
nor the method of teaching, but merely prc-
scnbes that candidates are to pass a com-
petitive examination in the " Old Donat " and
plain song for admission " to study in gram-
maticals 01 the art faculty or science of gram-
mar " An equal parsimony of details is found
in the numerous grammai schools endowed in
connection with colleges, chantnes, gilds, and
hospitals irom that time to the eve of the Refor-
mation Though three hundred and more of
these grammar schools were founded or re-
founded, endowed or reendowed, very few of the
foundation deeds or statutes have come down to
us, but, judging Irom those which have come
down, they would not have greatly enlightened
us The greatest and richest of all the free
grammai schools, the College Hoiall of Our
Lady of Eton (q v ), was a mere replica in its
statutes, as in its foundation, of that of Our
Lady of Winchester Colet (q v ) was no doubt
expressing the sentiments of all, when in his
statutes for the refounded and augmented St
Paul's School in 1518, he said, " what shall be
taught it passeth my wit to devy.se and

determyn in particuler " Nor did he unfor-
tunately vouchsafe any details when he went
on to say " in generall'" that the scholars were
to be " taught all way in good htterature " and
to denounce the " barbary, corrupnon " and
" Latcn adulteiate " which " ignorant blynde
folis brought into this world/' the " fylthynessc
and abusion " which " raythei may be called
blotterature than htterature," and went on to
demand the " olde Laten spech, the veray
Romayne tong " of Tully and Vcigil, as found
in St. Augustine, St Jerome, Sedulius and
Juvencus, and other Latin Christian writers of
the lower p]mpire What, besides Alexander
de Villa Dei's (q v ) Doctnnale, or grammar m
verse, was included in " Blotterature," we can
only guess Colet did not succeed in substi-

tuting the late Latm-Chnstians for the earlier
classical authors in grammar schools in general,
though he apparently revived them, as Milton's
reading appears to show, at St Paul's The
statutes of Cardinal Wolsey, for the grammar
school of his college at Ipswich, made in 1528,
are preserved; and a year or two later we
have parts of the curriculum of Winchester
and the whole of the curriculum of Eton as
sent to Saffron Walden for adoption in the
newly refounded and endowed giamrnar school
there These show that the Latin Accidence
of Stanbridge, scholar of Winchester arid Master
of Magdalen College School, of which Wolsey
had himself been master, with at Eton the
grammai of Lily, first master of the lefounded
St Paul's School, and at Winchester that of
Sulpicius, a fifteenth-century schoolmaster at
Rome, had superseded Donatus and Alexander
dc Villa Dei The lower forms road the
pseudo-Cato's M or alia, as then predecessors
had done at Merton in 1308 and centuries
before that, and ./Esop's Fabler, which were
still in vogue at Highgate Grummar School in
1860 For the rest, they read Lucian's Dia-
logues (in Latin), ()\id's Metamorphoses, Tei-
ence, Cicero's Paiadoxe*s, Vergil's Eclogues in
the Fourth Form, in the Fifth, Sixth, and
Seventh, Sallust, and Vergil's /Kncnl, Cicero's
Letters, and Horace, with the figures of speech
of Mosellanus, a German schoolmaster named
Schade, of a pronouncedly Reformation type,
scoffing at Saints and Saints' Davs, and Eras-
mus' Copui vcrbonun, which was much like
^Elfrie's Colloquy and word books of the eighth
century Caesar is the only author mentioned
by Wolsey who does not appeal in the Win-
chester and Eton cunicula Greek, rt appears,
was not taught, though it probably had been a
little earlier under Hoi man

Five years later the Reformation in England
began with the dissolution of monasteries
Its educational hist fruits are found in the
statutes for the grammar schools attached to
the cathedrals of the new foundation of Henry
VIII, undei the new deans and chapters in
lieu of the old cathedral grammar schools,
under the immediate cogni/anee of the bishops
There is no noticeable difference in the curric-
ulum The master is indeed called by the
high-sounding name of (i)chulida.scalu*, instead
of Magntcr Informatoi or Magibtcr tcolarum,
and the second master, hypodtdascalus, instead
of Ostianus or Vice-monitor Greek as well as
Latin is now requned of the master, though
Latin only of the usher. The object of the
foundation scholars, lodged, boarded, and
clothed at the expense of the cathedral endow-
ment, is expressed, as before, to be to obtain
a fair knowledge of Latin grammar and to
talk and write Latin No Greek author is
mentioned in the curriculum, which includes
vaguely t.ie chaste poets and the best his-
torians, arid in the Sixth or highest form Eras-
mus' Copia with " Horace and Cicero and

141

GRAMMAR SCHOOL

GRAMMAR SCHOOL

Other authors of that class " In none of the
re-foundations under Edwaid VI and Eliza-
beth is any inkling given of the curriculum
contemplated beyond the direction that the
newly constituted school is to " endure to all
futuie time foi the education, institution, and
instruction of boys and youths in grammar ''
(See FREE SCHOOLS, EDWARD VI, ELIZA-
BETHAN PERIOD IN ENGLISH EDUCATION, REF-
ORMATION AND EDUCATION )

That (heck had by this time crept into the
schools is shown only by the salvos of verses
piesented to the King when he visited Winches-
ter and Eton, perhaps five per cent of which are
in Greek. It is not till we come to the statutes
made1 by Queen Elizabeth in 1560 for the gram-
rnai school attached to the ( Collegiate Ohm eh of
the Blessed Peter of Westminster, which took
the place of the abbey dissolved by Henry VIII
and reinstated by Queen Mary, that any dif-
feiencc in subject or detailed curriculum is
forthcoming The duty of both master and
ushei, ludimagister and pi cec( })tor , is defined to
be to teach Latin, Greek, and Hebrew gram-
mar, literal hiimanioH'b, poets and orators
( <ato and ^£sop still prevail in the lowest forms
with Vives (<y v ) , Terence and Sallust in the
Third Form In the Four th Foi in Greek gi am-
mar appeals with Lucian's Dialogues in Greek,
m the Fifth Form, Isoeiates and Plutarch;
in the Sixth and Seventh, Demosthenes and
Homer as well as Livy and Veigil Only the
Seventh Form was actually to be taught He-
brew, de\ otmg the last hom between five and six
every school day to Hebrew grammar with a
reading in the Psalms in Greek and llebiew
That Hebiew lemamed an integral and ef-
fective pait of the curriculum at Westminster
is clear fioiu the evidence of Charles lloole's
Ncir Disown/ of the Old A)t of tcadung school
(1059) He testifies that Westminster boys
undei Busby (q v ) made orations and verses in
Hebrew and also " Arabick and other onental
tongues " " to the amazement of most of their
hearers " But though Hebrew was included
in many school statutes up to the latter pait of
the seventeenth centmv, and ILoole includes
it m his ideal school for three monnngs a week,
and Mills in 17M, in his PuriituB fonnnndtB
artijci, includes Hebrew and Li/ia Propheltca
for those bovs who " wished to be clerics,"
it nevei had leal hold in the grammar schools
It is still taught to a limited extent at Mer-
chant Taylor's School, reputed to be founded
in 1500, the same year as the Elizabethan
statutes \\ere given to Westminster, and was
traditionallv taught a few yeais ago at Louth
Grammar School in Lincolnshire The net
result of the Renaissance and Reformation on
the curriculum and methods of grammar schools
was little nioi e than to place Greek in the same
position as Latin, with more eVlat attaching
to a real knowledge of it, but less consequence
attached and less effort made to attain that
knowledge in the majority of pupils

As to the class which attended the grammar
schools, it is certain, notwithstanding oft-re-
peated assertions and commonly received
notions to the contrary, that it was in the mam
the same as now, that is, the middle class, the
younger sons of the nobility, including m that
term the whole knightly class and squire-
archy, the great and small landlords, the pro-
fessional classes, which at first were almost
entirely the common lawyers, as the medical
men and the chancery and ecclesiastical law-
yers were mostly clerks and ousted from matri-
mony, the merchants and tradesmen The
chief difference is that to this class since the Ref-
ormation new recruits came forth from above
and from below, fiom the eldest sons of the
landed classes and from select individuals of
the working classes In Alfred the Great's
family, according to Asser, the eldest son was
brought up in chivalry, in hunting, and the arts
of war, with only so much literary instruction
as to leain Saxon poems bv heart and to read
Saxon, while the youngest son was sent to the
grammar school This practice1 was followed
in other noble families with few exceptions
throughout the Middle Ages, up to the latter
part oi the sixteenth century, the tincture of
literature being piobablv less in the tenth to
the twelfth centuries than in the ninth, and
glowing as learning giew fiom the thirteenth
century onwards Throughout, the younger
sons even of the noblest families went to gram-
mar schools and acquired learning for the
clerkly profession, which included not only
bishops and priests, but the whole of the govern-
ment services, diplomacy and the law, and,
increasingly, la haute conuneice While William
Rufus wras a rude soldier, the younger son
Henry was sent to school, andleained grammar,
and, as William of Malmesbuiv mentions, when
he became king, in all his \\ais and troubles
nevei forgot his learning or to lead books
The celebrated Abelard was the eldest son of a
Breton knight and landowner Thomas a
Becket, who is expressly lecoided as having
passed through the school of the city oi London,
i c St. Paul's School, befoie going to Pans
University, was the son of a sheriff of London
in the days when aldermen were still hereditary
landowners and then oflrces territorial govern-
ments On the other hand, Abbot, Sampson
of Bury, who also went to Paris Uruveisity, was
so poor that he could not pay the penny fee at
Bury School, and at Paris eked out his living
bv carrying holy water The archbishops and
bishops, deans, archdeacons, and canons, who
had all been at grammar schools, and after the
twelfth century mostly at universities, were
predominantly of noble birth It was one of
the grievances of the chapter of Lincoln, when
Bishop Grosseteste (q v ) wanted to " visit "
them, that he was not a gentleman When
Henry III wanted to hang the Oxford scholars,
recruited from the grammar schools, who had
taken a leadrng part in the defense of North-

142

GRAMMAR SCHOOL

GRAMMAR SCHOOL

aiupton in 1264, he was prevented by the baions
of his own side, who protested 1 hut they wore not
going to have the blood ol their sons and re-
lations shed A fourteenth-cent ury list of Ihe
scholars of Paris University contains several
counts and other nobles of various nations
The first " poor and needy scholars " of Win-
chester and of Eton were scions of well known
county families, and the " Cornmoneis " of Win-
chester, many of whom became scholars, were
by statute bound to be u sons of the nobility "
and were so in fact to within twenty years
of the Reformation, when the lists cease The
Eton statutes excluded villeins, which included
the majority of farmers and aitisans hi 1 147
the University of Oxford petitioned the Lord
Say and also the House of Commons for their
help to get Duke Humphrey's library for them,
on the expiess ground that " many of your
noble lineage and kinsmen have studied and
shall hereafter in the said University " As
a matter of fact, we know at least one i elation
of Lord Say who was a scholar of A\ mchester
and fellow of New College, Oxford, and another
who was a scholar of Eton Macclesfield ( «r arn-
nuir School ^as founded in lf>(M, expiesslv for
" gentilmens sonnes and other godemennes
children of the towne and contre thereabouts "
Colet ordered that his free seliolars should
provide wax candles for the school at the cost
of their friends, when \\a\ \vas a coM-lv luxury
But perha])s the most striking testimony to
the fact that the grammar schools were mostly
frequented by the upper classes is the story of
the admission of " poo? scholars " on the rn w
foundation of Canterbury Cathedral (Irarn-
mar School in 1,")41 " JVIore than one or t\\o
of the ( Commissioners would ha\ e none admit ted
but sons 01 younger brethren of gentlemen,
as for others, husbandmen's children, they \vere
more for the plough and to be artificers than to
occupy the place of the learned SOT! " \ich-
bishop Ciannier, himself a scion of an ancient
family in Nottinghamshire, had to stand up for
the new idea of admitting the really pool and to
protest not in favor of a majontv of poor, but
against ''utterly" excluding them At Can-
terbury, as at Worcester, the names of the schol-
ars admitted are those mainly of the county
families of Kent and Worcestershire The ad-
mission of the working classes to participate in
the schools was one of the ne\\ ideas of the
revolution called the Reformation, and was one
of the objects of the great increase in fiee, / (
gratuitous, schools which followed it, At the
same time another effect of the Renaissance and
Reformation was the increase also of the upper-
most classes in the grammar school*, though it
was not till the seventeenth century that the
eldest sons of great nobles are found in them It
was thought something of a scandal when, in
1569, the heir of Hioughton castle, aftei wards
Lord Say and Sele, became a scholar of Win-
chester ( 1ollege as Founder 's km It was not so
regai tied a century later \\lien Sir Robert Wai-

pole was a " poor and needy " scholar of Eton
Until the distinction gievv up in the eighteenth
century between the great grammar schools
which became known as public schools to which
aristocracy flocked, and the smaller schools,
the ordinary country grammar schools pre-
sented a real mixture of classes The local
nobility and gentry \vere found in them side
by side with the local tradesmen and farmers
The sons of the former, passing on to the uni-
versities as commoners at Oxford or pensioners
at Cambridge, often took the sons of the latter
with them as servitors and sizars This prac-
tice had descended from medieval times, when
the servitors who were numbered with the ,sw/r
of a rich man and lived in the same hostel were
more often poor relations than of a lower class
The truth is that in the grammar schools, as in
the church itself, and the professions as in other
institutions, the progress has been from aris-
tocracy and exclusion to democracy and the
open door

It was not considered after the Reformation
any more than before that the grammar school^
should teach anything but the classical lan-
guages Hut the Inter years of Queen Elr/a-
beth's reign \\eie marked in many grammar
schools, especially in the1 smaller country to\\n,
by the attempt to introduce English reading and
\\nting and arithmetic in the lower parts of the
grammar school under the ushei In the se\en-
teenth century, especially during and after
the commonwealth, it became almost a com-
monplace for the founders of small country
grammar schools, of which then* were a large
number, to preserrhe English grammar, and
Latin only " if required " Hut it \vas not till
close on the Commonwealth period itself that
rt occurred to people to found separate English
schools or elementary schools, not grammai
schools and commonly free (see FREE Sc IIOOLS)
Hut the pathetic belief in the magic of Latin
grammar as an indispensable talisman to un-
lock the doors of knowledge prevailed spasmodi-
cally even to the nineteenth century, even
when the founders were cleailv not thinking of
providing education for the class who would
go to the universities Hut at Whittington
in Derbyshire, founded in lu'Sl for u 20 of the
meanest, and poorest mens' sons born in the
parish," Latin as \\ell as English and accounts
were prescribed, at Lowestoft in Suffolk rn
1735 .1 schoolmaster was to teach forty boys,
with preference to fishermen's children of the
parish, wilting, reading, accounts, and Latin,
at Wiggles worth in Yoikshire in 1789 a sum
of £1000 was willed for the establishment of
Clarke's Free School to teach children born in
the township, or whose parents were legally
settled there, Latin, English, wrrtmg, and
accounts

In the seventeenth century English began
to take a more permanent part in the grammar
schools, not that it was ever taught as a set
subject and studied as a language or literature

143

GRAMMAR SCHOOL

GRAMMAR SCHOOL

in school, but the practice begun of making Eng-
lish versions of Latin verse and English essays in
classical subjects At the end of the seven-
teenth century, though French began to be
studied and French dictionaries and phrase-
books to be written, it was taught in separate
schools Perhaps the eaihcst recorded in-
stance of a French master teaching French in
an ordinary grammar school known is that of
a French usher at Croydon Giammai School,
then part of Archbishop Whitgift's hospital,
about 1717 Hut from the rather casual
way m which he is first mentioned it is certain
this was not the fust instance of such ushers
The unwillingness, and, according to legal
decisions, the inability of the grammar schools
to open their doors to modern subjects on a
level with the ancient languages led to a marked
decay m them duung the eighteenth centuiy
(See EIGHTEENTH CENTURY IN ENGLISH EDU-
CATION ) In 1805 m the Leeds Grammar
School case (Attormnj-Gcncinl vs Whitcley, 11
Ves 241) Lord Chancellor Eldon (q v ) stopped
the efforts of the governors of the school to pro-
vide for the admission of modern subjects,
holding that the Court had no authority to
fill a school intended to " teach the learned
languages grammatically " with " scholars learn-
ing the grammar and French languages, mathe-
matics, and anything except Creek and Latin "
A separate branch of the school to teach Ihese
subjects " might be veiv use! ul to the youth
of Leeds, but. could not possibly be icprcsented
as useful to the charity," and it was to the
utilitv of the chanty the court had to look
This decision stopped all reform of the gram-
mar schools, except when, as in the case of
Leeds itself, the endowment was huge enough
to go to the cost of a private act of Paihamerit
A generation later the (Irammai Schools Act
of 1840 overruled the decision and enabled the
court to widen the curnculum, but onlv by the
expensive process of a lawsuit- It took an-
other generation before by the Endowed Schools
Act, 1S61) ('/?>), a bodv of Endowed Schools
Commissioneis was instituted to create more
or less popularly elective governing bodies and
to introduce natural science and modern lan-
guages This had to be done bv separate
schemes in each case, frequently opposed in
Parliament on political grounds Hut now
there are many grammar schools, in which
grammar forms a very small part of the whole
curriculum, which do not teach Greek at all,
and in which it is even possible to escape Latin
altogether On the other hand, those which
have been most successfully reformed in then
government and have in view the preparing
of boys for the universities retained a greater
but more efficient instruction in classics, such
as Sherborne in Dorsetshire, Sedbergh in York-
shire, two of the earliest of the so-called Free
Grammar Schools of King Edward VI, Derbv
and Ipswich, have dropped the word "grammar "
and in imitation of Rugby, which was one of

the earliest to do so, call themselves simply
Sherborne or Sedbergh School, after the name
of their place, and would describe themselves
as Public Schools (q v ), almost in contradis-
tinction to grammar schools The latter term,
however, has been retained, and is still used in
schools in some of the great manufacturing
towns like Leeds and Manchester A F L

See articles on individual schools, e.g ETON,
HARROW, ST. PAUL'S, PUBLIC SCHOOLS, ENG-
L\Ni), EDUCATION IN, under Secondary Edu-
cation

Present Position - - A classification of Eng-
lish secondary schools is a matter of some diffi-
culty Many factors \\hich aie extraneous to
education enter in to complicate 1he question
Hut the following three bioml divisions mav be
made (1) Those schools which aie known as
the Public Schools par excellent ( , most of these
will receive separate treatment (c g Winchester,
Eton, Harrow, Rugby, etc ) And since the
Public Schools ha\e established H tradition,
an account of their general organization and
spirit will be given under PUBLIC SCHOOLS

(2) A wide middle division including day and
boarding schools, some accepting a govern-
ment giant, some not, all charging lees, and the
majority de\ eloped out of old foundations
(See ENDO\\ MENTS; ENDOWED SCHOOLS ACT)

(3) The third class of schools consist of those
recently founded and maintained by local au-
thorities and supported bv government giants,
taking pupils as a mle direct liom elemental y
schools and keeping them foi about fom veins
For these see ENGLAND, EDUCATION IN

Here only those schools which iall into the
second division aie tieated Geneially these
schools an1 attended by the children of the
middle classes, and with the exception of those
who hold scholarships 01 free places all pupils
pay fees which varv in amount from €12 to £24
in dav schools and £75 to £120 m boaidmg
schools While it has been found convenient
to group these schools under the caption of
Grammar Schools, the titles vary widelv
With many t he term " ( College " has found great
popularity in imitation of true collegiate schools
like Eton (see, however, COLLEGE, ENGLISH),
others merely bear the place name, and others
again retain the title of Grammar School The
organization of all the schools is approximately
the same While some may receive pupils at
the age of nine or ten, secondary work generally
begins at the age of twelve, the pupils leceiving
their preliminary education in elementary or
in special preparatory schools, and continues up
to nineteen, although there is usually a great
leakage at sixteen The schools are usually
divided into modern and classical sides, the
former prepares boys for practical and com-
mercial life as soon as they leave school, or m
some cases for the universities, the latter for
the universities and the professions In some
schools all pupils receive a common basis in
a " junior school," and bifurcation takes place

144

GRAMMAR SCHOOL

GRAMMAR SCHOOL

in inr fsrmcM KriiiMu ai uie age 01 uilliCen or
fourteen In a few cases pio\ision is made
for special science and mathematical Hides,

DAT*, OF

NUMULH OF
PUPILS

NUMB* n OK

for special preparation for army examinations,

etc The schools are organized in forms ((/ v ),

generally on a basis of six, and each form is wjsl,\f(')0t| ^rmycton
under a form master who has general charge Deiwtoiie CoHeR-IT

151M.
1873

335
270

25
17

of pupils in his class, while for certain subjects, Dufwuh clXge I ondon
such as science and mathematics, there are

1871
1019
be fore

200
701

18
4?

specialists For the influence of examinations Durham School
on the work of English schools, see under that

1180
(refounded
1540)

102

13

topic For the social organization see ATM- Eastbourne College

* ^ T? n hpMom (ollege

LETICS, EDUCATIONAL, BOAKDINU SCHOOLS; Kxeter School

1867
185r>
13 J2

200

281
130

17
20
11

DORMITORIES; PUBLIC SCHOOLS; FAGGIMJ, J^!fed *(,h°o1

T^ .« ' T . } > l<et tea College

PREFECTS, STUDENT LIFE; etc Giggieswuk school

1504

1880
1507

250
230
140

21
20
13

The following schools taken from the Public TTSuumdoU^' Gl°n"

Schools Yearbook (1911) may be regarded as Elizabeth College, Guem-

1841

140

14

represcntative The basis of selection is the TJH0.V . ,, „

1 r IT f ,, TT , , Hailevburv (ollege

same as for membership of the Headmasters Hereford cathedral

1503
1802

120
490

11
35

Conference — namely, number of pupils in the S<h<*>i

i i / i i IT . i j\ i rr Highgate School

school (one hundred boys at least), number of for- Gicsham's School, Holt

1381
1502
1 55 ">

120
380
196

12
25
17

mer pupils lesident as undergraduates at Oxford Hvmers College, Hull .

1 889

260

17

and Cambridge (ten at least), and number of ip^i.hs.hooi

before
1177

120

10

boys sent up to the universities annually (fi\e lv'n* wfllJl,ftn|lM r°I|pKp-

,1 ,v rp, , rx , , ,11 i I1*" of Man

or six at least), ihe nine great Public Schools owm's School, iwiington

183S

ion

185
420

13
20

are left for separate treatment The dates of Victoria College, Jersev

1832

153

13

f i i ±1 £ 11 1.1 i i King s ( ollege rv'liool,

foundation in the following list are based on Wimbledon

1829

2U)

IS

Leach Kov.il Clrammar School,

before

Lam astet

1472

169

<)

SS Min\ nrid Nicolas

College, Lancing

1843

222

21

DAT* OF ' ^ John's S( hool, Leath-

FOUNIM- NiMHKit oi-jNuMUth 01 erhead

1831

255

10

1 ION

J'ifMiH AlAHiMtH Lc'eds (irimmai S( hool

] 332

273

22

W>ggeston Cirammai

School, Leicester
Liverpool College

1515

1812

r>8 r>
250

27
17

Abmgdon School

1 r)(» ^

1JO

10 Llando\cr\ College

184S

101

1 i

(refounded)

Loretto School

1829

140

IS

Aldcnham S< hool

1 V)7

210

17 Malvern (1ollc»ge 1S04

500

30

Beaumont College, Old

Miinchester (irammar 1500 /

Windsor

ISbl

ISO

.r> Srliool

1315 1

8SO

43

BecHord dammar Sc hool

Ioo2

soo

17 Alarl borough ('ollc»gc<

184 i

000

40

(jefoiindcd)

Merchant Ta\ lor's School

Berkhamsted School

1 54.')

105

22 Crosbx

1018

300

15

Birkenhead School

1S()()

200

10 Alerchiston (Castle

King Eelwaids \Ts High

School, Kdmburgh

183 i

270

23

School, Birmingham

i A.^^

470

27 Mill IMl School

1807

200

22

Bishop's Stortfoicl Col-

Monkton Combe School,

lege

1 S(iS

l.W

14 nenr Bath

1 808

137

17

Bluudell's School, Tiver-

Monrnouth (irammar

ton

1004

250

20 School

1011

177

12

before

Neu ( aHtle-under-L\ me

Boston School

1327

105

7 High School

1002

1 50

12

Bradheld College

1 850

Js7

before

Bradford Grammar

before

~^ Norwich Si hool

1230

90

()

School

1548

r)r>0

before

Chnst ('ollege, Brecon.

1541

100

7 Nottingham High School

12S9

{70

20

Brighton College

1815

212

1(> Oakham School

lr>M

103

11

before

Oundle School

1104

310

23

Biistol Grammar School

1171

,iSO

21 Oxford High School

1S7S

130

11

before

Magdalen College School,

Bromsgrove School

1548

140

12 Oxford

1 180

100

10

Leys School, Cambridge

LS75

lr>r,

IS St Ed ward's School, Ox-

Perse Grammar Sc hool,

ford

1863

120

10

Cambridge

1015

210

2'* PI v mouth College

1834

172

12

Kmg'n School, Canter-

Portsmouth (Jrimmar

buiy

5()H

2,i7

18 Sc hool

1732

2 30

12

St Edmund's School,

St Peter's College, Hadlev

1S47

240

20

Canterbury

174<>

12r,

1,J St Lawrence College,

before

Kamsgatc

1879

200

21

Carlisle (irammar School

12l)0

140

q

befon

Cheltenham College,

Reading School

1125

135

13

Cheltenham

1841

000

49 Itepton School, Kepton-

Dean Close Memorial

on-Trent

1557

300

30

School, Cheltenham

1886

220

13 Hossall Sc hool, Fleet w ood

1844

300

28

King's School, Chester

1541

140

9 St Alban's School

948

218

14

ChiKwell School

1029

100

9 St Bees School

1587

280

16

Christ's Hospital, West

St Glare's and St Sa-

Horsham

1552

820

47 viour's Graramai

City of London School

1831

715

36 School, London

lr>71

450

24

Clifton College, Bristol

1802

050

51 Hedbergh School

1525

220

18

VOL III L

145

GRAMMAR, STUDY OF

GRANT

UAH. o,

Ml.MMhK OF

Ml MBLK OF

1' OHVDA-

PlII'llS

M AST 1 HH

I ION

Sherborne School

(M founded)

280

21

Btonyhurst Col lego
Tonbridge School

1 VJ2

WO
4r>0

2<>
M

Trent College

IHfob

150

15

University College S< hool,

London

IS 30

300

25

UppinKharn School
Wakefield Grammar

lr)S4

140

37

S( hool

1 V) 1

250

IS

before

Warwick School,

1(11)1.

200

15

Wellington College

isr> i

100

.to

Wevmouth College

ISM

11 r>

12

Wolverhampton School
Woodbndge School

I(!fa2

14?

Iti
12

Worcester Cathedral

King's School

1 MO

150

14

Worcester Royal Gram-

before

mar School

1202

275

17

St Peter 'H School, York

Sth f enturv

140

19

References : —

CARLISLE, N Endowed Grammar fichooh in England
and Wales (London, IMS)

LE\CH, A F Enult&h School** at the Reformation (Ox-
ford, 1H9G )
Victoria Counh/ Histories, articles on Srhoc Is

NORWOOD, C , and HOPE, A H The Hifjhe Education
of Moijto in Ruffland (London, l()()() )

Publu Schools Ycinbook, giving an ac( oun of the 01-
gaimation of each H< hool and the lite ature eon-
neeted with e.uh (London, annual )

Schoolmaster**' YenihooL, giving a < hionule ai 1 review of
the vear (hearing on .semnrlaiv edueatio i) and gen-
eral mioimation (London, annual )

GRAMMAR, STUDY OF - See GRAMMAR,
ENGLISH, ENGLISH USAGE, (JUKEK LAN(;U\(IE
AND LITERATURE, LATIN LANGUAGE AND LIT-
ERATURE

GRAMMATEUS (Hemnch Schreiber, or
Henrieus Scnptor, whence the Latinized Greek
form of Grammateus) — Mathematician, was
born at Eifurt, at least as early as 1496, and
describes himself in one of Ins woiks as II en rich
Gramniateuf* von Eifint <lei uben fienn hun\ten
Meystei He was a student at Cracow and at
the University of Vienna (1507), and was well
known as a teacher, and also as a lecturer in
the university where he was educated His
publications include an arithmetic, Heehen-
buchlin, that appeared in 15 IK, with subsequent
editions in 1535, 1544, 1554, and 1572 He
also published the following AlqoiiOunu^ pro-
poitionum, in which was included some work
in the theory of music (Cracow, 1514), Libellus
de cornpoMtione tcgiilaiuni pro wi*>oi urn tnen-
surationc (Vienna, 1518), Behend and khunst-
hch Hechnung K(uh dei Regel urut wethisch
praetic (Nurnberg, 1521), Algonwnu* de ni-
tegris Regula de tn cum exempli^ (Eifurt, 1523),
Eyn kurtz newe Rechenn unnd Visyjbueehleynn
(Erfurt, 1523) RudoliT (q v ) learned algebra
from Grammateus, for he records his thanks to
him in these words feh hah von meister Hein-
nchen so Grammateus genennt dcr Coss an-
fengkhchen bencht emphangen. Sag im darumb
danck D E S

GRANADA UNIVERSITY -- See SPAIN,
EDUCATION IN

GRAND ISLAND COLLEGE, GRAND
ISLAND, NEB — A coeducational institu-
tion maintaining academic, collegiate, com-
mercial, and music departments The entrance
requirements to the college are equivalent to
the work of a high school The college confers
the degree of A B on completion of the requi-
site courses There is a faculty of twenty-five
instructors

GRANGER, THOMAS — Writer of a Latin
grammar, 1011), and a logic, 1620 The gram-
mar is entitled Syntagma Grammaticum, or
an caste and mcthodicall explanation of Lillic's
Giammar, wheieby the nnxteiie of thi* Art is
more plainly set forth, both for the better helpe
of all schoole-mmster*, in the true older of teach-
ing, and the tchollers for more easie attaincment
of the Latine tongue, 1010 Granger was an
M A of Peterhouse ( Allege, Cambridge, ap-
parently minister at H utter wick, near Boston,
in Lincolnshire His giammai is of importance
on account of the Epistle to the Reader, con-
taming " the geneiall Theonke, or true grounds
of teaching " In this treatise Granger points
out that commonly doubtfulness and confusion
exist in teacher and scholai, unless he is full
master of his subject and understands child
natuie Granger has a clear insight into the
causes of confusion and doubtfulness in the
child He understands that the psychology
of the child is different fiom that of the man,
and goes on to point out the differences in a
very modern spirit Grangei anticipates some-
thing of the doctrine of seli-activity " The
scholar must attain to learning by his own study,
industry, diligence and exercise, using /u,s
mastci a,s a help, u.s a nuisc, 01 matrm "

In 1620 Granger published Syntagma Logicum
~~or the Divine Log ike This was a logic for
divines in " the practice of pleaching " and for
the help of " judicious heareis " and " generally
for all " It is dedicated to Bacon The work
is founded on Ramus (q v)> the great leformer
of logic, with modern applications Grangei
supplies scriptural and theological illustrations
of logic, as Fraunce (q v ) had supplied English
poetical and legal illustrations F W

Reference * —

WATSON, FOSTER The English Grammar Schools up to
1M>0, PP 267-208 (Cambridge, 1908 )

GRANT, CHARLES (1746-1827) — States-
man and philanthropist, born m Invernesshire
He was early taken by an uncle to India, where
he entered the service of the East India Com-
pany, with whom he attained a position of great
importance and influence He interested him-
self greatly in the need for the social better-
ment of tlie natives, and never tired of sending
to England suggestions for the increased estab-

146

GRANT, ZILPAH

GRAPH

lishmcnt of missions in India On his return
to England ho was instrumental in founding
the Church Missionary Society (1799) and the
British and Foreign Bible Society (1804)
His treatise, Observations on the State of fiocictij
among the Asiatic Subject* of (treat Bntain
particularly with Respect to Morale, and on the
Means of Improving it (1813), led to the ap-
pointment by Parliament of a Bishop of (1al-
cutta with jurisdiction over India and Ceylon,
and to the grant of a lac of rupees ($50,000)
for promoting education lie diew attention,
also, to the need of industrial training in India
Grant was also the originator of a plan for the
education of young civil servants of the Kast
India Company, which resulted in the estab-
lishment in 1805 of the East India College at
liaileyburg (See PUBLIC SERVICE, TRAINING
FOR ) He sat in Paihamcnt from 1802 to 1818
as member for his native county

Reference : —

MORRIS, H The Life of Charles Grant (London, 1904 )

GRANT, ZILPAH — See BANISTER, ZILPAH

GRANT

GRANTHAM, THOMAS (d 1664) — A
clergyman who on sequestration of his parson-
age became a private schoohuastei, an advocate
oi a speedy way of teaching the llebiew,
Greek, and Latin tongues, and the determined
opponent of corporal punishment He appears
to have belonged to a Lincolnshire family and
to have studied at Oxfoid from 1628 to 1630 and
at Cambridge (Peterhouse, M A 1634) Befoie
1644 he was teaching in Bow Lane, and \\iote
his Brainbreakers Breaker (MvrjfjLo<t>6opo7raiKTr]<;}
in which he protests vigorouslv against the
seventy of schoolmasters Granthain gnes a
picture of the school teaching of the tunes,
in which he attacks the weakness of teaching
grammar by rote in an unintelligible language
Granthain sought to teach grammar mles
understandmgly " and by often applying them,
the lules come without book whether they will
or no " Still more remarkable was Granthain
in his Brainbreakers Breaker i\ewly broke out
again in 1649-1650 In it he says: u A bov
may easily learn a thousand words in ten days,
that is, a hundred words in a day " Granthain
proposes as remedy that all the revenues of the
free grammar schools should be taken from
them and placed in the hands of a tieasurei,
and only those schoolmasters who proved their
ability to teach well should receive the public
money. On one occasion, one of Grantham's
challenges against a London public school was
accepted and judgment given in favor of Grant-
ham

Grantham also wrote Animadversions on
Camden's Greek Grammar, dealing with his
favorite topic of the folly of learning grammar
by rote, and in 1644 he wrote .A Discourse in
Derision of the Teaching in Free Schools and

other common Schools, in which he introduces
three ordinary masters of Free Schools, a citizen,
a country gentleman, a traveler, and himself,
" Professor of the Greek and Latin Tongues in
London " In 1660 he translated three books
of Homer's Iliad into English F W

Reference • —

Dictionary of National Biography

GRANTS. — See APPORTIONMENT OF SCHOOL
FUNDS, BUDGET, SCHOOL, NATIONAL GOVERN-
MENT AND EDUCATION, SCHOOL FUNDS

GRAPH — A term used in algebra to refer
to the representation of an equation bv the
methods of analytic geometry (q v ), and oc-
casionally to refei to other line and surface rep-
icsentations of functions The introduction of
this topic into elementary algebra is recent As
in all such cases, there have been three periods
in this introduction • (l)the period of adoption
for the purpose of filling the gap left In the omis-
sion of some obsolete topic, (2) the period of
extravagant and ill-considered use of a novelty,
(3) the period of leaction and of investigation
of the real merits of the theory From the edu-
cational standpoint the greatest value of the
giaph lies in i1s power of showing visually the
number and nature of the roots of an equation
For elemental y purposes, as a means of finding
the actual loots of an equation, its value is slight,
although in the computation of the loots oi
a numerically highei equation it has of late been
shown to be very useful Its value in showing
the functional relation of algebraic expressions
is also great, and is coming to be recognized

In elementary algebia it is desirable to in-
troduce curve tracing as an aid in the study
of the negative number This work also offeis
an opportunity of showing the change in a
function of a variable as the vaiiable changes
It may next be introduced in connection \\ith
the study of simultaneous equations of the fust
degiee in t\\o variables. Heie thcie are fom
types that may advantageously be consideied
(1) Two simultaneous equations such as i + 7 //
= 15, 9 jr — 3 ?/ = 3 In this case the lines \\ill
intersect, and the lesult is a visual illustration
ol the iact that two such equations have, in
general, a root, and that only one root is pos-
sible (2) T\\o inconsistent equations such as
6 x - 9 y = 7, and 4 .r - 6 y = 5 In this case the
lines will be parallel, and the student sees that
theieis no point in common, and hence that t\\o
such equations in two unknowns are not neces-
sarily simultaneous (3) Two identical equa-
tions, such as 6 r -f 9 y = 12, and 4 r + 6 y = S
Here the two lines are identical, and the student
sees that there is an infinite number of points
on the two lines, and hence that, there is an
infinite number of values of jc and // that will
satisfy the two equations (4) Three or more
simultaneous equations in two unknowns, such
as a- -f y = 5, 2 x - ij = 1, 7 2 + 4 y = 20 Here

147

GRAPHIC CURVE

GRAPHIC CURVE

the three lines pass through the common point
(2, 3), and the student sees that in general three
such equations have one common root, but that
in a special case the lines may be concurrent
and the equations indeterminate The next
use of the graph is found in the study of quad-
ratics Here the use is twofold: (1) In the
study of a single quadratic equation in one un-
known, the graph shows clearly the number
of roots to be expected, the fact that imaginary
roots enter in pairs, and the meaning of equal
roots (2) In the study of two quadratics in-
volving two unknowns, or of one quadratic and
one linear equation, the graph shows the num-
ber of roots to be expected, and the possibilities
as to the nature of the roots For example, a
straight line cuts a conic in two points, and
hence we expect two roots in solving a system
consisting of a quadratic and a linear equation
Two comes, howcvei, intersect in four points,
and hence we expect four roots The graph
shows how two of these roots may be identical
(the comes being tangent), or how two nn-
agmanes may enter at the same instant, and
all this makes an impression on the student's
mind that the mere analytic proof does not
make

ILscd in this spirit, a reasonable study of
graphs is desirable Carried beyond these
limits, the work usually degenerates into a for-
malism without object and without real interest

DBS

GRAPHIC CURVE — A term applied to
a line the characteristics of which indicate to
the eye the relationship which two variable
quantities sustain to each other as either the
one 01 the other is increased or diminished
In order to determine this curve, two lines of
reference, called axes, are drawn perpendicular
to each other A number of corresponding
values of the two variables are obtained, and
for each pair of values a point is plotted, the
perpendicular distances of which fiom the two
axes are representative of each of the two
variables in that calculation After a number
of such points are plotted, it is usually possible
to diaw through them a line which will indicate
the general character of the relationship be-
tween the variables involved One of the best
known of the graphic curves is that illustrating
Weber's law, or the psychophysical law of the
relationship between the intensity of stimuli
and the intensity of corresponding sensations
It is found that in order to get any sensation
at all the stimulus must be considerable After
this, as the stimulus is increased, the intensity
of the sensation increases at first very rapidly,
then more slowly, until at last further increase
in the stimulus produces no result on the in-
tensity of the sensation In general, in order
to produce an appreciable increase in the in-
tensity of the sensation the intensity of the stim-
ulus must be increased by a certain proportion
of itself The law may be pictured by the

following graphic curve (Fig I) Distance
measured on OX indicates intensity of stimu-
lus Distance measured on OY indicates

FIG 1

intensity of sensation Intensity Ob of stim-
ulus corresponds to intensity Oa of sensation.
Both are represented by point p on the curve
The curve m general resembles a parabola

Graphic curves may vary from straight lines
to curves of great irregularity One oi the
simplest types is the cu?ve of distribution,
brought into prominence in psychological
statistics by Sir Fiancib Galton (qv) It.
represents the number of individuals of a group
who icpiesent each of the various existing
differences in reference to any characteristic
P"or example, in a given fairly homogeneous
population, there will be very few very shoit
men, very few very tall men, and, as we ap-
proach the average height from either extreme,
the number of individuals who correspond to
the successive measurements will at first in-
crease slowly, then more rapidly The general
form of the normal curve of distribution is as
follows (Fig 2). Distance measured on OX

0

FIG 2

indicates the amount of the characteristics
m question Distance measured on OY in-
dicates number of individuals

In reference to such distnbutions three val-
ues are of importance These are the average,
which is obtained by adding all the measure-
ments together and dividing by the number
of individuals concerned, the median, which
represents the measurement above or below
which 50 per cent of all the individual measure-
ments he, and the mode, or the measurement
represented by the greatest number of individ-
uals It is interesting to note that average,
median, and mode may in the same case repre-
sent different values, a fact which the form
of the curve will readily display

If a population, instead of being homogeneous,
is divided, for example, into two groups which
vary considerably from each other in reference

148

GRAPHIC CURVE

GRAPHIC CURVE

to the trait in question, this fact will be shown
by a deviation from the normal curve of dis-
tribution A population made up of two races,
one considerably taller than the other, would
be apt to be represented by a curve sagging at
the center, as in Fig 3 Here the modes m

other trait must be found These successive
averages must then be plotted and the curve
drawn through them It is evident that the
curve will progress regularly in the direction of
increase in the basal trait Ordinarily such
regular progress will not be discovered m refei-

FIG 3

and mr of the two racial groups would vary
considerably from each othei, producing the
effect indicated

Again, if some selective agency tends to
destroy those who vary either above 01 below
the noimal, the curve will exhibit this influence
by falling off abruptly on the side affected, arid

FIG 4

representing what is known as a skew distri-
bution, as in Fig 4.

Another simple type of graphic curve may
be called the carve of fluctuation In this the
measurements on one axis icpresent intervals
of time, while those made on the other represent
the fluctuating values The rate of growth in
height or weight or of advance in any mental
trait may thus be represented to the eye.
Heie the curves tend in one direction, but
where health or school attendance 01 amount of
improvement is represented, they aie likely to
rise and fall

Correlation — Both the curve of distribu-
tion and that of giowth or fluctuation indicate
correlation. In the one case, a measuiement
is correlated with the number of individuals
who represent it; in the other, with the time
of occurrence of the fact that it indicates
The special character of the two curves differ-
entiates them from the curve which represents
the relation of two characteristics without
reference to number of individuals or time of
occurrence This curve may, therefore, not
inappropriately be given the title curve of cor-
relation The curve illustrating Weber's Law
is an example of this type

To plot a curve of correlation one trait must
be taken as a basis, and the individuals repre-
senting successive measurements in this trait
must be grouped together Then the average
measurement of each group in respect to the

dasal trait

Fu, 5

ence to the averages representing the second
trait Thus the curve will fluctuate as in
Fig 5 While in general there is progress in
reference to the averages of the second trait,
this progress is not uniform Careful reflec-
tion, however, will make it evident that if
enough cases aie obtained the
irregularities will be likely to dis-
appear and that we shall have
left a curve 01 straight line \\liu li
will indicate the amount and
character of the correlation 01
the lack of coi relation between
y, the two traits in question Sup-
pose, for example, the coi relation
between ability in mathematics
and ability in classics were being
calculated Let degree of mathematical abiht\
be measured on OX, \\ hei e 0 represents the mini-
mum and A" the maximum ability Let. degree of
ability in classics be measured similarly on OF
Perfect correlation between the two po\\ers
would be represented by Fig 6 Evciy mdi-

FIG 6.

vidual will occupy the same relative position
in reference both to mathematical and to
classical ability. On the other hand, if there

JLine of no correlation,

FIG 7

be no correlation, every group in reference to
mathematical ability would in classical ability
tend to show about the same mediocre average
The curve would then be paiallel to OX, as

149

UKAPH1C CURVE

GRASER

iiuhcatod in Fig 7 A cuive of partial corrc- coordinate geometry reduces a visible geo-
lation would be represented in Fig 8, of per- metric form to an abstract quantitative rela-
tionship. The graphic curve reverses this

FIG 8

feet reverse correlation in Fig 9 Here as one
ability mri eases, the othei diminishes

Average Deviation — It is evident that ex-
cept where there is perfect correlation the
curve does not enable us to place any indi-
vidual m regard to one tiait when his position
in regard to another is known When, how-
ever, the average deviation of the individual

FIQ 9.

measurements from the averages that are
leprescnted by the curve are calculated, ap-
pioximate prediction becomes possible We
can say that the chances are even that the
position of any individual in one trait will not
vary more than the amount of the average
deviation from the place in the curve which is
assigned to it by virtue of its rating in refer-
ence to the other trait

The accmate determination of degrees of
correlation is a matter of somewhat compli-
cated mathematical analysis For an adequate1
ticatment of this subject the reader is referred
to Thorndike's Mental and Social Measuic-
inentf. The graphic curve is not intended as a
basis for predictive calculation, but rather to
exhibit a relationship in a form readily to be
apprehended It is evident that for this pur-
pose it has great value m educational theory
and practice In this field the calculation of
distribution and variation, of growth and
fluctuation, or of correlation, whether in refer-
ence to mental or physical abilities, the effects
of this or that educational method or condition,
of school piacticcs, 01 of a multitude of other
factors concerned m education, is being recog-
nized as of the greatest importance In order
to display the lesults of these calculations in a
form easily grasped, the graphic curve is of very
great value

It is interesting to note that the use of axes
of reference by relation to which the corre-
sponding values of two variables can be deter-
mined was invented by Des Cartes (q v ) as a
means of applying algebia to geometry The

tionship. The graphic curve reverses this
process, and puts the abstract quantitative
relationship in a concrete visible geometrical
form E. N H.

References : —

ELDERTON, W P and E M Primer of Statistics

(London, 1910)
GALTON, Sin FKANCIH Inquiries into the Human In-

tdkct (London, 1910)
PEAKSON, KAHL Grammm of Science (London,

1900)
THOUNDIKE, E L Mental and Social Measurements

(New York, 1904 )
Educational Psychology (New York, 1910 )

GRAPHIC REPRESENTATION —See
GRAPH; GRAPHIC' CURVE, VISUAL AIDS TO
TEACHING

GRAPHOLOGY — The science of hand-
writing This science has nevei been developed
in any systematic form, and it is doubtful
whether it can be so developed The effort
of many to judge character through writing
has never been successful Certain charac-
teristics of writing can, however, be recognized
as related to well-defined conditions under
which the writing is done C H J

See PENMANSHIP. WRITING

Reference : —

PREYER, T W Zur

(Hamburg, 1895)

Psychologic des Schreiben*.

GRASER, JOHANN BAPTIST (1766-1841)
— A distinguished Gennan educational writer,
born in Kltman, Bavaria He studied in Bam-
berg and Wurzburg, where at the age of twenty
he became doctor of philosophy He entered
the priesthood, and was appointed prefect of
the theological seminary at Wurzburg After
some experience as teacher and university pro-
fessor he went m 1804 to Bamberg as school
councillor (Schulrat) In 1810 he was trans-
ferred to a similar position in Bayreuth, which
he filled up to the time of retnement in 1821
A monument was erected to him m Bayreuth
by the teachers of Upper Francoma

(Eraser's pedagogical theory was based on the
philosophy of Schellmg He considers as the
chief aim of education the development of the
" divinity " m man Education should make
man conscious of his divine origin, and should
cause him so to think and act as to make him-
self worthy of this origin Grascr also deserved
credit for the introduction of a new method of
elementary instruction by which reading and
writing were taught together (Schreiblese-
mcthode) The observations which he made in
the teaching of reading directed his attention
to the education of deaf-mutes Through his
efforts courses for the instruction of deaf-
mutes were introduced m many German teach-
ers' seminaries Grascr's chief works are:

150

GRAY

GREARD

Divinitat oder dax Prinzip dcr einzig wahren
M enschenerziehung (Divinity, or the principle of
the only true human education, 1830), Elc-
mcntarschule furs Lcbcn (Elementary School, a
preparation for life, 1831), Der (lurch Gcsicht
und Tonftprache dcr Menxchheit wiedergegcbene
Taubstummc (The deaf nude restored to humanity
through visual observations and oral language,
1829) F'M

References : —

PFEIFFLR, F W Die Volk^chule dcs XIX J ohrhunderitt
in Bioyraphien hcrvorrayendcr tichulmtiLnner (Nu-
remberg, 1872 )

WIECK, II J B Grader lu Die K/a*>siker tier Pftda-
gogik, Vols XIII-XIV (Langensalza, 1891 )

GRAY, ASA (1810-1888) —Scientist and
textbook author, was graduated at the Fair-
field College of Physicians and was professor in
Haivard College f'lorn 1842 to 1873 Author
of textbooks in botany and physiology

W S M

GRAY, THOMAS (1716-1770) —Poet and
scholar; he showed remarkable versatility,
although in his student days he chafed so
strongly against academic i emulations and
prescriptions as to leave Cambndge without a
degree Botany, zoology, history, language,
archaeology formed the chief subjects of his
studies His most interesting contnbution on
education was the poem, The Alliance of Edu-
(atwn and Government, which was unfoi In-
nately never finished In it the poet pleads
foi " the necessary alliance between a good
f 01 in of government and a good mode of educa-
tion " (Mason) Apparently Gray abandoned
the poem because he found a much better treat-
ment of the subject in Montesquieu's L' E^ptit
c/66 L/otb The introduction of this poem, like
seveial stanzas of the Elegy Wiitten in a, Co un-
ity C/unchyaid, is a plea for educational oppor-
tunity foi the "Milage Hampden " or the
" mute, inglorious Milton M

But Knowledge to their eyes her ample page,
Rich with the spoils of time, did ne'er unroll

Gray's first printed poem was the Ode on a
distant Prospect of Eton (College, which, vlnle
giving a picture of the Eton of his day, takes
at the same time a somewhat pessimistic view
of the joy and carelessness of youth, ignorant
of the world before them

References : —

BARNAKD, II American Journal of Education, Vol.

VIII, pp 283-288
GOSSE, E. Gray (London, 1882 )

GRAZ, THE IMPERIAL ROYAL CHARLES-
FRANCIS UNIVERSITY OF — Like several
other Austrian universities, the University of
Graz, located in the capital of Stvna, owes its
ongin to a Jesuit College, the college tit (Iraz
having been founded in l">7.'$ by Archduke
Charles Soon aftei wards a Latin school was

added to the college, this step being followed
in 1585 by the organization of a university,
which was formally opened in the following
year, and remained undei the control of the
Society of Jesus until the dissolution of the
Jesuit order under Empress Maria Theresa in
1773 The institution consisted at first of
only two faculties, those of theology and
philosophy, although the .Jesuit College was
looked upon as a separate Facnlta* Inuna-
nibtica swell nguamm The original university
building was completed in 1609, and remained
in use until 1805, when a new building was
dedicated The first prof essoi ship in medicine
dates back to 1774, and five yeais latei a
faculty of law was established Emperor
Joseph II lowered the tone of the institution,
which by 1713 boasted of an enrollment of
1350 students, by degrading it into a lyceum,
as a result of which the student body diminished
rapidly in numbers until the university privi-
leges were restored in 1826 The faculty of
philosophy was reorganized in 1S49, the medi-
cal faculty fourteen years later, the umveiMty
at the present day possessing the tiaditional
four faculties, the theological faculty being of
course Catholic There were 207 \ students in
attendance in the winter semester of 1909-
1910, of v\hom almost halt weie enrolled in the
faculty of law The University Library,
founded in 1586, contains about 250,000
volumes and almost 2000 manuscripts (Ira/
is also the seat of an Imperial Royal Technical
School, which attracted 725 students in the
winter semester of 1909-1910 R T , Ji

References : —

Fet>ti>(hrift zur Feicr der V crvolhtandigung dtr Uinvtrsital

Guiz, 1S95
KRONEH, FK Ge&chtchte dcr K -F -Univcr&ttat in Gniz

(Oniz, 1SSO )
Minerva, Handbuch dei gdukrten ft e//, Vol I (Strass-

burg, 1911 )
SCHACENHTEIN, A Die cr^tcri drci Jahthundertc dir

K -F -Universitat in Graz (Graz, 1886 )

GREARD, CLEMENT VALLERY OCTAVE

(1828-1904) — French educator, born at Vire,
and a friend of Pr6vost-Paradol He was
appointed an academy inspector by Duruy
(qv)y director of education in the department
of the Seme, by Baron llaussmann, and vice-
rector of the Academy of Paris by Jules Ferry
to succeed Ad Mouner He devoted himself
to realizing in administration the greater part
of the reforms elaborated and the progress
begun by the great ministers of public instruc-
tion Retiring in 1902, he died in 1904
(Jre*ard was an administrator ready to put into
practice the instructions of all the ministers,
anxious for his reputation and standing, a
man of energy, he could at times exercise, as a
teacher expressed it, the suppleness of an
Italian cardinal In elementary education lie
demanded orderliness in buildings and equip-
ment, proper care ot the pupils' exercise books,
methodical instruction, vie In the secondary

151

GREAT BRITAIN

GREAVES

field he strove to apply to the lycecv for girls
some of the ideas of F£nelon and Madame de
Mamtenon, and in the lycees for boys he took
as his guide the reforms suggested by H
Marion (q v ) Opposed on principle to the
boarding school, which he accepted as an
administrator, he tried to establish some lycfas
in the country round Pans ; the attempt failed
within the University, but succeeded outside

The chief works of Gre'aid are Le Mot ale dc
Phdarque (1866) ; Lrttres tVAbtlaid ct d' Htloisc
(1868); L'Oigarnwition pcdagogtf/ue de& Ecoles
dc la Seine (1S68); L Instruction prnnairv a
Pans (1871), La Legislation dc V Ens? igne went
pnmaire en Fiance depute 1789 (1900); L\En-
wig tic went wcondaire dc* Fjllcb (1887), Eloge
dc M de Falloux (1888), Education ct Instruc-
tion (1888 and 1900), etc J P

References : —

Anmunn de V Enscujnement Pnmairc, Vol XXI

(Pans, 1905 )

HOURGAIN, M P Gr&trd (Pans, 1007 )
HAUMONVILLE, COMTE D' Notice sur lu, Vic ct Travaux

do M Octave Gicurd in Stance* d Travaiur de

I* Academic den Sciences morales ct tiolitigues, Vol

CXXXI (Paris, 1909 )

HE'MON, F Bertot ct *«, Amis (Pans, 1911 )
La Grande Encyclopedic, s v Greard

GREAT BRITAIN —See ENGLAND, EDU-
CATION IN, IRELAND, EDUCATION IN, SCOT-
LAND, EDUCATION IN, WALES, EDUCATION IN

GREAT DIDACTIC — See COMENIUS

GREATEST COMMON DIVISOR — The

greatest number that will divide two or more
given numbers, producing an integral quotient,
is called their greatest common divisor For-
merly the greatest common divisor had a
pmmment place in the teaching of authmetic,
but now this portion has been lost, the subject
having value only in the theory of immbeis
(</ /' ) The reason for its former prominence is
casilv seen when we consider the natuie of the
common fraction of the Middle Ages and eaily
Renaissance (See FRACTIONS ) For example,

m reducing a fraction like ^^ to lowest terms,

for the purpose of operating with it or of
expressing some result in simpler form, the
factors to be suppressed are not at once evi-
dent. It therefore becomes necessary to find
the greatest common divisoi by a form that is
given in Euclid's Element*, and therefore
known as the Euclidean method This is
illustrated m the following operation: —

2257)3599(1
2257

1342)2257(1
1342

915)1342(1
915

427)915(2
854

01)427(7
427

The proof that 61 is the greatest common
divisor of 2257 and 3599 depends upon two
principles: (1) A divisor of any number is a
divisor of any multiple of the number; (2) A
common divisor of each of two numbers is a
divisor of the sum or the difference of any
multiples of the numbers

Educationally the subject has lost its sig-
nificance, since the general acceptance of the
decimal fraction The common fraction now
being limited to simple forms, we no longer
need to reduce difficult fractions to lowest
terms, at least in ordinary business and science
The mere suppression of factors by inspection
suffices for such cases of reduction as practically
occur This being the case, it is somewhat
absurd that gicatest common divisor should be
taught by factoring, as is commonly the case
at present Since the only time when we
practically need to use the greatest common
divisor is when we cannot readily factor two
numbers, to find the greatest common divisor
by factoring is to find it undei conditions that
are never met If we can easilv factor, we
can cancel factors from the terms of a fi action
without taking the trouble1 to find the greatest
common divisor Foi this reason the subject
will probably disappear fiom arithmetic m the
next genciation

The corresponding cxpiession in algebra is
highest common factor We cannot tell
whether a given algebraic expression is greater
than anothei unless we know the numeiical
value of the letters For example, x2 is greatei
than x if the absolute value of x is greater
than 1, even though its algebraic value mav
be less than 1, as m the case of x = — 2 But
x2 is less than x, if the absolute value of x is
less than 1, as in the case of r = i Hence
the word "highest" is used instead of greatest,
referring to the degree4 rather than the absolute
value of the expression The icmarks already
made concerning the greatest common divisoi
in arithmetic apply to quite an extent to the
highest common factor in algebra Although
there is no algebraic decimal fraction to replace
the common fraction, as there is in arithmetic,
nevertheless the practical uses of the highest
common factor were formerly much exag-
gerated Hence the subject is at present given
less attention than was formerly the case

D. E. S.

GREAVES, JAMES PIERREPONT (1777-
1842) — English Pestalozzian, acquired a com-
petence as a merchant, but lost his property
by French spoliations during the Napoleonic
wars Through his interest in philanthropic
movements, he joined Pestalozzi (q.v ) at Yver-
don in 1817 m order that he might familiarize
himself with the best means of educational
reform A year later he took charge of the
coeducational orphan school which the Swiss
reformer had organized at Clendy, near Yver-
don (heaves returned to England in 1825

152

GREECE

GREECE

l became secretary of the Infant School
ciety (q '' ) of London At his request Pes-
talpzzi wrote him a series of 1 otters on the
education of the child, which he translated
anl published in English (Letter* on the
Ewrly Education of the Child, London, 1827 )
rn 1832 he settled at Randwick, Gloucester-
shire, and engaged in a scheme for the improve-
ment of agricultural laborers, similar to that
which Pestalozzi had originated at Neuhof in
1769, and five years later he founded at Ham,
near London, a Pestalozzian school, which he
named Alcott House, in honor of A Bronson
Alcott (qv), the American Pestalozzian He
shared the transcendental views of the Ameri-
can philosopher and invited him to England
He founded the Esthetic Society of England,
and in various ways engaged in reform move-
ments m education W S. M

See PESTALOZZIAN MOVEMENT

References . —

Lethrt. ami Extracts from the Writings of J P Greaves,
with Memoir (Ham and London, 1842 1845 )

MONROE, WILL S Hixtory of the Pevtalozzuni A/uve-
ment tn lh( United Mates (Syracuse, 1(H)7 )

S\NBORN, K B , and HARRIS, \\ILLIAM T A Hronson
Ahott, hi\ Life and Philosophy (Boston,

GREECE, EDUCATION IN ANCIENT —

The education of the Greeks was to a peculiar
degree the embodiment of an attitude of life,
the practical application of a theory of value
which was taking shape from the age of Homer
to that of Aristotle It is proposed, first, to
trace the growth of this theory of values to a
theory of education, secondly, to sketch the
views of education laid down bv Plato and
Aristotle, and then, with the Greek point of
view thus determined in a measure, to describe
Greek education in its actual working

Stated briefly and generally, Greek educa-
tion was based on certain essentially Hellenic
characteristics that are at least as old as
Homer and Hesiod, — a keen delight in phys-
ical strength, skill, and beauty, a belief in
reverence, moderation, and social obligation or
justice, and a feeling for form, not as form, but
as expression The delight in bodily beauty
and effectiveness is sufficiently illustrated by
the games at the funeral of Patioclus (Iliad
XX1I1), by the festivals — to name only the
greatest — at Olympia, Delphi, Nemea, and
the Isthmus (see the Ode* of Pindar) The
ideals of reverence, moderation, and justice,
presented more or less dimlv in Homei and set
forth clearly in the Works and Days of Hesiod,
are at the very basis of the Spartan system of
education The Greek emphasis on form as
selective expression was not explicitly stated
as a conscious attitude until the fourth cen-
tury, yet it is inherent in every line of poetry
chanted or sung from Homer to Sophocles,
and m every vase painting from the geometric
period to the fifth century

Even m Homer there are signs of the coming

end of the extreme, individualism — good in its
fearless spontaneity, bad in its half savage
indifference to law — which forbade any con-
scious effort to attain a real social ideal through
education Individualism is definitely limited
by Hesiod to emulation The Work* and Dayx
sets forth a clear social ideal based on justice
and its corollary, moderation, or self-restraint
And the educational system traditionally
ascribed to the Spartan Lycurgus (c 800 13 r ),
while unique in that it aimed at the perpetua-
tion of the military supremacy of a conquering
race, was in its most fundamental features a
definite application of the principles set forth
in Hesiod, — self-restraint, subordination of
individual aims and desires to those of the
social group, and an essentially moral training
through precept, practice, example, and emu-
lation The wild freedom of Homer had given
place to law Individualism had given place
to socialism And to a greater or less degiee
this was increasingly characteristic of the whole
movement of the Greek world from the ninth
century to the fifth But intense as the social
feeling, the city patriotism, became in all of
the Hellenic cities, it was usually less extreme
than in Sparta, and was balanced both by a
stronger individualism in political life and by
a keen delight in such mdi\ idual expression as
was afforded by music, literature, which was
hardly differentiated from music, and art
Gymnastics, while doubtless the object of
special emphasis in the soldier state of Sparta,
continued to be regarded with enthusiasm by
Dorians arid lonians alike Gymnastics and
music were indeed the objects of a devotion
never accorded to what we often regard as
the typical Greek ait of sculpture Yet under-
lying all of these was the feeling expressed in
the Delphic motto 4< Nothing in excess," the
practical expression of that idealism which was
the fundamental characteristic of the Greek
altitude to life, the search for the essential in
all things, the ruling out of everything irrele-
vant and inharmonious

Educational Theory — Education in Sparta
aimed simply at the development of soldier
citizens, trained to the utmost physical effective-
ness and to such moial and intellectual virtues
as would make foi the perpetuation of Sparta
as a military powei This was attained by a
varied and effect i\e gymnastic training, games,
and contests that tested enduiance, judgment,
self-control and resource, music that inspired
to valor and constancy, giave discussions of
moral issues, above all by a barrack life of
strict discipline and division into companies
captained by the older boys Important as
was the training of the body in the system of
Lycurgus, it is a mistake to regard it as funda-
mental The essential aim of Spartan educa-
tion was moral And so absolutely could the
Spartans rely on the result of this training that
they could even include the art of successful
stealing m their curriculum, believing that
153

GREECE

GREECE

whnV thi' training in i esourcefulness arid judg-
ment was a positive gain, any resultant dis-
regard foi the rights of others would be over-
whelmingly outbalanced by the intensely moral
and social character of the system as a whole
So absolute a system of prescription, though
admired by individual Athenians, like* Plato
and Xenophon, was quite alien to the free
spirit of Athens Their education was from
the first a private affair, though custom pre-
scribed a fairly uniform curriculum consisting
of letters, music, and gymnastics, with a mini-
mum of arithmetic, astronomy, and geometry
Athenian educational theory was formulated
tentatively in the fifth century, definitely in
the fourth; arid as an interpretation of prac-
tice, an effort to give a rational account of
existing facts in order to see the goal more
clearly, it needs to be understood before the
details of educational practice are approached
Not that we can separate theory and practice
in any hard arid fast way The lust definite
statement of the aims and methods of Athenian
education is indeed a description of practice,
and is only theory in so far as it is an attempt
to view the situation as a whole in relation to
an ultimate aim This is the description
which Plato puts in the mouth of Protagoias
as part of his argument for the possibility of
moral education " Education commences in
the first years of childhood, and lasts to the
very end of life Mother and nurse and father
and slave-tutor (pedagogue) are quarreling
over the improvement of the child as soon as
he can understand them, at every turn they
expound to him that this is just and that is
unjust, this honourable and that the reverse,
this holy and that- impious, and generally, do
this and avoid that And if he obeys, well
and good, if not, he is straightened out with
threats and blows, like a piece of warped
wood At a later stage, they send him to
teachers and enjoin them to see that his man-
ners are good, even more than his reading and
music, and the teachers do their best And
then, when he can read, they give him the
woiks of great poets which he reads at school,
where he finds many tales and admonitions,
and praises of ancient famous men, which he
learns by heart in order that he may desire
and emulate them Then again the teachers
of the lyre take care that he does not fall
into mischief, and introduce him to the poems
of other excellent poets, who are the lyric
poets, these aie set to music, and their tunes
and rhythms made familiar to children, in
order that they may be more gentle, and har-
monious and rhythmical, and so better fitted
for speech and action, for the life of man in
every part has need of music and rhythm
Then they send him to the master of gym-
nastics, to nt him for war This is what
is done by the richer or higher classes whose
education lasts far longer than that of the
rest Lastly, when they are grown up, the

15

State compels thorn to learn the laws, and
live according to them " (Prot ;*25-320)

The supreme interpretation of Athenian
education was that of Plato himself The
system of education described in the Republic
is devised only for rulers, and for rulers of an
ideal, not an actual, state Hut the curriculum
is not essentially different from that which
regularly prevailed in Athens, and the whole
system, theoretical in that it endeavors to
determine a rational ideal arid a rational
method, is practical in that it rs soundly based
on existing practice Plato's conception of the
aim of education is stated in the seventh book
of the tie public In the famous parable of the
Cave he shows men livrng in darkness, seeing
only shadows on the wall before them, and
taking these shadows for realities Let one of
these cavemen be brought suddenly to the
light of day and he is da^led, blinded, thankful
if he can escape to the Cave once more fron
the light which to him is darkness Rut lei
him be taken more gradually to the outev
world, and his eye will gam power to see, and
the real world will at last dawn upon him in
its infinite grandeur Here, then, is the func-
tion of education, — to turn the eye of the
soul to the light in order that it may see and
love truth (Republic, 518) The sun in the
physical world is the type of that fundamental
reality which makes everything else intelli-
gible, and knowledge of this fundamental
reality — called by Plato the Idea or Form of
(lood — is of all things the most precious, the
goal of every true student For Plato's Idea
is simply the essential, — what is meant when
we use the words la\\, principle, essence, that
is, everything which makes it intelligible He
applres to education that which is the kev-
riote of Greek thought and Greek art, —
insistence on the fundamental, the universal,
and indifference to the accidental, the nar-
rowly individual

Plato's system of education represents an
effort to attain this ideal — the understanding
and adoption in life of those things that are
fundamentally true and therefore of funda-
mental value His general treatment rests on
two fundamental presuppositions. (1) that
education is of fundamental importance to the
State (Republic, 425 " The bent given by edu-
cation will determine all that follows ") and
should therefore be required and controlled by
the State, (2) that man is an organism, i.e
that he is endowed by nature with certain
powers which will develop, if the proper con-
ditions are given, and that the teacher's pro-
fession is not unlike that of the gardener
These two premises being assumed, Plato out-
lines a system of training for the young that
will stimulate love for what is good and beau-
tiful, dislike of what is bad and ugly, and
right action that will become so natural,
habitual, and pleasant as harmonious sound is
to a musician This is done through careful

GREECE

GREECE

choice of literature, both as regards subject
matter and form, careful instruction in music,
peculiarly important because of the subtly
powerful influence of rhythm and harmony on
the human soul, and the equally careful effort
to have every detail in the child's environment
healthy, elevating, and harmonious To create
the right standard of truth and beauty at the
outset, before the child is in any way conscious
of what is being done, is to make wrong action
as repulsive to him as a discordant crash of
sounds, and to turn his mind away from the
false, the petty, the fleeting, and insignificant
as certainly as his eye would turn from the
canker worm to the perfect blossom, from the
frame to the picture That a perfect result
will follow in every case from even the most
wisely devised system of education Plato by
no means takes for granted The imperfect
'*eed will not grow into a perfect flower, and
besides, different natures will respond differ-
ently and perhaps unexpectedly to similar
treatment. There must, therefore, be tests,
" labors, vexations, and contests," accom-
panied by vigilant observation of conduct
Education will thus have its selective side,
and only those fitted for it will go on to what
we might call the secondary and advanced
stages of the course

For it is necessarv that as the child's mind
expands and grows in power he should learn
to examine his standaids and methods of
thought for himself " When reason comes, he
will welcome her most cordially who can recog-
nize hei by the instinct of relationship, and
because he has been (wisely) nurtured ", but
it is none the less tine that reason must come,
and that the growing mind must leain to
examine standards, to search consciously for
principles, to abstract, question, arid generali/e
With this in view Plato would introduce his
pupils to arithmetic, where they will grow
accustomed to the easiest of all abstractions,
that of number, to geometry and its piobloms
of space, to astronomy and the laws of rhythm
and harmony that control the heavenly bodies
This course of science will lead to philosophy,
the study of fundamental truth And when
the student has at last learned to look on
beauty and truth m their essential reality, he
must turn back to the weary and troublesome
problems of actual life in society to serve his
fellows as a leader and teacher His educa-
tion leads, not to the barren and empty specu-
lation associated with the word " philosophy "
by superficial men of the world Rather arc
his philosophers wise leaders of men who have
learned to see things as they are, to under-
stand and unerringly seize upon the true and
the beautiful

The value of all this is not simply the value
of a poetic philosopher's dream. It is rather
the interpretation of the essential spirit of
Greek education by the greatest of all Greek
thinkers. It was practically adopted in its

main features by Anstotle (q /> ), fiagmentarv
as is the treatment oi education by Aristotle
that remains to us in the Ethi(\ and 1he Poli-
tics Aristotle, like Plato, urges that education
should be compulsory and controlled by 1he
State He does indeed insist on defining the
Form of Good as the highest good for man.
Happiness, and happiness as the perfect e\ei~
cise of the rational activity which is man's
unique characteristic, so that education be-
comes in its highest aspect a training for
leisure, for the contemplative hie And he
gives a new clearness to two points that
seemed to him to need special emphasis, — the
significance of habit and the doctime of the
Mean But Aristotle's value here as else-
where is rather in a certain formulation and
claiifymg of the issues, a practical insistence
on accurate definitions, than in any leal modi-
fication of his master's teaching In Jus state-
ment of the aim and method of education, of
the cuniculum, of the ethical purpose of
education and its relation to the state, Aris-
totle leaves Plato's doctime untouched So
that we may safely say that the system out-
lined in the R(pubh( remains for u«? the hnal
statement of the theory of Greek education,
the one perfect interpretation of its letter and
its spirit C F L

Educational Practice — The first thing to
be noticed about the Greek infant was that
its father had powers o\ er it wholly denied to
modern parents The first question aftei its
birth was this, Would the fathei K<U it oi ex-
pose it'? Gieek literature has so many allu-
sions to the exposing of infants, thai it must
actually have occuiied in Greek experience
But the frequency of this motif in the New
Comedy is haidl> good evidence that such
barbantv was of everyday occurrence The
fact that there is no evidence of a distinguished
person in all Gieek histoiv, who had been
picked up and i eared as an exposed 01 deserted
child, may be taken as proof that in the case
of male infants exposuie wTas \erv laic, unless
the child .showed congenital defoinnty Re-
garding females, the case is different Indeed,
the great majoiitv of the instances met in the
comedies of exposed children, afterwards rec-
ognized, are those of girls Plato sanctions
infanticide undei certain circumstances, and
this is even woise than the exposing in some
place where the child would probably be picked
up as a slave It is not unlikely that one of the
causes of the dwindling away of the Greek
population by a strange atrophy in the third
century 13 c is partly due to the exposure of
female children by selfish and barbarous parents.
In the many suits of the Attic oiators about
family affairs there does not seem to be a case
in which a large family of children is concerned

When the child was once accepted by the
fathei, there is every reason to believe that it
was treated with every kindness, nay even with
luxury and indulgence The well-known pas-

155

GREECE

GREECE

sages in Homer about Hector's child Astyanax,
both during his prosperity and when left to a
widowed mother, and other casual references,
not only in Homer, but in Herodotus and in
the lyric poetry, show clearly enough thai-
babies were as much prized and as much at-
tended to as m modern life

The string of infantile diseases, which arc
the bane of modern life, are not heard of. Not
even in Hippocrates' admirable clinical ob-
servations do we have croup or teething or
measles or whooping cough Malaria there
probably was, and there is even evidence that
it contributed not a little to the further decay
of the population, where marshy lands ceased
to be continuously cultivated Fashionable
people kept nurses, and it was a matter of high
fashion among Athenian and other aristocrats
to have a Spartan woman for the purpose, as
she was supposed to know better than others
how to make the child healthy and strong in
limb. But only some misfortune, such as a
successful raid, could reduce a genuine Spartan
to such a condition. Probably women from
the Lacedaemonian coast, although Helot
women, were so called when they were for-
tunately obtained What the usual diet of
infants was we are not told except in Homer,
who says Astyanax was fed upon marrow and
mutton suet. This seems pait of the general meat
diet in which the heroes indulged, and which
was certainly widely different Irom historic
Greek diet In the latter very little meat was
eaten by anybody, and only on special occasions,
such as feasts to the Gods Contrary to the
modern practice of hiring foreign nurses or
governesses to teach the child some European
tongue other than his own, when he can acquire
it without the trouble of grammar, — this side of
education did not exist among the Greeks, who
despised all tongues but their own For any
child to be brought up speaking even Egyptian
or Macedonian would have been thought a
blemish rather than an accomplishment But
beyond this negative certainty, the women's
apaitments, in which the children, both boys
and girls, were kept for the first few years, are
closed so completely to us that but few things
about the life of Greek babies can even be con-
jectured A few late epigrams tell of the grief
of parents bereaved of their infants. The
backwardness in culture of Greek women leads
us to suspect that babies were more often badly
brought up and overindulged than at present,
even though the " Spartan mother " is still
proverbial and shows that a lofty ideal was riot
unknown to them. But in the rest of Greece
it may be assumed that the young child arrived
at his schoolboy age more willful and headstrong
than most of our watched and worried infants
Archytas, the philosopher, earned special credit
for inventing the rattle, and so saving much
damage to household furniture by occupying
children with this toy

It must be remembered that the external cir-

156

cumstances of a Greek boy's life were some-
what different from the present Except in
some few places, such as Ehs, and partially at
Sparta, which consisted of five villages, all old
Greek life of the better classes was town life,
so naturally Greek schools were day schools
from which the children returned after lessons
to the care of their parents To hand over
boys, far less girls, for pay to the charge of a
boarding school was unknown, and any such
proposal would doubtless have been severely
censured Orphans were placed under the care
of their nearest male relative, even when their
education was provided by the State Again,
as regards the age of beginning school, it will
naturally be earlier than is usual among us,
for day schools can receive very young children,
and in but few households were either father
or mother able or inclined to undertake the
training of their children in school work Even
the knowledge of letters and reading were ob-
tained from the schoolmaster But the small
number of subjects taught prevented any hurry
such as that in modern times, when there is no
adequate time for languages, sciences, histories,
and all the rest which is crammed into oui
unfortunate children Above all, there were
no competitive examinations save m athletics
and music The Greeks never thought of pro-
moting a man for dead knowledge, but for his
living grasp of science or life Owing to these
causes, the theorists discussed the expediency
of waiting till the age of seven before beginning
serious education Some there were who rec-
ommended easy and sportive lessons from
even an earlier age On this point, therefore,
they agreed fairly well with modern views
But Greek parents weie, like those of the pres-
ent, often over-anxious or nervous or dilatory,
and it is clear that there were intervals between
infancy and school life which were spent in
playing in the street and doing mischief Even
so aristocratic a boy as AlciJDiades is reported
by Plutarch to have shown his pluck and ob-
stinacy by lying down m the highway, when a
coming cart threatened to disturb his game,
and daring the carter to drive over him There
is, also, extant a long list of names foi the games
of boys preserved in glossaries it belongs to
the question of education to know something
of the nature of these games, wholly different
from the exercises and competitions afterwards
carried out in the palaestra Among young
boys, as among the lower animals, most games
in concert are imitations either of war or the
chase; the rest are the practice of some bodily
dexterity, such as hopping, or throwing, or
whipping a top or shooting with marbles. All
these were common m Greece. They had the
hobby horse, also the hopping on a skin bottle
filled and greased, and blmdman's buff, etc
There was a game like our peg-top spinning
and contests of two sides or teams of boys
There is no need to enumerate all these particu-
larly. More peculiar were the game of throw-

The Piiiicuitiuin, and a Paidotnbe.

^ ic&tlcis, Ptudutnbo, and boy preparing the Ground fui

A (iKEKk (iVMNASTlC SCHOOL.
From u Kill ix

GREECE

GREECE

mg up five* pebbles or knucklebones, and receiv-
ing them on the back of the hand so as to he
there Another game consisted of flying a
beetle with a long thread, and fastening to him
a lighted wax splmtei (or match) This bar-
barous amusement is said to have been still in
use recently in modem Greece Spinning tops,
rolling hoops, and playing with balls were all
common Tins latter was done even by grown
girls, according to Homer's Odysxey Some
of them approach both to our football, hand-
ball, and even lacrosse The use of knuckle-
bones or astragali, smoothed and squared so as
to serve for dice, afforded scope for the children's
gambling propensities, and throwing with them
for luck is often represented in Greek art We
also have in the extant specimens some which
were clearly loaded Another common game
was the Italian morra, the prompt guessing of
the number of fingers thrown up by the ad-
versary which can be seen every day in soul hern
Europe Vrery likely the game of bocchi, which
corresponds to our bowls, and is so universal in
Italy, has an old Greek origin Walking on
stilts, leap-frog, swinging, and tossing m a
blanket will suffice for any further enumera-
tion, which serves only to show how remark-
ably modern were Greek, or perhaps how re-
markably primitive is our catalogue of little
boys' games

Nothing is known about the condition of little
girls, except that they certainly engaged in ball
playing As among us, so of course in Greece,
girls joined in the games of their brothers, so
fai as they could be carried on indoors, 01 in
the closed court of the house There are grace-
ful representations of them practicing swinging
and seesaw Dolls they had in plenty, and
dollmakmg (of clay) was quite an extended
trade at Athens In more than one instance
there have been found in children's graves their
favorite dolls laid beside them as eternal keep-
sakes Most unfortunately there is hardly
a word left of the nursery rhymes, and but
little of the folklore, which are of considerable
influence m the education of our children The
fables attributed to ^Esop show how popular
such literature was from an early epoch

When we come to school life the most strik-
ing difference between the Greek education
and ours is this, that even with little boys,
physical development was attended to by a
special master m a special place, except in those
rare cases where they practiced out-of-door
sports, and these cannot be commenced at the
age of seven, or even near it The Greeks
indeed afforded their boys two contrasted sides
of exercises — hunting, which was practiced by
the Spartans, and also no doubt by the Kleans
and Arcadians, as we may infer from Xenophon's
Tract on Hunting, and gymnastics, which m the
case of boys was carried on in the so-called palces-
tra, a sort of open-air gymnasium (in our sense)
kept by a private individual as a speculation,
to which the boys were sent, as to a schoolmas-

ter The Spartans had ample scope for hunt-
ing in the glens and coxerts of Mt Taygetus,
and hence they despised mere exercises of dex-
terity in the paUrstra, just as modern sports-
men think veiv little of spending days in a
gymnasium As to open air games, like
hockey, football, etc , they seem not at all so
well provided, and though they could have
practiced rowing to their hearts' content, free
men seem only to have done4 it as a duty in
naval war, at other times slaves and hirelings
worked their ships Herodotus speaks of the
generality of sailors (and that included a large
section of the citizens in war) as able to swim,
but Greek literature is silent regarding any
competitions in this accomplishment Hut
in another point the Greeks agreed with the
modern English, they regarded sport as a
really serious thing, and unless it is so regarded,
it will never be brought to any rational perfec-
tion But then the Greek did not, like all
people imbued with Semitic religious ideas,
regard religion with such great solemnity
Their religion was not more serious than then-
sports, nay they were often combined, "for
the gods too love sport," says Plato in his
r/a/?y/f/,s, a very significant and thoioughlv
Greek sentence The greatest feasts of the
gods, and the funerals of the greatest men, were
glorified by intensifying human pleasures, by
games, and theatrical and dancing exhibitions

There is no evidence whethei the boys went
to their palaestra at the same age as to school,
and at a different hour of the dav, or at a dif-
ferent age, taking their physical arid mental
education separately Nor is it known which
came first The Germans think the palaestra
came first, but it seems far more natural that
letters should be taught from the age of seven,
and exercises of the body later on Even the
theoietical schemes of Plato and of Anstotle
do not help us here, it is one of the many points
which every one omits to mention because it
was familiar to all We shall here take the
physical side first, for the mental side is pro-
longed into higher education And here, too,
dividing the exercises of the palaestra into
wrestling and dancing, more pioperly exercises
of strength and exercises of giace, athletics
will be treated first

In order to go safely from home and return
again, Greek boys going to the palaestra were
put under the charge of a pedagogue (boy-
leadei), not to be mistaken for a schoolmaster,
though the authon/ed version of the Bible has
done it, when it makes St Paul say " The
Law was our Schoolmaster to bung us unto
Christ " The Greek pedagogue was merely
an old and trusty slave, who was often fit for
no manual labor He was always ignorant,
and never respected He was in one sense, too,
a chaperon, guarding his charges from making
acquaintances or cultivating intimacies with
other youths The keeper of the school and
trainer of the boys, though no state official,

157

GREECE

GREECE

was under veiy stnct regulations ut least if
the quotations from nuch laws in ^Eschmes'
speech Against Timarchux are to be believed
But if there were such penal laws, there is
reason to believe that except in the case of some
grave scandal they remained a dead letter
Still at Sparta, even in the gymnasia for grown
youths, the regulation Strip or go was enforced
to prevent a crowd of idle loungers from collect-
ing. There are many pictures on vases of the
interior of a palsestra A rude bust of the
bearded Hermes, the patron god, indicates it
with certainty A middle-aged man with a
warid in his hand is directing the exercises,
often wrestling, of the boys We know from
the pentathlon at Olympia for men, and even
for a while for boys, that its five exercises — •
running, leaping, throwing the dart, throwing
the discus, and wrestling — were the usual
program For older youths, boxing and
the pancratium were added, save in Sparta,
where such violent contests were thought to
lead to disfigurements, and at all events to
private feuds The higher exercises were
undertaken after rubbing the skin with olive
oil, which became quite a heavy expense to some
Greek cities, and was sometimes provided by
private benefactions When the exercise was
over, the oil and dirt were scraped off with a
Urigil, as may be seen in the splendid statue
m the Vatican of an athlete so cleaning his arm.
The luxury of a bath is not mentioned, for in
most Greek towns water was very scarce, and
the nation was not given to much washing
The few details which remain about training,
in the stricter sense, show that the G recks were
not scientific in their notions Either cheese
or in later days quantities of meat were specially
recommended and the athletes were in con-
sequence heavy and stupid people

We have already quoted the passage from
Plato's Protagoras m which the ordinary edu-
cation of the Athenian is described There
is another passage in Aristophanes' Clouds
(901 et seq.) which describes the older strict dis-
cipline of Attic boys, who were not allowed to
whisper before their elders, who went m troops
to school even in the winter mornings in deep
snow, clad in a single tunic, and were kept at
work by the master learning old traditional
hymns — all this in contrast to the inroads of
luxury and la/, mess, of vulgar and florid music,
which that strict conservative reviles just as
our old-fashioned people are shocked with
modern education for girls Both passages
speak the voice of a cultivated society, and of
high moral principle, which makes them worthy
of the best modern and even Christian educa-
tion But the far wider connotation of the
word " musical " is at once noted, which included
a knowledge of good poetry, and also of the
elegant and rhythmical dancing which was part
of the solemn service of the gods It included,
in fact, every graceful, aesthetical, and intellec-
tual accomplishment

From these and many other passages it
appears that the G reeks administered their
early moral education just as the Protestants
of England and America, through a book re-
garded as inspired; just as the stories of the
Old Testament, as well as the teachings of the
New, were taken as the highest moral teaching
(not without wonderful liberties of interpreta-
tion, though the text was sacrosanct), so the
Greeks treated Homer as their Bible, contain-
ing all the morals a child should know Re-
garding the punishments which they inflicted,
the notions then and now, or at least fifty years
ago, are about the same All the Greeks ac-
knowledge the justice and expediency of cor-
poral punishment, and only caution parents
against applying servile punishments to free
boys A fresco from Pompeii shows a boy
hoisted on the shoulders of another, being
flogged by the master At no time was the
teacher of young boys for pay ever highly
esteemed There was, as already mentioned,
no qualification demanded by the Stale It
must often have been the recourse of penniless
or broken down men, just as in modern times
penniless girls of the better class used to tuin
governesses Hence the sneer of a comic poet
"The man is either dead, or teaching the
alphabet "

The school was geneia-llv called didascaleion
(teaching place) to distinguish it from the
palsestra Every Gieek town had one or
more, some of them laige, foi lleiodotus tells
of one at Chios, wheie the ioof fell in, and killed
119 out of the 120 childien attending it In
villages theie were poor appointments, and
such a school in Greece corresponded to the
lush hedge school or the cloister school of old
monasteries Statues of tutelary gods and
some simple ornaments were found in the better
ones The master occupied a high seat, above
his classes , the main diff ei ence from our arrange-
ment was the absence of tables or desks, it
being the universal custom when reading or
writing to hold the book or roll on the knee
On the walls hang various things, all of which
arc not now understood, but among them were1
implements for reading and writing, boxes foi
book rolls, leckonmg boards with pebbles strung
in them, flute cases, and lyres1 Lucian, a very
late authority, says there were even notice
boards, which weie white, covered with chalk
Hence writing with the finger \\ould be quite
legible, especially if the original ground was
black There are also traces of pictorial illus-
trations oi scenes from the Iliad, preserved
at the Capitohne Museum in Rome, which seem
to have been hung up m schools, like the zo-
ological and other sheets in modern schools
Though later theorists speak of the necessity
of pauses and variations in study, periods of
holidays for all, such as the dog days were at
Rome, aic not referred to As every child
was taught to read and to recite from the gieat
poets, a double object was attained The school-

158

the Lyre and in Homer.

IrfWouaiuWntmg aud Flute Playiug.

A QHEEK MUSIC SCHOOL.

GREECE

GREECE

j> \ \.as taught to speak accurately and road
i \\\ thmically, he* was also made acquainted
\\ith the choicest passages m older literature
Written books not being as common as they
are now, much more was done by dictation and
conversation

When children came to writing, they used
tablets coVered with wax, on which the pointed
stylus drew a sharp line, which could be
smoothed out again with the flat reverse end
In writing on papyrus a reed and ink were used,
and there are extant manv boys' exercises on
papyrus from Greek tombs in Egypt The
knowledge and study of grammar onlv came
in with the Stoics and was the task of grown
men, rather than of boys There are many
specimens of this sort of analysis m the Platonic
literature, and indeed some very primitive ones
m Aristophanes' Clouds Geometry and arith-
metic (the science of number) were also
advanced studies, but the art of reckoning was
learned like our practical use of figures It is
known that the system of notation learned was
not the cumbrous one found in inscriptions but
the verv compendious and practical one used
in countless Greek papyri found in Egypt
The alphabet enlarged by three signs foi 0,
90, and 900 supplied the whole system ^ith
t began the tens, with * the twenties, with p
the hundreds, with X the thousands M \vas
10,000 Thus 10049 was M/x0 Theie was no
symbol for 0, but the place in the alphabet told
at once what is now expressed by ciphei follow-
ing a number Fractions were expressed by
the same letters with an accent over them
Only the denominators were written, the only
numerator being 1, j had a special sign, m
othei cases a fraction was broken up, ? c {J was
expressed as j, J, } Furthei details would
be out of place heie, but in these symbols are
found very elaborate computations rising to
veiy large figures

Turning to what are now called accomplish-
ments, but which the Greeks called music, there
aie a good many late and not very trustworthy
authorities stating that drawing (not of land-
scape but of figures and oi household objects)
was generally taught This seems very doubt-
ful, but no one can deny that music (in our
sense) was never omitted The Greeks put the
greatest stress on the directly moral and im-
moral effects of music, according to the scale
or mode used There were strict and sober
kinds, there were effeminating and even lewd
sorts, the proper educatoi should not allow
the latter to be heard by boys Our difficulty
in appreciating this side of Greek education is
that, though we know and can appreciate then-
simpler scales or modes and their notations,
the fragments preserved of their tunes are so
unlike anything now known and understood
as music, that no modern composer, however
learned, could supply a missing bar m the
Hymn found at Delphi with e\en the smallest
proof that his restoration was correct In

society then* were great gentlemen, like (1imon,
who sang and accompanied themseh es on the
lyre But in general, plavmg and singing in
society was left to the not veiv leputable pro-
fessional Choral singing and dancing with
accompaniment of lyre or flute was a splendid
feature in Greek feasts and in the theater These
solemn dances and the singing were performed
by lads whose voices must have been formed
again after breaking, — a thing not noticed in
the usual accounts which make them boys of
fourteen to eighteen, when modern boys lose their
voices Of the instruments in use, the syrinx
or Pandean pipes were only used by shepherds,
and not in schools The trigonon or tnangulai
harp, and the double flutes weie only used by
professionals The lyre was made by stretch-
ing gut strings across the concave side of a
tortoise shell, which is often found clean and
dry m Greek watercourses There weie much
more elaborate kinds which added a neck and
made an mstiument something like the modern
guitar The former had seven or ten strings
Their flutes (though they knew wrhat we use)
were rather clarionets held straight, and with
a wride mouth

The last stage of a boy's education was the
so-called ephebic tiaining, which was intended
to prepare boys directly for the sei \ ice of the
state as soldiers, and in that icspect is like the
compulsory soldiering in nations that have a
conscription for their defense No boy was
allowed to pass from his school days into citizen
life without some training in the use of aims
beyond that of the palaestra, and in militaiy
discipline These cphebi had two duties to
perform, the most important was patiol duty
on the frontier of their state, where they did
the work of military police, and probably also
of preventing any considerable smuggling acios.s
the frontier so as to dcfiaud the duty laised
in the recognized markets where citizens fiom
both states exposed their wares They also
stopped the depredations of footpads 01 high-
waymen, so that brigandage was quite laie in
the more civilized parts of Greece, till the days
of its depopulation and decay These \ouths
were dressed in the short dark gray cloak and
the soft hat seen m the Parthenon frieze, which
also depicts the second great duty of the ephebi,
that of adorning the feasts of the gods in solemn
procession All the varieties of their duty
appear in this famous composition They are
carrying sacred vessels, leading victims, manag-
ing prancing steeds, with exquisite grace and
in wonderful variety It is remarkable that
m spite of this clear exhibition of the class, it had
not yet attained any state recognition, so far
as can be infer KM! from Herodotus and Thucyd-
ides (fifth century uc) In later days, nu-
merous inscriptions show that the ephebi, with
clubs and meetings, with their resolutions and
decrees, were at least as important as the socie-
ties of students in our modern universities
Stobams has preserved a text of the oath b>

159

GREECE

GREECE

which these youths were hound It has been
criticised and questioned by the skeptics, but
even if somewhat modernized, perhaps m Ro-
man days, it represents quite truly the spirit
of the whole institution " I will never dis-
grace these hallowed weapons, or abandon my
comrade, beside whomsoever I am placed (in
battle) but will fight for both sacred and secular
things with rnv fellows I will not leave my
country less, but greater and better by sea and
land 1 will obey the rulers appointed and the
established laws, and whatsoever new laws the
state may lawfully establish, and if any one
attempt to abolish the existing ordinances or dis-
obey them, I will resist him, and defend them in-
dividually and with the rest Be my witnesses
Aglauros, Enyahos, Ares, Zeus, Thallo, Auxo,
Hegemone " This list of gods can hardly be
a late invention It is not within the scope of
this article to describe the exaggerated impoi-
tance of this ephebic institution in Greece under
the Roman Empire, when fashionable strangers
crowded to Athens as their place of intellectual
amusement as rich Americans now go to
Oxford It was then a genuine part of Greek
education, much as it lias been described by
Aristophanes and Xenophon

In higher education it is impossible to ignore
the famous teaching of the sophists, who were
not recognized or even approved by Greek
politics, but who set up as adventurers, or
itinerant teachers to train the richer and idle
young men how to think and speak upon the
subjects oi the day They desired to give by
discussions and lectures not only a training m
rhetoric, logic, and political sciences, but the
gamut of information now offered by the lead-
ing articles of our daily press which profess to
tell their rcadeis what to think about the cur-
rent topics of interest Cultivated people can
hardly appreciate how these supeificial article's
affect the thought of the lower middle and the
lower classes in modem life The sophists may
have had this gieat influence on a small society,
which had no books on daily topics arid was
more easily led bv a persuasive teacher .lust
as our newspapers contribute a great deal to
general culture, so did the sophists Just as
they have giave faults, so had the sophists
But grave and peihaps just as are the charges
of superficiality, irreverence, and destructive
criticism made against them there must have
been among them wise men and good teachers
Among the innumerable passages m Plato re-
lating to the sophists we may note one in the
Protagoras that is instructive and free from
hostility When Socrates asks Protagoras what
he undertakes to teach he answers "' If Hip-
pocrates comes to me he will not experience the
sort of drudgery with which other sophists are
m the habit of insulting their pupils, who,
when they have just escaped from the arts,
are taken and driven back into them by their
teachers, and made to learn calculations and
astronomy and geometry and music (he gave a

look at Hippias as he said this) , no, if he comes
to me, he will learn lhat which lie conies to
learn And this is prudence in affairs private
as well as public, he will learn to order his
house in the best manner, and he will be able
to speak and ad for the best in the affairs of the
State ' ' Do I understand you,' I said; ' and
is your meaning that you teach the art of politics,
and that you promise to make good citizens? '
' That, Socrates, is exactly the profession which
I make ' " But perhaps it was rhetoric, the
art of persuasion and debate, that drew the
youth of Athens to the sophists, rather than
anything deserving the name of political science
Indeed, we may date from the age of the sophists
the rise of rhetoric to the place that it was to
hold in education through the entire period of
Roman domination (See ISOCRATES )

If nothing has been said about the education
of girls, it is only because nothing is known
about it Xenophori represents a bride com-
ing into her husband's house, having lived her
youth in darkness and m fear, knowing nothing
but how to adorn her person and that artificially,
with powder and rouge, and with enhancements
of dress The Spartan women brought up in
great hbertv, and freed from the strict discipline
of the men, are spoken of now as specimens of
bravery and patriotism, now as turbulent and
mischievous to the peace and order of the state
But except that they trained openly like boys,
we know nothing of their education

The age of the Sophists, Sociates, Plato, and
Aristotle, ? e. the later fifth century and the
fourth, was the age of the breaking up of the
older traditions and institutions, the collapse of
the city state before the power of Macedon,
and the scattering of the Hellenic culture
through the eastern world by the conquests of
Alexander As was inevitable the old forms
and standards of education, as of moral, in-
tellectual, and political life gave place to a new
cosmopolitanism and individualism The dis-
solving and reconstructive effect of the new
spirit was seen perhaps not so much in primary
as in advanced education Philosophy and
rhetoric became immensely popular, and schools
arose m Athens and Alexandria to which the
previous century offers no parallel, such as the
rhetorical school of Isocrates (393-338 B c )
and the philosophical schools of Plato (the
Academy), Aristotle (the Lyceum), and Zeno
(the Stoa or Porch) In Athens the old custom
of Ephebic education supervised by the State
was joined to the three philosophical schools,
teachers of rhetoric and logic were added, and
thus was formed the University of Athens
(q v ) Athens had however one rival, espe-
cially during the earlier centuries of the Christian
era, viz Alexandria (q v ), where another uni-
versity grew up about the great library But
long before the suppression of the University
of Athens by Justinian in 520 A D. and the close
of the intellectual greatness of Alexandria with
the Saracen conquest (640 A.D ) Greek educa-

100

GREECE, EDUCATION IN MODERN GREECE, EDUCATION IN MODEM,

tion had begun to lose its distinctive character-
istics under the influence of Roman rule and
the rise of Christianity J P M.

References : —

BOSVNQUE.T, B Education of the Youny in Plato's Re-
public (Cambridge, 1900)

HTTRNET, J Aristotle on Education (Cambridge, 1903 )

DAVIDHON, T Aristotle and Ancient Educational
Ideals (Now York, 1892.)

Education of the Greek People (New York, 1S9S )

FREEMAN, K J The Schools of Hetta* (London,
1907 )

CJKAHBGKOKR, L Erzit hurifj und Untrrricht nn kUissi-
*ch(ti Alterthum (WUrzhur^, 1864 1881)

MAIIAFF\, J P Social Life in Gruce from Homer to
Menamhr (London, 1800)

Old Gnek Education (London, 1898 )

MONROE, P Ho wee-Book of the History of Education
Greek and Roman Period (Now York, 1906 )

W ALDEN, J W II Umvei aities of Ancient Greece
(Now York, 1909)

\\ ILKINH, A S National Education in Greece (Lon-
don, 1873 )

GREECE, EDUCATION IN MODERN —

Historical — The history of education m
Greece may be conveniently divided into four
periods The first of these extends from the
sixth century B r to the third century of the
Christian era, when Constantinople became the
center of the Roman world Although during
this time the independence and unity of Greek
national life was destroyed by the Macedonian
conquest (338 B c ) and finally by absorption
in the Roman empire, Greek culture retained
its distinctive diameter and was imparted to
the conquering peoples The second period
coincides with that of Byzantine supremacy
and ends with the fall of Constantinople in
1153 The third period is that of Turkish
domination from 1453 to the War of Inde-
pendence (1821), winch usheied in the fourth
or modern era Of the earlier periods it is
sufficient here to note that the first was that
of classic Hellenism of which Athens was the
proud center The second period was marked
In the fusion of Hellenic philosophy with
Christian doctimc, and although during this
time the ancient schools of Athens and of
othei Grecian cities declined, or were abolished
by imperial decree, the Greek language and
traditions survived in the brilliant capital of
the East, for, while Latin was the official
language of the Byzantine court, Greek was
the language of the people, and Christian Hel-
lenism the culture which drew scholars fiom
the West to the University of Constantinople
(See ALEXANDRIA, SCHOOL AND UNIVERSITY
OF, ATHENS, UNIVERSITY OF)

The Turks, though not always openly hostile
to Byzantine education and culture, looked
upon it with indifference and contempt They
did not, however, interfere directly with the
education of such Christian inhabitants of the
Empire as could pay liberally foi the privilege
Yet the Clmstians were not free men, no
careei, under ordinal y circumstances, was open
to Gieek scholars save that which the Church

afforded, the common people weie plunged in
abject poverty, and the more fortunate hesi-
tated to educate their children for fear of in-
creasing their attractiveness Gnls were in
danger of being appropriated for some harem,
and every four years a certain number of
small Christian boys were taken from their
parents to be trained as janizaries The very
existence of this child tribute, and the tax of
one tenth of the male children for employ-
ment in various offices, threw such gloom ovei
family life that education could not well
flourish, even if there were no other causes to
prevent it

Under these conditions the Greek church
became the bond of union between all the
Greeks in the Turkish empire, whether they
lived in the Grecian peninsula, in the adjacent
islands, or in Asia Minor, and the symbol of
their lost national life Such schools as they
had were under the supervision of the clergy
and often under their direct control The
schools for the common people were similar
in many respects to the Church schools of
Western Europe, but thev resembled also m
some particulars the ancient schools of Arabia
and India Pupils were taught to lead the
church service and the elements of arithmetic
and writing Theie were no special school
buildings, but the pupils assembled in the
narthex of some4 church, \\hcn their teacher
was an ecclesiastic, or in the shop of some
handicraftsman when he happened to be the
school-teacher They had no chairs, but sat
crosslegged on mats or rugs laid on the floor
Their books were in manuscript, since the ait
of printing was not yet at then service Each
pupil usually had but one book at a time, and
Ins promotion to another book was joyfully
celebrated by his family and iclatives The
schools were geneially held m the daytime,
but in the communities, where the pupils
were engaged m labor during the day, night
schools weie sometimes held A reference to
these occasional night schools is contained in
an old song which is still widely known through-
out Greek lands

In addition to the elementary schools, the
ecclesiastical authorities established a higher
order of schools termed Hellenic, their main
purpose being to pieserve the knowledge of
rhetoric and the ancient language The pupils
of the Hellenic schools were geneially intended
for the service of the Church, although a small
proportion looked forward to the secular call-
ings These two classes of schools, the ele-
mentary or demotic and the Hellenic, formed
the basis of the national system established
after the war of independence

Even during the seven years' war (1821-
1828) plans for an organized system of educa-
tion were discussed, and in 182tf, the Assembly
of Atios voted that a system should be estab-
lished Foieigners devoted to the cause of
the Greeks, in paiticulai Lord Hyion and

VOL in — M

101

GREECE, EDUCATION IN MODERN GREECE, EDUCATION IN MODERN

Leicester Stanhope, encouraged Ihe efioit
When temporary peace was secured and a
provisional government established under Ka-
podistnas, the movement for a national system
of education became general, amj m *1828,
within the short spare of three monl hs, twenty-
two primary schools were opened m towns on
the .rfEgean islands. In these the Lancastenan
method of mutual instruction was used The
expense of the schools was borne by the com-
munities In Januarv, 1S29, Kapodistnas ap-
pointed a committee on elementary education,
entrusted with the duty of organizing and
establishing a system of elementary schools
This committee gave the elementary (demotic)
schools the character which they still retain
Thus the foundations of the present system
were laid before 1830 in which year the king-
dom was organized under the protection of the
three powers, Great Britain, France, and
Russia From time to time Jaws have been
passed which taken together provide m detail
for a system of public education

Present System — Administration — The
Minister of Education (and of Ecclesiastical
Affairs) is one of the seven members of the
cabinet His appointment is laigely a matter
of politics and his tenure of office is usually
biief He has authontv to determine what
subjects are to be taught in all the schools,
both public and private, and he fixes the
time that must be devoted to each of these
subjects in the course of study In regard to
the elementary and Hellenic schools he deter-
mines the minimum equipment for schools of
each class and he appoints the committee that
appioves the textbooks submitted in the
annual competition The Minister appoints
all teachers and has authority to move or
remove teacheis in the Hellenic schools and in
the gymnasia This power in the hands of a
frequently changing ministry leads to insecure
tenure, and it sometimes happens that teachers
are changed from desnable to undesirable
places for purely political reasons He also
appoints one chief inspector of elementary
schools, four inspectors of intermediate schools,
and one inspector of elementary schools for each
of the twenty-six provinces

At the head of each province is a Nomarch
who is appointed by the King As one of his
duties consists in supervising the funds of the
domes comprised in his province, it is not
surprising that he is required to look after
education In practice, this official as well as
the Demarch, confines his attention to the
financial affairs of the schools and leaves the
supervision of them and the examination of the
pupils to a supervisory council which is com-
posed of the bishop, the school inspector, the
director of the gymnasium, or, if there be no
gymnasium in the province, the director of
the chief Hellenic school, and two othei mem-
bers, one of whom must be a piofessional man,
•ind the other a business man The mspectoi

162

visits the schools and reports to the super-
vising council, of which he is the chairman and
executive ofTicei He is also a member of the
General Council of Public Instruction The
Supervisory Council holds monthly meetings,
transacts all business of the province connected
with the administration of the schools, includ-
ing the nomination of teachers, the discipline
of pupils, the inspection of the equipment and
instruction in the elementary schools of the
province, and the examination of pupils

The various domes (local districts) are re-
quired to establish elementary (demotic) schools,
but a provision m the constitution makes it
possible for the government to contribute to
elementary education " in proportion to the
necessities of the denies " Thus it happens
that some of the schools in the poorer denies
are entirely supported by the government,
while other denies support their own schools
The total expense of conducting the elementary
(demotic) schools for the school year 1907-1908
was 0,692,098 drachmas [$1,231,57491] (A
drachma is equivalent to $0 193.) The national
budget for this yeai contained an item of
1,000,000 drachmas [$193,000] for the purpose
of assisting needy denies More than 60 per
cent of the elementary schools are supported
wholly or in part by contributions from indi-
viduals or societies Tuition in the elementary
schools is gratuitous and the attendance for
both boys and girls is compulsory from six to
twelve

Elementary Education — The elementary
schools have either four or six-year courses U
the school provides a four-year course it is called
a common (KOU/OV) elementary school If,
however, it provides a six-year course, it is a
complete elementary school Of the 3418 ele-
mentary schools reported in 1908, 1571 were
common schools, and 1847 were complete
schools In theory coeducation of the sexes
docs not exist in Greece, but in the smaller
towns and in the rural sections, where the
school attendance is not over seventy-five, both
sexes attend the same school and are taught
by one teacher This arrangement is not per-
mitted after the children are ten years of age

In principle, Greek education is clerical,
compulsory, and gratuitous Thus three hours a
week are devoted to the study of religion,
which consists of instruction in sacred history,
catechism, and reading from the Holy Scrip-
tures Jews arid Roman Catholics have special
instruction from the clergy of their own
churches

The teachers of the elementary schools are
of three grades, depending upon their experi-
ence and preparation The grade of the
teacher determines not alone the type of
school in which he may teach, but also the
salary he is entitled to receive Teachers of
the third or lowest grade are usually found in
schools where the enrollment is from fifteen to
forty If the enrollment is more1 than fifty-five a

GREECE, EDUCATION IN MODERN GREECE, EDUCATION IN MODERN

first grade teacher is required The minimum
qualification for elementary teachers is a license
from one of the teachers' training schools The
Tiormal schools admit only men Four of these
schools have three-year courses, and one sub-
normal school a one-year course A school for
training teachers of gymnastics was established
in Athens in 1899

TABLE I — THE SuiuErTS TAUOHT IN EACH GRADE of THE
SCHOOLS AND THE UOUHH PK.K WB.LK DEVOTED TO INSTRUCTION
IN EACH SUBJECT

KLKMENTARY.

IlVTfcKMFDIATB

SUBJECT

Common1

Hellenic

-- y _

Gymnasium

1st

2d

Sd

4th

1st 2d

,4d

iHt

2d

3d

1th

yr
3

,i

2 j 2

2

2

2

Religion

,i

3

2

Greek, ancient

(n

11

10

10

(3 j S

S

10

10

10

10

Greek, modern

11J

2 1 2

2

Latin

j

1

3

3

3

3

French

. 2

2

3

J

J

3

History

2

2

2 i 2

2

•}

,*

3

3

Geography

2

2

2

2 ' 2

2

2

Mathematics

3

,1

A

r>

J i ,i

J

4

}

4

5

Natural history

2 2

,22

2 ' 2

Plnsics

2 * I

2

3

3

Philosophy

j

1

1

1

Draw 1 UK

2

2 ; 2 , 1

1

Penmanship

2

2 ' 2 11

1

Vocal music

.i

a

J .< !

Gym nasties

4

4

8 ^

, 3 3

3

3

3

j

3

1 The course of stuch for the complete elemental v school
includes tin lour veins of the common school course and two
years of the Hellenic school course

The woik of these schools is divided between
theory and practice Each of the normal
schools has a piactice school connected \\ith it

Men teachois of the iirst grade m the com-
plete schools leccive 1800 di per year , the
second grade teachers receive 1440 dr , and
the third grade 1200 di pel year Women of
the same grades receive 1140 dr , 1320 di , and
1200 dr , respectively The local communities
may increase these amounts The teachois in
the common schools receive 600 dr , 780 dr ,
.or 900 dr per year, depending upon the giade
which they teach Each teacher contributes
to a pension fund Tenure of oflice for these
teachers is permanent during good behavior

Intermediate Education — From the elemen-
tary schools boys may pass to the Hellenic
schools Those who come from the common
schools enter the hist year of the three-year
course, but those who have taken the six-year
course of the complete elementary school enter
either the second or third year of the Hellenic
school A recent Mimstei of Education urged
that the last year of the course m these schools
should be added to the course of the gymnasia
This would abolish the Hellenic schools, for the
first two years of their course1 is now given in
the complete elementary schools Of the 314
schools that were reported for 1907-1908, 207
had three classes, 15 had two second classes,
while 32 had only a one-year comse, 20,517 pu-

pils were enrolled in these schools, and the total
expense was 2,477,022 dr There usually aie at
least as many teachers as there arc classes in
the Hellenic school Teachers m the Hellenic
schools must have a diploma from the Univer-
sity, and to obtain the higher positions they
must have passed the examination for the
master's degree or «even the doctorate The
head teacher, or director, of a Hellenic school
is called the scholarch, and receives from 2400
dr to 3000 dr per year The salaries of sub-
ordinate teachers vaiy from 1200 dr to 3000
dr per year These teachers are appointed by
the Minister of Education and they have no
fixed tenure

Secondary Education — After independence
was achieved, secondary education showed
plainly the influence of German models The
first gymnasium in Greece was the Central
School, founded in ^Egma on the 13th of
November, 1829 The number gradually in-
creased, and at present there is a gymnasium
in every town of sufficient size to justify the
expense In the larger cities, Athens, Patras,
etc , there are more than one, accoidmg to the
population Each gymnasium is managed by
its own faculty At the head of the faculty is
the gymnasiarch, who is both a teacher and
general director He also serves as one of the
members of the Supervising Council for the
province The program of studies is regu-
lated by an official scheme which is modified
to suit the individual schools (see Table I)

The gymnasia are generally supported by
the State, but in places where the population
is not large enough to justify this expenditure
by the State, the people of the community
sometimes support one for themselves, paying
the expense in some ingenious way Foi in-
stance, the town of Ncsion, in Messema, not
being favored by the government with a gym-
nasium, its inhabitants were in the year 1896
supporting one by a voluntary tax, levied and
collected "by themselves, oi one centime on
each oke of grapes or hgs produced m their
fields Pupils are required to pay small eri-
tiance and certificate fees The gymnasia are
classical schools, but the physical sciences aie
included m their course of study Until
lecently, however, the latter subjects have been
little regarded, since the gieat importance of
classic education m Greece overshadows the
high claim that the physical sciences have on
modern education The schools lack appa-
ratus, yet, improvement m this respect is
taking place and piofessois aie being secured
who have won their diplomas m the physical
sciences, and are, therefore, both capable
teachers and interested in the progress of
their specialty

The younger Greeks are eager for education,
and efforts are made to encouiage this am-
bition There is, however, a glowing convic-
tion that the education atioided by the schools
it> not sufficiently practical Plans for nmdily-

103

GREECE, EDUCATION IN MODERN GREECE, EDUCATION IN MODERN

ing the system have been considered by two
recent national assemblies, but as yet no agree-
ment has been reached The experiment of
a " practical gymnasium " is being tried now
in Athens No new gymnasium of the regular
type has been founded since 1900, but between
1001 and 1908 six commercial schools, with
four-year courses were established In 1908
these schools were employing 33 teachers, and
had 315 students enrolled The total annual
expense of conducting them was 113,040 dr

TABLE II — STATISTICS OF THE PUBLIC SCHOOL SYSTEM FOR
1907-1908

GYMNASIA

ELEMENT-
ARY (dome)

HELLENIC

Public

Private

Schools

3,418i

314

26

11

Teachers

4,336

931

183

97

(Jvrnnastic teachers

9

26

6

Htudenta

BOVH

170,374

20,517

3,941

1,352

Girls

71,059

Total expense

Drachmas

b,690,098

2,477,022

767,376

259,090

Dollars

$1.201,575

$ 478,065

$178,065

$50,161

Expense per pupil

S5 35

$2330

$37 58

$37,92

'The 3418 elementary «<hools include 1571 common
schools, 1224 complete schools for boys, and 623 complete
schools for girls The total also includes 2123 schools that are
not supported by the State or demos

(7/r/.s, Education of — The education of girls
*n Greece, beyond the six years of the com-
plete elementary course, is a matter of private
enterprise, the oldest school for gills having
been founded in 1831 by an American mis-
sionary, Dr Hill, and his wife Lately, how-
ever, the faculties of the national university
have been opened to women Among the
schools for girls the most important is the
Arsakion This school was founded in July,
1830, bv the Society of the Promoters of Edu-
cation, and named after its chief benefactor,
Apostolos Arsakes There are now several
branches located in different cities The course
of study begins with the kindergarten and ends
with a three-year teacher's training course
Ceitiheatos from this school qualify their
holders to teach in the elementary schools
More than 1800 girls are enrolled in the school,
and more than 800 were taking the teacher's
training course in 1908

There are numerous societies which main-
tain private schools, noteworthy among these
being the Parnassus Society, which conducts a
night school for poor boys, 'of whom more than
2000 attend

Higher Education — The Greek educational
system culminates in the National University
at Athens In April, 1837, Otto, who, after
the death of Kapodistnas, had been appointed
by the powers to be the first king of regenerated
Greece, issued a decree for the establishment
of a university Following the custom of the
Germans, ho named the new institution after

104

himself, and not until 1862 was the name
changed to National University According
to the decree of 1837 there were to be four
faculties theology, law, medicine, and philoso-
phy The latter consisted of two distinct
sections, philosophy and science In 1904
each of these sections was made a separate
faculty The faculty of theology is composed of
six professors and four assistants In the law
faculty there are nine professors and nineteen
assistants The medical faculty which is the
largest, has eighteen professors and forty-eight
assistants The philosophical faculty has
twelve professors and five assistants, and the
physical and mathematical faculty has twelve
professors and eight assistants In 1842 a
seminar in Greek philology was founded in
the faculty of philosophy The peculiar func-
tion of this seminar has been the training of
teachers for secondary schools Other seminars
and various laboratories, museums, and clinics
are supported by the university Among the
other more important subsidiary institutions
may be mentioned the national observatory
built in 1840, the botanical gardens and
museum, the university libraiy with more
than 300,000 volumes, and the national
museum

Three months before the close of the school
year the combined faculties choose one of
their number whom the Minister of Education
appoints as rector foi the next school year
The rector is the executive head of the uni-
versity and its representative at all functions
In like mariner each faculty chooses one of its
members who is made dean of that faculty for
the following year by the Minister of Educa-
tion The dean presides at meetings of the
faculty, ho arranges the program of studies,
and represents his faculty in the university
senate

The financial administration of the univer-
sity rests with the university senate, a body
composed of the rector of the university, the
dean, and one other representative from each
of the faculties, except the faculties of philoso-
phy and physical and mathematical sciences
Each faculty proposes the candidates for the
professorships, and the Minister of Education
appoints Prior to 1882 the professors were
named by the king The government pays
the larger portion of the salaries of the uni-
versity officers For the school year 1907-
1908 the receipts of the university were 546,185
dr and the expenditures were 507,349 dr In
addition to this the goveinment paid salaries
of professors and various other expenses
amounting to 584,960 dr This amount in-
cluded 85,920 dr. to aid needy students and
those studying abroad

Students pay 2 dr a year for a certificate
of attendance in each course they take Tui-
tion amounts to 160 dr per year, and there is
an examination fee of 250 dr in the legal and
medical faculties, but only 150 dr in the other

GREEK LETTER SOCIETIES

GREEK, STUDY OF

faculties The diploma cowls 50 <li Students
who have been graduated from the gymnasia,
or institutions of like grade, are admitted
without examination The enrollment in the
winter semester of 1909-1910 was about 2800
and in the summer session about 2500

Other educational agencies which are not
controlled by the government, but are suffi-
ciently important to merit a mention in any
description of the Greek educational system
are the various archaeological schools (see
ARCHAEOLOGY) The oldest of these schools
was established in 1846 and is called Kcolc
Franqaise d'Athenes The American School of
Classical Studies was founded in 1S82 and is
maintained by 20 American universities and
colleges The British School at Athens was
founded in 1880 Other institutions aie A'a/.sr/-
hches Deutschex Archaulog inches Instdut, and
Itdtieuisches Archaulogitiches Invtitid Greece
maintains no ai chaeological school, but two
societies are active in archaeological investiga-
tions Thev are the Archaeological Society,
founded in 1887, and the Historical and Kth-
nological Society, founded in 1882

ATS and M B H

Reference , • —

ANDRK, CHARLES L'EnsciKiicmpnt primaire on (irecc
In Kevin pedagogiqu( \ ul LV February Man li,
IMS, pp 160 1S2, and pp 2(>,r>-JH4
Notes sur 1' University d'Atheries In Rrmtf inter-
national? d( rEmtji(jnenu nt Vol LI, Apul, 1(K)(>,
pp 305 316

CHAHSIOTIS, CIKOKUKS L'lnxtrutfion jruhliqut <lnz It s
Grtit>, d('fwit> la 7Jr/M de (Constantino pit pui k s
Turus jiisqn'a- n<»8 Jonr8 (Pans, 1S81 )

Greece, Ministry of Public Education and Woiship
Annual statistics, 1907-1 'JOS (Atheiih, 1909)

MILLER, WILLIAM Public- Education In G'm/r L>f<
in Town and Country, pp 180-162 (London,
1905)

QUINN, DANIEL Education in Greecf In T nited
States Bureau of Education, Report of Commis-
sioner, 1S96-1897, pp 207-347 (WabhiiiKton,
1898 )

GREEK LETTER SOCIETIES — See FRA-
TERNITIES

GREEK, STUDY OF. —In Universities
and Schools of Europe — Each successive
migration of the Greeks may be said to have
resulted in a twofold conquest, — a conquest
by the invaders of the land and its inhabitants,
and a more gradual conquest by the language
which they spoke ovei the native tongue of
the people whom thcv subdued This wide-
spread diffusion of the Gieek tongue gradually,
though slowly, resulted in a corresponding
diffusion of Greek thought And so there
arose centers for Greek study in different parts
of the Mediterranean countries, with Athens
for a long time as the chief seat The career
of Athens, Alexandria, and Antioch as later
centers of Greek learning is treated in outline
in the articles on the universities and schools
of those places The condition of the study of
Greek and the attitude of the Christian leaders
toward Greek culture are also considered

under the topics CHRISTIAN KDIIC \TJON IN THJ-
EARLY CHURCH, and durum SCHOOLS, and
the various articles on the Church Fathers (see
AMBROSE, AUGUSTINE, BASIL, CHKYSOSTOM, etc )
treat of the attitude of the early Church to
Greek culture arid the Greek language The
fusion of Greek cultuie with Roman is treated
in the discussion of ROMAN EDUCATION (q v } ,
and the conditions during the Middle Ages are
presented in outline in the articles on education
in that period A brief sketch of the condition
of the knowledge of Greek from the late Roman
period to the Renaissance is desirable as an in-
troduction to the consideration of the place of
Greek in modern education (see also RENAIS-
SANCE, EDUCATION IN)

Under Constantino the Great Greek became
the language, first of his court, and then of the
official world When, in 340, his eldest son
and successor in the Western piefecture,
Constantino IT, fell in a campaign in Provence,
a Gieek monody, recited at Aries, was deemed
the most appropriate tubute to his memory
At this time, indeed, the churches of Western
Christendom were virtually Greok colonies,
and both the Scriptures and the liturgies which
they used were in the Greek language, so that,
as late as the sixth century, we find Ca\sanu,s,
the eminent Bishop of Aries, giant ing permis-
sion foi the use of such versions, as an altei na-
tive to Latin, throughout the churches of his
diocese A like permission was accorded to
the churches in Maiseilles, and the numerous
(ireek words which found then way into the
French or Romance language of tins period
afford like evidence The imperial designs,
however, were far from commanding general
assent, and in Afuca Teitulhan (q v ) had long
before declared that there could be nothing in
common between the "Academy" and the
Church, while he openlv denounced philosophy
as " the source of all the heresies " (Dc 7'ra3-
scn pi , c 7) Lactantius (q v ), summoned by
Diocletian to fill the chair of Latin at \ico-
media (then a famous center of Gieek culture),
found his position untenable, and at the court
of Constantino at Gaul became conspicuous
by the vehemence with which he inveighed
against all Greek philosophy His / n^titu-
tionx} which long held its ground in the Latin
Church as the best authontutive exposition
both of elementary Christian doctnne and the
principles of Christian education, and the De
NuptiiK of Martianus Capella (<y v ), embodying
the classification of the liberal arts sanctioned
by the authority of Augustine (q v ), and repio-
duced long after in the umveisities of Europe,
alike mark the trend of education m the West
in comparative isolation from Greek and from
Hellenic influences

Throughout the fourth century, however,
Alexandna maintained its reputation as "the
last great nursery of Greek culture," and in
conjunction with a new school of theology
could point to a succession of eminent divines

165

GREEK, STUDY OF

GREEK, STUDY OF

whose influence outshone , foi a time, even that
of Jerome and Augustine Of this the more
citation of the name of Athanasms, Eusebius,
Basil the Great, and Gregory Nazianzen (qq v )
affords sufficient evidence; while John Chry-
sostom (q v ), who was of Antioch, and subse-
quently Patriarch of Constantinople, has been
designated " the model of a preacher for a great
capital" (Milman, Vol III, p 118) He be-
queathed to posterity a vast collection of ser-
mons, letters, and treatises, of which the
first-named have probably attracted in modern
times a larger number of readers than the
declamations of any other Greek orator, except-
ing only Demosthenes In Byzantium itself
the work of education went steadily on, and
we have sufficient evidence that in the latter
part of the eighth century there was ample
provision foi instruction in grammar, language,
science, arid philosophy (Bury, Latei Roman
Kmpire, Vol II, p 435); and the statement of
Theophancs that Leo the I saurian (680-741)
put an end to " pious education" by shutting
up the schools, refers probably only to a kind
of theological seminary in the capital, which,
under the management of its twelve teachers,
became a nurserv of superstition and was
finally swept away in the commotion occasioned
by the iconoclastic movement It is certain
that Europe was indebted to John of Damascus
(nearly the last of the Fathers of the Eastern
Church) for the introduction of the studv of
Aristotle into Christian education Of the
vast literature bequeathed by these Byzantine
writers, although their pages contain many
facts useful to the modern historian, compaia-
tively few have been much studied in the
universities But the earlv years of the
seventeenth century found Sir Henry Savilc
busiest with his fine edition of John Chrysostom,
just as those of the sixteenth centmy saw
Bentley engaged on the restoration of the text of
On gen

In the Western Empire, down to the time of
the Renaissance, Greek learning appears only
in occasional gleams, and no continuous tradi-
tion is discernible It was undoubtedly the
design of Charles the Great (see CHARLEMAGNE
AND EDUCATION) and his adviser Alcuin (q v )
that the language should be taught in the
hcln>ols created by their joint efforts, but there
is no evidence that their instructions were
carried into effect, although when John Scot us
Ermgena (qr), a fugitive from Ireland, suc-
ceeded to the mastership of the Palace School
in the time of Charles the Bald, something
must have been heard at Aachen about both
Martian us Capella and Ongen Otto III,
himself the son of a Greek mother, was able to
raise his preceptoi Gerbert (q i» ) to the papal
chair, and the latter understood Greek, while
his pupil emulated the ceremonial and usages
of the Byzantine court But the prevailing
tendencies in Home, both then and long after-
wards, were unfavorable to learning in any

shape, and in the thirteenth century a knowl-
edge of Greek was even studiously disclaimed
as likely to bring the possessor under the sus-
picion 'of heresy (Sandys, Vol. I, p 583)
Greek thought and Greek science, however,
often found their way where the language itself
was unknown, and authors who had written
on philosophy, mathematics, astronomy, and
medicine were widely read in Latin transla-
tions, the professors at the newly founded uni-
versities, Saleino, Bologna, Reggio, Modena,
Vicenza, Padua, and Pans being wont to
dictate and comment on these versions, long
prior to the fourteenth century The Saracens,
again, during the reign of the Abbaside dynasty
at Bagdad (750-1258), and that of the Ommi-
ades at Cordova (756-1031), became acquainted,
through translations made by Synaii Chris-
tians, with Aristotle, Hippocrates, Galen,
Dioscondes, Euclid, Archimedes, and Ptolemy,
and conceived an ardent admnation for most
of these writers, at the time when the greatest
part of Latin Christendom, absorbed m an
exclusive devotion to the Organ urn of Aristotle
and an unquestioning acceptance of the doc-
trine of predestination as pioclamied by Augus-
tine, looked distrustfully alike on the theology
and the science of the East In the year 1311,
however, the Council of Vieime having decreed
that chairs of Greek, Hebrew, Chaldee, and
Arabic should be founded in the universities
of Pans, Oxford, Bologna, and Salamanca,
Clement V did not deem it prudent to with-
hold his assent But heie again the scheme
proved abortive and the papal signature was
expunged, while in the fifteenth century the
commentators on the Clementines even venture
to deny that it had ever been attached (Mul-
hnger, Utuv of Camb , Vol I, pp 482-483)

Such were the conditions undei which Pe-
trarch (qv), when he fust viMted Rome in
1336, could find no one to teach him Greek,
and even in 1300 could name only ten scholars
in all Italy who possessed a competent knowl-
edge of the language, — " thiee 01 foui in
Florence, one in Bologna, two in Verona, one
in Sulmona, one in Mantua, but not one in
Rome" (Voigt, Vol 11, p 107) The human-
ist, however, could not long rest content with
that Latin literature which itself continually
revealed its own indebtedness to the inspira-
tion derived from ancient Hellas, and as the
aid of competent instructors in Greek literature
became more and more indispensable, Manuel
Chrysoloras (qv), the representative of the
imperial couit at Constantinople in Venice, was
invited to Florence, where his school, probably
the earliest for Greek aftei that of Lorenzo
Pilatus (1360-1363), was open to all comers
He himself received a salary of 100 gulden, and
lectured in Latin (1396-1400), taking Plato's
Republic for Ins first subject Chrysoloras
subsequently lectured at Florence, Pavia,
Venice, Bologna, and Home, he died in 1415,
when on a visit to the imperial court at Con-

166

GREEK, STUDY OF

stance, whither ho had repaired m order to
take part in the proceedings of the groat
council Under such auspices Greek now he-
came fashionable in Italy, and it was lon-
dercd still more so by the genius of Guaiino
(qv), one of the disciples of Chrysoloras, who
was able both to disarm the jealousy of Rome
and to command the admiration of every
scholar In his classroom at Ferrara English-
men were to be seen, some of them of distin-
guished rank, and when, in 1138-1439, the
oecumenical council was convened in that
city, his linguistic attainments were displayed
in the skill with which he acted as interpreter
between the deputies of the Greek and the
Latin churches (See also GUAIUNO, BATJ IST \ )

The first great school for youth, however,
was that of Vittorino da Feltre at Mantua, —
the " Pleasant House/' as it was teimcd
Although, after the fall of Constantinople
(1453), the number of teachers in Italy uns
materially increased, they themselves bi ought
but few manuscripts with them, and the
paucity of the latter continued to be a serious
hindrance to the study of Greek until the
arrival of two Germans, Sweynhevm and
Pannartz, who had worked under Faust at
Mainz, introduced the art of printing, while it
at the same time ruined many of the copyists
A small Greek grammai compiled by Con-
Btantme Lascans (qv), which appeared at
Milan in 1476, was probably the hist book
printed in Greek

Antiquananism and the interest eollateially
excited in the history of noble houses, especially
that of the Medici, did much to attract the
sympathy of then representatives to the study
of the humanists, but in the earlier yea is of the
sixteenth centuiy a great reaction set in in
Italy, and the interest of the progressive move-
ment, as identified with Greek, next centers in
Germany At the time of Reuchlm's death
(1522) Greek was taught in neaily all the Gei-
man universities But that eminent scholar
had already been denounced by the seniors of
the University of Basel for his temeiitv in there
venturing to introduce the study of Anstotle
in the original text, and in 1523 we find
Budipus (q v ) writing a Greek letter to Habelaib
(who was, like himself, a member of the Fian-
ciscan order) to express his sympathy with his
friend under the annoyance to which the latter
had been subjected, in being debaned " bv
the Heads of your Brotherhood from the read-
ing of Greek treatises " " We are aware," he
goes on to say, " that those Greek-detesting
theologians have been most zealous to abolish
the Greek language, looking upon it as the
test of their own ignorance, and it is on this
account that we see the most vvoithless of them
in their sermons in the churches, railing at it,
and by every means bringing it into suspicion
with the people, as a most execrable study and
pernicious to true theology " (Smith, W F ,
Vol. II, p. 489) Erasmus (q v ) in like manner

GREEK, STUDY OF

found himself confronted by the charge of favor-
ing rebellion against the authonU of St Augus-
tine His knowledge of Greek had been
acquired in Paris after his renunciation of the
monastic life, it had been improved during his
losideneo at Cambndge (1510-1514), and it
was there that he made a translation of the
first book of the grammar by Theodore Gaza
(qv), which he printed at Louvam in 1516
In the same year he published at Basel the
first printed text of the Greek New Testament,
along with a Latin version by himself, instead
of the Vulgate His position, however, to the
end of his caieer was that of an eclectic, for
while denouncing Lutheianism as inimical to
sound learning, he may be said to have edu-
cated Zwingh, whom he had taught Greek at
Basel, and who, throughout his career as the
head of the Reform party in Switzerland,
always evinced a marked preference for the
Greek patristic literature ovei the Latin
How well Erasmus educated himself may be
seen in the critical comment which enabled
him to recognize the {superiority of the diction
of St Luke to that of the other Evangelists
Melanchthon's (q v ) inaugural lecture in 1518, as
professor of Greek at the newly founded univer-
sity at Wittenberg, marks a further advance
in relation to the study of the language1, by the
advice which he gave that it should be pursued
pan pati*u with that of Latin, by all students
"who sought to grasp the substance of the
involved thought rather than its shadow " In
the same year he published his <7mA (ham mar
The movement at Oxford, contemporary with
the visit of Erasmus (141)8-1499) resulted in
no traditions Giocyn (qv) is said to have
lectured on Greek, and he possessed a fine
libiaiy of classical authois, but his lack of
critical judgment is evinced in his admiration
of the (Jin rent Aristotle, his disparagement of
Plato, and his belief in the genuineness of the
Uiaanhi/ of Dionysms the Areopagite At
Cambridge, on the other hand, the foundation
of the Regius professorship b> Henry VIII in
1540 brought the study at once into favor, and
the appointment of Sir John Choke (q v ) to the
chair still further added to its popularity
Roger Ascham (qv), writing only two years
later, describes the principal Cheek authors
as being already studied with an ardoi alto-
gether surpassing what had ever been elicited by
the favorite Latin classics (Mullmger, Vol II,
Pp 52-57)

Philology, as a study, was as yet unrecog-
nized, while all speculation on the subject was
vitiated by the prevalent theory with respect
to Hebrew, as the original tongue from which
all the others were directly, or immediately,
derived In assigning the priority to a lan-
guage in a scheme of instruction, the choice
was accordingly supposed to lie between He-
brew and Greek Rabelais inclined to put the
latter first, as " that without which it is a dis-
grace for a man to style himself scholar
167

GREEK, STUDY OF

GREEK, STUDY OF

(Smith, VV F , Vol I, ]> 216), — a view which
appears to have been the current one in France
long after his tune Ratke, in Germany, in
propounding his scheme (1612), placed TIelnew
first, then the* Greek Testament, and thirdly
Latin JTis Mews, however, — put foith as
they weie in subservience to the prejudices of
Lutheramsm, which regarded the Greek and
the Latin classics as alike demoralizing, —
gained a temporarv popularity greatly in
excess of their real merits, and encouiaged
thereby, Ratke next proposed to substitute
for the laborious imitation of the classical
writers, which has been the practice of the
humanists, a method similar to that whereby
a colloquial knowledge of German or French is
gained in the present day The consequence
was that both in northern Germany and in the
Low Countries the critical faculty fell into
disuse, and, in the language of Mark Pattison,
" the Dutch editois shunned Greek, to which
they were unequal, or only attempted it to give
evidence that it was a lost science " (Isaac
Casaubon, p 45S) Comemus, notwithstand-
ing his enlightened views with respect to prac-
tical education, inclined to a like theory with
regard to Latin, and connived at a laxity in
Latin prose that threatened to result in the
complete disappeaiance of a pure and correct
style (Kckstem, p 175)

The commencement of a radical reform dates
from the time of V A Wolf (17f>9-l«S2S), who,
when a student at Gottingen devoted himself
to the .study of philology with a success that
led to his receiving an invitation from Zedhtz
at Halle, to transfer himself to that rising
university, " in order/7 wrote the professor,
" to free it from the repioaeh of being without
a single student of the subject " Wolf's
compliance resulted in a further extension of
his researches to ancient history, and especially
to everything that related to Greece, and the
Greek language and literature, — his keen
insight into the specific merits of the classic
writers, both as regards sUle and matter,
constituting an epoch in the annals of scholar-
ship With regard to the question of the
order in which the two languages should be
taken, he concluded that in all cases where
the student gave evidence of an aptitude for
linguistic studies, Greek should be taken before
Latin, a view in which Gedike of Berlin and
Herbart expressed their concurrence, urging
(1S01) that the Romans having been, as it
were, the disciples of the Greek, it would be an
inversion of the true order, alike of linguistic
arid of philosophic studies, to give the prece-
dence to Latin On the other hand, there
were those who pointed out that, if Greek were
taken before Latin, the requirements of the
classroom would necessitate a considerable
curtailment of the time allotted to the latter,
and in connection with Greek, and largely
under the influence of more independent
research in other countries, two rival schools

began, at, this tune, to divide the allegiance1 of
the learned world On Gottfried Hermann of
Leipzig (1772-1848), it devolved to retrieve
the disadvantages resulting from the influence
of Ratke by pointing out that the study of
Greek could be piofitably put sued only by the
adoption of a strictly logical and rational
method, while August Boeckh (1785-1867),
who, after studying theology and philosophy
at Halle, had been professor at Heidelberg and
in Berlin, concentrated his research upon the
past history of institutions, art, and archae-
ology That Hermann was to some extent
inspired by the example of Bentley (1662-
1742) at Cambridge, is undeniable, but Ins
editions of the tragic Greek poets and of
Pindar bore the impress of an originality and
critical insight unprecedented in Germany,
while Boeckh's Public Economy of Athens
and Corpus Inscriptionum Grcrcarum " laid
the foundation for all later research in the
departments with which they were concerned"
(Sandys, Vol III, ch 29) In the freer atmos-
phere of the newly founded university of Ber-
lin, the masterly investigations of Franz Bopp
(q v ) created, in like manner, the study of
comparative philology, and his method, as
set forth rn his Comparative (hammai , afforded
new guidance in connection both with Greek
and with Latin

In the meantime the question of priority
had received a practical solution in France
and in England by the requirement in Paris,
as at Oxford and at Cambridge, that students
on entering the university should already
possess a colloquial command of Latin In
these important centers, accordingly, the lan-
guage itself was not taught (it being presumed
that the requisite knowledge had been already
obtained at the grammar school), and Kton,
Winchester, Westminster, Charterhouse, St
Paul's, and Christ's Hospital vied with each
other in sending up youths who already spoke
correct Latrn and wrote Latin verse, and were
thus able forthwith to devote their time to
Greek and to Hebrew

University Courses vn Greek at Present — It is
impossible to give any statistical statement of the
number of courses in Greek in the chief univer-
sities which would serve to indicate the strength
of the subject in the different countries It
might be mentioned, for example, that in the
German universities 142 courses were given in
the summer semester of 1911, and that these
were distributed among the following branches
philosophy (7), literature (06), composition
(7), history (11), beginners (11), arclup-
ology and antiquities (2.'i); philology and
epigraphy (17) But the number of students
who attended the courses is not available, nor
can figures indicate the quality of the work
done, for the productions rn any field may be
more valuable when confined to a small and
selected number than when largely cultivated
In France, too, there are in the sixteen faculties

168

GREEK, STUDY OF

GREEK, STUDY OF

of letters twenty-seven professors and two
adjunct professors, assisted by twelve lecturers,
but the scope of their work is as a rule not
defined. Of the English universities Oxford
and Cambridge are still the strongest centers
for the study of the classics Greek is studied
intensively by all students who graduate in the
school of Literce, Hu want ores at Oxford and in
the classical Tripos at Cambridge, and is also
taken in certain groups for the pass degrees
Here, too, it is difficult to differentiate between
those who give courses in Latin and those in
Greek, nor would a statement of their work
be significant, for much of the work is done
privately with the c Allege tutors In the
newer univerMties there are separate chairs
for Latin and for Greek, while in some the
lecturers or assistants may instruct in both
subjects

In American Universities — Before the
founding of the Johns Hopkins University
(1876), there was nothing in the United States
fully corresponding to the German philosoph-
ical faculty 111 the modern sense But some
advanced work was offeied to graduates at Yale
College from 1847, and soon after at Harvard,
in classics, as m other subjects The degree of
Ph D foi work primarily in Greek was first given
at Yale, in 1803 At Johns Hopkins, Professor
Gildersleeve began at once to draw able and
ambitious students who previously would have
gone to Germany Gradually the strongest of
the older colleges and state universities de-
veloped and strengthened their advanced
courses m Greek; the University of Chicago
from its first session (1892) made this one of
its important departments At present, be-
sides the institutions already named, one might
mention Columbia, Princeton, and the Uni-
versities of California and Michigan, with a
few others, as furnishing good opportunities in
their graduate schools for the advanced study
of the Greek language and literature, as well
as of Greek archaeology At none of these is
the number of students in Greek large It
should be remembered also that the American
School of Classical Studies at Athens is in
effect a part of the graduate school of all Ameri-
can universities and colleges that unite in its
support, and constitutes an important part of
the provision made for Greek as a university
study To that school, as to the graduate
school of several of the universities, women
arc admitted, as well as men

In American Colleges — In America as else-
where the line between secondaiv school and
college, as between college (or what cone-
sponded to it) and university, has been an un-
stable one. To no subject does this apply
more fully than to Greek Still it may be
said that from the foundation of Harvard
(1636) Greek has always been regarded as a
subject to be taught m college — required of
all, in accordance with tradition, so long as
any large part of the curriculum was required,

but everywhere the first of the triad, Latin,
Greek, Mathematics, to be made optional In
the state universities, as these were gradually
established from 1837 on, Gieek was one of
the subjects to be taught in the department,
however named, that corresponded to the older
colleges In most of these Greek was never
required; in some, as at the University of Cali-
fornia still, it was required for the degree of
A.B only, while another degree, usually in-
tended to be of equal value, though lacking
the prestige of tradition attached to the older
degree, was always provided as the crown of a
parallel course for which Greek was not re-
quired Similar parallel courses, without CJreek,
have in one form or another been established
at all important oldei colleges, except where
Greek has ceased to be required for the A B
degree But it should be remembered that in
the United States no profession or public
office has ever been wholly closed, even bv
custom, still less by law, to those who knew
no Greek The restrictions long maintained
in France and Germany in this regard never
had a place here This fact is usually ignored
by people who would draw parallels between
America and continental Europe Further,
each college being a law unto itself, there has
been endless experimenting on this, as on most,
educational questions; general statements must,
therefore, be very broad, and detailed state-
ments for the entire country would require too
much space But one may say that up to about
the last quarter of the last century the degiee
of A B from all but the weakest colleges gener-
ally implied more or less of Greek study in
college Since then the ratio of bachelors of
arts who never studied Greek has been steadily
increasing, of late rapidly No other academic
degree ever necessarily implied an acquaintance
with Greek, though bachelors of divinity nearly
always had studied it a little, at least in the New
Testament; of course many lawyers and physi-
cians had taken a college course, with Greek,
before beginning professional study. Exact fig-
ures are riot obtainable, but probably not over
one tenth of American young men or young
women now studying for the A B degree take
any Greek in college, and the ratio is diminish-
ing Where Greek is not required for entering
the department leading to the baccalaureate
in arts, elementary couises in Greek, wholly
optional, are regularly offered On the other
hand, the opportunities for Greek study in col-
lege, for those who wish and are prepared to
take them, have been greatly increased Early
in the eighteenth century Homer and the New
Testament were still the most important, in
many cases the only, Greek books read Not
until the nineteenth century was the range
much enlarged; American colleges then, like
the corresponding institutions of Germany and
(treat Britain, accorded to Greek a higher
esteem and a larger place than it had ever
received before At present, since colleges are

169

GREEK, STUDY OP

GREEK, STUDY OF

of all grades of strength, advancement, and
inclination toward classical study, all grades
of opportunity aie offered in them, from the
minimum recognized two hundred years ago,
to the maximum in the ten or a do/en best
In the latter are regularly offered courses in
Homer, the drama, oiators, the historians,
Theocritus, and Pindar In general the col-
lege canon includes in each branch of literature
portions, at least, of all the greatest books,
those which have had most subsequent in-
fluence and which contain most of intrinsic
literary interest The situation in Canadian
colleges is much the same, though these
naturally show closer relations with English
usage, and more distinctly favor, for students
inclined to take Greek, earlier specialization
and a wider range of reading than any in the
United States, with the possible exception ot
Harvard

In Schools — The schools of different coun-
tries have developed on such different lines
that comparisons in legard to any branch of
study are difficult to make and arc peculiarly
open to misunderstanding And as was .said
above, school and the faculty of aits in the
university are not always clearly distinguish-
able In the following sketch of the place of
(iieek in the schools, only Germany, France,
and England will generally be considered, as
most nearly concerning Ameiica It is impossi-
ble here even to summarize the complicated and
interesting history of Greek study For three
centuries textbooks and methods of teaching,
judged by present standards, were extremely
defective, anil results appear to have been small
for tho mass of the pupils The fruitful labor
of a few great scholars, the piofound effect
of Greek study on a few receptive and stiong
minds, who became, largely in consequence of
their saturation with Hellenism, a poweiful in-
fluence on their conternpoiarics and immediate
successors, stand in shaip contiast with the
slight tincture imparted to the majonty The
intense interest in Greek during the earlier
Renaissance soon declined in Italy Political
conditions never favored a high development
of education there, even among the upper
classes, until the establishment of the present
kingdom Ecclesiastical education, though it
continued to include Greek, did not aim at
the fullest mastery of the subject It was in
Protestant Germany and England that Greek
literatute was most highly esteemed, permeated
most thoroughly the highest intellectual life,
most strongly influenced the men who created
the modern classics, and has held the largest
place in the school training of the educated
class (See earlier section of this article )

For Gei wan school? a new era began with the
reorganization of the Prussian educational
system aftei the humiliation of Prussia by
Napoleon; the founding of the1 University of
Berlin in 1810 was part of the same movement
The school which led to the university and was

intended for the early training of all members
of the learned professions and all higher state
officials, which was, however, open to all boys
whose parents could send them, was the gym-
nasium This was meant to be the stronghold
and propagator of the New Humanism, the
heart of which was the appreciation of Hellen-
ism, as exemplified in all the makers of classical
German literature, notably in Lessmg, Goethe,
and Schiller Latin was given the largest
place in the new gymnasium, but Greek stood
beside Latin for the last six years of the
course. And without passing through this
course there was no entrance to the university,
therefore none to a profession nor to high
civic office The Prussian schools, controlled
by the State, were on the whole so superior
that they became the general model for all
other German states Further, the privileges
granted only to state schools made it impos-
sible for good private schools for boys to grow
up beside the state schools The system as a
whole amounted to a degree of propulsion
toward the study of Greek such as England
and America never approached, that of
France was similar, but less rigid Two large
results followed First, Greek was taught and
learned with a thoroughness nowhere else
equaled by so large a fraction of the youth
of a country Second, as mathematics, natu-
ral science, the native and other modern lan-
guages and literatures became more and more
important for a liberal education, and vet-
could not be adequately recogni/ed in schools
that gave so much time to classics, the ie\olt
against this educational monopoly \\as moie
justified and was strongest in Germany The
centralized state1 control made it harder than
in America for public opinion to effect changes,
but changes had to come Under the present
Emperor they have been coming rapidly, and
aie likely to go much farther, and Gieek is
the subject most affected by them In two
ways Greek is crowded out First, students
are now admitted to univeisity privileges from
other schools, without Greek, second, moic
room for modern subjects must be found
in the gymnasium by restricting the time al-
lotted to Latin and Gieek As one mani-
festation of the latter tendency, the plan
of the so-called Frankfort system seems to
promise* most for the retention of Greek Bv
this plan Latin is not begun till the fourth
year of the nine-year course, being preceded
by three years of French Greek is not. begun
till two years later, and is then studied inten-
sively for four years If this shortening of the
time leads to the adoption of improved methods
of teaching, along the line of the vastly im-
proved teaching of modern languages that is
now enforced in all Prussian secondary schools
as in all French lyce"es, probably more Greek
can be taught than was taught, under the old
plan

In France the first Jesuit school was the

170

GREEK, STUDY OF

GREEK, STUDY OF

College de riermont in Pans, later named
Louis-le-Grand, now the Lyce*e Louis-le-Grand,
founded in 1563 The schools of this order
regularly gave much attention to (5 reck, and
were the strongest educational force, alongside
of the government schools, till the Jesuits were
expelled from France in 1704 The statutes
of the university, published in 1000 by the
commission of Henry IV, show the influence
of the Jesuit schools and of Sturm's system in
Strasburg While laying most emphasis on
Latin, the statutes demanded considerable
knowledge of Creek for admission to the upper
division in philosophy And the master's
degree, including Greek, was the minimum
qualification for the secondary teacher In
essence these requirements continued in force
till 1793 The Revolution established the
principle of universal public instruction, free
in the lower stages, but the institutions in-
tended to embody the principle attained no
stability till 1SOS (Jreek long continued to be le-
quired during i our or five yeais in the course lead-
ing to the baeeula ui cute in letters, which again
was prerequisite to the higher professional
careers, though exemptions gradually increased
Hut by the; i emulations of 1902 a knowledge of
Greek ceases to confer any formal advantage
in regard to admission to any career — except,
of coin se, that of a classical teacher The dis-
tinguishing ieatures of the new curriculum are
these Aitci a pielinniuuy course of primary
&tudv follow two successive cycles, one of four
yeais and one of thiee years In the first
cycle there are two sections, one has no Greek
01 Latin, 111 the other Latin is lequired and
Gicck is optional dm ing the two upper yeais
In the second cycle four gioups are open, one
alone includes Gieek with Latin, two others
include Latin with more extensive study of
modern languages and of science lespectively,
one includes modern languages and science,
without Latin Tins arrangement,, with accom-
panying privileges, goes beyond the present
German system in leaving Greek to stand
puiely upon the popuhu estimate of its mtrm-
sic worth And unfoitunately one does not
gain from cunent icpoits an/ high opinion of
the actual teaching of Greek in the French
lycee (See FRANCE, EDUCATION IN, under
Secondary Education )

In England the establishing of classical
schools in the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
turies was a widespread movement, as trulv
popular as any such activity could be in those
times It was always recognized that many
who desired higher education, and who would
by it be fitted to render public seivicc in church
and state, weie sons of poor parents Hence
every educational foundation provided in some
form for gratuitous teaching, or partially gratu-
itous, of a certain number of poor boys In all
such schools Greek was a firmly established
subject of study by 1600, and has continued to
be so. In the latter half of the last century a

" modern side/' without Greek, also became
usual, and a demand for exemption from Gieek
for university entrance made itself felt The
newer universities do not require it, and the
question is under discussion at both the older
institutions At Cambridge German or French
is allowed as a substitute for Greek in the Regu-
lations for the u Examination in Modern
Languages for the Ordinary Degree," an in-
novation which probably foreshadows a like
concession with regard to the lequiremcnts for
the " Previous Examination " At Oxford,
however, the proposal to make Greek non-
compulsory in the cases of candidates present-
ing themselves for honors in mathematics and
natural science was rejected in Congregation
(November, 1911) by a majority of 236 As
regards the preparatory schools the Report of
the Curriculum Committee (1910) suggesting
that Greek should not be commenced " until a
boy had reached a certain standard m othei
subjects, such as English, Latin, and French,"
was laid before the Headmasters' Conference
at Sherborne, but is still awaiting then formal
consideration But nowhere else is Gieek more
firmly intrenched in the estimation of the edu-
cated classes than m England and Scotland,
this must have for a tune a conservative effect
111 the schools The amount of time tradi-
tionally given to the subject, however, must
certainly be diminished, and also the number
of those who drop out by reason of failure to
attain, before the age limit, the standard set
for the successive forms It should be added,
on the other hand, that youths to whom the
subject is adapted, and who take the full
training of a fine English school, including
verse-composition, and then honors in classics
at Oxford or Cambridge, obtain a fuller mas-
tery of the Greek language and a deepei under -
standmg of Hellenism than is imparted by the
corresponding course of any other countiy

In America, the English colonists, following
the example of the mother country, began early
to found giammai schools, in which Latin should
be taught, and a beginning of Greek, in the New
Testament (See GRAMMAR SCHOOLS ) Before
the Revolution also the endowment ol <k acad-
emies " as another class of secondary schools
(see ACADEMIES) had been well begun, and
continued into the last century, to be succeeded
by the still more popular movement for estab-
lishing free public high schools One of the chief
functions of the academy, as of the grammar
school, was to fit boys for college, and hence to
start boys in Latin and in the elements of Greek,
the high schools were intended rather to fur-
nish a better education for those who could
not go to college Prepaiation for colleges of
the old type was for them always a secondary
aim, and has been more and more subordi-
nated as the other aim has broadened arid
turned more toward vocational training, or at
least toward such teaching as would more
directly facilitate bread winning In the newer

171

GREEK, TEACHING OF

GREEK, TEACHING OF

states, of course, where- the state universities
have always given more attention to applied
science and purely modern subjects, the high
schools of each state have stood in close con-
nection with its university, but that brings
them no nearer to Greek The great increase
in the number of pupils whose home speech is
not English has been a large factor in this
development of the high schools Accordingly,
while many of the earlier high schools included
Greek in the curriculum, few, except large high
schools, now do so, and manv of the largest,
as in New York and Chicago, do not In
many slates, as Iowa and Minnesota, no high
schools tench any Greek The surviving gram-
mar schools and larger academies generally
teach il to those who desire it Meantime, with
the increase in wealth and advance in ideals of
education, the demand has latterly been growing
for proprietary and endowed schools of the highest
class (See PRIVATE SCHOOLS ) This has filled to
overflowing the existing schools of this sort, and
has brought into existence many new ones These
are largely, if not primarily, preparatory for
college and technical schools, and hence include
Greek for those who wish it They may prove
to be one of the strongholds of Greek instruction,
since they are in a better position foi adopting
improved methods of teaching than are the
teachers in public schools, and their advice
carries more weight with parents and pupils
Finally, it should be mentioned that the
Roman Catholic Church maintains not a few
colleges and schools, including some for girls,
in which Greek is taught Also, some groups
of immigrants from Germany have been active
111 providing classical teaching for their sons
Notably the Lutherans have a series of flourish-
ing schools more closely modeled on the Ger-
man gymnasium than any others in America.

Amid the conflicting currents of life in
America it is difficult to sum up the present
situation with reference to Greek study, and
impossible to foretell the future The ma-
terialistic trend of the whole modern world
toward money-getting is hostile to studies
that seem to have no direct bearing on that
On the other hand, the deep idealistic strain
and the passion for the best that are so char-
acteristic of the race that in America is slowly
forming out of many heterogeneous elements,
offer ground for hope Whatever the teachers
of Greek can lead their pupils to feel, in adult
life, has been good in their own mental experi-
ence, will be kept and made available for their
children T D G

GREEK, TEACHING OF — It is well to
begin with a clear idea of the end in view m
learning Greek, as the first regulator of method
in teaching it Complete agreement as to that
end there has probably never been, and in
four centuries views have undergone many
changes The carefully limited statement of
the Prussian Lchrplmi of 1901 is. " An ac-

quaintance, based on adequate knowledge of
the language, with a certain number of literary
works of special importance for content and
form, and by this means an introduction to
the thought and civilization of ancient Greece "
Here is not a word that suggests any other
purpose in studying Greek than in studying
Chinese; the official directions to teachers
hardly touch upon what is really the heart of
the teacher's task, they tacitly assume, in the
traditional way, that learning a foreign lan-
guage is a radically different process if the
language is ancient Current formulas in Eng-
land and America, however various in form,
fall into two classes, according as they put m
the foreground the content of the study or the
effect on the student Hut these two concep-
tions, instead of being opposed to each other,
are simply two aspects of one mental activity;
they may be reconciled in a single statement,
comprehensive and brief The starting point
for this is a great historical fact, which may be
put in the words of one of the best-known
scientists of England and America, Sir William
Osier* " The tap-root of modern science sinks
deep in Greek soil, the astounding fertility of
which is one of the outstanding facts of history.
Though not always recognized, the con-
trolling principles of our art, literature, and
philosophy, as well as those of science, are
Hellenic" (American Magazine, December, 1910,
p 247) Corresponding to this undisputed
fact of history, and somehow closely related
to it, though we cannot here discuss the rela-
tion, is the following psychological fact, verified
in centuries of experience For minds not un-
adapted to it, the process of acquiring, under
good instruction, a first-hand acquaintance
with the Hellenic mind, as embodied in the
existing works of ancient Greeks, is peculiarly
formative, enlarging, disciplinary No educa-
tional instrument, yet known can fully take the
place of this, as none can take the place of
mathematics This brings us to the simple
and comprehensive formula The prime object
of Greek study is to gain a first-hand acquaint-
ance with Hellenism, as a great force in civili-
zation, the first aim in teaching Greek is to
lead pupils to a personal acquaintance with
that force The disciplinary effect, the formal
training, and all desirable ends, are included in
that central aim, as auxiliary or incidental to
it That Hellenic force has been profound,
lasting, pervasive Along one line it even
reached the extreme Orient, long before the
Renaissance in Europe It has recently been
demonstrated that through Alexander's con-
quests, carrying Greek art to northern India,
where Buddhism arose and matured, even
China and Japan received from Hellas a potent
influence on their sculpture and painting
And now this influence, carried eastward to
the edge of Asia, has there met the broader
stream that flowed westward through Europe
to America and across the Pacific Such far-

172

GREEK, TEACHING OF

GREEK, TEACHING OF

reaching facts in the development of mankind
must continue to urge all who would under-
stand the intellectual world of to-day and the
movements of history to know Hellas for
themselves And really to know Hellas is to
take into one's self directly something of that
original force, still unexhausted, still fertilizing
the individual mind that is brought into real
contact with the art, literature, and thought
of ancient Greece Such are the facts and
experiences that, must draw many of the
stronger and more aspiring minds to this study
When we would approach the Hellenic spmt
most direct Iv, it is embodied, first, in countless
examples of Greek art still existing, moie 01
less mjuied, in European and Asiatic Hellas,
and in the museums of Europe and Amenca,
and secondly, in a copious literature Where
the formei are accessible, as in our larger cities,
no opportunity to become acquainted with
them should be neglected But for geneial
educational pui poses literature has this ad-
vantage ovei all other aits, that its originals
can by punting be reproduced perfectly,
cheaply, and in any number of examples It
we will, we can know these books nearly as
well as any (5 reek could Only we must fust
learn the language, foi tianslations are but

Eoor copies In school and college the Greek
inguage is to be taught and studied primarily
as offering the only dnect access to the great
books For \\hile Euclid and perhaps a few
othei authors can be adequately read in trans-
lation, neither Jlomei and the dramatists nor
Thucydidcs and the oiators nor Plato and
Aristotle can be so read For these the con-
tent is inseparable fioin the original form
And unfortunately Greek is a difficult language
Its difficulties may be consideied in four
groups, which present themselves to students
in the following order First, an alphabet
diilermg in part fioin our own This is the
least difficulty, but is serious during the hist
weeks Second, a large \ ocabularv , far less
represented in everyday English than is the
Latin 01 French Third, a nch inflectional
system, especially for the verb Fourth, a
wide divergence from English m syntactical
idiom, a divergence due chiefly to the thud
group of differences, the copious inflections
Jt is really the verb that is at the bottom of
all serious troubles after the alphabet is learned,
and too often the verb is neglected, with dis-
astrous results Taken altogether, it is not too
much to say that as large a bulk of grammati-
cal acquisition is required to prepare for the
best colleges in Xenophon and Homer as that
required for preparation in Latin and in el >-
mentary French and German combined Noth-
ing is gained by blinking these difficulties It-
is better to face them, and attack them in order
The first step m learning the alphabet is t->
copy out both capitals and small letters, the
teacher indicating the best way of writing each
where a question can arise Some would fol-

low the cursive manuscript forms now used in
Greece This has advantages, but unless one
lives in a Greek-speaking community, keeping
nearer to the usual printed forms leads more
directly to the main goal Next the names of
the letters should be copied out, in Greek
characters, the pupil pronouncing each one
aloud repeatedly The written accents are so
troublesome that one is inclined to relax the
leqmrcment of strict accuracy at first, hoping
to take them up more carefully later That is
a mistake, to correct a habit of inaccuracy
once acquired takes more time and effort than
does accuracy from the beginning The fun-
damental rules are few, and the whole subject
less difficult than English accent is for for-
eigners And careful pronunciation should ac-
company every step This raises the question,
what pronunciation? As with writing, unless
one lives in a Greek community, it leads most
directly to our mam goal, acquaintance with
the ancient literature, to adopt the compromise
in pronunciation which is recommended in
recent grammars and by the Classical Associa-
tion of England and Wales The principle of
this compromise is simple to pionounce as the
Athenians did about 400 u r , as nearly as is
practicable for our classes The latter con-
Mdeiation leads us to adopt substantially the
modern Athenian sounds for €, o, <£, 0, x> auc^
to give o> a closer sound than the ancient, like
that of Gei man o, the ancient sounds in these
cases would, for our classes, be so difficult as
to demand for mastering them a disproportion-
ate amount of time For the same reason it
is not thought worth while to attempt the
ancient pitch accents, we pronounce them all,
in the present Greek fashion, as we do the
English stress accent Long and short vowels,
however, it saves time in the end to discrimi-
nate carefully, "hidden quantities" are few m
Greek To Plato no doubt our best reading
would have sounded very barbarous, perhaps
unintelligible But, so would 0111 reading of
Shakespeare's lines have sounded to Shake-
speare; that does not make them less living to us
Some would see in tins example an argument
for the modern Greek pronunciation for ancient
Greek That, however, is to overlook the
decisive differences in the two cases The
change m English since 1600 has not gone so
deep that our pronunciation destroys all Shake-
speare's rhythm, confounds the commonest
words, and tuins a phonetic, spelling into an
irrational chaos The modern Greek pro-
nunciation does all that for Sophocles Con-
sidering the centuries that, have elapsed, the
Greek language has been conservative; some
of the present characteristics began to appear
before 300 H c ; the popular speech of Greece
is euphonious and expressive arid has an in-
teresting literature But the wealth of the
old literature was a constant force toward the
retention of old spelling, while pronunciation
inevitably changed When, therefore, the

173

GREEK, TEACHING OF

GREEK, TEACHING OF

modern sounds of the letters are applied to
the poetry of twenty-three centuries or more
ago, rhythm disappears, spelling becomes cha-
otic, and the language far harder to acquire
For an approximate illustration in English we
should take, not Shakespeare, but Chaucer To
read his lines as verse we must return as well
as we can to his pronunciation; in good teach-
ing of Chaucer that is now done

But precision in pronunciation on the sys-
tem adopted is essential This is one item in
the application of the general principle that
Greek, like any foreign language, should be
taught as a living speech As for " dead
languages," of course Elizabethan English is
really as dead as the language of Xenophon,
the lattei can be made to live for us in the
same wav as the former, and not otherwise
That is, ear, hand, and tongue must from the
first be as accustomed to Greek words as the
eye, precisely as in the best teaching of modern
languages The advance of recent years m
teaching these, especially in France, Germany,
and England, is even more needed, and is just
as possible, in teaching Greek " Read, write,
speak " was the rule of the Jesuit schools three
centuries ago; the notion that Greek and Latin
are to be learned merely by reading, without
accompanying oral use, belongs to the nine-
teenth century, and is a fundamental error
How much use can be made of conversation
will depend on the knowledge and skill of the
teacher; more use can be made than seems
possible to one who has not peisistently tried
for it But the principle is not bound up in
any " method " , what it requires is that by
every available means the ear be trained to
understand Greek words when spoken, and that
the student be accustomed to reproduce Greek
accurately, both orally and in writing The
better the teacher's own command of the
language, the more he can vary these means,
and the better results he will obtain Also
the more Greek can be used for saying what
must be said in the classroom, the more rapid
the progress But any teacher can insist on
good reading aloud, writing from dictation,
translation from another's reading, and on
reciting and writing from memory both para-
digms and connected passages By such exer-
cises, too, one gams the power to go farther in
that direction There seems to be a physio-
logical reason for the plain fact of experience,
that a foreign tongue ceased to be alien arid
becomes a natural and living mode of express-
ing thought, only when, like the mother tongue,
it is firmly held by all four kinds of language
memory, those of the ear, hand, and voice, as
well as that of the eye To exercise all alike
from the beginning makes the learner's progress
more rapid, because at each step more secure

For mastering regular Attic inflections, and
of course for obtaining any considerable vocabu-
lary, or a fair knowledge of ordinary syntax,
two things are indispensable These are a large

174

amount of reading in easy Attic prose, and
along with this, not after it as a special exercise,
much reproductive use of the language To
both too little attention is given in American
schools Those who condemn Greek compo-
sition from the notion that this is taught as
an end in itself, are attacking a man of straw;
nowhere has it ever been so taught But for
learning to read any language accurately no
other means can take the place of writing And
if to prepare pupils rightly for the examination in
elementary French or German some two hundred
pages of reading are requisite, how much Attic
Greek must be read to obtain equal proficiency in
the far more difficult language ? ( 'an one hundred
and fifty pages of Xenophon suffice? Fiobably
five hundred would be nearer the mark The
disproportion and the error of method in the
usual practice are plain Rereading and learn-
ing by heart, good as they are, do not meet
the need Too much rereading dulls the in-
terest, and that is a capital mistake What
an eager young mind craves is variety, new
combinations; the repetition that comes with
these is more effective than twice that repeti-
tion through reviewing For the vast apparatus
of Attic conjugations, foi the two or three thou-
sand fundamental words, and for the common
syntax, no single one hundred and fifty pages (ran
offer enough combinations Still more is this
true of what we group together as idioms, the
un-English ways of saying things, ways that grow
naturally from the wealth of inflections, hut
are impossible in a language so little inflected
as English Just because they are unnatural
to us, but are the warp and woof of Greek
expression, the pupil must become familial
with a mass of them by meeting them in scores
of variations; to repeat a few of the combina-
tions a score of times is not enough How to
meet this difficulty is a serious problem, which
we have scaicely faced, much less solved
The solution is to be sought in two places
First, a large amount of simple Attic prose,
as varied as possible, should be read before
the Anabasis. Disconnected sentences will
not serve, for several reasons, first, because
they are intolerably dull And nothing read
before the Anababix should destroy the fresh-
ness of that interesting story by anticipating
its distinctive vocabulary or its narrative, de-
tached sentences that spoil both by anticipa-
tion arc a pedagogical sin In part the place
must be filled by modern compositions .1
Greek Boy at Home, by Di VV H D. House
(London, 1909), whose experimental work in
the Perse School at Cambridge (England) has
for a decade been doing much for classical
teaching, can be commended from personal ex-
perience as interesting and practical, and it
can be taken up m the first week It has the
merit, too, of introducing early the commonest
particles and idioms of sentence connection,
which play so much larger a part than in Latin
or any modern language Later some parts of

GREEK, TEACHING OF

Lucian can be used; when the need is more
widely realized, a wider choice of suitable texts
will soon be provided in convenient editions.
Secondly, we must not be afraid to postpone a
little tne reading of Homer, that the immortal
epics mav be the better enjoyed OollcgeH
that have classes for beginners in Greek are
as directly concerned as the schools m attack-
ing such questions as these, though it should
not be forgotten that details of the solution
may be much affected by the age of the class
and by their previous studies We must hero
confine ourselves to general principles, observing
that youths of fourteen or fifteen can learn
paradigms, and perhaps can loam passages by
heart, more easily than those of eighteen 01
older, while the arguments of the oiators and
the thoughts of Plato's Apology, Kuthyplno, or
Onto are harder for young people to comprehend
Three topics, under the general subject of
method, still demand a few words First, six
hours a week in the class are far moio than
twice as effective as thiee houis, less than h\e
hours a week means a sad loss of efficiency in
the first year of any foreign language The
secret of the rapid strides which childien make
in learning German when living in Germany
is not in the increased number of hours given
to study, but in the increase m the number oi
hours of exposure to German, with the eon-
stant gentle uiging, which daily life brings
upon them, to listen and talk as well as wiile
and read The classroom is a pool substitute
for all that, but is the best we have, we should
make as much of it as \\e can Secondly, in the
writer's experience, Greek svntax makes little
tiouble for pupils who have really leained the
inflections It is hazy notions about these
that make .syntax and sMitactical idioms appeal
hard The thing to emphasize constantly din-
ing the first five hundred pages of reading in
Attic pioso is the inflections, paitieularlv of
verbs, without a firm grip on these a student
can have no real knowledge of Greek, but, onlv
invertebrate and feeble notions, which were
better replaced by a real knowledge of Fiench
Arid a teacher must not. expect this mass of
forms to be fully digested until several hundred
pages have been read, with much reading aloud
and writing and much reviewing of set para-
digms Thirdly, what is commonly known as
" sight reading," if treated as a separate exei-
cise and as somehow distinct from right read-
ing, is a snare and a delusion Heading is
merely taking the writer's meaning from his
words, written or printed Reading Greek or
French is not different m that respect from
reading English The pages a pupil is set to
read should be properly graded to his previous
attainment That being aLSurned, every sen-
tence should be hrst read as well as possible
at sight That is, the pupil should be trained
always to take the sentence as it comes, gather-
ing the meaning as he pioceeds, from all the
indications before him Precisely as, m learn-

GREEK, TEACHING OF

ing the mother tongue, children enlarge their
knowledge mostly by inferring from the con-
text and the situation, so a great deal that is
new can be inferred on every page For some
months all this new reading should be done in
class, the teacher giving the meaning of new
woids when this cannot be inferred, but guid-
ing the class to make all needed inferences that
can be made on the basis of what they aheady
know This practice both increases speed and
habituates to the right method, while it still
leaves plenty for the pupil to do in revising the
same passage for the next session Hut anv
kind of reading which cultivates a habit of
stopping short of a close approximation to the
wiiter's exact meaning is vicious The pui-
pose of those who first, gave vogue to " sight
reading" was to mciease the pitifully small
amount of leading then usually done, the
purpose at least was good

The above outline deals only with the teach-
ing of the language in the early stages Foi a
fow suggestions on the teaching of Xenophon
and Homer, see uudei those headings This
is not the place for the discussion of method in
the more advanced woik of the college, after
a fair reading command of the language is
acquired T D G

References —

BKLITL, KUIL Gnth and ?/s ffurnan^fit Alhrridttnv

in tin ' Liitl<~(;<>" (Cambndtfe, I'M),"))
HIUWN, E E Tin Mnhniu of our Middlt School

(NYw \oik and London 100 » )
ECKHDIN, Fit \ Lntnmvlnr und (Innhivhir I ntn-

ti(ht Ed D H He\ dm (Leip/ig, iss7 )
FvKHivuroN F E Punch ticconddnj School* (\MV

\oik, 1010 )

HLVDLXM. ,1 AA 'IV n lung of Classic s in Secondary

School* jn Ooinuim In England, Rouid of Edii-

t -ition, SjHdal /fr/w/s, Vol XX (London 1910)

Hellenic SoricU, Repoit and Recommendation^ on tho

Futuie of (Jieek Timcb, Edu c Ruppl.tJo,u 2, 101J

KMS*^, F W Latin and GncK in Amoican Educa-

linn (New Vnk, I'Ml )

KOHL, () (fnft/iimhtr Unit UK fit (Langcnsalza, 1S(IS )

LEXIS, W, ed 7)ns frnt< nt(ht\iw v // ttn d(utvh(t)

R<nh, Bd II, Du hohn<n L( fnan^falttn und

du^ Madchcn^chuhr^tn (Berlin, 1004 )

MATTHT\S, \ Pr<ikttb(h< Pttdayoyik fai hofnn Lchran-

\talfin (Munie h. 1908 )
MITLLKK, K () , and DON \LDHON, J \V Hibtorynf the

Literatim of Arntcnt (rr<«< (London, 1858 )

MuLLiNc.fit, J H Tht lTnui<iNitj/ of (\tmhridf/( from

th( Ktulit^t Tuntb to th( l)«hn( of tfn Plutom*>t

Morrnunt 3 vols (("unihiidne 1S7.-J 1011)

NORWOOD, C , and HOPL, A H Higher Edutatioti of

B<n/» in Enuland, pp U\ T>_> (London, l'K)Q )
T'vTrisoN, MviiK I^(t(i< CawuhftH (Oxford, 1S02 )
PAULHUV, F (rtvhitht< c/cs uihhrttn Vntcrrwht^ auf
d( n d< uf\< h( n tfchuhn und I T ni c< rbitiitcn (Loip-
zi K, 1S(M> 1S07 )

Dns rlt'iifwhi Hildun(/*uwn (Leipzig, 1900)
Roust, W H D The Teaching of Classics (brief
description of hih application of the Direct Method
to Gieek and Latin) In Athcncuum, Sept 17
1010, pPT3LM-325
Classical Work and Method in the Twentieth Century.

(London, 190S )
RumELL, J E (rnman Ihyhci Schools (Now York,

1005 )

SANOYM, J E A Huston/ of Cla^ual Scholarship from
thr Snth Ctntnri/ H c" to the Eiffht« nth Century in
(fennunij, and th< ^imtnnfh (\n(un/ in Europe aiid
the United States (Cambridge, 190 J- 1908)

175

GREEN

GREENLAND

SCIIMID, K A Grbchi<hl<' <l(r Eizuhmw rom Atifano an

his auf ununt Znt (Stuttgart, 18S4 1S9S )
jSNOW, T r How to sw>r 6WA and Other Paradoxes of

Oxfotd Reform (Oxford, l')l() )
STRONG JOHN A Hu>tori/ of Secondary Education in

Scotland (Oxford, 190<> )
VOTGT, GEOHG Dit W itdtrhtlthunff f/t,s klnwt hen

Alterthumv, odcr das etute Jahrhundcrt der Human-

?.smuA (Berlin, ISSO )
WATSON, FOHTKU Knffht>h Grammar Kchooh to IhdO

((\irnhridpe, IWS )
WOODWARD, Vv M H ,S7wr//fs in Education during the

A fir of th< Ktnau>*unttt 1400-1600 (CunibndRc,

1 ')()(> )
WORDSWORTH, C'HIUHT fitholtr Atudetnmr, bone A<-

(ount of th( Mudif* at th< Enali^i T7niwi**itu\ in

thi Kiuhtttnth Cfntmi/ (C\iiiihiulne, 1S77 )
Th( Kf«A Wink in Clascal Mudt<\, edited iiniinullv by

W H 1) HOUHC for the CliissKid Association

(London, John Murray), contains each yetu a.

leport on lecent pedagogical dis< UHMOTIS
Sec the hies of the Journal of Education (London)
and Hrhool Woild (London), especially wnce 1010, on
the status of Greek at Oxford

GREEN, ASHPEL ( 1702-1 84S) —Eighth
president of Princeton University, was grad-
uated from the College of New Jersey (now
Princeton) in 1783, and was for three yeais
instructor (1783-1787) and twelve years piesi-
derit (1812-1S22) of the college* lie was
subsequently president of Jefferson Medical
College in Philadelphia Author of numerous
sennons on education, one on The Hilton/ of
the College of New JCIMII W S M

See PRINCETON UNIVERSITY.

Reference • -

HAULM \N, .1 I If^ton/ of Princeton and ?/.s In&tilu-
twtit* (PhiKid( Jphia, 1S71) )

GREEN, THOMAS HILL (183f>-1882) —

English philosophei , washoinApi 7, 183<>, at
Birkm in the West Riding of Yoikshne, the
son of Valentine (ireen, the rector of the parish
Aitei his schooldays at Rugby (1850-1 8f>,r>),
he went up to (Kloid, where lie spent the rest
of his life as a student, fellow, tutor, and pro-
fessoi of Balliol College, gaming first-class
honois m the school of litertr human tot c\, and
winning the chancellors prize for an essay on
woiks of fiction Until his election to the
Whyte pi of essoi ship of moial philosophy in
187S, which he held to the day of his death,
Mar 2(>, 1.SS2, he served his college as lec-
tuiei and tutoi in vanous lustoiical and philo-
sophical subjects Aftei 1 he election of H(Mi|a-
inin Jo\\ett (r/ v ) as niastei of the college* in
JS70, the suboidinatJ1 management of the same
devcKed almost entuelv upon him As an
assistant/ commissioner of a royal commission
appointed in 18fil to impure into the education
of the middle classes, (ireen inspected endowed,
propnetaiy, and pmate schools for boys and
gills, and the views expressed in his report were
largely those adopted by the commissioners
Throughout his life he showed a strong mteiest
m the icforrn of middle and higher education,
setting foith his ideas in the report already
mentioned (Schools In({tuii/ Commission, 1868,

Vol. VIII), in Lecture on the Grading of Sec-
ondary Schools, The Elementary School System
of England, and The Oxford High School for
Boys. He was also keenly interested in all
practical, political and social reforms, and
showed a warm sympathy for the humbler
classes. His chief works are his Introductions
to Hume's Tieattw on Unman Nature (first
published 1S74 in Hume's Works, edited by
(Jreen and (liose), Prolegomena to Ethu\,
published after his death by A C Bradley
(1883), and Pi umpire of Political Obligation,
all of which, except the Piolcgomcna, are to be
found m Nettleship's edition of his works, three
volumes, 188.5 Green's philosophical stand-
point is that of objective idealism, which he
developed under the influence of the (Jeiman
school, becoming the leader of a strong reaction
against the traditional English empiricism (q r )
as represented by Hume, Mill, and Spencei
His theory of ethics is based on a spi ritualist ic
metaphysics moiality, like knowledge, can be
explained only on the assumption that an
eternal mind reproduces itself in human per-
sonality Against utilitarianism (hcen teaches
a doctrine of self-ieahzation, m which, howevei ,
the social side of man's nature is emphasi/ed
man cannot think of himself as satisfied in
any other than a social life in which the e\ei-
cise of self-denying will is exhibited, and in
which all men shall paiticipatc F T

Reference : —

LLLAND, A P Kflurntiotuil Ttuori/ (nirf Pxulm of
T H Gran Bibhogniph> (N<\v \oilv, I'Hl )

GREENE, GEORGE WASHINGTON

(1811-1883) — Educator and textbook \\nt.M,
educated in the common schools oi Rhode
Island and at Blown Unnersitv He \\as
professor at Hi own for fom years, and was the
author of textbooks in histoiy, geography, and
French ' W S M

GREENE, SAMUEL STILLMAN (1810-
1883) — School superintended, boin at Belcher -
town, Mass , on May 3, 1S10, and graduated
at Blown University in 1837 He \vas m-
stiuctor in the Worcester Academy and the
Knghsh High Schools at Boston, superin-
tendent at Springfield and at Piovidence, and
professor of education in Blown University
(1855- 187.5) Author of Sdiooh and Libninc*,
fixe textbooks on giammai, and many articles
in educational joui rials One of the piesi-
dents of and for many years active in the
American Institute of 'instruction (q r )

W S. M

GREENLAND, EDUCATION IN — Green-
land is a colony of Denmark, only the western
coast up to 73° 30' N and the tract around
66° N on the eastern coast are colonized.
It was first settled and named by Eric the
Red (985 A i> ), who thought, that an attractive
name would diaw colonists His farm Brat-

176

GREENLAND

GREENWOOD

tahlid at Erics fold (Tunugdliarfik), ruins of
which may still bo seen, soon became tho center
of a settlement on tho southern pait of tho
western coast Later on another settlement
was founded farther north on the same side of
the country During; the reign of King Olaf
Tryggvason, Christianity was introduced, and
the churches of Greenland wore, with the other
Scandinavian churches, joined to the diocese
of Bremen In 1124 Greenland received its
own bishop at Gardar (Igaliko) Tho govern-
ment was similar to that of Iceland, an aristo-
cratic republic, but in 1261 the Groonlandors
voluntarily became subjects to the king of
Norway During its most prosperous epoch
it is estimated to have had about 300 farms,
190 of which, with twelve churches and two
monasteries, wore located in the southern
settlement After the ravages of the Black
Death in Norway (1349-1350) tho Colony was
neglected, and after various misfortunes the
country became lost to the world and remained
a blank for c 200 years until tho ponod of
explorations under Davis, Hudson, and Baffin
But communication with Greenland was ex-
tremely meager until the Norwegian missionaiv
Hans Poulsen Kgede, the Apostle oi Greenland,
established tho settlement Godthaab on the
\\est coast in 1721, he sought in vain for
descendants of the Norsemen and began to
introduce Christianity among the Eskimos
Moravian missionaries began their activity
in 1733 and continued till 1900 The popula-
tion of Greenland in 190S numbcied about
13,300, including 300 Europeans, almost exclu-
sively Danes, in the Danish colonies on the
western coast the natives have a strong ad-
mixture of European blood The state of the
church and public instruction is established
by law of April 1, 1905, it comes directly under
the Minister of Public Instruction in Copen-
hagen The bishop of S|iolland is also the
bishop of Greenland, which forms a separate
ecclesiastical distiict In 1909 there uere
fifteen ministers in Greenland (in 1S90 only
three) For the education of mimsteis there
is a Greenland seminaiy in Copenhagen, whore
all Danish theological students \\lio desire to
become ministers in Greenland must pass an
examination Tho native ministers are edu-
cated first at a seminary in Godthaab and
continue at the Copenhagen seminal v The
school-teachers are in part educated at Godt-
haab, in part at special schools conducted by
tho higher clergy The common branches
taught in the elementary schools are religion,
reading and writing of the Eskimo language,
arithmetic, elementary history, and geography
All instruction in the seminaries and in the
primary schools is gratis Christianity is
professed by all the population in southwest
Greenland, an Eskimo who cannot load or
write is rarely mot with; the Eskimos have a
printing office, and a newspaper in their own
tongue T J

References : —

Gronlaiid, in tf aim OHM n\ Konr< / ^n(ion*l< h s/Arm and s?/p
Afcddt feller om Gronlund, u srnal pub fopoiihagc n

hllKT 1S79

NANHLN, FKIDTJO* E^hnno LiJ* (London, IS!).] )
The First C rousing of Greenland (London, 1890 )
In Noithfrn Jlf fs/s (London, 1<)11 )

GREENLEAF, BENJAMIN (17So-18f>l) —
Educator and author of mathematical text-
books, was born at llavoihill, Mass , on the
25th of September, 17SG, and was educated at
tho Atkinson (N II ) Academy and at Dait-
mouth College He was first principal of the
academy at Haverhill, and for twenty-four
years (1814-1836) ho had charge of the 'Brad-
ford Academy Ho was interested in the tiain-
ing of teachers, and in 1839 he organized a
teachers' seminary which he conducted for
nine years He was the author of a do/on
widely used mathematical textbooks, and of
numerous ai tides in educational journals Ho
died at Bradford, Mass , on Octoboi 29, 1804

W 8 M

GREENSBORO FEMALE COLLEGE,
GREENSBORO, NC An institution foi
the education of women chartered in 1S3S
under tho control of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, South Collegiate, business, music,
art, and oxpiession departments aie maintained
Fourteen units are required ioi admission to
the college courses which lead to the degieo
of A B There is a faculty of eighteen
members

GREENVILLE COLLEGE, GREENVILLE,

ILL — A coeducational institution established
in 1855, originally for the education of women
only It has been under the auspices oi the
Fiee Methodist (lunch since 1S92 Prepara-
tory, collegiate, theological, education, commer-
cial, music, art, and oratory departments are
maintained Tho requirements for admission
are fifteen units of high school woik The de-
grees of A B , Ph B , and B S , are gianted after
the completion of the necessary courses The
faculty consists of nineteen members

GREENVILLE FEMALE COLLEGE,
GREENVILLE, SC —Founded in 1S54
under the auspice's of the Baptist Mate Con-
vention of South Carolina, maintaining kinder -
gaiten, pimuuv, normal, academic, and col-
legiate departments There are no stated
entrance requirements There is a faculty of
nineteen instructor ,s

GREENWOOD, ISAAC (1702-1745) —Au-
thor of the first American textbook on arith-
metic, was graduated at Harvard College in
1721, and was professoi oi natural philosophy
in the college from 172S to 1738 In 1729 ho
published his Arithmetic, Vnlqai and Decimal
This was twelve years after the publication of
the English book by lloddor in this country, and

177

GREER COLLEGE

GREGORY OF NYSRA

fifty-nine yeais befoie the appearance of the
populai American textbook l>\ Pike

W S M

GREER COLLEGE, HOOPESTON, ILL

— A coeducational institution established in
1891 Preparatory, normal, collegiate, busi-
ness, music, and elocution courses are offered
There are no stated entrance requirements
The college courses which are based on about
ten points of high school work lead to degrees
There is M faculty of twelve members

GREGORY, JOHN MILTON (1S22-189S)

— State superintendent, educated at the Pough-
keepsie Academy and at Union College, graduat-
ing at the latter institution in 1X40 He was
principal of academies in New Jersey and Michi-
gan, state superintendent of public instruction
in Michigan (1X59-1X64), president of Kalama-
zoo College, and of the University of Illinois
Author of Seven Lawn of Teaching, Dutij of
Chrtbtianiti/ to Educate, and of articles in edu-
cational journals He was editor of the M iclu-
tjan Journal of Education from 1854 to 1859

W S M

GREGORY OF NAZIANZUS or GREGORY
THE THEOLOGIAN (c 325-390) —Son of
Gregory, Bishop of Nazianzus His educa-
tion was at first under the direction of his
admirable mother, Nonna, later he attended
the schools at Cnpsarea in Cappadocia, Csnsarea
in Palestine, Alexandria, and Athens At
the last school he studied for several years,
devoting himself to oratory under the most
eminent sophists of the time, Hnnenus and Pro-
ipresms Like his friend Basil (</?;), he planned
to become a teacher, like him he followed the
calling for a short time, and again like him he
gave up the career of teacher for the ascetic reli-
gious life He was a man little suited to the ec-
clesiastical career afterwards thrust upon him
Basil, who had become Bishop of Ca\sarea in
Cappadocia, one of the most important sees in
the Church, o\ crpersuaded Gregory to permit
him to consecrate him Bishop of Sasima in 361,
a see which he soon forsook to act as coadjutor
to his father He afterwards went to Constanti-
nople where he worked successfully m maintain-
ing the Nicene faith against the predominant
Ananism of that city When Thoodosius be-
came coemperor of the East and came to
Constantinople, Gregory was at once taken into
high favoi, was made Archbishop of Constanti-
nople, and presided at some of the sessions of
the Second General Council, A D 381 Party
intrigue, taking advantage of technical irreg-
ularities in his appointment to Constantinople,
forced him to resign He left the city and
spent his last years in Nazianzus Gregory was
equally great as a theologian and as an orator
As a theologian, his treatises determined some
of the lines followed by Greek Christianity,
as an orator, his compositions are among the

best of all time and ha\e been taken as models
by some of the greatest modern pulpit orators,
notably Bossuet His connection with educa-
tion was not that of a leader He took part
in the preparation of poems to serve as Chris-
tian reading books when Julian forbade Chris-
tians to use the heathen classics, he assisted
Basil in the preparation of his Monastic Rule,
and his apology for his flight from Sasirna has
been of no small influence upon treatises on the
duties and education of the priesthood, espe-
cially on Chrysostom's work, On the Priesthood,
and the Pastoral Rule of Gregory the Great
(gv) J C A, JR

References : —

BARDENHFWER, O Patrologie (Freiburg, 1H01 )
BfcNOiT, A St Grfyoire, Atchevhjm dc Contttantinuple ct

Docteurdel'At/liae (Pans, 1885 )
Dictionary of Christian Bioyraphy, ed by Smith, W , and

Ware, H (London, 1877 1887 )
FAKKAR, F W Ltvts of Ihi Fatheia (New \ork,

1907 )
JULIA.N, KMPEROK JfWA*, tr bv C' \V Km^ (Lori-

don, 1888 )
MIUNE, J P Patroloijui Grcrca, Vola XXXIV-

AXXV1II fPans, 1857 1802)
SdiAFF, P , and nArJL, H Nicene and Post-N icene

Fathers, Second Series, Vol VII (New York,

ULLMANN, (1 (rregonob von Naziunz aln Theoloye
(Gotthii, 18(>7 )

GREGORY OF NYSSA (331-305*0 — The
younger brother of Basil of Cirsarca (</ r ) and
one of the leading theologians of the Greek
Church lie does not seem to have enjoyed
the same advantages of a liberal education
which fell to the lot of Basil, yet in intellectual
ability he was superior to his brother and left
an even deeper impression upon the theology
of the Greek Church than did the better trained
man In his early life he was a teacher of
rhetor, i but made no great success of his work,
probably on account of his inability to deal with
the unruly youth with whom he had to come
into contact The edict of Julian in 301 for-
bidding Christian teachers to use classic authors
m their instruction was for a short time a severe
blow to all engaged in the work of education
Gregory certainly seems to have been quickly
discouraged, for in the next year we find him,
though he had previously married, in a mon-
astery founded by Basil His ordination as
Bishop occurred in 372 when Basil put him into
the insignificant village of Nyssa as Bishop in
order to serve as a bulwark of Nicene orthodoxy
m that part of the province of Cipsarea He
was exiled under Valens, the Anan emperor,
in 374 but was able to return to his see four
years later He was present at the council of
Constantinople in 381 and again in 383 and
394 To what extent he remained at Nyssa
is not clear, as bishops had a custom of absent-
ing themselves from their sees for long periods
and with little apparent justification After
394 he disappears from history, and probably
died soon after that date, though when, where,

178

GREGORY OF TOURS

GREGORY THE GREAT

or how is unknown Gregory's great fame is
that of a theologian He was strongly in-
fluenced in his views by Origen (q v ), more so
even than were Gregory of Nazianzus (q v) or
Basil (q v ) In spite of this characteristic,
which as time went on came to be regarded
more as a defect and mark of heterodoxy in
a theologian, Gregory retained his place as one
of the leading theologians of the Church on
account of his masterly treatises on the Nicene
definitions of the faith In the realm of peda-
gogy he takes a place oil account of his work
entitled The (rrcat Catvchixm, which was a
summary of the Christian faith intended to
hen e an a textbook to be used for religious m-
stiuction In many respects it recalls Ongen's
dogmatic* treatise, DC pmidpiib, but is much
brief 01 and better rounded out in its form

J C A, Jit
References . —
F \UHAR, W Live* of the Father*, Vol II, pp f>(>-H4

(New York, 1407 )
Mi<,N»,.l P Patrologia Graf a, Vol XLV, col <) l()f>

(Pans, 1HW )
AIooitE, W Library of tht l\tctnt and Pout-Nut He

Fathav, Second Scncs Vol V (\cw \ ork,

1WI3)
VIN\B«,KS, K Dictionary of ("hrttittan Biography, H v.

(Hi <'{joi y of A yskd

GREGORY OF TOURS (538-294) — Bishop
of Touis and historian of the Franks Ciieg-
01 v was bom at Avorna in 538 and was edu-
cated by his uncle Gallus, Bishop of Clermont
In 573, although but twenty-five years of age,
Gregory was made Bishop of Tours, one of the
most important sees of Gaul In this post he
took an active part in the work of the Church,
\\luch in the tioublous Merovingian times was
the one institution of culture and education
lemaming in Gaul His chief work and that
by which he is generally known us his famous
History of the Fianks Its style is maikod by
ciudities of taste and gramrnai, which have
been constantly pointed out as indicative of
the intellectual degeneration of the tunes and
the poor estate into which education had fallen
It should be noted, however, that Gregory is
quite aware of the fact that he does not observe
the niceties of classical grammar, admits his
rudeness of style, and in the fust book of his
history asks pardon for these faults It would
appear, therefore, that Gregory enjoyed more
educational advantages than might be con-
cluded from a comparison of his style not merely
with the classical authors but with writers
later than Gregory himself, and that he used
a current form of Latin which came more easily
to his hand than the older Latin which had not
yet become sufficiently distinct from the ver-
nacular to be regarded as the object of special
study In fact Gregory's language, though
often rude and obscure* merely displays the
characteristic features of the process whereby
the classical Latin became the Romance and
eventually the French language His work

is, therefore, of interest not merely to the his-
torian but also to the philologist and student of
the history of education J C A., JR.

Reference : — •

MIQNE, J P Patrologia Latina, Vol LXXI
1863)

(Paris,

GREGORY THAUMATURGUS (r 217-270)
Pupil and panegyrist of Origen (q v ) and Bishop
of Nco-Cspsarea Gregory was a native of
Pontus, having been born m Noo-Osarea
His family was of high social rank and in early
youth he was destined for a public caieer and
was bet to study jurisprudence with that pur-
pose in view He started, while still young,
for Berytus (q v } in Syria, famous for its school
of Roman Law, but passing on his way through
Ca?sarea in Palestine, he chanced to meet Origen
who at that time was teaching there He \vas
so attracted by the great Alexandrine that lie
remained with him for five years, entirely
abandoning his visit to Berytus In the end
he became a Christian On leaving Ca\saiea
in 238, he delivered in the presence of Origen
Jt panegync on his master m which he gives
an elaborate account of the methods employed
bv him in his teaching This panegyric is,
therefore, a document of the first importance
in the history of education and especially foi
the history of the eaily Christian schools, since
it gives an elaborate description of methods
employed and the curriculum followed by one
who was eminent as an educator An English
translation by S I) F Salmond may be found
in the translation of the woiks of Grogoiy
Thau mat urgus in the Ante-Nurne Libiary of
the Fathers, Vol VI, Am od The subsequent
career of Gregory was different fiom the plans
of his parents He returned to Cjesaiea to
practice law, but in 240 was chosen Bishop of
the small Christian community in the place
He remained at the head of the Church foi
thirty years giving himself with most exemplary
zeal to his work and winning large nunibcis to
Christianity There is no evidence that apart
from his work as a Christian pastor and bishop
he ever taught or that he formulated any in-
dependent pedagogical theoncs He derives
his title of Thaumaturgus, or Wondei woi ker,
from the reputation which he seems to have
acquired even during his lifetime as a worker
of miracles, many of which verge upon the
grossly fabulous. J C. A., Ju

References : —

Anti>-N icene Library of the Fathers, Vol VI Am od

(New York, 190:i )

DKLA Rut Works of Driven, Vol IV ^ (Puna, 1759)
LOMMATZBCH Work* of Origen, Vol. XXV (Berlin,

1848)
Mi ONE, J P Patrologia Grceca, Vol X Col 963 ft.

(Pans, 1863)

GREGORY THE GREAT (540-604) —
Bishop of Rome (590-604) No single figure is
more prominent in the sixth and seventh centvrv

179

GREGORY THE GREAT

GREGORY THE GREAT

than Gregory I, Pope and Doctor of tlio Church
No one has left behind him a more abiding mark
upon the life of Western Europe Under his
lead the papacy became for the first time an
important political power throughout the West
He organized its finances and consolidated its
possessions Through him the theology of
St. Augustine (q v ), the greatest of the Latin
Fathers, became dominant in the West, but
only so far as Gregory had appropriated it and
in the form in which he had interpreted it.
By his work the organization of the Church was
rapidly advanced and the foundations were laid
for still larger developments It is, therefore,
not surprising that he also profoundly affected
the development of schools and influenced the
intellectual life of the centuries that followed
his pontificate His education was thorough in
grammar, rhetoric, and logic, or that general
training which a young man received who was
preparing for a public career Later he stud-
ied law and at thirty was appointed Picetor
urbis by the Emperor Justin II He soon
gave up his promising career, disposed of his
patrimony in charity and the endowment of
monasteries in Sicily and elsewhere, and be-
came a monk But the Church was not willing
to see him buried in a monastery and he was
ordained by Pope Benedict I before 578 and
soon after was sent to Constantinople as apocu-
sanus, or papal legate, at the imperial court
From 585 he was at Rome, abbot of the Mon-
astery of St Andrew, which he had himself
founded In 590 he became Pope and for
fourteen years administered the see of Rome as
none before and few after him TIis political
responsibilities were no less than his ecclesias-
tical His relations with the Lombaids, his
mission to England, under Augustine of Canter-
bury, his dealings with the Franks and the
Eastern Empire are only some of the larger
relations in which he stood with the world of
his times

As connected with education Gregory is in
some respects the most important of the Church
Fathers of the West, on account of his relation
to the xchola cantor urn at Rome, his treatise
on Pastoral Rule, and his influence upon the
study of classical literature These three
points will, accordingly, be discussed in this
order (1) Gregory is the reputed founder
of the schola cantor um, or Roman singing school,
as well as reformer of ecclesiastical singing
Neither statement is strictly true The fact
appears to be that the schola cantor um was in
reality the Orphanotr opium that had been in ex-
istence in Rome for two centuries The princi-
pal authority for the connection of Gregory with
the founding of the school is John the Deacon,
a writer of the latter part of the ninth century,
who says that Gregory " founded a school of
singers, endowed it with some estates and built
for it two habitations, one under the steps of
the Basilica ot St Peter, the Apostle, the other
under the houses of the Lateran Palace," and

that Gregory gave instruction in the school so
founded Indeed, the chair m which he sat
while teaching, and his whip used to maintain
discipline, together with the antiphonanum
from which he taught were preserved in the
ninth century What he did, amounted
no doubt, to the refoundmg of the school by
the increase of its endowments and the impetus
he gave to the study of singing as well as of
other branches in the school The reason for
this increased attention to the training of the
young for singers was due to the reform which
Gregory carried through in the matter of sing-
ing in the divine service, by which singers
were specially trained in the school for the serv-
ice of the altar Following the example of
Rome, singing schools were established m many
places as part of the reform in the services of
the Church inaugurated by Gregory They
were, however, more than institutes of vocal
culture and in them were imparted the rudi-
ments of Latin and reading, necessary for the
intelligent performance of the duties of singers
In this way, m cathedrals at least, such schools
arose everywhere and weie especially ordered
by the council of Aix-la-Chapelle 802. (Cf
Ilefele, foncilictiqcbchichtc, sec 409 ) These
schools are to be distinguished from the schools
for the clergy in which higliei blanches were
taught (See CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS ) As to
Gregory's connection with the so-called Gie-
gonan music there is little authentic informa-
tion The first mention of a Canine Sancti
Grcgorn is by Leo IV (847-855) It is prob-
able that the style of music, which was de-
veloped at Rome long after Gregory the Great's
day, was known as the Gregorian style of music
after the great patron of the school, in the same
way that the style of music cultivated in the
singing school of Milan was known as Ambro-
siarifrom St Ambrose the great bishop of Milan
In later times the interest which Charlemagne
took in music made the style of the Roman
school everywhere common and the whole
system was generally known as Gregorian

(2) The Bool of Pastoral Hide may be re-
garded as Gregory's principal contribution to
the theory of education It is in purpose and
form a study of the duties of the bishop as
pastor of his flock When it is recalled to what
an extent the moral mstiuction and training
of the times lay in the hands of the clergy arid
especially the bishops, the significance of a book
on such a subject, written by one especially
competent for the task, becomes apparent.
The treatise is especially concerned with the
method of meeting various moral problems that
might arise Its worth was recognized im-
mediately and it at once became very popular
A translation of it was made into Greek by
Ariastasms, patriarch of Antioch, at the com-
mand of the Emperor Maurice King Alfred
(q v ) translated it into Anglo-Saxon By Frank-
ish councils under Charlemagne and Louis
1 he Pious, bishops were required to study it with

180

GREGORY THE GREAT

GREIFSWALD

special care In the ninth century it even
became the custom to give it to bishops at the
time of their consecration as a part of the cere-
mony In this way it became of universal im-
portance as determining the spirit in which
moral training should be undertaken

(3) Gregory's influence upon the study of
classical literature was not helpful and he did
much to create the monastic sentiment that the
study of heathen writers was incompatible with
( 'hnstian living It should be said that while
Gregorv was well educated technically, he
nowhere shows that he had any appreciation
for literary beauty, such as Jerome had, and
that he had not the slightest conception of
literature as an art form He knew no Greek,
for though he had lived for several years at
( Constantinople, he saw no need of studying it
In his practical spirit there was no place for
love of htorarv excellence The demands of
the times were so urgent, the problems before
the Ghurch so tremendous, and the Church so
unsupported in withstanding the collapse of all
social and moral institutions that for a Chns-
tian and especially for a leader in the Church
to spend any time on the study of literature
as such seemed fiddling while Rome was burn-
ing From this point of view is to be judged
the letter of sharp rebuke he wrote to Desi-
denus, Bishop of Vienne, an enthusiastic
student of the classics and a successful teacher
of rhetoric and literature (The letter will be
found in the KpiNtlcb of (ricgory, Lib XI, ep
.")4 ) It is quite possible thai the rebuke was
merited, a bishop had something else to do
in that period than teach literature, valuable
as that teaching might be But Giegory re-
peats the old saying that the praises of Jove
should not be in the same mouth which praises
Christ For this Gregoiy merely repeated
what had been said befoie bv others (See
CHKIBTI\N EDUCATION IN THE EARLY CHURCH )
In his own practice, Giegory did not hesitate
to write carelessly and even boasted of his con-
tempt for rules in his dedicatory epistle (ad
Lcandrum) prefixed to his M or all a on the book
of Job This contempt for the simple rules
of correct style and the condemnation of
heathen literature as un worthy of a Christian
are undoubtedly to be interpreted from the sit-
uation in which Gregory was placed, an ex-
aggerated asceticism and a false conception of
the nature of the biblical narrative But how-
ever they are to be understood, their effect was
mischievous and lasting They gave rise to
even stronger condemnation bv monastic
writers who attributed their exaggerations to
Gregory and sheltered themselves under his
example (Cf Gieseler, Ecclesiastical History,
Am ed , Vol. I, p. 490.) But it should not bu
concluded that because Gregory did so con-
demn literature and literary style that all monks
had the same low opinion of literature 01 the
same contempt for grammar Their condcinna-
I'on even was in many cases a rhetorical flourish

of ascetic writing, but such cannot excuse
Gregory, who was a most downright and straight-
forward writer. J C A , Jit

References : —

Catholic Encydopefha, s.v Gregory the Great

DUDDEN, F H Gregory the Great , hit> Place in History
and Thought (London, 19(M )

Library of the A icene and Post-Nicrne Fathers (New
York, 1893 )

MIGNE, J P Patrologia Latiua, Volb LXXXV
LXXIX (Parih, 1863 )

RcalencyLlopadie fiii Prote^tantisehe Theologie, contains
a very extensive bibliography

See also hibtorien of the Christian Church such as those
of Noancler, Gieseler, Hergern other, etc , and his-
tories of Roman and Western Christianity, such as
those of Langer (Geaehiehte der Romischtn Knchc) ,
Hodgkm (Italy and her Invaders) , Milman (Latin
Christianity)

GREIFSWALD, THE ROYAL PRUSSIAN
UNIVERSITY OF — The oldest Prussian uni-
versity, having been established in 1456 It
is situated in the province of Pomorama and
owes its origin primarily to the Burgomaster,
Hcinnch Rubenow, an impetus to its establish-
ment having been given by the fact that the
University of Rostock (founded 1419) was trans-
ferred temporarily to Greifswald (1436-1443)
In the earliest davs of the institution, the chief
emphasis was placed upon the faculty of lav/,
not more than a single chair in medicine being
provided for an entire century After a period
of decline it was reestablished on a Protestant
basis bv Duke Philip T of Porneninia in 15,39,
and provision was made bv him for a stated
income Again during the Thirty Years' War
the institution was in constant danger of ex-
tinction In accordance with the terms of
the Peace of Westphalia (164S), Greifswald
passed into the hands of Sweden, but the
arrangements for a satisfactory financial basis
made bv the last oi the Pomeranian dukes were
respected bv the new Swedish masters The
universitv struggled on until, in 1809, the prop-
er tv owned bv the university was seized bv
France The property was restored in 1813,
and two years later, when the university was
taken over with the rest of Ncuvorpommern
by Prussia, its property and income were left
intact, a,s a result of which policy no contribu-
tions from the Prussian States were called for
until 1874 This state aid amounts at the
present day to about $160,000 annually

The progress of the university has been slow
but well maintained during the past century
Its medical faculty was especially prominent
during the middle of the last century, and its
theological faculty is renowned to this day
In 1834 an academy of political science and
agriculture was associated with the university,
but it was replaced by an agricultural middle
school in 1877 A number of new buildings
have been erected since the celebration of the
four hundredth anniversary of the foundation
of the university, including a hygienic mstitute(
a hbrarv, and a theological Studienhaus 0897)

181

GRENADA COLLEGE

GRESHAM

The library, the beginnings of which go back
to the gift of the valuable private collection of
Rubenow, contains about 200,000 volumes and
800 manuscripts Greifawald was the second
German university to institute a summer school
or series of vacation courses (Fenenkurse) in
1893. They have proved quite popular, and
annually attract a number of foreign students,
special stress being laid for their benefit on
courses in German language and literature.

Among well-known former teachers may be
mentioned Baum, Bardeleben, and Budge in
medicine , Gass, Router, and Cremer in theology ,
Balthasar, Beselor, and Windscheid in law,
Einst Montz Arndt (q v ) in history, Oberbock
in physics, and C W Ahlwardt in classical phi-
lologv During the winter semester of 1909-
1910 there were 1058 students (91 women) in
attendance, including 101 auditors (51 women)
The matriculated students were distributed as
follows theology 118, law 205, medicine 211,
and philosophy 423 R T , JR

References : —

Am der Gcxchichte der Universitltt Greifswald Fe&t-

hrhnft zuni 4*50 jtohngen Julnl&um (Stettin, 1906 )
Chronik dcr Umverinttlt Greifswald Annual since

1886-1887
GRAWITZ, PAUL Gtschichte dcr medizmwchcn FakuMt

Grvifftwald 1 HOC! -1900 (Greifswald, 1900)
KoauuAiiTEN, J G L Ginchuht? der Umverttitdt

Greifawald (Greifswakl, 1857 )
LEXIH, W Da* IJnttrrichtswcsen im dcutschcn Keich

Vol 1, pp H7H 391 (Berlin, 1904 )
Minima, Handhurh dcr gelthrtcn Wdt, Vol I (Strass-

burg, 1911 )

GRENADA COLLEGE, GRENADA, MISS

— An institution for the education of girls,
established in 1S51 and now under the control
of the North Mississippi Oonfeicncc Prepar-
atory, collegiate, music, and art departments are
maintained About ten points of high school
work are required for entrance to the college
which gives the degrees of A B and B L on
completion of the requisite courses There is a
faculty of thirteen instructors

GRENOBLE, UNIVERSITY OF, FRANCE

-- Founded m 1339 by a bull of Benedict XII
It was established under the influence of the
University of Naples and there was no faculty
of theology The location and size of the
town, however, were not favorable to the
successful progress of the university and it had
practically disappeared, when, in 1452, the
University of Valence was established It
was revived in 1542 and theology was included.
But the institution met with no greater suc-
cess than at the first foundation and in 1565
it was amalgamated with the University of
Valence, in spite of much protest and opposi-
tion. At the end of the eighteenth century
there seemed a probability that the University
would be reestablished; but the partial reor-
ganization did not take place until the general
establishment of the University of France by
Napoleon. In 1805 the faculty of law was

established and with the exception of the years
1821-1824, when it was suppressed, has con-
tinued successfully till the present time.
Under the July Monarchy the Ecole prtpara-
toire de medecin et de pharmacie and the faculty
of letters and sciences were established
Finally, the three faculties were organized into
a university by the law of July 10, 1896
Under the direction of the Comitt du patronage
den 6tudiantx Granger •« de rUnwertu'tf a special
course in French language and literature was
established in 1898 for foreigners, and is given
throughout the year There are now throe
faculties, law, science, and letters, and pre-
paratory schools of medicine and pharmacy
The university maintains a well-attended
summer school, mainly in the interests of for-
eign students who desire to learn French The
enrollment in 1909-1910 was 1156 students
See FRANCE, EDUCATION IN

References : —

BERRIAT, HT PRIX Histoire dc Vancirrmc (JrnvcrBitf
de Grenoble (Valence, 1839 )

FOURNIER, P L'annemie UmvcTHit6 do Grenoble, in
Livrv du Ccntcnaire de la Faculte de Droit (Gre-
noble, 1900 )

GRESHAM, SIR THOMAS ('M519-1579)
— The founder of the Royal Exchange in London
and of the Gresham College, London It is
not known to what school Gresham went, but
his uncle, Sir John Gresham, converted the
mansion house of Holt into a free grammar
school in 1546, so that the family was evidently
interested m education At an eailv age
Thomas was sent as a pensioner to Gonville
and Cams College, Cambridge About 1535,
on leaving Cambridge, he went as an appren-
tice to his uncle Sir John, and also became a
student of (J ray's Inn Sii Thomas Giesham
became the most eminent aial most wealthy
merchant of his time, and by raising of loans
made himself a man of vast political impor-
tance Yet he never lost his interest in liter-
ary and academic matters He first stated
the famous economic law which bears his name
He erected his Burse or Royal Exchange in
1 568, and in 1574-1575 he declared his inten-
tion to found a college in London for the free
instruction of all who wished to attend the
lectures The public orator of the Univer-
sity of Cambridge (Richard Bridge water)
reminded Gresham of a promise he had made
to give £500 either to an ancient foundation
or a new college at Cambridge An attempt
was made to induce Cresham to give up the
idea of a London college, which could not
but be competitive to the older universities
In July, 1575, however, Gresham drew up his
will, and laid down his bequest for a college to
be the " Epitome of a University," and this
was carried out on Gresham'b death in 1579.
His mansion house was, on Lady Gresham's
death, to be handed over to the Corporation
of London and the Mercers' Company. These

182

GRESHAM COLLEGE

GRIPPE

bodies were to nominate seven professors, to
lecture, one on every day of the week, on the
seven sciences of divinity, astronomy, music,
geometry, law, medicine, and rhetoric The
salaries were to be fixed at £50, the purchas-
ing power of which may be put at ten times that
amount to-day The professors were to be
unmarried men, arid to have rooms allotted
them in the house, and free access to the gai-
dens belonging to it. The rebuilding of the
Royal Exchange after the Great Fire of Jb'66,
absorbed the large revenues of the Gresham
estate and the property available for the college
demands, till in 1768 an act of Parliament
disposed of it to the government in return for
£500 a vear — and an obscure room over the
Royal Exchange was allotted for the lectures
In 1841 a separate building was erected at the
corner of Gresham and Basinghall streets in
London; and lecturers are still appointed to
deliver courses in music, rhetoric, and divinity
The regulations drawn up in 1597 for the pro-
fessorships are remarkable The professors
were to remember that the hearers will bo
"merchants and other citizens"; and there-
fore their lectures should be adapted to that
kind of audience by being eminently practical
The divinity reader had the practical aim placed
before him to " endeavor to confirm the truth
of doctrine now established in the Church of
England, and to refute the adverse party, and
with just conscience and circumspection to
sift out the true state of every controversy "
Some of tho foremost scholars or scientists of
their day have held professorships at the
college, including Isaac Barrow, Hooke, Petty,
and Sn Christopher Wren, and the relations
between the college and the Royal Society were
intimate The development of better facilities
for higher education in London in the last cen-
tury has tended to minimize tho importance of
Grosliam College But the trustees soom to bo
showing renewed activity and propose to build
a new college to accommodate 500 students,
remodel tho curriculum, and to found scholar-
ships F. W
References : —

BntuoN Life and Times of Sir Thoma* Gresham

(London, 1S.19)

Dictionary of National Hiography
WARD, .1 LIMN of lh< Professors of Gresham CoUmt

with th( lifi of tin Founder, Kir Thomax Gi< shunt

(London, 1740)
AN VTKON, FOOTER The Beginning* of iht Tt aching of

Modan Huhjtit* in England (London, 1(K){) )

GRESHAM COLLEGE —See GRESHAM,
Sm THOMAS

GRIMKE, THOMAS SMITH (J 786- 1834)
— Statesman and apostle of common school
education in tho south; was born at Charles-
ton, S C., on Sept. 26, 1786, and was
graduated from Yale College in tho class of
1<S()7 Ho was active in tho organization of
froo schools in tho southern states, and was ono
<>i tho founders of tho Western Literary Insti-

tute and College of Professional Teachers
(q v ), the first educational association organized
in the United States Author of American
Education and Science, Education, and Litera-
ture. He died at Cincinnati in 1834

References:— W S. M

WOODBIUDUE, W C Thomas S (inmk6 American

Annals of Education, 1835, Vol V, pp 481-485

GRINNELL COLLEGE, GRINNELL, IA

— Formerly called Iowa College, a coeduca-
tional, nonsectanan institution, established
in 1846 by Congregational pioneers in the
territory west of tho Mississippi River, under
tho influence of tho " Iowa Band," consist-
ing of six young men from Yale and Andovor
Theological Seminar The institution was
opened in 1848, and tho first class was gradu-
ated in 1854 In 1859 an amalgamation
was effected with Grmnoll University at
Grinncll Women wore admitted in 1860

The institution maintains tho usual under-
graduate courses in arts and science, and in
engineering A school of music is also pio-
vided Graduate courses lead to the degree
of A M for one year's work in icsulencc Tho
undergraduate work loads to A B and B S
The group system was adopted in 1895
There are no college fraternities Grinncll
College is ono of the institutions originally
accepted by the Carnegie Foundation for the
Advancement of Teaching (q v ) The pres-
ent corporate title was adopted in 1909 There
is a faculty of fifty-seven members Tho stu-
dent enrollment in 191 1-1912 was 655 C G

GRIPPE (French, la grippe, the term
influenza is also frequently used) — A disease
duo, apparently, to a minute micro-organism

— the influenza bacillus or Pfeiffer's bacillus —
which invades especially the air passages
Tho relation of this bacillus to tho disease is,
however, still somewhat in doubt

The symptoms of grippe are protean, the
complications arc many, and the after-effects
are often serious The disease seems to be
usually spread from one person to another
PfeifTor's statement is generally accepted
*' A development of influenza bacilli outside the
human body (in earth or in water) is not
possible The spread of influenza by dried or
pulverized sputum can occur only in a ver\
limited degree Contagion is usually con-
nected with tho fresh, still moist secretion of
tho mucous membrane of the nose and
bronchial tubes "

It frequently happens that ordinary coldr
are mistaken for grippe, and many of tho so-
called cases of grippe are really colds, but as a
cold is a germ disease, and the moans of pre-
venting both colds and tho grippe are appar-
ently much the same, careful differential diagno-
sis is not as necessary as hygienic protection

Tho reason that colds ni d the grippe fire so

183

GRISCOM

GROOTE

prevalent and so serious among school children
in many sections of the United States is prob-
ably the habit of sleeping in closed rooms and
of keeping the schoolroom hot. and dry, and
the fact that when a child shows symptoms of
a cold, instead of being put out of doors he is
confined in the house In many schools,
under present conditions, the spread of grippe
and colds is inevitable The one important
thing is to use the sovereign pieventive and
remedy which is always at hand, namely, fresh
an The school should be properly venti-
lated, and tubercular and anemic children
should be taught out of doors, and in cases
when1 children show the symptoms of a cold
or guppe, or the like, it would be well to send
the child home with a note to the patent
from the school physician or nurse, reading

somewhat as follows " Your child

shows the initial symptoms of a cold or grippe,
or something of this kind If you can make it
convenient to \vrap him up warmly, to take
care of him out of doors, and have him sleep
for one or two nights out of doors or with the
windows wide open, the cold air will probably
"tfed. a cure" Where there are school phy-
sicians or nurses, teachers should always bring
children with suspicious symptoms to their
attention Where there are no such officials,
it is well to communicate with the parents

W H. B.
See COLDS, CONTAGIOUS DibEAbEb.

References : —

JOUD\N, K () General Bacteriology (Philadelphia,

UK)S )
WEHMLU, R Enzyklopadischcs Handhuch der Schul-

hy(jiLn(,tiv Injlucnza (Leipzig, 1(H)4 )

GRISCOM, JOHN (1774-J852) — An
American Pcstalozzian, was born at Han-
cock Budge, N Y , on Sept 27, 1774, and
educated in the Fi lends' Schools He taught
a district school for some years, and was
principal of the academy at Burlington, N .) ,
from 1794 to 1X07 For several years he con-
ducted a private school in New York, and latei
he was professor in Queen's College (now Rut-
gers) The years 1818 ani 1819 he spent in
Europe studying foreign educational institu-
tions and problems II * became keenly im-
pressed with the work oi 1'estalozzi at Yvcrduri,
and i etui lied to America and became a propa-
gandist of the doctrines of the Swiss educator
Gnscom was one of the leaders in both the
American Lyceum Association (q v ) and the
American Association for the Advancement of
Education (<//>) He was the author of text-
books on grammar, geography, and physics,
but his most important contribution to the
literature of education was his Year in Em ope
(1819) This embodied the educational results
of his travels und observations in the Old World
Henry Bainaul said oi this work 'l No one
\olume in the fust luili ot the nineteenth cen-
tury had so wide an influence on our educa-

tional, reformatory, and preventive measures,
directly and indirectly, as this " Griscom
died at Burlington, N J , on Feb 26, 1852

W. S. M.
References : —
BARNARD, American Journal of Education, I860, Vol

VIII, pp 325-347

MONHO&, WILL S Hi^torj/ of iht Pcstalozzian Movement
in the United States (Syracuse, 1007 )

GROCYN, WILLIAM (144(>?-lol9) —The
first scholar to deliver public (Ireek lectures at
Oxford Educated at Winchester College and
New College, Oxford, he became a fellow of the
latter in 14G7 In 14S1 he became divinity
reader at Magdalen College, holding several
livings at the same time In 1488 he went to
Italy, where he remained about two years
studying at Florence under Pohtiari and Chal-
condyles On his return he took up residence
at Exeter College, where he delivered the Greek
lectures in or soon aftei 1491 (Irocyn be-
longed both at Oxford and in London to that
remarkable center of English Renaissance
culture which included More, Linacre, Colet,
Lily, and Erasmus Croeyn left Oxford about
1496, and held a living in London until in 1506
he was presented to the mastership of All
Hallows College, Maidstone Erasmus al-
ways referred to Giocyn in very high terms,
and once as " the patron and preceptor of us
all " Although he had the reputation of being
a good Ciceronian styhsl, no works of (Jrocyn's
that are of any importance aie extant

References : —

Dictionary of National Biography

SEEBOHM, F Oxford Reformers (London, 1887)

GRONINGEN, ROYAL UNIVERSITY OF,
HOLLAND —Established in 1614 by the
estates of the Province of Groningen, with the
faculties of theology, law, medicine, and phi-
losophy Groningen had been an important
seat of learning in the Middle Ages through
the school of the Brethren of the Common Life
(q v ) and that at the St Martin's Church
Toward the end of the seventeenth century
the enrollment of students was over 6000, the
majority, of course, being Dutch From that
time, however, a decline set in, and at the
beginning of the nineteenth century there were
only 200 students With the French annexa-
tion this university became an academy of the
University of France (1811), only to be reor-
ganized as a royal institution in 1815 Since
1876 the university again began to make great
progress Buildings have been provided by the
town The five faculties are theology, law,
medicine, philosophy, and letters In 1909
the enrollment was 485 students

Reference : —

Minerva, HandbuJi dtr (jelehrten 11 fit, Vol I (Strass-
Imnr. 1911 )

GROOTE, GERARD --See BUETHKKN OF
THK COMMON JJITK

1S4

GROSSETESTE

GROTIUR

GROSSETESTE, ROBERT (1175-1253) -
One of the most, influential scholars, divines,
and statesmen of 1 he thirteenth eentuiy Bom
of humble parenlage at Stradbroke in Suffolk-
shire, Kngland, he rose to a position of great
influence His earlv education he may have
received at the school of Lincoln, but he cer-
tamly studied at Oxford and then at Pans.
Til 1224 he became lecturer to the Fiauciscans
at Oxford, and throughout his life evinced great
interest in the friars, with several of whom he
was on terms of great intimacy His influence
on the religious revival as Bishop of Lincoln,
a diocese including about one third of England,
and the democratic and national movements led
bv lus friend, Simon de Montfort, in England
in the thirteenth century, can but be mentioned
here Jii the field of scholarship his influ-
ence was no less, and his opportunity as the first
recorded Chancellor of Oxford was unlimited
He was interested in the study of Greek and
Hebrew, in Christian antiquity, in physics and
mathematics, in music and agriculture He
was a voluminous and versatile writei, and in
theology alone he is credited with one hundred
and forty-seven dicta on questions of doctrine
and scripture, between two and three hundred
sermons, and sixty longer treatises In a truly
scholarly spirit he always, where possible,
went to the sources, and in science employed
observation and experiment He devoted him-
self to the study of Aristotle, but with an intei-
est in the physical rather than the logical side
He wrote commentaries on the Sophist ia
Klenehi, 1he Predicaments, the Prior Analt/t-
t(s and the Pouter 1,01 Analytics, and Nico-
machcan Ethics, the last of which he trans-
lated probably with the aid of others Under
his direction and encouragement, Nicholas of
St Albari's translated several works, including
the Testaments of the Twelve Patuarchs On
the scientific subjects he wrote Sunima super
VI II Libros Phijvicorum, On the Spheres, a
Computus (qv), and a Computux Erclesias-
//r?/s But his most important work was the
encyclopedic Compendium Scientiariun, deal-
ing with most of the then known subjects,
and concluding with a chapter on the Unity
and Simplicity of Knowledge The metrical
poem on table manners, Stans Puei ad Mensnm,
which has been attributed to Grosseteste, is
probably of later origin Grosscteste's influ-
ence among his contemporaries is best attested
by Roger Bacon, (q v ), an otherwise keen
critic, who says " The Lord Robert (Grosse-
teste) alone . excelled all men in his knowl-
edge of the sciences " Of Grosseteste and his
friend, Adam Marsh, the Franciscan, he says
else where: " They were perfect in divine and
human wisdom "

References : —

C'REIOHTON, MANDELL Historical Lectures and Ad-
dresses (London, 1903 )

RAHHDALL, H Univeibthwt of Europe in the Middle
Ages (London, 1895)

SANDYH, ,1 10 7//s/«/v of r/nss
(CaiuhndKf. 1(>03 )

STLVKNSON, F S ltohe)t f///;ss

/^s/( (Loiuloti, ISM'I )

GROTE, GEORGE (1794 1871) Histo-
rian, born at Clay Hill, Kent, England Aftei
a short stay jit Charterhouse, he entered at the
age of si\teen the bank in which his father was a
partnei lie continued hi.s studies, lio\\ever,
devoting himself mainlv to classics and phi-
losophy At the time of the Reform Bill agi-
tatioii he ranged himseli with J S Mill (<j r )
on the side of rationalist individualism He
entered Parliament as the representative for
London, and for a time achieved some .success
He retired in 1841 from actue political life,
and in 1843 from business Always mspned
by high dcmociatic ideals, he devoted himself
to writing a History of (heete as the supreme
example of the woi kings of democratic institu-
tions The work was planned as early as
1822, but the fust two volumes did not appear
until 1845, the twelfth and last in 1850
Written with a purpose, this \\ork is marked
throughout by the democratic leanings oi its
author, while on the social and economic side
his practical experience sen ed as an excellent
basis for interpretation In 1805 was pub-
lished Grote's Plato and the Oth ci Companions
of Socrates Another woik, on Aristotle, was not
completed when the author died Grote took
a strong inter est in the movement for spread-
ing opportunities for university education, and
wras Piesident of University College, London,
and Vice-Chancellor of the Unuersitv of Lon-
don, he also held the position, of trustee of
the British Museum He died in 1S71, and
was buried at Westminster Abbey

Reference : —

G ROTK , M its PC r$o n a I
don, 1873 )

of Geor(/e Grote (Lori-

GROTIUS, HUGO (15X3-1045) - States-
man, publicist, scholar, and theologian, born
at Delft in 1583 He began writing Latin
verse at the age of eight, enteied the University
of Leyden at eleven, and at fifteen began a
commentary on Martianus Capella (q r ),
which had the approval of Joseph Scahger
He took his degree in 151)8, and accompanied
Olden Barne veldt, on an embassy to France,
where he was presented bv Henry IV with a
gold chain On his return to the Netherlands
he began to practice as a lawyei at the Hague,
and met with unbioken success In 1009 he
wrote his first work on international law, Man
Libei uni In the religious dispute which broke
out in the Netherlands Grotms supported the
Arminian views held also by Barue veldt,
who was condemned to death with the approval
of the Synod of Dort in 1619 Giotius was
sentenced to life imprisonment, but through
the aid of his wife was able to escape in 1G22,
and fled to Pans, where he was pensioned by
Louis XIII In 1625 he published the most

185

GROTIUS

GROVE CITY COLLEGE

famous of treatises on international law, DC
Jure Belli el Pact*, and a theological work, DC
Vcntatc Religions Christiana* In lf>34 he
entered the service of Christina of Sweden as
ambassador to France. In 1645 he secured his
recall to Sweden and hoped to he able to retire
to his native land, since the decree of perpetual
banishment passed on hirn in 1030 seems to
have been forgotten But he was only able to
reach Rostock when lie died

OrotiuH was one of the most remarkable men
of his age, and one of the earliest advocates of in-
ternationil peace He holds an eminent position
in each of the four fields of statesmanship, law,
theology, and scholarship. As a scholar he is
known for his translations from Greek into
Latin verse, for annotations to Latin texts,
foi an unimpeachable Latin style His work,
A nnales ct Hiutonw dc Rebus Bclgicis, is
obviously modeled on the work of Tacitus
The DC Jure Belli ct Pacix has been translated
into most languages, and on certain points is
still regarded as authoritative His views on
the educational equipment of a statesman aie
concisely stated in the Ejnstola ad Benjamin urn,
Matmrium (1615), a letter wiitten to Maurei,
an ambassadoi of the King of France, who had
consulted Grotius on a course of study, pre-
sumably for himself A man in the position
of his friend, says Grotius, should be versed
in philosophy, both speculative and practical,
always bearing in mind that the two are com-
plementary and that both are based on logic-
He should study this subject in some simple
and short compilation , Aristotle is too prolix
These subjects are to be followed by physics,
especially that part dealing with the nature
of our soul, and metaphysics, also in some
short and concise text In practical philosophy
Grotuis recommends the study of ethics and
politics, through Anstotle's works and a sum-
mary of the best commentaries to be supplied
by a secretary For character studies the
works of Euripides, Theophrastus, Terence,
Horace (tiatnex], Plutarch, and Seneca should
be read, to which might be added the De
Offidis of Cicero In politics the statesman
should be acquainted with Aristotle, Poly bins,
Dio, Sallust, Ciceio's Letters with a commentary
bv a Roman historian A knowledge of
rhetoric would be acquired through Aristotle,
and the public speeches of Demosthenes and
Cicero A study of public law would be made
in the Lairs of Plato and Cicero, Aquinas
(Summa Thcologw), Pandects, Justinian, and
contemporary publicists Only then would
the reader obtain any real advantage from a
study of history in which the trend of thought
rather than specific details should be followed.
In history, says Grotius, it is best to work out
from the present to more remote and ancient
periods Any further recommendations or
details Grotius leaves to a future meeting.
It will be noticed that in this rapid sketch
Grotius is by no means ahead of the educational

thought of his time, which sought all training
for modern conditions in the works of classical
authois But coming from a man who must
have known the needs of his position from his
own experience, the Letter acquires an increased
interest

References : —

BUTLER, TH Life of Hugo Grotius (London, 1826 )
ROOHKVRLT, ROBERT B Catalogue of the Work* of

(rr(ttiuu presented to the Holland Society of New Yoik

( 1 SW )
SANDYS, .) K A Hivhtry of Clast>i(ul «SVA»/u/s/n/>.

Vol JI (C:im bridge, 1<M)X)

GROUP CONSCIOUSNESS — See SOCIAL
PSYCHOLOGY

GROUP GAMES. — See GAMES; PLAY

GROUP INSTRUCTION — The practice of
separating the children of a single classroom
into groups for the purposes of alternate instiuc-
tion is called the " gioup system " of teach-
ing The group method is characteristic of the
ungraded school of rural communities It is
much used in cities, regardless of the fact that
the teachei may have only a single giade in his
charge It gives the teacher an opportunity
to woik with a small number of children at a
time, and permits the children to have periods
of study while their fellows are reciting The
grouping of children under this plan is not the
same for all the subjects, thus providing foi
large flexibility in adjusting to particulai sub-
jects arid individuals The drawing and music
might be taught to the whole grade at once,
languages and history in two groups, and arith-
metic in three A given child, because of
variation in his ability in different subjects,
might be taught in the more able or advanced
group in history, and in the least efficient group
in arithmetic H. S.

See INDIVIDUAL INSTRUCTION.

GROUP PLAN OF GRADING — See

GRADING AND PROMOTION

GROUP SUPERVISION. — See SUPER-
VISION OF TEACHING.

GROUP SYSTEM — See COLLEGE, AMERI-
CAN (section on Administration of College
Curriculum); COLLEGE, GRADING AND PRO-
MOTION, for use of term in American schools

GROVE CITY COLLEGE, GROVE CITY,

PA — Organized m 1876 as the Pine Grove Nor-
mal Academy, and incorporated as a college in
1884, reporting to the Presbyterian College
Board Academic, collegiate, and music de-
partments are maintained The entrance re-
quirements aie equivalent to fourteen units of
high school work The degrees of A B , B S ,
and Ph D are conferred. A postgraduate
department is maintained, leading up to the

186

GROWTH

GROWTH

Ph D degree, for which only attendance at two
summer schools and work in absentia are
required. The total enrollment in 1910-1911
was 744. The instructors number twenty-three
members.

GROWTH. — The question of physiological
growth of children is of great importance in edu-
cation Up to the present studies have dealt
largely with the establishment of normal age stand-
ards of growth. Much still remains to be done
m correlating growth, attainments and educa-
tional progress During life all the organs of
the body undergo important structural and
functional changes, and therefore present dif-
ferent characteristics at different ages The
physiological development of the body does not
proceed at an equal rate in all individuals,
who therefore do not all reach the same phy-
siological development at the same ages, some
being accelerated in their development, while
others are retarded The stage of development
of the individual may be best observed in those
cases in which a noticeable anatomical or
physiological change accompanies the attain-
ment of a certain physiological condition
The progress of ossification, the eruption of
teeth, pubescence, the beginning of sexual
maturity, the eruption of the beard, and in
later life the menopause in women, the turning
of the eolor of the hair, the appearance of
wrinkles, and the diseases of old age, offer
opportunities for observations All of these
show that the uniformity of physiological devel-
opment is greater in young children than in
older individuals If the distribution of stages
of development were a matter of chance, they
would increase proportionally to the square
root of the age , but the progress of their vana-
bilitv seems to be quite irregular and very
rapid The range of individual differences
may be indicated by those ages within the
limits of which one half of all the individuals
observed attain a certain physiological develop-
ment. Thus, in one half of all the individuals
observed there occurs —

Years

INTERVAL
Years

Hirth between the limit;* of

-0 03 and 0 03

006

Eruption of the first incisors

0 40 and 0 74

028

Eruption of the first molars

1 4 and 1 8

04

Eruption of tho inner perma-

nent incisors of pirls

5 9 and 8 1

2 2

Kt upturn of the bicuspids

7 1 and 10 0

38

Eruption of the permanent

canmoH

10 6 and 12 0

1 4

Pubescence of boys

13 2 and 14 0

1 4

Menarchy

1'ifi and 162

26

Eruption of wisdom teeth

20 8 and 23 2

24

MenopaiiHe

41 0 and 480

70

Death due to arterial disease*

53.7 and 71 3

17.6

It appears from these data that during school
age the individual differences may be meas-
ured by a probable variability of about 2 5
years These data refer only to the develop-

ment of certain organs, but they are an indi-
cation of the variability of the development of
the whole body, although nervous, muscular,
osseous, etc , systems may each develop some-
what independently of the other The meas-
urements of children of the same age represent,
therefore, individuals of different physiological
developments; and these differences are the
greater, the older the children From this
observation, and from the fact that during
school age the variability of the stage of develop-
ment remains about the same throughout, the
conclusion must be drawn that during this
time the individual differences in measurements,
structural and functional traits, must be the
greater the more rapid the rate of develop-
ment and growth Almost all measurements
indicate that the rate of absolute growth of the
organism is greatest at the time of birth, and
shows a rather rapid decrease until the ninth
year in girls and the eleventh year in boys
During the period of adolescence the late of
growth increases very much, and reaches a
maximum, for girls about the twelfth year, for
boys about the fourteenth yeai After this
the rate of growth decreases rapidly, and the
skeleton has attained its full length with about
seventeen years in females, with twenty years
in males. Growth of muscles continues seveial
years longer, and fat is added for many years
The central nervous system also continues to
grow and develop Owing to these conditions,
the variability of anatomical, physiological,
and probably also mental conditions of children
is greatest during the period of most rapid
growth, for girls of about twelve years, for
boys of about fourteen years These char-
acteristics of growth have been observed for
stature, weight, length of trunk, length of
limbs, and measurements of the head

Nevertheless the measurements of each or-
gan exhibit characteristic features Thus dur-
ing childhood the limbs grow more rapidly than
the trunk; the total amount of the giowth of
the head from birth until the adult stage is
relatively small, the principal part of the de\ el-
opment being completed before birth The
following table shows the amount of growth in
stature, width of face, and length of head,
from the fifth year to the adult stage, in per
cent of the final size ---

Stature
Width of face
Length of head

MAT KH
Per cent

10
9

FEMALJS
Per cent

The annual increments for various measure-
ments, obtained from long series and various
types, show the following values (m milli-
meters) —

187

GROWTH

GROWTH

MALFH

1

^JSMAI KH

AGES

Stature

Length
of Head

Width
of Head

Stature

Length
ol Head

Width
of Head

5-6 .

56

5

1 3

57

1 1

09

0-7 .

53

1

1 0

51

0<)

09

7-8 .

50

2

09

52

1 1

07

8-9

48

0

06

49

1 9

Ob

9-10

46

09

07

50

1 2

07

10-11

44

J8

06

53

1 2

07

11-12

45

0

07

59

1 4

08

12-13

53

2

06

62

1 3

07

13-14

04

5

09

48

1 3

1 0

14-15

73

1 6

09

30

03

04

15-16

54

1 6

1 0

15

03

0 1

lfi-17

37

1 6

08

8

02

0 0

17-18

24

1 0

06

4

06

02

18-19

14

08

03

1

0 1

03

19-20

7

- )

20-21

3

09

04

— \

00

02

21-22

1

— j

The absolute measurements for New
land school children are as follows —

MALES

Eng-

Age

Stature

Height
sit-
ting

Weight

Length
of Head

Width
of Head

Length
oi
Fore-
arm

Width
of
Hand

6

1129

622

457

178 2

140 7

309

58

7

1179

042

497

170 6

142 1

319

60

8

1228

663

54 1

180 1

143 0

HI

62

9

1278

685

594

181 2

H4 0

314

6r>

10

1329

711

058

181 7

111 5

3,V)

07

11

1374

7J7

71 3

183 4

14 It)

373

69

12

1426 748

874

1813 ! 1456

387

71

13

1479 ! 771

869

185 2

1108

40")

74

14

1546 806

982

1872

1409

127

78

15

1620

842

1138

18S3

148 1

J15

80

16

1660

866

1226

1908

1492

4r>4

83

17

168b

885

1327

191 6

149 5

—

FEMALES

Age

Stature

Height

sit-
ting

Weight

Length
of Head

Width
of Head

Length
of
Fore-
arm

\\ idth
oi
Hnnd

6

1120

616

438

173 1

1380

301

58

7

1171

639

479

174 7

139 1

315

5S

8

1221

Ci6()

51 9

1750

1 40 3

328

60

9

1270

6SO

580

1763

1402

337

62

10

1330

705

64 1

1778

142 1

357

05

11

1372

726

700

1782

142 1

370

67

12

14 H

758

81 0

180 0

in 2

382

70

13

1499

788

897

181 7

1440

407

72

14

15*0

815

1006

182.5

1440

413

74

15

1564

83 r>

1062

1843

1 15 4

427

74

16

157J

S40

1087

1837

144 6

422

74

17

1591

K5 i

114 6

184 8

145 2

i

i

It appears from these data that the following
relations prevail between the two sexes stature,
length of trunk and of leg, and weight, of girls
are smaller than the corresponding measure-
ments ot boys until the period of prepubcrtal
acceleration, which sets in earlier in girls than
in boys As soon as this period begins, about
the eleventh year, the measurements of girls
exceed those tf hoys With the fourteenth
year the period of acceleration of the giowth of

girls is passed, while the corresponding period
begins for the boys, who from now on exceed
the measurements of girls considerably
Length and width of head of girls are always
smaller than those of boys of the same ages,
and the same is true of the size of the face
At the same period, when the total stature of
girls exceeds that of boys, the girls show an
approach of their head measurements to those
of boys, without, however, reaching them In
accordance with the more rapid rate of growth
of the body as compared to that of the head,
the ratio between head and body shows a
constant decrease during the period of growth
The ratio is less in girls than in boys until the
fifteenth year, when the continued rapid growth
of the boy's body begins to depress this ratio
under the value attained by the girl The
ratio between the length of the trunk and stat-
ure decreases until the thirteenth year among
girls, until the fifteenth year among boys
Later on it increases again Until the thir-
teenth year this proportion is about the same
in both sexes After this period the trunk of
the girl is relatively longer than that of the
boy The face of girls as compared to the
head is larger than that of bovs, while the long-
continued growth of the face of boys brings
about a reversal of the.se relations aftei the
sixteenth year The cephalic index (ratio ot
length and width of head) shows a slight
decrease during the period of growth. The
head of girls is a little more rounded than that
of boys The width of hips is hinallei among
young girls than among boys of the same age,
but it is ultimately much larger than the
corresponding measure of men All transversal
diameters and circumferences continue to
grow slightlv for a long period

Owing to the rapid increase of the rate of
growth during adolescence, and its later still
more rapid decrease, the distribution of the
amounts of annual growth is very asymmetrical
For instance, among boys eighteen vears old,
many do not grow at all, while others show the
characteristic rates of growth of boys fifteen,
sixteen, arid seventeen years old The asym-
metrv of distribution of annual giowth makes
also all the series of measurements of statures,
weights, etc , asymmetrical The correlations
between the various measurements arc greatest
during periods of rapid growth, owing to the
fact that retardation and acceleration affect
all the parts of the body at the same time,
although not all to the same extent

Little is known about racial differences in
growth All the series that have been taken
show the same essential characteristics here
described, but it may be that the periodic
distribution of lesser and greater energy of
growth is not quite equal in different races
It would be of great importance to investigate
the question of early arrest of development of
some races This phenomenon, which might
perhaps be correlated with an early arrest ot
188

GROWTH

GROWTH

mental development, has often been claimed
to exist in the negro race, but no satisfactory
proofs have been given We do not know
whether there is an earlier arrest of growth of
the brain, earlier synostosis of sutures, and
earlier arrest of post-pubertal development of
the central nervous system On the whole,
all investigations that have been made tend
to show that racial differences are present m
young children, although not so markedly as in
the adult, and that they increase in intensity
in the course of growth They become more
marked in the male than in the female

A considerable amount of information has
been accumulated m regard to the influence of
environment It has been shown particularly
that better economic conditions bring about a
more rapid and also a greater development of
the body than occurs under less favorable con-
ditions Among the poor the period of dimin-
ishing growth which precedes adolescence is
lengthened, and the acceleration of adolescence
sets in later. Thus the whole period of growth
is lengthened, but the total amount of growth
during this longer period is less than the amount
of growth attained during the shorter period of
growth of the well-to-do Therefore we find
throughout that a young child which grows
slowly will continue to grow slowly until the
period of adolescence sets in Afterwards the
child that has grown slowly during the earlv
vears of childhood will grow rapidlv It is
not certain to what causes these phenomena
must be ascribed, — whethei, for instance,
climatic conditions affect the period and total
amount of growth There is some evidence
favoring this opinion, but no definite data are
available It is generally assumed that nutri-
tion exerts a direct effect upon growth This
is true in so far as underfeeding diminishes
growth, but it seems plausible that in the bulk
of our population the better development of
man in modern times is less duo to better
nutrition than to the fact that hygienic condi-
tions of childhood have improved These are
expressed in a lessened infant mortality It-
seems plausible that, with the diminution of the
number of diseases that attack the individual,
and the consequent elimination of their retard-
ing influences, growth suffers less interruption,
and that thus the final bulk of the body is
increased The differences between social
classes are great In American cities they are
partly due to differences in the racial composition
of the well-to-do and the pool, the latter group
containing a larger proportion of immigrants,
but in Europe they occur among groups of
almost the same descent The differences be-
tween these groups are partly due to a general
retardation and acceleration; so that during the
period of growth, the whole group of the poor
are at any given time physiologically younger
than the well-to-do For this reason the differ-
ences between social groups seem to be greatest
during the period of most rapid growth

Other causes for differences of development
lie in the size of family, uiban and rural envnon-
ment, and other causes whose mode of action
is not by any means clear According to some
authors, natural selection plays an important
part m these apparent changes which develop
in the series of observed individuals, but
weighty reasons speak against the acceptance
of this theory, particularly observations on
differences in type between parents who have
grown up undei one envnonmerit and their
children who have grown up m a different
environment

Through the investigations of Porter and
Cramptoii it has been shown that retardation
of physical development is closely associated
with retardation of progress in school To the
same causes winch keep back the physical
development of the child must be partly due its
late entrance upon school life and its slow pro-
motions Children who are older than the
average age of their grade aie therefore, on the
whole, physiologically retarded children, and
those who are younger arc, on the whole,
children accelerated m physiological develop-
ment These observations make it plausible
that the assumption which has been made so
frequently — that a period of slow develop-
ment of the body is correlated with a period of
rapid development of mental faculties, and vice
versa — is not correct, but rather that rapid
physical and mental development go hand in
hand If during the period of lapid growth the
child has to be guarded against overexertion,
both mental and bodily functions are equally
concerned The close correlation between the
two emphasizes the need of proper caie of
body and mind

The study of growth has been applied exten-
sivelv to the work of school gymnasiums, and as
a result of this work numerous tables of so-called
normal growth have been published On the
whole, the results of these studies have shown
that tempoiary piactice of the body may
result m a temporary stiong development of
parts of the body, that, however, the greater
part of these results is quickly lost as soon as
practice is given up

The methods of aiithropometrical work have
been developed in school and college gymnasi-
ums and similar institutions, but also by stu-
dents of anthiopology The instruments used
are not very complicated, and are made and
sold by the makers of gymnasium appliances
and by large dealers in surgical instruments
On the whole, advancement of aiithropometrical
work has not been commensurate with the time
and energy bestowed upon it, because no ade-
quate provision has been made for its statis-
tical discussion A considerable number of
tables of averages and of " percentile grades "
have been published, in which the measure-
ments of each individual are so placed that the
per cent of individuals of the whole series are
given who have lower values of the nieasuro

189

GROWTH

GUAM

merits than the individual in question, and it is
then assumed that he should be m all respects
on the same percentile grade, — an assump-
tion that is entirely inadmissible By far the
greater number of data relating to growth have
been obtained by a study of a large number of
children of various ages, the so-called generaliz-
ing method Only limited series are based on
repeated measurements of the same children,
the so-called " individualizing method " F B

References : —

BOAH, F The Measurement* of Variable Quantities
(New ^ork, 1900)

and WIHHLLH, r Statistics of Growth Report
of the U ,S' (1ommiK8w?ier of Education for 1.904,
pp 25-132
CHAMPION, (' WARD Physiological Age American

Physical Kdut Kro , Vol XIII, Nos 3-6, 1908
CRICHTON-BHOWNE, SIR J Growth Somatic and Cere-

hral Child Study, Vol IV, pp 774)1
DAFNLH, FIIANZ Das Waihbtum des Mcmchen

(Leipzig, 1902 )

THOUNDIKE, EDWAUD L An Introduction to the Theory
of Mental and Social Measurements (Now York
1904 )
WKIHSKNBERCJ, S Das Wachstum des Menschen

(Stuttgart, 1911 )
WHIFFLE, G M Manual of Mental and Physical Tests

(Baltimore, !<)!() )

Othoi htoruturo in MCDONALD, ARTHUR Experi-
mental Stuck of riiildren Report of the U. S Com-
missioner of Education for 1897-1898t pp. 1350
ft seq

GROWTH, PHILOSOPHICAL CONCEPT

OF — See DEVELOPMENT, EVOLUTION

GRUBE METHOD — Grube (1816-1884)
published his method of teaching arithmetic
(Lcitfadcn fur das Rechneri) in Berlin in 1S42
It was a small manual, of no particular origi-
nality or merit, but on account of the transla-
tions made by Holclan (1878) and Seeley (1891)
it became an object of interest a generation
ago in the United States Grube used the
" concentric circle " idea of teaching number,
a phase of the spiral method (q v ), but it was
not original with him, having been suggested
by Krancke as early as 1819 The idea of the
concentric circle arrangement is that the child
should master all number relations within the
circle 1-10, then those within the circle 1-100,
then within the circle 1-1000 Grube also
carried the use of objective work far beyond
the point where it ceased to be helpful, thus
weakening rather than strengthening the num-
ber concept lie also attempted to teach the
four processes simultaneously, unmindful of
their difference in difficulty and importance
The result was that his method was mechanical
and uninteresting, serving its chief purpose in
leading many American teachers to consider
with greater care the early stages of arithmetical
work It illustiates the ease with which a
narrow method can be created, and the danger
that arises from following such a method

DES

GRUNDTVIG, NIKOLAI FREDERIK
SEVERIN (1783-1872) —Danish historian,

190

poet, divine, and statesman, of great impor-
tance in the history of Danish education as the
mspirer and founder of the People's High
Schools (Folkehojskoler), and thus of the
revived nationalism of the country in the last
century Influenced by a visit to England in
1829-1831 and a study of the works of Fichte,
Grundtvig devoted himself to uplifting the
people, who were suffering under material and
intellectual depression He saw the only
remedies in a revived patriotism and a living
religion In his Brief Writings on the Histori-
cal High School he attacks the Latin schools of
his day as " schools for death," as he charac-
terizes them, and pleads enthusiastically for
people's high schools or " schools for life "
Training was already provided for all kinds of
professions; the new schools should train
Danish citizens Taking as the basis of these
schools the Royal Resolutions of 1847, which
he inspired, he proposed the establishment of
institutions where peasants and artisans could
receive an education in the mothei tongue,
national songs and the national history,
mythology and folklore Above all, instruction
was to be oral, for the living word is of greatei
value than book learning, which is deadening
Intercourse between leaders of such schools and
the students was to be free and democratic,
for patriotic, self-respecting, loval citizens were
to be the outcome In addition to this cultural
education some insight was to be given into the
constitution, economic resources, and industries
of the country, with personal contacts so far as
possible

The first school opened under the influence
of Grundtvig was opened in Rodding by
Professor Chr Flor m 1848, but the present
system received its impetus from the school
established by Kristen Kold with Grundtvig's
assistance at Ryshnge m Fuhnen in 1851,
until at the present time they are spread over
all the Scandinavian countries, and have repre-
sentatives m America

See DENMARK, EDUCATION IN

References : —

MADSEN, R Grundtvig und die damsehen Volks-
hochschulen, in Padagoaisches Magazin, Pt 253
(LaiiKerisalza, 1905 )

SADLER, M E Continuation Schools in England and
Elsewhere (Manchester, 1907 )

THORNTON, J S England, Board of Education,
Special Reports on Educational Subjects Vol I,
Recent Educational Progiess in Denmark (1897) ,
Vol XVII, Schools Public and Private in the North
of Europe (1907)

GUADELOUPE — See FRENCH COLONIES,
EDUCATION IN

GUAM, EDUCATION IN — The island of
Guam, situated at the southern extremity of
the Ladrone Archipelago, was ceded by Spain
to the United States on Dec. 10, 1898, and
on account of the convenient harbor affords
a desirable naval station By direction of the

GUAM

GUARINO DEI GUARINI

President, the naval commander at that port
assumed the government of the island Accord-
ing to a census taken in 1901, the population
was 9676 (4566 males, 5110 females) They
comprised original inhabitants, called by the
Spaniards Chamorros, Tagal settlers, and
mixed people of Spanish and native, ancestry
Nearly all the inhabitants could speak the
Spanish language, and about 35J per cent could
read and write Spanish They lived, as a mle,
in small towns, which are said to have been in
very neat condition The American comman-
dant at once issued orders for the government
of the island, confirming such Spanish laws as
did not conflict with those of the United States,
and shortly after the new ordei of things was
established, three schools were opened in the
capital, Agaiia, for teaching English, under the
superintendence of Mr H H Hiatt Similar
schools were soon started in other towns,
especially Asan and Agat, the non-commissioned
officers of marines ably seconding the efforts
of the superintendent A circulating library
was also established in the capital The first
general order relating to education issued by the
commandant, bearing the date Jan 22, 1900,
placed the schools under government control
Attendance was made compulsory for the ages
of eight to fourteen Sectarian instruction
was prohibited, and it was required that the
English language should be the medium of
instruction as rapidly as the necessary teachers
could be secured The recent progiess and
status of the schools are shown by the following
statistics from reports made to the United
States Navy Department. —

STATISTICS PERT/VINING TO GOVERNMENT SCHOOLS

No OF

ENROU MFNT

YEAR OF
REPORT

CHIL-
DREN

OJ

SCHOOL

BOYB

No o*
TEACH-
ERS

TOTAL
EXPEN-
DITURE

GlHLH

TOTAL

A«F

1908

1392

896

692

1588

3f*

1909

1471

1572

35i

$7335

1910

1730

977

813

1790

r*3

K142

1 Native teachers only.

On the enrollment above given an average
attendance has been maintained ranging from
9G per cent in 1908 to 956 in 1910 The
number of teachers reported in 1910 includes
enlisted men detailed for the schools in outlying
villages, and eleven laborers from the comman-
dant's office During the year a building for
school purposes was constructed at Agafia, at
an expense to the island treasury of $2600
This increased accommodation will enable full-
day sessions to be maintained for both boys and
girls Unfortunately, on account of the antici-
pated decrease in the revenues of the island, it
has become necessary to drop a number of

teachers for the new fiscal year The natives
seem anxious to learn, and competent teachers
are especially needed to introduce manual
training A. T S

References : —

SAFFORD, W E. Guam and its People in Amcman
Anthropolooist (N$), Vol IV, October-December,
1902

United States Navy Department, Official Rep<ntti to
Congress (Washington, 1900, 1905, 1910)

GUARINO, BATTISTA (1434 1513) —
Renaissance schoku, son of (Juanno Veionese
(q v ), in whose school he gained such profi-
ciency in learning as to be appointed professoi
of rhetoric at Bologna at the age of twenty-one
On the death of his father he was appointed to
succeed him Battista has left a brief account
in the form of a letter to a pupil of the educa-
tional ideals and system of his father. In
this work DC Online Docendi el Studendi (Con-
ceining the Order and the Method lo he Observed
in Teach nig and in Reading the Claxmcal
Authors, 1459), the pursuit of letters is accepted
as the most worthy object of ambition, and the
educated gentlenuui is he who is familiar with
Greek and Latin literature The first point
emphasized is the choice of a teacher who must
be well bred, and, of couise, a scholar Coi-
poral punishment should not be employed, but
rather emulation and rivalry, for which purpose
boys should be paiied off From the beginning
perfect enunciation must be insisted on
Grammar should be taught by practical exam-
ples and drill, and should include prosody and
rhythm Greek and Latin should be taught
side by side It is interesting to compare the
arguments employed for the study of Greek
with those now employed by the extremist fo?
the retention of classics While great stress is
laid on rhetoric and style, Guanno does not
exclude broad reading for content, especially
in history and geography, but the aim of these
studies, as of philosophy and ethics, is to illumi-
nate the references which occur in the readings
As compared with the later Ciceronian move-
ment, the statement may be noticed that
" distinction of style is the fruit of a far wider
field of study " than the Lettei* of Cicero
Other valuable suggestions are the keeping of
commonplace books (q v ) and of reading aloud
as an aid to clear enunciation and memory.
Lastly, there is the testimony that from his
father's Academy " proceeded the greater
number of those scholars who have carried learn-
ing not merely throughout Italy, but far bevond
her borders "

Reference : —

WOODWARD, W H Vittonno da Feltre and other
Humanist Educators (Cambridge, 1905 )

GUARINO DEI GUARINI, DA VERONA,
or VERONESE (1374-1460) —One of the
early humanist scholars and teachers He
studied m turn at Padua, Venice, and Florence

GUATEMALA

GUATEMALA

From 1403 to 1408 lie was in Constantinople as
a famulux in the house of (1hr ysoloras, the
famous Greek teacher, and studied mainly
under the son of Ohrysoloras On his return he
opened a school at Florence, where he met with
success, but in 1 41 4 he nio\ed to Venice, wheie
he taught Vittormo (<//•) (Jieek and entered
into a lifelong friendship with him In HIS
he was culled to Verona as professor of rhetoric,
and in 1421) came the invitation from Niccolo
d'Este of Ferrara to act as tutor to his son,
Leonello He was pei nutted, as Vittormo was,
to take additional pupils, day students and
boarders The presence of (Juarino attracted
many distinguished scholars from all paits of
Europe to Ferrara, so that in J430 the munici-
pality appointed Guarmo civic professor of
rhetoric, and in 1412 obtained the lights to
establish a university (Uianno continued ins
studies until the end of his long life He was
an eager collectoi of manuscripts, and on his
return from Constantinople he brought back
some fiity Greek Mss , and later he collected
or had transcribed numerous Latin MSB
Among his writings were an elementary Latin
grammar (Reguke Guarnn), which was widely
used, and many translations, including an
abridgement of dirysoloras' Krotcmala, and
parts ot Lucian, Isociales Plutarch (fifteen
of the Lives and irtpl ir(u8u)v dywyr/s), and
the whole of Strabo As a school master his
aim was avowedly eloquence and scholaiship
(vir bonus pcntux diccndi] lie divided the
studies into three stages* (1) elementary, in-
cluding reading Italian, Latin, and grarnmai ,
(2) giammatical, including formal grammar,
and reading of the classics ior content and
style, Greek and Latin being taught side by
side, and (3) rhetorical, consisting mainly of
Cicero and Qumtilian for style and composi-
tion Guarmo's educational ideals are set
forth in a letter to his pupil Leonello d'Kste
and in the 7> Ordnic Dnrrndi et Studendi by
his son Battista Guarmo (q v )

References : —

S \ND\S, ,J K Hfstoiy of Classical Scholai ship, Vol II

(Caiiibndge, 19US )
WOODWARD, W H Education du?iny the Hentubttance

(Cambridge, !{)()<> )

GUATEMALA, EDUCATION IN - There-
public of Gauternala was established Mar 21
1S47, and the present constitution was Adopted
in December, 1S79, but it has since been re-
peatedly modified Under the direction of the
president, who is elected for six years, public
affairs are administered by the heads of six
departments, one of which is charged with
public instruction The population of the state
is nearly 2,000,000, about GO per cent being pure
Indians, and the larger proportion of the re-
mainder half castes In the country at laige,
the population of pure European ancestry is
very small, but in the capital, Guatemala la
Nueva, they form about five sixths ol the total

192

(125,000, in 1900) The prevailing religion is
Roman Catholic, but complete religious liberty
is guaranteed

Public elementary schools are free, and
parents are obliged by law to secure the in-
struction of their children, but with choice
between public and private agencies Public
schools are under government inspection, and
are maintained partly by local funds and partly
by appropriations from the general treasury
In 1909 there were 1330 elementary schools,
with 51,820 pupils, an increase over the corre-
sponding totals for 1907 of 6S schools and 75SO
pupils The 1380 schools reported in 1909
include 174 attended by both boys and girls,
thirty-one night schools, and four practrcal
schools for boys and three for girls In the
latter schools training foi trades or industries
is combined with ordinary subjects and with
special instruction in morals and hygiene
The Minister of Public Instruction, in his latest
report (1(K)9) dwells upon the adrnnable
results of thi> class oi schools, which promise,
he believes, rapid increase in numbers

In addition to the elementary schools, theie
is a national secondary school foi boys, ///,s//-
tuto Nanonal Centtal dc Vmo)U'\, a conc-
sponding school for girls with a normal depart-
ment, and a national noinial school for men
with a secondary depart merit., all nt the capital
At Quezaltenango there is a secondary school
for boys, and at ('hiquimuhi one secondary
school with a normal depaitment for ^ oung
men, and a normal school for young women
In 1909 1202 students (758 boys and 444 girls)
were enrolled in these secondary and normal
institutions The number of students in the
normal school and in normal departments in-
cluded in the foregoing total was seventy-one
In addition to the public schools and institutes,
the chief cities are well supplied with private
schools

Higher education is represented by a school
of law with 49 students in 1909, and a school
of medicine and pharmacy with 135 students
(94 medicine, 41, pharmacy) The school of
engineering uas temporarily suspended pend-
ing the election oi new buildings for the
military school, oi winch it will hereafter be a
part Theie are also at the capital a national
school ol handicraft for women, a national
conservatory of music, and a school of ait
The national library contains about 20,000
volumes

The public appropriation for education in
1909 amounted to 2,526,015 pesos ($885,146),
which was a little less than 7 per cent of the
total appropriation for all purposes A. T. S.

References : —

Build ins oi the International Bureau of the American

Republics
Files of the (\ntio America Organ (J( la Oflcina inter

( '< ntro-+ 1 m < ru d n a

Guatemala Minivtcnu <l< In$tru(a6n publica, Memo-
A, 1SS() 1<MM) H( port year irregular

GUERNSEY

GURNEY

GUERNSEY, ELIZABETH, COLLEGE.—

See GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, ENGLISH, COLLEGE,
ENGLISH; PUBLIC SCHOOLS

GUIANA, EDUCATION IN — British
Guiana, with a population of 304,000 in 1909,
had 223 public schools, attended by 33,88S
pupils. These schools were supported in part
by local funds and in part by government
grant, amounting in the year named to £25,274
($116,370) The wealthy residents of George-
town, the capital, and the owners of the rich
sugar estates employ private tutors for their
children or send them to private schools

Dutch Guiana has a population of about
SI ,000 exclusive of negroes, and in 1909 reported
twenty-three public schools with 2580 pupils and
thirty-seven private schools with 4993 pupils
There aie also boarding schools maintained by
the religious denominations, Roman Catholic,
Moravian, etc ATS

GUIANA, FRENCH —See FRENCH COLO-
NIES, EDUCATION IN.

GUIDANCE, LABOR -- Sec VOCATIONAL
GUIDANCE

GUIDANCE, VOCATIONAL — See VOCA-
TIONAL GUIDANCE

GUILDS AND EDUCATION — See GILDS
AND EDUCATION

GUILFORD COLLEGE, GUILFORD, N C.

— A coeducational institution founded in
1S37 by the North Carolina Yearly Meeting of
Friends as the New Gaiclen Boarding School,
and re-charteied in 1888 Preparatory and
collegiate depar tments are maintained The en-
trance requirements to the freshman class are
equivalent to about twelve points of high school
work Degrees of A B and B S are conferred.
The faculty consists of fourteen members

GUILFORD, NATHAN (1786-1854) —

Lawyer and legislator, active in the establish-
ment of the common school system m Ohio,
was graduated from Yale College in 1812
He was for a few years principal of a classical
school at Worcester, Mass , and then engaged
in the practice of law in Ohio As a member
of the Ohio legislature he was active in the
enactment of the first general school law (1821)
From 1818 to 1825 he published Solomon
Thnfty's Almanac, the forerunner of such
publications in the United States, extensively
used between 1825 and 1850 for the spread of
doctrines of common school education CJuil-
ford's almanac contained the calendar, the
" weather " piedictions, astionomical changes,
advice to farmers, and on every page some-
thing about the value of education and the
need of common schools in Ohio lie was also
the authoi of an aiithmetic and a spelling book

W. S. M.

Reference : —

BABNAUD, H American Journal of Education 1860
Vol VII, pp 280-294

GUINEA, FRENCH. — See FRENCH COLO-
NIES, EDUCATION IN

GUIZOT, FRANCOIS PIERRE GUIL-
LAUME (1787-1874) — French historian, man
of letters, oratoi, and statesman, and member
of many French academies He was minister of
public instruction from 1832 to 1837, except
for brief intervals m 1834 and 1836 Under
his ministry the whole scheme of primary in-
struction was entirely reorganized, higher
primary schools were established, the depart-
mental normal schools weie put upon an en-
tirely new basis with more effective control by
the central authorities; the office of primary
inspector was created, and a fresh and lasting
impetus was given to the cause of popular edu-
cation His circulars to prefects, rectors,
inspectors, and teachers form a veritable
treatise on education These were still further
reenfoiced through the columns of the Manuel
(jtneral de V instruction primaire, which he estab-
lished with the view of keeping the teachers
m touch with the newer educational methods
Among the better known of his historical works
are. Ihstoire generate dc la civilisation en
Europe depui^ la chute dc V empire nnnain
jusqua la involution frangaise (1828), Histoire
gcnerale de la civilisation en France depute la
chute dc Venipue romain (1830), Ihttoire de
la revolution d'Angletene F E F.

See FRANCE, EDUCATION IN

References : —

GUIZOT, F P G Mtmoiret* pour scrinr a THistoire de

man Tctnj* (Pans, 1858-1885)
SIMON Thteiit, Ginzot, Remutuit (Pann, 1H85 )
WITT, MM*. DE (Guizot's daughter) Mon&icut Guizot

dans sa Familh ct avcc act Ami^ (Parib, 1880,

tr London, 1880)

GUMMERE, JOHN (1784-1845). — A
leader in secondary education among the
members of the Society of Friends, was princi-
pal of Friends' schools in New Jersey and
Pennsylvania foi forty years lie was at the
head of the school at Ilaverford, which later
became Haverf ord ( 1ollegc (q v } , he was active
in the American Philosophical Society (qv),
and was the authoi of works on Surveying
(1814) and Astronomy (1S22) His brother,
Samuel K Gummcie (1789-1806), was prin-
cipal of a school for girls at Burlington, N.J
(1821-1837), and the author of a Geography
(1817), Spelling Book (1831), and work on
Elocution (1857) W. S M

See FRIENDS, EDUCATIONAL INFLUENCE OP
SOCIETY OF

Reference : —

ALLISON, W J Memorial of the life of John Gummere
(Burlington, N J , 1845 )

GURNEY, M. — See WOMEN, EDUCATION OF.

193

GUSTATORY SENSATIONS

GUTS MUTHS

GUSTATORY SENSATIONS — Sensations
derived through the organs of taste There
are four qualities of such sensations; namely,
bitter, sweet, sour, and bahne To these four
qualities arc sometimes added two others,
which are, however, of doubtful character,
namely, metallic and alkaline Different parts
of the tongue have different susceptibilities
to these qualities Thus the tip of the tongue
receives sweet tastes more easily than others,
while the back of the tongue is more sensitive
to bitter. C. H J

GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS COLLEGE, ST
PETER, MINN -- See LUTHERAN CHURCH,
EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM OF, IN UNITED STATES

GUTHRIE, THOMAS (1803-1873) —
Scotch preacher and philanthropist, born at
Brechin At the age of twelve he entered
Edinburgh University, where he studied for
ten years, first taking a general course, then
theology and medicine This he followed up
by study at the Horboime in Paris, where lie
took up natural philosophy, chemistry, and
anatomy He was ordained in 1830, and very
soon came into prominence as an influential
preacher When located in Edinburgh, he
devoted himself to social woik and established
savings banks, Sunday schools, and education
His woik in the last field gives him a place of
importance in the history of British education
Guthrie disclaims the title of founder of Ragged
Schools (q v ) in Scotland, giving the credit to
the Sherili of Abeideen, Mr Watson How-
ever that may be, it is certain that by his
writings Guthrie did more than any other man
to spread the idea of the Ragged Schools
(Pica* for Ragged School*, 1847-1849) His
work among the poor had opened his eyes
to the fact that while the provision made in
poorhousos, hospitals, asylums, and free schools
reached a laige majority of the population of
Edinburgh, nothing was done for the very
lowest classes — the shiftless, drunken, im-
moral beings who (hove their young children on
the streets to beg and steal For the adults
Guthne was not so very much concerned, except
that he strongly advocated a limitation on the
facilities for obtaining drink, but the young
must be taken in hand, for prevention is better
than cure These children needed food and
clothing first and education afterwards, hence
the need of special schools, or Ragged Schools,
to deal with them These schools were to find
food and shelter, to bring back tbe poor waifs
by sound religious education, and to lit them
for some vocation by industrial training
Such a system would not add to national ex-
penditure, but would reduce the cost of main-
taining police, courts, magistrates, jails, and
penal settlements The 4< Original Ragged
Schools " weie established in Edinburgh in
1847, and spread rapidly to other Scotch towns,
and in his Thud Plea (I860) Outline was able

194

to report the disappearance of juvenile beggars
and a decrease m juvenile crime, and to point
to respectable mothers and fathers who had
been reclaimed by the Ragged Schools No
better testimony to the affection in which
Guthne was held can be pointed to than the
remark made by a girl at his funeral, " He was
all the father I ever knew " Guthrie edited
the Sunday Magazine from 1854 to his death,
and contributed frequently to Good Words.

References : —

Dictionary of National Biography

EWART, H. Leaders Upward and Onward, pp 268-314

(New York, 1889 )
GUTHRIE, T Setd-tirm and Harvest of Ragged Schools,

containing the three Pleas (Edinburgh, 1860 )

GUTS MUTHS, JOHANN CHRISTOPHER
FRIEDRICH (1759-1839) —Physical edu-
cator; was born at Quedhnburg and obtained
his early education in that town, studied theol-
ogy, mathematics, physics, history, and
modern languages at the University of Halle
for three years, became private tutor in the
family of a physician, and in 1785 accompanied
two sons of the latter to Sal z maim 's school at
Schnepfenthal, where he remained in active
service as a teacher until a short time before
his death Guts Muths took charge of the
boys daily and led them in foot races, vaulting,
jumping across a ditch, jumping for height,
forced marches, throwing at a mark, estimat-
ing with the eye the distance from one place to
another, walking on the thin edge of a plank,
lifting with a staff a weight moved nearer or
farther from the hands according to one's
strength, skating, swimming, sliding, etc.

He kept accurate records of each boy's
progress from week to week To the most
diligent and proficient boys he taught riding
on horseback, and the use of firearms He
also paid much attention to matters of diet,
clothing, personal cleanliness, and ventilation of
sleeping and study rooms He encouraged walk-
ing, work in the garden, and other outdoor
activities Guts Muthh exerted a powerful in-
fluence on the development of physical edu-
cation, by his fifty years of teaching and by his
writings on the subject

His two most important books are: Gym-
nastik fur die Jugcnd, cnthaltend eine praktische
Anwcivung zu Leibesubungen Em Beytrag zur
nothigsten Verbcsserung der korperhchcn Erzich-
ung Spidc znr Ubuiig und Erholung des
Korperx und Geiatex, fw die Jugend, ihre
Erzieher und allc Freunde unachuldiger Jugend-
frcuden Gesatnmelt und praktisch bearbeitet von
Guts Myths, Erzieher zu Schnepfenthal (1796)
These two books passed through several edi-
tions, and have been translated in many lan-
guages They were the first modern manuals
on the subjects of gymnastics and play

G L M

For the influence of Guts Muths on the devel-
opment of gymnastics, sec GYMNASTICS, GERMAN

GUYAU

GYMNASIUM

References : —

LEONARD, F A The Beginnings of Modern Physical
Training in Europe Am Phys Educ Rev , Vol
IX, pp 89-110

WASSMANNHDORFF, K Johann ("hrwtoph Fmednch
Outs Muths Erweiteter tieparatabdruck aus der
Festschrift zur Feier dett hundcrtjdhngcn Destehens
von Schnepfenthal (Heidelberg, 1884 )
Outs Myths 1793-1893 Die Kupfer und Einw&
vom Texte der ersten TurnunternchtRbucher der Welt,
" Schnepfenthal 1793" Mit einer turuycschicht-
lichen Einlcitung (Leipzig, 1893 )

GUYAU, JEAN MARIE (1854-1888) —
Poet, philosopher, and sociologist, who in a
short life of thirty-three years made some val-
uable contributions to knowledge When only
nineteen he was crowned by the Academic des
Sciences Morales et Politiques for his work,
Menioirv *ur la Morale utilitaire depute Epicure
liiaqu'd VEcole Anglaisv (1874) Until his
health broke down completely he taught phi-
losophy in the Lyce> Condorcet In his many
philosophical works he emphasized the practical
and the social as the best standards of criti-
cism Philosophical problems should accord-
ingly be stated in terms of society It is fioin
this point of view that his chief pedagogical
work, Education et Hercditc (1887) was written
" Man being made to live among men/' he
writes, " we cannot go too far m the process
of moulding the child for social life " The
title of this work is somewhat misleading, for
very little attention is given to heredity be-
yond a brief inquiry into the instinctive equip-
ment of the child on which the educational
process may be built up Guyau offers some
sound criticism of the French system of exami-
nations, and gives a comparative sketch of
secondary education in England, Franco, and
Germany, and also draws illustrations from
American practice for the training of initiative
He accepts the definition of education as har-
monious development, and discusses the place
of physical, moral, civic, and intellectual
education On instruction he says " teaching
must never be a matter of memory, erudition,
or pure knowledge, but rather of intellectual,
moral, and civic training " In the earlier part
of his book he devotes some attention to sug-
gestion as a method of training in right habits
The work on the whole is a valuable appendix
to Spencei's Education Guyau also wrote
a scries of textbooks for use in elementary
schools for children from five to eleven, dealing
with moral instruction. l'Ann6c rnfantine,
VAnnec Preparatoire ; la pr em it re Annee dc
Lecture C our ante (Education, Instruction,
Civixme, one volume for pupils and one for
teachers) Two readers on the basis of the
reading-writing method were also written by
him (Methode Guyau, La Lecture facihtec par
I'Ecnture) Among his philosophical works
may be mentioned La Morale anglai.se con-
temporaine, Vlrrehgion de I' Avenu , V Art au
point du i^ue sociologiquc His best known
poetical work is the Vers d'un Ptiilouophe

References : —

DAURIAC, L A Philoaophes contemporaines, in IS An-
nee philonophtqut, 1890, pp 191-225 (PariH, 1891 )

FouRNiihiL, E Quibtirtn* de MoraU (Parib, 1900 )

GUYAU, J M Education and Heredity, tr by W J
Greenstreet (London, 1891 )

LAMBMIT, A L'CEuvrr sociologiquo de Guyau, in
Rev internal dc Nonoloyie, Vol VIII, pp 577-580
(PariH, 1900)

WILLENBUCHER, H J M Gnyav'8 Pmnzip des Schonen
und der Kunst (Giosscn, 1899 )

GUYOT, ARNOLD HENRY (1807-1884) —
Geographer, born at Neufchalel, Switzeiland, on
Sept 28, 1807 He was educated at the College
of Neufchatel and the University of Berlin He
was for ten years professor of physical geog-
raphy in the college at Neufchatel, and came
to America in 1848 For six years he was
employed by the Massachusetts State Board of
Education as lecturer on geography in the
state normal schools at Westhelcl, Framing-
ham, Bridgewater, and Salem He was pro-
fessor of physical geography at Princeton Uni-
versity from 1854 to 1884 He was great! v
influenced by Karl Hitter during his studies in
Germany, arid he brought to America the firsl
ludiments of geography as a science Tin-
textbooks of Guyot were the first to present
the study of geography as a science to the
English-speaking woild His works include
Earth and Man (1849), Geographical Tcarhniy
(1866), geography textbooks for elementary
and secondary schools, and many maps and
charts 'W S M

See GEOGRAPHY, TEACHING OF

Reference : —

DANA, JAME» D Biographical Memoirs of the National

Academy of Sciences, Vol II, pp .Ul 347

(Washington, 1886)

GUYOT, THOMAS —See PORT ROYALIST*

GYMNASIUM — Originally applied to the
exerci.se ground 01 public training school
maintained, as for example, at Athene, not only
for the cphcbi, but for all men of military age,
this term by a process of transfeience came to
be used in the sense now usually attached to it,
i.e. an institution foi higher education (See
GREEK EDUCATION, undei the caption Educa-
tional Practice ) Though the gymnasium was
free, the teachers and trameis in gymnas-
tics were paid, and as the poorei citizens had to
earn then own living, the Athenian gymna-
sium, like the modern umveisity, came to be
chiefly frequented by the well-to-do There
being plenty of leisure between the exercises,
and the spectacles attractive, the gymnasia
tended to become fashionable lounges, in which
the leisured class spent a large portion of its
time The older men naturally became spec-
tators and critics rather than active1 performers
Among them developed the walking and talking
clubs, which were the origin of Greek schools
Here the Sophists met and discussed the laws

195

GYMNASIUM

GYMNASIUM

of nature and of art, and practiced intellectual
as well as physical culture In the suburban
gymnasium, called the Academy (aWty/iewi)
after the local deity or hero Acadernus, the soph-
ist Plato started his discussion forum, or courses
of free lectures, which, when at his death he
devised his neighboring house and garden to his
pupil, Speusippos, developed into an endowed
University College Hence our modern Acade-
mies (q v ) In another gymnasium, the Ly-
ceum, Aristotle, one of Plato's pupils, established
his lectuies, open to the inner circle only in
the morning, and to the public in the after-
noon Hence the French lycec The term
" gymnasium " itself apparently is first used as
equivalent ioi school only in a Greek epigram
of uncertain but probably late date in the
literally exact phrase " the schools of the
Academy'' and the metaphoiical phrase "in
the school of Homer" (ei/ eO/*77pau> yu/ui/ao-ia>)

In Latin the term is not used simply as equiva-
lent to " school " , but as the locally correct term
in such phiases in Cicero as " all the gym-
nasiums and schools of the philosophers "
The Romans despised gymnasia Until the
time of Nero there were none in Rome In
the Middle Ages, the gymnasium, both thing
and term, was unknown , except to one or two
exceptionally learned writers, such as Matthew
Paris, who descubed the school kept by Lari-
franc at Bee as a gymnasium Hut with the
Renaissance the passion for Greek made the
name reappeai Kmghton describes a Lollard
conventicle as a gymnasium, ? e school, of
heresy The coming of Manuel Chrysoloras
(q v ) to teach Greek at Florence in 1396 and
at Pa via in 1400, and the consequent passion for
the study of Gieek made Greek terms fashion-
able Hence already in a letter written in 1422
Guanno of Verona uses " gymnasium" as the
equivalent of " school," and speaks of Cicero as
flying with the highest glory through all the
schools1 of Italy (gymnasia Italorum) Vitto-
rino da Feltre (q v ) called his school the
Gymnasium Palatinum or Palace School This
school became the model for many, and so
Gmnavio became the common term in Italy
for a public school of the humanist type It
is possible that the prominence given in this
school to physical culture, games and sports
being cultivated almost as much as in our
modern public schools and universities, mav
have partly suggested and justified the use of
the term " gymnasium " From Italy the term
was transported into Germany, and seems to
have been first used of the great Netherlands
schools, which, alike in the numbers attending,
the age to winch the pupils stayed, and the
subjects of instruction, were almost as much
universities as schools, e g the schools connected
with the Brethren of the Common Life (qv),
Emmerich, 1474, and Deventcr under Hegius
and LuUich or Liege in H98 These schools
became the model for the gieut Reformation
gymnasium founded, 01 lather reconstituted

by John Sturm (q v.) at Strassburg under
the control of the Town Council m 1538 It
was probably the fame of this school that
finally stamped the term " gymnasium" on the
German language as the technical term for
the great high schools in which the classics
formed and still form the mam subjects of
instruction

In England the term " gymnasium " never
became popular It was occasionally used
by way of grandiloquence, and schoolmasters
were sometimes absurdly termed gynmasiarcha,
especially in epitaphs, just as in the new
cathedral schools of Henry VIII they are
termed nrchididaxralux and hypodidascalu*
(which one1 learned antiquary translated into
" master of the horse ") One learned person
who died master at Fothermglmv, having been
second master at Eton, whence he fled from the
Roman wrath of Mary, even went so far as to
describe himself on his tombstone as paido-
triba, the term applied to the gymnasium
official who rubbed the youth down with oil
But as a rule the common-sense Englishman
stuck to the simple and ancient " grammai
school " (q v ) A. F. L.

GYMNASIUM —The equipment of a
modern educational institution is not complete
without a gymnasium The provision of a
special place devoted to the physical education
of youth is not an innovation of modern times,
for gymnasia occupied a very important place
in Greek education (q v ) and it is interesting
to note that the use of the term in the scholastic
sense has been retained in Germany, while the
French lycec recalls the Lyceum, the gym-
nasium where Socrates and Aristotle met their
disciples

" Gymnasium" as a term in modern English
education dates only from the introduction of
physical training under cover into English
schools Probably the eaihcst building used as a
general gymnasium in England \vas the hall for
physical training, furnished with giant's strides,
parallel bars, leaping horses, ladder, ropes, and
the like, known as Mohammed's Gymnasium,
established at Brighton about 1848 To this
the numerous preparatory schools which then
flourished abundantly in Brighton resorted for
an hour twice a week or so In Germany in 1870
gymnasiums were recognized by law as an es-
sential part of the equipment of public second-
ary schools But in England physical culture
had for more than a century at all events, and
perhaps for longer, been developed by games,
such as cricket, football, and hockey In
England though some of the new public
schools had gymnasiums, that at Rugby Col-
lege being built in 1859, and at Marl-
borough College made out of a covered play-
ground m 1869, they did not reach the -old
schools, now become a recognized requirement
of a well equipped secondaiy school, till the last
decade of the twentieth century* Even now
in the great Public Schools and the grammar
196

GYMNASIUM

GYMNASIUM

schools situate in the countiy 01 country
towns, with ample playing helds, the gymna-
sium plays an insignificant part in school life

A F L

The first gymnasium connected with an edu-
cational institution in the United States was
that of the Round Hill School, Northampton,
Mass , built in 1 825 The first college gym-
nasium was one fitted in a hall ol one of the
Harvard College buildings in March, 1826
Outdoor gymnasiums were established at Yale in
1826, and at Williams and Amherst and Brown
in 1827 The wave of interest in gymnastics
which was responsible for the erection of these
gymnasiums had passed by 1830 and was not
revived until 1860, when Harvard, Yale, and
Amherst built new gymnasiums, and were fol-
lowed by other colleges Except for a tempo-
rary check during the Civil War, the building of
gymnasiums has gone on steadily since I860,
and nearly all colleges and secondary schools
and many elementary schools are now equipped
with them The size, equipment, and cost of
gymnasiums vary over very wide limits accord-
ing to the size and financial resources of the
different institutions There are several col-
lege gymnasiums that have cost more than
$200,000

A typical gymnasium building includes one
large hall with suspended running track,
smaller rooms for boxing, fencing, wrestling,
handball, baseball winter piactice, rowing on
machines, etc , offices and examination room,
locker rooms, bathrooms, and swimming pool
In planning a gymnasium building, the first
consideration is the dimensions neccvssaiy to
accommodate the number of students in the
institution when the building is erected and to
piovide for the probable increase in twenty or
twenty-five years The rectangular form is bet-
ter than the square for the main hall A room
40 by 60 feet is the minimum size in which satis-
factory work can be done A gymnasium of this
size would be sufficient for an institution with
one hundred students The size should increase
approximately 500 square ieet for every 100
additional students; thus an institution with
1000 students would need a gymnasium 70
by 100 feet The height of the ceiling should
be at least 22 feet m a gymnasium 40 bv 60
feet and increased approximately by one foot
for every additional 500 square feet of floor
area

The bottom of the running track should be at
least 10 feet from the floor and the surface of the
track at least 8 feet wide and curved to facili-
tate turning corners The number and si/e of
accessory rooms foi special forms of exercise
would vary with the number of students to be
accommodated With a small gymnasium
40 by 60 feet, it would be enough to have a
baseball cage about 20 by 70 feet, a handball
court 15 by 30 feet, and a* room about 20 by 30
feet for other purposes With a gymnasium
70 by 100 feet, a cage 30 by 100 feet, four hand-

ball courts, and three 01 four rooms 20 bv 30 let 1
would furnish adequate equipment All these
rooms should have1 a height of at least 15 fret
The locker rooms should have an aioa of
approximately four square feet for each locker
when lockers are arranged in double tiers
The best modern bathrooms in gymnasium
buildings are equipped with shower baths only,
each shower having a single mixing valve The
number of showers necessary for one hundred
students is about eight and two more showers
for each additional one hundred students
The administrative office, director's office, and
examination room should be arranged en suite
in the central part of the building The
latest college and school gymnasium buildings
have a laige hall or room, near the entrance, in
which the athletic trophies, banners, and team
photographs are displayed

There is no building in the equipment of an
educational institution where adequate heat-
ing and ventilation and absolute cleanliness
are so important as m the gymnasium building
Scientists have demonstrated that a man exei-
cismg vigorously vitiates the air about ten times
as much m a given time as when sitting tit a
lecture or recitation The failure to take this
fact into consideration when planning gym-
nasium buildings is largely responsible foi the
bad air usually found in gymnasiums The air
should be washed, heated, humidified, and
pumped into the gymnasium in sufficient quan-
tity to supply 100 cubic feet a minute foi each
individual using the room The installation
and operation of heating and ventilating
equipments adequate to do this work involve:*
a very large expense, but it is unwise economy
to curtail expenses in this direction The
tempeiature should be maintained at 62 1o 64
in looms devoted to exricise and 72 to 74 in
lockei rooms and batlnooms The cleaning
of the gymnasium, locker looms, bathrooms,
and other accc'ssoiirs is equally important
Every part of the building should be cleaned
daily, the floors washed frequently and the
gymnasium mats kept fiee fiom dust by the
use of vacuum cleaners With adequate \en-
tilation and absolute cleanliness in a gym-
nasium building, there is no appieciable diffid-
ence in the physiological eiiects of indoor and
outdoor exercise

Gymnasium Equipment. — The selection ol
a proper equipment for the gymnasium of a
school or college should receive the most careful
attention The essential points to be con-
sidered are First, to supply enough appa-
latus for the largest class to be taught, second,
to have all the apparatus so constructed that
it may be easily and quickly set up and re-
moved, and third, to distribute the apparatus
from the standpoint of practical class manage-
ment rather than architectural expediency

A typical equipment for a school or college
gymnasium in which the largest classes have
sixty students would include the following

197

GYMNASTIC TEACHERS

GYMNASTICS

2 vaulting bars, 2 horizontal bars, 2 parallel
bars, 2 horses, 2 bucks or vaulting boxes, 2
boms, 2 horizontal ladders, 8 climbing ropes,
30 stall bars, 2 pairs jumping stands, 4 inclined
boards, 2 springboards, 2 pairs flying rings,
8 traveling rings, 6 mats, 5 X 10 feet, 4 mats
3x8 feet, 1 pair basket ball goals, 2 basket
balls, 1 indoor baseball outfit, 6 medicine balls,
10 chest weights, 2 neck machines, 2 rowing
machines, 60 pairs dumb bells, 00 pairs Indian
clubs, 60 wands, and a piano The cost of such
an equipment would be approximately two thou-
sand dollars

If the gymnasium is to be used by girls
only, the horizontal bars, horses, and parallel
bars may be omitted

The three largest manufacturers of gymna-
sium equipment are the Narragansett Machine
Co, of Providence, R I , the A G Spaldmg
(1o, of Chicopee Falls, Mass, and Fred
Medart of St Louis, Mo G L M

See ATHLETICS, EDUCATIONAL, ATHLETIC
FIELD, ARCHITECTURE, SCHOOL, BVTHS,
SWIMMING POOL; VENTILATION AND HEATING

GYMNASTIC TEACHERS — See PHYSI-
CAL DIRECTOR

GYMNASTICS — The term as used by the
Greeks applied to all forms oi physical exer-
cise such as calisthenics, running, jumping,
wrestling, boxing, dancing, and throwing the
javehu and discus After the long period of
neglect of organized physical instruction during
the Middle Ages, systematic exercise in various
foi ins found a place in the new schemes of edu-
cation The universal and ineradicable im-
pulse of all healthy children to plav, and the
appreciation on the part of educators of the
important function of motor training in edu-
cation, are responsible for the increasingly large
place accorded to physical exercise as an in-
tegral part of educational procedure1 since the
davs of Vittormo da Feltre (q v )

The differentiation of the lorms of exercise
into gymnastics, games, and athletic sports
occurred at the end of the eighteenth and the
beginning of the nineteenth century It was
during that period that Guts Muths, Jahn, and
Spiess (qq v ) developed the German system of
gymnastics Ling (q v ) founded m Sweden
the system of gymnastics which bears his
name, and athletic sports and games were taken
up in the colleges and preparatory schools of
Great Britain There are two main classes of
gymnastic exercises first, calisthenics (qv),
which includes free movements of arms, legs,
trunk, etc , exercises with dumb bells, wands,
bar bells, Indian clubs, rings, hoops, balls,
etc , marching, and dancing Second, appara-
tus gymnastics, which includes parallel bars,
vaulting and horizontal bars, horse, buck,
vaulting box, stall bars, jump stands, ropes,
poles, ladders, and many kinds of developing
appliances, such as chest weights, and other

198

machines built on the principle of weight ai-d
pulley or friction

The mam difference between gymnastics
and athletics (q v ) is one of aim The aim of
gymnastics is discipline or training for its effect
upon the health, normal development, and
general efficiency of the individual The chief
aim of athletics is pleasurable activity for the
sake of recreation , in the athletic games of boys
and young men we see the highest and fullest
expression of the play instinct While the
characteristic aims of gymnastics and athletics
are essentially different, some of the most im-
portant results of physical training are secured
ironi both forms of activity This is true
especially of the hygienic effects of muscular
activity upon the circulation, respiration,
digestion, assimilation, and excretion These
effects vary over wide limits according to the
kind of exercise selected

In considering the educative value of gym-
nastics and athletics the most important prin-
ciple is, that neit her of these activities can serve
as a substitute for the other Each contrib-
utes some essential parts of a complete
physical education Gymnastic exercises are
largely subjective in character, they serve
particulailv to stimulate normal physical devel-
opment, promote good carriage and easy
coordination in motion and locomotion Kvery
gymnastic exercise is given for a definite pur-
pose*. The object may be to secuie motor
coordination, hvRiemc benefit, oi some aesthetic
effect In this respect, gymnastics differs
radically from athletic exercises, for m the latter
the primary object is always to produce some
effect outside of the individual, as hitting a ball,
throwing an object as far as possible, or reach-
ing a goal before an opponent The effect of
such exercises upon the individual is always
incidental and secondary Another advantage
of gymnastics is, that selection based on scien-
tific principles of anatomy, physiology, and
mechanics makes it possible to adapt each exer-
cise to the particular needs of the individual,
with a view to producing the effect desired
The educative, hygienic, and aesthetic effects of
exercise are susceptible of definite control in
gymnastics, but m athletics the effects pro-
duced on the individual are indefinite and
accidental The particular effect produced
DY gymnastics depends partly upon the move-
ments selected, but mostly upon the manner of
their execution The best hygienic effects are
produced by adapting the movements to the
strength of the individual, bringing into play
the large muscles of the trunk and thighs, and
accompanying the exercise with music, which
adds pleasure to the work The educative
effects are best secured by careful selection and
sequence of exercises suited to the state of
psycho-motor development of the individual,
and by a method of teaching which demands
accuracy, precision, and speed in execution
The aesthetic effects of form, carriage and grace

GYMNASTICS FOR GIRLS

GYMNASTICS, GERMAN

of motion and locomotion result from gymnastic
dancing arid other exercises of the same type
The recreative value of gymnastics depends
upon the ability of the teacher to make the work
interesting, and in a measure upon the attitude
of the student toward the work

In general, the relative effects secured from
gymnastics and athletics are as follows — -

GYMNASTIOK

PRIMARY EFFECTS SECONDARY EFFECTS

Educative Organic (vigor)

Hygienic Recreative

/Esthetic Psv« ho-motor

Moral

ATHLETICS

PRIMARY EFFECTS SEOONDAKY EFFECTS

Organic (vigor) Educative

Psycho-motor Hygienic

Recreative JKathetK

Moral

It is very evident from this table that gvm-
nastics constitutes an essential part of a lational
scheme of physical education The results
obtained from gymnastic training vary widely
for the same reasons that results yaiy in all
branches of education Poor teaching and
inadequate facilities always produce unsatis-
factoiy results in gymnastics as in any other
subject The need for systematic psycho-
motor training and vigorous muscular activity
for organic development tends to increase as
life becomes more complex and specialized
The growing appreciation of the physical basis
of human efficiency cannot fail to bring about
increased recognition for gymnastics in the
school curriculum, more competent teachers,
and increased material equipment G L M

See ATHLETICS, EDUCATIONAL, CALIS-
THENICS, GREEK EDUCATION, PHYSICAL EDU-
CATION

References : —

BANCROFT, JEHHIE H School Gymnastics until Light

Appaiatus (Boston, 1900)
BKTZ, C) The Public School Gymnastic (Bourse (Chicago

1894)
NIHHEN, HABTVIG A B C of Swedish Educational

Gymnastics (Philadelphia, 1892 )

GYMNASTICS FOR GIRLS — In all

schemes of education, the tendency has been to
provide better facilities and a more extensive
curriculum for boys than for girls This has
been true particularly m regard to physical
training. In Germany, England, and the
United States various forms of physical train-
ing were provided for boys, while this subject
was entirely neglected in schools for girls
Adolf Spiess, the founder of German school
gymnastics, was the first to advocate gymnastic
training for girls, but the traditional idea that
womanly deportment is in contradiction to
exercise has hindered the development of
physical training for girls Organic vigor and
psycho-motor development arc as essential to
girls as to boys. The results to be accom-

plished me the same, but the methods em-
ployed must vary because of physiological
differences in the two sexes

The gymnastics best suited to girls include
marching, calisthenics without hand apparatus
and with wooden dumb bells, wands, bar bells,
Indian clubs, rings, hoops, etc ; simple exer-
cises in vaulting and climbing (omitting, in
general, all exercises requiring support of the
body on the arms for more than an instant),
easy exercises in jumping, and dancing'
./Esthetic and folk (lancing constitute one of
the most valuable forms of physical training
for gnls of all ages By means of judicious
selection and adaptation, it is possible to secuic
from dancing most of the essential values of
exercise, such as organic vigor, psycho-motor
training, and recreation Girls need also the
training that comes from participation in ath-
letic sports and team games The qualities
of courage, self-reliance, loyalty, and capacity
to cooperate with others and subordinate per-
sonal interests to the interests of the team which
result from participation in team games and
sports arc as desirable for gnls as for lurvs
This training is especially valuable to counter-
act the tendency of some girls to be sensitive,
introspective, and live too much on the subjec-
tive side of life

In general, girls undei twelve or thirteen
years of age can do all except the very stren-
uous exercises indulged m by boys of the same
age With the onset of puberty, considerable
modification of the forms of exercise given to
girls is made imperative by the anatomical
and physiological changes which occur al that
time The most important modifications nec-
essary are the elimination of exercises requiring
the support of the whole body by the shoulder
girdle for more than an instant, the restriction
of exercises involving jumping to those involv-
ing very little jarring of the body, and m general
the elimination of violent exercises The in-
troduction of competitive athletic games in
schools and colleges for girls fiom 1S90 to 1900
was accompanied in some places by public
contests between teams representing different
institutions This feature of athletics for
girls has been abandoned by the leading schools
and colleges because it was found to be detri-
mental to the best interests of education

G L M

See ATHLETICS, EDUCATIONAL; DANCING;
WOMEN, EDUCATION OF, etc

References : —

ALEXANDER, A Healthful Exercises for Girls (Lon-
don, 1887 )

DUDLEY, GERTRUDE, arid KELLOR, FRANCES Athletic
Garner in the Education of Women (New York,
1909)

MAUL Turnnntcrricht in Madchenvchulen (Karls-
ruhe, 1893, 1895, 1897)

199

GYMNASTICS, GERMAN. — The German
system embraces three distinct branches, known

GYMNASTICS, GERMAN

GYMNASTICS, GERMAN

as VolliKturncH, or popuLu gymnastics, tfrhul-
turncn, or school gymnastics, and Militni-
turnen, or military gymnastics The oigam/a-
tion of the last, two branches is maintained
and controlled l>y the government, foi strictly
educational pui poses; the popular gymnastic
societies are voluntary associations

The names of three teachers are identified
with the upbuilding of German gymnastics
Guts Muths (q.v), 17,59-1839, Jahn (qv),
1778-1852; and Spiess 1810-1858 Before
the period covered by the activities of these
men, the only physical training found in Ger-
man schools was the knightly exercises in rid-
ing, fencing, vaulting, and dancing taught in the
Rittcrakademien, and instruction in running,
jumping, climbing, balancing, and carrying of
heavy weights, given in Bascdow's school at
Dessau Salzmann (qv), who had been an
assistant at Dessau, founded the Schnepfenthal
school in 1784, and introduced the simple
exercises known as the Dessau pentathlon A
year later, Guts Muths entered upon his serv-
ice as a teacher at Sclmepfenthal, and de-
voted himself to the development of a rational
system of gymnastics and games He pub-
lished his (Ti/mnabticb for the Young in 1793,
the first German, manual of gymnastics, this
was followed three years later by a book on
plays and games Guts Muths' aim was
distinctly pedagogical; he divided physical
exercises into gymnastics, manual training,
and youthful -plays, and defined gymnastics as
" a system of exercises having bodily perfection
for their aim " The success of Guts Muths'
gymnastics at Schnepfenthal led to then- in-
troduction in many private and a few public
schools In 1804 Guts Muths urged upon the
Prussian minister, Massow, the importance of
introducing physical education into the schools
The minister replied that he proposed to make
bodily training an essential part of his plan lor
national education, but the war with Napoleon
prevented the carrying out of these plans

The particular contribution of Turnvatci
Jahn to the German system of physical educa-
tion was to make gymnastics popular through
the organization of independent associations
In Die deuUchc Turnktinxt, published in 1816,
Jahn describes the aims of his system of gym-
nastics as follows. " The turning system would
reestablish the lost symmetry of human devel-
opment, would connect a proper bodily train-
ing with mere exclusive intellectual cultiva-
tion, would supply the proper counteracting
influence to the prevailing overreiinement,
and would comprehend and influence the whole
man by means ot a social mode of living for the
young Ever v turning institution is a place for
exercising the bodily powers, a school of indus-
try in manly activity, a place of chivalrous
contest, an aid to education, a protection to the
health, and a public benefit It is constantly
and interchangeably a place of teaching and
of learning In an unbroken circle follow

constantly aflei each othei direction, exempli-
fication, instruction, independent investigation,
practice, emulation, and further instruction
Thus the turners do not learn their occupation
from hearsay They have lived m and with
then \\oik, investigated it, proved it, and pci-
fected it It awakens all the dormant powers,
and secures a self-confidence and readiness
which are never found at a loss "

From 1820 to 1842, Volksturnen was pio-
hibited by the go^ eminent, gymnasia were
closed, and gymnastic instruction was gener-
ally neglected in the schools In 1842 the King
gave Ins sanction to the proposal o fie red by the
ministers ol War, the Interior, and Education,
that " bodily exercises should be acknowledged
formally as a necessary and indispensable
integral part of male education, and should be
adopt.ed as an agency m the education of the
people " Massmann, who had been engaged
in teaching gymnastics m Munich since 1827,
was in 1843 called to Berlin to aid Kichorn's
department in carrying into effect the plan
advocated in the King's cabinet order He
had been tiamed in the methods of Jahn, but
not being endowed with suffu lent skill 01
energy to adapt Volksturnen to school needs,
his administration, which lasted until 1850,
was, on the whole, a failure

Massmann was succeeded by Adolf Spiess,
who has been called the "father of German
school gymnastics " and the " founder of gym-
nastics for girls " He received his first instruc-
tion in gymnastics at his fathers private .school,
\N here the methods oi Guts Muths \\ere followed
Later he became acquainted with Jahn arid his
methods In 1S30, while Mill a student, Spiess
formed a class of boys at Giessen, and taught
them u common exercises" ((icHieniulmnycii),
or class drill in "standing, walking, running,
and jumping " In Jahn's system the members
oi the class follow their ioreturner In IKrW
Spress became a teacher of history, singing,
drawing, and turning in the public schools oi
Burgdorf, Switzerland lie removed to Basel
in 1844 to take charge of the gymnastic instruc-
tion in the higher schools of that city, and in
1848 he returned to Germany, haying been
appointed to a high office in the department of
education ol the Grand Duchy of Hesse He
was successful in the work of organizing and
supervising physical training in boys' and girls'
schools throughout that state

Spiess adopted the method of " class turning,"
which consists in the simultaneous performance
by the whole class, either with or without the
use of apparatus, of given exercises at the word
of command, this method constitutes one of
the fundamental principles in German school
gymnastics Spiess based his theory of bodily
training on the laws of anatomy and physiology,
and arranged his exercises rn compliance with
his understanding of those laws He made use
of a great variety of exercises, such as free
movements, marching, jumping, climbing, and

200

GYMNASTICS, GERMAN

HABIT

Jahn's heavy gymnastics The f i ee movements
were often executed to music. The distinctive
contribution of Spiess was to render German
gymnastics systematic and scientific* and to
adapt them to pedagogical purposes and
methods His principal books were Lchre der
Turnkunst (Basel, 1840-1846), and Turnbuch
fur Schuleti (Basel, 1846-1851)

The progress of gymnastic instruction in
German schools was hindered by the lack of
competent teachers In 1851 the Royal Cen-
tral Gymnastic Institute, with parallel courses
of instruction for officers of the a i my and school
teachers, was established in Berlin under the
joint control of the ministers of War and Edu-
cation, and Captain H Hothstem, of the Prus-
sian army, who had studied Swedish gymnastics
in Stockholm, was placed at its head In 1877
the institute was divided into two separate
schools, one for army officers and the other for
teachers of gymnastics in schools Rothstem
attempted to introduce Swedish gymnastics
in the institute4, and banished sonic of the most
popular exercises of German gymnastics His
action led to a bitter controversy, in which
prominent teachers, physicians, and professors
of the Berlin Univeisity opposed him He was
finally defeated, and resigned his position in
1863'

Gymnastics constitutes an integral pait, of the
curriculum in schools of all grades m Germany
Each class has its special time for gymnastics,
just as it has special hours for arithmetic and
reading The exercises ai e carefully adapted to
the age and sex of the pupils The youngest
pupils, fi om six to ten years old, engage m a great
viiiiety of simple games, easy free movements,
marching, jumping, and climbing exeicises,
and the easier of the fundamental exercises on
the gymnastic apparatus In free movements
and heavy gymnastics the exercises grow inoie
complicated and difficult, with the advancing
age of the pupil Walking tours, skating
parties, and excursions into the woods are
frequently made under the lead of those who
teach turning The gymnastic course ior girls
comprises the ordinary free gymnastics with or
without hand apparatus, skipping lopes, maich-
ing, dancing, and balancing exercises, various
games of ball, easy jumping, swinging, and
climbing, and a few of the simplest cxucises
on the parallel and horizontal bars

A descnption of Get man gymnastics as a
system of physical training would be inadequate
without mentioning the extensive development
of games and plays, which has taken place in
German schools during the last twenty-five
years Practically e\eiy school in Germany is
equipped with a playground, and nearly all
boys' schools have facilities for swimming
Organized and supervised play constitutes an
essential part of the present system of physical
training.

In the United States the Gorman system of
gymnastics has been adopted in many large

201

cities and German teachers appointed to direct
the work This is true of Chicago, Cleveland,
Cincinnati, Indianapolis, Minneapolis, St Louis'
Philadelphia, etc G. L IVI '

References : —

AUGKKHTKIN, W Das deutsche Turnen (Cologne,

1870 )
GULICK, L H German System of Physical Training

Physical Education, Vol I, pp. 149 151, Otolwi

1892
HARTWELL, E M Physical Training Import of the

United titatct* Contmiwoner of Education (\\abh-

ingtori, 1 899 )

RUHL, H KntmcklungaQMrkichtt det> Turmnt> (Leip-
zig, 189,5 )
STErHKR, W A German American G»Hina*ficf*

(Boston, 1896 )

GYMNASTICS, HYGIENE

PHYSICAL TRAINING, HYGIENE OF

OF —See

HABIT —Use of Term —The term
" habit " in the various writings on the1 sub-
ject is used in a number of different ways It
is used by some writers to cover all of the
organized responses of an organism Such
authors speak of the habits of the bee, of the
ant, and of animals generally, meaning thereby
the whole repertoire of reflexes, instincts, and
habits With advances in oompaiativc psy-
chology there should come a strict limitation
in the use of the term " habit " Habit should
refer only to tho^e motor (icqui^ihon* ir1n(h have
been acqiwed by on organism durnuj //s lifdinu
The term " mental habit " is sometimes used
to refer to mental organization along anv line
James, for example, speaks of pen-option as a
" kind of habit " Such a use of the term
should be avoided, since it introduces a vague-
ness in the expression sinulai to that no\\
present in the teim " memory "

Rise of Consciousness and Rise of Habit
Simultaneous —Movement first appeals in an
organism m the form of leflexes, somev\hat
later, as growth processes take place, in the
more complex form of instincts Many of
these instincts are not completely adaptne
In most organisms the reflexes and instincts
are not numerous enough and complex enough
to preserve the life of the organism In such
eases (and probably in no oigamsm aie the
congenital responses wholly adequate) the in-
stinctive and reflex groups must be supple-
mented by habits Habits when peifected
subserve the same function as reflexes and
instincts Angell and Dewey assume that
consciousness arises at. the moment reflexes
and instincts break down — i e at the point
where habit foimation begins As long as
congenital responses are adequate, there is no
consciousness, the moment adjustment begins,
consciousness appears Its appearance is an
integral part of the formation of every habit
On the other hand, as habits are perfected and
approach reflexes (so far as efficiency is con-
cerned), consciousness tends to die away To

HABIT

HABIT

speak figuratively, the focus of consciousness
throughout life is always directed upon the
difficult and new aspects of any adjustment

Neural Basis of Habit. — The simplest
neural mechanism operating in any habit must
consist of a receptor, a scries of conductors,
and an effector But such a mechanism
serves equally well for instincts as for habit.
Two f iindd mental differences, however, appear
between the 1wo sots of mechanisms (1) the
" pathways " involved in instinct arc inherited,
while those in habit arc acquired in ontogeny;
(2) the scries of conductors involved in habit
probably always loads through the cortex,
both in the oarlv stages of tho formation of the
habit, and ovon in the Inter, perfected stage
In tho case of many of tho instincts, the neural
arcs appaiontlv may ho wholly infra-cortical.
Tn tho oailv stages of habit the cortex as a
whole is unquestionably involved It is a
commonly expressed opinion, at least, that as
habits become more and more automatic (as
conscious oversight or attention becomes loss
and less necessary) the neural processes become
more and more sogrnontal in character — that
the scat of neural control (as c g in the eye-
hand or eye-foot reactions) passes to lower
nervous centers, e g to the basal ganglia
The work of Franz has thrown some interest-
ing light upon this question, but it is still an
open one Fianz in his early experiments
upon cats showed that if they were allowed
to establish associations between food and the
opening of problem boxes, they lost those
associations if tho frontal lobes were sectioned,
but that they could roloarn them His rnoro
recent experiments upon primates confirms
Ihis earlier work, and adds tho now point that
if tho association was completely formed there
was no loss when the frontal lobes were soc-
lioned It would look as though tho system
of integration did change and become more
cncumscribed so far as the association area in
the frontal lobe is concerned, as the habit
became moie complete Whether the path-
way could bo still further shortened, so that
the association areas of the cortex neod not be
involved at all, lomains to be decided

In psychology since Hartley's time (and
more locontly revived by James) wo have
spoken as though the nervous system was
11 modified " so as to respond in a highly
special way to a stimulus which did not at
first elicit a coordinated response We have
spoken as though an actual pathway was
formed between the sense organs and the volun-
tary muscles, as though the nerve fibers
became modified molccularly in such a way
as to give passage more easily to an oft-repeated
stimulus Shernngton's conception of trans-
verse membranes situated in the gray matter
between tho end of one axone and the den-
dritos of the next neurone (Synapxc) through-
out the pathway, is a more recent conception
surfaces of separation " might restrain

202

diffusion, bank up osmotic pressure, restrict the
movement of ions, accumulate electric charges,
support a. double electric layer, alter in shape
and surface tension with changes in difference
of potential, alter in difference of potential
with changes of surface tension or in shape,
or intervene as a membrane between dilute
solutions of electrolytes of different concentra-
tion or colloidal suspensions with different
signs of charge " In other words, wo have at
the synapses a mechanism delicate and com-
plex enough to account for the " formation of
pathways," reenforcemcnt and inhibition of
habits, etc , without supposing that there is
any actual change or modification occurring in
the neurone itself (the conductor) as the result
of repetition of stimulus.

Habits come to preponderate over reflexes
and instinctive activity m those organisms
born with the least mature nervous systems
Watson and Allen's comparative experiments
on the rat arid the guinea pig respectively
show that the rat with its immature nervous
system begins to form habits (10-12 days)
much later than the guinea pig (2-8 days),
which is born with a relatively mature nervous
system, but that the rat can form a greater
number of such associations and continue to
form them for a much longer time Plasticity
is the term used to cover the fact that an
animal can modify its reflexes and instincts in
the direction of habit In general, the higher
we ascend in the scale of animal development,
the more plastic tho nervous system seems to
bo, its culmination being in man. Yet this
advance in plasticity is not continuous Even
in tho rodent group we have great differences
in plasticity between tho rat and the guinea
pig While the chimpanzee and orang-outang
stand next to man, certain other of the primates,
baboon, rhesus, etc , are probably not greater
in plasticity than the clog (See PLASTICITY )

Facilitation and Inhibition — The subject of
facilitation and inhibition in the formation of
complex habits is a topic strangely neglected
in experimental psychology. We have in
Sherrington and in many other neuro-physio-
logical treatises a large amount of data on
inhibition and reenforcement of tho simpler
neural processes. But experimental pedagogy
has more or less neglected studies, i e from the
standpoint of facilitation and the reverse, of
the simultaneous formation of several habits,
tho mutual relations existing among groups of
habits, etc

On the neural side we have known for some
time (thanks to the work of Exnor, Mitchell
and Lewis, Lombard, Bowditch and Warren, and
more recently, of Shemngton and of Yerkes),
that the end effect produced by any given
reflex arc is dependent upon the intensity of
the stimulus arousing that arc, upon the
internal condition of the arc, and upon the
number and temporal relations of preceding
reflexes and upon the action taking place

HABIT

HABIT

simultaneously in other reflex groups A
sound conveyed to the ear of a chloral ized
rabbit increases the amplitude of the reflex
movement of the foot induced by the stimulus
applied to the foot a moment later The
amplitude of the movement of the knee jerk
in man likewise can be diminished 01 increased
by stimulating, e g some distance receptor at
varying intervals before administering the
electrical stimulus calling out the reflex For
a careful treatment of the neural processes,
see Sherrmgtori, Integrative Action of the Nci-
voua System, pp 175 ft (reenforcement), 191 ff
(inhibition), 199 fT (interference), and 36 ff
(summation)

Early Habits : the Acquisition of Motor
Control — Early habits are formed both in the
child and in the animal by the trial and error
process (q v ) The start of voluntary control
may best be seen in the child in its first attempts
to grasp objects There are several stages in
the process, first, there must be an objective
stimulus which arouses movement Bright
objects, moving objects, those making tones or
noises of medium intensity, or those possess-
ing certain pleasing contact value, in the
normal child are most likely first to elicit
movements In the second place, if progress
toward coordination is to be made, some one
of the moxmg organs of the child must come
into tactual motor relations with the object
The rattle which is first seen elicits a number
of motor responses Usually and in the long
run the hands, being the most motile organs,
arc first to touch the object Touching this
object, reflexlv leads to grasping, the grasping
of the object then leads to new forms of stimu-
lation, ? c auditory and visual (of movement of
object) The object is now under control, and
adaptation is complete It is supposed that
a strong affective tone, intensely pleasurable
in character, appears on the completion of the
adaptation — upon the successful effort to
control the object It is supposed further
that this affective accompaniment means on
the physiological side an increased blood
supply for those neuro-musculai processes
which have just been active, i c for the group
bringing about the success Thorndike speaks
of this as the " stampmg-m process " The
failure of any group of muscles to bring success,
on the other hand, brings about a loss in tone
in those muscles, which results in their dis-
continuance In other words, the neuro-
muscular system bringing success is made pre-
potent (by some change taking place probably
at the synapses)

The second trial of the child or animal
shows usually, but not always, a decrease in
the number of useless movements and an
increased speed in the use of the muscular
group which brought success on the first trial
Subsequent growth takes place through the
entire elimination of all useless movements
In the perfected form the sensory impulses

aroused by the object release immediately the
proper motor response

Such command over the muscular system is
finally attained that in adult life operations
requiring a long series of muscular acts may
be executed without the exercise of continuous
voluntary control. The initiation of the first
movement in the chain is usually a voluntary
process As James has well shown, this initial
movement becomes the stimulus to the second,
the first and second to the third, and similarly
throughout the series In other woids, the
" cue " to the second and succeeding acts
finally may come to be kiiupsthotic

Formation of Hierarchies of Habit, Ac-
quisition of Skill — Tri the acquisition of any
skillful act, as, c g piano playing, t>pewiitmg,
sending and receiving the telegraphic code,
there are displayed, m addition to the simple
sensory-motor coordinations, complex or in-
tegrated groups of coordinations, which when
studied in detail show an interesting history
W F Book describes live separate steps in
making a single letter on the typewriter, as
follows (1) getting the copy, (2) actual spell-
ing or thinking of each letter to be made,

(3) mentally locating it on the keyboard,

(4) getting the proper finger to the key,

(5) again pronouncing the letter or mil latmg
the final letter-making movements These
simple habits are short-circuited 01 abridged
by a long, slow process until the mere sight of
the letter initiates the movement foi depress-
ing the key, i e the letter association has been
formed Long before the piocess has become
automatized the next higher order of habit
has put in its appeal ance, ic these simple
" letter habits " become integrated into " syl-
lable habits," then into easy " word habits,"
then into complex woid habits, into easv
" phrase habits," etc , until finally the expert
stage is reached, wheie the word and phi MHO
habits have1 become so perfedcd that the wiit-
ing is absolutely continuous Jn this process
of acquiring skill, simple habits aie wot fust
mastered and then the next higher ordei, etc ,
until the expert stage is i cached All orders
of habits " make gams simultaneously, but not
equally " (Bryan and Harter, /JM/<-// Rev ,
Vol VI, 1S99, pp 346-375) Book compaies
the development of the different orders of
habit to the march of a flock of sheep, the
whole flock moves forward, now fast, now
slow, but any particular animal may push
ahead at this moment arid lag behind at the
next.

Breathing Places and Plateaus — The on-
ward movement of the group of habits as a
whole is often checked There are daily fluc-
tuations, due m part to mood, fatigue, and the
actual forgetting between one day's practice
and the next, especially when new and higher
orders of habits are just appearing (see Book
on " warming-up process ") In addition to
these easily understood fluctuations there are

203

HABIT

HABIT

longer and more serious breaks in the process,
lasting from six to eight days (Book), and still
longer periods called plateaus, occurring at
critical stages m the learning process and endur-
ing for a much longer time than the " breath-
ing places " (thirty-three days in one case men-
tioned by Book) These plateaus (including the
" breathing places " under this heading) appear
mthe work of Bryan and Harter (telegraph send-
ing and receiving), Swift (tossing and catching
balls), and Book (typewriting) Bryan and
Hartei suppose that these plateaus appear
when the lower order habits are approaching
then maximum of development, but are not
sufficiently automatic for use as elements in
the higher order habits For these investiga-
tors they are necessary periods of " incuba-
tion," where elementary habits are making
substantial gains preparatory to their organi-
zation into higher order of habits Book
objects to this theory of plateaus on the
ground that there is not a sufficient time
sequence in the development of the different
orders of habits Jle separates the breathing
places from the plateaus The breathing
places are due to irregular lapses in attention
A bad day's work may dampen the learner's
ardor for several days Plateaus, on the other
hand, while not appearing in all of Book's
curves, occur, when at all, at critical stages in
the learning piocess They arcr according to
Book (a) " Resting places in the learner's
interest and efToit, or (/>) 'break-down'
•stages caused by excessive effort wrongly
applied "

As a matter of fact, a complete analysis of
these bleaks in the learning process cannot yet
be given Nearly all of the investigators have
chosen habits which are too complex for com-
plete analysis From the standpoint of neural
control, theie seems to be no conceivable
reason why a learning curve should show
fluctuations other than those reflecting the
general bodily condition and those due to
changes in metabolism

Transfer of Habit : Cross-Education - It is
apparently fiimly established that the exercise
of any one muscular organ of the body will
improve the bilaterally symmetrical organ
Volkmann found that practicing the left arm
m discrimination produced a very marked nn-
pioxement in the nght without' any practice
in the latter Similar experiments show that
practice upon the dynamometer with either
hand will improve the strength of grip in the
other (Scripture, Downs, ct nl ) Similarly
Davis found that improvement in the quick-
ness of the tapping with the right great toe
was accompanied by 151 per cent improvement
in the left foot, 100 per cent as much in the
right hand and 83 per cent in the left hand
Woodworth has made experiments with similar
lesults upon the accuracy of hitting a dot
Davis's conclusions that the effects of exercise
may be transferred to a greater or lesser

204

degree from the parts practiced to other parts
of the body, and that the transference is
greatest to symmetrical and closely related
parts, is firmly established, but the interpre-
tation of the facts is not very clear The
whole question is more or less bound up with
that of the effects of training upon memory
(See MEMORY ) Thorndike, with his theory of
" identical elements " in memory transfer,
attempts with some success to extend his theory
to cross education, e g. holding that Wood-
worth's transfer obtained in striking at a dot
with the left hand is due largely to the fact
that the practice with the left hand trained
the eye, and that this training is largely re-
sponsible for the improvement noted in the
right (unpracticed) hand The more recent
and thorough work of Ebert and Meumann
tends to establish the fact against James, and
to some extent against Thorndike as well, that
rote memory can be improved by practice
The position that such effects were due to
common elements and to common modes of
attack, better use of attention, elimination of
useless methods of attack, increase of interest
in problem, etc , is still a tenable one It
must be said, however, that Ebert and Meu-
mann themselves hold that in addition to these
factors there is a training of some common
memory capacity

Automatism and Allied Phenomena — In
hypnosis, in certain functional nervous dis-
eases, and in sleep walking, we meet with auto-
matic reactions of various kinds. They may
show themselves m the form of word repeti-
tions, echolaha, gesture repetitions, echoprcuta
(in hypnosis, katatoma, etc), and in hteieo-
typy Stereotypy may take different forms,
c g we may have a stereotypy of attitude, of
movement, 01 of language (verbigeration) In
these cases we often see patients maintaining
uncomfortable attitudes for hours, others will
walk for long distances, taking alternately
three steps forward and two backward, others
will repeat phrases or verses indefinitely
Such phenomena belong to the field of psy-
chiatry rather than to that of psychology and
education In normal individuals such phe-
nomena are occasionally met in fits of abstrac-
tion and in sleep

Social and Pedagogical Implications of
Habit — The ideal training of a human being
would give him the ability to react adequately
and rapidly and with a minimum of fatigue to
any individual or social situation In our
complex civilization, which is ever changing in
its point of stress, which is ever presenting new
problems, an organism must automatize as
many adjustments as possible, and as easily
and as rapidly as possible in order to leave
the mind free to meet the point of stress.
The early formation of right personal habits
has been insisted upon in all writings upon
habits Probably the necessity of forming
habits which are not immediately utilizable

HABITUATION

HAITI

has not been sufficiently insisted upon. During
adolescence there is, especially if there is a
bad inheritance, a period when many new and
strange demands are made upon the nervous
system At times it breaks down under the
strain Good personal habits — those relating
to temperance, control of the sex impulses, the
right use of money, respect due to other members
of society, etc , serve oftentimes to carry the
individual with poor inheritance safely over the
periods of conflict Often when this faulty in-
heritance is present it is augmented by careless-
ness in the formation of the early habits (in para-
noia, e g we find carelessness in the use of money,
extravagances, etc , in many forms starting very
early in life The implication is that such
tendencies might be checked if noted early
enough) Much has been and is still being
done in the case of functional nervous diseases
by the process of reeducation In regard to
the second point, — forcing the youth to form
habits not immediately utihzable, — possibly
enough has not been said Normal develop-
ment in certain cases ceases after a fixed low
level of efficiency has been attained Such
subjects either have to be carried through life
by other members of society, or else they must
bo trained to take a more modest but inde-
pendent place in life Manual training for the
male and similar training for the female in
household work, sewing, millinery, etc , is of
the utmost necessity Even though normal
developing nt continues, these habits in times of
financial reverses are of the utmost advantage
to their possessors J. B W.

Sec ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS.

References : —

BAEK, J H The Practice Curve, a Study in the Forma-
tion of Habit* (New York, 1902 )

HALDWIN, J M Mental Evolution (New York, 1906 )

BOOK, W T The Psychology of Skill (Missoula,
1908)

JAMES, W Principles of Psychology (New York,
1890)

MAJOR, D R First Steps in Mental Growth — Studies
in thi Psychology of Infancy (Now York, 190b )

PHEYER, T W Mental Development in the Child
(New York, 1893 )

HOWE, S H Habit-formation and the Science of Teach-
ing (New York, 1909 )

SHERRINGTON, C S The Integrative Action of the Ner-
vous System (New York, 19()b )

SHINN, M W Note* on the Development of a Child

(Berkeley, Cal , 1907)
Biography of a Baby (Boston, 1900)

STERN, W and C Uber die seelwche Entwwklung des
Kindes (Leipzig, 1907 )

THORNOIKE, K L Animal Intelligence (New York,
1898)

HABITUATION. — See HABIT.

HACKETT, HORATIO BALCH (1808-
1875) — Philologist and college professor, was
graduated from Amherst College in 1830 and
from the Theological Seminary at Andover in
1834 He subsequently studied at Halle and
Berlin in Germany. He was tutor at Amherst
College and professor at Brown University and

the Newton Theological Seminary. He pub-
lished a Chaldee Grammar (1845), a Hebrew
Grammar (1847), a Hebrew Reader (1847), and
numerous works on Biblical literature

W. S M.

HACKLE Y, CHARLES WILLIAM (1809-
1861) — College professor and textbook author,
was graduated from the United States Military
Academy at West Point in 1829, and was
instructor there for three years (1829-1832)
He was professor in New York University
(1835-1838), president of Jefferson College,
Miss (1838-1S43), and professor m Columbia
University (1843-1861) His publications in-
clude Treatise on Algebra (1846), Elementary
Courxc in Geometry (1847), Element* of Trigo-
nometry (1850), and several works on scientific
subjects. W. S M.

HACKNEY COLLEGE. — See LONDON,
UNIVERSITY OF.

HADLEY, JAMES (1821-1872) —Text-
book author and college profcssoi , was edu-
cated at Fairfield Academy and graduated at
Yale College in 1842 He was many years
professor of Greek at Yale, and was the author
of a widely used series of Greek texts

W S M

HAGAR, DANIEL BARNARD (1820-1896)
— Normal school principal, was born at New-
ton, Mass , on Apr 22, 1820 He was edu-
cated m the public schools of Newton and
graduated at Union College in 1843 He was
for several years principal of academics in New
York, and later was principal of the high
school at Jamaica Plain, Mass From 1X65
to 1896 he was principal of the State Normal
School at Salem, Mass He issued the call
for the organization of the National Teachers'
Association (q.v ) , was one of the organizers
of the Massachusetts Teachers' Association,
and for some years one of the editors ef the
Massachusetts Teacher He also wrote numer-
ous papers on normal school education

W. S M

HAILEYBURY COLLEGE — See GRAMMAR
SCHOOLS, ENGLISH, COLLEGE, ENGLISH, PUB-
LIC SCHOOLS

HAITI, EDUCATION IN —The Kepublic
of Haiti occupies the western part of the island
of Haiti, the second in size of the West Indies.
The original inhabitants were practically ex-
terminated in contests with the Spanish in-
vaders, who eventually gained peaceful posses-
sion of a depopulated island It was repeopled
by African slaves, first imported in 1517 The
Spaniards gradually deserted the island for the
more attractive regions of the Amencan con-
tinent French and English adventureis
formed a settlement on the northern shore,

205

HAITI

HAITI

which was recognized as a department of
France in 1714, to which country that portion
of the island had been ceded by the Treaty of
Ryswick, 1697 The uprising of the negroes
in 1791, the heroic leadership of Toussaint
TOuverture, and the final surrender of the
island to France, m 1795, are memorable epi-
sodes in its early history After a long period
of struggle and uncertain destinies, the Domin-
ican Republic was proclaimed in 1824, and in
1858 the Republic of Haiti was established
This division of the island covers an area of
about 10,200 square miles and has a present
population estimated at 2,029,000, of whom
nine tenths are negroes and the remainder,
save two or three hundred Europeans, are
mulattoes

Foi purposes of local administration the re-
public is divided into five departments, com-
prising eighty-six communes The people are
Roman Catholics, and society retains the dis-
tinctions of the old regime in France, the upper
class possessing wealth and refinement, in strik-
ing contrast with the ignorant masses The
leaders of the republic have professed great
regard for education, and their public utter-
ances on this subject reflect the theories and
sentiments of the leaders of the French Revo-
lution, but with few exceptions, among whom
should be named in paiticular President Fabre
Geffrard, they have been theorists merely, or
prevented by repeated revolutions from giving
effect to their purposes

Public mstiuetion was represented in the
government of the new republic by a cabinet
officer, and the country was divided into four-
teen distiicts, to each of which was assigned a
government inspector of schools and higher
institutions In 1860, or two years after the
republic was proclaimed, a law was passed
providing that public instruction should be
gratuitous, and the establishment of primary
schools obligatory upon local authorities
Through the efforts of the Minister of Public
Instruction, M Elie Dubois, schools were
established in the principal cities, and they
have been maintained to the present day In
the country districts very little progress has
been made, the fitful endeavors in this direc-
tion having been constantly interrupted by
political commotions At present there are
about 480 public primary schools, of which
number 275 (122 for boys, 153 for girls) are in
the cities The total includes 39 schools for
boys in charge of Christian Brothers (q.v ) ,
and more than 50 schools for girls in charge
of sisterhoods Schools established by the
teaching orders of the Church are adopted as
public schools and receive appropriations from
the public treasury In fact, to the teaching
orders must be credited nearly all the progress
in education thus far realized in the island

The influence of French precedents is seen in
the establishment of schools in which training
for the industrial aits is combined with general

education. The earliest institution of this sort
in Haiti was the Maison Centrak, created in
1849 during the imperial rule of Soulouque,
whose adventurous career reached its climax in
1846, when he was acclaimed Emperor under
the title of Faustin I The Maison Centrale, or
School of Arts and Trades, is a government in-
stitution, occupying a commodious site at Port-
au-Prince, and having accommodation for 150
boarding pupils. The course of instruction
includes academic studies, technical branches,
religion, music, and military tactics The school
is equipped with fourteen workshops for wood
and metal work, blacksmithing, carriage manu-
facture, etc , but still needs provision for some
of the pressing demands of Haiti in industry
A second technical school, Ecole hbre profes-
sionnelle, was established at Port-au-Prince
under private auspices in 1892, but through lack
of financial support was soon discontinued
There are two orphanages for girls, one at Port-
au-Prince and the other at Cayes, both man-
aged by sisterhoods, but subventioned by the
government The former and more important
of the two, the Orphdmat de la Maddeine, was
founded Feb 18, 1893, by the Mothei Supe-
rior, Eustochie, of the sisters of St Joseph of
Cluny The institution receives an annual
grant from the State of 444 gourdes ($429)
The instruction includes, besides the elementary
branches, housekeeping and household aits,
sewing and cutting, embroidery, lace making,
etc

For the secondary education of boys there arc
in the six principal cities public lyce*es which
follow official programs A commission ap-
pointed in 1893 to advise as to desirable modi-
fication in the plan of study recommended
changes in favor of modern subjects, especially
the scientific studies that prepare for the medi-
cal profession and for the technical arts There
are a number of business colleges for young
men and several excellent secondary schools in
charge of the teaching orders, also a college
supported by the Wesleyan mission

Higher education is represented by a national
school of medicine and pharmacy, a school of
maternity, and a school of law, all at Port-au-
Pnnce, and by private schools of law in other
cities, which receive grants from the public
treasury The national school of applied
sciences at Port-au-Prince is equipped with a
bacteriological laboratory at which important
investigations are conducted The fine arts
are promoted by the national school of drawing
and painting, also at the capital

A select number of youths are sent every
year by the government to study m Europe or
in the United States; but while opportunities
are thus provided for an elite circle, the low
state of the masses is recognized and deplored
An earnest effort at reform was begun in 1910
by the passage of a compulsory education law
with penalties for its violation, but subsequent
revolutions have prevented further progress in

206

HAKLUYT

HALES

respect to general education, arid have inter-
rupted plans for developing technical educa-
tion, more especially as related to agriculture
The annual budget for public instruction is
about 4,000,000 francs ($800,000). A. T. S.

References : —

Bulletin de V Instruction pubhquc

Bulletin official du DGpartrjnent de V Agriculture

FEQUI^RE, PLEURY Z/1 Education Haitienne (Port-au-

Prmce, 190& )

La Reouc d1 Haiti hteraire cl btientiftq-ue
VINCENT, STENIO, ot LHERISSON, L C La Legislation

f Instruction publique dc la JKtpuhliquc d'Haiti

HAKLUYT, RICHARD (§M 552-1616) —
The great historian of Elizabethan travels,
under the title of the Principal Navigations,
Voyages, Trajflques and Discoveries of the Eng-
lish Nation within the compass of these
1600 yeares (published 1589), was educated at
Westminster School, where Honter's Cosmo-
qraphia was taught In 1570 Hakluyt was
chosen student of Christ Church, Oxford, and
took his M A in 1577, and became a preacher
In the Epistle Dedicatory of his Principal
Navigations he narrates how his cousin Richard
Hakluyt in his chambers at the Middle Temple
had instructed him m certain books of Cos-
mography, with a universal map, pointing
with his wand to all the known soas, gulfs,
bays, straits, capes, rivers, empires, etc , and
giving him full geographical information about
them When he went to Christ Church, he
continued these studies, reading whatever he
could find extant m the Greek, Latin, Italian,
Spanish, Portuguese, French, and English
languages " In my public lectures," he says,
" I was the first that produced and shewed
both the old imperfectly composed and the
new lately reformed Maps, Globes, Spheres,
and other instruments of this art for denion-
stiation in the common schools, to the singular
pleasure and general contentment of my audi-
toiy " On Apr 1, 1584, Hakluyt wrote a
letter to Sir Francis Walsingham, directing the
foundation of a lectureship m mathematics
and another on the art of Navigation in Lon-
don in or about Rateliffe, at a yearly stipend
of £50 each He cites the case of the mathe-
matics lectuieship secured at Paris bv Peter
liamus (q v ) Though Hakluyt was not suc-
cessful m getting a lectureship m navigation
established, the teaching of the subject in
mathematical schools (principally private) in
the seventeenth century became a settled
practice F W

See GEOGRAPHY.

References : —

GOLDSMID, E Voyages of the English Nation to America
before 1600 (Edinburgh, 1889-1890 )

HAKLUYT' ft Principal Navigations 12 vols Essay by
Walter Raleigh in Vol XII (Glasgow, 1903- 1905 )

PAYNE, E J HakluyCs Narrative** of the Voyages of
Elizabethan Seamen to America (Oxfoici, 1893-
1900) Also abbreviated edition of Beazley, C R

WA PHON, FOSTER, Beginnings of the Teaching of Modern
Subjects in England (London, 1909 )

HALDEMANN, SAMUEL STEHMAN

(1812-1880) — Naturalist and author, v\as
born at Locust Grove, Pa , and was educated
in a classical school at Harnsburg, at Dickinson
College, and at the University of Pennsylvania
He was for many years professor in Delawaie
College and at the University of Pennsylvania
He was one of the founders of the American
Philosophical Association and the American
Association for the Advancement of Science
(q v ) He wrote numerous works on agri-
culture, chemistry, and natural historv, and
the following school books, Elements of Latin
Pronunciation (1851), Analytic Orthography
(1860), Outline* of Etymology (1877), and
Word-building (1880). W S M

HALE, BENJAMIN (1797-1869) —Third
president of Hobart College (q v) , was gradu-
ated from Bowdom College m 1818 and the
Andover Theological Seminary in 1822 He
was tutor at Bowdom (1823-1827), professor
at Dartmouth College (1827-1835), and presi-
dent of Hobart College (1836-1858) He was
the author of Introduction to Principles of
Carpentry (1827), and of several religious
books W S M

See HOBART COLLEGE

HALES, ALEXANDER OF (d 1245) —
The first great schoolman, exercising a powerful
influence over his successors, who made the
thirteenth century the golden age of Scholas-
ticism He was born and educated at Hales
in England, arid became a Franciscan fnai
He was one of the most famous professors at
the University of Pans, and uon foi himself
the titles of Doctor Iriefragibih*, Doctor Doc-
torurn, ThcoJogoruin Monarchia, and Fon* Vita
Bonaventure was one of his pupils, and Thomas
Aquinas and Duns Scotus were profoundly
influenced by him Writing just after the
recovery of the works of Aristotle, he was the
first to bring the Aristotelian ethics and
philosophy to bear upon the Christian system
While his psychology was Aristotelian in its
gencjal trend, it followed the tiaditional
Augustiman views of the soul and its faculties
His most important contribution to philosophy
\vas the development of the scholastic method
(q v ) and its application to the discussion of
theological problems This method, which
controlled the thought of seveial succeeding
generations, and is still dominant in Roman
Catholic theology, was fully developed in lus
vast Suniwa Theohqur, which was written at
the request of Pope Innocent IV and printed
at Nuremberg in 1482, and served as the
model for the great summists of the next gene-
ration His chief contributions to Theology
were the doctrines of the Treasury of Merits
and the Indelibility of the Sacraments, which
have ever since held so prominent a place in
the teaching and practice of the Roman
Catholic Church. W. R

207

HALF-DAY SESSIONS

HALL

Sec FRANCISCANS; SCHOLASTICISM.

References : —

Ctithnhc Encyclopedia, s v Alexander of Hales
TUUNER, History of Philosophy (Boston, 1905.)

HALF-DAY SESSIONS —See HOLIDAYS,
SCHOOL, SEHWONS, LENGTH OK SCHOOL.

HALF-TIME PUPIL. — See ENCJLAND, EDU-
CATION IN, EXAMINATIONS; SESSIONS, LENGTH
OF SCHOOL.

HALF-TIME SYSTEM, PART TIME
SCHOOL ATTENDANCE. - See SESSIONS,
LIONGTH OF SCHOOL, HOLIDAYS, SCHOOL

HALIFAX, MARQUIS OF. — Sec SAVILE,
(JEORGE.

HALL or HOSTEL (Aula, Hospitium, P«da-
gogium). — Originally a house (or even a
single room) tenanted by a group of university
students in common In some cases these
would perhaps be boardeis with a master, we
find early university statutes dnected against
masters canvassing on the one hand foi pupils
among the freshmen, and, on the othei hand,
outbidding each other foi houses In other
instances the principal was originally one of
the scholars, or even a townsman, who made
himsell lesponsible for the rent, etc In any
case the halls weie at first stattlingly demo-
ciatic; principals were elected and statutes
weie fiamed by the consent of all the students;
and this custom influenced the eaihest colleges,
which were in fact only endowed ko^pitta
An instance of the transition between a hall
and a college may be seen in the inundation of
St -Honore* at Paris This was " a certain
house1, to be furnished with thirteen beds for
the use of poor scholars" under the wtu den-
ship of one of the Canons of the Church of
St -Horiorc*, who was however to be removed
if the students showed just cause of complaint
against his rule (Dcmfle, ("hart Umv Par
1 (>8 ) The earlier colleges weie in fact gen-
erally styled u House " 01 " Hall," a fact which
may best be illustrated by enumerating the
hist twelve Cambiidge endowments in older of
their foundation These are Peterhouse (1284),
Michaelhouse (1324), dare Hall (1320), King's
Hall (1337), Pembroke Hall (1347), Gonville
Hall (1348), Trinity Hall (1350), Corpus
Clmsti College (1352), King's College (1441),
Queen's College (1448), St Catharine's Hall
(1475), Jesus College (1496) The great foun-
dation of Trinity (1546) absorbed two older
colleges (Michaelhouse and King's Hall) and
seven hostels, of which one (Garret Hostel)
retains its name to the present day Dr.
Rashdall has traced the steps by which the
halls passed from simple lodging houses into
officially recognized and controlled communi-
ties. University control may be said to have

begun with the thirteenth-century legislation
which enacted that a house once tenanted by
students might thenceforth be let to no out-
sider so long as there were still students to
hire it. Then (about the beginning of the
fifteenth century) the authorities attempted to
enforce residence in colleges or halls upon all
but the richest and poorest students, and, at
the same time, to enforce stricter rules within
these buildings The pnncipalships were
restricted to masters, and in many other ways
collegiate reacted upon aularian discipline,
yet these reforms worked so slowly that at
Pans, as late as 1486-14X7, " certain women
kept halls and colleges," as in later times the1
Dames' Houses flourished at Eton We must
therefore look upon the ongmal mean ing of
"Hall" as a lather elastic teim Among Cam-
bridge colleges, Clare and St Catharine's kepi
the title until quite recent tunes, Trinity Hall
keeps it still to avoid confusion with Tnmtv
College At Oxford, not only the title, but
the thing still survives in St Edmund's Hall,
endowed as early as 1260, but never foi mall v
incorporated, and existing since 1557 in partial
dependence upon Queen's College, others
were merged into colleges during the nineteenth
century A few modern halls have been
founded both at Oxford and at Cambridge foi
certain groups of non-collegiate students,
mostly on a denominational religious basis
The teim " hostel system" has been applied in
modern times to the more economical airange-
ments in force1 at the leeent foundations of
Keble College, Oxfoid, and Selwyu College,
Carnbndge, where the students ha\e all meals
in common, and in other ways conform more
closely to the collectivist economy of medieval
halls and colleges (i G C.

See DOKMITOIUES, UNIVERSITIES,, STUDENT
LIFE

References : —

DENIFLE, H Di< Entbtihung dcr Univermttotcn d< s Mil-

tvlaltrn* (Berlin, 1S55 )
RASHDALL, H Untveisitiex of Eiuojtt in th( Middle

A (j<8 (Oxford, 1805 )
SCHULZE, F , and SHYMANK, P Da\ dcuitsthi SfudinUn-

tum (Leipzig, 10 K) )
WILLIS, R , and ("LARK, J W Anhittdural ///s/o/// of

the Union t*i1y of Cambndgi (Oumbndgo, 1SH(> )

HALL, ARETHUSA (1802-1880) — Leader
in the movement for the higher education of
women, privately educated She was prin-
cipal of academies at Greenland, N II , and
Haverhill, Mass (1826-1840) At the lattei
academy she was the instructor of the poet
John G Whittier She was also engaged in
secondary school work at the Brooklyn Female
Academy (now Packer Institute) and the
Brooklyn Heights Seminary (1840-1860) She
wrote Manual of Morals (1840), Literary
Reader (1850), and papers on the higher edu-
cation of women. W. S. M

See WOMEN, EDUCATION OF.

208

HALL, BAYARD RUST

HALL, THOMAS

HALL, BAYARD RUST (1798-1809) —
Educational wntor and principal of secondary
schools, was graduated from Union College in
1820 and Princeton Theological Seminary in
1823 He was president of the College of
Indiana (which subsequently became Indiana
University) at Bloommgton from 1823 to 1831,
and principal of academies in New York, Penn-
sylvania, and New Jersey from 1831 to 1846
His educational publications include a Latin
Grammar (1828), The New Purchase (a satire
on the higher educational institutions in the
Middle West, 1843), Teaching a Scten<e (1848),
and The Teacher Taught (1852) W. 8 M.

HALL, JOHN (1627-1056) — An English
scholar , wrote at the age of twenty-two years, An
JInnible Motion to the Parliament of England
concerning the Advancement of Learning and
Reformation in the Universities He was edu-
cated at Durham School and studied at St
John's College, Cambridge He removed to
Ixnidon m 1647, and entered at Cray's Inn
The Humble Motion contains a vigorous on-
slaught on the university studies and teaching
of the time, written, as the title shows, under
the inspiration of Bacon's writings lie com-
plains of the abuse of the endowments of the
university The revenues might be devoted
to the establishment of more professorships
and fewer fellowships He savs, speaking of
Cambridge, that there aie only professorships
for the three principal faculties, and " these
but lazily read, and are carelessly followed "
He complains that no chemistry is studied,
an early reference to the subject by this name
He deprecates the lack of " quick or dead
anatomies, or ocular demonstration of heibs "
Nor is there any " manual demonstration of
mathematical theorems or msti uments " He
suggests " a calculation and amendment of
the epochs of time " He suggests that the
needed reformation of the universities can be
brought about by reducing the " friar-like "
list of fellowships, so that it only includes
working fellows of different kinds Money
thus saved could be applied to experiments
and inventions, etc Improving on Humphrey
Gilbert (q v ) he suggests that two (instead of
one) new books could go to the public library,
and that copies of foreign books sold in Eng-
land should also be required Antiquities, e g
medals, statues, ancient rings, etc , taken
from confiscated estates, should go to the public
museums, and foreign scholars should be hon-
ored Like Comemus, he is an advocate of
realistic instruction in the school In short,
his University demands are the further de-
velopment of mathematics, the determined
investigation of natural science and catalogu-
ing of results, and the drawing up of a synopsis
of medicine Hall is said to have had a pen-
sion from the Commonwealth authorities
equivalent to £350 a year of "present money,
and Thomas Hobbes the philosopher said of

him: " No man had ever done so gieut thing*
at his age." F. \v

References : —

WATHON, FOSTER A Clever Young Man : John Hall
of Gray's Inn (1627-1060) Gentleman's Magazine
May, 1894

Beginning* of the Teaching of Modern Subject* in Eng-
land (London, 190.) )

HALL, SAMUEL READ (1795-1877) —
One of the earliest organizers of American in-
stitutions for the training of teachers, was
born at Croydoii, N.H , on Oct 27, 1795 He
was educated in the district schools and at
Kimball Academy, Menden, N H Foi ten
years he was a teacher in the district school* ,
and in 1823 he organized a seminary foi the
training of teachers at Concord, Vt The semi-
nary was later moved to Andover, Mass , and
subsequently to Plymouth, N H During the
seventeen years (1823-1840) that Mr Hall
conducted his teachers' seminaries, the first
of their kind in the United States, he was active
m agitating the cause of proiessional education
His Lecture* on School-Keeping (1829) and his
Lectures on Female Education (1832) \\ere im-
poitant contributions to the scientific stud>
of education during the early pciiod Hall was
one of the founders of the American Institute
of Instruction (</ v ), and he is reported to have
made the first use of blackboaids (qv) in the
United States The late Henrv Barnard is
authority for the statement that Hall used
blackboards in the district schools that he
taught prior to 1815, and evtensne use was
made of blackboards in the teachers' seminaries
that he conducted between 1823 and 1840
Besides the two educational books aheady re-
ferred to, Hall was the authoi of numerous
textbooks, including The Child' \ Assistant
(1827), Geography for Children (1832), School
History of the Lnifrd States (1832), and School
Aiithmetic (1836) W S M.

See EDUCATION, ACADEMIC STUDY OF

HALL, THOMAS (1010-1005) — Minister
and schoolmaster — a pedagogical follo\vei of
John Brmsley (q v ) He was educated at the
King's School, Worcestei, wheie Hemy Blight
was schoolmaster, from 1024 to 1029 he was at
Oxford He returned to Worcestershne and
taught a " private school at the Chapels be-
longing to King's Norton " He became cm ate
of King's Norton and master of the free gram-
mar school at the same place In his school
work, some persons of quality sent their sons
" to table (board) in the house with him/' and
many of his scholars proved able ministers
He contributed to the library of the Free
School at Birmingham, and at King's Norton
he gave his study of books, on condition that
the parish built a library house for them.

The classical school textbooks written by
Hall are. (1) Wisdom's Conquest — or An Ex-
planation and Grammatical Translation of the

VOL. in —

209

HALLE

HALLE, UNIVERSITY OF

l,Hh book of Ovid's Metamorphosis (1651); (2)
Phaetons Folly or the downfall of Pride. Being
a Translation of the 2nd Book of Ovid'* Meta-
morphosis, paraphrastically and Grammatically
(together with Flowers, Phrases, Rhetoric,
Etymologies) (1655)

Hall further wrote the Vmdicwe Lit&arum,
the Schools Guarded (1654), in which he attacked
the position of the Anabaptists, who argued
according to Hall that the arts and sciences are
" idols, anti-christian, the smoke of the bottom-
less pit, filth, froth, clung, needless and useless
for the right understanding of the Scripture.
The Spirit alone was sufficient without the
human help of learning/' Hall therefore
undertakes to prove the excellency and use-
fulness of arts, sciences, languages, and history
and all sorts of human learning in subordination
to divinity and preparation for the ministry.
Hall's defense of learning is cast in logical form
It is followed by Centuna Sacra, a hundred rules
for expounding the Scriptures and a Scriptural
rhetoric, containing a compendium of all the
most material tropes and figures m the Scriptures.
In the same volume is contained the Histrw-
mastix, or a whip for Webster — an examination
of John Webster's (q v ) Examen of Academies,
which Hall calls " delusive/' and claims to
show the sophistry of Webster's " new-found
light," which Hall thinks tends to the sub-
version of universities, philosophers, physicians,
magistrates, ministers Hall also wrote books
on the Loathsomeness of Long Hair, 1054, and
the Downfall of May-Games, 1660 F W.

HALLE. — See FKANCKE, AUGUST HERMANN;
GERMANY, EDUCATION IN, under Universities,
THOMASIUS, CHRISTIAN, WOLFF, CHRISTIAN.

HALLE, THE ROYAL FREDERICK UNI-
VERSITY OF — This institution was estab-
lished in 1694, the University of Wittenberg
(qv), established in 1502, being incorporated
with it in 1817, this explains the official title,
Vercimgte Fneclnchs-Universitat Halle- Witten-
berg The plan of founding a seat of higher
learning at Halle goes back to the Elector
Frederick 111 of Brandenburg, who was desir-
ous of maintaining a university for the newly
acquired duchies of Halberstadt and Magdeburg,
thereby removing the existing dependence upon
the nearby Saxon university of Leipzig, he
was furthermore anxious to possess another
Lutheran citadel of learning besides the some-
what remotely situated University of Komgs-
berg The celebrated jurist Thomasius (qv),
whose advanced ideas had led to his dismissal
by the conservative University of Leipzig,
transferred his activities to the city of Halle
in the late eighties of the seventeenth century,
and was followed a few years later by the theo-
logian, August Hermann Francke (qv), who
had been forced to leave the same institution
The imperial sanction for the establishment of
a regular university was not secured, however,

until 1693 (Oct. 19), the formal opening
taking place on July 12 of the following year
From the beginning an institution of foin
faculties was planned, the theological faculty
representing more liberal Lutheran tendencies
than prevailed at Wittenberg and at Leipzig.
Indeed, the entire spirit of the new institution
was modern, m consequence of which it has been
styled by Paulsen the first modern university.
Thomasius had evoked considerable opposition
at Leipzig not only by announcing, but actually
delivering his lectures in the German language ,
at Halle he was free to do as he chose, and as a
result of his example German gradually dis-
placed Latin as the vehicle of expression in
university lectures. The theological faculty
was for many years the most important of the
university, pietistic tendencies prevailing, and
during the third and fourth decades of the last
century was the most renowned m Germany
The medical faculty did not attain importance
until the beginning of the nineteenth century,
several clinics having been established at the
end of the previous century, at which time the
natural sciences were still included in this
faculty The faculty of philosophy had secured
wide renown at the beginning of the eighteenth
eentury, largely through the influence of
Christian Wolff, professor of mathematics and
philosophy, who was dismissed for his radical
applications of philosophy to theology by King
Frederick William I of Prussia, but reinstated
by Frederick the Great, and again at the close
of the century through Fnednch August Wolf,
the philologist, who organized a philological
seminar in 1787, and who was largely instru-
mental m divorcing this discipline from theology,
upon which it had been dependent Another
prominent name connected with this faculty
is that of the philosopher Eduard Erdmann,
whose connection with Halle covered a span of
sixty years (1836-1890) In the course of the
nineteenth century various scientific institutes
(physical, chemical, biological, etc ) were estab-
lished, and 111 1803 the best equipped agri-
cultural institute m Germany was organized as
an integral part of the university, being in-
cluded under the faculty of philosophy The
political science seminar (1872) contains an
excellent collection of statistical material, and
has been publishing a valuable series of con-
tributions since 1877 The library is housed
in a modern building (1882), and contains about
250,000 volumes and almost J 000 manuscripts.
Connected with the University Library is the
Hungarian National Library, founded in Wit-
tenberg in 1725, and containing over 100 manu-
scripts and over 4000 volumes of Hunganana
and old Wittenberg theological literature The
university also possesses an archaeological
museum, containing a numismatic collection
and a collection of engravings The annual
budget amounts to approximately half a mil-
lion dollars During the first half of the
eighteenth century Halle attracted more stu-

210

HALLUCINATION

HAMBURG

dents than any other German university with
the single exception of Jena, but toward the
end of the century it was passed by Leipzig,
although it had grown larger than Jena in the
meantime. During the winter semester of
1911-1912 its 3112 students were distributed as
follows- Theology 378, law 389, medicine 356,
philosophy 1572, auditors 233, more than half
of the total number of matriculated students
being enrolled in the faculty of philosophy
The teaching staff consists of about 100 profes-
sors and 60 do cents.

R T,Jr
References : —
HERTZBERO, G F Kurze Uberaicht uber die Geschichtc

der UniversiiAt in Halle bis zar Mitte des 19 Jahr-

hunderts (Halle, 1894 )
LEXIS, W Das dcutsche Unternchtswcsen, Vol 1, pp

392-408 (Berlin, 1904 )
Minerva, Handbuch der gelehrten Welt, Vol I (Strass-

burg, 1911 )
SCHRADER, WILHELM Geschichte der Friedncha-Uni-

vcrsit&t zu Halle (Berlin, 1894 )

HALLUCINATION. — A perception that
does not originate from a stimulus from the
world external to the body There is no psy-
chological distinction between hallucinations,
illusion ((/ v ), and perceptions (q v ), for all are
interpretations of sensory data The distinc-
tion is sometimes made that perceptions have
a sensory basis, and the interpretations from
the sensory data are like those of most people,
that illusions are wrong interpretations of
sensory stimuli, while hallucinations have no
external object corresponding to the stimulus,
and that the interpretations of the mental
sensory data are necessarily erroneous The
normal perceptions and illusions may therefore
be called exogenous m origin, and the halluuna-
tions are endogenous This differentiation,
however, will not hold m all cases, and there is
no such sharp dividing line between percep-
tions, illusions, and hallucinations as is indicated
by this definition That hallucinations are
abnormal, that perceptions are normal, arid
that illusions may be partly normal and partly
abnormal is another distinction that has been
drawn, but this is only partly true Hallucina-
tions are found to a great extent m abnormal
people, but they are of almost constant occur-
rence in normal individuals in a certain form
(in the condition of dreaming).

The qualitative characteristics of hallucina-
tions are the same as those of perceptions.
They have the subjective element of reality,
they have color, form, depth, tone, and emotional
effect. All these qualities are similar to those
in perception of so-called normal character
We may say, therefore, that an hallucination
is a perception most often due to the activity
of the central nervous apparatus without the
intervention of the peripheral organs, and com-
monly found in abnormal mental conditions.
All kinds of hallucinations may be present
at the same time, e g. that of an animal (visual),

moving (visuo-motor) , of horrible color (visual),
giving forth obnoxious fumes (olfactory), that
of poison (organic?), and bellowing loudly
(auditory) ; that of being transported through
the air (organic), of having wings grow (skin
and organic), of seeing (visual) and talking
(auditory and motor) with angels

The most typical condition in which hallucina-
tions are found is that of delirium, m which
condition the hallucinations are sometimes the
only abnormal phenomena All toxic states
in their acute forms arc accompanied by
hallucinations, and the diagnosis is sometimes
made, other information being lacking, from
the character of these perceptions In de-
mentia precox hallucinations are common, and
they lead to the abnormal impulsive actions so
characteristic of this form of mental disease
In epilepsy, the auras may be considered
as hallucinations, and the confusional states
following an epileptic attack are often made
up of hallucinations of hearing, sight, and the
organic senses. In mania, hallucinations are
occasionally met with, and in paranoia they
form the foundation on which the subsequent
structure of delusions of persecution and ideas
of grandeur is built

The presence of hallucinations usually in-
dicates a grave condition, although it must be
remembered that the accumulation of cerumen
in the ear, the presence of a catarrh or of polvpi
in the nose, decayed teeth, and injuries to or
disease of the eye may lead to the formation of
hallucinations of the appropriate sensorv char-
acter The hallucinations of peripheral origin
are usually of a vague type, but if unattended
to they may lead to central, / c cerebral, dis-
turbances and become definite It is generally
believed that constant stimulation eventually
leads to lack of attention to the sensation, but
this is not always tine, for we find that the con-
stant buzzing sounds from ear affections often
lead to an exaggeration of the mental character
of the sensations, owing to the abnoimal degree
of attention being given to them, and then4 may
result an elaboration of the sensation into a
complex of a fixed character It is, theiefoie,
of importance that at the first sign of an ab-
normal sensation (hallucination) a eaieful ex-
amination of the sense organ be made, for the
treatment of a bad physiological condition in
the early stages will stop the vague hallucina-
tion and prevent the formation of a more
definite one S 1 F

See DELIRIUM, DEMENTIA PRECOX, EPILEPSY,
INTOXICATION, PARANOIA.

References : —

PARISH, E Hallucinations and Illusions (London

and New York, 1897 )
SIDIS, B Inquiry into the Nature of Hallucinations

Psychol Rev , Vol XI, 1904, pp 15-29 , 104-137
SULLY, J On Illusions (London and New York, 1894 )

HAMBURG, FREE TOWN OF, EDUCA-
TION IN. — See GERMANY, EDUCATION IN,

2U

HAMERTON

HAMILTON, JAMES

HAMERTON, PHILIP GILBERT (1834-
1894). — English art critic, etcher, and essayist;
born near Oldham in Lancashire, where he was
educated at school and privately. A great part
of his life he spent in France After devoting
himself for some time to painting and sketching
without much success, he turned to art criticism
and writing, and contributed much to spread-
ing a knowledge of art among the public and in
popularizing etchings His best known work
is the Intellectual Life (1873), a collection of
essays in the form of letters, marked by clear,
simple style, if not by a remarkable depth of
thought. The thesis which Hamerton sets up
is that " intellectual living is not so much an
accomplishment as a state or condition of the
mind in which it seeks earnestly for the highest
and purest truth " In the section of the work
which is devoted to education there is an in-
sistence on the non multa sed muttum. Modern
education attempts to cover too many subjects,
with the accompanying scattering of interest,
lack of mastery, absence of concentration, and
pressure Hence he approves of the old and
somewhat restricted curriculum, of few sub-
jects, but thoroughly cultivated, and of a system
which would now be called elective, namely the
granting of certificates of competence for ability
in any subject rather than insisting on a def-
inite course concluding in a university degree.
" The only hope for us IK to make a selection
from the attempts of our too heavily burdened
youth, and in those selected studies to emulate
in after-life the thoroughness of our fore-
fathers."

References : —

Dictionary of National Biography, Supplement

Philip Gilbert Hamerton, Autobiography, 1834-1858,

and a Memoir by his Wife, 1858-1894 (London,

1896)

HAMILTON COLLEGE, CLINTON, NY.

— An institution which developed out of the
Hamilton Oneida Academy, established by
Samuel Kirkland, a missionary of great in-
fluence among the Oneida Indians, who had
been a pupil at Dr Wheelock's Indian School
at Lebanon (see DARTMOUTH COLLEGE) The
academy was chartered in 1793, and among its
trustees was Alexander Hamilton John Niles,
a Yale graduate, was the first principal when
work was begun in 1798. In 1812 it was decided
to extend the scope and influence of the in-
stitution, and funds were raised for a college
through the efforts of Rev. Caleb Alexander, a
grant was also obtained from the legislature.
Hamilton College was chartered in 1812, and
it was proposed to begin with professors of
chemistry and mineralogy, surgery, and anat-
omy, the institutes of medicine, and obstetrics.
Nothing became of the suggested medical
chairs, however, for some time. The first
president was Rev Dr. Azel Backus, a graduate
of Yale (1812-1817) The number of students
rose rapidly, and buildings were added at the

212

cost, however, of the reserve fund, so that by
1835 a second permanent fund was established
Under President Simeon North (1839-1857)
progress was again very well marked; build-
ings were improved and added to; and new
subjects were introduced, including geology
and mineralogy, elocution and rhetoric, law,
political economy and history, moral philos-
ophy and religious instruction, French and
German. The succeeding presidents have been
Dr. Samuel Ware Fisher (1858-1866), Dr
Samuel Oilman Brown (1868-1881), Dr Henry
Darling (1881-1891) Hamilton College has
had a number of distinguished scholars on its
faculty, and on its roll of alumni are to be found
the names of many who have achieved dis-
tinction in the Christian ministry and in all
fields of public life

The college is well situated in the midst of
beautiful scenery, with a campus of ninety
acres, and comprises sixteen buildings used for
recitation and other purposes The entrance
requirements are equivalent to fifteen units
Two courses, classical and Latin scientific, are
offered, leading to the degrees of A B , Ph B ,
and BS The student enrollment in 1911-
1912 was 190 Provision is made to receive
the students in dormitories and fraternity
houses There is a faculty of twenty members
Melanchthon Woolsey Stryker, D D , LL.D ,
is the president.

HAMILTON COLLEGE, LEXINGTON, KY

— ATI institution for the education of young
women, established in 1869 College pre-
paratory, collegiate, music, art, and expression
courses are offered Two years of college work
are offered, for which credit is given at the
Transylvania University (q v ) There is a
faculty of twenty-five members

HAMILTON, JAMES (1769-1829) — In-
ventor of a new method of learning languages

— the Hamiltoman System He was born in
London, but spent most of his time in Europe
as a merchant He studied French, German,
Italian, Latin, and Greek A reversal of
fortune compelled him to resort to teaching
languages His system consisted in putting
foreign textbooks with literal interlinear trans-
lations into the hands of his pupils and giving
them a vocabulary before he taught grammar
He made an experiment in London on a num-
ber of poor boys placed under his charge by an
English member of Parliament for six months,
at the end of which they could translate the
Gospel of St John and Caesar's Commentaries.
Hamilton taught languages very successfully
(1815-1823) in most of the large Eastern towns
in America, as well as Montreal and Quebec
On his return to England he taught in London
and many other towns. He was several times
attacked as a charlatan and impostor, but
although he certainly employed methods of
advertising which were not above suspicion,

HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM

HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM

there is no reason to believe that he was not
honest. He published many keys, including
the Gospels of St. Matthew and St John in
Greek; Gospel of St John, JSsop's Fables,
Eutropius, Phwdrus m Latin, Gospel of St John,
Perrin's Fables, in French, Carnpc's Robinson
Crusoe in German , Gospel of St John in Italian.
His system he describes in Ihstonj, Principles,
Practice and Results . of the Hamiltonian
System (Manchester, 1829).

References : —

Dictionary of National Biography

SMITH, SYDNEY Essay* Social and Political. (Lon-
don, n d )

HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM (1788-1856).
— A leader in the school of Scottish meta-
physics After some schooling in Scotland
and two years in London, Sir William went in
1807 as a Snoll exhibitioner to Balhol College,
Oxford, where he pursued his studies zealously,
though with some independence, devoting him-
self chiefly to the study of Aristotle and the
classics Graduating with honors m 1810, he
became a member of the Scottish bar, and took
up his residence in Edinburgh Ho was not
markedly active or successful m his chosen
profession, chiefly because his life was mainly
that of a student, he devoted himself to re-
searches of all kinds, unbroken except foi oc-
casional excursions into the held of practical
politics and social reform In 1820 he was
an unsuccessful candidate foi the chair of moral
philosophy in the University of Edinburgh,
where, however, in 1836, he was appointed to
the professorship of logic and metaphysics,
a position which he held till his death Mean-
while, in 1829, his career as a philosophical
writer began with the appearance in the Edin-
burgh Review of some articles on The Phi-
losophy of the Unconditioned His edition of
the works of Reid appeared in 1846, that of
Stewart in 1855

His philosophy was not systematically de-
veloped, but its main points are clear enough
The central point is his view of consciousness,
which he analyzed under three aspects (1)
As it is in itself In this sense consciousness
is noumenal and is another name for immediate
or intuitive knowledge (2) As divided into
the three groups, cognition, feeling, and conation
consciousness is recognition of its own acts
and affections But it is only cognition which
has received at his hands adequate treatment.
The laws of cognitive activity he has developed
with remarkable precision His doctrine of
perception was influenced by both Hume and
Kant, and usually teaches that matter is in
itself unknown, and that, so far as it is perceived,
it is perceived only in its relations to the per-
cipient mind (3) Consciousness is called con-
ditioned, and assumes the form of common
sense. The facts here he classified into truths
of perception and truths of reason, both of
which arc alike inscrutable in their essence and

therefore inexplicable Yet the facts them-
selves are evident Hamilton was clearly
a realist in his psychological doctrine He
does not develop his doctrine of the will, with
which he coupled desire, except in fragmentary
discussions of ethical import, and feeling is
likewise treated only in some lectures in which
he maintains that pleasure is the reflex in con-
sciousness of the spontaneous energy of the
soul, pain being the consciousness of restrained
exertion Thus he planted himself on the au-
thority, yet the limited sphere, of human con-
sciousness In his logic and metaphysics the
formal consequences of this standpoint are seen.
Hamilton's chief practical interest was in
education, in which he distinguished himself
both as a teacher and writer His lectures in
psychology, metaphysics, and logic at the
University of Edinburgh were for twenty years
(1836-1856) the most powerful factor in the
thought of Scotland. They, together with his
writings, won him widespread recognition as
the most stimulating teacher, the most learned
metaphysician, and the profoundcst specu-
lative thinker m Great Britain His contribu-
tions to educational literature consist of a series
of eight essays originally published in the
Edmburqh Review during the years 1830-1836
While they have not the universal human
interest possessed by those of Spencer, published
some twenty-five years later, they attracted
general attention, had a decisive practical
effect, and contained much of permanent value
Five of thorn were devoted to the subject of
university reform m its various aspects With
great dialectical skill and enormous learning
he argued for the restoration of then ancient
powers and prerogatives to the universities of
Oxford and Cambridge He contended that
these universities had been absorbed by the
colleges which had grown up in connection \vith
them and usurped their time-honored functions
In the universities as originally constituted
the cycle of instruction was distributed amongst
a body of professors, all professedly chosen from
merit, and each concentrating his ability upon
a single subject Bui since the Reformation the
academical instruction had been monopolized
by the colleges and left in the hands of tutors
and fellows, appointed from favoritism, and
each undertaking to teach the whole curricu-
lum This usurpation of the teaching function
by the colleges he vigorously attacked as illegal,
modern, and destructive of educational effi-
ciency, and advocated the restoration to the
universities of their former functions. The
reforms which he championed have since been
accomplished. The university professoriate
has been resuscitated, reorganized, and re-
endowed; restrictions have been removed from
the fellowships and they have been thrown
open to merit , the conduct of examinations and
the granting of degrees has been restored to the
umveisity authorities, students are now ad-
mitted to the universities without becoming

213

HAMLIN

connected with any college; and, finally, all
religious tests (against which Hamilton argued
trenchantly and which prevented the attend-
ance of Dissenters and Roman Catholics)
have been abolished by the universities, though
not by the colleges

Hamilton was an ardent humanist. One
essay was devoted to the defense of the hu-
manities as the most useful subject of i instruc-
tion Another goes at length into the con-
troversy between mathematics and philosophy,
as to which is the more useful as a means of
mental training His conclusion is that " no
study cultivates a smaller number of the
faculties, in a more partial or feeble manner,
than mathematics, and therefore they ought
not to be made the principal, far less the ex-
clusive, object of academic encouragement "

H D andW R
References : —
HAMILTON, SIR WILLIAM Discussions on Philosophy,

Education, and University Reform (Now York,

1868)
MANBEL, H L , and VEITCH, J Hamilton's Lectures

on Metaphysics and Logic 4 vols (Edinburgh,

1858-1860)
MILL, JOHN STUART Examination of the Philosophy

of Sir William Hamilton
VEITCH, J Hamilton (Edinburgh, 1882 )

HAMLIN, CYRUS (1811-1900) — Mis-
sionary, educator, and first president of Robert
College, was born at Waterford, Me , in 1811
He was graduated from Bowdoin College in
1834, and three years later from the Bangor
Theological Seminary He went to Turkey
as a missionary in 1838 At the close of the
Crimean War he secured from Christopher R
Robert, a New York merchant, a gift for the
organization of an undenominational Christian
college near Constantinople Robert College
was opened in 1860, and Mr Hamlm was its
president until 1876. He was a professor in
the Bangor Theological Seminary from 1877 to
1880, and president of Middlebury College
from 1880 to 1885 For an account of his edu-
cational activities among the Christians, Mos-
lems, and Jews of Turkey, see his My Life and
Times (Boston, 1883). W. S. M

See ROBERT COLLEGE.

References : —
GOULD, ELIZABKTH P Robert College Education,

September 1890, Vol XI, pp 1-11
WASH BURN, GEORGE Fifty Years in Constantinople

and Recollections of Robert College (Boston, 1909.)

HAMLINE UNIVERSITY, ST PAUL,
MINN — A coeducational institution, estab-
lished in 1854 at Reading, Mum , and after
a period of suspension reopened at Hamlme in
1880 About one half the contributions to the
university have come from members of the
Methodist Episcopal Church There are no
college fraternities The departments include
the college of liberal arts, conferring degrees of
A B and Ph B , and a preparatory school

HAMPDEN-SIDNEY COLLEGE

There were in 1910-1911 twenty-three members
of the instructing staff, and the students num-
bered 226 in the college of liberal arts, and 25 in
the preparatory school C. G.

HAMMA DIVINITY SCHOOL, SPRING-
FIELD, OHIO — A theological seminary of
the Lutheran Church, established in 1850. De-
grees are not granted

HAMMOND, CHARLES (1813-1878) —

Academy principal; was educated in the com-
mon schools of Connecticut and at Moneon
Academy and Yale College, graduating at the
latter institution in 1839 He subsequently
took the course at the Andover Theological
Seminary He was principal of the Monson
(Mass ) Academy from 1845 to 1878 His
publications include New England Academies
and Secondary Schools (1867), History of
Groton Academy (1850), and numerous papers
on secondary education. W. S. M.

See ACADEMY IN AMERICA.

Reference : —

BARNARD, H American Journal of Education, 1880
Vol XXX, pp 19-64.

HAMPDEN-SIDNEY COLLEGE —A

small but historic institution, situated in the
village of Hampden-Sidney, near Farmville,
Va Its beginning is found in measures taken
in 1774, by the Presbyterian Church, to estab-
lish a " public seminary " in Prince Edward
County The prospectus of the Hampden-
Sidney Academy declared that no sectarian
consideration should influence the conduct of
the school, a pledge kept throughout its history
The academy was opened on Jan 1, 1776
The name was a memorial to the English
patriots, John Hampden and Algernon Sidney
In May, 1783, a college charter was secured
from the General Assembly of Virginia, among
the incorporators were Patrick Henry, James
Madison, and a number of famous Virginians
The college increased rapidly in the scope of
its work, number of students, and endowments
up to the Civil War From 1863 to 1866, in-
clusive, no students were graduated, all of
them enlisting in the Confederate army as soon
as they reached the age for service At this
time less than thirty boys remained in college.
The record of the alumni is remarkable
Early students included William Cabell, Gov-
ernor and judge of the Virginia Court of
Appeals; Joseph Carnngton Cabell, co-founder
with Thomas Jefferson of the University of
Virginia; William Cabell Rives, twice minister
to France, and representatives of many old
Virginia families. From 1787 to 1789 William
Henry Harrison was a student Among the
alumni there have been two members of the
Cabinet, ten senators, twenty-two members of
the House of Representatives, eight governors
of states, and four ministers to foreign coun-

214

General View from Hampton Roads

Instruction in Wagon Building

Inbtniction on the Hand Loom.

The Cadet Corps

Instruction in Caipuritoring.

HAMPTON INSTITUTE.

HAMPTON NORMAL INSTITUTE

HANDBALL

tries Alumni also held many important posts
in the Confederate States

The institution maintains a preparatory
school and undergraduate courses, conferring
the bachelor's degree in arts and letters, ad-
mission to which is by examination or certificate
from an approved high school The degree of
A M. is conferred There were in 1910-1911
eleven professors in the faculty, and 113
students C G.

Reference : —

Hihtorv of Hampdrii-Sidiicy C'olioKo in tho biographies
of its president.-,, 1775 lf)(K), ID National Cyclo-
jxdia of American Biography, Vol II, pp 21-27

HAMPTON NORMAL AND AGRICUL-
TURAL INSTITUTE, HAMPTON, VA —

This school for negroes and Indians was
founded by General Samuel Chapman Aim-
strong (q v ) in 1868 on the shore of Hampton
Roads, near Fort Monroe, Va , for the
purpose of providing a practical education for
the children of the ex-slaves For two yeais it
was under the control of the American Mis-
sionary Association In 1870, however, it be-
came independent of any association or sect,
receiving a charter from the state of Virginia

Hampton Institute is now an undenomi-
national industrial school, controlled by a
board of seventeen trustees The school
property includes 1100 acres of land and 135
buildings, among which are a church, an aca-
demic hall, a library, dormitories, and buildings
for the teaching of agriculture and the me-
chanical trades The number of students
(1912) was 1699, of whom 81 were Indians
(Indians were first admitted in 1878), 899 are
negro boarding pupils, and 457 are negro
children in the Whittier day school, which is
used as a practice school for the training
department The negro boarding pupils pay
for their board and clothing, partly in cash,
partly in labor, the Indians are assisted by
the government in these payments But the
great majority of students cannot pay their
tuition, which is provided by churches, Sunday
schools, benevolent societies, and individuals

Hampton Institute offers elementary and
advanced academic and agricultural courses,
thirteen trade courses, and courses in business,
home economics, library methods, matron's
work, and the training of teachers Its object
is to tram teachers and industrial loaders for
the negro and Indian races Great stress is
laid on character building and on the develop-
ment of a missionary spirit in the pupils
Besides the regular work on the school grounds,
which includes a summer school for teachers, a
farmers' conference, and a general nogro con-
ference, Hampton Institute carries on exten-
sion work of a very varied character, influenc-
ing schools and communities in till parts of
Virginia and in many othei Southern states
More than seven thousand voung people have

had the benefit of Hampton's ideals and train-
ing. They have for the most part gone back
to the Western plains or to the Southern
states, and there have become centers of in-
fluence — teachers, farmers, skilled mechanics,
thrifty homernakers — leading their people
more by deeds than by words to a higher plane
of citizenship. H. B. F

References : —

FWSSELL, H. B. In From Servitude to Servtu, pp 117
152 (Boston, 1905 )

LUDLOW, H W Twenty-two Year* Work of 1h< Hamp-
ton Normal and Agricultural Institute (Hampton,
Va , 1893 )

HANCOCK, JOHN (1825-1891). — School
superintendent, was educated in the district
schools of Ohio He was for four years (1845-
1849) a teacher in the common schools of Ohio,
principal of schools in Cincinnati, 1850-1864,
instructor in a business college, 1804-1 800,
city superintendent of the schools of Cincin-
nati, 1867-1874, city superintendent ol the
schools of Dayton, 1874-1884, city superin-
tendent of Chihcothc, 1885-1888, 'and state
superintendent of public instruction in Ohio,
1888-1891 He was the authoi of numerous
papers on educational subjects W. S M

References : —

SHELDON, WILLIAM E John Hancock Proc N E A

for 1892, pp 602-005
WHITE, EMEUSON E John Hancock Proc N E A

foi 1K91, pp 44 -48

HANDBALL — One of the oldest and most
universally played games is that of bouncing a
ball against a wall by hitting it with the open
hand From this simple children's game,
various difficult and complex games have been
developed in different countries In Ireland
the game of handball is played in a rectangular
court surrounded by four smooth walls, the
ball is caromed around the walls and returned
with the hand In Spamsh-Amencan countries
the game called pclota (ball) is very similar to
handball, only the hand is reenforced by a
wooden scoop strapped to the forearm An-
other interesting development of the ''hand-
ball game " is the game of " fives," which it is
claimed originated with the boys at Eton and
Rugby The Eton fives court was originally
formed by two buttresses of the chapel, the
side obstacle, called the " pepper box," being
the end of the banister belonging to the
chapel steps, and the " hole " merely an acci-
dent The Rugby fives game is slightly dif-
ferent from the Eton game Both varieties of
this game are very popular m the Public
Schools of England as well as at Oxford and
Cambridge

In recent years a simple game of handball
has been developed in the United States
This new form of the old game is rapidly
growing in favor as an indoor game, and is now
played in nearly eveiy gymnasium in the coun-

215

HANDBALL

HANNAK

try. The rules of this new game vary in dif-
ferent parts of the country, but the essential
principles are the same everywhere In its
simplest form the game is played against a
smooth surface of brick, cement, or wood,
about fifteen to twenty feet wide and twelve to
fifteen feet high The floor in front of the wall
is of wood or cement, the court is marked by
parallel lines running back from the corners
of the walls about twice the width of the walls
A transverse line across the middle of the
court serves as a service line The game is
played by two, three, or four players When
there arc three players, each player scores for
himself when serving, and the other two
players play as partners against the server
When played by four players, the game is
called " doubles/' and the players are divided
into sets of partners who score together
The rules of the game are similar to those of
lawn tennis The server stands in the front
half of the court, bounces the ball on the
floor, and hits it with the open hand against
the wall, the ball must land in the back half
of the court and be returned by the receiver
on the first bounce The ball is then bounced
against the wall and returned either " on the
fly " or after one bounce on the floor, in any
part of the court, until one player fails to
return it or makes it bounce outside of the
court The server continues to serve until he
fails to return the ball in the court when he is
" out " serving Each point missed by the
receiver counts one point for the server The
game is for twenty-one points Much interest
is added to the game by the presence of a side
wall or other obstruction, making possible a
groatoi variety of difficult plays The game is
extremely popular, first, because it is easily
learned and yet affords unlimited opportunity
for the development of skill, second, because
it may be played in any good-sized room
with a smooth wall or on smooth ground
adjoining a smooth building wall, and third,
because all the equipment necessary for the
game is a small rubber ball

Handball is a most valuable form of physical
training because it combines most of the
advantages of the best athletic games As a
form of exercise it is admirable, for it brings
into play all the different groups of muscles,
the abdominal organs are stimulated by the
bending and twisting movements, and the
activity of the heart and lungs is accelerated
The game may be played lightly or vigorously,
according to the strength of the players Hand-
ball is also valuable as a means of physical
education It serves to develop agility, judg-
ment, accuracy, and endurance In addition
to these physical and educational values, hand-
ball affords wholesome recreation of the kind
that is most beneficial to students and teachers
\nothei valuable* chaiactenstic of handball is
that i1 can be played outdoois as well as in-
doors There are many handball courts in

the yards and on the roofs of college and
school gymnasia G L M

References : —

DKSHONG, M W Handball and how to play it (Now

York, 1904 )
EOAN, M. How to play Handball (Now York, 1908 )

HANDWORK IN EDUCATION —See ART
IN EDUCATION, also APPRENTICESHIP AND EDU-
CATION, INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, MANUAL
TRAINING

HANDWRITING —See WRITING

HANNAK, EMANUEL (1841-1899) — Aus-
trian educator, born at Teschon, where he
received his school education In 1859 he
entered the University of Vienna, and devoted
himself mainly to the study of hist or v In
1866 he became a teacher in a gymnasium in
Vienna, and at the same time private1 docent
in the university His main interest was in
history and the teaching of that subject In
1870 he gave instruction at the Padagogutw,
of which Dittos (q v ) had charge, for the
further training of teachers lie became
greatly interested in pedagogy and the tram-
ing of teachers. In 1874 he was appointed
director of the Normal School at Wiener-
Neustadt, and with this in view visited the
chief normal schools of Germany He achie\ ed
great success in this position, and thiough his
interest in education and the after training of
teachers won the support of residents and
teachers In 1881 he succeeded Dittos as
director of the Padagogmni in Vienna, his
work there attracted attention not only
throughout Europe, but also in the United
States In 1889 he became honorary mem-
ber of the New York Industrial Association,
and two ycais later wrote a monograph on
Th< Training of Teacher** in AnUna foi the
New York College for the Tiaimng of Touchers
Educational Monographs (Vol 11, No 3, pp
87-112) Besides his other activities, he took
a prominent pait in promoting the higher edu-
cation of women, and the first Gorman gym-
nasium for girls was opened at the Pudayoyunn
in 1891 Of his writings the majority deal
with the teaching of history and textbooks in
history Lchibuch dcr (rcschuhtc }ui Mittcl-
schulen, Lehrer- mid Lehieiinnenbddungwnxtal-
ten) Lehrbuch dcr obtcrreichwh-inigauKchcn
Geschichtc (1884), H istoi iwher Sch/ul atlas
(1886), Methodik </e,s UntcinM* in dcr Ge-
schichtc (1891). In 1889 he issued a new edition
of K Schmidt's Gcschichte dcr Padagogik, to
which he contributed the section on education
in ancient times He was a contributor to
Rein's Encyklopadisches Handbuch, and wrote
several reports on the teaching of history for
inlet national expositions

Reference : —

FuiHrn, F Btographien bstcrrcichischrr tfthulm&nner.
(Vienna, 1S<)7 )

210

HANOVER

HARNISCH

HANOVER -- See GKHM^NY, EDUCATION IN.

HANOVER COLLEGE, HANOVER, IND

— A coeducational institution, the successor
of Hanover Academy, a school opened in a, log
cabin in 1827, by the Rev John Finley Trowe,
at the request of the Presbytery of Salem, Ind.
The first students were sons of the Scotch-
Tnsh Presbyterians who settled in Indiana
On Dec 30, 182S, the school was incor-
porated by the legislature of Indiana The
Theological Department, established to meet a
condition imposed by the synod, was continued
until 1840, when it was removed to New
Albany, Tnd , and later became the Mc(1ornnck
Theological Seminary (</ v) In 1 833 the
institution was chartered as Hanover College,
and opened on the manual labor (r/ v ) system,
which soon failed On Feb 25, 1 909, the
charter was amended to eliminate denomi-
national control One trustee is nominated
each year by the alumni

The college maintains, besides the usual
undergraduate courses, admission to which is
based on entrance requirements of fifteen
units, a summer school, a preparatory academy,
and graduate courses conferring the degree of
M A for one year's \\ork in residence There
\\ere in I 91 1- 1 912 twenty -one members of the
instiucting fetufi, and an enrollment of 200
tudents C G.

HARDENBERGH, JACOB RUTSEN (173fy~
1790) — First president of Rutgers College,
was educated in the academies of New Jersey,
and was for several years engaged in the
ministry of the Dutch Reformed C'hurch He
was instrumental in the establishment of
Queen's (now Rutgers) College, and was its
first president (1770-1790) W S M

See RUTGERS COLLEGE.

HARDIN COLLEGE, MEXICO, MO —An

institution foi the education of young women,
founded in 1873 High school and junior
college, music, and art work are given Theie
is a faculty of twenty-four instructors

HARKNESS, ALBERT (1822-1907) —
Author of Latin textbooks and college pro-
fessor, was graduated from Brown Unuersity
in 1842, and subsequently studied in Germany
He was for ten years instructor in secondaiy
schools, and in 1855 he became a professor in
Hrown University He was one of the founders
of the American Philological Association and
of the American School of Classical Studies at
Athens (qv) He was the author of seventeen
Latin textbooks W. S M

HARMAR, JOHN (1594-1670) —Classical
scholar and schoolmaster, educated at Win-
chester and Magdalen College, Oxford He
took his BA in 1614, and was a master in
Magdalen College School, Oxford, in 1617

He became hcndmastci of St Albnns School
in 1626, whence he dates his translation of
the Jainta IniyiHirutH of William Bathe or
Battens, a .lenuit of Salamanca (1626) In
1650 ho returned to Oxford as professor of
Greek He wrote school textbooks, Praxis
Grammatical 1622, and the Lexicon Etymo-
loqicon Grcpruw, being an edition of Scapula,
with a Lex t con fitymoloyicuni Lingucc Grue(cr,
compiled by Harmar himself m 1637 He is also
noteworthy as the translatoi of the Assembly's
Shorter Catechism into Greek and Latin, 1659

y w

HARMONY, MUSICAL

TERMS

See MUSICAL

HARMONY, HARMONIOUS DEVELOP-
MENT — The social philosophy of the later
eighteenth century was cosmopolitan, not
nationalistic, in tenor It regarded the divi-
sions of mankind into different political states
as arbitrary or artificial, and took Humanity
as its ideal object of endeavor Man was more
than the citizen Consequently the educational
systems that had national, or any particuhu-
istie political or religious, ends were looked
upon with hostility In opposition to them
were urged the superior claims of an education
which should develop the individual as a
member of humanity The motto of such an
education was the harmonious development of
all the faculties of the individual, as against
the partial and narrowing tendencies attributed
to national and confessional systems of edu-
cation The conception of harmony of de-
velopment was strengthened by the tendency
toward " Hellenism " — that is, to regard the
Greek personality as the normal expression of
human powers (See CULTURE ) It was also
associated with the popular objective arid
absolute idealisms of the time, which regaided
the individual as universal mind in immature,
and which treated development as the piocess
of actualizing the latent or potential uni-
versality Under this influence the idea of
harmony took in some cases (as in that of
Froebel) a romantic or even mystical turn,
instead of the classic form characteristic of the
Hellenic ideal J D

See DEVELOPMENT, FROEBEL; GOETHL, HKK-
B\UT, LEHKING, NEO-IHTMANLSM, PESTALOZZI,
ROMANTIC IBM , VOLTAIRE

HARNISCH, WILHELM (1787-1804) -
German educationist of the Pestalozzian school ,
was born in Wilsnack, near Potsdam, Prussia,
attended the gymnasium at Salzwedel, and in
1806 entered the University of Halle. After
about half a year his study there was rudely
interrupted, as the university was closed by
order of Napoleon 1 He spent a year in tutor-
ing, and then completed his studies at the
University of Frankfort-on-the-()der In
1809 he was called as a teacher to a private

217

HARNISCH

HARPER

school in Berlin, which had been founded by
Plamann, a direct disciple of Pestalozzi There
he also came in contact with Jahn (qv), and
was inspired by him with a great love of gym-
nastics In 1812 Harnisch was appointed as
principal of the teachers' seminary at Breslau,
which institution he soon made one of the
most important centers of Pestalozzian ideas
in Germany. When the war of liberation
began, he, with all of his students, volunteered
to join the army against Napoleon, but the
educational authorities refused their consent,
as they regarded the work he was doing as
too important to be interrupted, even on
account of such patriotic motives Neverthe-
less, when later on the era of political reaction
set in, Harnisch, like so many other patriotic
Prussians of his time, was denounced as a
demagogue. He had instituted an open-air
gymnasium, which had become even more
popular than the famous " Turnplatz " of
Jahn in the " Hasenheide " near Berlin It
was just this influence of Harnisch over the
young men of the country which rendered him
suspicious to the government His " Turn-
platz " was closed, and even the natural his-
tory excursions which he used to undertake
with his pupils were arbitrarily interfered
with. In 1822 he was even transferred to the
teachers' seminary at Weissenfels, a much
inferior institution, which, however, by twenty
years of devoted efforts, he raised to the rank
of one of the best training schools in Prussia
In 1842 he resigned his position, and lived for
the rest of his life as the pastor of a village
near Magdeburg.

Not only through his training of teachers,
but also through his literary activity, Harnisch
was very influential in shaping the character
of the German public school Like Diesterweg
(qv\ he emphasized the individuality of the
pupil, but he also laid stress on the social
factor in education His contributions to the
methodology of arithmetic, geometry, and
geography are very important. In geography
he introduced into the Prussian schools the
method by which the child first studies his
home surroundings (Heimatskunde), and from
them passes on to the study of his country and
of the world.

Among his works may be mentioned . Hand-
buch fur das deutsche Volksschulwesen, first
published in 1812, reedited by Bartels, Lan-
gensalza, 1893, two pedagogical magazines,
edited by him, the one (Der Schulrat an der
Oder) from 1814 to 1820, and the other (Der
Volksschullehrer) from 1824 to 1828, Die
Weltkunde (geography), Breslau, 1817, and Das
Weissenfelser Schullehrerseminar und seine Hilfs-
anstalten (The Weissenfels teachers1 seminary
and its auxiliary institutions), Berlin, 1838.

F M.

Reference : —

REIN, W Encyklop&disches Handbuch der
s v Harni8cht Wilhelm.

218

HARPEDONAPT^E — The philohophei
pemocntus (q v ) is reported as having said,
in his usual boastful fashion, that no one had
us yet surpassed him as a geometrician, " not
even the so-called Harpedonapta* of Egypt "
These were probabl> the recognized teachers of
geometry among the Egyptians, since the fact
that Democritus speaks of them as interested
"in the construction of plane figures with
proof " shows that they were more than
simple surveyors The word means " rope
stretchers," and originally referred to the custom
of surveyors to stretch a rope around three
pegs so as to make a triangle with sides equal
to three, four, and five units, respectively
This formed a right triangle, and it enabled the
surveyor to run a line at right angles to a given
line The plan ih still used by surveyors It
is probable, however, that the word had lost
its original meaning, just as geometry (q v )
has long since ceased to be " earth measure, "
and that the harpedonaptap were the teachers
of geometry of Egypt This plan of con-
structing a right triangle by means of rope
stretching is a very old one It is found in
China and India as well as in Egypt, and the
process is pictured upon the temple at Edfu,
the inscription dating from the Ptolemaic
period D E S.

HARPER, WILLIAM RAINEY (1856-1900).
— An educator, born at New Concord, Ohio,
July 26, 1856, was graduated from Muskmgum
College in 1870, received the degree of Ph D.
from Yale in 1875, taught in minor academic
positions in Tennessee and Ohio, 1875-1880;
was professor of Hebrew in the Baptist Theo-
logical Seminary, Chicago, 1880-1886, served
as pimeipal of the Chautauqua Summer Schools
and correspondence courses, 1884-1898, and
was professor of Semitic languages in Yale
University, 1886-1891 In 1891 he became
head professor of Semitic languages and
literature and first president of the University
of Chicago He died in January, 1906 Dr
Harper's experience and training gave him a
singularly wide range of interests and sym-
pathies His graduate work at Yale inspired
him with high ideals of productive scholarship,
his duties in preparatory schools and the theo-
logical seminary revealed and developed re-
markable powers as teacher and lecturer, his
experiments in organizing correspondence in-
struction in Hebrew and his summer work at
Chautauqua gave him fiirn faith in popular
education, his contact with men and institu-
tions evoked extraordinary capacity for leader-
ship and organization All these aptitudes arid
abilities were energized by a tireless will and
directed by an original mind The founding
of a new university afforded its first president
an unusual opportunity, of which he took full
advantage The characteristic features which
he impressed upon the institution were (a) the
division of undergraduates into two groups,

Cym- W Hamlm (IHli 1900) Seep 21

William T. Harris (lS,r>~190S) Sw p. L'19

Mark Hopkins (1802-1887). Seo p. 310. B. A. Hiiisdale. (1837-1900.) See p. 280.

A GROUP OF AMERICAN EDUCATORS.

HARRINGTON

HARRIS, WILLIAM TORREY

the Junior College (freshmen and sophomores)
and the Senior College (juniors and seniors), —
a division based upon the theory that the first
two years belong more properly to a six-year
secondary school period, while the last two
are an introduction to university studies;
(6) the division of the academic year into four
periods of three months each — a plan by
which buildings and equipment are in con-
tinuous use, and students may be matricu-
lated or graduated quarterly instead of annually ,
(c) the concentration of the student's attention
for each quarter upon three, or sometimes
four, courses which met four or five hours a
week, (d) the inclusion as regular divisions
of the institution of both university extension
lecture courses and correspondence instruc-
tion, (e) the establishment of a press division
as an integral part of the university, (/) the
outlining of a policy of affiliation by which
smaller colleges were through supervision and
subsidy to be standardized, and brought into
relation with the senior colleges and graduate
schools. The General Education Board and
the Carnegie Foundation (qq v ) are carrying
out on a national scale plans which in many
respects Dr Harper hoped to realize with
the University of Chicago as a center Dr
Harper's published works include textbooks
for teaching Hebrew, Greek, and Latin, con-
structive and critical studies in the Old Testa-
ment with especial reference to the priestly
element and to prophecy, and volumes of essays
and addresses on Biblical, ethical, and educa-
tional subjects G E. V.
See CHICAGO, THE UNIVERSITY OF.

References : —

ANDREWH, E B
ruary,

1906

Appreciation World To-day, Fob-

Bihhcal World, Special Memorial Number, March, 1906
FINLEY, J H. Life Work Rev. of Rtvs , February, 1906
The University of Chicago Record, Memorial Number,

1906
VINCENT, J H Ohautauqua and Harper. The Ckau-

tauquan, March, 1906

HARRINGTON, HENRY FRANCIS (1814-
1888). — School superintendent and textbook
writer; was educated in the schools of Boston,
at the Phillips Exeter Academy, and graduated
at Harvard in 1834 He was teacher and
principal of elementary and secondary schools
in Massachusetts from 1834 to 1864, and super-
intendent of schools at New Bedford, Mass.,
from 1864 to 1888. He was the author of
Graded Spelling Book (1880), Harper*? Intro-
ductory Geography (1888), and numerous papers
on educational subjects. W. 8: M.

HARRIS, WILLIAM (1765^829). — Fitth
president of Columbia University; was graqu-
ated from Harvard College in 1786. For
several years he engaged in the work of the
ministry. He was principal of a classical school
in New York City from 1802 to

president of Columbia from 1811 to 1829
He was the author of several historical works

W S M
See COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

Reference : —

VAN AMRINGB, J H An Historical Sketch of Columbia
College (New York, 1876 )

HARRIS, WILLIAM TORREY (1835-1908)
— American educator, was born near North
Killingly, Conn After attending rural schools,
he completed in New England acaclen.ios
his preparation for college He entered Yale
College, where he remained for more than two
years, making an unusually brilliant record
Desiring greater freedom to devote himself to
the study of the natural sciences, he withdrew
from Yale, and removed to St Louis, Mo , in
1857, where he remained for twenty-thice years,
serving first as a tutor in a private family and
as a teacher of shorthand, afterwards as a pnr-
cipal of a grammar school, later, from 1866 to
1867, as assistant superintendent of schools, and
from 1867 to 1880, as superintendent oi schools
In 1880 he severed his connection with the
schools of St Louis, and, after spending some
months in European travel, settled in Concord,
Mass , becoming one of the founders of the
Concord School of Philosophy and Literature
(q v ), arid engaged in philosophic study and
writing. In 1889 he was appointed United
States Commissioner of Education by Picsident
Harrison, and filled that office until 1906, when
he voluntarily retired The remaining years of
his hfe he spent in congenial study, his last-
service being connected with the editorship of
Webster's New 1 71 tcr national Dictionary

Philosophical Contribution* — Under the in-
fluence of a young German, Brockmeyei, Harris
became an earnest student of philosophv and
one of the foremost exponents of Hegelian ism
in the English-speaking world Hegel's Logic
is one of the fruits of this influence On the
appearance of Spencer's Fir at PJ maples m
1862, Harris wrote a review, but, unable to find a
magazine to accept it, he founded and edited,
from 1867 to 1893, the Journal of Speculative
Philosophy, at the tune the most important
enterprise in philosophy ever undertaken in
America Considering philosophy as the most
practical of all subjects, he soon became accus-
tomed to interpret every question, whether of
art, religion, science, politics, or education, in the
light of its standards, for, as he said, " the test
of any system of philosophy is the account it
gives of the institutions of civilization " A
thesis composed of passages from Harris's
writings, and compiled in 1890 by Marietta
Kies, forms the only organized presentation of
his work Although he was not a professor in a
college or a university, yet he greatly stimulated
the study of philosophy through the Journal
of Speculative Philosophy, through his labors
in the Concord School of Philosophy and Litera-

219

HARRIS, WILLIAM TORREY

HARROW SCHOOL

ture, through his educational reports and ad-
dresses, and through law personal contact, pub-
lic and private, with his fellow men

Contributions to Education — Harris was
America's first great educational philosopher
Because of his protracted, intelligent, and
scientific study of the psychology, the history,
and the philosophy of education he developed
such insight into school problems as was en-
joyed by none of his predecessors and by few,
if any, of his contemporaries

JIis activities and contributions in books and
articles, as well as addresses, were extraordinary,
whether viewed from the standpoint of quantity
or quality or the range of subjects treated The
bibliography of his writings (sec references)
contains 479 separate titles, which cover all the
important questions that have been discussed
in the educational world during the last half
century. Among his more important writings
are to be included his thirteen annual reports of
the public schools of St. Louis, which established
Ins reputation as an educational thinker of the
first rank, his report as chairman of a sub-
committee of the Committee of Fifteen upon
the correlation of studies, which was submitted
to the National Educational Association, and
which constituted an epoch-making contribu-
tion to the educational literature of our times;
his report as the chairman of a subcommittee
of the Committee of Twelve, which considered
the problems of instruction and discipline in the
rural school, his annual reports as United States
Commissioner of Education from 1889 to 1906,
which commanded the respect of educators at
home and abroad, and by which the Bureau of
Education became an educational clearing
house for the world, the prefaces and introduc-
tions to the volumes of The International Edu-
cational Series, of which he was the editor,
Webster's New International Dictionary, of
which he was editor-in-chief, and Psychologic
Foundations of Education, in which he sets
forth in its thirty-nine chapters the psycholog-
ical explanation of the more important educa-
tional factors of civilization and its schools

In his executive work as superintendent of
city schools in St Louis and as Commissioner of
Education in Washington, he demonstrated his
ability to realize educational ideals born of
critical observation and reflection. He was
such an administrative and supervisory officer
as he himself describes in an article in the
Educational Review (City School Supervision),
Vol III, 1892, pp. 167-172

In his contributions to education, he labored
continuously to accomplish three great purposes.
The first was to psychologize education. Along
with other leaders in the school world, he
showed the futility of the old-time psychology,
with its so-called " faculties of the mind,"
and demonstrated the worth of the new. His
second purpose was to establish faith in the
school as an institution having sociological
functions and value. In the Report of the Com-

mittee of Fifteen he discussed four bases for the
correlation of studies (1) the logical order of
topics and studies, (2) the symmetrical whole
of studies in the world of human learning;
(3) psychological symmetry; (4) the pupil's
natural and spiritual environment

His final purpose was to place education upon
an enduring foundation He subjected the
whole field to critical analysis, interpreting and
justifying the school, and assigning to it its
proper place in the scheme of institutional life
His view of the world, in which was embodied
the altruistic, missionary idea at the bottom of
our civilization, included the notions that edu-
cation is a process of conscious evolution and
that it is the only rational, reliable agency by
which man mav work put his destiny in harmony
with the will of the Divine Being. W. S. S.

References' —

HARRIS, W T. Introduction to the Study of Philosophy

Passages selected and arranged by M KIPS

(New York, 188() )
KAHR, G Dr W T Hams' Lfhre von dm GruruMfigm

dcs LfhrplaHvdargwitdlt und bcurteilt (Jena, 1900 )
U S Bureau of Education, Rep Com Ed, 1<)07. Vol I,

pp 37-72 A list of the writings of William

Torrey Hams (479 entries between 18b(> and 1MOS)

(WubhuiKtori, 1(H)8 )
Bulletin, No 10, 1911, Bibliography of Education

Entries 360 to 370 give References to Addresses und

Articles on W T Harris

HARRISON, GESSNER (1807-1862) —
Author of textbooks and college professor; was
graduated from the University of Virginia in
1828 He was professor there from 1828 to
1848, and subsequently established a classical
school at Belmont, Va His publications in-
clude Greek Prepositions (1848), and Latin
Grammar (1852) W S M.

HARROW SCHOOL —This school, one of
the seven great Public Schools of England in-
cluded in the Public Schools Act, 1868, was
sixth of these in the date of legal foundation, but
last in its actual commencement, which took
place in 1615, ranked in general estimation as
third or second by virtue of its record as a resort
of the rich and a producer of statesmen and men
otherwise prominent in the world, especially
the political world of England. Its develop-
ment, however, as a great school for the aristo-
cratic and wealthy class is comparatively re-
cent Unlike Winchester, Eton, and West-
minster, which were especially designed as
great schools to furnish men to serve in high
stations in Church and State, and have done
so from their beginnings, Harrow has developed
in a way which its founder certainly never con-
templated, and which he would possibly have
resented For there can be no doubt, alike
from the station of the founder and the statutes
which he prescribed, that what he meant to
establish was a small local grammar school,
chiefly for the poor of a small rural parish, not
a great national establishment for the wealthi-
est of the nouveaux riches of the realm The

220

HARROW SCHOOL

HARROW SCHOOL

founder was John Lyon, who lived at Preston,
a hamlet in the extensive parish of Harrow in
Middlesex, some twelve miles from London
then, now a suburb of that ever-extending citv
The whole of the property left by him produced
only some £138 a year The foundation of
Harrow school, like that of Rugby (// v ) a few
years before, is an indication of the growth to
independence and moderate wealth of a new
middle class on the partial ruin of the great
ecclesiastical and secular nobility which took
place under Henry VIII The era of more
than princely foundations like those of Wyke-
ham and Wolsey, great soul-purchasing col-
leges, had given way to the more humble
charitable gifts by kindly disposed people of
moderate means who had no children of their
own for the benefit of the more prolific and less
prosperous of their neighbors Lyon devoted
his whole possessions to the school, and that is
why the process of foundation took no less than
forty-four years The hrst step, which on
parchment was the foundation of the school,
was taken on Fob 19, 1571, the date of Letters
Patent from the Queen They recited the
intention of John Lyon of Preston in Harrow
" yeoman " to newly found a grammar school for
the perpetual education, teaching, and instruc-
tion of the bovs and youths of the parish, and
to maintain two scholars at Cambridge and two
at Oxford University, and the repair of the com-
mon ways between Edge ware and London and
surrendered lands copyhold of the manor of
Harrow, which he had 'only bought in 1569, to
the governors for the use of the school, and
that not at once, but only after the death of
himself and his wife Joan or Jane It was not
for another fifteen years, viz on Jan 19, 1590,
that he drew up the ordinances arid statutes for
the school These provided that within half
a year after his own and his wife's death the
governors were to meet arid appoint a school-
master, an M A , and an usher, and if he left an
heir of his body, pay them £20 and £10 each, if
he left no heir (which happened), 40 marks (£26.
13 4) and 20 marks (£13 6 8 ) a year, with 5
marks each for nre He must have been some-
what of a reactionary in religion, as he directed
that both masters should be single men, un-
man led and should be removed, if they mar-
ried Another £10 was to go foi thirty ser-
mons a year in Harrow Church, which the
master or the vicar might preach at 6s 8d a
sermon Another £20 was to be distributed,
6* 8d. each, to the sixty poorest householders
in the parish £20 also was to go for exhi-
bitions to four poor scholars from the school,
arid " of the poorest sort/' two at Gonville
and Cams College, Cambridge, just augmented
by Dr. Caius, who lived at Ruiship in the
parish of Harrow, and two at Oxford, with
preference for his own next of kin born in
Harrow He then directs the governors to
accumulate the rents for three years so as to
provide £300 to build the school, if he did not

do it in his lifetime Hut he ordered them
nevertheless "to continue 20 marks a ^eai
which I the said John Lynn IWAC used to gne
and pay for the leaching of 30 poor children oi
the parish " The go\ernors were to set down
" a meet and competent number of scholars as
well of poor to be taught freely for the stipends
aforesaid as of others to be received for the
further profit and commodity of the said school-
master " For in 1590 £20 13 4 a yeai was
much below the standard of payment of head-
masters of the larger schools, seeing that even
in 1510 Colet had piovided for his mastei at
St Paul's, and prices had gone up enormously
since then The Rules added to the Statutes
carried out this still furthei " The school-
master may receive over and above the youth
of the inhabitants of the parish, so many for-
eigners [i e non-parishioners] as the whole
number may be taught and applied and the
place can conveniently contain, and of the for-
eigners he may take such stipend and wages as
he can get, so that he take pains with all in-
differently as well of the parish as foieigners,
as well of poor and of rich, but the discretion
of the governors would be looked to that he
do.7' As the only lodging for the mastei s was
one room each at each end of the school, there
was clearly no room for boarders, who were
not contemplated The Rules set out the
curriculum of instruction in full, and the humble
character of the school is conspicuously shown
by the fact that only five1 forms are contem-
plated, whereas in the great schools of the time
VI, VII, or VIII were provided for Very
little change had taken place since the days of
the earliest Winchester and Eton curnculurns
in 1525 arid 1530 The pseudo-Cato's Moralia,
or two-lined adages of conduct in Latin hex-
ameters, were prescribed in the first 01 lowest
form, Erasmus' Dialogue* with JEsop's Fable*
and Manemus' Lines on the Four Virtues,
written about 1490, in the second form In
the third form Terence, Cicero's Letter*, ()\id's
Tnstia Only in the fourth form did they
begin Caesar's Commentaries, Cicero, De Natnra
Deorum, and Livy In (ireek Demosthenes
and Isocrates, for rhetoric still was regarded as
one of the principal methods and ainus of
education, and Heliodorus, Latin verses and
themes Hesiod is the onh (Jicek poet, chosen
because of his gnomic character Disputations
were still the means of inculcating grammar,
the boys propounding to each other questions
and answers Half holidays were, as in the
fourteenth century, rigidly excluded except on
Thursdays " Their play shall be to drive a
top, toss a hand-ball, to run or shoot and none
other " Archery shooting at the butts was
still prescribed by law Every parent on the
admission of his son had to promise to allow
him at all times works of devotion and pietv
for the great solace and encouragement of
scholars occupied in learning m the same palish
To give effect to this intention the Queen willed

221

HARROW SCHOOL

HARROW SCHOOL

and granted that there should be and therefore
erected a grammar school consisting of a mas-
ter and usher in the pansh to be called the
Free Grammar School of John Lyon. She in-
corporated a body of six governors, headed by
Gilbert Gerard, Esquire, the attorney-general,
to take care of the possessions, revenues, arid
goods of the school, and gave them license in
mortmain to take and hold lands to a value
not exceeding £100 a year As if to show the
absurdity of the modern theory that a Free
School (q v ) did not mean one free from ecclesi-
astical jurisdiction, the charter provided that
if the governors failed to elect a new master
on a vacancy, the Archbishop of Canterbury
should appoint, and if governors made stat-
utes, they should do it under the advice and
consent of the Archbishop The Bishop of
London also had some visitatorial powers

The phrase in the charter, de nova engere,
"to erect anew," has been thought to show
the existence of a school at Harrow before
Ly on's foundation But probably the words
simply mean to erect a new school But there
is, as usual in Tudor foundations, some evi-
dence of a school in Harrow before. In 1567,
Richard, son of William Gerard, one of the gov-
ernors named in the charter of 1572, admitted
a scholar of Caius College, Cambridge, was
described as having been at Harrow School for
four years, i e from 1563 But this may only
have been the unendowed school of thirty boys
maintained by Lyon But a letter of the Roper
family speaks of the destitute children of a
keeper of Enheld Chase and Hyde Park being
sent to Harrow School by Queen Mary, 1554-
1558; but this again may be Lyon's unendowed
school A lease of some of the school property
in 1596 speaks of " the newe school or church
house of the parish," which shows that the
school was then kept in it, and it may have been
so kept previously to Lyon's day That there
was no school there in the fourteenth century
seems to be shown by two extracts from the
rules of the Rutny manor. In 1384 the court
directed the seizure of the goods of " John In-
towne, a bond-tenant (i e a serf), for that he
against the will of the lord, the rector, delivered
his son William into remote parts to learn the
liberal arts " In 1356 the bailiff of the manor
answered for a horse taken as a distress from
the same John Intowne, because he placed Wil-
liam his son, a bond-tenant of the lord, to school
without the license of the lord. That was the
way in which the Rector of Harrow in those
days manifested the love of the Church for
learning and advanced education, under the
very nose of the Archbishop of Canterbury, to
whom Harrow belonged and where he not in-
frequently resided

Though the charter of 1572 thus purposed
to found and erect the school and its governing
body, neither had a more than nominal exist-
ence It was not till 1575 that Lyon made
his first endowment of land at Harrow after

222

the deaths of himself and his wife He also
made further additions, and in 1590 he issued
the Statutes for the government of the school
Five articles defining the relation between the
masters and the parents and children followed
the statutes

Still the school was not established Lyon
died Get 11, 1592, and his brass, with his por-
trait and that of his wife, may be seen in Harrow
Church She died only in August, 1608. Soon
after the governors began building, but in
1610 a chancery suit in the interest of the road
repair stopped proceedings The school, which
had more than double the stipulated sum, was
only opened in 1615, a year after Charterhouse
The number of free boys was fixed at forty,
ten more than Lyon had maintained in his life-
time. What number of foreigners then came,
if any, we do not know There is no evidence
that the school was anything more than a small
parish school such as Lyon intended until after
the Restoration Indeed, in 1668 the master
went off, apparently to Lincoln Grammar School,
without notice as to promotion In 1669
William Home, an Eton scholar and fellow of
King's College, Cambridge, and undermaster
under his father at Eton, was appointed master
of Harrow From that time dates the develop-
ment of Harrow as a great public school on the
same lines as Eton, and to its succession of
Etonian masters Harrow owes its real cieation,
as Eton did to its succession of Winchester
masters Home was allowed, contraiy to the
statutes, to marry, and was assisted to lent a
house in the village in which to take boarders
A letter among the Vcrney papers shows that
by 1650 there were " six scoie " or 120 boys
there and several boarding houses, besides the
headmaster's, kept by u Dames " as at Eton
The charge was £22 a yeai in the headmaster's,
and £14 a year in the other houses, the parish
supplying sheets, towels, pewter plates, a por-
ringer and spoon The archery prize of a silver
arrow, shot for among the boys, dressed in gor-
geous costume, which became as a social func-
tion a great attraction to the school, was insti-
tuted at this time Home died in 1685 After
a short five years of William Bolton, who had
been usher at Charterhouse, came another
Etonian and King's man, Thomas Brian, who
held office till his death in 1730 With the
powerful assistance of James Brydges, the mag-
nificent Duke of Chandos, who had built his
palace of Canons at Stanmcre in the parish,
Harrow became, like Westminster, though in a
much less degree, an aristocratic school for the
Whigs, Eton and Winchester having fallen
under Tory influence The first eminent Har-
rovian, a ward of the Duke's, George Brydges
Rodney, who won the great naval victory over
the French in the West Indies, was a pupil of
Brian's, who in 1721 numbered 144 boys His
son-in-law and successor, Cox, however, drank,
and let the school down to fifty He was re-
moved in 1746, and again a Whig Etonian,

HARROW SCHOOL

HART

Thomas Thackeray, the graiulfathei of tho
Moxehst, restored prosperity Samuel Parr
and Sir William Jones, of oriental fame, were
aiming his pupils, Parr bring head of the school
at fourteen He was afterwards second mas-
ter there But it was under Robert Suinner,
another Etonian, that Harrow owned its first
gieat statesman in Richard Bnnslcy Sheridan,
the indicter of Warren Hastings The number
went up to 232 From this time the free boys
began to fall In 1780 there were only eight
Under Benjamin Heath was the first II a i row
prime minister, the ill-fated Spencer Perceval
From 1785 to 1805 the school under the master-
ship of Joseph Drury again achieved considerable
success, under Drury were five future prune
ministers of England, Lord Byron, and many
other members of aristocratic families The
appointment of Dr Charles Butler (1805-1829)
led to a second revolt, in which Byron took
part, but the boys were soon won over by the
new headmaster As the school increased in
numbers and popularity in the country gen-
erally, the local connections grew weaker, the
governors were no longer resident, as was re-
quired by Lyon's Statutes, the poor were not
being educated according to the bequest, and
such poor bovs of the locality who did attend
fared ill at the hands of the anstociatic " for-
eigners " An appeal was made in 1800 to
Chancery to enforce the statutes, but without
avail Harrow did not escape the general
demoralization which seems to have prevailed
in the large English schools at the beginning
of the nineteenth century, there was a lack of
discipline, a general viciousiiess and brutality,
t,o control which required a very strong head-
master and a complete change of attitude
But some reforms were made, although classics
< ontmued to be the mam part of the curricu-
lum Butler, himself a senior wrangler, in-
troduced a little natural and experimental
philosophy and Euclid, while under Drury
English essays and verse had already been
encouraged, in 1829 the first school maga-
zine, Harrovian, appeared, and between 1829
and 1836 French was compulsory The fifteen
years following Butler's administration, despite
tho ability and scholarship of the headmasters,
were years of rapid decline, partly as a result
of the financial panic which then took place,
partly through a distrust of the Public Schools
In 1844 Charles J Vaughan (qv), a young
man of twenty-eight, a Rugheian and the
favorite pupil of Thomas Arnold (qv), became
headmaster, and at once there began a brilliant
period in the history of the school The num-
bers rose from 69 in 1844 to 315 in 1847, the
moral tone of the school was raised, the
monitorial system was improved, and a staff of
earnest, capable teachers was brought together
The residents of Harrow again raised their
objections that the school was not fulfilling
the intentions of the founder Vaughan skill-
fully placated them by establishing an English

form in 1853, in which modern subjects suit-
able to the needs of the sons of farmers and
tradespeople were taught, To " secure the
boys from interference or annoyance from the
Public School," the boys were " to regard
themselves as entirely separate in all respects
from those at the Public School as at present
existing " Out of this arrangement there
developed the Lower School of John Lyon
On the retirement of Vaughan in 1859, Dr
H Montague Butler became headmaster, and
established the school on its present basis
The Tercentenary Festival was held in 1871 ,
with the passing of the Public Schools Act in
1868 new statutes were drawn up for the gov-
ernment of the school , benefactions continued
to pour in , new buildings sprang up, and land
was bought around the school to secure the
seclusion and retreat which the suburban
growth of London was making less possible
the curriculum was no longer monopolized by
the classical studies, music and school songs
became an important feature of the school
under Mr John Farmer, whose influence spread
to many other schools, and in 1882 the broader
relations of the school with the world were em-
phasized by the founding of a mission among the
poor in Notting Hill, London Under Bishop
Welldon, Dr Wood, and the present head-
master, Rev. Lionel Ford, Harrow continues to
maintain the best tradition of the great Public
Schools and to exercise an influence through its
distinguished alumni in church and state, in
the army, in professional and commercial life

As at present organized, the school is divided
into classical and modern sides, the lattei
intended for preparation for the army, civil
service, or business No boys are admitted
under twelve years of age The number of
boys is about 600, the majority being on the
classical side There arc seventeen boarding
houses Athletics play an important part at
Harrow, as at most English schools , cricket is
perhaps the most popular game, interest
centering as it does on the annual match with
Eton Other sports are local football games,
swimming, squash and rackets1, a rifle corps was
established in the days of Dr Vaughan

A F L AND ILK

See ATHLETICS, EDUCATIONAL, PUBLIC
SCHOOLS

T Harrow School.

References : —

HowaoN, E H , and WARNER, G

(London, 1898 ) 0 .

THORNTON, P M Harrow School and its SurrourutLngs.

(London, 1885 )
WILLIAMS, J ¥ Harrow (London, 1901 )

HART, JOHN SEELEY (1810-1877).—
Normal and high school principal and educa-
tional author, was born at Stockbndge, Mass ,
on Jan. 28, 1810 He was educated in the
academy at Wilkes-Barre, Pa , and at Prince-
ton, graduating 111 1830 He subsequently
took a course in the Princeton Theological

223

HARTFORD SEMINARY

HARTLEY UNIVERSITY COLLEGES

Seminary He was instructor at Princeton,
1832-1836; principal of tho Kdgehill School,
1836-1841, principal of the Central High
School at Philadelphia, 1842-1858, principal
of the New Jersey State Normal School at
Trenton, 1863-1871 , and professor at Princeton,
1872-1874 He established the Pennsylvania
Common School Journal in 1844, edited Sar-
tain's Magazine from 1849 to 1852, and in 1859
he founded the Sunday tithool Times While
principal of the Central High School he organ-
ized Saturday classes ior teachers Besides his
In the Classroom, arid a half dozen textbooks
on the teaching of English grammar, language,
and literature, he was the author of a number
of essays on educational subjects. W S M.

Reference : —

EDMONDB, FRANKLIN SPENCER History of the Central
High School of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1902 )

HARTFORD THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY,
HARTFORD, CONN — Founded in 1834 by
the Pastoral Union of Connecticut as the
Theological Institute of Connecticut at East
Wmdsoi Hill, moved to Hartford in 1865,
and present title adopted in 1885 Students,
men and women, who already hold college
degrees are admitted A knowledge of Greek
is necessary for pursuit of the regular course,
which extends over three years. Specialization
is encouraged in one of five groups Old Testa-
ment, New Testament, History, Systematics,
and Practics Courses in psychology and peda-
gogy are given in the Hartford School of Religious
Pedagogy, and courses in comparative religions in
the? Hartford School of Missions, both of which
institutions are affiliated with the seminary.
The seminary confers the degrees of Ph D ,
S T M , B Sac Mus , and B D , on com-
pletion of the necessary courses and require-
ments, and the degree of S T.D , honoris causa.
There are twenty-seven members on the teach-
ing staff

HARTLEY, DAVID (1705-1757) — Physi-
cian and philosophei, educated at Cambridge.
His chief work, Observations on Mart, was pub-
lished in two volumes m 1749 Hartley was
the hrst to apply systematically the doctrine
of the association of ideas, which he got from
Locke and Gay Sense impressions leave
copies of themselves in the form of simple ideas
of sensation, — the elements of which the
mental life is compounded By association
these get the power to call up other ideas, and
by connection with ideas of pleasure and pain,
which constitute desire and aversion, they
become also the starting point of actions
Action is due in the beginning to a mechanical
overflow from sensory into motor channels.
Hartley's medical interest led him also to formu-
late a physiological doctrine to which he at-
tached great importance This is the theory,
suggested bv Newton's Principia, of a phyflical

294

cause of all mental facts in vibmtion.s of the
infinitesimal medullary particles He does not
press, however, the question of the precise re-
lation between mind and body, but is content
to postulate a correlation. His theory of
association is practically independent of the
vibration theory, which last was usually neg-
lected by his followers Hartley's treatment
of education is incidental The only appli-
cation of the association doctrine which comes
in very close contact with its methods in de-
tail is his discussion of the development of
language through hearing, speaking, reading,
and writing In a general way, however,
Hartley has a high sense of the value of edu-
cation, which is the great remedy for the needs
of the time, and whose method is to be deter-
mined by tracing back the process through
which associations have arisen. Since affec-
tions and passions are only aggregates of simple
ideas, and the objects which excite them are
due to association, moral education is amenable
to the association doctrine All motives go
back in the end to personal pleasures and pains,
but since desire can be shifted by a perfect
fusion from the sensation to its antecedent,
Hartley proclaims vigorously the possibility of
" disinterested " motives, which morality and
religion demand These represent the end of
all training, and Hartley advocates greater
attention in education to sacred learning, and
less to the " lewd poets " His doctrine of
determinism also exalts the importance of
education by basing development on the in-
fluence of environment, and the absence of
any definite instinctive bias in his psychology
goes to make training practically all-powerful
" With proper incentives and restraints few
children would miscarry" "It is evident
that children may be formed and moulded as
we please " "If two beings whose affections
and passions are at present in different pro-
portions be exposed for an indefinite time to the
same impressions and associations, they will
at last become perfectly similar and even eq uals "
The application of this as a, means of social
reform and reconstruction is, however, of later
date, Hartley himself conceives that the tia-
ditional results of association are largely to be
followed. The value of physical education
also has some recognition, especially m one of
his medical tracts This also has a moral
value m aiding to restrain desires A K H

References : —

BOWER, G S Hartley and James Mill (London,

1881 )

Dictionary of National Biography
RIBOT, TH English Psychology (London, 1889 )
SCHONBANK, B Hartley und Priestley, die Begrflnder

des Aasoziatwnismus in England (Halle, 1882.)

HARTLEY UNIVERSITY COLLEGES,
SOUTHAMPTON, ENGLAND. — An insti-
tution founded in 1852 under the will of Mr
Henry R. Hartley to afford facilities for a

HARTLIB

HARTLIB

liberal and professional education to the in-
habitants of Southampton and the neighbor-
ing countries Attention was at first paid only
to preparation for army and civil service
examinations, in 1871 a science arid art de-
partment was opened and preparation was given
for the examinations of the Science and Art
Department, South Kensington In 1896
work of a university character was begun, and
in 1902 the institution was recognized as a
university college and received grants from the
Treasury At the present day classes are
conducted in arts and sciences, medicine and
dentistry, engineering, education in the day
training department recognized by the Board
of Kducation Evening classes are held m
technical, commercial, industrial, and scientific
subjects, and facilities are afforded for students
who were unable to attend a secondary school
to attend a course of evening work to qualify
for entrance into the day classes. Hartley
College does not grant degrees but students
may be prepared for degrees, in other univer-
sities Public lectures are conducted by the
institution Support is given by the Treasury
and several local county and municipal au-
thorities in and around Southampton A pro-
posal is now on foot to secure a university
charter for the college In 1910 the teaching
staff consisted of twenty-eight teachers and
the student enrollment was 230 in day and 500
in evening classes

References : —

Kngl.md, Hoard of Education Report** from Umvtr-
M//*.S and Uniwrsity CoUeyc** in Grtat Bi itain.
(London, 1008 )

HARTLIB, SAMUEL (?1 600-1670) — The
best known educationist of his time m Eng-
land Pie was the son of a Polish merchant by
his third wife, who is supposed to have been an
Knghsh lady Ho came over to England from
(lormany (probably from Elbmg) in 1628, and
engaged in educational and other social plans
Harthb, in a remarkable appeal to the House
of Commons (about 1660), says that he had
tried " to serve his generation/' and amongst
other things " by erecting a little Academy for
the education of the Gentry of the Nation, to
advance Piety, Learning, Morality and other
exercises of industry not usual then in common
schools " Evelyn (q v ) states that he had re-
lieved llartlib's necessities, and evidently the
latter was too lavish for his means in helping on
educational and social plans Yet in 1646 a
pension of £100 a year was conferred upon him
by Parliament, and afterwards this was raised
to £300 a year

In 1 647 * Harthb wrote his Considerations
tending to the Happy Accomplishment of Eng-
land's Reformation in Church and State, in
which he urges that it is the duty of the magis-
ti.itos " to see schools opened, provided with
tcachcis, endowed \\itli maintenance, regulated
with constitutions, and to have instructors and

overseers to the observance of good order in
this business " Without such reforms of
schools " no other work of Reformation," savs
Harthb, " will ever be effectual " His grading
of schools was similar to that of Comenms
(q v ) and to that of Dury (q v) A further
scheme in which the three joined, and about
which Dury also wrote, was the establishment
of an " Office of Address," to be established in
London and to deal with both bodily and spirit-
ual matters It was to be useful to the poor,
by helping them to employment and by dis-
tinguishing the industrious from the idle
This is, apparently, the first suggestion of a
government bureau of labor Next, the
office was to be the medium of communication
in " matters of the mind " The warden of
the office was to keep all kinds of registers,
inventories, catalogues, and lists containing
the peculiar objects whereof he should furnish
information for address to such as shall desire it,
or to whom it might be advantageous for public
good to send information In religion the
office was to help to rectify mistakes and pre-
vent the increase of divisions and disorders
about disputed opinions or religious practice
This was the especial mission of Dury, with
whom Harthb worked in close conference
In education, the Director of the Office of
Address was to advance learning, in accordance
with Lord Bacon's plea, and to "help to per-
fect Mr Comemus's undertakings, chiefly on
the Method of Teaching Languages, Sciences
and of [founding] ordinary schools for all ages
and qualities of scholars " Lastly the Office of
Address was to encourage the dissemination of
information about inventions, so as to increase
their public serviceablenoss Communications
were thus to be established throughout the
workers and thinkers of this country and also
with the savants abroad The important,
functions which he thought the State could
perform in intellectual progress may be furthei
seen in his Description of the Famous Kingdom
of Macana, showing its excellent Government,
wherein the Inhabitants live in great Prosperity
Health and Happiness; the king obeyed, the
Nobles honoured and all good men respected,
Vice punished and Virtue rewarded An ex-
ample to other Nations, In a Dialogue between
a Scholar and a Traveller, 1641 [15 pp 1 To
Harthb's annoyance, Macana was satirized in
John Sadler's 'OWm in 1660, where reference
to " education of the children, in Sciences, Arts
and Manufactures " is brought in, after the
manner of Harthb

Besides writing on education, Harthb was
a center of a most remaikable educational
group. John Milton (q v ) wrote the Tractate in
response to Harthb Js suggestion So Dury
was stimulated by him Other friends were
John Hall (qv), John Webster (gv), George
Snell (qv), and Hezekiah Woodward (qv).
As belonging to Hartlib's group, united m the
desire to promote the advancement of learning

VOL in —

225

HARTLIB

HARVARD

under Baconian influence, were also John Pell,
in his Idea of the Mathematics, Sir William Petty
(q v.), Abraham Cowley (qv), and John Evelyn
(q.v.) Harthb was also in close touch with
progressive leaders abroad. He was apparently
one of the leaders in the proposed invitation to
John Amos Comemus (q v ) to come over to
England and to have Chelsea College assigned
for his educational purposes

In 1650 Hartlib wrote a notable tractate,
London';* Chanty enlarged, Stilling the Orphan's
Cry, in which he suggested to Parliament that
it should giant £1000 toward work for the em-
ployment of the poor and for the education of
poor children He describes the laws and officers
necessary for the control of children in a work-
house

On the theoretical side of education, Hartlib
published the following interesting collection
of tractates A True and Readie Way to Learn
the Latine Tongue, Attested by three excellently
Leained and Approved A uthors of Three Nations,
Eilhardus Lulnnun, a German, Mr. Richard
Carew of Anthony, in Cornwall, the French
Lord of Montaigne, Presented to the Impartial
both Public and Private Considerations of those
that wek the Advancement of Learning in those
Nations By Samuel Harthb, Esq , 1654
Other educational works in the publication of
which Plartlib took part are (1) Conatuum
Comenianorum prcdudia ex Bibliotheca S H.
Oronur, 1637 (The Address to the Reader,
2 pp , in Latin, is by Hartlib.) (2) Reverendi
et danssimi viri Johanms Amos Comenu,
PnnaophicB Pwdromus, etc London, 1639
(8 pp in Latin To Reader by Hartlib ) (3)
A reformation of Schooles, designed in two ex-
cellent Treatises The first whereof summarily
shnoeth the great necessity of a general Reforma-
tion of common learning. What grounds of hope
there are for such a Reformation. How it may
be brought to pass The second answers certain
objections ordinarily made against such under-
takings, and describes the severall Parts and
Titles of Works which are shortly to follow.
Written many years agoe in Latine by that
Reverend, Godly, learned and famous Divine Mr
John Amos Comenius . Now translated
into English and published by Samuel Harthb,
for the generall good of this Nation 1642 (4)
A Continuation of Mr John Amos Comenius
School Endeavours Or a Summary Delineation
of Dr Cyprian Kinner Silesian his Thoughts
concerning Education Or the Way and Method
of Teaching . Translated out of the Original
Latine transmitted to Sam Harthb, and by him
published, etc. 1648 (See KINNER, CYPRIAN )
(5) An Essay for Advancement of Husbandry-
Learning; or propositions for the erecting a
Colledge of Husbandry: and in order thereunto
for the talcing in of Pupills or Apprentices, etc.
1651 (This invites contributions to be sent
into Samuel Harthb for the object named )

Ilnrtlib's name is also associated with the
publication of many other collections, together

226

with original contributions on such subjects ab
husbandry, " Lucnferous and fructiferous "
experiments, planting of fruit-trees, setting out
of land, silk-worms, bees; chemical, medicinal
and chirurgical addresses, an invention of
engines of motion, " a common writing."

F. W.
References : —

ALTHAUS, FRIKDRICH Ein deutsch-englwches Char-
akterbild Historisches Tasckenbucfi Sechste Folgc
Dritter Jahrgang (Leipzig, 1884 )

BARNARD, H. American Journal of Education. Vol
XI, p 91 , Vol XXII, p 29

Dictionary of National Bwyraphy, Vol XXV, pp 72 7,i

DIRCKS, H Mernoii of Samuel Harthb (1865 )

MASSON, D Life of Milton, Vol III (London,
1895 )

VAUQHAN, R Protectorate of Cromwell, 1839, contain-
ing several of Hartlib'n letters to Pell, the mathe-
matician

WINTHHOP, E C The Correspondent of flarilib and
others with Governor Winthrop of Connectuut

Massachusetts Histoncal Society, 1878

WORTHINGTON, ,7 Diary and Correspondence*, Chetfiarn
Society's Publications, Vols XIII, XXXVI, edited
by James Crossley, Vol CXIV edited by R C
Christie, contain many of Hartlib's letteis

HARTSHORN MEMORIAL COLLEGE,
RICHMOND, VA — An institution for the
education of colored young women, estab-
lished in 1884 Normal preparatory and
normal, college preparatory and college, in-
dustrial, and music departments are main-
tained. The college course leads to the degree
of A B The majority of the students are in
the normal departments

HARVARD, JOHN (1007-1638) — The first
donor to Harvard College The facts as to
Harvard's life have become fairly well known
in recent years He was the son of a butcher,
Robert Harvard, and was born in November,
1607, in High Street, South wark, close to Lon-
don Bridge He was christened on Nov 29,
1607. His father died of the plague in 1625
His mother, Katherine Rogers, married twice
again, first to John Ellctson or Ellison (who
died in June, 1626), and then to Richard Year-
wood (or Yarwood), Member of Parliament for
Southwark. She outlived them all, and in-
herited money from each She died in 1637,
having made her will in 1635 in favor of her
sons John and Thomas John, who survived
his brother, entered at Emmanuel College,
Cambridge, on Dec. 19, 1627, and gradu-
ated in 1631, proceeding as Master of Arts in
1635 He married in 1637 Ann Sadler, the
daughter of a Sussex clergyman, and, his mother
being dead, sailed for New England, where
Cambridge and Emmanuel men had preceded
him. He became a townsman of Charlestown,
Mass., on Aug 6, 1637 " His house was
on the site now marking the southerly corner
of Main Street and the Alley leading up to the
Town Hall " (J Winsor, Memorial History of
Boston, I, 395; III, XXII) On Nov. 2
he took " the Freeman's oath " and ho and
his wife became church members four days

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

later. Though he, apparently, was not or-
dained, he acted as assistant to the Rev Z.
Symrnes, and preached On Apr. 26, 1638,
he became a member of a law-drafting com-
mittee This possibly was a committee ap-
pointed to deal with the question of Gorges
and the Charter, which had reached an acute
stage in April, 1638 Harvard was, for that
age, a wealthy man as well as a scholar, and
seems to have won at once respect and position
in the new settlement But his brief course
was nearly run, and he died of consumption on
Sept 14, 1638, childless By a nuncupa-
tive will he left half of his estate (subsequently
valued £779, 17,s 2d ) and his excellent
library of 320 volumes to the proposed school
or college at Newton (i e Cambridge) The
matter was not left in abeyance, and the college
was built forthwith In December, 1638-
1639, it was ordered by the General Assembly
that " the Colledge agreed upon formerly to
be built at Cambridge shall be called Harvard
College " J E G. de M.

See HARVARD UNIVERSITY, MASSACHUSETTS,
STATE OF, COLONIAL PERIOD IN AMERICAN
EDUCATION

References : —

See under Harvard University.

HARVARD UNIVERSITY, CAMBRIDGE,
MASS — The oldest educational institution in
the United States Established by vote of the
General Court of the Colony of Massachusetts
Bay, Oct 28, 1636, and made possible
through a legacy m 1638 from John Harvard,
the college was given the name of Harvard in
1639, and held its first commencement in 1642
The name Cambridge was adopted for the
town which was to be the seat of the college
because many of the leading men of the colony
were graduates of the University of Cambridge,
John Harvard himself having been a Master
of Arts of Emmanuel College, Cambridge

New England's First Fruits, a tract pub-
lished in 1643, contained the following para-
graph. " After God had carried us safe to
New-England, and wee had builded our houses,
provided necessaries for our livch-hood, reared
convenient places for Gods worship, and setled
the Civill Government: One of the next tlungs
we longed for, and looked after was to advance
Learning, and perpetuate it to Posterity , dread-
ing to leave an illiterate Mimstery to the
Churches, when our present Ministers shall lie
in the Dust And as wee were thinking and
consulting how to effect this great Work, it
pleased God to stir up the heart of one Mr.
Harvard (a godly Gentleman and a lover of
Learning, there living amongst us) to give the
one halfe of his Estate (it being in all about
1700 1 ) towards the erecting of a Colledge, and
all his Library after him another gave 300 1.
otheis aftei them cast in more, and the pubhque
hand of the State added the rest/ the Colledge

was by common consent, appointed to be at
Cambridge, (a place very pleasant and ac-
comodate) and is called (according to the name
of the first founder) Harvard Colledge "

The bequest of Mr Harvard was the first
of the private gifts for education which have
distinguished American history from that day
to this, while the act of the colony m 1636
marks the beginning of state aid to higher in-
stitutions of learning in America

In 1642 an act was passed " establishing the
Overseers of Harvard College", and m 1650
" the charter of the President and Fellows of
Harvard College " made the college a corpora-
tion, to consist of a president, five fellows, and
a treasurer, in whom should vest the property
of the institution, and by whom, under the
general control of the Overseers, its affairs were
to be directed These acts have been sup-
plemented by a long series of legislative enact-
ments, and in 1780 were explicitly confirmed,
with important reaffirmation of ancient rights
and privileges, in a section of the Constitution
of Massachusetts entitled " The University "
Upon this foundation still rests the legal ex-
istence and organization of Harvard University

Most of the presidents of Harvard in the
seventeenth and eighteenth centuries were
drawn from the prominent ministers of the
neighboring churches, but two (John Rogers,
1682-1684, and John Leverett, 1708-1724)
were laymen The most distinguished of the
early presidents were Increase Mather (1685-
1701) and Edward Holyoke (1737-1769)

In the struggle in the colony between the
Congregational clergy and the more liberal
elements the college early tended toward the
liberal side, and a crisis occurred about 1700
Cotton Mather (1663-1728), a leader on the
conservative side, failed to be elected to the
presidency, which his father had held, and it
became in many ways evident that the or-
thodox Calvmistic party could no longer rely
upon Harvard College Mathei accordingly
interested himself in the college already estab-
lished in Connecticut, and in 1718 was in-
fluential in securing for that new enterprise
a generous gift from Ehhu Yale, a merchant
of London Later in the eighteenth century
another noteworthy epoch in the history of the
college was made by the events of 1735-1745
At that time the president, the professor of
divinity, and the other instructors took ground
against the religious revival known as the
" Great Awakening," and vigorously opposed
the tenets and utterances of George Whitefield,
the eloquent English evangelist, whose work
had deeply stirred New England The theo-
logical development m the direction of liberal
views was completed in 1805, when, after a
bitter controversy, Rev Henry Ware, an
avowed Unitarian, was elected to the Hollis
professorship of divinity The result of his
election was the definite withdrawal of the
Calvmistic paity from the support of the ( ollrisr

227

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

and the foundation of Andover Theological
Seminary in 1808 and Amherst College in 1821.
For more than half a century from the date of
Ware's election, Harvard was a distinctively
Unitarian college, controlled by the Massa-
chusetts aristocracy whose capital was Boston

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries
Harvard received some financial aid from the
State, but its support was mainly due to a con-
tinuous stream of private gifts from donors
both in England and in the American colonies.
The largest gift of the seventeenth century was
a bequest of £1000 from Sir Matthew Hol-
worthv Among many large benefactions of
the eighteenth century the most important
were those of Thomas Holhs, a Baptist and the
leading layman of the English nonconformists
Besides sending numerous gifts of money and
books, he founded m 1721 the Holhs professor-
ship of divinity, which is thus the oldest pro-
fessorship in North America

At the Revolution the college cordially
sympathized with the American cause, and
the names of nearly all the most prominent
Massachusetts patriots are to be found on its
list of graduates In 1776, after the evacua-
tion of Boston by the British, the honorary
degree of LL I) was conferred on George
Washington, whose headquarters were then
in Cambridge

The endowment of the college at the opening
of the Revolutionary War amounted to less
than £17,000, together with certain rents of
real estate The corporation proceeded to
invest substantially the whole of this property
in Continental and Massachusetts certificates
of public debt, so that the very life of the
college hung on the success of the American
aims The result of their courageous and
patriotic policy was that in 1793, after the close
of the war, the endowment of the college was
estimated at upwards of $182,000, invested in
good securities The nineteenth century saw
a steady enlargement of this endowment from
alumni and friends of the college, gradually
swelling into the great annual gifts of the pres-
ent day

In the nineteenth century, down to the Civil
War, the influence of Harvard College was
extended beyond Massachusetts, sometimes as
many as a fifth part of its students being drawn
in those years from the South and the Middle
States. It was intimately involved in the
active intellectual life of New England, and
a large proportion of the great literary figures
of the time were graduates of Harvard (Long-
fellow, a graduate of Bowdoin, was professor
here, 1836-1854, and spent his life in Cam-
bridge) , most of the New England poets and
historians, and nearly all the liberal theologians
arid transcendental philosophers, were Harvard
men The most noteworthy of the presidents
were John Thornton Kirkland (1810-1828),
Josiah Qumcy (1829-1845), and James Walker
(1853-1X60) In this period the resources of

the university were increased, professional
schools of medicine, law, divinity, and science
built up, and the distinction of the college
maintained by the names of such professors
as Jared Sparks, Edward Everett (both of them
afterward for short terms presidents of the
college), Joseph Story, George licknor, H W
Longfellow, J R Lowell, Benjamin Peirce,
Louis Agassiz, Asa Gray, and O. W Holmes,
and of many eminent men among the alumni

In these years a number of dormitories and
other buildings were added to the equipment of
the university and the endowment increased
from $242,000 in 1800 to $2,250,000 in I860
The list of the college faculty grew from fifteen
members in 1810 to twenty-four m 1869 In
1803-04 the freshman class in the college
numbered 57, and the total number of students
in the university was 233 (besides a fair
number of medical students), in 1868-69, the
c6rresponding figures were 128 and (including
the professional schools) 1043

In respect to educational organization, the
curriculum during the Puritan and provincial
periods down to 1800 was gradually freed from
the distinctively theological cast which it bore
to some extent nearly to the end of the eighteenth
century, and in 1790 had come to consist of
Latin, Greek, mathematics (including astron-
omy), English composition, philosophy (meta-
physical, moral, and political), theology, natural
philosophy, and (the only option) either Hebrew
or French With the one exception noted, it
remained a prescribed course of study for all
alike, and was well fitted to introduce students
to the branches of knowledge at that day
essential to a liberally educated man (See
COLLEGE, AMERICAN, the section on the ad-
ministration of the curriculum )

In the earlier part of the nineteenth century
the general intellectual activity of the time,
united with the influence of several professors
who had studied at German universities, caused
many changes in the discipline and course of
study of Harvard College The efforts of George
Ticknor (professor 1817-1835) and others led to
tentative progress in the direction of an elec-
tive system of studies; and chemistry, geology,
history, political economy, and other modern
studies were brought in

At the same time pregnant changes took
place in the government of the university
Until 1800 the fellows of the corporation had
been largely ministers, after that date it be-
came customary to elect but one clerical
fellow (Since 1884 no clergyman has been a
member of the corporation ) The distinction
of the position was thereby decidedly enhanced.
At one time Joseph Story and Lemuel Shaw,
two of the greatest jurists that this country has
produced, and Nathaniel Bowditch, the fore-
most American mathematician of his day, made
three out of the five fellows In 1843 the
Board of Overseers was opened to ministers
not of the Congregational denomination, and

228

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

a still more important step WHS taken when
the Commonwealth relinquished its repre-
sentation in the overseers. From the begin-
ning the Governor and other high public officers,
including the council and later the whole state
senate, had had seats on this board, but in
1865 the right of election was wholly trans-
ferred to the alumni of the college, and since
that time the state has had no share in the
administration of Harvard This was the
culminating event of a long struggle m which
the orthodox party of Massachusetts, allied
with certain political interests, had sought to
wrest from the Boston Unitarians an effective
share in the control of Harvard But the
result was not a partisan victory, it came about
through the relaxation of the rancor of ancient
controversies under the engrossing tasks and
opportunities of a new period of national life,
and it brought to the university no restriction
of scope By permitting the introduction into
the overseers of persons not resident in Massa-
chusetts, and in other ways, under what proved
to be more democratic influences, the new organ-
ization led to an increase in size and power far
beyond expectation

Since the Civil War Harvard has shared in
the growth upon which the whole North and
West of the United States then entered Its
history in this period is the history of the ad-
ministration of Charles William Eliot (born
lcS34, president 1869-1909) President Khot
was able by his foresight, breadth of interest,
and skill in organization and administration,
by his single-minded devotion to high aims,
and by the dignity of his personal character,
to use the new forces of the tune, command
innumerable gifts aggregating a great sum of
money, and hold the enthusiastic loyalty of
a rapidly increasing and able staff In the
forty years of his presidency he was able to see
Harvard widely extend the borders of its work,
quadruple in number of students, and establish
its position as a great national university, in-
fluential throughout America and honored
beyond the seas His efforts were especially
devoted to the complete application of the
elective principle in undergraduate studies,
the maintenance of strict standards of examina-
tions for entrance and graduation, the inclusion
of all branches of knowledge and the arts in
the opportunities offered to students, the re-
quirement of a college degree for admission to
the professional schools, and the insistence on
the highest scientific ideals m all the graduate
and professional departments His administra-
tion deliberately followed the principle of
freedom as a moral force in the methods of
student discipline and in the regulation of the
undergraduate curriculum, arid was conspicu-
ous for firmness, generosity, and justice in the
treatment of the faculties and officers of instruc-
tion

The present president is Abbott Lawrence
Lowell, at the tune of his election professor of

government in the university The cluef
progressive policies of his administration 1hus
far have been the introduction of a system In
which undergraduates are compelled 1<> adopt
a definite aim in their choice of elective studies,
the strengthening of the purpose to keep pro-
fessional and technical work out of the under-
graduate course of study, and a more careful
fostering of the solidarity of undergiaduate life

In the government of Harvard the Corpora-
tion, a self-pei petuating body composed of the
president, five fellows, and the treasuier, is
charged with the executive control of both the
financial and the educational administration
The Board of Overseers, consisting of thirty
members elected by the alumni together with
the president and treasurer of the university,
possesses undefined but extensive powers The
consent of the overseers is requisite foi the
election of the members of the corporation and
of professors, and for the appointment of all
major officers of instruction and government
To the overseers are referred all important
constitutional acts of the corporation and the
several faculties, and they have the duty of
inspecting every part of the umversitv thiougli
numerous special committees, and of making
recommendations to the proper administrative
authorities

The president is a membei of all the faculties
as well as of the governing boards, and in prac-
tice always attends their meetings Professors
and other higher officers are appointed by the
corporation and overseers on the nomination
of the president, after informal consultation
with the professors of the department In the
medical faculty alone the board of full professors
formally nominates to professorships Foi
the professional schools the sevcial deans have,
as a rule, complete responsibility foi organiza-
tion and educational work, with the control
of the budget; but Harvard College and the
Graduate School of Arts and Sciences are under
the immediate direction of the president, the
deans being mainly concerned with the super-
vision and discipline of the students

The faculties are four- Arts and Sciences,
Divinity, Law, and Medicine, each consisting
of all those officers giving instruction in that
faculty who are appointed for a term of more
than one year. Instructors who an* members
of a faculty, as well as all professors, ha \ c a vote,
and, save m the Faculty of Medicine, the higher
grades of instructors possess no privileges not
enjoyed by the younger men in the faculty It
is characteristic of Harvard that the heads of
departments in the Faculty of Arts and Sciences
have no authority of control, but are merely
chairmen, who are frequently changed This
permits the younger men to fill these positions,
and is believed to be of advantage to the uni-
versity by enabling the assistant professors and
instructors to exert a stronger influence for

Progress in educational methods The faculties
old frequent meetings, — the Faculty of Art?

229

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

and Sciences often meeting once a week, —and
are active legislative bodies The discipline
of students and other administrative duties
are devolved in the larger faculties upon ad-
ministrative boards; and the Faculty of Arts
and Sciences is divided into departmental com-
mittees, to which are intrusted important
powers of detailed administration.

Harvard College is the heart of the uni-
versity With it is intimately associated the
Graduate School of Arts and Sciences By
an anomaly among the professional schools,
the Graduate School of Applied Science and
(until 1912) the Graduate School of Business
Administration are also under the Faculty of
Arts and Sciences. There is no division into
an undergraduate and graduate faculty of arts
and sciences; and the courses of study in Har-
vard College and the Graduate School of Arts
arid Sciences are not sharply distinguished

Entrance to Harvard College is by examina-
tion only, and many candidates are annually
rejected By the new system of requirements,
adopted in 1911, the adequacy of each can-
didate's program of preparatory studies is
separately investigated, and, if the program
is found satisfactory, the result of his educa-
tion is tested by four examinations (1) in
English, (2) in Latin or (for a candidate for
S B ) a modern language, (3) in mathematics
or physics or chemistry, and (4) in that one
which a candidate may choose out of a list of
seven specified subjects This plan, which is
intended to bring Harvard into ready contact
with the better high schools of all parts of the
country, is at present maintained parallel to
the old system, under which every subject
studied in the preparatory course is tested by
examination Of the total number entering
in the ten years 1901-1910, 44 per cent came
from public schools, 56 per cent from private and
endowed schools Of the eighty-three candidates
admitted under the new plan m 1911, 84 per
cent came from public schools, 16 per cent

from pri vate and endowed schools The degrees
of A B and S B are given in Harvard College,
the chief difference being that candidates for
A B are required to pass an entrance ex-
amination in Latin.

Harvard has not favored the plan of inter-
weaving the college and professional courses
into a " combined course" for the two degrees,
but has insisted that a student shall have
substantially completed his work for a college
degree before entering the professional school
A considerable number of students, however,
complete all the requirements for the bachelor's
degree in three or three and one half years

The degrees of A B and S B and all other
ordinary degrees are given only for resident
work, except in so far as work in another
institution is counted for advanced standing
In order to provide for students in the Sum-
mer School and in the extension courses, the
degree of Associate in Arts was established in
1910. It calls for the same number of courses
to be regularly attended as for a bachelor's
degree, but requires neither entrance examina-
tions nor technical " residence "

Since 1886 attendance at religious services
has not been required of students In the
university chapel morning prayers are held
daily, with a regular service on Sunday morn-
ing The religious services are directed by a
board of five preachers of various denomina-
tions, under the chairmanship of a resident
professor who is in the relation of a college
pastor Each preacher gives several weeks of
continuous service at the college, conducting
the services and consulting with students The
work of the chapel is supplemented by the
usual voluntary associations of students, —
undenominational, Episcopal, and Roman
Catholic

The various departments of the university,
with the date of establishment and the num-
ber of students and of members of the faculty
in 1911-1912, are shown m the following table

DATE

STUDENTS

NUMBER IN FACULTY
NOT INCLUDING THE
PBESIDENT

I Faculty of Arts and Sciences

179

Harvard College
Graduate School of Arts and Sciences

1630
1872

2262
454

Graduate School of Applied Science

1847, re-

organized

1906

123

Graduate School of Business Administration

1908

79

II Divinity School

1819

48

8

III Law School . .

1817

808

10

IV Faculty of Medicine . .

64

Medical School . .

1782

275

(transferred to Boston 1810)

Dental School

1867

154

Total

4203

V Affiliated Students —

Extension Students .

111

Summer School of Arts and Sciences (1911)

1871

787

Summer School of Medicine (1911)

1889

267

Summer School of Dental Medicine (1911)

1911

11

*In addition to students (521) taking courses given by Harvard instructors in the Boston "Extension
Courses "

230

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

The total number of members of faculties,
omitting names counted twice, was 248 in
1911-1912 In addition, over 450 officers hold-
ing annual appointments were members of the
teaching staff

For admission to candidacy for a professional
degree a prior degree from a recognized college
or 'technical institution is regularly required,
except in the Dental School, for which, how-
ever, entrance requirements with examinations
are strictly enforced

Among the more notable recent develop-
ments m professional instruction is the trans-
formation of the School of Applied Science
(formerly called the Lawrence Scientific School)
from an undergraduate technical school, parallel
to the college, into a graduate school, resting
on a previous college course and including the
following departments, in each of which an
appropriate professional degree is conferred:
engineering (civil, mechanical, and electrical),
mining, metallurgy, architecture, landscape
architecture, forestry, applied physics, applied
chemistry, applied zoology, and applied geology

Recently established (1908) is also the
Graduate ' School of Business Administration,
designed through courses in accounting, com-
meicial law, economic resources, industrial
organization, banking and finance, transporta-
tion, and insurance to ht college graduates for
administrative positions in the business world

The Divinity School, originally Unitarian, is
now an undenominational school of theology,
and its faculty includes professors of three
different denominations With it has ^ now
become associated Andover Theological Semi-
nary (Congregational), in consequence of the
removal of the latter to Cambridge in 1908
and its formal affiliation with the university
The courses of the Faculty of Divinity arid of
the Andover faculty are so planned as to form
one systematic body of instruction

The clinical facilities of the Medical School
have hitherto been provided at the Massa-
chusetts General Hospital, the Boston City
Hospital, and ten other hospitals and dis-
pensaries in and near Boston These facilities
are now to receive an important increase by
the erection, already begun, of the Peter Bent

The University Libiary includes the main
collection in Gore Hall and the libiaiies of the
various departments, of which the library of
the Law School (m 1911, 126,000 volumes,
14,250 pamphlets) and of the Museum of ( 1um-
parative Zoology are the most mipoitant
The Divinity Library has now been united
with the library of Andover Seminary to form
the Andover-Harvard Theological Library of
upwards of 100,000 volumes, without doubt
the best equipment for the work of theological
scholars to be found in this country The
University Library contained, July 1, 1911,
1,587,734 volumes and pamphlets, and its
age, careful selection, and many valuable
accessions by special gift give it a distinction
far beyond its size

Affiliated with the university are Radchffo
College (for women, established under an earlier
name in 1879), Andover Theological Seminary
(1808), already mentioned, and the School for
Social Workers (1904) Extension teaching to
persons mainly engaged in other occupations
is carried on not only in the Summer School,
but also through a share in the winter courses
given in Boston under a committee lepiesent-
ing Harvard, Tufts, the Massachusetts Insti-
tute of Technology, Boston College, Boston
University, the Boston Museum of Fine Arts,
Wcllesley, and Simmons

The grounds used for academic purposes
(not including investments in real estate)
cover about five hundred acres m Cambridge
and Boston, together with the Engineering
Camp property of seven hundred acres at
Squam Lake, New Hampshire, the Harvard
Forest of two thousand acres at Petersham,
Mass., and the Observatory at Arequipa,
Peru The value of the buildings is esti-
mated at upwards of $12,000,000 The total
income-bearing endowment of the university,
July 1, 1911, was about $24,300,000 The
annual net income from all sources m 1910-
1911 was upwards of $2,400,000, made up
approximately as follows: income from in-
vestments, $1,140,000, fees and rents from
students, $955,000; miscellaneous income,
$58,500, gifts for immediate use (excluding
gifts foi buildings), $268,000 The expendituie

Bngham Hospital on land adjoining the was approximately as fol ows for adiniiiistia-
property of the Medical School This great tion, $103,000; educational pui poses, $1 . 68,00 ,
hosmtal which has a large endowment, is to
'

JlUnfJibUii, wiiiv/ii iLu>& «* ii«» p.,^ ~ — 7

be conducted, and its chief officers have been
selected, by a joint arrangement between its
trustees and the Medical School

The chief scientific establishments of the
university, besides the various laboratories, aie
the following Mineralogicai Museum (1793),
Botanic Garden (1807), Astronomical Observa-
tory (1843), Museum of Comparative Zoology
(1859), Gray Herbarium (1864), Peabpdy
Museum of American Aichseology and Eth-
nology (1866), Bussey Institution (agriculture)
(1871), Arnold Arboretum (1872), Harvard
Forest at Petersham, Mass (1907).

scientific research and other activities, !
aids to students, $184,000, repairs an
the buildings and grounds, $166,000 The
gifts and bequests to the university, laige and
small, from countless benefactors, have aver-
aged for the ten years 1901-1911 over
$1,740,000 annually

Harvard University draws its students from
every part of the United States, but a little
less than one half of the whole number usually
come from the neighboring population of the
Massachusetts cities and towns In the Col-
lege 56 per cent of the students were from
Massachusetts, 4 per cent from the other

231

HARVARD UNIVERSITY

HAUN

Ne\\ Kngljmd slates, mid 10 pei cent from
outside of Now Kngland A largo proportion
of the students both in llarxaid College and
in tlu- graduate sohool.s support themselves in
part hv then own work during thoir course.
The scholarships and other beneficiary aid
granted mmually to students in Harvard
College amount to upwards of $65,000 In
the professional and other graduate schools
upwards of $90,000 is annually available for
this purpose All aid is given specifically from
endowments or from university income, never in
the form of remission of the charge for tuition

In Harvard College student life on all its
sides and undergraduate athletic organization
are highly developed The most important
athletic contests are those with Yale; next to
those in student interest come games and
races with Dartmouth and Cornell The more
conspicuous student clubs are local organiza-
tions, not connected with the fraternities of
other colleges; and but few of the society
buildings provide chambers for students' lodg-
ings The social organization of the undei-
graduates in the college is wholly distinct from
the life of the graduate and professional students.

The following inscription, set high over the
stage in Sanders Theater, well states the ideals
which have guided the history of Harvard. —

HIO

ANNO

POST
POST

IV BJLVEBTRIBV8
LT 1NCVLTIS I.OCI8
ANOLI DOMO PHOFVOI_
CHKIHTVM NATVM ( U
(OM)NIAM HVC DKDVCTAM

XXV VI

VI
HAPIFN1IAM HAl'l ANTC • OMN1A COf.FNDAM

MCIIOI AM PIJIILK l< CONDIDLIUNT

TONDITAM CHKISTO FT K('( I KHIA.K • DICAVLRVN T
yVAF AVCTA 10IIANN18 • HARVARD MVNIFlCh NT I A
LlTThKAKXM fAVTORlHVH CVM NOSTRATIUVB TVM KXTERNI8

TDLNlJDhM ADIVTA

ALVMNORVM D) NIQVF FIDM • C'OMMIBSA

I XUWI8 P»KI>V(IA 1MTIJS AD MAIORA • RhKVM . 1NCREMKNTA
PKOHIDVM 8OCIOKVM INSPKCTORVM 8ENATVS AC ADfMICI

( ONNILII 1 FT • PRVDLNTIA » FT » CVK*

OPTVMAH AKTES VWIVTLS • PVBLK AS • PRIVATA8

COLVII . COLIT

QVI AVI KM DOCT1 KVFHINT fVUJEUVNT QVAHI SPLENDOR FIRMAMENTl

LT QV1 AD IVBTITIAM ERVDIVNT - MVLTO8
yVAHJ HTKLLAh IN PtRPLTVAB AhThRNITATCa

J H R

See the various topics under COLLEGE,
A ME me A iv, UNIVERSITIES

References : —

Kuoi.C VV Univernity Administration (New York.
HM).r> )

ELIOP, S A A Skttrh of the History of Harvard College
and of Us Present State (Boston, 1848 )

Harwud Uniotrttitu, Ilaivard College, dud the Graduate
Sfhools (published by the university)

The Harvard Hook, 2 VO!M (Cambridge, 1874 )

The Hainard GraduattsC Magazine (published quarterly).
(Boston, 18M2- )

HILL, (1 BIRKBKCK Harvard College, by an Oxonian.
(New York, 18<)4 )

Otfirial (iiiidf to Harvard University, edited by the Har-
vard Memorial Society (published by the univer-
sity, 1907)

PEIRCK, BENJAMIN A History of Harvard University
(from 1636 to 1769) (Cambridge, 1833 )

QUINCY, JoaiAH The History of Harvard University,
2 vols (Cambridge, 1840 )

THAYKR, W R History and Customs of Harvard
University, in ,1 L Chamberlain, Universities
and their Sons, Vol I (Boston, 1898.)

232

HASBROUCH, ABRAHAM BRUYN (1791-
1879) — Statesman and college president; was
graduated from YaJo College in 1810 Ho
was aotivo in political life and was president of
Rutgers College from IS40 to 1850 lie pub-
lished a number of historical essays.

W S M.

See RUTGERS COLLEGE

HASKELL, DANIEL (1784-1848). — Geog-
rapher and college president; was graduated
from Yale College in 1802 He was for many
years teacher and principal of elementary
and secondary schools, and was president of the
University of Vermont from 1821 to 1824
His publications include Gazetteer of the United
States (1843) and Geographical Diction an/ (1844)

W S M

HASSLER, FERDINAND RUDOLPH

(1770-1843) — Textbook author and first su-
perintendent of the United States coast survey,
was educated in Switzerland He was for
some years instructor of mathematics in the
United States Military Academy, and aftei-
wards professoi in Union College Ho organ-
ized the United States Coast Survey, and was
its first superintendent His works include
textbooks on arithmetic, astronomy, geometry,
and trigonometry, besides numerous publica-
tions on scientific subjects. W S M

HASTINGS COLLEGE, HASTINGS, NEB.

• — A coeducational institution opened in 18S2
under the contiol of the Synod of Nebraska
of the Presbyterian Church Academic, collegi-
ate, normal, music, and oratory departments
are maintained The entrance requirements
are equivalent to about fifteen points of high
school work The three courses of the col-
lege, classical, scientific, and philosophical, load
respectively to the degrees of AH, B S , and
Ph B The faculty numbers fourteen mend >eis.

HATCH ACT. — See AGRICULTURAL EDU-
CATION

HAUN, JOHN ERNEST CHRISTIAN

(1748-1801) — Educator who earned through
a reform of the school system of Ciotha (</ v )
at the end of the eighteenth century, when
the schools had fallen into decay lie was
appointed to the teachers' training school at
Cotha by Ernest the Wise (q v.) in 1780, and
three years later became inspector of eountn
schools In spite of much opposition on the
part of the clergy and nobles who protected
the incompetent teachers of the time and
feared a possible increase in taxation, Haun
succeeded in securing a better class of teachers,
a milder form of discipline, and sounder edu-
cational methods. Haun was the author of
The common-school method or practical in-
struction }oi inspectors and teachers of every

HAURANNE

HAWAII

kind of elementary school, also for private schools
(Erfurt, 1801.)

See GOTHA, SCHOOL REFORM IN.

Reference : —
BARNARD, H American Journal of Education, Vol.

HAURANNE, DUVERGIER DE. — See

SUNT CYRAN.

HATTY, VALENTIN. — See BUND, EDU-
CATION OF THE

HAVANA, UNIVERSITY OF —See CUBA,

Kl>UC \TION IN

HAVEN, JOSEPH (1S16-1874). — Educa-
tional wnter, graduated at Atnhcrst College m
1835 Subsequently he studied at the Union
,'ind Auburn Theological Seminaries He was
professor in Amherst (College (1850-1858),
Chicago Theological Seminary (1858-1870),
and the University of Chicago (1871-1874).
He was the author of Mental Philosophy (1857),
Moral Philosophy (1850), and Hit>tort/ of
Philosophy (1876) W S M

HAVERFORD COLLEGE, HAVERFORD,

PA — The successor of Haverford School,
established in the spring of 1830 The school
was founded in order to provide a " guarded
education " for the sons of members of the
Society of Friends A by-law in the charter
provides that the twenty-seven trustees of the
self-perpetuating Board of Managers shall be
members of the Society of Friends This
board consists of a president, a treasurer, and
a secretary, and twenty-four trustees elected an-
nually in three classes of eight members, each
class to serve three years In 1856 the school
was changed to a college, and was authorized
by the legislature to grant degrees; but pre-
viously to this time the course had been as
extended as in most colleges It was still
hampered with a preparatory department,
which was not abolibhed until 1861.

The college maintains the usual under-
graduate courses, admission to which is by
examination only Degrees conferred are A B ,
US, and M A for one year's graduate study
m residence Fraternities are prohibited Al-
though the income of Haverford College is
exceeded by that of about 115 colleges and uni-
versities m the United States, only eight of
these pay higher salaries to professors; and
the least rich of these eight has an income six
times larger than Haverford Only five Amer-
ican colleges have a smaller proportion of
teachers to students (1 to 6.5). To the small-
ness of this ratio and to the unusual excellence
of the instructing staff a large measure of
Haverford's efficiency is due The enrollment
in 1910-1911 was 150 students. The faculty
consists of twenty-four members. C. G

Reference : —

Haverford College Alumni Association, History of Haver*
ford College for First Sixty Years of it* Existence
(Philadelphia, 1892 )

HAWAII, TERRITORY OF — A group of
eight islands m the Pacific Ocean, located 2100
miles southwest of San Francisco There arc
some fifteen islands, large and small, but only
eight are inhabited These eight islands ha\c
a combined area of 6449 square miles, or
about the size of Connecticut and Rhode
Island combined, and about twice the size of
Porto Rico The total population in 1910 was
191,909, or about thirty to the square mile This
was composed of Japanese, 79,520, Chinese,
21,606, Portuguese, 22,701 , Hawaiian, 26,108,
Part Hawaiian, 11,912, Americans and Euro
peans, 14,409; Porto Ricans, 4896 The na-
tive race is slowly dying out, having decreased
from about 250,000 in 1800 to 142,000 in 1822
49,044 in 1872, and to 26,108 in 1910 Schools
are maintained on only five of the islands,
the other three being small and having \erv
few inhabitants The territory is organized
into four counties, viz Hawaii (the largest
island), Mam, Oahu (including the city of
Honolulu), and Kauai (including the island of
Molokai)

Historical — The Islands were known bv
the Spaniards for about a century previous to
their formal discovery and the introduction of
civilization by Captain Cook in 1778 Neai
the close of the eighteenth centuiy thcv \icio
united, by conquest, under one king, Kame-
hamcha, and continued as a united kingdom
until the revolution and abolition of the
monarchy on Jan. 16, 1898 A provisional
government and a constitutional convention
prepared the way for the proclamation of a
republic on July 4, 1894 The new republic
applied for admission to the American Union,
and a treaty of union was prepared, but late?
withdrawn by Pi evident Cleveland When
the Spanish War broke out, the republic of
Hawaii was annexed by a joint resolution of
the United States Congress, passed July 7,
1898, and on June 14, 1900 the congressional
act organizing the territory of Hawaii went
into effect Since that time Hawaii has been
governed bv its own territorial legislature, and
bv a governor appointed by the President of
the United States, and as a territory

The educational history of the archipelago
extends over a period of about ninety years
Soon after their arrival in 1821 the members
of the first company of missionaries interested
themselves in educational matters, the first
spelling book having been printed in 1822.
This may be regarded as the first step toward
popular education in these Islands, but in the
beginning it was an education of adults rather
than of children Between the years 1823
and 1827 a peculiar system of schools sprang
up and spread rapidly over the Islands, and

233

HAWAII

HAWAII

flourished for about ton years The chiefs
and their immediate attendants were the first
pupils From 1830 to 1840 the American
missionaries maintained model schools at each
of their stations From this time the attend-
ance of adults fell off rapidly, and the principal
attention was thereafter given to the educa-
tion of children In 1831 the missionaries
established Lahamaluna Seminary, on the
island of Maui, chiefly as a training school
for native teachers and preachers Industrial
training was from the first a prominent feature
of the curriculum A printing press and
book bindery were attached to the school,
numerous textbooks were published, and in
1834 the first newspaper was issued The
school has since been incorporated as a part
of the public school system

The history of the public schools of Hawaii
extends over a period of about seventy years,
the first school law having been enacted in
1841 by the king and chiefs in council In
1843 a Department of Public Instruction was
organized, and the official at the head was
given the rank of Minister of the Crown
This position was filled by Hon W Richards,
and, at his death in 1847, he was succeeded
by Rev R. Armstrong, the father of General
S C. Armstrong, of Hampton fame In 1855
the department was remodeled and placed
under a Board of Education, whose president
exercised the same powers and was charged
with the same duties as those formerly belong-
ing to the Minister of Public Instruction
In 1896 the administration of the public schools
was again raised to the rank of an executive
department, to be presided over by a minister
and a Board of Commissioners, it being pro-
vided that the Minister of Foreign Affairs
should be ex oflicio Minister of Public Instruc-
tion. The act of Congress organizing the
territorial form of government provided for a
Superintendent of Public Instruction instead
of an ex officio minister, but otherwise made
little change. Some additional school laws
have been enacted by the territorial legisla-
ture, but the form of organization remains
very much as it was outlined m the revised
school law of 1896. In 1909 a School Fund Com-
mission was created, to investigate and report on
methods of raising school funds The report was
made, and the recommendations enacted into
law in 1911 A salary schedule, a school budget,
and a committee on school estimates were provided
for, and the school appropriations made a first
charge on the treasury.

Present School System —At the head of
the school system of the islands is a board
of six school commissioners and a Territorial
Superintendent of Public Instruction, all of
whom are appointed by the governor of the
Islands No person in holy orders or a minis-
ter of religion is eligible for appointment, and
>iot more than two women shall serve on the
board at any one time. The commissioners

serve without pay, while the salary of the
Superintendent of Public Instruction is fixeo!
at $6000 per year The Superintendent and
three commissioners, or four commissioners
in his absence, form a quorum for the trans-
action of business This body, which has the
functions of a State Board of Education, has
general charge of the school affairs of the
Islands, appoints and removes subordinate
officers, fixes all salaries, and adopts rules and
regulations, not inconsistent with law, for the
government of teachers and pupils, and its
officers and agents, and for the proper carry-
ing out of the general scheme of education for
the territory It is responsible for the con-
duct of all educational affairs, which are under
its entire charge and control It may estab-
lish schools for secular instruction, at such
places and for such terms as in its discretion
may seem advisable and which the funds at
its disposal will permit. It regulates the
course of study to be followed, and may
classify the schools as it deems proper. The
schools established may include normal schools,
high schools, kindergartens, schools for tech-
nical instruction, boarding schools, and even-
ing schools, as well as day schools Classes
for such instruction may be established in any
school All school property is in its name
and possession Teachers' conventions or in-
stitutes may be called or permitted, and the
schools may be closed to enable teachers to
attend them.

The Superintendent of Public Instruction,
when present, acts as president of the board,
signs all warrants and official acts 01 docu-
ments, and presents a biennial report covering
the work of the schools to the governor of
the territory A Secretary, together with
such assistants and office help as rnav be
necessary, is appointed by the commissioners
to look after the business affairs of the depart-
ment He acts both as a secretary and a
business manager, keeps a record of all pro-
ceedings, conducts all correspondence, keeps
a record of all financial transactions, and is
responsible foi all records and documents of
the; department He acts under the direction
of the board, and holds office at its pleasure

For the purposes of supervision and inspec-
tion the Islands are divided into three inspec-
tion or supervisory districts, and a traveling
deputy superintendent, known officially as a
Traveling Normal Inspector, is appointed for
each Visits are made by these officials to
each school about three times each year
They also hold meetings of the teachers for
the purpose of giving advice and promoting
the interests of education; make inspections
of grounds, buildings, and equipment; and
serve as a means of communication between
the Superintendent of Public Instruction and
the teachers and the people The islands of
Oahu and Kauai comprise the first inspection
district; the Islands of Maui and Molokai

234

HAWAII

HAWAII

the second district, and the large island of
Hawaii the third district Each of these
Islands is in turn divided into one or more
school districts, for each of which an agent is
appointed by the Board of Commissioners, to
serve under the Traveling Inspectors and to
act as a kind of supervising principal for a
group of schools For each school having
more than one teacher one of the number is
designated as principal The distribution of
schools at the close of the year 1910 was as
follows —

Both the total population and the school
population are very mixed For 1910 the
statistics as to teachers and children m the
public and private schools were as follows —

PUBLIC SCHOOLS

ISLAND

Dis-
tricts

Schools

Teach-
ers

Hawaii

9

58

153

Mnui

4

33

79

Molokai

1

9

9

Oiihu

5

30

103

Kauai

5

17

55

I

All private schcols are subject 1<> the super-
vision of the public educational authorities
Pmatc schools can only be established by
permission, based on a written petition setting
forth the names of the pupils and parents, the
name 01 names of the teacher or teachers, and
the approval of the parents If the teachers
possess the necessary qualifications and are ap-
proved by the public school authorities, a per-
mit is issued authorizing such a private school

Educational Conditions — The system of
public instruction in the Hawaiian Islands
resembles somewhat the county school systems
of some of the Southern states, in that the
schools of the Islands are managed as a unit,
and by one board of education The result
is that there is a uniform system of education
throughout the Islands The course of in-
struction, the standards for teachers, and the
salary schedule are uniform for the same kind
of work throughout the Islands The schools
are maintained by appropriations and the pro-
ceeds of general taxation, and all salaries and
other expenses are paid by warrants on the
treasury No differences exist among teachers
on the basis of race, sex, color, nationality,
politics, or religion The sole basis and
medium of instruction in all public and private
schools is the English language Tuition is
free m all public schools Free textbooks arc
furnished to those too poor to provide them
Attendance from six to fifteen years is com-
pulsory Private schools may be selected by
parents, if they prefer, but all children of
school age must attend some school taught
m the English language A system of truant
officers, or school police, enforce the compul-
sory education law in the country districts as
well as in Honolulu All teachers and children
must be medically examined and be free from
disease.

PKK CENT o» PUPILS

No OK TkACHfcUB

Public

Private

Public

Private

Hawaiian

IbOl

325

72 11

Part Hawaiian

10 28

4 r>0

142

22

American

1 83

2 18

180

Ib8

British .

41

34

35 1 Ih

Gorman

<>1

45

7

Portuguese

1470

4 51

33

11

Scandinavian

20

07

7

2,

Japanese .
Chinese

2204
843

247

282

8

12

Koreans

58

09

3

Porto Ricans

] 30

4')

Other Foreigners
Totals

1 99

7838

30
21 62

5

489

14
269

It will be seen from the above that five nationali-
ties— Hawaiian, part Hawaiian, Portuguese,
Japanese, and Chinese — represent over 90
per cent of the total school enrollment in the
Islands

The course of study as outlined for the
schools of the territory covers the Uhual eight
grades, and is much like that to bo found in
American schools Nature study, illustrative
work, manual work, calisthenics, and music
run through from the fiist grade, sewing and
carpentry are taught under the head of manual
work , and agriculture has recently been intro-
duced as a phase of nature study Domestic
science is taught m a number of schools.
Public high schools are maintained at Hilo,
on the island of Hawaii, and at Honolulu,
on the island of Oahu

Teachers and Training — The terntoiv
employed 489 teachers in 1910, and 269 were
employed in private schools, in addition The
statistical table given above shows the cos-
mopolitan nature of the teaching foice, as well
as of the pupils m the schools About 21 per
cent of the public school teachers and about
30 per cent of the private school teachers are
men.

Examinations for teachers' certificates arc
held at least once each vear, usually during
the summer vacation Grammar grade and
primary giade certificates aie granted to those
who pass The examinations for the primary
certificate are only open to those who have
had one year of professional training, one year
of teaching experience, or who arc graduates
of a high school , and the examinations for the
grammar grade certificate are only open to
those who hold primary certificates Holders
of a university degree, a normal school diploma,
a life certificate, or of life grammar grade
certificates issued in the states, may be granted
a grammar grade certificate without examina-
tion Life diplomas for the territory are also
granted.

235

HAWAII

HAWTREY

For the purpose of developing a teaching
force from among those born arid reared on the
Islands, a territorial normal school has
gradually been developed It is located at
Honolulu It began, about twenty years ago,
as an afternoon class to help those teachers
who cared to attend In 1895 it received
government recognition, and a training school
was developed In 11)05 a normal school
building was completed and occupied, and the
school now offers courses of instruction for
those coming direct from the grammar schools,
who constitute about (SO per cent of the enroll-
ment, and also a two-vears' course for gradu-
ates of the high schools The school is ac-
credited bv the California State Board of
Education as of equivalent rank to the Cali-
fornia noimal schools A large proportion of
the teachers are still drawn from the main-
land, though the native trained teachers are
hiii < I to possess superior adaptability

Other Institutions — Besides the high school
and the Territorial Normal School at Honolulu,
island of Oahu, and the high school at Hilo,
island of Hawaii, the terntorv maintains or
assists m maintaining the Boys' Industrial
School and the Girls' Industrial School, both
located on the island of Oahu, and the La-
hamaluna School, located on the island of
Mam The two industrial schools are reforma-
tory in their work The curriculum of the
boys' school is largely agricultural and manual,
while that of the girls' school is largely along
the line of domestic work The Lahainaluna
School, whose history dates back to 1831, is
a school for natives who wish to combine
industrial training with general instruction.
There are five classes in the school, covering
about the five grades from fifth to ninth in-
clusive Bookkeeping, military dull, printing,
blacksmithing, carpentry, and agriculture are
prominent in the work of the school The
total enrollment in 1910 was one hundred and
five, made up of sixty-four Ilawanans, thirty
part ITawanans, six Japanese, four Chinese, and
one Portuguese

The United States Department of Agricul-
ture has maintained an experimental station
in Honolulu since soon after annexation, and
in 1907 the Hawaii College of Agriculture and
Mechanical Arts was established This insti-
tution is substantially the same in character as
institutions of a like kind on the mainland
It is supported in large part by territorial
appropriations, but also receives from the
United States the same annual appropriation
($50,000) as is given the agricultural colleges
of the different states, arid an additional appro-
priation of $30,000 for the agricultural experiment
station

Private Schools — The Islands have a num-
ber of private schools, some of which are of
considerable importance The Kamehameha
Schools at Honolulu are worthy of especial
note This institution was established under

the provisions of the will of a Mrs Bishop, a
Hawaiian lady of high rank, who left the bulk
of her large property in the hands of trustees
to endow a school for the education of children,
wholly or in part of native blood There is a
large boarding school for girls, and a boys'
school combining manual arid technical instruc-
tion with the ordinary school branches The
school also maintains a preparatory depart-
ment The institution is well provided with
workshops and appliances, and ranks as a
secondary manual training school Oahu Col-
lege IH another institution worthy of especial
mention Founded by American missionaries
in 1841, chartered as a public institution in
1849, and rechartered as a college, as well as
a preparatory school, in 1853, the institution
has grown with time and has accumulated a
considerable endowment A large number of
the other private schools are under Catholic
Church control E P C.

References : —

Reports of the Minister and (later) the Superintendent
of Puhlir Instruction to the Governor of the Territory
(Biennial )

School Law of the Territory of Hawaii

HAWLEY, GIDEON (1785-1870) —First
state superintendent of public instruction in
New York, studied at Balliston Academy and
graduated from Union College1 in 1809, where
he served as a tutor for a few years He
organized the common school system of New
York and was the first state superintendent
of public instruction (1812-1821) He was
secretary of the Kegents of the State of New
York from 1814 to 1841 and a member of the
Board of Regents from 1842 to J870 He \\as
also active in the movement for the organiza-
tion of normal schools in New York Besides
numerous articles in educational journals, he
was the author of Truth and Knowledge (1850)

W S M

See NEW YORK, STATE OF

HAWTREY, EDWARD CRAVEN (1789-
1862) — One of the greatest headmasters and
later provost of Eton College (q v ) It was
under his influence that reforms and innova-
tions were introduced which gave Eton a prom-
inent position m scholarship Hawtrey was
born at, Burnham, near Eton, of a family
that for generations had been connected with
the college After being himself educated
there and at King's College, Cambridge, where
he became fellow, he acted as private tutor
for three years In 1814 he was appointed
assistant master at Eton by Dr. Keate (qv).
He at once began to exercise an excellent in-
fluence on the pupils who came into contact with
him by his high standard of scholarship and
culture (in addition to the classics and Hebrew,
he was a master in German, French, and
Italian) and encouraged a wide range of read-
ing In 1834 he became headmaster and in-

236

HAYNE

HEADACHE

augurated a series of much needed reforms in
organization, equipment, and curriculum He
divided up the large classes which had pre-
vailcdj secured a special room for the sixth form,
of which he took personal charge, introduced
examinations and a competitive basis in class-
work, provided better dormitories and im-
proved the living conditions generally, closed
the old Christopher Inn which had long been
the center of excesses, and secured the abolition
of Montem (1847). Much of his influence with
boys was due to the introduction of a new spirit
of sympathy; instead of the harsh discipline
meted out by Dr Kcate, tho boys were treated
as gentlemen In the first six years he had to
meet with much opposition from the then pro-
vost, Dr Goodall, but in his successor, J)i
Hodgson, he found a sympathiser and collabora-
tor in many of his reforms Under Hawtrey
mathematics and modern languages were en-
couraged, better textbooks and methods of
instruction were introduced, athletics and
theatricals were promoted, and everything was
done to provide interests to replace idleness and
waste of time which merely led to bullying,
brutality, and license In 1S52 Hawtrey be-
came provost and supported the impiovements
of his successor in the headmastership Haw-
trey was a man of remarkable culture and
literary and artistic taste, a lover of books,
he collected a large library and encouraged the
collection of a school librarv His influence on
Kton was as great as that of Arnold on Rugby,
and, if it did not spiead so generally on English
education, this was due as much to the unique
position of Eton as to the fact that Arnold was
himself a teacher of so many teachers and that
the Rugby spirit was published to the world
in Totn ftroiru'k School Days
See ETON COLLEGE.

References : —

Diftionarf/ of National Biography

How, F I") >Sn Gnat Schoolniobtitit (London, 1004)

LYT&, SIR II (' MAXWELL History of Eton Colleat

(London, 1H<)<) )
TH \CKKH\Y. F ST JOHN Memoir of Dr Hawtrty

(London, 1896)

HAYNE, THOMAS (1582-1645) —Second
undermastei at Mei chant Taylors' School,
1605, and then usher of Christ's Hospital, 1608.
He was a Leicestershire man, B A , Lincoln
College, Oxford, 1605 He save £400 to buy
lands or houses in or near Leicester to pro\ide
a rent of £24 f 01 ever for the maintenance of
a schoolmaster at his native place, Thrussmg-
ton in Leicestershire, to teach ten poor children,
and for the maintenance of two poor scholars
in Lincoln College to come from the Free School
at Leicester or fioni the school at Milton, the
schoolmaster to have £12 yearly and the two
scholars £6 yearly Hayne was regarded as
a scholar, " beloved of learned men and partic-
ularly respected by Selden " His two edu-
cational books are: (I) Linguarum cognatio, tseu

de Linguis in genere ei dc van arum Linguarum
Harmonia Dissertatio, 1639 (2) Grammatucb
Latinae Compendium (1640) written in Latin,
while the most necessary rules arc expressed m
English opposite to the Latin, that the one may
facilitate and give light to the other Hayne
deserves recognition for his simplification of
Lily's Grammar, but his book is now perhaps
most valuable for its history of Latin Grammar
in England up to his time, contained m the
" Address to the Judicious Reader " This ib
to be found reprinted in Foster Watson's
English Grammar Schools, pp 253-254 F W.

References : —

Dictionary of Natio?uil Biography

WATHON, FOSTER English Grammar Schools up to

1 060 ( Cam bridge , 1 908 )
WILSON, H B History of Merchant Taylors' School

(London, 1812 )

HAYNE, HAYNES, or HAINES, W (d

c 1631) — Headmaster of the Merchant Taylois'
School from 1599 to 1624, of great prominence
as a schoolmaster, who published (1) Ccrtainc
Epistles of Tully verbally Translated, Together
with a Shoit Treatise, containing an order of
instructing youth in Grammar, and with all
the use and benefit of verbal tianslations, 1611.
(2) Haynes' Phraser, a very useful book to enable
young scholars to make and speak eloquent Latin
2d ed 1653 (3) Lilies Rules construed, 1653
This book marks a stage m the progress fioin
the Latin Grammar in Latin to the Latin
Grammar m English F W.

References : —

Dictionary of National Biography, s v Hayne, Wm
WILSON, H B History of Merchant Taylor^ School.
(London, 1M2 )

HAZELWOOD SYSTEM — Sec HILL,
THOMAS WRIGHT.

HEADACHE — A common complaint
among school children Usually it is not an
ailment, but a symptom, — of cyestiam, decay-
ing teeth, nervous fatigue, or the like, or it may
be of impending acute disease Some have
maintained that there is a special foim of head-
ache due to the conditions of school life, cephalal-
gic scolairc Under certain conditions this may
fairly be maintained, for in certain schools
where hygiene is ignoied the congestion from
prolonged sitting, the stooping posture, the
strain upon the eyes and brain combined with
the dry, ovei heated, stagnant,, and impair air,
are likely to produce headache, and while the
headache is merely a symptom of perhaps
general physical malaise it may fairly be attrib-
uted directly to the school The studies by
Key of Sweden and Hoist and Magelssen in
Chnstiania in Norway indicate that in only a
very small percentage of cases is the headache
of pupils caused by the school work Apart
from acute or chronic disease perhaps the most
common causes of headache are the dry over-

237

HEADMASTER

HEATING OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS

heated air of the sehoohoom, decayed teeth,
astigmatism, and indigestion among the children.

When children complain of headache they
should be treated sympathetically by the teacher
and usually the physician or nurse should be
called or the child should be sent home Con-
tinued recurrence of headache in a pupil should
lead the teacher to make a careful search for
the cause, and the discovery of the real cause
is often of the first nnpoi tance for the educator.
The correction of a sense defect or a slight change
of regimen will often accomplish wonders for
the comfort and success of the pupil

W. H B.

Reference . —

MAULLSHLN, A Tiber das Kopfweh — huuptBiichhoh
Mignuu1 — an dor MittrlHchule Jntcrna donates
Aiduv fur Xchulhygiene 1905 Bd I, ]>i> 285-
300

HEADMASTER — A term used in England
to denote the principal of a secondary school
Only in a few private secondary schools is the
torm used in America The use of the word did
not become general until the nineteenth cen-
tury Until then the distinction among mcm-
beis of a teaching staff was not that of head-
master and assistant master but between master
and usher. Other terms were pedagogue,
hithmagibter, master, High Master (still in use
at St Paul's School, London, and the Manches-
ter (harnmar School), Chief School Master
(Wellmgborough), or Archididascalus (West-
minster Statutes), while the ushei was also
known as undermaster, submaster, surmaster,
ln/podid(u*calus (Westminster), or ostiariuK (Man-
chester (iiammar School) The term " head "
alone was frequently used of the chief officers
of colleges and universities as early as the
fifteenth century, and sometimes also of the
principals of schools

The term is also applied popularly to prin-
cipals of elementary schools, but the official
designation in government regulations is ''Head
Teacher "

HEALTH INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS

— Sec MEDICAL INSPECTION.

HEALTH, INSTRUCTION IN. — See HY-
GIENE, PEKBONAL

HEARING -- The common term for the
processes of auditory sensation or perception
See PITCH, CORD; EAR, Music; TONE.

HEARING OF SCHOOL CHILDREN. —

See EAK

HEARING, TESTS OF. — See EAR.

HEAT-SPOTS -— Points on the skin which
arc especially susceptible to stimulation from
waim objects

See COLD-SPOTS; PRESSURE-SPOTS; PAIN-
SPOTS

238

HEATING OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS —

It is not the function of a schoolman to decide
between those features of heating systems
wherein technical engineering knowledge is
involved School boards should employ compe-
tent engineers to install the heating system in
large buildings designed for school purposes
But it should be rcmembeied that theie arc
many conditions entering into successful heat-
ing appliances for schools not so vitally neces-
sary in those designed foi homes or coinmemal
buildings. It is the duty of superintendents,
principals, and teachers to advise in such
matters and to understand in a practical wa>
the most economical and effective use of an>
system installed In general a schoolman hah
opportunity to know far better the practical
results of any heating system designed for schools
than the engineer, Hence, there are ceil am
demands from the school point of view winch till
successful heating systems must fulfill Besides,
outside of the largei city schools most heating
systems are installed without the guidance of
competent engineers, and very frequently the
principal or superintendent is the only advisoi
in such mattcis

Standards in Heating Schools — The pe-
culiar demands in large schools on heating sys-
tems may be stated as follows (1) The he: it
should be generated in some central heating
plant, either in the building or outside of it

(2) It must be deliveied in the schoohoom in
such manner as to be equally distributed

(3) It should be automatically regulated so as to
prevent in the temperature of the loom a
variation of more than one or two degrees
By the use of thermostats this is now possible,
and no heating system for schools is complete
without an adequate supply of thcunostats
No special discussion of these is needed here,
foi they are safely and effectnelv installed only
by engineers of expenence and skill It ma\ be
well to say, however, that all janitois as well as
principals of schools should thoroughly under-
stand the principle upon which they operate in
order to know when they are properly adjusted

(4) Heating systems should be planned to meet ,
without undue stiain or effort, the lowest tem-
peratures of the locality This is a very im-
portant precaution, and it is false economy on
the part of boards of education to neglect it

(5) Due account should be taken of the dis-
turbing effect of strong winds during th° wintei
season This modifying influence of winds
on the effectiveness of heating systems has not
received the amount of consideration it deserves
at the hands of cither the engineer 01 the school
superintendent In the bleaker or more wind-
swept areas of the country strong winds are
frequently fatal to the effectiveness of what
would otherwise be an adequate heating system

(6) Heating apparatus should be constructed
and located with scrupulous regard for the
safety and sanitary demands of the school
All stoves, furnaces, chimneys, firerooms, coal

HEATING OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS HEATING OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS

bins, or oil tanks should ho so located and so
constructed as to make it practically impossible
for fires to start from these1, 01 foi dust, smoke,
or odors to escape into the building If steam
is used as the thermal medium, the boiler capac-
ity should be ample, so that a peifectly safe
low pressure system can be used and yet
furnish promptly and regularly an adequate
amount of heat If necessity demands a high
pressure system, a registered engmeei must be
employed, and every precaution in the wav of
safety devices should be used (7) Thei e should
be connected with each heating plant, especially
in cold climates, some efficient system oi intro-
ducing moisture into the an While, stiictlv
speaking, this is not a pait of a heating s\ stem, it
is so intimately connected with the effectiveness
of the system, as well as the sanitary side of school
life, that it deserves a great deal more thought
than it has hitherto received in tins country
(8) The location of a heating system with refer -
ence to the even distribution of the heat in the
rooms is often a consideration of prime impor-
tance With steam or hot water as the medium,
the difficulty here suggested is moie easily
overcome , but with hot air furnaces the* success
or failure of the whole plant may depend on rela-
tive location (9) Heating systems ought not
to be divorced from ventilating svstems,
and hence the installation of the former should
always have due regard to the quality of the an
in the schoolroom as well as its temper a1 me
Direct radiation systems theiefoie should ne\ei
be used in schoolrooms save in the way of an
auxihai y In the northern latrt udes it i* some-
times necessary, to avoid expense1, to use auxil-
iary direct radiation to secure adequate heat

(10) It is a matter of great economv in the
milder climates of the country to be able
to secure from a heating system a quick i espouse
with the use of a minimum amount oi iucl
For it frequently happens that a little heat
is needed for an hour 01 two in the morning,
and none for the rest of the school dav Here
the greater economy of a hot an furnace ovei
hot water or steam in such climates is vei v cleai

(11) Other things equal, it is always bettei to
draw the air to be forced through the heating
coils, from the south side of buildings, because
expei imental tests show in general a decided
difference in temperature between tin4 an on the
north and south sides of the building Suppose
the air on the north is at the ireezing point,
on the south side the theimometer would
show 37° F This would mean the saving of
practically one seventh of the fuel, for this
live-degree difference in temperature means
practically one seventh of the amount of heat
necessary to bring a freezing temperature to
that required in the schoolroom

Systems of Heating. — Ktoves — Having stated
these general, but fundamental, considerations,
some detailed suggestions deserve attention
The old-time box stove has not gone from
the country schools, and is yet frequently

found in village schools, notwithstanding the
fact that the, jacketed stove has been much
advertised and has proved both economical
arid far more sanitary There aie many va-
rieties of jacketed stoves on the market, but
the essential features are the same in all
There are four mam reasons why the ordinary
sto\es in all country schools should give place
to jacketed stoves 01 hot air fuinuees (1) A
jacketed stove materially aids in ventilation
(<l v ) (2) By its use moie equable heat can
be maintained (3) Better distribution of
heat to all parts of the loom can be seemed
(1) Such stoves can be more advantageously
located in schoolrooms than ordinary stoves

It is of course4 clear that the aid to ventilation
mentioned above is only operative dunng cold
weathei Many of these stoves have evapo-
latmg devices which are especially helpiul in
severe weather, in preventing the air from be-
coming too dry to breathe healthfully, and also,
through this added moisture, in reducing the
degree of temperature leqmied for comfort
A temperature of 65° F with piopcr hunnditv
is as satisfying in cold weather as 70° F when
the air is abnormally dry

Hoi An Fuinace — The hot an furnace 01
heater is simply a modification of the jacketed
stove, or perhaps, speaking chronologically, a
jacketed stove is a modification of the hot an
furnace The essentials of this fuinace are
(1) A large fire box, and combustion chamber so
carefully made as to permit no possible escape
of gas, smoke, or soot save through the smoke
clumnev (2) The fire pot and combustion
chamber are surrounded with a jacket of buck,
cement, or some good nonconducting material
with sufficient space between it and the heated
fuinace for an easy circulation of an (3) The
fresh air duct opens directly undeineath the
fire pot and into the an space around it, so that
as the an about the ladiating surface is heated
and moves upward, cool an from without will
take its place (-4) This wanned an passes b>
means of the force of a fan or simply In tin1
iorce of gravity, fiist to a centrally located
chambei from which the ducts leading to the
various looms ladiate One blanch of these
ducts is also connected with a cold air chamber
By means of dumpeis, managed by a theimostat
plaeed in a classroom, the temperature of the
room can be kept approximately at the degree
lequired There are some serious defects con-
nected with hot an furnace heating that should
be consideied carefullv (1) Unless they are
constructed and set with the greatest caie, there
is always some danger from gas escaping from
the fire box 01 combustion chamber into the air
to be delivered into the schoolroom The
danger is especially glaring if the furnace is to(
small to furnish sufficient heat without very
heavy firing For it is evident that such fires
would tend to warp, crack, or displace the radiat-
ing parts of the fire box or combustion chamber,
thereby offering an opportunity for the es-

239

HEATING OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS HEATING OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS

cape of gas or srnoke Besides, if overheated,
such furnaces permit the passage of carbon
monoxide directly through the metal plates
(2) There is danger from overheating the air
in furnaces, and rendering it dry, harsh, and
" lifeless " Again, the only safeguard foi this
defect is to have a furnace of such dimensions
that it will never be necessary to overheat the
air in order to introduce sufficient heat into the
schoohoom Much warm air, instead of little
hot an, is the correction to apply heie The
amount of humidity needed can be supplied
in a number of ways, but this topic cannot be
discussed adequately hero (3) It is a difficult
matter to properly apportion the ducks leading
to the various rooms, so that, undoi thofoice oi
gravity or the uniform pressuie of a Ian, each
room will get the amount of heat and fresh air-
needed There have been moic serious blun-
ders made in this regard than perhaps in any
other connected with the installation of heating
plants Long pipes, with shoit tin IKS, no
sheathing to prevent radiation and lar too
constricted to dehvei a sufficient quantity of
air without much friction, ha\e been conspicu-
ous causes for the failure of many expensn o
furnace installations No pa it of a heating
or ventilating system needs the ad\ico ol an
expert engineer more than the oonstiuetion,
location, and the proportioning of the ducts
designed to carry the heated an to the school-
room This is especially true in connection
with furnace heating (4) It is moio fluc-
tuating than hot water, or steam heating

There are some advantages in furnace heating
that are worthy of note (1) It is more eco-
nomical in mild weather when artificial heat is
needed for only a fraction of the school day
(2) It requires less time to get results, for it heats
quickly and is more direct than hot water or
steam (3) It is cheaper to install than hot
water or steam and, if properly proportioned to
its load, it is far less expensive to keep in repair

(4) It does not require attention in cold weather
during holidays as hot watei or steam does1

(5) It is of simple construction and does not re-
quire expert knowledge to handle, as does steam
or hot water heaters

file am Heating — Steam heating can be used
for direct radiation, indirect radiation, or a
combination of both The advantages of this
system for schools may be stated briefly as
follows (1) It furnishes a steady, continuous
heat oi comparatively low temperature, and
hence does not " scorch " the air or reduce the
humidity so strikingly as a fuinace may
(2) The boiler room can be installed either in the
school building proper or in a detached building
even at some distance without serious loss in
delivering the heat to the various rooms (3)
The radiators can be grouped into one unit or
various units and readily proportioned to meet
demands. (4) It can be utilized to introduce
wanned fresh air into the schoolroom with or
without a system of ducts from the basement.

240

For example, many devices have been developed
to install coils beneath windows or along out-
side walls, and, through an opening below, to
allow the fiesh, cold air to circulate about the
coils and pass directly into the room Where
they are connected with some mechanical sys-
tem of ventilation they can be grouped into
chambers in connection with the ducts directly
below the rooms they serve, and in this way the
heat units demanded can be easily computed
and applied (5) It is more efficient in cold
climates for the reason that it can be used in
any combination desired, and can be ex-
panded as exigencies demand This of course
is true only if adequate boiler capacity is in-
stalled

There are some disadvantages in steam heat-
ing, and among these the following maybe men-
tioned ( 1 ) It is expensive in installation, and, if
not handled by expenenced mechanics, it is an
expensive system to keep in repan (2) It is
not well suited to mild climates, for it is slow to
heat and slo\\ to cool Hence it is wasteful
and not sufficiently responsive for those climates
where a little heat is needed m the morning and
none foi the rest of the day, or where a slight,
steady heal is needed all the day (3) There is
al\va\s some danger in steam boilers, especially
in high pressure boilers They need constant
attention, and demand a skilled mechanic to
manage them economically and safely (4) In
cold climates during the winter months, fires
must be kept going day and night and during
holidays as well, in order to prevent the pipes
from bursting (5) It seems difficult to adjust
steam radiators so as to prevent the pounding
noises occasioned }>y the water from condensed
steam corning into conflict with circulating
steam This difficulty has been much reduced
in the past few years, but it is not yet per-
fected

On the whole steam heating seems to bo the
most satisfactory for cold climates, and is being
largely used in the more temperate regions
The business of the installation oi a steam heat-
ing system demands technical knowledge, and
hoards of education will always save money by
employing an expert engineer who knows school
demands, as well as the technique of his pio-
lossion

Hot Water tfi/di'M — The system of heating
by hot water has not been used extensively
in the schools of this country, though under
favorable climatic conditions it is in certain
respects well adapted for this purpose In Eng-
land it is more often used, and in that climate,
save in extreme weather, has been found satis-
factory The advantages of a hot water sys-
tem may be stated as follows (]) It can be
used, especially when supplied with a pump to
facilitate circulation, in mild weather, without
overheating and undue use of fuel (2) It
does not require such constant attendance as* a
steam heater, nor does it demand the technical
ability to supervise 1 1 is safer than steam, and

HEATING OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS

HEBREW UNION COLLEGE

is no< subject to such rapid fluctuations as othei
systems (3) It is onlinaiily noiseless, and
furnishes an acceptable quality of heat (4)
It can be delivered a long distance from a cen-
tral heating source at comparatively slight loss
in temperature, and for this reason it often lends
itself to great economy of fuel and service by
the use of one central heating station foi several
buildings This point is worth considering
because of the pi obable future tendency to gi oup
a number of school buildings togethei in
suburban districts, where playgiounds, fiesh
clean air, and surcease from noise are possible

On the other hand, it has some distinct dis-
advantages (1) It seems to requne moie
caie to prevent leaks, especially when direct
ladiation is used in tall buildings and demands
exacting attention in cold weather to pi event
the pipes from bursting (2) It is generally
less quickly effective than other systems, and,
unless a large amount of radiating surface is
furnished, it will not satisfy the demands for
heat in veiy cold weather (3) It lequires a
gi eater superficial area or radiating surface to
afloid the same amount of heat than a steam
heating system, and hence, where space must
be economized either in basements or school-
looms, this is a distinct disadvantage (4)
Most engineers claim that it requires "more
careful installation, and nicer calculation of the
sizes of piping " than is icquired foi steam
heating

Owing to the fact that the amount of hu-
midity associated with the air has a dnect influ-
ence on the temperature demanded for comfort
in schoolrooms, those in charge of modern
school buildings, especially in the largei cities,
ha\ e found it not only more wholesome to wash
the air of dust and soot, but a matter of econ-
omy during cold weather because of the added
moisture thereby introduced

It will be readily admitted by all that colds
and bronchial affections are much more gener-
ally common in winter than summer This
is not because disease germs are specially ram-
pant in winter, but because the protection
afforded by the mucous secretions of the air-
passages is reduced by the more rapid dissi-
pation of this moisture by the dry an breathed
in winter (See COLDS ) The spaces between
the molecules of cold air are restricted and
hence the possible amount of water vapor
occupying them is much smaller than that pos-
sible in the case of warm and hence expanded
air When cold air is heated to the temperature
required for the schoolroom, necessarily the
percentage of saturation is greatly reduced
Such air when breathed readily and quickly
absorbs a great amount of moisture from the
air passages Warm 'dry air is greedy, so to
speak, for water vapor, and will also quickly
absorb moisture from the skin and render
the body harsh and dry But as a result of
this evaporation the tempeiature of the body
is lowered, for it is a principle of physics that a
VOL in — u

body losing moist in e through c^apoiation is
thereby lowered in temperature To counter-
act the feeling oi chill thus produced an ab-
noimally high temper ature must be maintained
If, however, aftei the cold an has been heated it
be driven through sprays oi vxalei, or be made
to impinge on 01 pass through water -soaked
screens of coarse cloth or porous material, it will
acquire a higher percentage of saturation, and
when passed into the schoohoom will not ab-
sorb an undue amount of moisture from the
bodies of the children Hence the chill men-
tioned above will not be produced, and a lower
temperature will satisfy Some estimates show
that at least JO pel cent of the cost of fuel will
thus be saved in \ery cold weather, and in ad-
dition better hygienic conditions will be fur-
nished Many devices and appliances have
been designed to secure this humidity and at the
same time wash the air of dust and soot One
of the latest and most promising methods
devised for this puipose consists in what is
called an air washing and cooling fan By this
method " the air is forced through several suc-
cessive layers of close-meshed wiie screen, over
which and through which water flows rapidlv
and in large quantities," Jind by the use1 of
other means not necessary to specify heie, the
fan serves a triple purpose of an propeller, air
washer, and humidifier F B D

See ARCHITECTURE, SCHOOL; VENTILATION

Reference --

Sot- under ARCHITECTURE, SCHOOL.

HEBDOMADAL COUNCIL — One of the
governing bodies of Oxford University con-
sisting of the Chancellor, the Vice Chancellor,
the proctors, six heads of colleges 01 halls, six
university professois, and six membeis of Con-
\ocation of not less than five veais' standing
The Hebdomadal Council has the po\\ei of
initiating University legislation and of framing
statutes which may be accepted, rejected, or
amended by Congicgatioti and accepted 01 ic-
jeeted by Convocation The name of the
council is'denved from the fact that its meetings
are held weekly

See OXFORD UNIVERSITY

HEBREW —See ORIENTAL LANGUAGES ^Nl>
LITERATURE

HEBREW EDUCATION — See JEWISH
EDUCATION

HEBREW, TEACHING OF IN REFORMA-
TION SCHOOLS —See ORIENTAL LANGUAGE
AND LITERATURE

HEBREW UNION COLLEGE, CINCIN-
NATI, O — A theological seminary established
in 1S75 for the training of rabbis and teachers
in the principles of Reform Judaism. A pre-
paratory department of high school grade and
241

HECKER

HEDONISM

a Teachers' Institute ure also maintained The
entrance requnements 1o the eollegiale depart -
inent me the same ,MS 1 hose foi the I>imeisi1\
of Cincinnati The decree of Rabbi is eoti-
foired on cnndidiitc.s who fulfill the require-
ments and pos.sess a degree equivalent to the
A B. of the University of Cincinnati The
( College also confers the degree of Doctor
of Divinity There is a faculty of eight
members

HECKER, JOHANN JULIUS (1707-1768)
— A Geiman educator, the father of the
11 Realschulc," was born at Wei den on the river
Ruhr, in what is now the lilune piovmce
His father and grandfather were schoolmasters,
and he was educated in his father's school up
to his fourteenth year, when he entered the
gymnasium of the neighboring city of Essen
The rector of this school was a pupil of A II
Franckc (qv). In 1720 I lacker went to the
University of Halle and, for a short time at
least, came himself under the influence of
Fiancke He studied not only theology and
philosophy, but attended also lectures on
medicine and natural science* In 1729 he was
appointed teacher of the " Paedagogiurn " in
Halle, one of the schools founded by Francke,
where for six years he taught all sorts of sub-
jects, from Hebrew and the classics to chemistry,
anatomy, and physiology He also published
a textbook of anatomy, one of physiology, and
an introduction to botany In 17^5 he was
called as pastor and school inspector to the
military orphanage at Potsdam, where he
attracted the attention of King Frederick
William I In 1739 he became the pastor of the
new " Dreifaltigkeitskirche " (Trinity Church)
in Berlin, a position in which he remained
until his death He first improved the ele-
mentary schools belonging to his parish, pro-
curing the necessary means for this work
through a school lottery, the shares of which
were bought by people in different parts of
Germany In 1747 he opened a new kind of
school, which was destined for the education
of boys who were to be prepared for piactical
life This school, which he called " Okono-
misch-nwthematische Realschule" (now the
Kaiser- Wilhelms-Kealgymnasiuin), must be re-
garded as the mother institution of the whole
system of modern (as distinguished from purely
classical) secondary schools (Realgymnasien
and Oberrealschulen) in Germany He also
did much for the training of teachers of the
rural schools The " General-Landschul-Re-
glement," the first general school law of Prussia,
issued by Frederick II in 1763, was to a great
extent Hecker's work F M

Reference : —

RANKK, V J J Hrckcr, Grander der Kdmgl Real-
schulf (Berlin, 18<>1 )

undei the auspices of 1 he (Vntial Illinois Con-
ference ol the Methodist Kpiscopal Church.
Academic, collegiate, music, and oratory de-
partments me maintained The entrance ie-
quirements are equivalent approximately to
15 points of high school work The college
grants the degrees of A H , B S , and Ph R
The faculty consists of thirteen professors

HEDGE, LEVI (1700-1844) — Educational
writer and college professor, was graduated at
Harvard College in 1792 He was tutor and
professor in the college from IS 10 to 1H30
Author of System of Logic (1818), Mental
Philosophy (1827), and other educational works

W S M

HEDGE-SCHOOLS — A term applied
originally to those schools which sprang up m
Ireland as a result of the Penal Laws (1704
1728) by which no Catholic was allowed to give
or receive education or to go abroad for pur-
poses of study on penalty of a fine of £100, while
children so educated could not inherit property
in Ireland or England A result of these
measures was that secret schools arose in which
priests and others taught as much as was pos-
sible under the circumstances " On the high-
ways and on the hillside, m ditches and behind
hedges, in the precarious shelter of the ruined
walls of some ancient abbey, or under the
roof of a peasant's cabin, the priests set up
schools and taught the children of their race "
(McCarthy, p 13) In this way the national
cause and national existence was kept alive
The term, however, soon came to denote any
kind of a poor school, and so Thackeray calls
Paddy Byrne, Goldsmith's teacher, " a hedge-
schoolmaster." In Germany the identical
term Heck- or Heckcnschulc in Hesse is the
equivalent of Winkelschulc (qv}. In medieval
France unlicensed schools were known as
E cole a bit ixsomeres

See IRELAND, EDUCATION IN
Reference : —

MrC \RTHY, J H Ireland smcr the Union (London.
18S7 )

HEDDING COLLEGE, ABINGDON, ILL

- A coeducational institution founded in lS5f>

HEDONISM (i/Sovi?, pleasure) — A term
used to denote theones that make pleasmc
either the end, or the standard of intentional
or conscious activity, moral behavioi included
The ancient and the modern theories grouped
under that name are, however, more4 widely
different from each other than their common
name would indicate Ancient hedonism is
associated with Epicureanism. Its chief
motivation was revolt., on the one hand, against
the moral theories which made virtue consist in
fitting into the existing social order by perform-
ing the duties appropriate to the status in which
a person found himself, and, on the other hand,
against the theories which gave morals a purely
rationalistic cast, basis, and aim As against the
first, Epicurean hedonism taught the advisabil-

242

HEDONISM

HEGEL

ity of abstinence, as fat as possible, from civic
life, and the cultivation of voluntary associa-
tions based on congeniality and friendship
As against the second, it emphasized the im-
portance of the feelings, and of cultivating
the various types of enjoyment naturally
accessible to the individual Contrary to the
usual belief, it taught not surrender to appetite,
but moderation of desire, on the ground that
excessive desire was fatal to happiness Ancient,
like modern, hedonism was naturalistic in tone,
but here again the motive was different,
ancient hedonism being convinced that super-
naturalism tended to fear of death and of the
intervention of the gods, and hence was det-
rimental to a life of serenity and contentment

Modern hedonism, in its influential forms,
has been associated with an empirical phi-
losophy and with utilitarianism Its chief
object has been to set up a concrete standard for
measuring the worth of acts, their conse-
quences in the way of pleasures and pains pro-
duced Its interest was not in outlining an
agreeable mode of life, remote from strife and
disturbance, but the discovery of a scientific
mode of estimating right and wrong methods
of action Of the conscious search for pleasuie
it has made little, generally holding, in fact,
that happiness is best attained when not con-
sciously aimed at — the so-called hedonistic
paradox In its most important representa-
tives — as Bentham and the Mills — it has
been more interested in the development of
methods for judging the effects of legislation
and administration, civil and penal, by tracing
their effect among the pleasures produced and
the pains entailed upon the masses affected by
them, than in elaborating a code for right
action in pnvate life

As a moral system, hedonism has had little
direct influence upon educational theory or
practice Matters of pleasure and pain are,
however, so closely connected with the motiva-
tion of conduct that it would not be difficult
to trace an implicit hedonism in the use made
of rewards promised and punishments threatened
as motives to studious behavior Asceticism,
moroovci, is a kind of inverted hedonism, in-
volving the notion that man is so naturally prone
to pleasure-seeking that the agreeable must
be shunned as a temptation to evil Ascetic
notions underlie many educational ideas arid
procedures, especially those that cluster about
the notion that there is something disciplinary
and moralizing in tasks and exercises in the
degree in which they are disagreeable (see FOR-
MAL DISCIPLINE) ,T. D.

See UTILITAIUANISM.

References: -

ALEXANDER, S. Moral Order and Progress (London,

1889.)

BAIN, A Emotion and Will (London, 1876.)
DEWEY, ,1 , and TUFTS, .1. H. Ethic* (New York, 1908.)
GREEN, T. Prolegomena to Ethics (Oxford. 1889.)
JAMES, W. Principles of Psychology (New York, 1899.)
MACKENZIE, J. S. Manual of Ethics (London, 1900.)

MUIKHEAD, J. H. Kit mrnt* of Kthic* (Now Yoik, 1892.)

PATER, W. Manuv the Epicwetm

PLATO. (Jorgtas

RICKABY, J. Moral Philosophy (Lundou, 1888 )

SIDGWICK, H. Hitfory of Ethic* (London, 1896.)

Methods of Ethics (London, 1901.)
WATSON, J. Hedonistic Theouev fiom Ari^tippu^ to

Spencer. (Glasgow, 1895.)

See also Baldwin, J. M. Dictionary of Philosophy and
Psychology, Vol. Ill, pt. II, pp. 899-901, for articles in
current magazines

HEGEL, GEORG WILHELM FRIEDRICH

(1770-1831) — Born at Stuttgart and died at
Berlin He was the son of a secretary in the
revenue office of the kingdom of Wurttemberg,
and received a good education extending ovci
eighteen years With the purpose of pursuing
theological studies, he attended the Umveisity
of Tubingen (1788-1793), but, finding the pre-
scribed theological and philosophical couibcs
both dull and unfruitful, he devoted most of
his time to classical and historical literature
His university certificate stated him to be of
good ability, but of middling industry and
knowledge, and especially deficient in philos-
ophy Six years (1793-1801) weie passed as a
pnvate tutor, first in Bern and later in Fiank-
fort

His career as a university teacher began in
Jena (1801-1806) as Privdt-docent Later he
became professor extraordinary His first im-
portant book, Die Phbuomenolugie de^ Geiktcs,
which he characterized as his "voyage of dis-
covery," was written here Tho Battle of Jena
interrupted the work of the uimeisitv, and
Hegel spent a year at Bamberg as a newspaper
editor Being appointed by Niothammer as
professor of philosophy and rector of the new
gymnasium at Nuremberg, a school of iieaily
200 boys, he passed eight years (1808-1816)
as a successful secondary teachei and head-
master Hegel believed that classical studios
formed the only sure basis for latei intellectual
work and development At the same tune he
readily seized every opportunity foi widening
the curriculum and developing varied interests
in the pupils. Mihtaiy drill was introduced,
and a school library and museum weie staited,
to which parents and friends made gifts from
time to time In 181 J he married Mane \on
Tucher One of his two sons, Karl, afterwaids
became professor of history at Kilangen In
addition to his work in the gymnasium, he
wrote and published his greatest book, Wiftsen-
schaft der Logik (1812-1813, 1816)

His university career was resumed when he
accepted the chair of philosophy at Heidelberg
in 1816, declining calls at the same time to those
of Berlin and Erlangen He remained here two
years, writing the Encydop&die dcr philoso-
phischen Wissenschaften im Grundnxxe (1817).
In 1818 he accepted the second invitation to the
chair of philosophy at Berlin, made famous by
Fichte (q v ). His reputation was steadily
growing, and he gathered round him a band of
optimistic students and disciples The Grund-

243

HEGEL

HEGEL

hnien dcr Philosophic des Rechti appeared in
1820 His tiiiic at Berlin was given chiefly to
teaching His lectures on aesthetics, philos-
ophy ot religion, philosophy of history, and
history of philosophy were published posthu-
mously from his notes and those made by his
students In 1830 he was elected rector of the
university He di"d suddenly from cholera
in 1831. " His philosophy may well be called
the Prussian state philosophy during the years
1820 to 1810 It was the philosophical system
officially acknowledged by the Ministry of
EJucation " (Paulscn).

Hegel's Philosophy occupies a distinctive
place in modern thought The great German
idealistic movement which, beginning with
Kant, was developed in different ways by Fichte
and Schellmg reached its culmination and most
complete presentment in the wiitings of Hegel
These philosophers all held that the universe
becomes intelligible only as we adopt a spiritual
interpretation Benefiting as ic were by the
efforts of Fichte and Schclling to overcome the
apparent dualism in Kant, Hegel became an
evolutionist as well as an idealist in philosophy.
The two woilds of nature and spiut are neces-
sary to each other The true meaning of life
can be found only in the idea of progress or
development The essential condition of real
progress is freedom. The solution of the prob-
lem becomes his doctrine of progress by antag-
onism the necessity of two opposites and of a
third which ever unites them on a higher level
This reconciliation of opposites is his key to
evolution, — the only method of recognizing
unity amid diversity This position was reached
onlv as the result of his development lie came
to see that life is a process, that spirit must
pass through many stages before it realizes
itsdf, and that it is necessary to distinguish the
stages of development from those of attainment
To attain self-realization, the Divine Unity
must manifest itself in and through the many
And the many ultimately arrive at true free-
dom by learning to relinquish a lower form of
freedom for the sake of a higher. One must
learn to lose one's life in order to find it again at
a higher level.

The educational views of Hegel follow directly
from his philosophical theories He wrote no
separate treatise on education, but his views
appear in passages in his philosophical writings,
chiefly in the Philosophy of Right, where the
sociological aspects of education are presented.
The school addresses delivered while at Nurem-
berg also throw light on his theory arid practice
of teaching

According to his idealistic view of evolution,
the human stage is the most critical in the pro-
cess If man is to rise to a higher level of life, he
must reconcile nature and spirit as fighting in
himself for supremacy The need of education
appears related to this struggle, and arises from
the fact that the child is but dimly aware of this
necessity and ignorant of the true means of

progress. In the child nature is stronger than
spirit, the life of the senses more developed than
the life of thought Until he has maturity
for self-direction, the family or the state in its
institutions must provide the necessary nur-
ture, training, and discipline Education is the
joint business of the family and the community
working together for a common end Parents
have charge of the early education of the child
until he reaches school age, when he comes undei
the influence of the community acting through
its civil servants, the teachers in public schools
In the cooperation of the family with the school
the common aim to be kept in view is morality
The moral man alone is free, and freedom is the
essential quality of spirit A liberal education
frees the mind from the bonds of nature so that
it may identify itself with the universal, and thus
attain the higher level of spiritual life

In the first stage of this education the child
takes small part The demand is from without,
and he obeys, " but through instruction and
education his own inner powers are awakened
and he becomes conscious that knowledge, mo-
rality, and religion belong to his own nature "
At this point of awakening, or " new birth,"
usually occurring at the secondary school age,
the educational process becomes critical What
Hegel calls the " centrifugal force of the soul "
now comes into play The desire for " self-
estrangement " is natural and necessaiy, but
the step must take place under the teacher's
guidance The pupil must be taken light out of
himself and his natural surroundings and in-
terests in order to live the life of imagination and
thought, — to apprehend the universal The
classical histories and literatures offer the best
means to this end Creek and Latin (as dead
languages) shut the door upon the everyday
self, and the teaching of them should be di-
rected to making the pupil share in the thoughts,
feelings, and actions of the ancients By learn-
ing to live apart from himself, he realizes in
part the nature and value of moral relationships
and the meaning of the State At the end of the
return journey from this self-estrangement, the
pupil finds himself again, but now in relation to
universal life This defense oi the classical
curriculum is far more philosophical than the
argument from formal discipline which had foi
some tune been advanced by German teachers
Hegel naturally laid much stress on the impor-
tance of moral training and discipline He urged
the necessity of firm discipline and a moral at-
mosphere in the school Punishment is the
right of the transgressor, and must not be with-
held Both direct and indirect moral instruc-
tion are necessary The former he himself
gave in connection with lessons in religion and
philosophy (set foith in the Propadeutik], the
latter through the ordinary school subjects

Hegel's influence on education was very great
during the latter part of his life arid for some
time after his death His disciple and biog-
rapher, Rosenkranz (q v ), devoted extended

244

HEGIUS

HEIDELBERG

efforts to setting forth his educational views,
and many of his students tried to work out the
educational implications of his philosophy.
Frocbel's pedagogy obviously owed much to
Hegelian influence In more recent yeais there
has appeared a revival of his influence in the
educational thought of America and England

M. M.
Sec HARRIS, W. T.

References : —

BALDWIN, ,T M Dictionary of Philosophy and Psy-

fhology, Vol ill, pp 243-249, for Bibliography
FISCHER, K H(gd's Leben, Werkt und Lchrt (Hei

KNTNKH, P IIrgd'n An^ichtcn ubtr Erzuhung im Zu-
Hfimnu nkanfl mit seiner Philosophn dar(j<*ttllt

HARRIS *W f Ht>gd\ Logic (Chicago, 1N90 )
HEUFL, (J V W \\trkc (By ten < ditors ) IS vola

(Berlin, 1S32-1S40 )

LITQULLK, F L Hmtlas Educatoi (Now Yoik, 1890 )
M\( KLN-IIE, MILLKLNT Htgd\ Educational Theory

and PKiitue (London, 1909 )
ROSENKKAN/. J K F PadagogiL ala System, 1H4S

Ti as Tht Philosophy of Ediualion, l>y A C

hiaekett (New York, 1SSO, 1S90 )
TH \ULO\V, Cl Higd\ Anwrhtcn ubcr Krzichung und

Cnttnuht (Kiol, 1S.W-1S54 )
WM.UPE, W Prolegomena to the Study of Hegd'u

Philosophy (Oxford, 1S94 )

HEGIUS, ALEXANDER (? 1433-1498) —

An early liurnanist schoolmaster who contrib-
uted largely to the humanistic revival in
northern Europe He was born in Westphalia,
and 1 aught at Wessel and Emmerich before
he came to the scene of his greatest activity,
De\ enter (q v ),m 1465, wheie he became head-
master of the school attached to the Church of
St Lebum The school flourished so greatly
under his charge that at his death it numbered
about 2000 pupils He associated with himself
Smthms, who probably influenced Enihinus
(q v ), and several members of the Brethren of the
( 'ommon Life (q v ) lie himself appears to have
taught the upper classes Erasmus says that
u from Hegms and Smthius the school drew some
savour of the true letters " And m a letter
Hegms sa>s. " All learning is futile which is
acquired at the expense of piety " At the age
of foity Hegms studied Greek under Rudolph
Agncola (q v ) The humanistic spirit was
introduced into the school, and many of the
northern humanists, c g Buschms, Murmellius,
and others came under its influence Hegms
wrote several dialogues, which were published
m 1503 They are catechisms on different
topics, e g De scientia quod eo bcitur , DC rhc-
tonca, De monbus In the De utihtatc Grceci
he insists on the value of a study of Greek for
all departments of learning, " for to the Greeks
wo are indebted for everything "

References : —

BARNAHD, H American Journal of Education, Vol IV.
WOODWARD, W H Education during the Renaissance.
(Cambridge, 1906 )

HEIDELBERG, THE RUPRECHT-CARL
UNIVERSITY OF. — The University of Heidel-

berg, in the Grand Duchy of Baden, is the oldest
university and to this day one of the most ie-
nowned institutions of higher learning in the
German Empire It was founded upon the
model of the University of Paris by the Elector
Rupert I of the Palatinate m 1386, the Papal
Bull of Urban II being dated Get 23 of
the previous year At this time Prague, estab-
lished m 1348, and Vienna, established in 13G5,
were the only universities in German-speaking
territory The work of organization fell
largely to the first Rector of the university,
the Dutchman Marsihus von Inghcn Al-
though students flocked to the foui faculties of
the new institution m considerable numbers
at the very start, the university did not reach
the period of its greatest renown until the latter
half of the sixteenth and the beginning of the
seventeenth century, during which time it was
the center of Humanism and Reform in Ger-
many — this in contradistinction to the Catholic
tendencies that had been strongly emphasized
m the earlier days. This era of prosperity,
however, was soon followed by one of stagna-
tion, as the result of the Thirty Yeais' War and
the devastation of the Palatinate by the French
in 1689 and 1693, the university being com-
pelled to close its doors from 1631 to 1652 and
again from 1693 to 1700 A number of the
fugitive professors continued their lectures at
Frankfort from 1694 to 1698 and at Weinheim
for two years subsequent During the eight-
eenth ccnturv the institution was in the hands
of the Catholic counter-Reformation, and was on
the verge of extinction as a icsult of the severe
blows dealt the town during the revolutionary
upheavals at the close of the century Not
until Heidelberg with the Palatinate on the
right bank of the Rhine was incorporated with
Baden m 1803, did the university icgain its
former prestige, the elector Charles Frederick
being responsible for a thorough reorganization
of the seat of learning The university to-day
consists of five faculties, viz theology (Protes-
tant), law, medicine, philosophy, and pure
science, the last mentioned having been made
independent of the faculty of philosophy in
1890 A faculty of political science, estab-
lished in 1803, was incorporated \\ith the
faculty of philosophy nineteen years later
The first psychiatrical clinic associated with
a university was organized at Heidelberg in
1827, arid one of the first university botanical
gardens was laid out m connection with the
faculty of medicine as early as 1593. The
university also possesses an institute for cancer
research \1906) under the directorship of Pro-
fessor Czerny A radiological institute was
founded in 1909, and in the same year the
Heidelberg Academy of Science was estab-
lished Among the eminent teachers who have
been connected with the university may be
mentioned Hermann Hclmholtz in physiology,
Bunsen in chemistry, Kirehhof m physics,
Hegel and Kuno Fischer in philosophy, Boeckh

245

HEIDELBERG UNIVERSITY

HEINICKE

in classical philology, Schlosscr, Gervmus, von
Treitschke, and Winkelmann in history, and
Wmdscheid and Mittermaier m jurisprudence
The administration of the university is in the
hands of a prorector, the reigning Grand Duke
of Baden holding the office of Rector.

The library of the University of Heidelberg
has had an interesting history, going back to
the earliest days of the institution It in-
creased steadily in importance until the begin-
ning of the seventeenth century, when it was
generally regarded as one of the leading col-
lections' of the world After the capture of
Heidelberg by Tilly during the Thirty Years'
War (1622), the most valuable portion of the
libraiy, the famous Bibhotheca Palatina, which
included no less than 3527 manuscripts, was
presented by Maximilian I of Bavaria to the
Pope and removed to Rome, and a little later
a somewhat similar fate overtook the newly
gathered collection Several of the manuscripts
transferred to Rome in 1623 were restored in
1814, and later all of the old German manu-
scitpts were returned The present library,
which moved into a new building in 1905, is
only about a century old; it contains about
400,000 bound volumes, 200,000 dissertations
and pamphlets, over 3000 papyri, 3200 docu-
ments, and 4000 codices, including the famous
Manesse Liederhandschrtfl from the beginning
of the fourteenth century. The latter is the
richest collection of the kind in existence, con-
sisting of 428 folio leaves, and containing over
7000 stan/as, chiefly South German lyric poems,
by 141 authors, and 137 full-page illustrations.

In attendance Heidelberg is exceeded by ten
Geiman universities, its total enrollment in the
winter semester of 1909-1910 being 2089 (194
women), this numbei including 155 auditors
(52 women) Of the matriculated students
almost half are found in the faculties of philos-
ophy and pure science, viz. 954, medicine with
513 coining next, then law with 405, and
finally theology with only 62 In the summer
semester of 1910 the University of Heidelberg
enrolled 2552 students. R. T. JR.

References : —

HAUT/,, J F Gcschichfe der Universitat Heidelberg

(Mannheim, 1H62-1KU4 )
LEXIH, W Das deutschc Untcrrwhtswcsen, Vol I

(Berlin, 1904 )
Minerva, Hnndbuck der gelekrtcn Welt, Vol I (Strase-

THOKBKCKE, A Die altcstc Znt der UmversttAt Heidel-
berv, 1386-1449 (Heidelberg, 1886 )

WINKKLMANN, E Urkundcnbuch der Umversit&t Heidel-
bug (Heidelberg, 1886 )

HEIDELBERG UNIVERSITY; TIFFIN,
OHIO — A coeducational institution founded
m 1850 by the Ohio Synod of the Reformed
Church. It maintains an academy, college,
and departments of pedagogy, commerce,
music, art, and elocution The entrance re-
quirements are fifteen units The degrees of
A.B , BS, Ph B , and B.L. are conferred on

the completion of appropriate courses. There
is a faculty of twenty-eight members

HEIGHT AND WEIGHT OF SCHOOL
CHILDREN. — See GROWTH.

HEINICKE, SAMUEL (1727-1790) — The
pioneer of the German system of deaf-mute in-
struction; was born of a well-to-do peasant
family in Nautschutz, near Weissenfels, Saxony.
He attended only a village school, but at an
early age showed a great love of books, which
he had to satisfy m secret against his father's
wishes At the age of twenty-three he ran
away from home to escape a marriage into
which his father wanted to force him, and en-
listed m the electoral body guard at Diesden
There he found time to pursue his studies in
Latin and French, and later on even to give
private lessons In 1754 a deaf and dumb
boy was brought to him, and he attempted to
teach him to speak, using the method given bv
Amman (qv) m his book Surd us loquenx (The
Deaf Speaking) Wishing to devote himself
entirely to teaching, he asked for his dischaige
from the army, but the outbreak of the Seven
Years' War prevented the granting of his request
Having been taken prisoner by the Prussians
in the battle of Pirna, he succeeded in making
his escape and went to the University of Jena,
where he enrolled as a student in 1757 Soon
after, however, a Prussian recruiting party
passed through Jena, and lleimckc, to a A oid
recapture by them, fled to Hamburg, where
he became the secretary of the Danish ambassa-
dor Count Schirnmelinann Through the
count's influence he obtained a position as a
teacher and organist in the village of Kppen-
dorf, near Hamburg (1769) There he renewed
his interest in the training of deaf and dumb
children, and acquired such fame that he was
recalled to Saxony, where, in 1778, he opened
the first German institution for /leaf-mutes
In contrast with the Abbe* de 1'Ep^e, whose
school for deaf-mutes, the first in the woild,
had been established m Pans in 1700, Heimcke
instructed his pupils not in the gesture language,
but in lip-reading and speaking (See DEAF,
EDUCATION OF THE, II, p 257 ) His object was
to restore the deaf-mutes to society by making
them use and understand the common spoken
language

In 1780 he published a book Uhci die Denk-
art der Taubtttumtnen (On the Mode of Think-
ing of Deaf M utes) , u\ which he made a violent
attack on the Abbe! de 1'Epee From this
arose a rather bitter controversy on the merits
of the different methods of deaf-and-dumb
training, which he carried on for the rest of his
life

Heinicke's ideas on general education show
that, a part from his special vocation, he possessed
remarkable pedagogic insight In some respects
he even anticipated Pestalozxi He called upon
the clergy to take the initiative in the improve-

246

HELMSTEDT

HELVETIUS

ment of the rural schools He advocated a
phonetic method of teaching reading, arid in-
sisted on giving children clear sense perceptions
before abstractions His vigorous insistence on
the oral teaching of deaf-mutes has caused this
method to prevail in Germany and most of the
other countries of Europe

P. M
Reference : —

Samuel Heimcke, scin Lcbcn und Wirken
(Leipzig, 1K70 )

HELMSTEDT, UNIVERSITY OF, GER-

MANY — The last of the impoitunt univer-
sities which were due to the influences of the
Reformation Opened originally in J571 as
a Paduyoynun Illustrc at (iandersheun by Duke
Julius of the House of Brunswick- Wolf enbuttel,
it was removed to Ilclmstedt in 1574, and an
imperial charter was obtained in 1570 laising
the institution to the status of a univcisity
The university was organized on plans diawn
up by a disciple of Melanchthon with faculties
of theology and philosophy Students had to
subscribe to the Augsburg Confession For
some time the university met with great success,
especially in its theological facultv In the
eighteenth century there were professorships
in the humanities, Hebrew, mathematics,
natuial science, logic and metaphysics, law,
politics, and history From 1779 to 1S10 an
important philological-pedagogical institute was
maintained at the university, organized bv
Fiedenck August Wiedeburg In connection
with this seminar, teaching practice was ob-
tained m the Padagogium The university
was closed in 1809, probably through the rapid
use of its neighbor, the University of Gottm-
gen ((/ v )

References : —

KOLDEWLY, T G(t>chichle des Padaaogium Illmtre

zu (iaudirbhntn und Miner Urnwandluna in die

Juliuh-UnwrtiiUit /lelmttedt (Wolfrnbuttcl, 1S6(O

(it sf Indite der klatwiacfien Philo/ogie auf der U mverxitat

Hchnstfdt (Biunswifk, 1895 )

P \ULHEN, V (ivschichtt, dcs gtUhititi ['nttnichts
(Lt'ipzitf, 1KS5 )

STALMANN Das herzogliche philologiuch-padaaufjische
Inxtitut auf der Umversitat za Hdm*t<dt (1779-
1H10), in JahresbrricM tiber dan heizoahchc Gymna-
sium zu Blankenburg am Harz (Blankrnhurg,
Harz, 1899 )

HELPS, SIR ARTHUR (1813-1875) —
Clerk to the English Privy Council and ad-
\ iser to Queen Victoria, at whose request he
prepared the Prince Consort's speeches for the
pi ess He was a prolific writer on a variety
of topics, among them Conquerors of the New
World (1848) and tipamtsh Conquest ni \tnerica
(1855-1861) His Friends in Conned (1847-
1859), a collection of essays and dialogues,
contains an essav on Kducation which " has
told us more truth about education in a tew
pages than one sometimes meets \vitli in a com-
plete treatise " (Quick) (Jovernment pio-
vision of education is commended if it, does

247

not interfere with private schools The end
of education is happiness or contentment of
the individual. Helps considers education
under four heads- (1) religious, which lie
recognizes must be sectarian, but should not
exclude tolerance and open-mmdedness , (2) in-
tellectual, which should be a tiainmg in mental
power through emphasis on accuracy, atten-
tion, logic, and method, and many-sided pur-
suits as a general basis in an age of increasing
specialization; (3) moial, in which the child
shall be trained to moral independence bv
good examples; (4) physical, including ventila-
tion and food, clothing, and bodily freedom
The education of women should be like thai
of men for the improvement of mental po\ver,
without any fear that similar education \\oiild
lead to similar results in the two sexes

References : —

])t(fionar}/ of National Biography

HELPS, SIR ARTHUR Frund» in Council, a <SV;/<s of

Reading? and Duscuurbts thereon Now <-cl

(London, 1KSO )

HELSINGFORS UNIVERSITY — See

FINLAND, EDUCATION IN

HELVETIUS, CLAUD ADRIEN 07i:>
1771) — Son ol John Claud Adnen Helvetius,
and descended from a famous family of phy-
sicians He showed small aptitude ior stmh
in early life, but was fond of reading, and, in
course of an apprenticeship in finance, amused
himself by writing verse and cultivating social
graces Into mathematics and poetry he
made numerous excursions, without, howevei,
achieving marked distinction, while in philoso-
phy his famous work, De T Esprit (17r>S).
consumed the greater part of seven years of
work.

His icputation as a thinkei icsts on the
work above referred to, which created a grcal
furore when it appeared, though its merits do
not warrant the attention it received The
chief points which he set himself to itlustiatc
and enforce are these (1) all the mental
faculties are leducible to physical sensation,
sentience, or feeling, (2) self-love, or self-
interest, is the motive of all judgment, action,
and affection, there is no such tiling as liberty
of choice or abstract right , custom (/ e
practical advantage) explains all out particulai
ideas of justice and moral worth, (3) the
differences of personality 01 character among
men depend on the inequalities of intellectual
attainment due to education, and inasmuch
as all are equally susceptible of education, we
owe all we are to that cause, (4) all talent,
therefore, all taste, imagination, and genius,
are only paiticularly successful forms of the
chances which enable some to gratify their
instincts by means of education more easily
than others \ \\oik entitled l)e /'//(;/// ntc, <l<
.srs Faculte^ intellect uelle^ et <U *<>n Ediuation,
\\as discoveied aftri his death among his pa-

HENDERSON COLLEGE

HENRY VI

pera and published in 1772 It forms a sort
of supplement to De V Esprit

Diderot (qv) had no difficulty in refuting
these positions, which, as one critic has said,
were all contradicted by the actual practice
and life of their author On two points his
posthumous essay touched directly on educa-
tion, namely in Sections I and X, where he
expatiates, in a paradoxical way, on the
potency of education and on the necessity of
making all education, including that of the
church, subject to the civil power. His doc-
times, however, have not stood the test of
experience and criticism, indeed, they are now
thoroughly discredited Legislation, upon
which Helvetius relied to act the benevolent
u)le of securing all the moral and educational
goods for the people which they needed to
make them contented and happy, has not
proved the panacea he expected it would
Besides, he here argues in contravention of his
fundamental theory that self-love is the motive
of welfare " The substance of what he pro-
poses is better than the grounds on which Ins
proposals rest" (Ueberweg) H D

References : —

COMPAYRE History of Pedagogy, pp. 327 f
C'OUHIN (JMuvres, Vol 11
DIDKHOT Eniydoirfdic (in loco)

HENDERSON COLLEGE, ARKADEL-
PHIA, ARK — A coeducational institution
established in 1890 under the auspices of the
Methodist Episcopal Church, South Aca-
demic, collegiate, music, and art departments are
maintained Fourteen units of high school work
are required foi entrance to the college courses
which lead to the degree of A B There is a
faculty of seventeen instructors

HENDRIC COLLEGE, CONWAY, ARK

A coeducational institution opened under
its present title in 1SS9 under the auspices of
the Methodist Episcopal Church, South An
academy is maintained in addition to the
college The requiiements for admission to
the college are fourteen units of high school
work The college offers two groups of studies,
classical and Latin-scientific, both leading to
the A H degree There is a faculty of ele\en
members The college lias a productive en-
dowment of $300,000, and a plant valued at
$100,000.

HENKLE, WILLIAM DOWNS (1828-1881)

— Superintendent oi public schools, received
his school training in the Springfield (Ohio)
High School and Wittenberg College He was
principal of secondary schools in Ohio (1848-
1854), superintendent of schools at Richmond
and Salem, Ohio (1854- 1804), and State Supei-
intendent of Public Instruction in Ohio (1804-
1871) Author of a series of mathematical
te\tbooks W. S M

HENRY VI, KING OF ENGLAND (1421-
1471) --Henry VI, far more than Edward VI,
deserves to be remembered as the founder of
English schools and as an eminent promoter,
though by no means creator, of English edu-
cation Like his successoi, the boy-king suf-
fered personally from overeducation. On June
1, 1428, his education, which since 1424 had
been in the hands of Dame Alice Boteler, was
transferred from the lady to Richard Earl of
Warwick and Albemarle " Whereas," says a
wilt of Privy seal in French, "it is expedient
that in our youth we should be taught and m-
docti mated in bons meures httrure langagc c
nor tare el rourtoixw ct autres vertw et enscignc-
n tents" which articles in English annexed
translate ^ " nurture, lettrure (i e grammar),
language and other manere of connyng," and,
above all, " de naus faire traire a vertues at et-
ch aer vices, to draw us to vertues and to es-
chewing of vices " Therefore the earl was
given power "if we estrange ourselves fiom
learning or do wrong to reasonably chastise us as
other princes of our realm and of other realms
are accustomed to be chastised " lie must
have found the young king a difficult pupil to
flog, as four years later, on Nov 29, 1432, when
the king was eleven years old, the earl laid
before the Council a seiies of articles In one
he said that the King " is growen in stature of
his person and also in conceit and knowlech of
heigh and royal authontee and estat, the which
naturally caiisen him, and from day to day as
he groweth shall causen him more and more4 to
grucche [grudge] with chastising and to lothe
it " So he asked, not to leave off chastising
him, but for the support of the Council in doing
it, and in appeasing any indignation the King
might feel against him for doing it, with power
to remove those whom he knew " at pait and
in pnve not hering ye said Eile " who had
"stured" him "from his lernyng " He ob-
tained a promise that the whole Council would
toll the King that it was their advice that he was
chastised for his "defaultos," so that "foi awe
thereof he forbere ye more to do mys and en-
tended ye more busily to vertue and to lern-
yng " The Council agreed That Henry did
not resent the Spartan training which Warwick
thought necessary is shown by his making his
quondam tutor and chastiser Duke of Warwick,
the first duke in England not of royal blood
His experience of the Palace School, being
brought up with the young nobles, an arrange-
ment almost certainly made in imitation of the
Casa (Jiocosa established by Gonzaga, the
Marquis of Mantua, for his son and his nobles'
children under Vittonno da Feltre in 1423, was
no doubt largely responsible for Henry's foun-
dation of Eton College (q v ) within view of his
birthplace and favorite residence at Windsor
Castle, and its including, besides the original
•twenty-five, afterwards seventy scholars, twenty
sons of noblemen Eton, though by no means
the first or the last of Henry's educational

248

HENRY VI

HENRY, JOSEPH

foundations, was the1 greatest and that to
which he gave most personal attention One
of the earliest fellows of Eton, John Blakman,
lecords how he took special care in the
selection of the fellows, and how he always
noticed the bovs when they came for leave
out to any of the court at Windsor, giving
them a " tip" or " small present of money "
and telling them to be good boys His
father, Henry V, had designed to endow a
college at Oxfoid greater than all the existing
colleges, for the " Seven Liberal Sciences " out
of the Alien Priories (q v), suppressed because
of their supplying smews to French houses
during the Hundred Years' War. Henry, 01
lather the Duke of Bedford, the Regent oi
Fiance in his name, had already established a
university at C/aen in 1432, at first only for
civil and canon law, which was not allowed at
Pans, but extended after the English were ex-
pelled from Pans to theology and medicine, in
the hope of keeping the subjects of the English
King away from Pans In 1441 anothei uni-
versity was established for Henry's southern
dominions at Bordeaux The royal college
ol St Nicholas, commonly called King's Col-
lege at Cambridge, was provided by Henry's
own act on Fob 12, 1441, and built with his own
money at Cambridge for a rector and twelve
fellows, to be later enlarged to a provost and
seventy fellows arid brought into organic con-
nection with Eton in 144,3. In 1146 he
founded a second college1 at Cambridge, called
St Bernard's, for a provost and four fellows,
changed in the following year into the Queen's
College of St Margaret and St Bernard, with
his wife Margaiet of Anjou as petitionei
patroness arid foundress, now called Queens'
College because refounded and enlarged in
147,") by Elizabeth, queen of Henry's "tiaitoi "
Edward IV The College of (iod's House at
Cambiidge was absorbed into Christ's Col-
lege, founded in 1440 on a petition to Henry,
to provide learned masters foi grammar
schools, the first secondary training college
created ad hoc was perhaps inspired by him
But the great Oxford College of this epoch,
Magdalen, owes its origin to Henry, and it
was founded in 1448 by William of Wayne-
flcte, whom he had taken from the headmaster-
ship of Winchester to be provost and organizer
of Eton, and then made Chaucellei of the King-
dom and Bishop of Winchester Wayneflete
improved on the example of Henry and of
Wykeham by attaching to his college not merely
one school, now known as Magdalen College
School, at Oxford, but another at his native
place, Wamfleet in Lincolnshire Another col-
lege at Oxford, Oriel, founded a century earlier,
received augmentation from Henry in the
shape of scholarships for boys of Eton and also
in the attachment of similar scholarships of the
new school founded by him in London, in St;
Anthony's Hospital m Threadneedle Street,
that " alien priory " being converted into a

secular hospital, and new endowments for the
school planted in it being given in 1441.
Henry's example was followed by the founda-
tion of ten colleges and schools at Newport
Salop, by Thomas Draper in 1442, by Arch-
bishop Kemp in Wye College, Kent (now an
Agricultural College) in 1447, by augmentation
of Fothermghay College, Northamptonshire,
by Richaid Duke of York in 1440, by the col-
lege of chantry at Towcester, Northampton-
shire, by Archdeacon Sporine Sept 4, 1447.
There were also founded the gild grammar
school at Deddmgton in 1445, the chantry gram-
mar school at Wokingham, Berks, by Adam do
Moleyns, Dean of Salisbury, in the same yeai,
the chantry grammar school of Robert CJryn-
dour, notable for being " half-free," at New-
land, Gloucestershire, in 1440, the gild school
at Clare, Suffolk, by Richard, Duke of York, in
the same year, the double chantry schools, of
grammar and song, at Alnwich by the Earl of
Northumberland, and his brother William of
Alnwich, Bishop of Lincoln, in 1445; the chan-
try school at Great Baddow, Essex, in 1449,
the gild school at ("hipping Norton in 1451
The troubles that then ensued, arising from
Henry's melancholic insanity and the Wars of
the Roses, cut short the progress of education
and the foundation of colleges and schools for
twenty years But even so the educational
record of Henry VI's reign eclipses that of any
other reigns but those of Edward 111 and
Henry V11I, and Henry's own personal share
in it was greater than that of any English king

A F L

See ALIEN PRIORIES; CAMBRIDGE UNIVER-
SITY, ENDOWMENTS; ETON COLLEGE

Reference : —

Leach, A F English Schools at the Reformation (Lon-
don, 18%)

HENRY VIII, KING OF ENGLAND (1491-
1547) and EARLY TUDOR EDUCATION —

See MONASTIC EDUCATION, REFORMATION AND
EDUCATION ; also GRAMMAR SCHOOLS

HENRY, JOSEPH (1799-1878) — First sec-
retary of the Smithsonian Institution (q v )
He was self-educated, and for several years
private tutor in the family of Stephen van
Rensselacr (q v ) He was instructor in mathe-
matics at the Albany Academy (1820-1832);
professor at Princeton University (1832-1867):
and first secretary of the Smithsonian Institu-
tion (1867-1878).* He was one of the founders
of the American Association for the Advance-
ment of Science (qv), and made extensive
researches m the field of electrical science
His published works include Philosophy oj
Education (1856), Lectures on Physic* (1844),
and two volumes of scientific papers published
by the Smithsonian Institution after his death
(Washington, 1880) W S M.

See SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION

249

HENRY KENDALL COLLEGE

HERBART

References .

[[\dKM4N, ,1 I1' /ti^lnn/ of J'nn«ton and it* I unit-

lafioni ( I'lnliidrlphiii, 1S79 )
Mcmorvd of Jomph /I tun/ (Washington, 1880 )

HENRY KENDALL COLLEGE, TULSA,
OKLA — A coeducational institution estab-
lished originally at Muskogee, Indian Terri-
tory, in 1894 It was moved to its present
location in 1907, and is under the auspices of
the Presbyterian Synod of Oklahoma Aca-
demic, collegiate, music, art, and expression
departments are maintained The entrance
requirements are sixteen units Classical and
scientific courses are offered, leading respec-
tively to the A B. and B S degrees, arid
preparation is given for the study of medicine,
law, and teaching, as well as the ministry and
mission work. There is a faculty of twelve
members

HERACLITUS (r 535-475 B c ) -- Known
as "the weeping philosopher," in contrast with
Democritus, " the laughing philosopher " He
was a pupil of Xenophanes, and, like him, was
interested in the physical explanation of the
universe His fundamental teachings were that
fire is the primordial element, that all material
things are in a continual flux and reflux of
becoming and perishing, and that the harmony
and unity of nature consist in its multiplicity
and diversity His teaching was materialistic
and pantheistic, and anticipated many of the
conclusions of modern science and philosophy
He is regarded as the founder of metaphysics,
and has been held in especial reverence by the
Stoics and Hegelians, His school numbered
many disciples, the chief of whom was Cratylus,
the teacher of Plato Of his work On Nature
only a few fragments remain W R

References —

BYWATEH, I Hcrcuhli Ephesii Reliquiae (Oxford,

1877 ) t

Efi( //< lopedia BrdanriHa, sv Hcrachtux
PA TRICK, Ci W T Fragments of the Work of Herach-

tuu (Baltimore, 1880 )

HERBART, JOHANN FRIEDRICH (1776-
1S41) — German educator and philosopher;
born at Oldenburg, May 4, 1776 His father
was a councilloi, his mother an extraordinary
woman who learned Greek with her son under
his tutor in order to supervise his studies the
more effectively The boy Herbart was pre-
cocious and ambitious in his learning, devoted
to mathematics, and talented in music At
eleven he began logic, and at twelve meta-
physics, while the gymnasium of his native
town, which he entered after he had already
attacked these subjects under his tutor, pro-
vided him with additional opportunities for
the study of his beloved philosophy and of
physical science From the gymnasium Her-
bart proceeded as a student to the University
of Jena, there to fall under the spell of the

250

fresh and dominating thought of the idenh.sl
philosopher Kichte (q v )

The influence of Fichte upon Herbait was
profound, but it was not long before the pupil
departed from his master on the principles of
idealism and freedom Herbart came quickly
to the conclusion that man is not free in the
sense of possessing a principle independent of
circumstances and environment, and reverted
also to the doctrine of Kant, that behind and
underlying the world of appearances there is a
plurality of real thmgs-in-thcmselves that are
independent of the operations of mind upon
them. Herbart thus became the founder of
modern philosophical Realism, as contrasted
with the Idealism which denied the existence
of things-m-thcmselves independent of any
form of consciousness Broader arid deeper
grew Herbart's devotion to philosophy, but it
soon became complicated with another interest,
education In 1796 Herbart left Jena to be
tutor to the sons of the governor of Inter-
laken, a duty which he appears to have fulfilled
with rare conscientiousness and skill It was
his own experience, coupled with his philo-
sophical thought, that already suggested to him,
hrst, the enormous importance of cultivating
a many-sided interest, secondly the value of
the Odyssey as the point of contact in the
early fellowship between pupil and teacher,
and thirdly the idea of a method that should
combine education and instruction without the
subordination of either motive to the other

In 1790 Herbart paid a visit to Peatalozzi
(q v ) at Hurgdorf , but in the same year decided
to abandon his post as tutor, which various
events had combined to render untenable, and
to devote himself anew to philosophy with a
view to teaching it in a university At this
time, too, he had thoughts of the reformation
of schools, and wrote Idea* for an Educational
Curriculum for Higher Schools and a criticism
upon Pestalozzi's How Gertrude teaches her
(Children, and Idea of an ABC of Senxe-
Perception. The emphasis of Herbart at this
time was especially upon the use of mathe-
matical forms to correct the undisciplined
observations of the eye

In 1802 Herbart 'departed to Gottingen,
where he received his degree of doctor and
began to teach education and philosophy
Those were troublous times in Germany, but
Herbart remained faithful to the intellectual
life, and put forth work after work of so
finished and original a quality that in 1809 he
was paid the high compliment of a call to the
chair of Komgsberg, previously rendered so
illustrious by Kant At Konigsberg Herbart
developed his psychological theories and trans-
ferred his educational efforts from the specu-
lative to the practical atage by the foundation
of a pedagogical seminary This institution
developed into a training college and school m
which the mathematical instruction was given
by Herbart in person; but its activities were

HERBART

HERBART

unfortunately interrupted by the departure
of its founder for (Jottingen in 1833, owing to
the hostility of the Prussian government of
the day to democratic ideas and academic
freedom At Gottingen he continued to lec-
ture and write on education and philosophy
to within two days of his death.

Herbert's Educational Views — Herbart was
convinced that, although many elements are
spoken of as entering into the end or aim of
education, yet its one and whole work may
be summed up under the concept morality
Since the days of Kant, it was recognized that
the first thought which this concept suggests
is the good will Herbart reacted against the
current idea that this good will has only to
express itself spontaneously in the pupil On
the contrary, he maintained, the good will
may and must be cultivated in the child by
the teacher Morality is for the teacher a
natural event, which has its causes like other
natural events This appeared to Herbart to
rule out of court the idea of a transcendental
freedom of the will which makes it independent
of the causes acting upon it. " Not the
gentlest breath of transcendental freedom must
be allowed to blow through ever so small a
chink into the teacher's domain " Herbart
perceives that, if this be so, another ground
than that which is generally accepted, that is
to say, a ground other than either utility or
external command, must be found for morality.
He finds it in aesthetic necessity We have an
original, absolutely independent aesthetic judg-
ment, self-evident, and of peculiar nature,
which gives us the sense of duty Education
will attempt to properly exercise this judgment,
and therefore cultivate the good will by a
revelation of the whole known world and
every known age Full knowledge is thus the
ground of virtue. Instruction will guide the
two courses of knowledge and sympathy to
the highest ground of their union

General Principles — Herbart as a student
of philosophy and history was thoroughly
acquainted with the educational works of
Locke and Rousseau. He regarded the ideas
of Rousseau as theoretical and doctrinaire:
those of Locke as worldly Rousseau would
educate a natural man, Locke a conventional
man; but it would be as difficult to train a
natural man as it would be for the natural
man to live in actual society when trained,
while the conventional education of Locke
would involve too easy an acceptance of the
life of the man of the world. " Conventional
education seeks to prolong existing evils ;
' natural * education means to repeat if pos-
sible from the beginning the succession of evils
already overcome " The principal method of
conventional education is intercourse by con-
versation and travel, of natural education
experience; but the emphasis which Herbart
believed to be the most important was on
instruction.

Herbart was the first to perceive that edu-
cation was thoroughly worthy to be a science
of itself, and not a mere department of philoso-
phy. Education had suffered, as medicine
had suffered, by government as a remote and
tributary province. It needed the eye of
science and a psychology in which the total
possibilities of human activity might be
sketched out a priori. Nevertheless the indi-
vidual can only be discovered by the educator,
not deduced. The fundamental necessities m
pedagogy are education through instruction,
involving discipline (Zuchi) as a part of itself
and not as an external force, and science and
mental force

Herbart's Use of the Odyssey — Education
through instruction, with morality as its aim,
involves the presentation to boys of such men
as they themselves would like to be Yet
this presentation should not be made .spo-
radically, but in the midst of a long series of
other means of education. It must not be
spun out of the teacher's imagination, which is
not ideal or poetic. The only place in liteia-
ture where the ideal vehicle for the education
of boys is to be found is the classical age of
childhood among the Greeks Here the Odys-
sey stands first; and again and again Herbart
recurs to the Odyssey, which he actually used
in this manner, at first as a tutor, and after-
wards in the training college at Konigsberg, as
the fittest starting-point for school education
The Odyssey elevates the pupil without de-
pressing the teacher, and assists the boy in
his task of recapitulating the great development
of humanity.

Many-sidedness and the Method of Instruc-
tion. — Herbart perceived that the concen-
tration which is the essential method of
the cultivated man may become so exclusive
as to falsify every other impression except
that which is habitual To avoid this dan-
ger, the educated mind should be many-
sided. But can this be, without the destruc-
tion of the personality of the individual ?
Herbart was convinced that this opposition is
overcome in the act of reflective thought,
since the object reflected upon depends upon
personal choice, while the power of reflecting
comes largely through seeing many sides of a
situation Reflective thought is welcomed by
the teacher; it is in fact hib mam reliance
The necessary steps in producing it in the
pupil are according to Herbart's own analysis
four — clearness, association, system, and
method The followers of Herbart have
adopted these steps, now modified into five,
as the formal basis which may ordinarily be
used in the subdivision of a lesson period (the
formal steps of method) According to this
plan, the teacher at first assists the pupil to
clearly distinguish his ideas, after which he
presents the new material, which is subse-
quently associated and applied Herbart did
not distinguish the formal steps of method

251

HERBART

HERBART

with the precision and finality that have been
claimed by his followers; on the contrary, the
steps were to him the factors m the process of
thinking rather than the logical subdivisions
of a lesson period The formal steps are useful,
however, in many lessons whose primary
object is to impart theoretical information;
while the analysis at present most in favor
is into preparation, presentation, association,
generalization, and application.

Interest. — The place of interest in educa-
tion had never been satisfactorily determined
before Herbart, and his analysis, while not
final, is still probably the best we have. In-
terest is the one emotion which assists rather
than retards the operations of reason It
normally involves the process of observation,
expectation, demand, and action In general it
depends upon knowledge and sympathy; that
is to say, knowledge of the manifold, of its law,
and its aesthetic relations, and sympathy
with humanity, society, and the relation of
both to the Highest Being

Herbart perceived that the idea of many-
sidedness, unless limited in some way, might
lead the teacher to encourage a pupil merely
to dabble in many external things In order
to prevent the loss of unity that would result
from such a method, he preferred to recom-
mend to the teacher the cultivation of an
internal many-sidedness only, that is to say, a
rnany-sidedness of interest Interest is like
desire, will, and the moral judgment in being
opposed to indifference; but it differs from
these faculties in that it does riot control its
object, but depends upon it Interest can be
controlled by the educator, because it depends
on its object, which the teacher can determine
at least in part Through interest the teacher
can control the allied processes of observation,
expectancy, demand, and action The teacher
will not hesitate to control the interests of
children.

Instruction — Experience gives knowledge,
intercourse gives sympathy; and to attempt
to dispense with these factors in education
would be to give up daylight for candlelight
But experience and intercourse arc not in the
power of the teacher, besides, they are often
wearisome Instruction is in his power, and
need never be tedious It penetrates more

tent, instruction when analyzed should be
found to have covered the fields of empiricism,
sympathy with mankind, speculation, taste,
sympathy with society, and religion

Character. — The seat of character is the
will, regarded not in its occasional moods of
caprice, but in its firmer and more uniform
operations There is a difference between the
will of a child previous to reflection and the
will of a man after reflection The former kind
of will is more easily educated, while it still
remains for the latter to give the ultimate
settlement and sanction It is characteiistic
of the will that it reappears as the same, as if
it had a memory Self-contemplation further
develops and establishes this unity, and creates
what is called principle But principle can
never fully include the objective parts of
character, and consequently every character is
more or less subject to inward conflict.

None the less, the foundation of the moral
life is in " a sober, clear, firm, and determinate
judgment " It is this alone which can be
trusted to control action For human activity
depends in the first instance on the circle of
human desires, which are indeed partly sen-
suous, but partly determined by intellectual
interests. We cannot desire what we are
utterly ignorant of. Great moral significance
is therefore attached to the circle of ideas
" The circle of thought contains the store of
that which by degrees can mount by the steps
of interest to desire, and then by means of
action to volition " By this route even moral
training brings us back to the method of
instruction " Instruction will form the circle
of thought, and the circle of thought the char-
acter " A firmly established circle of thought
is essential to moral strength of character, and
is generally preferable to an extreme mobility
which tends toward the frivolous and the new
In a normal boy the strength of character
which is a resultant of fixed ideas is not of a
lund to oppose too strong a resistance to the
phmt^power of education. The essential
principle>o£ Herbart's theory of education is
the dependence of the character upon knowl-
edge. " Great moral energy is the result of
broad views, and of whole unbroken masses of
thought/'

Discipline. — " Direct action on^ihe youth-

deeply into the mind than either experience or —fat mind with a view to form is discipline "

intercourse; and concentrates all the objects
of human interest in the bosom of the young
To the pupil experience and intercourse
should flow more fully from his teacher than
from the life around him " Instruction must
universally point out, connect, teach, philoso-
phize. In matters appertaining to sympathy

Herbart viewed discipline as continuous treat-
ment which does not ordinarily resort to
rewards and punishments, but which does so
only occasionally and then for emphasis. It
must not be monotonous; it must cooperate
in the formation of the circle of thought It
must involve mental as well as physical

it should be observing, continuous, ^le-VAtim^ activity, for both are healthy; above all, it
active in the sphere of reality " H6rbart was^Hiust involve the habit of work of every kind
convinced that "filling the ,jniadLll^is the /Discipline will gradually disappear after the
first duty of the teacher, because it ifr'Hke cruder forms of government have already been
content of the mind that regulates behavior, abandoned in relation to the child It vanishes
In order to create a satisfactory mental con- as the youth comes to the stage where he takes

252

HERBART

HERBART

over the control of his own education; while
the work of instruction still goes forward to
its goal in the formation of character

Herbart's Philosophy and Psychology. — In
philosophy Herbart began as a disciple of
Fichte; by whom he was greatly fascinated,
but his independent and critical spirit soon
caused him to abandon the extreme idealistic
position and to return to the original theory
of Kant. \gfi---4Wicepted and developed the

Kantian ^.jtUttdlsm between the real and the
rational Ultimate reality consisted for him
in a number of reals which give rise to the
world of appearances by their self-preservations
against one another. The soul is meta-
physically one such real, without parts or
faculties , but its reactions for self-preservation
give rise to the appearance of presentations
which become clarified as ideas. The ideas
act as forces, the mind itself is a series of
masses of them, each mass rising or falling
from the threshold of consciousness according
to its groupings and consequent trains of
association It is characteristic of the psy-
chology of Herbart that the unit of mental
activity is the idea , so that will, desire, interest,
and feeling are all of them grounded in some
sort of intellectual activity In this way the
psychology of Herbart supports in the most
logical manner his emphasis upon instruction
and upon the importance of the circle of
thought for the formation of character. The
ideas, as it were, are at strife with one another
for the possession of the foreground of con-
sciousness They resist one another, and in
this act of resistance each is changed into an
effort to present itself When hindrances are
removed, the ideas will present themselves
The implication of this theory of mental
activity for education is the supreme signifi-
cance of the formation of right, strong, un-
impeded groups of ideas For the ideas are
regarded as combining with one another, or
attacking one another, according to mechanical
laws that are subject to mathematical deter-
mination, after the parallel of the laws that
govern the interaction of molecules according
to the atomic theory of chemistry

Because of his elimination of innate facul-
ties from psychology, his use of mathematical
processes, his insistence upon the need of
empirical studies of psychological fact, and his
thoroughgoing associatiomsm, with its neces-
sary emphasis upon " apperception " (q v )
and interest, Herbart is regarded as one of
the greatest psychologists of modern times
Because of his critical ability and the lucid
conscientiousness of his logical deductions, and
because he led a reaction against metaphysical
idealism, in which he has been followed by such
philosophers as Benekc and Lotze (qq v.), he is
equally preeminent among modern meta-
physicians.

Herbart's Educational Works — The prin-
cipal educational works of Herbart are Ideen

zu einem p&dagogischen Lchrplan fur holier c
Studien (1801), an essay on Pestalozzi's Wic
Gertrud ihre Kinder lehrt (1802), a criticism of
Pestalozzi's Idee eines ABC der Anschauung
(1802), Die aestfietische Darstellung der Wdt ah
das Hauptgcschdft der Erziehung (1804), Stand-
punkt der Beurtheilung der Pentalozzischen
Unternchtsmethode (1804), Allgemeine P&da-
gogik (1806), Erziehung unter ojfenthcher Mit-
wirkung (1810), Uber (he d ankle Seite der
Padagogik (1812), Das Verhaltniss der Schule
zum Leben (1818), Brief e ubei Anwendung da
Psycfwlogie auf die Padagogik (1831), Da.s
Verhbltnms des Idealism us zui Padagogik (1831),
Umriss padagogischer Voilesungen (1835), Urn-
nss der allgemeinen Padagogik (1841) Of
these the most important are the Allgemeirie
Padagogik and Umnsa p&dagogixcher Vorle sun-
gen The principal works of Herbart are
accessible in English translations, under the
titles of The Science of Education, translated
by H. M. and E Felkm, Outline of Pedagogical
Doctrine, A F. Lange and C De Garmo (Neu
York, 1901), Herbart's ABC, of Seme- Percep-
tion and Introductory Works, W. J Eckoft
(New York, 1896), Application of Psychology
to the Science of Education, B C Mulhnei
(New York, 1898), Letters and Lecture^ on
Education, Felkm In addition Herbart's 7V r/-
book of Psychology, translated by M K. Smith
(New York, 1894), should be consulted for an
understanding of the ultimate and funda-
mental principles of his theory, which is hubod,
however, as much upon the results of his own
experience as the logical implications of Ins
philosophy and psychology P R. O

See ABILITY, GENERAL AND SPECIAL, CON-
CENTRATION; CORRELATION : CULTURE EPOCHS ,
METHOD, GENERAL, STOY, ZILLER, etc.

References : —

ADAMS, J Herbarhan Psychology applied to Education
(Boston, 1906 )

BARTHOLOMAI, F Herbart's Pddagogiathe Schnften
(Larigcnsalza, 1840 )

COLE, P R Herbai t and Froebel, an Attempt at Syn-
thesis (New York, 1907 )

OOMPAYRE, G Herbart and Education try Instruction
Tr by M E Findlay (New York, 1907 )

DARROCH, A Herbart and the Herbartian Theory of
Education, a Criticism (London, 1903 )

DAVIDSON, T A New Interpretation of Herbart' « Psy-
chology and Educational Theory through the Phi-
losophy of Leibniz (Edinburgh, 1906 )

DE GAKMO, C Herbart and the Herbartians (New
York, 1895 )

DODD, C I Introduction to the Ilerbartiar Principles
of Teaching (London, 1898 )

FELKIN, H M and E Science of Education (Lon-
don, 1892 )

GOCKLER, L La Pedagogic de Herbart, Exposi et
Discussion (Pans, 1905 )

HAYWARD, F H The Secret of Herbart (London,

1904)

and THOMAS, F E The Critics of Herbart. (Lon-
don, 1903 )

LANG, O H Outlines of Herbart's Pedagogy, with a
biographical Introduction (New York, 1894 )

McMtJRRY, C A Elements of General Method
(Bloommgton, 1898)

National Herbart Society. Yearbook (Bloommgton,
1895-1899 )

253

HERBART SOCIETY

HERDER

oiir P J/i limit, I'lvlntozzi, und <hr h(uti{fen

\nfunlHnrlu Krztthnnaxlttm (Stuttgart, 1S99 )
O-m.KMANN, W Die hnuptwt hiuhxh // Intihncr dtr

If( ih(itt*ch( i Pvycholoyit und ihu ixtd<i{/o(jinrhen

Konntqntnzrn (OldrnlmrK. 1SS7 )
8roHHEL, E Dar*tellnn{j, Kutih, und padayogixehe

Bedeutitnf/ dci Htrbnrtwhen Psychologic (Leipzig,

1907)
UFER, C. Introduction to the Pcdaf/oov of Ilerbart.

(Boston, 1S94 )
WAGNER, K Die Prans d(r Herbartwner; der Ausbau

und gcouiw&rhgt Stand d-cr H erbartuchen PadaQoQik

(Langeiwalza, 1WO )

HERBART SOCIETY. — The National Her-
bart Society foi the Scientific Study of Educa-
tion was organized at the Denver meeting of
the N K A in 1895 "to study and investigate
and discuss important problems of education
Its members do not subscribe to the doctrine
of any one leader, but seek for fair and thorough
discussion " Professor De Garmo was the
first president, and Professor C A. McMurry
the secretary, the council included President
Butler, Chancellor Elmer E Brown, Professors
John Dewey, Frank McMurry, Wilbur S
Jackman, Levi Seeley, and C. C Van Liew
Yearbooks are published, and discussed at the
annual meetings In 1902 the scope of its
interest was bioadened.and the society became
the National Society for the Scientific Study
of Education, which "contemplates a serious,
continuous, intensive study of educational
problems It stands for no particular creed
or propaganda. In aim and spirit and method
it seeks to be scientific " The Yearbooks are
published by the University of Chicago Press

HERBERT, EDWARD, LORD HERBERT
OF CHERBURY (1583-1648). — One of the
most original thinkers of his time. His views
on education are to be found in the Auto-
biography and in his Dialogue between a Tutor
and his Pupil, which was first printed in 176S
On reaching school age, children should have
an attendant to take care of their manners as
the schoolmaster attends to their learning,
and the two tutors should not interfere with
each other After the alphabet is learned,
then should be studied the shortest and
clearest grammars, e g books (such as Oo-
memus's Janua), in which Latin and Greek
are given in parallel columns. He expresses
disapproval of the logic of wrangling, he
approves the parts of logic which help to
"deduce proofs from firm and undoubted
principles, to distinguish between truth and
falsehood, and to discover fallacies " The edu-
cation of most worth consists m the training in
goodness and virtue, learning and knowledge, as
to which Herbert, like Locke afterwards, regards
virtue as much before learning.

In the Dialogue between a Tutor and his
Pupil the pupil has made himself acquainted
with logic, geography, chronology, and history.
The tutor enlarges on the usefulness of a
knowledge of botany, i e especially of herbs,
on diagnosis of diseases, on astrology and

254

astronomy. The tutor holds that amongst
sciences, mathematics, divinity, and philosophy
are the most important Mathematics is the
most "undoubted and certain" of the sciences.

F W.
References : —

Dictionary of National Biography

LEE, S L , Ed Autobiography of Lord Herbert of
Cherbury (London, 1886 )

Life of Lord Herbert of Cherbury written by himself and
continued to his Death (London, 1887 )

REMUSAT, COUNT C F M DE Lord Herbert of Cher-
bury, sa Vie et scs (Euvres, etc (Pans, 1874.)

HERDER, JOHANN GOTTFRIED (1744-

1803) — One of the most eminent writers of
the classical period of German literature; born
at Morungen, near Konigsbcrg Receiving
the rudiments of learning from his father, a
poor sexton and schoolmaster, he entered
the local Latin school, where the mechanical
methods of teaching left him in a spirit of revolt
which showed itself in his later ideas on educa-
tion. In 1762 he went to the University of
Komgsberg, intending to study medicine, which,
however, he soon deserted for theology and
philosophy He thus came under the influence
of Kant, who led him to study Bacon, Locke,
Hume, and Rousseau. To support himself he
taught in a local school and showed such ability
that he was appointed to the Cathedral School
at Riga, where he gained an insight into the
problems of education and school adminisl ra-
tion (1764-1769) On resigning his position
he visited the most important educational in-
stitutions of France, England, and Germany,
and in a diary which he kept he sketched the
plan of an ideal school, not unlike the modern
Reformgymnasium (see GERMANY, EDUCATION
IN), and later realized by him to some extent in
the Weimar gymnasium For a time he acted
as private tutor and went with his pupil to the
University of Strassburg, where he met Goethe,
through whose influence he subsequently ob-
tained the position of chief pastor and superin-
tendent of schools in the Duchy of Weimar
(1776-1803).

Herder's influence on German thought and
education was profound Although not him-
self a creative poet, he brought about an ap-
preciation of native, original poetry in the
folk-songs of all races. He laid the foundations
of comparative philology and of a comparative
science of religion and mythology In his
greatest work, Ideen zur Phtlosophie der Ge-
schichte der Menschheit (Ideas for a Philosophy
of the History of Humanity (1784-1791), he
developed a magnificent conception of history
as a continuous revelation of the divine spirit
in humanity (See Paulsen, German Education,
Past and Present, p 158 )

Herder was by nature eminently an educator
His occupation with science and literature was
never looked upon by him as an end in itself,
but always as a means of influencing other
minds, arid of social reconstruction through

HEREDITY

HEREDITY

education lit1 worked mdefatigably for the
improvement of the Wennar schools, instituting
a seminary for the preparation of rural teachers,
raising their salaries, and oven writing some
elementary textbooks His chief educational
work, however, was in the held of secondary
education, and there he is prominent as one of
the leaders of the movement known as " Neo-
Humanism " (q v.}.

The standard edition of Herder's works is
that by B Suphan (Berlin, 1877) in thirty-two
volumes The thirtieth volume contains his
pedagogical addresses and articles Some of
the most important of his works, besides those
mentioned above, are his work on the Origin
>>f Language (1772), his collection of popular
poetry, Stimrnen der Volker in Liedern (Voice*
of the Peoples in Songs, 1778-1779), his trans-
lation of the Spanish romances of the (hd
(1805), and his treatise, Vom Geiste der hebrai-
s(hen Poesie (8pmt of Hebrew Poetiy, 1782-
1783) ' F M

References • —

Herder, sein Lebcn und Wirken

(Borlm,

BURKNKU, R

1904 )
FRANCKF, K. History of German Literature (Now

Yoik, 1905)

HAUWHEL, 1} Der Eitiflui* Rou^seaus auf die philovo-
ph i ^ch-/>adunogifteh( n A nxcha uungen Herders (Leip-
zig, 1903)
HAYM, R Herder naeh wincm Leben und Wirh< n

(Berlin, ISSO-ISK.") )
KEFERSTEIN, II J C ]ftrder\t Padagogisch< Mhnften

und Ausseritnacn In Bibliothel jtadagogischer

Kla^iker, Vol 40 (LuiiRensalza, 1902)
KUHNEMANN, E Hfrder, win Leben und Wirken

(Munich, 1S95 )
PAULSBN, FR Gtsehirhtc dex gelehrten Untcrnchts,

Vol II (LoipMK, 1890)
REIN, W Enci/klopadisehea Handbuch der Pddagogik,

8 v Herder

HEREDITY — By heredity is commonly
meant those characteristics which the child
derives from his ancestors It is evident, how-
ever, that these include many qualities that are
transmitted through education Hence the
term has come to be restricted to characteristics
that are derived from the original constitution
of the germ cell from which the individual is
developed In so far as these qualities are
similar to those of the ancestry, they are as-
cribed to heredity; in so far as they are different,
they are denominated variations in heredity

The extent of hereditary similarity between
offspring and ancestry is plainly not revealed
until the child has grown to maturity What,
1 hercfore, is inherited is a tendency on the part
of the germ cell to grow into the forms and
Junctions of its progenitor. During the ex-
pansion of these tendencies they arc in the
higher species, and especially in man, so modi-
fied by environmental influences that it is
difficult to determine how much of the adult
equipment is derived from either source (Sec
ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS.) It is evident
that education or circumstances cannot pro-
duce either genius or unusual talent; nor is it,

as a rule, responsible for physical or menial
deficiencies, although these may result from
disease, imperfect nutrition, accident, etc
On the other hand, there can be little doubt that
the difference between efficiency and incom-
petence, or between morality and immorality,
is in most cases due in whole or in part to train-
ing and to the relative suitability of the condi-
tions of life to the inherited peculiarities of
the individual Thus while education cannot
affect those fundamental characteristics on
which our rating among our fellows depends,
it can develop in most a fairly high degree of
efficiency in some specialty The responsibility
of the agencies for education is, therefore, not
lightened by the fact that there are hereditary
differences which it cannot create nor overcome

It is more easy to compare the function** of
heredity and of education in equipping the
individual, than it is to compare the actual
amount derived from the two sources In
general, heredity gives us a set of powers which
furnish a fairly adequate basis to maintain life
in a variety of conditions It gives capacities
Education, on the other hand, fits us to one
or a few specific conditions. Heredity adapts
to the permanent, education to the transitory
Heredity gives to each generation a capital of
approximately the same amount, leaving to
education to invest this fund in the enterprises
suggested by the circumstances of the mdn id-
ual It follows that there is a line of denmrka-
tion between heredity and education Hered-
ity gives such specific qualities as are a per-
manently useful equipment for the species,
together with the capacity to learn others such
as will be needed to adapt the individual to the
peculiar circumstances of his own life The
acquired characters, on the other hand, arc not
to any extent inherited, since, constituting as
they do adaptations to conditions likely to vary
from age to age and from individual to induid-
ual, their inheritance would be apt to burden
the offspring with many useless, if not positively
injurious traits Thus heredity gives us the
power of speech, but education determines the
language, the style, etc

The higher species find life conditions far
more varied than do the lower ones They
need, in consequence, greater adaptability,
greater capacity to learn To facilitate learn-
ing their heredity consists more largely in im-
perfect instincts or instinctive acts. These
are such as require education in order to be
brought to such a form as to function effectively
In man, as Professor James points out, there
are more instincts than in any other animal,
but they are also more imperfect Such im-
perfect instincts, together with the equipment
of activities which is instinctively utilized to
satisfy them, and the array of other activities
that can be utilized to perfect the mechanism
by which they may be adequately met, con-
stitute the so-called capacities of the indi-
vidual. (See ABILITY )

255

HEREDITY

HEREDITY

Heredity has boon defined as made up of
characteristics derived from the original con-
stitution of the germ cell It should be noted,
however, that such simple forms of reproduction
as the mere division, or fusion of 1hc parent
body, or budding, do not involve specific germ
cells In such cases the offspring is simply
part of the body of the parent, separate d to
assume a form better adapted to the continu-
ance of life and growth In most respects it
resembles the mature organism from whence
it sprang The phenomena of heredity be-
come more complex and striking where there
are special reproductive elements, germ cells,
which begin life in forms quite distinct from
those of the parent, but tend to grow like the
1 utter The specific nature of those qualities
in the germ cell which cause it with growth to
assume more and more the form of the adult
has been a matter of much speculation and
dispute, and to-day the theones on the subject
may be legarded as little more than con-
jectures The oldei idea was that of prefor-
inatum, that is, that a miniature of the adult
exists in the germ cell and could be revealed to
the eye, if our microscopes were sufficiently
powerful This theory contains the evident
truth that the structures of the adult are, at
leist, implicit m the constitution of the germ
cell On the other hand, we have the theory
of epigenesis, according to which the structures
of the adult are a result of the development
and differentiation of the germ cell This
theory may be said to have been fairly well
established by the investigations of Wolff
(1759) upon the development of the chick
Granting the truth of the idea of epigenesis,
the biologist is still confronted with the diffi-
culty of accounting for the regularity with
which a germ cell under normal conditions
differentiates into an adult form that is m the
main a reproduction of that of the parent
What is there in the germ cell that causes the
adult form to be implicit or predetermined in
it? According to one view, which will be re-
cognized as akin to the prcforrnatiomst theory,
the multiplication and differentiation of the
germ cell is simply the separation of quanti-
tatively distinct units, each of which represents
a specific structure in the adult form These
units are supposed to be found in the nucleus
of the germ cell Spencer calls them physio-
logical units, Weismtinn determinants The
theory more commonly held to-day is that the
differentiation of the structures of the adult
form is a result of the various tensions set up
among the multiplying cells, and that these
spring from the physical and chemical or
physiological properties of the nucleus In
these properties the whole of the adult organism
is implicit, very much as the whole of the
geometry is implicit in the definitions, axioms,
and postulates with which the geometer starts
They constitute the plan along the lines of which
growth must tend to proceed, if it goes on at all

256

We have so fai considered the problems thai
arise because of the deposition in a minute and
apparently undifferentiated germ cell of all
the potentialities later revealed in the growth
of the individual There remains the problem
of the source of these hereditary qualities In
this connection we have to consider first the
relation of the germ cells to the body cells of
the parent, second, the results of the union in
the germ cell of a male and a female element,
the sperm cell and the ovum, and third, the
laws that determine the character of the off-
spring

Two theones exist a,s to the relation of the
germ cell to the body cells of the parent Ac-
cording to one, which is typified in Darwin's
notion of pangenesis, all the cells in the body
of the adult contribute minute particles which
enter into the germ cell The latter is there-
fore the creation of the differentiated body
cells, a composite of their Representatives
According to the other theory, the germ cells
are isolated from the body cells, and aie not
influenced by the history of the se AN t he gei in
cell develops, theie is :i sepaiation between
certain cells which lemuiii in a primitive un-
differentiated form as germ cells, and bodv cells
which take the forms apparent in the de\ ( loped
adult Thus the new generation springs front
cells similar to those that gave use to the
parent, and not fiom cells modified by a life
history There is, in the language of WciMiiann,
continuity in the germ plasm, or at least in the
germ cells

The theory of pangenesis is not supported
by the existence of any mechanism eMdent to
the anatomist It is a purely hypothetical
explanation to account for the inheritance of
acquired characters, i e such as are the efiect
of external agencies upon the body cells In-
asmuch as such inheritance is undoubtedly
compai atively slight, and is not demonstrably
existent at all, it would seem that pangenesis
is an improbable explanation of a questionable
fact On the theory of the continuity of the
germ cells, the acquired characters would be,
for the most part, not inherited Only such
general effects of the environment as could
reach the geim cells as well as those of the body,
e g the effects of nutrition, drugs, etc , would
be impressed upon the tissue from which the
new generation takes its rise

Reproduction in the higher organisms usually
involves the union of the sexual elements, known
as amphimixis On the other hand, with ani-
mals as high up in the scale of life as the ar-
ticulates, parthenogenesis, or the development
of the ovum without fertilization, often occurs
Experiments on the sea urchin show that the
ovum of this species may be stimulated by
chemicals so that it will begin to evolve into
an individual If all reproduction were of this
character, the problem of the source of heredity
would be simple On the other hand, am-
phimixis presents a variety of sources from

HEREDITY

HEREDITY

which the hereditary characteristics might spring
Among the earlier biologists some maintained
that these traits all came from the female, the
male element simply stimulating the ovum
to develop, others held that all heredity came
from the male, the ovum contributing merely
nutriment and a favorable environment for
development Both views are now known to
be erroneous The hereditary characters may
come from either parent or from both They
may come from grand-parents and include
traits that have not appeared in the parents
They may even come from moio remote an-
cestors Such cases illustrate what is known
as reversion The reappearance of a trait long
absent from the stock is called atavism Do-
generation is frequently a icsult of reversion
or atavism Where nearly all the characters
of the offspring are derived horn one or the
other parent, the inheritance is said to be ex-
clusive The inheritance of special traits from
either parent is called particulate Particu-
late is opposed to blended inheritance, where
a character in the offspring is a compound of
characters derived from both parents Eye
color usually illustrates particulate inheritance
Stature moie commonly is a case of blended
inheritance1

The great vanety of results thus displayed
in the phenomena of hereditary transmission
suggests the hypothesis of a complicated set
of characters in the germ cells representing
tiaits derived from a great number of ancestral
sources Weismann supposed that the process
of determining \\lnch ot these should make up
the inheritance of any indmdual consists of
a struggle between germinal units \\hich he
called germinal selection The existence of
such selection is not gencially accepted by
biologists It is further evident that the for-
mulation of laws of heredity that will enable one
to forecast the character of the offspring of any
sexual union must be exceedingly difficult
Such laws must cover the phenomena of re-
\eision and atavism, of exclusive, blended, and
particulate inheritance, as well as the liability
to variation from any hereditary character

So far only two laws of heredity have been
worked out with anything approaching mathe-
matical precision Those are Galton 's law
of filial regression and Mendel's laws of inherit-
ance in hybrids Gal ton's law of filial regres-
sion deals with the tendency of the children of
unusual parents to approximate more nearly
to the common type of the family or stock
Thus the average height of the children of
a man and woman both very tall tends, if
allowance be made for the difference in stature
between the sexes, to be below that of either.
This law is an illustration of the tendency to-
ward reversion, and is explained by Galton
as a result of the combination of ancestral in-
fluences in the heredity of the child He holds
that, in general, the hereditary characteristics
are den ved as follows one half from the parents,

one fourth from the grandparents, one eighth
from the great-grandparents, etc It is evident
that this rule does not enable any very reliable
prediction regarding the qualities of any par-
ticular child, but only the average tendency
among a lot of children It explains the fact
that children of people of exceptional ability
are so frequently mediocre The same rule
should also apply to the children of parents
mentally deficient, who should average a better
mentality than their parents

Mendel's laws of inheritance in hybrids enable
a much more definite prediction of the charac-
ter of the offspring than does the law of Galton
It is not known, however, how widely they
apply Where Mendehan heredity exists, the
two parents differ m respect to a certain char-
acteristic Their offspring all resemble one
parent m this quality The trait of this parent
is therefore called dominant, while the opposed
trait of the other parent is called recessive
In the next generation the recessive trait will
appear in one of every four The descendants
of this individual will, if there be no inter-
mixture, possess the recessive trait It breeds
true, or is a pure iecessi\e Of the other three
in this generation of offspring, one, a pine
dominant, will breed true to the dominant
trait, the other two, which may be called im-
pure dominants, will produce offspring divided
as before between dominants and recessive*
in the proportion of three to one The reces-
sives will always breed true One of every
three dominants will do likewise,' while the
other two will be impure dominants, and will
have their offspring divided into one fourth
pure dominants, one half impure dominants,
and one fourth pure recessives Mendel estab-
lished and confirmed his laws by experiments
on varieties of edible peas Tall peas, when
hybridized with dwarfish ones, give a breed in
which the tallness is dominant and the dwarfish
quality recessive Gray mice bied with white
mice give a stock in which grayiiess is dominant
and albinism recessive Mendehan heredity
has been shown to exist m maize, rabbits, silk-
moths, poultiy, etc It has proved useful
as a guide in the breeding of desirable types of
plants and animals

Other laws of heredity, such as that inbreed-
ing strengthens the characteristic traits of a
stock, whether these be desirable or the op-
posite, that it is apt to result in reversions, and
also in diminishing fertility, size, and vigor,
are as compared with Mendel's laws uncertain
and not a safe basis for prediction

As a final point, variations in heredity may
be considered In the offspring traits may
appear which vary from any present in the
ancestry. Sex undoubtedly may favor this
variation Moreover, it is likely that all living
tissue, including the germ cell, has not only the
tendency toward continuity or inheritance,
but also'that toward variation Variations may
be quantitative, " meristic," as variations

VOL. Ill — 8

257

HEREDITY

HERIOT

in size, proportion of parts, etc.; or qualitative,
" substantive," as variations in color, etc.
They may be continuous or discontinuous;
that is, slight, or so revolutionary as to pro-
duce suddenly new types, sports, A variety
that is thus varying is called by De Vnes a
mutating one. He holds that the evolution
of species takes place by such extraordinary
leaps rather than by slow accumulation of
continuous variations under the influence of
selection In this way he avoids the objection
arged against Darwin's view, namely, that
slight chance variations are inadequate to gam
any such advantage in the struggle for existence
as to favor the survival of their possessors
His view ih that evolution takes place by hetero-
genesis or mutation, rather than by the natural
selection of slight chance variations

Another way of avoiding this objection to
Darwin's theory is to suppose that variations
in heredity may not merely be those that occur
bv chance, and so, if slight, incapable without
selection of accumulating into a modification
of types, but also that they may in many cases
naturally tend toward better adaptation, that
is, be orthogenetic

It is likely that the tendency toward ortho-
genetic variation may not be inconsiderable,
and that it leads on to progress without se-
lective influences. E N. H.

References : —

(CONSTABLE, F Poverty and Hereditary C<mus, a
Criticism of Mr Francis Gallon is Th< ory of Herai-
itary Genius (London, 1905 )

DONCASTER, L Heredity in the Light of Recent Re-
search (Cambridge, 1910)
G ALTON, SIR FRANCIH English Men of ticienec, their

Nature and Nurture (London, 1874 )
Hereditary Genius (London, 1892)
Inquiries into the Human Faeulty, and //& Develop-
ment (New York, ]883 )
Natural Inheritance (New York, 1889 )
(iuYAU, J M Education and Heredity (London, 1891 )
HART, B Phases of Evolution and Heredity (Lon-
don, 1910 )
HAYWARD, F N Education and the Hereditary Spectre

(London, 1908 )

HERBERT, S The First Principle* of Heredity (Lon-
don, 1910 )
HILL, G C Heredity and Selection in Sociology

(London, 1907 )
PATTEN, R N Heredity and Social Progress (New

York, 1903 )

PEARHON, K On the Inheritance of the Mental and
Moral Characters in Men Bwmetrika, Vol II, Pt 2
(Cambridge, 1904 )

REID, G A The Law*, of Heredity (London, 1910)
RIBOT, TH Hfredity (London, 1875 )
SALEEBY, C W Parenthood and Cell Culture (Lon-
don, 1909 )
SUMMER, R Farnilienforsehu7ig und Vcrerbungslehn

(Leipzig, 1907 )

THOMHON, J A Heredity (New York, 1908 )
THORNDIKE, E L Educational Psychology (New

York, 1910)
Heredity, Correlations and Sex Differences in Sihool

Abilities (New York, 1903 )
WALKER, C E Hereditary Characters ami their Modes

of Trans m us ton ( London , 1910)

WKISMANN, A Gerrn-plasm, a Theory of Heredity
Tr by W W Parker and Harriet Rdnnfrlclt
(London, 1893 )

WOODH, P A Mental and Moral Heredity in Royally
(London, 1908 )

HEREDITY, SOCIAL. — In the reaction
from the doctrine of the inheritance of acquired
characteristics (q.v ), it became evident that
culture is not transmitted physically or bio-
logically, but through the perpetuation of
social customs and institutions; and that the
individual comes to a personal participation
m the culture of the race only by means of
contact with the abiding social environment
The phrase " social heredity " was coined to ex-
press this indirect method of transmitting the
achievements and acquisitions of the past

See EUGENICS, and the references there given.

Reference : —

N M Meaning of Education. (New York,

258

HERGENROTHER, JOHANN BAPTIST

(1780-1835) — Bavarian educator and direc-
tor of a normal school at Wurzburg Born at
Bischofsheim of a poor artisan family, his
ability attracted the notice of the pastor who
prepared him for the University He entered
the University of Wurzburg and studied theol-
ogy For a time he was curate near Wurzburg
until in 1818, through his eloquence and ability
in imparting religious instruction, he was ap-
pointed Director of the normal school at Wurz-
ourg, attended by students of all denomina-
tions Although himself a Catholic, he en-
deared himself to all by his broad-mi ndedri ess
His work shows almost entirely the influence
of Pestalozzianism, as does also his Erzichungs-
lehre im Geixte dot Chrifttenthums (Theory of
Education in the Sjnrit of Christianity] in which
he discusses educational theory, training, and
method from the religious standpoint In
1832 he was removed from his position for
political reasons and became pastor at Bamberg

Reference : —

REIN, W Eneyklopddisches Handbuch der Padagogd,
ti v Hergenrother

HERIOT, GEORGE (1563-1623) - Foun-
der of the school bearing his name situated m
Edinburgh, Scotland A goldsmith by trade,
he was appointed crown jeweler to King James
VI of Scotland and I of Great Britain On
his death, he bequeathed the bulk of his fortune
for erecting and maintaining a hospital and
for the maintenance, relief, upbringing, and
educating, as far as the means would allow, of
so many poor, fatherless boys, freemen's sons
of the city of Edinburgh The management of
the trust funds was placed in the hands of the
city magistrates and the city ministers Steps
were taken soon after his death to carry out
the testator's wishes, and in 1659 the hospital
was opened with thirty boys At first the
boys were merely housed within the hospital
buildings, receiving their education at the high
ischool of the city, until they were fitted to pro-
ceed either to the university or to enter upon
apprenticeship to a trade. Gradually the m-

HEROIC EDUCATION

HESSUS

struction began to be given by the members
of the hospital staff, until in 1809 it was resolved
that it was no longer necessary for any of the
boys to be educated at the high school. From
that date until 1886 the hospital existed as a
school giving both board and education to a
number of fatherless boys In 1837 the in-
come of the trust was more than sufficient to
maintain the hospital school, and it was re-
solved to open and to maintain a free, ele-
mentary day school for the education of the
children of the poor Gradually, as funds woie
available, additional schools were built, until
in 1872 thirteen schools had been established,
providing free education for over 3500 children
The Education (Scotland) Act of 1872 trans-
ferred the duty of making such provision to
the State In 1886 the boarding system at
the hospital was abandoned, and in its place
each selected applicant for the benefit of the
trust received free education and a mainten-
ance allowance of £20 per annum. The hospital
school has now developed into a large second-
ary school providing an education of a modern
type to over 1200 boys, and carrying its pupils
to the doors of the, universities The benefits
of the trust are now open to girls as well as to
boys In 1886 the governors of the trust
took over the management of the Watt Insti-
tution and School of Aits, an evening school
for the technical instruction of the artisan,
and the transferred school is now known as the
Henot-Watt College Tins institution has
developed into a technical college providing
both day and evening instruction for its pupils.

A. D.
References : —

Dictionary of National Biography

KERR, J Scottish Education, School and University
(Cambridge, 1910 )

STEVEN, W. History of George HcrioCs Hospital;
rovised arid enlarged by Bedford, F W (Edin-
burgh, 1872 )

HEROIC EDUCATION — The title given
to a treatise on gentlemen's education written
by a writer who only signs his initials — IB
— in 1657. I. B. represents that a lady showed
him the treatise when it was only a " confused
heap, without method or embellishment," but
that he recognized that it was " the product
of some great and knowing spirit " He there-
fore edited it and published it with the title*
Hcroick Education, Or Choice Maximex and
Instructions, for the mo it sure and facile training
up of youth, in the ways of eminent learning and
virtues. A Treatise very necessary for all men;
but most especially for such as undertake the
charge, to govern the young Nobility and Gentry.
By I. B Gent P. W.

See GENTRY AND NOBLES, EDUCATION OF.

HERON. — One of the great teachers of tho
Alexandrian School, and the loading engineer
of the Greeks. He was formerly thought to
have lived in the first century B c., but later

investigations have led to the belief that he
flourished in the first century of the Christian
era He was interested chiefly in mensuration,
and his formula for the area of a triangle in terms
of its sides still appears in elementary textbooks
This formula is A = Vs (s — a] (« — b) (<* — r),
in which the sides are a, b, and c, and tho
semiperirneter is « Such a formula would
not have been allowed by Euclid and Ins school,
because it involves the product of four linos
and could not therefore have loprosentod a
solid in three dimensions or a rectangle in t\vo
In physics Heron showed great ingenuity, and
he describes a large number of tovs or models,
some of which have since been utilized in a
practical way These include a steam engine
and a force pump He introduced into the
schools more successfully than any of his pre-
decessors the idea of applied mathematics, and
it is possible that this may have had its in-
fluence in hastening the temporary decline of
pure mathematics, even as a similar mo\ e-
ment in America to-day may bring about such
a result It is more probable, however, that
his attitude was that of the general spirit of the
time, and that the hibernation of pure science
was independent of his efforts D E S

HERRAD — Abbess of Odilienberg or
Hohenburg (1107-1195), born of a noble family
in Alsace It is recorded of her that she pro-
moted studies in the nunnery, and to this end
wrote ihellortus Dehciarum (Garden of Delights),
which, having found its way to the library at
Strassburg, was there burnt in 1870 Extracts
and copies of the illuminations which were in
all probability the work of the abbess herself
remain The Hortus Deliciarurn contained
extracts from the Bible, church histories, church
Fathers, philosophy, astronomy, geography,
nature study, liberal arts, chronology, and
poems and hymns to be sung by the nuns.
The work was intended for the education of
the novices A few excerpts from pagan writ-
ings were also included The illuminations
cover a multitude of subjects to illustrate the
text

References : —

AHgrmcinc Drutbthr Biographic

Catholic Encyclopedia, s v Hcrrad. See also the rof-
oreiK es thorp KIVOII

ENUELHAHDT, (' M Hcrrad von Latidispcrg \n\d

ihr Wcrt Hortui Dchnnrum Tho most valuable
work based on the original (Stuttgart, 1818 )

HERZEGOVINA.

ZEGOVINA

See BOSNIA AND HER-

HESSE-CASSEL. — See GERMANY, EDU-
CATION IN.

HESSE, GRAND-DUCHY OF, EDUCA-
TION IN -- See GERMANY, EDUCATION IN

HESSUS, HELIUS EOBANUS (U88-1540).

-A German humanist, who was admitted to be

259

HEURISTIC METHOD

HEYNE

the best Latin poet of his time He studied
tit the University of Erfurt, and became rector
of the school of St. Severus. From 1517 to
1 526 he was Professor of Poetry and Eloquence
at the university, and was an important figure
in the literary coterie at Erfurt With Ulnch
von Hut ten he joined in the national move-
ment which was associated with the Reforma-
tion, although he seemed to fear that the hu-
manistic tendencies were being pushed on one
side For a short time, 1526-1533, he was
rector of a school at Nuremberg On his re-
turn to Erfurt ho found that the university
had practically ceased to exist before the rapid
rise of Wittenberg In 1 536 he accepted a call
to Mai burg Hessus was a prolific writer, and
showed oqual facility in all branches of verse
Ho translated the Psalms, Koclesiastes, Theo-
critus' Idylls and Homer's Iliad into Latin, and
in imitation of Ovid he wrote Heroides, or letters
from holy women Ho published collections
of his writings as follows Operurn Helu
Knlmni Ilessi Farragmes duw, and Rilvarum
Libn IX (containing the poetical description of
Nuremberg, Urbs Nonberga illastrata Carmine
hrioico) Although recognized as a leader,
IIossus never exorcised much influence on con-
lomporary movements His life and letters
vvc^re issued by his friend Camerarms in 1553

References :

Philologic in

ItruHiA.N, C Gcttchufttc drr

Dcutschlaiul (Munich, 1883 )
KKAUHK, C1 Hrhutt Eobanus Hcssus, snn Leben und

wine Wrrkc (Gotha, 1879 )
>> \NDYS, ,1 E History of Classical Scholarship, Vol. II

(Cambridge, 1908 )

HEURISTIC METHOD —The inductive
method of modern science when applied to the
touching of children is called the heuristic
method The term is current in English peda-
gogy, " inductive method " being more fre-
quently used among American teachers The
command, " never toll a child anything that
ho can find out for himself," expresses the
essential attitude of those who believe in the
heuristic or inductive method It aims to
place the learner in the position of a discoverer
of truth, so that facts and generalizations will
emerge in proper order and relation in the
child's mind Its extreme application implies
that each child will experiment and observe
for himself, thus the teaching of physics and
chemistry may bo conducted by means of
individual experimentation in the laboratory,
demonstration by the instructor being com-
pletely eliminated In its pure form the
heuristic method is seldom used A modified
inductive method that avoids dogmatic teach-
ing without incurring the waste of an extreme
heuristic mode of procedure is current among
all progressive teachers in the elementary
schools, taking such names as " inductive
teaching," " developmental instruction," " lab-
oratory method," and " indirect method."

Such modifications of an extreme heuristic
mode of teaching recognize two important
pedagogical facts. (1) That the child learns
best through his own activities, and (2) that
the pupil may understand many facts without
going through all of the detailed efforts and
failures that have accompanied their original
discovery H S.

See DIRECT METHOD; DEVELOPMENTAL
METHODS, INDUCTIVE METHOD; INVENTIONAL
GEOMETRY, SOCRATIC METHOD.

HEWETT, EDWIN CRAWFORD (1828-

1905). — Normal school principal and educa-
tional writer, was graduated from the Bridge-
water (Mass ) Normal School in 1852 He
was an instructor in the Bridgewater Normal
School, principal of a grammar school at Wor-
cester, and for thirty-two years connected with
the Illinois State Normal School, its pimcipal
from 1876 to 1900 He was active in the
National Education Association; editor of the
Illinois Schoolmaster, the author of a bones of
arithmetics, and of two books on education —
Pedagogy for Young T cache? s (1884) and Ele-
ments of Psychology (1*89). W. S M

Reference : —

COOK, JOHN W Edwin C Hewett Proc NBA for
1905, pp 335-340

HEYNE, CHRISTIAN GOTTLOB (1729-
1812). — One of the foremost classical scholars
in Germany at the close of the eighteenth
century, and a leader in the now humanistic
movement of the period The son of a pool
weaver, Heyne underwent the greatest hard-
ships to secure an education at school and at
the University of Leipzig, where ho came
under the influence of Emesti (q v ) and
Johann Friedrieh Christ. For a time ho
managed to secure a livelihood as assistant
librarian, and then as tutor: until in 1763
Though only known for editions of Tibulluis
and Epictctus, he wras invited to succeed
Gesner (q v ) as Professor of Eloquence at the
University of Gottmgcn. In this position he
transformed the dry, formahstic study of the
classics into a living, vital force, aiming at a
true appreciation of the works of antiquity
through a knowledge of history, antiquities,
and archaeology. Regarding the classics as
the only method of approach to the good, the
true, and the beautiful, Heyno wished in that
way to influence the culture of his time. His
influence was widespread, and from his philo-
logical seminar, the entrance requirements to
which were rigorous and in which the students
received government grants, there came many
future university and school teachers, imbued
with a new attitude towards the classics. But
Heyne also had direct contact with the schools ,
as inspector of the school at Ilfeld he drew
up new regulations in 1770 which reorganized
the curriculum on a basis of Greek, and in

260

HICKOK

HIGH SCHOOL

1798 he performed a similar work for the
gymnasium at Gottingen. Besides his editions
of Tibullus and Epictetus, Heyne published
editions of Vergil, Pliny, Apollodorus, Pindar,
Conon, and Parthenius and Homer's Iliad; in
addition he wrote treatises and essays on a
great variety of subjects collected in six
volumes as Opuscula Academica, and numerous
reviews in the Gottingen Gelehrte Anzeigen, of
which he was the first editor.

References: —

CAKLYLE, THOMAS. Critical and Miscellaneous Essays,
Vol IT, pp 75-114

PAULSBN, FR Oeschichte des gelehrten Unterrichts. (Leip-
zig, 1896 )

SANDYS, J E History of Classical Scholarship, Vol. III.
(Cambridge, 1908 )

HICKOK, LAURENS PERSEUS (1799-
1 888) — Educational writer and college pro-
fessor; graduated from Union College m 1820.
He was for many years professor in the West-
ern Reserve College and the Auburn Theo-
logical Seminary. From 1852 to 1809 ho was
professor in Union College, acting as president
during the collegiate year 1867-1808 His
published works include Rational Psychology
(1849), Moral Philosophy (1853), Empirical
Psychology (1854), Logic of Reason (1875), and
several books on theology. W. 8 M

HIERONYMIANS.

THE COMMON LIFE.

See BRETHREN OF

HIGBEE, ELNATHAN ELISHA (1839-
1889). — State Superintendent of Schools m
Pennsylvania; was graduated from the Uni-
versity of Vermont in 1849 and the Theo-
logical Seminary at Merccrsburg, Pa , in 1852.
He was instructor in academies at Woodstock,
Vt , and Kmmitsburg, Md , and was later
professor in Heidelberg College and the Theo-
logical Seminary at Mercersburg, Pa. He
was state superintendent of public instruction
in Pennsylvania from 1881 to 1889, during
which time he was also editor of the Penn-
sylvania School Journal He was the author of
numerous educational essays. W. S. M.

Reference : —

McCASKY, J P , od Dr. Higbee Memorial Volume.
(Lancaster, Pa , 1890).

HIGH SCHOOL. — The term " high " as
applied to a school, which in these modern days
in England has become almost synonymous
with a high-class secondary school for girls
and in America with a public secondary school,
is one really of very great antiquity, as applied
to a " public " school or grammar school.
Originally of course high schools were exclusively
for boys and youths, or young men, for females
were not so much rigidly excluded as not con-
templated by anyone as admissible or seeking
admission to the " general " or " public " gram-
mar school. The term " high" was in common

use in English for chief or principal, as in the
word "High Street," which had no relation to
steepness, or the Lord High Chancellor of Eng-
land, Summus cancellanus Anglic, as distin-
guished from the Chancellor of the Exchcquci,
the King's chancellor, and not the chancellor
of bishops or other inferior magnates. It was
rendered in Latin indifferently by the woids
summus or altus, and possibly generally and
magnus. In connection with a school one of
the earliest uses of it in England is tin inquny
held at Winchester in October, 1373, in a suit
between William of Wykeham, Bishop of Win-
chester, against the Master of the Hospital of
St. Cross near the city for malversation of the
revenues of the hospital. It was then given in
evidence that among the hundred poor, who
according to the foundation and ancient custom
were every day entertained at dinner in the
" Hundredmennehair' of the hospital were 13
poor scholars of the grammar school, sent by
the master of the High Grammar School of the
city (magistrum suunne scole gramaticaln civi-
tatis Wyntonie). The witnesses take this cus-
tom back in their own knowledge to 1313, and
if it did not date to the actual foundation in
1130, it was at least not later than the sccondai v
foundation or augmentation of the hospital in
1200 In a "Tarrage" or assessment of land
in the city of Winchester, for the maintenance of
its walls in the early part of the reign of Richaul
II, c. 1377, appears the item "From the High
School" (Dc alia scola), V2d and on the back is
written " From the master of the High School "
(De magistro alte scole), followed by a blank,
apparently showing that he had not yet paid,
and "From Sir John of the same place fid "
The Sir means that John was a priest and piob-
ably usher of the school, who paid half its assess-
ment. This school was the old city grammar
school which was the subject of a lawsuit re-
ported in John of Sahbhui v's letters about 1155,
and no doubt the same ah tint to which Alfred
the Great is said, in Asser's Life of him to haA o
sent, c 893, his younger Ethel\vard to learn
Latin. This school continued aftei the founda-
tion of the nval grammar school of Winchester
College in 1382 For in Januaiy, 1407, we find
in the Hall book of the college that the inastei
teacher of the High School was at supper at the
high table (Magi^tcr Jnformato? (die scole ad
cenam in alta mcnsa), i c having supper with
the Warden and Fellows. In 1488 we find the
Bishop's official granting license to one Fui-
new to " teach and inform in grammar and
literature in the school of Winchester, called
in the vulgar tongue * The High Schole,' and
forbidding any one else to teach school in Win-
chester, the master and scholars of the Blessed
Mary's College, founded by the Lord Wyke-
ham, only excepted "

The ancient cathedral or city grammar school
at Exeter was also called the High School. The
High Master of the city school (summus mag-
ister scole civitatis) was empowered by the

261

HIGH SCHOOL

HIGH SCHOOL

statutes of Bishop (iraiuliHon on Nov 18, 1332,
completing the intended foundation of his pre-
decessor Bishop Stapledon, the foundei of Staple-
don Hall, now Exeter College, at Oxford, to
elect the twelve boys who were to he lodged and
boaided in St John's Hospital there under a
tutor and to attend the city grammar school
In 1345 a new school and house for the master
was built by Dean Richard de Braylegh.
There is no specific evidence that it was called
the high school until an entry in the Act Book
of the chapter on Jan. 22, 1530, when the
secundaiies, clerks of the cathedral who served
various altars while in training for the priest-
hood, had (>d a quaiter deducted from their sala-
ries " for the stipend of the master of the High
School (altar inn xcolarum) for teaching them "
From then until the year 1759, when the school
came to an end, and especially after the year
1632, when the endowed Free Grammar School,
which finally killed it, was established, it was
also generally called the High School, the new
school being called the Grammar School, or
the Free School This Free Grammar School
was established by the city in opposition to the
dean and chapter and the bishop, chiefly be-
cause the old High School charged tuition fees
in the hall of the church of the dissolved St
John's Hospital, under a patent obtained from
Charles I in 1632 But as late as 1662 a medi-
cal doctor, Robert Vilvaia, who established four
exhibitions for Exeter boys at Exeter College,
Oxford, directed that two of them should be
given to boys from " the High School," and
two out of the Free Grammar School The
last master of the High School was appointed in
1739, and on his death it ceased

At Lincoln in 1388 we find the cathedral or
city Grammar School, called the High School
(magnarum Motarum), in an appointment of an
usher or second master, in contradistinction to
a new grammar school really established for
the choristers, and in 1406 its superiority was
recognized by the boys in the latter being ob-
liged once a term to go down to the High School
(xco/ax generalex) and sit in it under the teach-
ing and chastisement of its master

In the nineteenth century there seems to
have been a tendency to revive the title of high
school, especially in Scotland, where the Edin-
burgh High School, a title appearing in town
records of 1534, was accepted as the model
Thus the Glasgow Grammar School became
the High School in 1834; the Sterling Grammar
School became the High School in 1856; at
Dundee an academy, grammar and another
school were amalgamated into a high school
111 1859 In England the title of the Notting-
ham Grammar School (f. 1513) was changed
to High School in 1868, and in 1878 the Ox-
ford High School for boys was founded

In France the distinction was made between
the High School, meaning the city or cathedral
grammar school, and the lower schools in vari-
ous parishes, the teaching in which was not

262

allowed to go beyond the parts of speech.
Thus in 1324 and 1325 the rector of the schools
of St John-en- Valise and the schoolmaster of
St Andrew's Chartres were inhibited from
teaching beyond the Donat (Donatus' ars
minor), except in the High School (scohs ma-
jonbw* Carnetenwhus), and in 1358 a master is
admitted not as usual primarily to "the School
of Chartres " but as master of the High School
(magnarum scholarum) So at Paris in 1380
there were some twenty-one petite* 6col(ft under
the Precentor of Notre Dame giving elementary
instruction, as contrasted with the High School,
the grande 6cole, the Grammar School under the
chancelloi

In Germany the term high school, Hoch-
scfude or Hohc Kchulc, was taken up at the
period of the Renaissance to designate em-
phatically the enlarged schools with their wider
humanistic curriculum, which became almost
universities, alike in number of students and
in subjects, and were solely 01 largely under the
management of the town authorities instead of
that of the Church At Vienna we heai of
Johann Spieshammer at the end of the fifteenth
century at the age of eighteen lecturing at the
High School on Lucian, Sallust, and Ciceio
The proposal for a High School at Slrassburg in
1501 was intended to restrict itself to classics
The High School at Nuremberg was established
by Melanchthon (q v ) in 1526 The term le-
ceived a sort of consecration from the famous
school established by Sturm at Strassbuig in
1536 From that time the teim vied with
gymnasium and the usual name for the highest
form of classical school, the public school of
England ( Sec HIGHER EDUCATION )

It is not quite clear how the teim came to
be used in America foi the same thing, when it
had died or was dying out in England in the
seventeenth century It appears to be de-
finitely established that the term was borrowed
directly from the Edinburgh High School,
where at the beginning of the last century
Professor Pillans (q v ) was experimenting with
the monitorial system At Boston the English
Classical School became the English High
School in 1824 The change may have been
influenced by an article in the North American
Review written by John Gnscom (qv) on the
work of the Edinburgh High School. Griscorn
also established a High School foi Bovs in New
York, which was opened in 1825, although it
was under consideration for one or two years
before that date. The use of the term High
School in Pennsylvania in colonial times does
not seem to have any influence on its subse-
quent history (See Brown, E E , Making of
our Middle Schools, pp. 303 ff , New York,
1905 ) That it became acclimatized is certain,
and it is quite certain that it was to the Am-
erican use of the term that its revival in England
was due when the new movement for the higher
education of girls in schools similar to those of
boys of the same class began in 1848 with the

HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES

Camden High School for girls, fiotn whence it
has been adapted all over England as thcgcnenc
term for a girls' Public School. A F L

HIGH SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED
STATES. — History — The first high school
in the United States was established in Boston
in May, 1821, as the Boys' Classical School,
complementary to the Boys' Latin Grammar
School The term " high school " was not
officially applied until 1824, and was not em-
ployed in the Massachusetts statutes until
1840 Meanwhile in 1826 a high school foi
girls was established in Boston This school
existed only for two years, not because of un-
popularity, but the reverse. So large was the
attendance that one school would not accom-
modate the applicants, and the upper grades
of the common schools were expanded to
meet the needs of the girls The report of the
committee in 1821 clearly indicates the situa-
tion which soon called for the establishment
of this type of school all over the country —

" The mode of education now adopted, and the branch™ of
knowledge that an taught ut our English grammar «( hoota are
lentlv extensive nor otherwiHe eal< ulat«xl to bring the
the mind into operation nor to qualify a youth to fill

not surh

powers t

UHetulU and respect abl\ nu

private,

Ki\e a e

Hhall ser

men ant le or mechanical, is under the necessity of Riving him a

different
furnish
and sen
instruct

>f the station^ both public and

n which he ma\ be placed A parent who wishes to
Id an education that shall fit him for active hie, and
• aw a foundation for eminence in his profeHMion, whether

education from am which our public schools can now
Hence, many ( hildren arc separated from their parents
to private academies in this vieinit\ , to acquire that
ch cannot be obtained at the public seminaries "

to p
on win

The Latin grammar school was essentially a
college preparatory school, and its curriculum
was not suited to the common needs of life
The academy offered a curriculum of practical
studies, but it was a private institution requir-
ing considerable tuition fees, and it was, there-
fore, somewhat exclusive A school was needed
to provide three or four years of training
beyond that given in the elementary schools,
that should have a practical curriculum like
that of the academy, and that should be free,
like the Latin grammar school (See GRAM-
MAR SCHOOL, ACADEMY) Previous to the
founding of the Boys' Classical School, twenty-
six academies had been incorporated in Massa-
chusetts

In 1K27 the first state high school law was
passed, again in Massachusetts This re-
quired such a school in every town of over
500 families However, for many years the
academy (q v ) still continued to be the domi-
nant secondary school, even in Massachusetts
In 1840 there were 114 incorporated academies
in the state, and only 18 high schools, though
strict compliance with the law of 1827 would
have given 44 From this time on the number
of high schools increased very rapidly By
1861 the State Board of Education claimed
that there were 102 high schools in the state,
teaching Latin and Greek There were no
doubt at least one hundred well entitled to
this claim, though recent official attempts to

sumrnari/e the high school development in 1 In-
United States credited no more than thai
number to the entire country, and only ele\en
to Massachusetts Ry 1X62 the system was
\vell established in Massachusetts, although
less than 70 per cent of the towns of the state
met the legal requirement, even allowing the
102 schools claimed by the state board

Meanwhile, the development of the high
school had gone on elsewhere, though more
tardily In New York the conflict between
the high school and the academy resulted even
more favorably for the academy than in Massa-
chusetts While Governor Clinton during the
decade 1817-1827 advocated the establishment
of high schools in every county, under the
monitorial system, and connected with the
professional training of teachers, but few of
these were founded The friends of the
academy were able to divert the appropriation
of state funds to these institutions instead of
to the high schools 01 the normal schools
The " Union Free Schools" Acts of 1853 and
1864 developed many high schools undei local
control out of the graded free school system

After the Civil Wai penod the number of
high schools increased very rapidly In 1S80,
according to the Report of the United States
Commissioner of Education, thcie were 800,
in 1890, 2526, in 1900, 0005 , and in 1910,
10,213 In a little less than one third of
these schools there are not more than three
teachers; in more than one third, not more
than six teachers, in about two thirds, not
more than ten teachers In some of the
largest city schools there are as many as 125
teachers and 3000 pupils The recognized
standard high school course is now four years
in length, but many schools have a one, two,
or three years' course (See the articles on
the separate state systems for the development
of their high schools )

State Systems — The high school of the
United States has, upon the whole, evolved from
the free elementary school Its development
has followed that of its progenitor bv approxi-
mately a quarter of a century, so that in many
states it remains as yet almost entirely unsvs-
tematized, so far as the legal aspect is con-
cerned In a number of states, only the most
general legal provision is made for the estab-
lishment and maintenance of such schools,
while in a few of the Southern and in at least
one of the Northern States, New Jersey, no
special legal provision is made for them, such
schools as exist being considered merely as
the higher grades of the public schools Most
of the states have, however, made definite
legal provision for these schools, and a large
number, such as Maine, Massachusetts, New
York, Indiana, Wisconsin, Minnesota, and
California, have evolved comprehensive inde-
pendent laws governing the establishment,
maintenance, and management of such schools
But the legal provisions even of these states

263

HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES

differ widely among themselves, so that the
laws governing this institution in the United
States range from indefinite and badlv defined
codes in certain states to elear and specific
legislation in others

Nevertheless the high schools in the various
states have a remarkable resemblance in
external and internal management and control,
as well as in their curricula In general no
greater differences exist internally between the
high schools of Maine and those of California
than may be found to exist between the dif-
ferent high schools of any given commonwealth
This similarity is due to a number of factoia
in American life and American educational
practices In the first place, the elementary
schools, the feeders of the high schools, resemble
one another even more closelv than do the
high schools The colleges, the universities,
and particularly the state universities, the in-
stitutions that largely receive the output of
the high schools, also closely resemble one
another

The explanation of this close resemblance
of the various types of schools in the Ameri-
can system of education is largely due to
imitation brought about by the following facts
and conditions (1) most of the states of the
Union are relatively new and their populations
have been largely recruited from the other
older states, (2) the Americans are a migrat-
ing people, and recognize no state boundaries
in their shifting from place to place, (3) there
is wide communication through travel, books,
and periodicals, (4) national and state con-
ventions of teachers, principals, and superin-
tendents are held annually, — the state con-
ventions usually employing outside instructors
to present the work, (5) teachers are to a
considerable extent recruited from the coun-
try at large rather than from the local com-
munity and state alone, (6) students fre-
quently leave their own communities and
state to prepare for their work of teaching
In addition the laws governing the establish-
ment, maintenance, arid support of all of
these types of schools have been more or less
influenced by the laws and practices of other
states

In no point, however, do the high schools
of the Union so closely resemble each other as
in their curricula. This is due to the fact
that this institution has been, and is to-day,
fundamentally a preparatory school to the
colleges and universities, which by association
and concerted action have set a more or less
definite standard of requirement for entrance,
and thus to a large degree have dictated a
common curriculum for these schools (See
COLLEGE REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION )

Ever since the rise of the high school in
this country its ablest advocates have dreamed
of it as the finishing college of the common
people; but as yet the fruition of this dream
has not been accomplished, — unless, indeed,

264

the college preparatory course can be con-
sidered the best preparation for social effi-
ciency. This condition has been 110 more the
fault of the college and the university than of
those who have insisted upon a different curri-
culum, but who in the past have been unable
to evolve one definite enough to be workable
in any of the thousands of high schools of
the country However, the present wide-
spread interest in vocational, industrial, tech-
nical, commercial, and economic training, and
the growing interest in the refinement of the
other common aspects of life, together with
the practical experiments now going on, give
a renewed promise for the future of tins dream
of a people's college The American high
school, then, in so far as it is efficient, owes
this efficiency in large measure to the college
arid the universitv

The systematizing of any series of schools
of a given type means their unification, and
this can be secured onlv through the opera-
tion of one or more of the four following
instrumentalities: similar laws governing then
establishment, maintenance, and support, like
curricula; supervision arid inspection, and
teachers with similar ideals and training
The first of these will be discussed latei

Inspection — With a few notable exceptions,
the only state-wide supervision and inspection
that American high schools have leceived in
the past has been upon the motion and at the
expense of the state universities, sometimes
with, and sometimes without, legal \vanant
from the state This inspection, to be sure,
has been solely in their own interests, but it
has nevertheless tended to systematize these
schools not only within the state, but likewise
within the country at large (See ACCREDITED
SCHOOLS; ACCREDITED TEACHERS ) As stated
elsewhere these same universities have also
unified the curricula of these schools, and
through their instrumentality as preparatory
schools for high school teachers they have in-
stilled into them similar ideals and have pro-
vided them, largely through imitation, with
similar methods of procedure in instruction
A few states, however, such as Massachusetts,
New York, New Jersey, Wisconsin, and Min-
nesota, provide in other ways for supervision
and inspection In both Wisconsin and Min-
nesota the responsibility for high school
inspection rests only partly with the state
university authorities In New York, New
Jersev, and Massachusetts it is independently
conducted It is worthy of note that all of
these states mentioned above give direct
financial aid to the least wealthy high school
districts. State supervision or inspection, legal
requirements governing curricula, and qualifi-
cations of teachers, all inevitably follow state
financial aid to high schools

Organization of Control. — The most prev-
alent local political unit of organization for
the establishment, maintenance, control, and

Tiiroiua, \\iibh , High School (with stadium).

F Louis Solclan High School, St Louis

Morrih High School, Ncv\ \ork (1itv

Sioux CiU, Io\\a, High School,

Springfield, Ohio, High School.

Pueblo High School.

TYPICAL Hani SCHOOL BUILDINGS.

HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES

support of high schools in the United States is
the district, which includes the city or parts
of the city, the town or small city, the village,
the rural district, or a union of such districts
This system prevails in all of the states in so
far as it applies to the cities and larger towns,
and in some states it is the only unit oi organi-
zation for the establishment of such schools
In most instances the local board of school
directors or school trustees, which also has
charge of the local lower schools, controls
these schools (See CITY SCHOOL ADMINISTRA-
TION.)

In the rural districts of many of the Eastern
ju id Middle Western states the township
unit of organization prevails both foi ele-
mentary and for high school purposes In
certain of these states the district unit of
organization prevails for elementary school
purposes, while the township unit prevails for
high school purposes In most of them theie
are also union or joint township high schools
in existence The boards of education which
are in control of these schools are elected by
the people of the territorial districts main-
taining them. In some of the Southern, West-
ern, Rocky Mountain, and Pacific ("oast
states many county high schools exist, and in
at least a few cases joint county high schools
These schools are always under the control
either of the county boards of education,
which have other duties relating to the ele-
mentary schools, or of special county 01 joint
county high school boards In a few states
these boards are appointed by the count v
courts, in others by the county commissioners
or supervisors, and in the rcmaindei of the
cases they are elected by the people

E R S

Rural High Schools. — Since in geneial the
towns and villages of the United States with
populations to exceed 2500 are able to main-
tain reputable high schools, and since they
have for years been doing so, the mam prob-
lem of rural secondary education has to do
mostly with that part of the population resid-
ing in the smaller villages and on the fanns
of the country The units of organization for
uiral high school purposes vary widely in the
difleient sections of the country as well MS in
some of the states themselves, the smallest of
these units being the district. These district
high schools, in so far as they may be classed
as rural, have largely grown out of the ele-
mentary schools through the gradual addition
of high school subjects and high school grades
This is particularly true in such states as
have had the district unit of organization and
control in matters of education In every
state where the unit of control is such, and
where the law has failed to define the public
school as a strictly elementary school, rural
high schools have grown up as district schools
The union of districts for high school purposes
is also an outgrowth of the gradual extension

of the elementary school As a type it is the
result of combining two or more advanced
district schools that had already developed
considerable high school work m connection
with their elementary courses The township
unit of organization is more prevalent than
the district unit, in so far as the term applies
to such rural high schools as have state recog-
nition a,s such This is a perfectly natural
condition, since in most of the oldei and
wealthier states, the Eastern and Middle
Western groups, the township constitutes the
unit of taxation and organization foi public
school as well as other civil purposes The
method of uniting townships into high school
districts has also been employed to a con-
siderable extent, particularly where the town-
ships covered a small area, or where their
most thickly populated aieas were adjacent
The county plan of organization is quite
largely practiced in the Western and in cer-
tain of the Southern states This plan of
organization almost always implies large local
support, and is especially adaptable to thinly
populated districts Village and town dis-
tricts sometimes unite with their counties or
with their own townships or with a gioup of
adjacent townships in the establishment and
maintenance of union high schools In fact,
in a large number of the states any combina-
tion of territory may organize itself into a
high school district

Curriculum — The courses of study in the
rural high schools are veiy similar to those of
the city high schools in the states wheiein
they are located The most notable difference
is that they offei a smallei number of courses,
which is a direct result of the small teaching
force employed and of the small number ol
pupils in attendance Most of the states,
recognizing that these schools are at least in
theory finishing institutions, have reqmied
one course of instruction other than the
classical, making the foreign languages elec-
tive, if offei ed at all In most cases, how-
ever, these schools give also a college prepara-
tory course, including at least one foreign
language, usually Latin, though the modem
languages are rapidly gaining ground

The present tendency is to create for these
schools courses of a more practical natuie
This is to be accomplished by modifying the
couises and instruction in the sciences, by
adding couises in agriculture, stock-iaismg,
dairying, horticulture, and other practical sub-
jects, as demanded by the particular school
So far little of a practical nature has been
accomplished in this line In fact, in regard
to practical education, the cities aie at the
present time far in advance of the rural dis-
tricts Some of the Middle Western states,
such as Wisconsin, Michigan, and Nebraska,
have made consideiable progress in this line

Another tendency worthy of note is that of
recognizing and aiding rural high schools

265

HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES

which off or only a partial course of study,
particularly the two-yeai rural and small
village high school Such schools are becom-
ing common in the upper Mississippi Valley,
though as yet only a few states have granted
them any special financial encouragement.
California, with its two-year "(Grammar-
High1' schools (///>)» is a notable exception in
this particular (See also HIGH SCHOOLS,
SUPPORT OF )

Statistical Summary — A statistical state-
ment of the number and condition of the
strictly rural high schools in this country is
not possible, because, as pointed out above,
the statistics of rural high schools proper are
combined with those of all villages and towns
having population!* that do not exceed 8000
inhabitants The increase in the number of
reputable non-uiban high schools is a good in-
dex to the vitality of the institution at the
piesent time

The following statistical summary is based
on an extended study of twenty states selected
because of their availability for the purpose
These were Maine, Massachusetts, New Jersey,
California, Colorado, Washington, Connecti-
cut, Vermont, New Hampshire, Michigan,
Wisconsin, Minnesota, Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
Iowa, Missouri, Texas, Kansas, and Nebraska
The high school and other necessary statistics
for these states for the nine years ending 1906
weie compiled, and interpreted with the follow-
ing general results. —

(1) The average increase in the number of
rural 1 high schools in the twenty states was,
for the nine-year period, 50 per cent (2) The
avciage relative'2 increase in the enrollment of
pupils in the urban 8 high schools of the twenty
states was, for the Time years, 46 per cent,
while for the non-urban1 high schools it was,
for the same period, 65 per cent (3) The
average increase to the school in the number
of teachers employed in non-urban high
schools was, for the nine years, more than 19
per cent (4) The average decrease in the
relative number of one-teacher high schools
was, for the nine years, more than 11 per cent
(5) The average decrease to the school in the
iclative number of two-teacher high schools
was, for the nine years, more than 33 per cent

The general methods employed by different
states m extending financial aid to rural
secondary education are varied, and are dis-
cussed in the section on SUPPORT OF HIGH
SCHOOLS

The influence of this aid upon the rural
high schools of these states is clearly shown
by the following comparison of the average
development of rural secondary education
during a period of nine years, 1897-1906,
in six states, Minnesota, California, Massa-

1 All high schools not located m cities with a population to
exceed 8,000 inhabitants

2 Enrollment for oarh vear compared to census, five to eigh-
teen years

* High schools m cities with 8,000 or more inhabitants.

chusetts, Washington, Wisconsin, and Maine,
— all of which provided state subsidies to
rural high schools and two of which also pro-
vided for the reimbursement of tuitions, — with
the average development of rural secondary
education during the same period in eleven
states, Nebraska, Ohio, Indiana, Kansas,
Colorado, Michigan, Illinois, New Jersey,
Iowa, Missouri, and Texas, none of which
provided direct state aid to secondary educa-
tion in any manner whatever. The results
were as follows : —

(1) The average increase in the number of
non-urban high schools was, for the six states,
(58 per cent, for the eleven states, 48 per cent
(2) The average increase in the number of
teachers employed to the school in non-urban
districts was, for the six states, 38 per cent,
reckoned on an average status of 2 4 teachers
to the school in 1897; for the eleven states
6 5 per cent, reckoned upon an average status of
2 f> teachers to the school in 1897. (3) During
these nine years the average relative propor-
tion (.25) of one-teacher high schools in the
six states was reduced 63 per cent, in the
eleven states the average relative proportion
( 27) was increased 15 per cent (4) During
the same period the average relative pro-
portion ( 52) of two-teacher high schools
in the six states was reduced 53 per cent,
while in the eleven states the average relative
proportion ( 44) was increased 2 per cent
(5) The average status of enrollment of pupils
in all types of secondary schools, 4 44 indi-
viduals to each 100 of census (5-18), in the
six states in 1897 was increased during the
nine years 57 per cent, while in the eleven
states the average status of enrollment, 3 08
individuals to each 100 of census (5-18), was
increased but 39 per cent (6) The average
status of enrollment of pupils in city high
schools, 4 81 individuals to each 100 of census
(5-18), in the six states in 1897, was increased
during the nine years 52 per cent, while in the
eleven states the average status of enrollment,
4 13 individuals to each one hundred of census
(5-18), was increased 49 per cent (7) The
average status of enrollment of pupils in non-
urban high schools, 2 85 individuals to each
100 of census (5-18), in the six states in 1897
was increased during the nine years 100 per
cent, while in the eleven states the average
status of enrollment, 2.49 individuals to each
100 of census (5-18), was increased 49 per
cent

Thus it appears that the rapidly developing
standard of rural secondary education in the
states that provide special financial aid is
slowly approaching the increasing standard of
the same in the cities of these states On the
other hand, it appears that the rapidly increas-
ing standard of rural secondary education in the
states that offer no special aid is slowly diverg-
ing from the constantly increasing standard of
the same in the cities of these states. On the

266

HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES

whole the general increase of standard of urban
as well as non-urban secondary education has
boen very rapid in recent years E R S.

The Curriculum. — When the American
high school first arose, and during what may
well be termed the period of its struggle for
existence, the need of higher education for
any large percentage of our people was relatively
slight. With an elementary school system of
very meager proportions still in its infancy;
with the principle of general taxation for edu-
cation scarcely established; with little surplus
national wealth; with few of the pressing prob-
lems of government, industry, and human
relations, with which we of to-day are so famil-
iar, not as vet markedly in evidence; and with
but a small portion of our present organized
knowledge as yet available for purposes of in-
struction, it can readily be understood that
the high school of the earlier period was very
limited in its scope, and was demanded by but
a very small percentage of the people Latin,
Greek, and mathematics constituted the back-
bone and the bulk of all instruction ; the course
of study was the same for all; and the school was
useful chiefly as a preparation for eriteimg
some one of the denominational colleges of the
time

The past fifty years, however, have witnessed
very great and very significant changes in
every feature of our national life, and the public
secondary school has shared in these changes
Everywhere such schools have been adoptetl
as a necessary part of a system of popular
education, new classes of people have been
attracted to them, and new subjects of instruc-
tion have been provided The development
of the secondary school since 1890, and par-
ticularly since 1900, has been marked With
the gradual evolution of the new conceptions
as to the purpose and function of public edu-
cation, there has been a gradually increasing
demand that the secondary schools shall more
thoroughly meet the needs of the new classes
in the population which have turned to them
for help and enlightenment This has greatly
changed the nature of high school work

First to be introduced was history and Eng-
lish literature, and then the modern languages.
In the seventies and eighties came the sciences,
first in book form and shortly afterward ns
laboratory studies Manual training and do-
mestic arts came to be recognized as teaching
subjects for special schools in the late eighties,
and have since been incorporated as parts of
regular high school instruction Business train-
ing, at first introduced as a concession to public
opinion and to meet the competition of the
private " business colleges," has since been
adopted as a useful addition, and, in the larger
city high schools, is being transformed into
good, strong, commercial or business courses
(See COMMERCIAL EDUCATION.) Still more
recently agriculture has been admitted as a
useful subject of instruction, and the develop-

ment of the agricultural high school has been
very rapid (See AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION )

These many additions have affected the high
school curriculum in two ways: (1) the old
course has been expanded and crowded, result-
ing in the introduction both of elective .studies
and elective courses, and (2) new types of high
schools have arisen by the side of the old to
minister to the new needs These changes may
be illustrated by a few typical examples of high
school curricula, chosen fiom different types of
American high schools, and by an enumeration of
the different types of high schools which ha\e
been formed

Ti/peb of High School C'littirula — 1 A
small New England high school, in which the
one fixed, traditional course of study, almost
entirely based on book woik, has had to gnc
way to changing demands and admit a few
elective** during the last two years This type
of school is still very common in conservative
communities and among rural high schools.

FIRST YEAR

THIKD YFAFI

English Composition and Lit- English Literature

orature Modern English History

Ancient History Latin (or German)

Latin Physics (or Bookkeeping and
Algebra Business Arithmetic)

SECOND YEAR

FOURTH YKAK

English Composition and Lit- English Literature

eraturo American History and Govern-

Medieval History ment

Lutm Latin (or German)

Geometry Chemistr\ (or Typewriting and

{Shorthand)

IT A medium-sized city high school, local ed
in the Mississippi Valley lleie, by combina-
tions, five different courses of instruction have
been arranged, supposedly to hi dill ei out type?
of individuals Such combinations aie quite
common, though the tendency is to decrease
the number of required subjects and to increase
the number of electives in each In the ad-
ministration of the school this is usually done
ni individual cases, though not indicated in
the paper courses of study

HICAL COURSE

GUAOE COURSE

L1HH CoURSfc

First Year,

First Year,

First Year,

Latin

German

I atm or German

Ancient History
English

Ancient Historj
English

Ancient History
English

Algebra

Algebra

Alg< bra

Second Year,

Second Year,

Second \ ear,

Latin

German

Latin or German

Greek

Medieval History

Medievul History

English

Eimhsh

English

Geometry

Geometry

Geometry

Third Year,

Third Year,

Third Year,

Latin

French (or Spanish)

Modern History

Greek

Modern Histon

English

English

English

Ph> sics

Physics

Physics

Drawing

Fourth Year,

Fourth Year,

Fourth Year,

Latin

French (or Spanish)

American History

Greok

American History

and Government

English

and Government

English

(Elective)

English

(Elective)

(Elective)

(Elective)

267

HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES

IV SCIENTIFIC COURSE

First Year,
German
Botany
English
Algebra

Second Year,
German
Zoblogy
English
Geometry

Third Year,

PhVHICH

Dt awing

Trigonometry

(Elective)

Fourth Year,
Chenu^lrv
Drawing

Amenc.in History and Gov-
ernment
(Elective)

V BUSINESS COURSE

First Year,

(any other course)

Second Year,

(any other course)

Third Year,

Spanish
Busmei

ness Arithmetic
Bookkeeping
Typewriting

Fourth Year,
Spanish

BiiHinesH Practice
(Commercial Geography)
(Com menial Law)
(Shorthand)

III A large city high school, located in the
West, where fixed courses have been abandoned
The school offers a wide range of subjects,
lequires certain fixed units bv groups, and
makes up a different course of study for each
Inirh school pupil The following studies are
offered, the numbers in parenthesis following
each indicating the number of yeais of each
subject offered by the school

GROUP I — Languages

Latin (4)
("•reek (J)
Gorman (4)
French (2)
Spanish (2)

GROUP II — English

English Composition (2)
English Literature (4)
Hist Km? &Am Lit (1)

GROUP III - History

\ncient Histor\ (1)
Medieval History (1)
Modern English Hi-,tor\ (1) GROUP VII
General World Histor\ (1)
\m Hist & Go\t (1)

GROUP V — Science

Botany (1)
Zo6logv (1)
Biologx (1)

Physical Geography (1)
Physics (1)
Chemistry (1)
Geology (J j)
Astronomy (^)

GROUP VI — Miscellaneous

Music (2)

Freehand Drawing (2)
Vocal Expression (2)
PhvHical Training (4)

- Vocational

IV — Mathematics

Mgcbra (1, 1 ' 2)
Geomctrv (1 . 1 ' 2)
Tngouometr> ( ' j>)
Suiveung (',•)
Ummess ArilhnvMie

Mechanical and Geometrical

Drawing (2)
Manual Training (H)
Domestic Science (2)
Household Management (1)
Bookkeeping (1)
Business Practice (1)
Shorthand (1)
Typewriting (I)

l\ule H governing < omhiti.itioiiH and graduation
(1) Student^, to graduate , must complete 15 years' work, viz ,
four studies each year for three years, and three (studies one year
(2) Students irmv, on pe>rnnshion, take an many as five studies or
as tew a,s three* studies each half-vear (.4) Stuelents, to graduate,
must have had twe> years' work in grewps I and II, one year's
work in each e>f the other groups, and four years' work in some
one group (4) Study e ards must he made out each half-year,
and must be approved by the, principal and the parent

The three types of high school courses given
above illustrate the development which has
taken place, arid the tendency. Excepting
agriculture, all new forms of instruction are
i epresented in the one school The advantages
to the pupil are evident, while it is clear that

such grouping of courses to meet individ-
ual needs as is provided for in the third type
has advantages over that provided in the
second type

In some cities high school development has
taken a different direction, and instead of ex-
panding the high school to meet the many
different needs, new types of high schools have
been founded, and type or class high schools
have resulted There are to-day, m different-
places, the following different types of secondary
schools

(1) The so-called cultural or general high
school; offering courses in the languages, litera-
ture, history, mathematics, and some science
This is distinctively a college preparatorv
high school (2) The manual training (q.v )
high school ; offering courses in science, mathe-
matics, modern languages and history, English,
and shop work This is preparatory for the en-
gineering colleges, and work in shops and trades
It often includes the third type, for girls (3)
The household aits (q v ) school While usuallv
included under the manual training school, a
few such are being established separately It
offers courses in English, history, the sciences,
and subjects relating to household management,
and is a technical school for women's work
(4) The commercial high school (See (COM-
MERCIAL EDUCATION ) This is an intensification
of the commercial course, and offers good
courses in modern languages, history, science,
and office practice. It is preparatory for com-
mercial pursuits, on a larger scale than the old
business course (5) The agricultural high school
(See AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION ) This of-
fers courses in English, mathematics, sciences,
some manual training and household science,
and agricultural studies It is preparatory for
farm life, or for the colleges of agriculture

It is desirable both that these different types
of high schools should exist separately in some
cases, and in many other cases should be com-
bined in one. In their beginnings all new
types of schools usually prosper better if pro-
vided for separately ; but, after these new schools
have established themselves and their work has
been accepted as a good and legitimate edu-
cational effort, it is wise then to combine a num-
ber of such types in one school, and thus oflei
a larger range of choice to each high school
pupil. The American high school, if it is to
realize its highest educational purpose, should
be preeminently a place for the testing of ca-
pacity, the development of tastes, and the
opening up of vocational opportunities of many
kinds This involves intelligent oversight and
direction on the part of teachers and principals,
a rich and varied curriculum from which to
select, and freedom from hard and fast pre-
scriptions. E P C

Sec also articles on various subjects of the
curriculum, eg LANGUAGE, ENGLISH, LITERA-
TURE, ENGLISH, GEOGRAPHY; HISTORY; GREEK;
LATIN, etc.

268

HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES

The Elective System of Secondary Schools

— In the course of its evolution, the high
school has developed an extensive program of
studies, — four or five foreign languages ; Eng-
lish for every grade; mathematics for three or
more years; two, three, or four sciences, history
for two or more grades, and, in addition,
manual and commercial subjects These have
contributed to the making of a program far
too extensive to be within the reach of any one
pupil For a time with the introduction of new
subjects, less and less time was assigned to
each, with the result that when the Repent of
the Committee of Ten (q v ) was written, many
large high schools were giving twelve and
fourteen weeks' courses in science, short courses
in history, and smatterings of three or more
foreign tongues The Report of the Committee
of Ten greatly emphasized the desn ability of
an intensive treatment in the high school of
relatively few subjects The effect of this
Report was onlv rarely the complete elimination
of any subject from the high school, but gener-
ally resulted in a tendency to intensify and
extend the treatment of each one More than
ever did it become necessary that the individ-
ual student should take but a part, and fre-
quently a small part, of the entire range of
subjects open to him Another tendency con-
tributing to the flexible course of study was the
increasing range of capacity and interest found
in the students of the high school A vanety
of studies in science, drawing, commercial
branches, and manual training \v ere introduced
to meet these demands A third element in
t he development of the flexible course grew out
of the conception in the Report of the Committee
of Ten that it was of less importance what
particular studies were pursued than what was
the method employed in teaching them From
the standpoint of the majority of the Com-
mittee, each secondary school subject was
assumed to have equal value with any other,
if properly taught It was, therefore, natural
to assume, if a pupil manifested a strong
aversion to Latin or mathematics, that some
other equally well taught subject could be
substituted (See FORMAL DISCIPLINE )

Not long after the appearance of the Repot t,
students of education began actively to question
certain fundamental assumptions implicit in it,
and particularly the disciplinary conception
advocated by the Committee It was com-
monly asserted that Latin, better than any other
subject, trained faculties of observation, verbal
discrimination, powers of analytical thinking,
etc Equally, it was claimed that the study
of mathematics strengthened reasoning powers
and greatly improved the capacity for sys-
tematic generalization. A scries of critical
articles, as well as certain investigations in
psychological laboratories, tended during the
last decade of the nineteenth century to un-
settle existing preconceptions regarding mental
discipline; in fact, there developed a tendency

to assert that mental training should be a
secondary consideration in the teaching of any
subject, and that the subject itself should
involve a content of knowledge or other power-
producing material which should justify it and
that, in the course of its presentation, mental
training would follow as an accompaniment

Finally, in recent educational theory there
has grown up an increased belief in the wisdom
of adapting education to the individual This
represents a considerable departure from an
older theory of education, that the mdrvidual
should be fitted to a given held of subject mat-
ter This change came about, partly, from the
causes already presented It was found that
riot only the interests, but the needs and capaci-
ties of secondary school pupils vary greatly
Furthermore, it was found that the impoitant
end of education was to prepare individuals
for some field of activity wherein that which
was learned in the high school \\ould find ap-
plication, cither as culture or vocational power

The foregoing influences icsulted in the de-
velopment of the so-called elect i\e system
It is true that, from its beginnings m the
academy, the secondary school program had
been somewhat elastic, but its elasticity, had
assumed the form of alternatn e course s, < ach
course, however, representing a fixed and un-
varying demand on the pupil Naturally,
alternative courses varied mainly in their de-
mands for foreign language and for science,
English and mathematics were usually pre-
scribed subjects

The elective system, however, earned the
matter of alternative subjects to the point of
allowing each pupil, within the limits of the
range of subjects presented by the school and
the other inherent restrictions of piogiam,
substantially to make up his own couise
From the standpoint of the school 01 the pupil,
the important consideration was not always so
much the subjects which could be taken as
those which could be omitted Duung the
last years of the nineteenth century and the
first decade of the twentieth, the literature of
secondary education was filled with discussions
of the elective system. It was felt by some
that it represented a demoralizing tendency
in that it weakened the educational conception
of discipline through the more difficult sub-
jects Educational conservatives feared that
it meant a persistent discounting of classics
and mathematics They apprehended a rapid
development of the more vocational studies,
and denied that the individual pupil had any
capacity for self-direction in the choice of a
program of studies. They asserted that, from
the standpoint of the best development of the
individual, it was highly important that certain
fields of culture should be opened to him, even
by compulsory methods In only a fewr schools
did the theory of free election of subjects make
much progress In these instances the gradua-
tion of the pupil was made to depend upon the

269

HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES

accomplishment of a certain number of units
of work, but without reference to any specific
subjects He might omit history or mathe-
matics, no less than a foreign language or a
branch of science More commonly the sys-
tem took the form of a certain number of pre-
scribed studies, with a consideiable range of
alternatives or options from which the pupil
could choose In the case of some large high
schools, for the rcquiicment of specific sub-
jects, there was substituted the demand that,
for graduation, a minimum number of units
of accomplishment in foreign language, science,
history, etc , should be presented, the pupil,
however, retaining the privilege of electing
among the various subjects in science or history
as the case might be

As a rule, few of the apprehended evils of the
elective1 system have developed in practice.
There IKI.S been an increased tendency to in-
duce the pupil to make his selections not only
\vith the approval of some advisory teacher,
but of paients as well The limitations of the
school curriculum, even in the larger schools,
have acted as an important barrier to free elec-
tion Furthermore, the fact that a consider-
able number of students anticipate entering
college where the entrance requirements arc
moie or less prescribed has prevented anything
like a free use of possible electives

While the tendency is still to extend the
possibilities of election of secondary school
subjects, it is nevertheless true that important
underlying problems must be solved before an
adequate discussion of election is possible.
There vet exists no satisfactory theory regarding
educational values, especially of secondary
school subjects Quite universally, for ex-
ample, alegbra and geometry are prescribed
for both boys and girls in secondary schools.
Neithei experience nor the tests of educational
laboratories serve yet to demonstrate the su-
perior value of these subjects The same may
be said to be true of the foreign languages
so far as their training value is concerned The
science subjects have undergone steady modi-
fication in modern education, becoming more
foimal and rigid There is yet no satisfactory
evidence that, as now taught, these sciences
contribute m an important way to cither cul-
ture or practical capacity in greater degree than
other possible subjects

In proscribed programs it is the tendency to
require subjects such as foreign language, mathe-
matics, and science, which are most fully or-
ganized and which lend themselves most satis-
factorily to traditional methods of pedagogic
treatment Until, however, there exists more
satisfactory knowledge regarding educational
values, it will be difficult to treat the subject
of the elective system with anything like
finality It can be easily seen that the argu-
ments for and against election hinge upon the
theory of educational values and the capacity
of a school to effect individual programs

270

adapted to the various pupils. If we believe
that a limited number of well organized
secondary school subjects give either practical
capacity, cultural insight, or mental training
to be equaled in no other way, then it is a fair
assumption that the school program should
make these subjects prescriptive. There is
little place for election, since the self-knowl-
edge of the pupil and the experience of his
parents are altogether insufficient to offset
the results of the constructive effort which has
gone to the making of the programs If, on
the other hand, we are inclined to believe that
the educational values of certain subjects have
been greatly exaggerated, and that what the
pupil shall study is of less importance than his
interest in the subject and the methods em-
ployed in teaching it, then it can easily be seen
that satisfactory arguments can be made for
allowing a part selection on the part of the
pupil himself

Other factors naturally enter into the dis-
cussion Freedom of election means, naturally,
that popular teachers will be sought and un-
popular ones avoided, — a result \vhich may
tend to demoralize administration, and may
or may not tend to promote more effective1
pedagogical methods on the part of the teachers
themselves It is believed that free election
would tend to promote the study of practical
subjects, at the expense of the more cultural,
but again the relative educational values of
the two types will be disputed It is highly
probable that a more extended analysis of the
subject of election will have to wait a fuller
and more scientific formulation of educational
theory, as applied to secondary school studies

There are many reasons for believing that
the high school as at present organized contrib-
utes certain types of definite training more
effectively than it develops culture and appre-
ciation On the other hand, the greatest de-
ficiency of existing high school programs seems
to be their incapacity to produce results of
a persistent nature, for example, the study of
a foreign language or of mathematics, e\en
when well carried on, fails largely in the face
of later demands , the general goal aimed at is
not realized Distinctions will have to be
made among various high school studies, with
a view to determining the specific principles or
purpose which each should serve in a program
of fairly well defined educational ends, and in
adapting to each subject its own suitable
method This may be illustrated in the case
of English. One object of the teaching of
English in the high schools is undoubtedly
efficiency of expression, both oral and written
Another object, however, and quite distinct
from the above, is appreciation of good litera-
ture It seems highly probable that these
two ends will have to be attained by radically
different methods. The same distinction will
apply to certain of the sciences, when pursued
from the standpoint of application in vocatu n

HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES

on the one hand, or service in general culture
on the other.

The general discussion of the elective system
has probably greatly promoted interest in the
problems of educational values It brought
subjects into competition, as it were, in a defi-
nite way Until, however, more knowledge
is available, many educators will assume that
the choices made by the pupil, even when
dictated by whim and caprice, may, and, so far
as he is concerned, will be no worse than the
choice made by a more or less inflexible system
which not only fails to take account of him as
an individual, but which, to a large extent, has
had its origin independently of the study of any
group whatever of actual living individuals

Six Years' Course of Study — The fact that
the American secondary school, unlike similar
schools in Europe, takes the pupil at fourteen,
or on the completion of an elementary course
extending over eight years, is to a certain extent
one of the effects of the historical development
of American education The common school
or the elementary school was first established,
and, in order to accomplish a full measure of
general education, it involved eight or nine,
and sometimes ten grades, each a year m length
The typical American elementary school of
to-dav consists of eight grades, and carries 1he
average pupil from the age of six to the age4 of
fourteen The first secondary schools — the
Latin-grammar school and then the academy
— partook something of the character of
European secondary schools, in that they main-
tained preparatory classes in which attention
was early given to some secondary school studies.
The public high school, however, was almost
universally designed to succeed the elementary
school course, and to build on it As a con-
sequence, admission to the high school every-
where requires the completion of an eight-year
elementary course, and brings the pupil in at
approximately fourteen or fifteen years of age

This situation has obvious defects It can-
not be insisted, of course, that all American
children, or even any considerable number of
them, should complete the high school course
of study. For those who do, however, the
postponement of the beginning of foreign
language study, as well as of algebra and geome-
try, works undoubted hann For the boy who
is to go through high school and into college,
there can be little doubt but that the years
between twelve and fourteen under the present
system of schooling are largely wasted, at
least, when viewed from the standpoint of the
mastery of particular studies which should
assist in the higher schools The attention
given to this subject in recent years has led to
a fairly widespread demand for a six-year
course of study in the high school, which should
take pupils at approximately the age which is
becoming customary m some European
countries, and which especially should aid
them to begin the study of foreign language at

a time when the vocal and auditory organs
are still plastic The administrative diffi-
culties have been so great, however, that only
in rare instances has the experiment been tried
The chief difficulty is found m the unwillingness
of the American people to permit either a dif-
ferentiation of schools or a differentiation of
classes of studies before the elementary school
course has been completed On the other
hand, there is little tolerance for the prescrip-
tion of foreign language study for all pupils
in the upper grades of the elementary school
The result has been that, while a considerable
literature has been produced bearing on the
desirability of extending high school studies
and high school methods downward, very little
of a practical nature has been accomplished

The problem is now being approached in sonic
cities in a different way It is recognized that
the boys and girls from twelve to fourteen
years of age possess certain distinctive char-
acteristics and educational needs, which should
separate them from the primary school which
has preceded In not a few cities it is now
customary to group the upper grades in what
are sometimes called intermediate schools
where favorable opportunities may be given
for manual training, domestic science for girls,
commercial studies, and, in a few instances,
foreign language While few of these schools
have reached the point of differentiating their
courses, there can be no doubt that m a large
number of instances they are ready to do so,
if public opinion responds favorably One of
these schools in a Massachusetts city (Fitch-
burg) now receives pupils on the completion of
the sixth grade, and admits them to any one
of four courses Certain studies, such as Eng-
lish, history, geography, and music are common
for all, and are taken jointly m the classes
Certain other studies are alternative, and it is
on the basis of these that the courses are dis-
tinguished For example, boys who wish it
may take two hours of manual training pei day,
and thereby become members of the industrial
arts course; for them the arithmetic and
drawing will also be somewhat specialized along
the lines of the industrial arts Another group
of boys and girls, instead of manual arts, may
take a foreign language, the beginnings of
algebra, geometry, and English history This
is obviously a high school preparatory course,
and may legitimately be regaided as part of a
six years' high school course, which it is hoped
m time may become five years in length, thus
admitting pupils to college one year earlier
A third course offers to girls two hours per day
of household arts, the subject being treated
very broadly, with related history and science.
A fourth course, known as the commercial
course, offers opportunities m typewriting,
commercial arithmetic, the beginnings of book-
keeping, and a line of work wherein commercial
geography and industrial history are combined.

It is not intended that any of the above

271

HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES

courses shall be vocational, but that some of
them shall draw from the world of vocational
activities studies and problems that are sig-
nificant and vital to the pupils concerned.
Neither is it intended that any of the above
courses shall be a blind alley, in the sense that
it leads to no higher work Nevertheless, it
is obvious that a pupil from the industrial
arts course who wishes to go through high
school will have to take additional time in
order to meet the language requirements

The above represents a type of development
m educational administration which will prob-
ablv realize the purposes of the so-called six
years' course of study, without involving pie-
mature differentiation of classes of pupils on
the basis of their ability or economic state in
life It will afford an opportunity to make
of foreign language study something more
effective than is possible at the present time
It will promote departmental teaching, and
the introduction of college-trained teachers in
the higher grades D S

Maintenance and Support — It is only
within recent years that any real attempt to
aid in the maintenance of secondary schools
has been made by the states 01 counties, and
the giving of such aid, though becoming more
common each year, is still not a general feature
of our state school systems (See APPORTION-
MENT OF FUNDS ) In some states no distinctions
are made between common or elementary schools
and high or secondary schools, either in statistics
or in finance Communities which maintain
secondary schools arc placed on the same foot-
ing as communities that do not, with the result
that the maintenance of a high school is purely
a local burden Secondary education is, com-
paratively speaking, so recent an undertaking
that most states have not as yet made any
definite provision for the equalization of its
advantages These schools, however, have re-
cently giown greatly in popular favor, due in
part to the need of increased education to meet
the changed conditions of life, to the introduc-
tion of new studies and methods of instruction,
and to the changed conception of the purpose
of secondary instruction The result is that
the high school is destined soon to be a regular
and a necessary part of our systems of public
instruction, and that high school facilities will
be provided for all This change in attitude
is certain to add force to the demand for some
form of general aid for secondary, as well as
for elementary instruction The maintenance
of elementary schools and a state university, and
the refusal to help in the maintenance of second-
ary schools, is not a logical position for a state
to assume.

The expense of maintaining secondary schools
is so much greater than that for elementary
schools, due to the need of better trained and
more expensive teachers, smaller classes, the
smaller number enrolled, and more expensive
teaching equipment, that the need of some

272

general aid is apparent, if they are to be de-
veloped at all generally This is accentuated
by the fact that the cost for elementary schools
is also increasing, and that the money now at
hand and originally intended for the support
of elementary schools alone is rapidly proving
insufficient for the support of both classes of
schools Manv communities are at present
trying to support a full twelve-year school
system with funds hardly sufficient to properly
maintain the elementary schools

Such provision as has been made by the
different states extends from mere permission
to communities to form such schools and to tax
themselves to pay for them, — which is analo-
gous to the first legislative permission to the
people of a community to organize a taxing
district and tax every one for the support of an
elementary school, — to a general state tax
levied for the support of secondary education
and apportioned and used for that purpose
alone The first is the mere beginnings and
the second is the culmination of the process,
and between the two are many intermediate
plans for the granting of some degree of aid to
secondary schools

Mere permission to cities, towns, districts,
and unions of districts to form a high school
and to tax themselves to pay for it, must be
regarded as the first step in the process of the
evolution of a system of general aid to second-
ary education A petition and an election are
the usual preliminary steps, and after the forma-
tion of the high school district an annual local
tax, frequently of a limited amount, is pei-
mitted for the support of the school Some-
times such schools are under the control of
a separate school board, known as a high
school board (qv\ and sometimes the board
which has control of the elementary schools
merely takes charge of the high school also
A number of states have taken this first step,
but have not gone further The next step is
found where the principle of local support ih
retained, but the taxing area is extended to
a larger area, as to the county as a whole
In states which have taken this step, common
in the West, we find the county high school
The common features of these permissive high
school laws are the necessity of a petition ask-
ing for the submission of the question of the
formation of a county high school to a vote of
the people, a special election to decide the
question, the appointment or election of a board
of trustees for the school, an annual county tax
for support, free tuition in the school to all
residents of the county, and usually provisions
for the dissolution of the school, after a time,
if desired, by vote of the people. With the
formation of a second county high school at
some other place, or with the segregation of
a certain district or districts to form a local
high school separate from the county high
school, the process of subdivision of the high
school district has begun.

HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES

The next step in granting aid to high schools
is taken when the state begins to make a series
of grants, or subsidies, to aid secondary
schools A number of states have taken this
step, though the plan has been worked out, but
poorly in most of the states The granting of
such aid naturally stimulates the development
of high schools, and if the appropriation to
pay the grants or subsidies is not of a flexible
form, and one that increases with the growth
of the schools, the result will be a failure to
provide the aid intended Where a definite
legislative appropriation has to be made to pay
the grant, as in a number of the states, the
appropriation is likely to fail to increase as
fast as the schools do, and the result is a
forced scaling down of the grant In Minne-
sota, for example, the state aid determined
upon was $1000 to each properly approved
school, but the schools increased so much
faster than did the appropriation that the
grants were scaled lower and lowei for a num-
ber of years The same thing happened in
Pennsylvania This gives an uncertainty to
the value of the grant which makes the method
less desirable than other plans that can be
devised The method, also, places all of the
premium on the mere existence of the school,
but none on the employment of a sufficient
number of teachers to do the work properly,
or on the addition of such subjects of instruc-
tion as will make the school of greater worth
A school with only a single "classical course"
stands on the same footing, so far as state aid
is concerned, with another school which em-
ploys relatively more teachers and offers two
or three courses of instruction The second
school will cost much more per capita to
maintain, assuming that the two are located
in somewhat the same kind of communities,
and will attract more students and will render
a much larger educational service, but under
the lump subsidy plan of aid it will receive
no greater reward than the smaller and poorer
school. If it is worth while to aid secondary
education at all, then the state ought to so
apportion its aid as to place a premium on the
giving of instruction under good educational
conditions. The subsidy method places no
premium on growth or better instruction and
makes the position of the state as to the im-
provement of existing conditions a purely
negative one. The subsidy method marks the
beginnings of state aid, and ought to be
abandoned as soon as possible for a better
form of assistance If the subsidy plan is to
be used, it ought to be graded both as to
years and character of instruction offered, and
the power to grant, scale down, or withhold
the grant ougnt to be centralized in some
responsible educational body, possessing powers
of inspection. The one marked merit of the
subsidy plan, where graded subsidies are em-
ployed based on the number of years of in-
struction offered, is that it places a premium

on the development of two-year and three-
year high schools, as well as four-year schools
Any good instruction beyond the grammar
school, even if for only one year and taught
to only a few pupils, is a stimulating influence
which reacts most favorably on all lower
instruction Two-year high schools frequently
develop into four-year high schools, and
communities are usually able to provide two
years of instruction before they would be able
to provide a fully equipped four-year high
school.

California and New Jersey stand as ex-
amples of states which have reached the cul-
mination of the process In both states the
high school has been adopted as a part of
the state school system, though by a some-
what different method in each In California
the complete adoption of the high school has
come through the provision of separate and
special taxation for the support of high schools
and by a constitutional provision that the
income from the state school fund, and the
proceeds of all previous taxation, can be used
only for the support of elementary schools
This forever prevents the robbing of the ele-
mentary schools to maintain high schools, a
process which goes on in many of our states
For the support of the high schools of the
state a special state tax for high schools is
levied and apportioned To keep the income
for this purpose constantly up to the needs
of the schools, it has been provided that the
tax to be levied shall be determined annually
by multiplying the number of high school
pupils in average daily attendance in the state
the preceding year by $15, which requires a
state tax of approximately \\ mills This IN
then apportioned to all approved high schools
m the state on the following basis one third
equally to all schools, regardless of size, and
two thirds to all schools on the basis of average
daily attendance The apportionment plan
could be improved still further by making a
partial apportionment on the basis of the
number of teachers actually employed Length
of term is here a negligible factor, because all
schools are required to maintain a term of at
least 180 days to receive any aid New Jersey-
offers an example of the complete incorpora-
tion of secondary education into the state
school system Here the apportionment of
school funds is made to high schools as to ele-
mentary schools, on the teacher basis, viz
$400 for cvoiy teacher actually employed in
each high school, and the remainder on a
basis of so much per pupil per day m actual
attendance, in all kinds of schools The ap-
portionment of state aid to a high school is
thus made on a plan similar to a kindergarten,
primary school, or grammar school All belong
to the same state school system, all share in
the apportionment of funds, and all are paid
out of a common fund. The value of such a
plan, if sufficient revenue can be obtained, is

VOL. Ill — T

273

HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES HIGH SCHOOLS IN UNITED STATES

at once evident High schools cease to be a
separate part of the school system, and become
an integral part of the system of public in-
struction. The state then rewards a com-
munity's efforts according to the amount of
instruction provided, as measured by the
number of teachers employed, and according
to the actual amount of work done, as meas-
ured by the attendance upon the instruction
offered If a rural union school will provide
only the ninth-grade work, and thus give the
boys and girls in the rural districts a taste of
something boyond the common school branches,
the state will reward such an effort by a
grant for both the teacher employed and the
extra attendance resulting. If a village will
employ one additional teacher and provide
two years of high school instruction, the state
will similarly reward such effort To the large
city school the state offers a similar standing
premium on additional effort, every new
teacher and line of work added receiving
additional aid The simplicity, justice, and
automatic adjustment of the plan to com-
munity needs and efforts are strong points in
its favor One thing, though, which ought
always to accompany such a complete incor-
poration of the high schools into the public
school system, is a proportional increase of
available funds, with provision for an auto-
matic increase There is no wisdom in incor-
porating high schools into the state school
system, if the elementary schools are to be
made to pay the bills

Such an incorporation of high schools into
the system of public instruction is not possible
if the census basis of apportionment is used
(See article on APPORTIONMENT OF SCHOOL
FUNDS ) The essential unit in higher, as in
elementary instruction, is the teacher who
must be employed to teach the pupils, and not
the number of pupils alone Under a com-
bination of teacher-actually-employed and at-
tendance bases, as used in New Jersey, the
high school is placed on the same basis as
any other school, and thus becomes an integral
part of the system of public instruction The
California and the New Jersey plans arc the
best that have been evolved for the support and
incorporation of high schools The California
plan is especially meritorious in that it pro-
vides a separate and a large fund for aid to
secondary education, and the New Jersey
plan is especially commendable in that it
establishes one organization hi view of the
possibility of a reorganization of the plans for
upper grammar grade and high school instruc-
tion (see article on INTERMEDIATE HIGH
SCHOOLS), this must be considered an impor-
tant gain. If in the future a six-year high school
should prove to be a desirable addition to our
school work, the present somewhat regid clas-
sification in some states would stand in the way.

Another form of support for high schools
comes in the attempt to abolish tuition fees for

274

those children who do not happen to live in
high school districts Children who live in
cities, towns, or districts which maintain high
schools of course have free high school tuition,
but children who live in adjoining districts
which are not a part of some high school dis-
trict are almost invariably forced to pay a
tuition charge, and this is frequently made
very high for the purpose of reducing the
attendance of such outside pupils The un-
fairness of such tuition charges is at once evi-
dent, and a number of states have attempted
to do away with them The method employed
in doing so vanes in different states In
Indiana the pupil applies in person for a
transfer, which, if granted, carries with it the
payment of fees; in Ohio the township from
which the pupil comes is directed to assume
the fees, in Wisconsin a bill is piesented by
the school receiving the pupil to the district
from which he comes, and then a tax is levied
to pay the bill; in Massachusetts the town in
which the pupil resides must pay the tuition
charge, unless it is one of a class of poorer
and smaller towns, in which case the state
pays the bill, and in Connecticut the state
reimburses towns for two thirds of the tuition
paid, and will also pay one half of the cost of
transportation In California a very simple
and very effective method has recently been
worked out, whereby every child m the state
has fiee high school privileges The county
superintendent of schools of each county is
required to estimate annually the number of
probable high school pupils for the coming
year who live in non-high-school territory,
and then to have levied by the county authori-
ties a county high-school-tuition tax sufficient
to pay the tuition charge of all non-high-school
district pupils in the neaiost or most con-
venient high school As the state pays the
high schools for all pupils in average daily
attendance, this includes state aid to all It
remains purely optional with a district now
whether it will form a high school of its own,
join a high school district already in existence,
or pay its tax for the tuition of non-high-
school pupils. In any case the cost is paid by
general taxation, levied on all property for
high school purposes E. P. C.

References : —

BOLTON, F E Special State Aid to High Schools
Educ Rev., Vol XXXI, pp 141-166

BROWN, E E The Making of our Middle Schools
(Now York, 1903 )

BROWN, J F The American High School (New York,
19Q9)

CUBBERLEY, E P School Funds and their Apportion-
ment, Ch XIV (New York, 1905 )

DAVENPORT, E Education for Efficiency (Boston, 1909.)

England, Board of Education Special Reports on
Educational Subjects, Vol XI. Education in the
United States of America (London, 1902 )

HOLLIBTER, H A High School Administration (Bos-
ton, 1909 )

ING LIB, A J Rue of the High School in Massachusetts
(New York, 1911 )

HIGH SCHOOL, ACCREDITED

HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES

JOHNSTON, C. H High School Education. (New York,
1912)

Proceedings of the Association of College and Prepara-
tory Schools of the Middle States and Maryland

Report of the Committee on Secondary School Studies,
known as the Report of the Committee of Ten
(Appointed by the N E A in July, 1H<)2 )

SNYDBR, E R The Legal Status of Rural High Schools.
(New York, 1900 )

See also Educational Review arid School Review

HIGH SCHOOL, ACCREDITED — See

ACCREDITED SCHOOLS.

HIGH SCHOOL, ACCREDITING OF. —

See ACCREDITED SCHOOLS, COLLEGE EXAM-
INATION AND CERTIFICATION BOARDS

HIGH SCHOOL, AGRICULTURAL —See
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, under the sub-
division on Secondary Schools

HIGH SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTER.

— Sec SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTER; also the
RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM

HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETICS. — See ATH-
LETICS, EDUCATIONAL

HIGH SCHOOL BOARDS —Boards of
control having charge of the general manage-
ment of high schools Such hoards arc found
in states where the organization of high schools,
separate from elementary schools, has been
provided for in the laws This is commonly
found in the West In many Western states
the law provides for the organization of dis-
trict high schools, town high schools, and city
high schools, by action of the people or of the
Boards of Education or Trustees for such dis-
tricts, towns, or cities ; and also for the organi-
zation of union high schools by the joint
action of two or more boards or districts, and
county high schools by vote of the people of
an entire county In the first case the Board
of Education for the elementary schools of the
district, town, or city becomes the high school
board as well, and, except in so far as the
finances of the two schools are usually kept
separate, the- two classes of schools are managed
as a unified system by the one board The
added high school merely becomes a part of
the public school system of the district, town,
or city, and has no separate management,
except in some states where high school
money must be levied and paid out separately
from elementary school funds In the case of
union district high schools a separate board of
education is elected to take charge of the
high school, usually consisting of representa-
tives from each of the districts so uniting to
form the union high school In the case of
county high schools, the County Board of
Education, where such a body exists, is usually
made, ex officio, the high school board for all
county high schools, and where it does not

exist a special high school board is elected 1 i
many of the Southern states, and in some of the
upper Mississippi Valley states, county high
schools, partly or largely agricultural in type,
have been created within recent years Those
arc supported by general county taxation
and state aid grants These schools are under
the county boards of education, or special county
high school boards, elected or appointed for the
special purpose The county superintendent is
commonly a member, ex officio, of such high
school boards E P. C

Reference : —

The California School Law, High School Act, contains
a good explanation of this form of hopaiate high school
management, and the North Carolina or North Dakota
School Laws describe the county high school of agri-
culture type of high bchool management

HIGH SCHOOL, COEDUCATION IN. —

See COEDUCATION.

HIGH SCHOOL, COMMERCIAL. — See

COMMERCIAL EDUCATION

HIGH SCHOOL DISTRICTS — School
districts organized primarily for the establish-
ment and maintenance of a high, or sccondaiy
school Sometimes these coincide \utli exist-
ing school districts, formed foi the mainte-
nance of elementary schools, as in towns or
cities; sometimes they are larger and include
two or more elementary school districts, and
not infrequently a dozen or more elemental y
school districts Sometimes the high school
district is the same in size as a township, and
sometimes, especially in the West, the same
in size as a county See DISTRICTS, HIGH
SCHOOL BOARDS, HIGH SCHOOLS, SUPPORT OF

E p c

HIGH SCHOOL, EVENING —See CON-
TINUATION SCHOOLS, INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES — Tins
term applies to organizations of high school
pupils modeled in imitation of the (Jreek
letter societies in colleges (See FRATERNI-
TIES.) The high school secret society is
usually designated by a Creek letter symbol
taken from the initials of the motto of the
club Rites of initiation, gups, pass words
and the other usages of secret organizations
are common features

These societies began to appeal about the
year 1890 At first the movement attracted
but little attention, although in some instances
high school principals and teachers gave sym-
pathy and support, but in most cases wherever
any attitude was assumed by the school
authorities, it was in opposition to such
societies The number of organizations in-
creased rapidly, and with this increase came
a more thorough organization The society
chapters began to form national orgamza-

275

HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES

HIGH SCHOOL FRATERNITIES

turns Instead of using the homes of the
members as places for the gatherings, many
chapters secured rooms m office buildings,
wherein meetings were held The expense of
membership increased. Serious abuses ap-
peared in the practice of the rites of initiation
and in the influence of the societies upon high
school discipline and scholarship As a result,
the subject of high school secret societies
came to attract the earnest attention of
schoolmen, of superintendents, and of various
educational organizations throughout the
United States One of the most notable
investigations was that conducted by the
National Education Association through a
special committee, reports from which were
presented at the 1904 meeting at St Louis
and at Asbury Park in 1905 In 1904 a report
was made by a committee on the influence of
fraternities in secondary schools to the eight-
eenth Educational Conference of the acade-
mies and high schools in relation with the
University of Chicago Under the auspices
of the Massachusetts Council of Education a
study of high school fraternities and sororities
was made and a report presented to that
body in 1905 The consensus of opinion in
each case was that the high school secret
society, whether a fraternity composed of
boys, or a sorority composed of girls, is an
undesirable element in the life of the sec-
ondary school The reasons adduced are as
follows-

(1) The influence on the school is injurious
by reason of the division of the school into
cliques, the introduction of petty politics, and
the loss of interest on the part of pupils in
literary and other organizations with serious
purpose (2) The pupil suffers injury, the
protection of secrecy gives opportunity for
much evil to be practiced in the fraternity
rooms There is a decline in the spirit and
standards of scholarship of the individual pupil
(3) There is no real need for such organizations
m the high school because conditions are so
different from those in college (4) Such
societies set up improper standards, and counter-
act the influence of the teacher (5) They
constitute a source of danger in the proper
government of the school

As a result of the findings of these various
committees and of the expressions of opinion
from men prominent in the work of education,
boards of education have undertaken to lessen
the influence and power of these societies or
to eliminate them entirely from school life.
Often such action has been met by determined
opposition on the part not only of pupils, but
of parents, In several instances the decrees
of boards of education have been resisted
and an appeal made to the courts A notable
instance is that of the Seattle High School
Fraternity, before the Supreme Court of the
state of Washington. The directors of school
district No. 1 in Seattle had established

276

a rule whereby the use of the name of the
Seattle High School by a fraternity was for-
bidden, and pupils were prohibited from
becoming members of any secret society under
penalty of being deprived of all privileges of
the school outside of the classroom. A pupil
so punished brought suit through his guardian
to compel the school directors to restore him
to these privileges The judge sustained the
action of the school committee. In several
other cases the right of the school authori-
ties to inflict various penalties on pupils for
membership in secret societies has been sus-
tained by the courts.

In a number of states drastic legislation has
been passed with a view to controlling or
abolishing the secret society in the high school
In 1907 Indiana, Kansas, and Minnesota passed
laws of this nature In addition to recourse
to legislation, principals, superintendents, and
school committees have undertaken in dif-
ferent cities to deal with the fraternity question
by appeal to public opinion and by regula-
tions forbidding the use of the schoolrooms,
the school name, or the recognition of the
organizations in any way in connection with
the school publications In some instances the
cooperation of parents has been secured and
the societies eliminated In other cases the
pupils themselves have joined with the teachers
and agreed to give up the organization The
influence of the secret societies in the school
itself has been successfully met by the en-
couragement on the part of the teachers of
clubs and organizations of pupils each of
which is based upon some real and valuable
interest, such as debating, publication of
school papeis, glee clubs, and French and
German circles Under proper guidance
membership in such organizations soon conies
to be valued and esteemed by the pupils, and
the secret society to some extent loses its
charms

The high school fraternity has its defendeis
not only amongst the pupils^ but among par-
ents and m the general public It is claimed
that such clubs constitute a natural and fitting
opportunity for the expression of the social
instincts of young people of high school age,
and that the members learn important lessons
in cooperation in managing the affairs of the
society and in conducting various enterprises
in the name of the club It is pointed out
by these advocates of the system that the
abuses of which so much complaint has been
made are incidental, and that under proper
supervision and control such evils need not
exist They argue further that in schools
where all the members are admitted to such
societies there will not arise feelings of rivalry
and jealousy such as exist where some members
are left out in the choice for these organizations.
The consensus of opinion is, however, against
the existence of such exclusive sets or coteries
of pupils in a public institution supported by

HIGH SCHOOL INSPECTION

HILDEBRAND

taxation, because their very presence is in-
consistent with a truly democratic spirit

W O

See FRATERNITIES
References : —
BROWN, J F American High School (New York,

1909 )
HILL, R r Socict Sonrties in High School, Educ Rev ,

Vol XLII1, 1912, pp 168-182.

HOLLIBTER, H A High School Administration (Bos-
ton, 1909 )
KELLAR, P G W Open School Organization School

Rev , 1905, Vol XIII, pp 10-14
Massachusetts Board of Education, Sixty-ninth R( port,

1904-1905, pp ISO 19S
MORRISON, G B Social Ethics and High School Life

School Rev , Vol XIII, pp 361-370
National Education Association Proceedings for 1()05,

pp 445-551 (Winona, Minn, 1900)
SMITH, S R Report of the Committee on the Influ-
ence of High School Fraternities School Rev ,
1905, Vol XIII, pp 1-10
Syiacuse School Board Reports, 1906-1907
United States Bureau of Education Rep Com Ed t
1907, p 437, 1908, p 127 Bulletin No 3, 1906,
pp 136 141 (Washington)

HIGH SCHOOL INSPECTION AND
APPROVAL - - See ACCREDITED SCHOOLS

HIGH SCHOOL INTERMEDIATE. — Sec

INTERMEDIATE HIGH SCHOOL.

HIGH SCHOOL, MANUAL TRAINING
— See MANUAL TRAINING

HIGH SCHOOL, NORMAL TRAINING
CLASS IN — See NORMAL SCHOOLS

HIGH SCHOOL, RELATION TO COL-
LEGE — See COLLEGE EXAMINATION AND
CERTIFICATION BOARDS, ACCREDITED SCHOOLS,
COLLEGE REQUIREMENTS FOR ADMISSION

HIGH SCHOOL, SELF-GOVERNMENT

IN — See SELF-GOVERNMENT IN SCHOOLS

HIGH SCHOOL, STATE AID FOR —

See HIGH SCHOOLS, Section on Support

HIGH SCHOOL TEACHERS, TRAINING

OF — See TEACHERS, TRAINING OF

HIGH SCHOOL, TUITION CHARGES

IN — See HIGH SCHOOL, section on Support.

HIGHER EDUCATION —A term some-
what loosely used with different connotations
not only in different countries, but in each
individual country In England it is used by
the Board of Education to refer to " educa-
tion other than elementary " (See Education
Act 1902, Pt III, §2); but in Graham Bal-
four's Educational System of Great Britain and
Ireland (Oxford, 1903) higher education refers
to " that general training given in Universities
and University Colleges," while the most
recent work on secondary education bears the
title Higher Education of Boys in England

(Norwood, C , and Hope, A H , London, 1909).
The same confusion exists in Germany. Lexis,
Das deutsche Unternchtswesen, uses the term
Das hdhere Schulwescn to refer to the second-
ary school system, while Fick, Auf Deutsch-
lands Hohen Schulen, deals entirely with the
German universities, and the term Hochschule
always signifies an institution of university
grade In southern Germany this attitude is
well marked by the designation of secondary
schools as Middle Schools (M ittclschulen)
The German use is also prevalent m the
United States, where higher education refers
to such education as is given above the high
schools Thus the title of Chancellor Brown's
work, The Making of our Middle 8( hook (New
York, 1903), is intended to mark the place of
secondary education as intermediate between
elementary and higher, and this use is more
clearly emphasized in various essays on
" Higher Education," which deal with the
education in the coUege and university In
France the term Education Supencur defi-
nitely means education beyond the secondary
schools.

See MITTELSCHULE.

HIGHER NORMAL SCHOOL
FRANCE — See NORMAL SCHOOLS

OF

HIGHLAND COLLEGE, HIGHLAND,

KAN — A coeducational institution which
grew out of the Indian Mission School
Opened as a university m 1857, it is under
the auspices of the Presbyterian Synod of
Kansas Academic, collegiate, commercial, and
music departments are maintained The en-
trance requirements are equivalent to about
fifteen units The degrees of A B and B S
are conferred on the completion of the neces-
sary courses

HIGHLAND PARK COLLEGE, DES
MOINES, LA — A coeducational institution
founded m 1889, now under the control of
the Presbyterian Church. It maintains a
normal college, academy, colleges of liberal
arts, law, engineering, pharmacy, music, ora-
tory, commerce, a correspondence school, and
a summer school The college gives degrees
of A B and B S , on three-year ^ courses
Lower credits aic required for admission to
the three-year engineering courses. There is a
faculty of sixty members

HILDEBRAND, HEINRICH RUDOLPH

(1824-1894) —German philologian, who exer-
cised considerable influence on the teaching of
German m elementary schools Born in Leip-
zig, he attended the Thomasschule, and thence
proceeded to the university He returned to
his old school in 1848, and proved a very
capable teacher. His interest, however, was
mainly in linguistics, and as early as 1859 he
began to assist Jacob Grimm in the edition

277

HILFSSCHULEN

HILL, THOMAS WRIGHT

of his dictionary, and on his death became
one of the coeditors of the work In 1868 he
resigned his position at the school, and m I860
became extraordinary and in 1874 ordinary
professor in the University of Leipzig His
chief work was Vom deutschen Sprachunterrieht
in der Schule und von deutscher Erziehung und
Bilduny uberhaupt (Teaching of German in the
School and German Education and Culture
generally, 1865), in which he recognizes the
cultural and national value of training in the
vernacular He emphasizes the importance of
oral expression in the schools and the teaching
of the significance and history of words, believ-
ing, us he did, that language in its development
presents a composite picture of national his-
tory and growth For similar reasons he would
not neglect dialect forms, the embodiment of
the thought and life of the people His other
woiks are licitrage zum deutschen Unterncht
(Contributions to the Teaching of Gei man, 1886),
Gexamnieltc A ufsatze und Vortr&gc zur deutschen
Philologie und zum deutschen Unterncht (Col-
lected Essays and Lectures on German Philology
and Instruction, 1890).

References : —

LAUDE, R Rudolf Hildebrand und seine Schule (Leip-
zig, 190.S )

LINDE, E Pcrt>t)nlichkeU*>ptldagogik mil besonderer Be-
ruchktilitiuuno dci Unterncht 'sweue Rudolf Hilde-
brund* (Leipzig, 1905 )

HILFSSCHULEN —Sec EXCEPTIONAL CHIL-
DREN, SPECIAL CLASSES.

HILL, FRANK ALPINE (1841-1903) —
Superintendent of public instruction in Massa-
chusetts; was educated at the Biddeford, Me ,
High School and at Bowdom College, graduat-
ing in 1862 He was principal of secondary
schools in Maine and Massachusetts from 1862
to 1S93, when he was chosen secretary of the
State Board of Education of Massachusetts,
which position he filled for ten years He
was active in the organization of district school
supeiintendents in the state. His educational
wiitmgs include Seven Lamps of the Teacher
(1902), a textbook on United States history
(with John Fiske), and numerous essays on
educational subjects. W S M

References : —

HANUH, PAUL H Frank Alpine Hill School Rev,
Dumber, 1903, Vol XI, pp 795-798

HOLING, KAY GUEENE Biographical Sketch in revised
edition of Hill's Seven Lamps of the Teacher (Bos-
ton, 1904 )

HILL, JOHN HENRY (1791-1882) —
Founder of the Hill School at Athens, Greece;
was graduated from Columbia University in
1807 He went to Greece as a missionary in
1830, and two years later established the Hill
School at Athens This institution, which
includes elementary, secondary, and normal
departments, had large influence on the sub-

sequently organized municipal schools at
Athens and the national schools of Greece,
He translated a number of American and Eng-
lish books into the modern Greek W S M

HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT. — See

HILL, THOMAS WRIGHT

HILL, SIR ROWLAND. — See HILL,
THOMAS WRIGHT

HILL, THOMAS (181871891) —Twentieth
president of Harvard University; was gradu-
ated from Harvard He was president of
Antioch College from 1859 to 1862, succeeding
Horace Mann (q v ), and of Harvard University
from 1862 to 1868 His educational works
include an Arithmetic (1845), First Lessons in
Geometry (1855), Liberal Education (1855),
and True Order of Studies (1859) He invented
the occultator and other contrivances for the
teaching of mathematics W S M

See HARVARD UNIVERSITY

HILL, THOMAS WRIGHT (1763-1851) —
English educational reformer, born at Kidder-
minster, Apr. 24, 1763, the son of a baker
and dealer in horse corn Hill received his
early education in a school at Market Har-
borough kept by a Nonconformist minister
In childhood he showed a strong taste for
literature and physical science At the age of
fourteen he was apprenticed to a brass founder
in Birmingham, where he became a member
of Joseph Priestley's congregation, and threw
himself with energy into the work of Sunday
school teaching in connection with Priestley's
chapel He invented a system of shorthand,
and devised a plan for the representation of
minorities by a proportionate vote Hill was
the father of a distinguished family: viz
Matthew Davenport Hill (1792-1872), reformer
of the criminal law, friend of Jeremy Bentham
(q v ), colleague of Mary Carpenter (q v ) in
the establishment of reformatories, and active
advocate of the boarding out of pauper chil-
dren; Edwin Hill (1793-1876), writer on the
currency and an ingenious inventor who im-
proved the machinery for the manufacture of
stamps; Rowland Hill (1795-1879), who
planned the scheme of penny postage and by
persistent advocacy forced it upon a reluctant
and ungrateful government , Arthur Hill (1795-
1879), schoolmaster, whose son, George Birk-
beck Hill, was editor of Boswell's Life of
Johnson ; and Frederic Hill, Inspector of
Prisons in Scotland and afterwards Assistant
Secretary in the Post Office

Hill's school in Birmingham was the result
of the joint labors of himself, his wife, and
four of his sons, Matthew Davenport, Edwin,
Rowland, and Arthur. It is difficult to assign
the original ideas which underlay its organi-
zation and discipline to the several members
of this family group Perhaps the greatesi

278

HILL, THOMAS WRIGHT

HILL, THOMAS WRIGHT

credit should be ascribed to Rowland, who,
greatly influenced by Maria Edge worth's
stones, began to teach in his father's school at
the age of twelve, distinguished himself as a
teacher of mathematics, arid, at the age of
seventeen, undertook the entire management
of his father's money affairs and at last cleared
off his debts Rowland recorded in his Journal
that it was the height of his ambition " to
establish a school for the uppei middle classes
wherein the science and practice of education
might be improved to such a degree as to show
that it is now in its infancy " A new house
was built for the school at Hazelwood m the
outskirts of Birmingham, and its educational
method became famous as the Hazelwood
system Special attention was paid in the
curriculum (a) to the teaching of languages
in which the " natural method " was em-
ployed, ? e both dead and modern languages
\vere taught m great measure orally and by
conversational methods, the abstract tech-
nicalities of grammar being relegated to a sub-
ordinate place, (6) to elocution, with the pur-
]) >sc of refining literary taste and teaching
light enunciation and inflection, (c) to the
art of writing in such a way as to combine
beauty and swiftness, (d) to the scientific
t 'aching of arithmetic, including mental cal-
culation and applied geometry and open-air
surveying , and above all (c) to the formation
of character and to inculcation of right ideas
of moral duty, including a sense of civic
obligation, the cultivation of social sympathy,
and the love of justice A full description of
the aims and methods of the school was pub-
lished (anonymously) by Matthew Davenport
Hill in a work entitled Plans for the Govern-
ment and Liberal Instruction of Boys in Large
Numbers, drawn from Experience This book
was epoch-making It forms one link of a
chain of influence, which, beginning with
Rousseau's Ennlc, took on English characteris-
tics in the Practical Education (1798) of R L
and Maria Edgeworth (qqv), and subse-
quently culminated in Stanley's Life of Thomas
Arnold (1844) The authors of the book show
that they are well acquainted with some of the
writings of Pcstalozzi and also of the older
English educational reformers and of the
French encyclopedists of the eighteenth cen-
tury Shortly after its publication (in 1822),
Hill's book was reviewed by De Quinccy It
fascinated Jeremy Bentham, and secured for
the school the enthusiastic patronage of the
Benthamite group Numbers of pupils were
sent to the school from the newly founded
republics of South America and from Greece.
A school was established in Stockholm in
imitation of it There is little doubt that the
educational discussions provoked by the pub-
lication of the book had considerable influence
upon the mind of Dr Arnold, and bore fruit
in his work at Rugby, 1828-1848 In 1S27
the main body of the school was tiansfcrred

from Hazelwood to Bruce Castle, Tottenham,
near London

As for the mechanism of their plan of school
government, they recognized their indebtedness
to the monitorial tradition of medieval edu-
cation and of the English Public Schools, but
disclaimed any debt to Boll and Lancaster,
whose services they recognized, but whose pur-
pose they regarded as dissimilar They ap-
plied somewhat inconsiderately to school con-
ditions the machinery of elective local govern-
ment, thus anticipating later experiments in
the formation of the school city Their ideal
was a judiciously supervised, self-governing
boy democracy The details of their scheme
were ovenntricate and a little doctrinaire
Joshua Toulmin Smith (1816-1869), himself
a native of Birmingham, and, like the Hills, a
member of the Unitarian Church, shared the
same antiquarian enthusiasm for purr local
democracy But the vital significance of the
educational doctrine of the Hills lay in its
emphasis upon the moral and spiritual power
which may be developed through the wise
organization of corporate Hfo in a skillfull}
ordered community This is the conception
which appealed to Thomas Arnold (gt;),and
to which he gave effective development at
Rugby, with far-reaching lesults upon highoi
education throughout the world The Hills
were thus among the first to give utterance in
the sphere of education to the new collectivist
ideal which arose in reaction to the individual
ist presuppositions of eighteenth-century ia-
tionalism and of the French Revolution One
defect of their scheme, as of Dr Arnold's, \vas
that their school bore no organic relation to the
public life of the adult community which it
served The Hills in their private school, like
Dr Arnold in the endowed school at Rugby,
were, though intensely civic in purpose, un-
consciously separatist in their influence upon
subsequent educational organization But m
the circumstances of the time, this was IIIOM-
table — tho close connection of King Edwan I
School, Birmingham, with the Church of Eng-
land making it natural that Nonconformist
parents of the middle ranks should support n
private school more in accordance with then
convictions, just as the presuppositions of tho
then central government made it natural that
Arnold of Rugby should resist any extension
of state control over the religious and intel-
lectual life of the great Public Schools. A chief
part of the work of recent educational reform-
ers in England has lam in the attempt to
bring the conception of corporate school life
(which is largely due to the work of the Hills
and of Dr Arnold) into living relation to the
educational systems under government and
local authorities

A second defect in the system of the Hills,
as also in that of Arnold of Rugby, was that it
tended to induce precocity of moral sensitive-
ness A formoi pupil, W. L. Sargant, wiote

270

HILL, WALTER HENRY

HIPPAHCHUS

of it: " By juries and committees, by marks
and by appeals to a sense of honour, discipline
was maintained But this was done at too
great a sacrifice The thoughtlessness, the
spring, the elation of childhood were taken
from us, we were premature men "

M E. 8
References : —

HILL, MATTHEW DAVENPORT Public Education,
Plans for the Government and Liberal Instruction of
Boys in Large Numbers, dniwn from Experience
(London, 1822 , 2d ed , 1894 )

HILL, SIR ROWLAND and FREDERIC Laws of Hazel-
wood School (1827 )

HILL, SIR ROWLAND and BIRXBECX, G Life of tiir
Rowland Hill and History of Penny Postage (Lon-
don, 1880 )
Memoir of Matthew Davenport Hill. By his daughters

(London, 1878 )
Remain* of Thomas Wright Hill (Privately pnnted,

1859)

SAROANT, W L Essays by a Birmingham Manu-
facturer, Vol II (London, 1870 )
THORNTON, J S The Initiative of Private Schools
Educ Times (London), April, 1911, Vol LXIV,
P 155

HILL, WALTER HENRY (1822-1907) —
Jesuit educatoi ; was educated at St Mary's
College at Marion, Ky , and at St Louis Uni-
versity He was instructor in St Joseph
College, Ky , and St Louis University, and was
president of Xavier College from 1865 to 1869
He wafe author of Elements of Philosophy (1873),
Ethics (1878), and Historical Sketch vf St.
Louis University (1879) W. 8. M.

HILLARD, GEORGE STILLMAN (1808-
1S79) —Educational writer and textbook
author, was graduated from Harvard College
in 1828 Between 1856 and 1863 he pub-
lished twelve school readers He was also the
author of a work on public instruction in Prus-
sia (1836) and of numerous articles on the
common schools of New England

W. S M

HILLHOUSE, JAMES (1754-1832) —
Statesman, graduated from Yale College in
1773 He engaged in the practice of law;
served as an officer during the Revolutionary
War; represented Connecticut in Congress
from 1791 to 1810, acting as president pro
tern pore of the Senate after the election of Thomas
Jefferson to the presidency; he was commis-
sioner of the common school fund of Connecti-
cut (practically state superintendent of educa-
tion) from 1811 to 1825, and for fifty years
treasurer of Yale College (1782-1832)

W S. M.
Reference : —

BARNARD, H. American Jour, of Educ.t 1859, Vol. VI,
pp 326-366

HILLSDALE COLLEGE, HILLS DALE,
MICH — A coeducational institution, opened
Hoc. 4, 1844, at Spring Arbor, Mich, as
the Michigan Central College In 1853 the
Mtc was changed to Hillsdale, but the college*

was not opened there until Nov 7, 1855
There are seven departments, as follows: liberal
arts, preparatory, theology, music, fine arts,
oratory, household economics, pedagogics, busi-
ness and shorthand There were twenty-six
members on the instructing staff in 1910-191 1
The total enrollment in the same year was 371
students.

HINDU EDUCATION — Sec INDIA, EDU-
CATION IN.

HINDU NUMERALS. — Sec NOTATION

HINSDALE, BURKE AARON (1837-1900)
— American professor of education and edu-
cational writer; was bom at Wadsworth, Ohio,
on Mar 313 1837, and was educated at, the
Eclectic Institute (afterwards Hnain College)
He was for several years engaged in the work
of the ministry He was president of Hiram
College from 1870 to 1882, superintendent of
the schools of Cleveland from 1882 to ISSfi,
and professor of the science and art of teaching
in the University of Michigan from 18S8 to
1900, succeeding William H Payne (q v )
His contributions to educational journals were
numerous, and he wrote a large number of books
on education The latter include S(hooh and
Studies, President Gar field and Education, Th<
Art of Study, Studio* in Education, Jesu* a,s an
Educator, How to Teach and Study History,
Teaching the Language Art*, Hoi ace Mann and
the Common School Revival in the United State*,
and History of the University of Michigan He
published several works on American history
and edited the writings of James A Gai field
He was also active in the council of the Na-
tional Education Association and the Michigan
State Teachers' Association W S M

For portrait, see p. 219

Sec EDUCATION, ACADEMIC STUDY OF, HIH\M
COLLEGE; MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OF

Reference : —

ANGELL, JAMES 13 , et al B A Hinsdalc Educ.
Rev., February, 1901, Vol XXI, pp 185-199

HIPPARCHUS — The greatest of the Cireek
astronomers, born at Nicsea in Bithynia, c 160
B c He seems to have studied at Alexandria ,
but the greater part of his work was done at
Rhodes He was a very careful observer, and
he determined the length of the year to within
six minutes, the obliquity of the ecliptic to
within five minutes, the annual precession of
the equinoxes to within eight minutes and eight
seconds, and the eccentricity of the solar
orbit to within rta- He made numerous other
important discoveries and laid the foundations
for the work of Ptolemy. (See PTOLEMY and
ALMAGEST ) He may be called the first great
teacher of astronomy and the first to place it
upon a scientific basis. While trigonometry

280

HIPPIAR

HIPPOCRATES

(q.v ) had made a beginning before his tune, lie
was the first to use it in any large scientific
way, and he has therefore been looked upon as
entitled to be called its inventor Geography
is also greatly indebted to Hipparchus, since he
was the first to locate places upon the earth's
surface by means of their latitude and longi-
tude D. E. 8

HIPPIAS —See GEOMETRY.

HIPPOCRATES (c 460-370 B.C ) — Greek
physician and philosopher, the " Father of
Medicine/' born at Cos of a family of priest-
physicians, the Asclcpiadse His training he
probably received mainly in the famous temple
of health (Asclepion) at Cos He studied under
the sophists, Democritus and Gorgias, and
under Herodicus, who applied physical exercises
to the healing art. He traveled extensively,
and practiced in many places Many stories
cluster around his name, the majority, however,
are legendary In a rationalistic age Hippoc-
rates was the first to establish a medical science
independent of superstitions and pnestcraft
and of philosophical speculation There was no
one disease, he held, without a natural cause
Diseases arc due to seasons, climates, water, lo-
cation, air, food, or exercise The chief rem-
edies for disease are regimen and diet, but there
is also an innate restoring essence (<£ixns, vis
rnedicatrtx naturce) Numerous works are
attributed to Hippocrates, but of these only
about fifteen are regarded as genuine His
writings are marked by careful observation and
broad experience. Many of his medical prin-
ciples have stood the test of centunes But his
anatomical contributions are naturally of less
value, although it would appear from some of
the descriptions that he knew something of
anatomical dissection. His chief work is the
Aphorisms, a collection of about 400 sentences
on principles of medicine, physiology, and
natural philosophy. This has been translated
into all the languages of the civilized world
With those of Galen, the works of Hippocrates
formed the chief subjects of study in the medi-
eval medical faculties They were translated
in the sixth century into Latin, and although
they were lost, a Gneco-Latm medical tiudi-
tion seems to have been established After the
middle of the eleventh century the knowledge
of Hippocrates was direct and the Aphorisms
were translated from Arabic into Latin by Con-
Btantius Africanus about 1080 He was espe-
cially studied at Salerno and Montpelher,
where Rabelais lectuied on his works in the
original Greek in 1537. How great has been
the reverence for the "Father of Medicine" is
shown by the fact that the Hippocratic oath is
still administered to medical graduates in
many American universities (e g Columbia
University). The following is a translation of
the oath, which is instinct with the highest
ideals for the profession: —

281

41 1 swear bv Apollo UK* Physician and ^hcnlapiUN, and
1 call Hygeia and Panacea and all the gods and goddesHes
to witness, that to the best of my power and judgment
I will keep this oath and this contract to wit — to hold
him, who taught me this Art, equally dear to me as m\
parents, to share my substance with him, to flupplj
him if he is in new! of the necessaries of life, to regard
his offspring in the mime light as my o\vu brothers, and
to teach them thib Art, if they shall desire to learn it,
without fee or contract, to impart the precepts, the oral
teaching, and all the rest of the instruction to my own
sons, and to the worm of my teachei, and to pupils who
have been bound to me by contract, and who have been
sworn according to the law of medicine

" I will adopt that system of regimen which, accord-
ing to my ability and judgment, I consider for the benefit
of my patients, and will protect them from everything
noxious and injurious I will give no deadly medicine
to any one, even if asked, nor will I give any such coun-
sel, and similarly I will not give to a woman the means of

{>rocurmg an abortion With purity and with holiness
will pass my life and practice my art Into what-

ever houses I enter 1 will go into them for the benefit of
the sick, keeping myself aloof from every voluntary act
of injustice and corruption and lust Whatever in the
course of my professional practice, or outside of it, I see
or hear which ought not to he spread abroad I will not
divulge, us reckoning that all such should be kept secret
If 1 continue to observe this oath and keep it inviolate,
may it be mine to enjoy life and the practice of the Art
respected among all men for ever But should I violate
this oath and forswear myself, may the reverse be my
lot"

Of the works which have been attributed to
Hippocrates, the following are regarded as
genuine On Airs, Waters, and Places, On
Ancient Medicine, On the Prognostics; On the
Treatment in Acute Diseases, On Epidemics
(Books I and III), On Wounds of the Head,
On the Articulations, On Fractures, On the
Instruments of Reduction; The Aphonsms
(Seven Books); The Oath; The Physician's
Establishment or the Surgery; and The Law

8ee MEDICAL EDUCATION, section on History,
and the References there given.

References : —
ADAMS Genuine Works of Hippocrates (London

1849 )

LITTHK, M. P E CEuvres completes d'Hippocratc
(Pans, 1839-1861 )

Fathers of Biology, pp 1-17 (London,

RKINHOLD Hippocrates (Athens, 1864-18G7 )

HIPPOCRATIC OATH. — See HIPPOCRATES.

HIPPOLYTUS (d 236) -A disciple of
Irenanis, and the most learned member of the
lioinan Church in the Ante-Nicene Era He
was the fir^t anti-pope, in opposition to Callis-
tus, but was afterwards reconciled with the
reigning pope and revered as a martyr He
was a man of immense literary activity, arid he
and his works have been the subject of long-
continued controversy They were written
in Greek, and consisted of a multitude of
treatises, polemic-, dogmatic, apologetic, and
exegetic Most of them have been lost In
1842 the greater part of the Philosophunieva,
only the first book of which had been extant
up to that time, was discovered in an ancient
monastery upon Mt Athos At first attributed

HIRAM COLLEGE

HISTORY

to Origen, and later to Cams and Epiphanius,
it was ultimately assigned by the unanimous
agreement of scholars to Hippolytub It is
a refutation of all heresies by tracing their
origin to pagan philosophy and Oriental
theosophy Its author is as uncompromising
a, foe to the ancient systems of philosophy as
Tertullian himself (q.v), and exhibits great
acuteness in tracing the relationships between
them and the heresies which disturbed the early
Christian Church. His work is also valuable as
a source-book of history. W. R.

References : —

BUNSEN, C C J Hippolytus and hia Age (London,

1854 )

Catholic Kncydopedia, sv Hippolytus
DOLLINUER, J J J Hippolytus and Kallistus (Edin-

burg, 1876)
Library of Greek and Latin Fathers Vol V contains

a translation of the works of Hippolytub (Now

York, 189O-1897 )
WOUDHWORTH, BISHOP. Hippolytus and the Church

of Rome (London, 1880 )

HIRAM COLLEGE, HIRAM, OHIO —

Founded in 1850 by the Disciples of Christ as
the Western Reserve Eclectic Institute for
the education of both sexes From 1856 to
1861 and from then to J866 with intervals
President Garheld (q v ) was principal and
lecturer at the Institute, which in 1867 became
Hiram College In 1907-1908 the Board of
Trustees became a self-perpetuating body The
institution maintains a college and depart-
ments of music and missionary service The
entrance requirements are fifteen units Four
courses are offered m the college, literary,
ministerial, philosophical, and scientific, leading
to the degrees of A B , B S , and Ph B Of 345
students enrolled in different departments 224
took work in the college The faculty consists
of twenty-two members

Reference : —

lliNWDALK, B A President Garfield and Education.
(Boston, 18H2 )

HISTORY. — As a College and University
Study Content and Method — History is
concerned with the past life of man considered
as a member of society It is thus distin-
guished from biography, which deals only with
individuals, and from anthropology, which
treats of man as a unit m the animal king-
dom, but these distinctions are not absolute,
for the history of the individual cannot be cut
off from the society in which he lives, and no
sharp line can be drawn between the natural
history of man and his social history In a
looser sense history is often used to denote any
succession of facts, as when wo speak of the
life history of a plant or animal or the history
of the solar system — an extension of the term
which arises from the general adoption of the
historical habit of thought, which looks upon all
things in the universe, not as fixed and stable,
but as undergoing a process of change. History

282

comprises the whole period of the development
of human society from the earliest ages for
which evidence has been preserved, and include;,
the various manifestations of the human spirit:
in art, literature, and religion, as well as the
vicissitudes of states and their leaders and the
course of economic and social evolution Cer
tain of these fields ai e commonly marked off for
separate treatment, so that we have the history
of language, of literature, of art, of religion, of
philosophy, as well as the social and political
sciences which derive their material largely
from historical records; but such a division is
one of convenience only None of these more
special topics can be understood apart irom
the general course of historical development,
and only the historian can bring them into their
proper relations as parts of the evolution of
civilization Before this broader conception
of history the attempt to limit it to " past
politics " is rapidly losing ground, but the life
of the state, as the most important social
group of civilized man, must remain prominently
in the foreground of history, by reason of its
intrinsic significance and because on the whole
it furnishes the most natural category for the
classification of historical facts History thus
stands m especially close relations with politi-
cal science and economics, not only because it
furnishes them with the greater part of their
materials, but also because it constantly needs
their assistance m interpreting the social arid
political life of the past , and for similar reasons
it welcomes the advance of any new sciences,
such as comparative arid social psychology,
which promise to throw fuither light upon the
social lite of man

Unlike the natural sciences, history cannot
avail itself of experiment or of repeated ob-
servation Except for the infinitely small body
oi information which has been acquired by his
immediate personal experience, the historian
depends entirely upon indirect sources of knowl-
edge, arming at the facts of the past only by
working back from the existing traces which
they have left behind them These traces,
the fountamhead of historical knowledge, are
called sources Originally limited to the oral
traditions handed down in song and story, and
then including written material in the bare lists
of early inscriptions and annals, the conception
of what constitutes an historical source has
widened with the growth of knowledge and with
the enlargement of our ideas of the scope of
history until it now includes, not only chroni-
cles and public documents, but newspapers and
private correspondence, buildings and pictures,
ideas, customs, and superstitions, clothing ana
tools and implements and every sort of object
from which information respecting the human
past may be derived For purposes of con-
venience, sources are often classified into nar-
rative, such as biographies, chronicles, and
memoirs; documentary, including laws, char-
ters, and official acts of every sort ; literary, so

HISTORY

HISTORY

far as literature throws light on the ideas and
conditions of an age; and archaeological, in-
cluding the great body of monuments, works
of art, and material remains The use of these
materials for historical purposes often demands
technical knowledge of a very special sort,
and a group of subjects has grown up which
are often called the " auxiliary sciences " of
history Chief among these are language, as
a means to the understanding of historical
records ; palaeography, or the science of ancient
writings; diplomatics, treating of official docu-
ments; epigraphy, or the science of inscrip-
tions; numismatics, archaeology, chronology,
and historical geography

Out of such materials and with such aids, it
is the business of the historian to reconstruct
the past for his readers After he has collected
his sources by patient research in libraries,
archives, museums, and similar repositories,
he cannot use them until he has subjected
them to a searching critical examination with
reference to their origin, genuineness, credi-
bility, and value. In the case of narrative
and documentary sources this may involve
elaborate textual criticism in order to restore
the original form of a document, the deter-
mination by external and internal evidence of
its authorship and the time and circumstances
of its composition (the so-called " higher
criticism ") , and the weighing of the value of
the various assertions which the document
contains, with reference to the knowledge, good
faith, and impartiality of the author The
chances of error m the transmission of evidence
are great, and they are enormously increased
by the fact that in the case of all written or
spoken sources we can only arrive at the original
fact through the intermediary of the human
mind which transmitted its subjective impres-
sion to us, so that history is often reproached
with the uncertainty which may exist regard-
ing events of the highest importance While
this human element makes it impossible for
historical knowledge ever to attain the degree
of precision and certainty which belongs to
the sciences of observation, the historian is
able, by means of converging lines of evidence,
to establish such moral certainty as may be
reached in the affairs of men; and, although
this assurance is often lacking respecting partic-
ular events of a remote period, it becomes suf-
ficient for any purpose in the case of ideas, in-
stitutions, and social conditions of wide prev-
alence or continued duration Regarded from
this point of view, the thoroughness of its
critical search for truth and the nature of its
results entitle history to rank as a science
On the other hand, the processes of historical
synthesis by which the historian combines in-
dividual facts into sequences and generaliza-
tions, and with the aid of the constructive im-
agination groups them into an ordered work of
history, give a much greater opportunity for
variation and individual choice, and on this

side of historical method there is as yot no such
general agreement as has been reached respect-
ing the analytic operations of historical cuti-
cism. Moreover, the form in which the re-
sult of the historian's labors arc presented to
the reader is a question of art, more impor-
tant here than in the case of the natural sciences
because of the element of sympathy and imagi-
nation which arises out of the human appeal
of the subject matter of history , and the artis-
tic presentation of history is thus a branch of
literature Inasmuch as the critical faculty,
the constructive imagination, and high literary
art are seldom combined in the same person,
it rarely happens that a work is producer! which
is eminent both as a work of historical science
and as a work of literature Tins tends to a
division of labor by which the preliminary opera-
tions of collection, criticism, and arrangemom
are performed by the editors of texts, the au-
thors of regesta, and the writers of monographs,
leaving to the synthetic historian the more
ambitious tasks of historical construction
Such a division can, however, never become
complete, for the historian must know how to
test for himself the materials with which he is
to build, and both the writer and the teacher
of history must understand, though they need
not regularly use, the whole histoiical process.
The teaching of history, at least in the higher
grades of instruction, is concerned with a body
of knowledge, a point of view, and a method
of inquiry The body of historical knowledge
is enormous and is constantly enlarged by the
progress of historical investigation as well as
by the lapse of time, and the problem of the
teacher is, in the first instance, to select those
facts which will make clear the geneial course
of historical development and contribute to an
understanding of the periods and countries
of special significance with reference to the
world as a whole and to the particular country
and age in which the student lives These
facts must on the one hand be seen as actual
realities, against their contemporary back-
ground, while on the other hand they must he
grasped, not as disconnected events or dates,
but as bound together in certain relations and
forming part of a continuous process of develop-
ment The student must learn that while the
past is vitally connected with the present and
can only be reconstructed by working back
from the phenomena of actual experience, it
was never the same as the present , and he must
be taught to lay aside for the moment the ideas
and standards of his own age m order to enter
into those of the age he is studying Impar-
tiality, sympathy, and imagination thus be-
come necessary qualifications for the study and
teaching of histoiy, and the attitude toward
the past which is thus attained is often called
" histprical-mindedncss " One element m
this is the critical spirit, and the general
student of history finds it necessary to know
something of the way the historian collects

283

HISTORY

HISTORY

and tests his materials, while the special stu-
dent requires initiation into the nature of
historical evidence and the processes of his-
torical criticism and construction. Such train-
ing is necessary, not only for the professed
historian, but also for those who as investiga-
tors of topics in economics, political science,
education, and the history of literature, art,
or philosophy, are, often without realizing it,
obliged to make use of the historical method
of inquiry In the earlier stages of historical
instruction, attention is given particularly
to the teaching of a few simple facts and the
development of the historical imagination;
m the higher stages the numbei of facts in-
creases and more emphasis is put upon their
relations and political and social significance,
and upon the acquisition of a critical and im-
partial habit of mind; while in the most ad-
vanced grades of instruction the student learns
to find, test, and combine his facts for himself
until he is able to undertake independent re-
search.

Probably no other subject of study is so
dependent upon great libraries as history
The sciences of observation depend primarily
upon field woik or the laboratory; the specialist
in literature 01 philosophy can go far with a
small collection of the great woiks in his de-
partment, but the student of history not only
needs the newest works upon his subject and
the standard authorities whose views he must
compare and examine, but he is constantly
driven back to the sources of information,
which in history are almost endless For him
no book is or can ever be wholly " dead," since
when it ceases to have value as a statement
of facts, it always ictains a place in the history
of learning 01 of ideas, and thus serves as a
source of histoiical knowledge The efficiency
of a university department of history is closely
conditioned by the libraries to which it has
access, and these must be rich in the great
collections of punted chronicles and documents
arid in the hies of periodicals and publications
of learned societies, as well as in current his-
torical treatises Moreover, as no single li-
brary can hope to be complete, even for
printed works, advanced investigation involves
the necessity of visiting other libraries and
arclmes for rare and unpublished material
For many fields of histoiy, as well as for the
whole period before wiitten records begin,
museums of art and archaeology perform a
function analogous to the library as repositories
of historical materials, and access to them may
in many cases be equally indispensable.

History in European Universities — Al-
though history is as old as the Greeks, it has
acquired academic status only in comparatively
recent times The curriculum of the medieval
universities made no provision for history, as it
made none for literature, nor did the revival
of learning prove immediately favorable to
historical study. The only period of history

for which the humanists cared was the Graeco-
Roman, and the study of history remained a
subordinate part of the study of the Greek and
Latin classics, just as oriental history was lim-
ited to a study of the Old Testament The
Protestant Revolt and the Catholic reaction
gave an impetus to the study of the Middle
Ages, but only on the ecclesiastical side, and so
far as these movements furthered the teach-
ing of history m universities and seminaries,
their influence was confined to the history of
the Christian church The separation of
history from philology on the one hand and
from theology on the other was slowly accom-
plished and is not yet at all points complete
As an independent subject history gained its
footing gradually in the course of the eighteenth
century and became fully established only in
the nineteenth The rapid expansion of his-
torical instruction in the course of the past
hundred years has come about partly as the
result of the great activity of historical re-
search and the enormous extension of histori-
cal knowledge in this period, partly through
the growth of nationality and democracy, and
the consequent efforts to cultivate patriotism
and develop the civic virtues , and partly from
a realization of the need of giving the youth
of each generation an orientation with reference
to the development of the world's civilization
and their own place in it

In the universities of Germany history ac-
quired an independent status in the eighteenth
century, notably at the University of Gottm-
gen, but German historical scholarship showed
no peculiar strength in tins period, and its
preeminence was established by the school
of writers and teachers which had its center
in Berlin between 1810 and 1830 The pioneer
in this movement was Niebuhr, in the lectures
on Roman history which he gave as professor
at the University of Berlin and which formed
the basis of his writings on this subject, and
his influence was soon apparent in the spread
of his critical methods to other fields of history
and in the application of the historical habit
of thought to the study of law, language, and
religion With Niebuhr, as with German pro-
fessors since his time, the writing and teach-
ing of history went hand in hand, and the con-
nection became still closer through the methods
of teaching introduced in 1825 by Leopold
von Ranke " Ranke," says Lord Acton, " has
not only written a larger number of mostly
excellent books than any other man that ever
lived, but he has taken pains from the first to
explain how the thing is done " His first book,
written in 1824, was accompanied by a critical
discussion of the materials upon which it was
based, and in the following year he reenf orced
his lectures at the University of Berlin by the
inauguration of an historical seminary The
idea of such a meeting of professors and stu-
dents for training and practice in the critical
use of historical sources Rankc borrowed from

284

HISTORY

HISTORY

the classical seminanos of which ho had boon a
niombcM at Gottingon ; but it soon became an
established feature of the university system,
and in one form or another (sominaiy, practical
exercises, wurs inatique) it is now generally
recognized as an essential element in higher
historical instruction. The purpose of the
historical seminary is to teach not the facts of
history, but the process of historical investiga-
tion, and it is designed as a part of the train-
ing of the teacher as well as of the investigator
" An essential characteristic of the work," as
it has recently been analyzed by Professor
George B Adams, is the practice of the methods
of historical criticism and synthesis " together
by a number of students of about the same
stage of advancement, and the resulting mutual
criticism and stimulus of inmd by mind " The
group of students must necessarily be small,
and the relations with the instructor must be
free and informal The subject of study may
consist of a chronicle, a series of documents, or
a limited historical period or movement, and
the work may be conducted either by joint
discussion of a topic prepared by all the mem-
bers of the seminary or through the presentation
and criticism of reports or essays assigned to in-
dividual members; but such work cannot prof-
itably be carried on unless it is so arranged
that all members mav take an intelligent part
The method is essentially cooperative, and
frequently results m a group of published
studies upon related topics The narrative
lecture and the seminary constitute the regular
forms of historical teaching in the universities
of Germany, Austria, and German Switzerland,
and practically all these institutions maintain
such instruction in ancient, in medieval, and
m modern history, while at a university such
as Berlin a great variety of seminary and lecture
courses is offered Significant types of allied
institutions are the Institut fur osterreichische
Geschichtxforschung at Vienna, which gives
a thorough grounding in the auxiliary sciences
and in other subjects necessary for the study of
Austrian history, and the Imtitut fur Umver-
salgeschichte at Leipzig, where Professor Lam-
precht has led a revolt against the more strictly
political form of history cultivated by the
followers of Ranke.

In France a chair of history was established
at the College de France in 1769, but although
the incumbents comprised men of the dis-
tinction of Guizot (q v ) and Michelet, they
tended to address their lectures to the general
public rather than to students arid had no
special functions as teachers. The professor-
ships at the Sorbonne were of the same sort,
so that until the close of the Second Empire the
actual teaching of history at Paris was confined
to the Ecole Normale Superieure, which pre-
pared, teachers for the lycees and colleges, and
the Ecole des Charles, established in 1821 for
the training of archivists and librarians, but
developing an excellent set of special courses

which gave a sound hisloncnl t taming, especi
ally m the medieval held The foundation of
the tfcolc r/c.s Haute* Etudes m 1X68 opened op-
portunities for the special study of history sim-
ilar to those afforded by the German seminary,
and under the Third Republic the strengthen-
ing of the faculties of letters and the develop-
ment of a university organization have given
a large place to historical instruction The
universities now perform the functions once
monopolized by the Ecole Normale, which is
now combined with the University of Pans,
and in addition to the public lecture courses
maintain cours fermfa for the special training
of teachers and scholars m the principal fields
of history The change in the character of
university instruction is seen in the modifica-
tion of the requirements of the agregation
d hiMoire, the competitive selection of professors
of history m the lyceex, which in addition to
the comprehensive examination on the general
field of history now demands a thesis based upon
original sources, and certain examinations on
more special topics The provincial univei-
sities seek, so far as their resources permit,
to do the same kind of work as the University
of Paris, but they are less hboially supported
than the corresponding German institutions,
and their students of history are at a special
disadvantage because of the absence of the
special schools and great libraries of the capital
Besides the more strictly academic training of
the Ecole dex Charles and the Ecole den Haute*
fituden, the ficole Libre des Sciences Polittquet*,
a private institution established in 1871 pri-
marily for the purpose of fitting young men for
the civil service, offers instruction in modern
political and diplomatic history

The Canulen Professorship of Ancient His-
tory was founded at Oxford in 1622, and the
Regius professorships of Modern History at
Oxford and Cambridge in 1724, but it was not
until the second half of the nineteenth century
that historical studies began to occupy a posi-
tion of importance in the English universities
Long subordinated to classics and later to law
and the moral sciences, history was given an
independent status through the establishment
of the Honoi School of Modern History at
Oxford in 1872 and the Histoncal Tripos at
Cambridge in 1875 The historical instruction
thus organized has been almost entirely di-
rected to the preparation of undergraduates
for the final examinations for their degrees, and
to this end emphasis is laid upon wide and
thorough reading in standard authorities under
the guidance of a tutor, who is responsible for
but a small number of students Brief courses
of lectures are also given by the tutors and
lecturers of the various colleges on the princi-
pal periods and fields of history covered by the
examinations Recently some progress has
been made m the direction of advanced teach-
ing, especially on the part of the university pro-
fessors, who take no part in preparing under-

285

HISTORY

HISTORY

graduates for examinations and thus have con-
siderable leisure for graduate instruction and
the guidance of research. So far few English
students have availed themselves of the priv-
ileges of this sort of study, but the research
degree of B Litt., recently established at
Oxford, has proved attractive to a certain num-
ber of graduates of American and colonial
colleges. Among the newer English univer-
sities the University of Manchester is an im-
portant center of historical study, and the
University of Liverpool has recently organized
a special school of local history and records

History in American Colleges — Like their
English contemporaries, the early American
colleges made no regular provision for the study
of history. The curriculum was predominantly
classical, and historical instruction was limited
to the history and antiquities of Greece and
Rome. In course of time a few recitations
upon a manual of universal history were in-
troduced, but the nature of the required curric-
ulum gave no opportunity for the growth of
organized historical instruction A professor
of ecclesiastical history was appointed at Yale
College in 1778, but the first professorship of
history in the more general sense of the term
was created at Harvard in 1839, and filled by
Jared Sparks, who three years later brought the
study of American history for the first time
into an American college Another significant
date is 1857, when Henry W. Torrcy took up at
Harvard the work which Sparks had relin-
quished when he resigned the presidency in
1853, and when Francis Lieber became pro-
fessor at Columbia and Andrew D White at
the University of Michigan. These three men
had been trained in Germany, and the develop-
ment of historical studies in the United States
during the next twenty-five years is directly
traceable to the influence of the German his-
torical school. This movement, however,
began slowly, and outside of the three insti-
tutions just named the systematic teaching
of history belongs to the period since the Civil
War. Some qualification of this statement
is necessary as regards the colleges of the
South, where in the generation preceding the
war historical and political studies received
more attention than in the North ; for example,
Lieber had been professor in the University
of South Carolina, and instruction in history
and political science, though not provided for
by special chairs, had an important place in
Jefferson's plans for the University of Virginia.
Even in the more recent period history has made
way more slowly in the smaller colleges of the
East than in the state universities of the West,
where the traditional subjects of the cur-
riculum have had a weaker hold; but at the
present time every reputable college has at
least one professor of history and a regular
sequence of historical courses which offer some
sort of view of the history of the world in gen-
eral and of the United States in particular.

The organization of the historical curric-
ulum in American colleges is conditioned by
the fact that their freshmen have reached the
age of students in European universities with-
out having acquired any such accurate and
substantial knowledge of historical facts as is
possessed by pupils of the corresponding stage
of the gymnasium or the lycte Accordingly,
while it is possible in the later years of the
college course to do work which is in many
respects of university quality, this work suffers
from the lack of a sufficient basis of knowledge
and discipline, while the earlier years of the
course must be devoted in large part to carry-
ing on studies of secondary grade with stu-
dents who are too old for the methods of
secondary instruction For this reason it is
particularly important that the teaching of his-
tory should begin with the freshman year, m
order to remedy as soon as possible the defects
of the students' earlier training The problem
of the introductory course in college is, how-
ever, peculiarly difficult, since this course is
likely to be taken by a large number of stu-
dents, of wide diversity of preparation and
interests, and since it has not only to serve as
a basis for more advanced work, but also to
meet the needs of those whose formal study
of history will stop at this point The effort
must here be made to give at the same time a
body of definite historical information, some
training in the use of historical material, and
some quickening of the imagination and
broadening of the historical horizon The field
chosen must be large enough to give an idea
of the growth of institutions and the char-
acter of historical development, yet not so
extensive as to render impossible an acquaint-
ance at close range with the men and conditions
of the times; but it cannot be said that any
general agreement has yet been reached as to
the course which best fulfills these conditions
With rare exceptions, of which Columbia Col-
lege and the University of California are the
most notable, the attempt is no longer made
to cover the whole range of universal history
in the first course in college, as so rapid a
survey has generally proved confusing and un-
satisfactory; a favorite type of course is one
covering the history of Europe from the close
of the Roman period to the eighteenth century
or, more commonly, to the close of the nine-
teenth. Some colleges, such as Harvard, Wis-
consin, and Kansas, finding this period too long,
limit the introductory course to the Middle Ages,
in order to secure time for more thorough study
and more careful training In some instances,
a general course in English history is given for
this purpose ; at other places a course in ancient
history; while Cornell, Wisconsin, Pennsyl-
vania, and some others offer two or more
parallel courses for beginners, an arrangement
which avoids some difficulties but loses the ad-
vantage of uniform preparation for later courses
and tends to keep students too long in the ele-

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HISTORY

mentary stage American history is generally
regarded as not well suited for this purpose,
since it is commonly studied in the last year
of the high school and does not offer the fresh-
ness of interest and the breadth of view desir-
able at the beginning of college work

An introductory course of this kind should
be taken by all college students, and most of
them should be encouraged to take two or three
additional courses as an essential part of their
general education For the needs of the
general student every college should provide
instruction in ancient history, the history of
the Middle Ages and of modern Europe, Eng-
lish history, and American history How far
courses in these fields should be multiplied and
subdivided is a matter which each institution
must decide for itself, provided always that it
remains possible for the ordinary under-
graduate to get a fairly satisfactory survey of
the general field of history without devoting
an unreasonable amount of time to the subject
Some subdivision is desirable in every institution
in order that students may have opportunity
for the more intensive study of a period or topic,
as a means to the fuller comprehension of what
history is and how it is studied It is also im-
portant that toward the close of their college
work students of special aptitude for history
should have access to an elementary seminary
or practice course, not only for historical train-
ing and for an understanding of the subject
chosen, but also as a step toward the intellectual
independence which comes from forming one's
own conclusions after a careful examination of
all available evidence If the topic for such
a course is not beyond the powers of a good
senior, its selection may well be determined
by the facilities of the library and the special
interest and competence of the instructor In
all questions of the historical curriculum there
is great diversity of practice among American
colleges, and while there is a growing tendency
to pay attention to the experience of other in-
stitutions, uniformity is neither desirable nor
at present attainable Moreover, the field of
history is so vast and its variety so great that
it will never be possible to establish any such
regularity and defmiteness of order as exists
in the case of courses in mathematics and
natural science.

With respect to the methods of college in-
struction, equal diversity exists The slavish
memorizing of textbooks, once practically
universal, has generally been abandoned, and
the text is now supplemented or replaced by
lectures, prescribed or recommended reading,
and written reports, often reenforced by an
outline or syllabus Illustrative material of
various kinds has been introduced, and the out-
line map has proved a valuable adjunct for
the teaching of historical geography Con-
siderable use is now made of extracts from the
sources in undergraduate instruction, partly
for greater vividness and freshness, partly, as

in the case of constitutional documents, as a
means to the more thorough understanding of
significant topics, and partly for exercises in
the process of historical criticism and construc-
tion. The systematic use of such material
at all stages of college work has boon especially
notable at the University of Nebraska As
a result of these changes, the textbook itself
has been greatly improved in the past twenty-
five years, although, for commercial reasons,
school and college texts in history are as yet
imperfectly differentiated

One of the most difficult problems in the
college teaching of history is that of the manage-
ment of the large classes, numbering from
fifty to five hundred, which have developed in
all but the smallest of American colleges and
for which the teachers of history and similar
subjects can hardly be said to have worked out
a method equal to the laboratory work which
accompanies classes of this size m the field of
natural science Many colleges have adopted
the so-callrd " Harvard system," by which the
class meets together for lectures and is divided
into small sections under instructors and as-
sistants for discussion and quiz upon the lec-
tures and the assigned reading This method
is most effective when a written test forms part
of the work of the sections and when frequent
individual conferences are also held It is the
most economical system and the only one which
brings all members of the class into contact with
the most experienced teachers in the depart-
ment, but it requires for its success a larger
number of thoroughly competent assistants
than is usually available Elsewhere, as at
Yale, Columbia, and Chicago, the class meets
only in sections, an arrangement which pio-
vides well for daily drill but cuts off a con-
siderable body of students from any contact
with men of professorial rank, as no college
has yet been willing to furnish a staff of highly
paid men sufficient to conduct all the divisions
of so large a class At Princeton and Bowdom
the method first described has been modified
and carried much farther by means of pieoep-
tors who direct the students' reading in groups
of four or five, an exceedingly costly arrange-
ment which shows promise but has not yet
been tested on a large scale with introductory
courses

The University Study of History in America.
— The university study of history in the United
States may be said to have begun with the orig-
inal investigations in medieval institutions
which were undertaken at Harvard University
in 1874 by a group of advanced students under
the direction of Henry Adams and which bore
fruit in 1876 in a volume entitled Sways in
Anglo-Saxon Law An " historical seminary "
for seniors had, it is true, been organized at the
University of Michigan by Charles Kendall
Adams (q v ) in 1869, but it was of a general
and elementary character and did not reach an
advanced stage till ten years later. Seminary

287

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HISTORY

work in history was likewise a feature of the
system of graduate study instituted by the
Johns Hopkins University at its foundation in
1876, and after 1881, under the leadership of
Herbert Baxter Adams (qv), this seminary
exerted a wide and fruitful influence upon the
study of American institutions and upon
methods of teaching throughout the country.
In 1880 Columbia University organized a
Faculty of Political Science, in which the study
of constitutional and legal history held an im-
portant place, and about the same time more
adequate provision for advanced instruction
in history was made at Cornell University,
where the first distinct professorship of Amer-
ican history in the United States was estab-
lished in 1881

While the introduction of the seminary method
was the determining element in the differentia-
tion of the higher study of history in America,
the line between college arid university work
has never been sharply drawn in this subject,
nor is such demarcation likely in the near future,
since it is possible to begin certain kinds of
original investigation in college, while on the
other hand the preparation of the advanced
student and teacher demands a large amount
of general work which cannot be completed
in college and can best be earned on in the
graduate school along with the beginnings of
independent investigation. Accordingly under
American conditions the transition from ele-
mentary to advanced work m history is more
gradual than m European universities, while
at the same time the antithesis between the
lecture and the seminary methods of teaching
is less strictly observed, many of the most prof-
itable graduate courses being conducted by
a combination of lectures, student reports, and
class discussions Free use is everywhere
made of the library, indeed the freedom of
access to the stack and the greater promptness
of set vice in American libraries are points of
distinct supenority over European institutions
of learning; but at most American universities
the resources of the library, outside of nar-
rowly limited fields, are quite inadequate for
the most advanced historical work Another
characteristic of the advanced study of his-
tory in America is the close connection main-
tained with economics and political science,
both in the organization of instruction and in
the emphasis put upon the economic and con-
stitutional aspects of history, and subjects like
economic and diplomatic history are often left
to these related departments

A well organized university department of
history needs a great library and the support
of strong departments in related fields; it must
also offer advanced instruction in ancient,
medieval, and modern history, as well as in
such fields as economic history, ecclesiastical
history, and the history of religion, and in the
auxiliary sciences Special attention will nat-
urally be paid to the history of the United

288

States and of those eountnes and movements
most closely connected with American his-
tory. At present the universities which have
the most extensive equipment of teachers and
books in these various fields arc Harvard,
Yale, and Columbia, each with a dozen
professors and assistant professors of history
Well developed graduate departments of his-
tory are also maintained by Chicago, Cornell,
Pennsylvania, and Wisconsin. Illinois and
Michigan also have important departments,
while at Johns Hopkins and Bryn Mawi
graduate work in history is definitely organ-
ized, but with a smaller body of teachers
Certain other universities do graduate woik
of good quality in more limited fields, notably
the University of California on the history
of the Pacific Coast and the University of
Nebraska on the French Revolution, and
most of the state universities carry candi-
dates as far as the master's degree, if not
farther. The state universities regularly omit
any special treatment of church history and
the history of religions. Topics which have re-
cently obtained a footing in historical depart-
ments are the history of Latin America, which
receives particular attention at Columbia,
Yale, Illinois, and California, and modern
Oriental history, represented most fully at Yale
and to a less degree at Wisconsin, Columbia,
and Harvard Proper university provision
for the promotion of research also demands the
creation of traveling fellowships, for the ex-
ploration of libraries and archives at a distance,
and opportunities for publishing the results of
the investigations of professors and advanced
students So far Harvard is the only univer-
sity which possesses regularly endowed travel-
ing fellowships in history, but several in-
stitutions have established organs of mono-
graphic publication The most important
special series are the Johns Hopkins University
Studies in History and Political Science (since
1882); the Columbia Studies in History,
Economics, and Public Law (1891); the Bul-
letins of the University of Wisconsin (1894),
with an Historical Series and an Economic
and Political Science Series, and the Harvard
Historical Studies (1896) and Harvard Economic
Studies (1906). At several other universities
facilities exist for the publication of historical
monographs, either as members of a geneial
series of university studies, or in conjunction
with the work of state departments of history
or local historical societies. The majority of
such products of seminary study naturally
relate to topics of American history, but ex-
cellent monographs are also produced in various
fields of European, and especially of English,
history. C. H. H.

History in the Secondary and Elementary
Schools. — The teaching of history in the
secondary or elementary schools presents two
main problems: first, the relative amount of
time which should be assigned to the subject,

HISTORY

HISTORY

with the periods or kinds of history to which
this time should be given ; second, the methods
of instruction Each of these problems must
be examined separately for the secondary and
for the elementary school. History is a record
of human experience, the rich variety of which
is not indiscriminately valuable for children
of all ages The effort to find answers to these
questions of matter and method appears late
in the development of educational systems
This is mainly due to the fact that not until
the nineteenth century was the study of history
well organized in the universities

Before the Report of the Committee of Ten,
made in 1892, the work of the secondary schools
in history was usually composed of courses in
(Jreek and Roman history for pupils looking
forward to college studies, with a brief course
m English or " general " history for others
The schools with a more developed program
were so rare that their practice is not significant
For the year 1889-1890 only 27 per cent of the
pupils in the public secondary schools were
studying history In the elementary schools
American history was generally taught in the
seventh and eighth grades alone As the
majority of the pupils did not remain in school
until the seventh grade was reached, they re-
ceived practically no instruction in history.
The subject had long been gaining more in-
telligent attention in France and Germany
With the organization of the lycte and the
qymnasiurn early m the nineteenth century
it was given an important place on the pro-
gram of the secondary school The recogni-
tion of its value for elementary education came
later In England, until Arnold's time, there
was little systematic teaching of history in the
" public " schools, and even after his day,
except at Rugby and Harrow, the character
of the work depended upon the interest of the
individual teacher

The Report of the Committee of Ten (q v ) of
the National Education Association, embody-
ing the results of the Madison Conference,
brought the question forward and suggested
a program covering the last four years of
the elementary school as well as the four years
of the secondary school The most important
single influence in the movement toward the
adoption of a standard program for second-
ary schools has been the Report of the Com-
mittee of Seven, of the American Historical
Association, which appeared in 1899 This
recommended a four years' course, beginning
with ancient history in the first year, placing
medieval and modern history in the second,
English in the third, and closing with American
history and civics in the fourth year. Effect
was given to the recommendations of the com-
mittee by the action of the prominent text-
book publishers in arranging for series of texts
constructed according to the plan Another
influence has been the requirements fixed by
os for entiance either upon examination

or by certificate. (See COLLEGE REQUIRE-
MENTS FOR ADMISSION ) The complete success
of the movement for uniformity has been
hindered by the consequences of the elective
system introduced into the schools Some-
times also the fact that many colleges have not
given credit for more than one or two units of
history had a similarly retarding influence
An investigation made in 1909, principally
of schools m the Middle West, showed, howevei,
that out of eighty-three schools offering a three
years' course fifty-six required all three units
for graduation.

Dissent from the recommendations of the
Committee of Seven has usually been prompted
by the desire to lay greater emphasis upon the
modern period In order to satisfy this desire
a Committee of Five, partly of the same per-
sonnel, also appointed by the American His-
torical Association, advised that schools ready
to make a change should place English history
as far as 1760, with its European connections,
in the second year and give the third year to
a course on the last century and a half of
European history

The recent development of commercial and
technical high schools has rendered necessary
a course adapted to their requirements For
them emphasis should be put upon the history
of the arts and of trade The interests of the
two arc also distinct, because, although the
achievements of the Greeks and the Romans,
and, in a measure, of medieval peoples, are in-
structive to students of certain technical arts,
students of commerce will find the modern
period the most important Both should be
taught to place the special aspects of life which
they study in a true historical setting, while
at the same time they should not forget other
phases of history which explain the general
growth of civilization

The attempt to construct a standard course
for the elementary schools has been beset with
even greater difficulties, because many diverse
authorities must be brought into harmony, and
because of excessive assignments of time to
other studies, especially geography Typical
solutions of the problem have recently been
presented by the University of the State of
New York in a Syllabus, by the teachers of the
Horace Mann School in their Elementary School
Curriculum, by the Chicago University Ele-
mentary School, by the Indiana State Board oi
Education, and by the Committee of Eight
of the American Historical Association

The New York Syllabus divides American
history into two cycles, the first, principally in
a series of biographies, occupying the fifth and
the sixth years, the second, with a narrative
treatment, occupying the seventh and eighth
years. The plan adopted in the Chicago
University Elementary School is the most radi-
cal departure from traditional arrangements of
program, and is based OTI the attempt to
develop the pupil's historical sense in con-

VOL. in — -U

289

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HISTORY

nection with his own industrial activities or
those of the community in which he lives, and
without much attention to chronological se-
quence The curriculum suggested by teachers
of the Horace Mann School, after providing
stories and exercises drawn from primitive life
for the youngest children, begins at the third
grade with work on the Phoenicians, as typical
of ancient trade and adventure, and passes by
a natural transition to the stones of Columbus
and of Hudson, and to the early history of
Manhattan In the fourth grade there is a
study of the typical men of America, closely
correlated with the study of geography This
is followed in the fifth grade by Greek and
Roman history, and in the sixth by medieval
history, passing over into the work of the dis-
coveries and colonizers, in order to show the
movement out of which America grew and to
emphasize the fact that American civilization
did not have its beginnings in the first settle-
ments In the seventh grade, which is the
final grade, there is a study of American history
from the struggle between the French and the
English for control in America to the present
day The program of the Indiana State
Board of Education offers certain similarities
to this course, although it gives only part of
one grade to stories of primitive life, follows
these by stories of American heroes, emphasizes
the heroes of Hebrew history as well as those
of Greece and Rome, and gives the sixth year
to English history, followed by two years of
American history and civics (q v )

The plan of the Committee of Eight was based
on the conviction, shared with the framers of
the courses already described, that in teaching
American history too little account had been
taken of the European background or of the
origin in Europe of American civilization The
plan falls into two parts, the first suggesting
simple tales and descriptions of types of life
easily intelligible to children of the three earlier
grades, developing into a biographical treat-
ment of American history in grades four and
five In the second part is outlined a course,
continuous chronologically, for grades six, seven,
and eight Two thirds of the time of 'the sixth
grade is given to what may be called an ele-
mentary introduction to the study of American
history. Its topics include typical characters,
stones, ways of living, selected from the most
characteristic periods, beginning with the age
of the Greeks and closing with the age of Colum-
bus In the later portions of the course
stories and descriptions from the European
background are introduced wherever this makes
the setting of American history more intelligible.

In France and Germany the secondary school,
lyc&e or gymnasium, gives instruction in history
throughout a nine years' course The course
corresponds to a possible course in our schools
running from the fifth grade through the ele-
mentary school, the secondary school, and up
to the third college year History is also given

in elementary schools distinct from the lycfr
and the gymnasium, and is parallel, therefore,
to the first part of the secondary school course
In the elementary school the content is con-
fined more exclusively to the national history
and omits ancient history, The last seven
years of the secondary course are divided into
two cycles, one of four and one of three years,
thus including two journeys through the field
from ancient times to the present day In
the second cycle of the French course, if tho
pupil is on the classical side, ? c has Latin and
Greek, or Latin and the " living " languages,
he devotes four hours to history, two to ancient
and two to modern, if he takes the sciences
with either Latin or the liMiig languages, he
devotes two hours to modern history Except
at this period of the course, the time given to
history, both in German and French schools,
averages three hours a week and the work is
correlated closely with geography

In England the average amount of time given
to the subject is two hours a week in both the
preparatory years and in the secondary school
proper On account of the variety of type
in the organization of the English schools it is
difficult to summarize the practice The most
authoritative recommendation is presented in
Circular 599, published by the Board of Edu-
cation in 1908, and includes, for the first stage,
with children up to the age of twelve, stories
from the history of England and of other
countries, centering about great characters like
Charlemagne, Columbus, and Washington,
as well as famous Englishmen; for the ages
between twelve and sixteen, a chronologically
continuous course in English history with the
European connections, during the final years,
classical history for students going to the uni-
versities, for others English or modern con-
tinental history The Circular records the
gradual falling off m the practice of introducing
a special period for more intensive study, and
argues that there should be judicious selection
all the way through of incidents and characters
for special emphasis The Circular also crit-
icizes the concentric method by which in some
schools the whole subject of English history is
gone over each year summarily In too many
instances history is lumped in the program
with " English subjects/' The general in-
fluence of the type of questions asked in various
public examinations, in competition for prizes,
honors, etc , has been to retard the development
of a plan of study satisfactory to the more pro-
gressive teachers

From the practice abroad, as well as from
the character of the efforts to promote the
teaching of history in American schools, it is
evident that the best opinion is in agreement
upon the necessity of making the instruction
continuous throughout the pupil's school career
Only by this means is it possible to form in his
mind a useful frame worK of historical events
and to train him to think of events historical! v

290

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HISTORY

Time is also needed for the growth of interest
and the formation of a habit of reading histori-
cal books. In the opinion of a recent French
minister of public instruction the habit of read-
ing historical books is an important element of
the reading habit, which, next to the habit of
observation, should be the aim of popular edu-
cation, and without which the pupils are in
danger of falling into illiteracy after they leave
school

Methods of Teaching — Upon methods of
teaching there is less agreement than upon
questions of program, although for the attain-
ment of the aims of the subject an effective
method is more important than the choice of
any particular period for study If the method
of teaching is riot effective, the subject is dis-
credited as an instrument of education As the
matter now stands, the statement that a pupil
has had a course in ancient or medieval and
modern history, means much, little, or worse
than nothing The most urgent need of the
present time is the adoption and the general
practice of a well-considered method of teaching
the subject In the management of subjects
which arc already well organized pedagog-
ically, like English, chemistry, or Latin,
teachers know what is expected the first month,
the first term, the first year, they realize what
are regarded as the essential elements of a good
method But the teacher of history may con-
fine his woik wholly to the explanation of the
paiagraphs of the textbook, or he may assign
selections for leading in other books, or he may
also utilize collections of source material He
may tram his pupils in the use of notebooks or
he may never allude to them What he shall
decide to do seems to depend generally upon
his individual preference The well-trained
teacher is capable of solving the problem for
himself, but many others are groping about
among haphazard experiments or apathetically
following methods sanctioned by local tradi-
tion.

In Germany there is a recognized method
of teaching history This is true of France
also, although French teachers differ among
themselves in regard to the function of the text-
book. In Germany reliance is placed mainly
on the teacher and the instruction is principally
oral Many teachers even object to the use
of a notebook during a class exercise, because
they wish the attention of the pupils concen-
trated upon what they are saying. By a process
of questioning and repetition they work the
facts literally into the pupil's mind, so that
he is gradually enabled to construct so solid
a framework of the past that it is serviceable
for all his future work whether in the university
or elsewhere. Books of simple outlines, or.
Leitfaden, are used to supplement the oral work
So oomplete is the dependence upon the teacher
that few or no references are given to historical
works and there is slight use of selected sources
This has been criticized as not offering the pupil

enough training for independent work in his-
tory and as being in one respect a poor prepara -
tion for the freedom of university work Such
reliance upon the teacher is possible only be-
cause of the thorough training insisted upon by
the State in the case of every teacher In both
France and Germany the subject is intrusted
almost wholly to special teachers Although
the French use the textbook more than the
Germans, they generally go over the lesson in
a carefully prepared lecture which the pupil*
record in notebooks The reason for this
when a textbook is also used, is the need ol'
placing the right emphasis and of stimulating
the attention It is believed that by such i,
method the dull pupil obtains more than if he is
expected to master without direction the topics
assigned. The French do not make extensive
use of selected sources or of other reading
references In England, with no central con-
trolling authority, the methods of work show
less uniformity than those of France or Ger-
many, but where the subject is well taught it
is likely to include excellent training in writing
up topics on the basis of an intelligent use of
reading references

European methods of teaching history should
not be transferred mechanically to American
practice, but acquaintance with them empha-
sizes the value of a standard of work arid directs
attention to the elements of the problem
What may be suited admirably to the needs of
the German boy in the gymnasium or the French
boy in the lycte may not take sufficient account
of the more precocious individuality of the
Ameiican boy An adequate method must be
the outcome of a careful study of the child and
a wise consideration of the benefits which he
should derive from his work in history The
study of history should give him not merely
a body of information, it should affect his atti-
tude towards the world and tram his mind for
the successful search for certain kinds of truth

In the elementary school the question of
method, like the question of program, is partly
conditioned by the fact that many pupils
leave school at the end of the fifth grade For
such a pupil the most that can be hoped is some
acquaintance with the history of the United
States through stories, primarily biographical,
and pictures of life and customs Stories of
the great world heroes should be added At
this stage it is upon the never-failing interest
of the story well told that the mam reliance
must be placed The teacher should be trained
for his work as the librarians of children's
libraries are trained for the " story hour "
The most usual defect of the story is its lack of
vivifying details, which enable the compar-
atively feeble imaginative power of the child
to form a picture of the incident as of some-
thing that actually happened Children of the
fourth and fifth grades are also beginning to
lead for themselves, and they should be led
to read stories from history It is unnecessar\

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HISTORY

to emphasize the need of correlating this work
with what is done in English and in geography

In the higher grades of the elementary school
the pupil should he enabled to form a picture,
fairly accurate in its details, and in chronological
order, of the principal events of American
history and of its European background, in
order that it may be a serviceable framework
for later historical knowledge More emphasis
should be laid upon reading, in books furnished
by the school library or by local public libraries
Some use can also be made of original sources,
with the aim of illustrating facts easily within
the comprehension of children of this age
Selections which illustrate two sides of a con-
troversy, like that between Parliament and
the colonies after 1765, or between the North
and the South before the Civil War, will train
pupils, who are beginning to read the news-
papers, to read more intelligently and with
some effort of judgment There should be
practice in making simple maps, explaining
geographically an historical situation Out-
line maps may be used for this work Pictures
offer an opportunity riot only for awakening
interest, but also for giving training in observa-
tion

The problem of method for the secondary
school is more complex, because the element
of training should receive greater emphasis
The most obvious requirement of a course is
the mastery of the contents of the textbook
To attain this result there are needed, besides
the ordinary recitation exercises, the prepara-
tion of outlines and summaries, the construction
of what the English call " date strips," and
the preparation of reviews The teachers most
interested in the improvement of the teaching
of history would add some reading from his-
torical books other than the textbook, the
study of selected sources of a simple and clearly
illustrative character, and the making of re-
ports upon topics with the use of several books
of reference There must also be the construc-
tion of maps How many of these exercises
the individual teacher may be able to embody
in any particular course depends upon the special
conditions of the school, that is, the amount of
other work demanded of the teacher, the exist-
ence of a school or public library, the number
of available historical maps, etc Each ex-
ercise should be repeated at least once, because
the first attempt serves principally to make
clear the difficulties There should be orderly
progress in the manner of work from the begin-
ning to the end of the course. The pupil is
studying history in order to learn how to study
history as well as to acquire a body of historical
facts Each exercise should have relation to
its predecessor and to what is to follow.

The teacher's first task should be to con-
struct a calendar of the course, apportioning
the work of each day, and indicating at what
stage any particular exercise is to be attempted
An examination of the textbook will show what

topics are adequately treated and upon what
topics there must be supplementary oral ex-
planations or informal lectures It is ap-
parent that an exercise in constructing sum-
maries should be inserted after an epoch of
marked characteristics has been studied Upon
the completion of the study of a long and com-
plex process an outline, chronological or topical,
will be useful. Teachers may wish to use ii
simple outline for each day's work, but the con-
struction of such outlines should not be re-
quired every day of all the class, tor this work
would soon become mechanical and wearisome.
A review of the geographical relations of the
subject will show at what points illustrative
maps should be constructed Certain topics
should be studied partly through the medium
of pictures (See VISUAL AIDS TO TEACHING )
If there are to be reports on long readings, the
place of these will be determined by the inter-
est of the topic or incident and the availability
of books on the subject The same is true of
topical studies, of which there should not be
more than two or three during the particular
course The results of these exercises should
be embodied in the pupil's notebook They
should be written on sheets of paper which may
be inserted without copying in a loose-leaf note-
book The pupil will need careful instruction
upon the manner of preparing this written
material for the notebook

The teacher may not be able to insert upon
the calendar more than an indispensable mini-
mum of exercises, because such exercises re-
quire efficient supervision, and the burden upon
the average teacher is already heavy The way
to meet the difficulties of the situation is to
agree upon what this indispensable minimum
includes, and from it as a basis work steadily
toward the desirable H E B

References : —

On the Content and Method of History, and its Auxiliary
Sciences —

BERNHEIM, E Lehrbuch der histonschen Methode
6th od With full bibliography (Leipzig, 1908 )

BURY, J B The Science of Histoiy, an Inaugural
Lecture. (Cambridge, 1903 )

LANGLOIS, C V Manuel de Bibliographic histonque

(Pans, 1901-1904 )

and SEIGNOBOS, C Introduction to the Study of His-
tory Tr by G G Berry (Now York, 1898)

MEIHTER, A (ed ) Grundriss der Geschichtswissen-
schaft (Leipzig, 1906 ff )

ROBINRON, J H The Relation of History to the Newer
Soienees of Man Journal of Philosophy, Psy-
chology, and Scientific Methods, Vol VIII, pp 141-
157 (1911)

VINCENT, J M. Historical Rt search an Outline oj
Theory and Practice (New York, 1911 )

WOLF, G Einfuhrung in das Stadium der neueren
Geschichte. (Berlin, 1910.)

On the Teaching of History in European Universities —

ACTON, LORD German Schools of History. English
Historical Review, Vol. I, pp 7-42 , reprinted in
hia Historical Essays and Studies, pp 344-392.
(London, 1907)

ALTAMIRA, R La Ensenanza dc la Histona (Madrid.
1895)

292

HISTORY

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

Hoi'ttNE, E Ci Kanke and the Beginning of the Semi-
nary Method, Educ. Re , Vol XII, pp 359-307 ,
reprinted in his Essays "in Historical Criticism,
pp 265 274

FIRTH, C H A Plea for the Historical Teaching of
History (Oxford, 1904 )

FKEDEKICQ, P L'Enseignqment superiuur de VHistoire
(Allemagne, France, Ecosse, Angleterre, Hollande,
Belgique) (Ghent, 1899 ) Tr , in part, in Johns
Hopkins University Studies in History and Political
Science, Vols V and VIII

II \SKINS, C H Opportunities for American Students
of History at Paris American Historical Review,
1898, Vol III, pp 418-430

M UTLAND, F W , and others Essays on the Teaching
of History (Cambridge, 1901 )

\\ YER, J I A Bibliography of the Study and Teaching?
of History, Annual Report of the American Historical
Association for 1899, Vol I, pp. 561-612

On History in American Colleges and Universities —

AIMMS, G B Method* of Work in Historical Semi-
naries, American Historical Review, Vol X, pp
521-533

ADAMS, H B The Study of History in American Col-
leges and Universities (Washington, 1887 )

American Historical Association, Papers and Annual
Reports for 1889, 1896, 1897, 1899, 1904-1908
(Numerous papers and reports of conferences on
college and university work in history )

CHANNING, E , HART, A B , and TURNER, F J Guide
to American History (Boston, 1912 )

FLING, F M , arid CALDWELL, H W Studies in European
and American History, an Introduction to the Source
Study Method in History (Lincoln, Neb , 1897 )

HALL, G S (ed ) Methods of Teaching History
(Boston, 1889 )

HASKINH, C H The Historical Curriculum in Col-
leges, in Minutes of the Association of History
Tiachers of the Middle States and Maryland for
1904

History Teachers Magazine Philadelphia, since 1909
Especially the articles on the historical courses
in certain colleges

On History in Schools —
ALLEN, J W The Place of History in Education

(London, 1909 )
ANDREWS, C M , GAMBRILL, J M., TALL, LIDA L A

Bibliography of History for Schools and Libraries.

(New York, 1910 )
Association of History Teachers of the Middle States

and Maryland. Annual Minutes, from 1903
BARNES, MARY SHELDON Studies in Historical Method

(Boston, 1896 )
BLISS, W F. History in the Elementary Schools,

Methods, Courses of Study, Bibliographies (New

York, 1911 )
BOURNE, H E. The Teaching of History and Civics

in the Elementary and Secondary School (New

York, 1910)
Committee of Eight, Report of the, to the American

Historical Association The Study of History in the

Elementary School (New York, 1909 )
Committee of Five, Report of the, to the American

Historical Association The Study of History in

Schools (New York, 1911 )
Committee of Seven, American Historical Association

The Study of History in Schools (New York,

1899)
England Board of Education Teaching of History in

Secondary Schools (London, 1908 )
FARRINQTON, F E. French Secondary Schools, ch.

XI. (New York, 1910 )

HEARNSHAW, F J. C Teaching of History by Means of

Local Records. Educ Times (London), Vol. LXV,

Feb , 1912, pp 59-60 Contains also Report of

Annual Meeting of the Historical Association.

HINSDALB, B A How to Study and Teach History.

(New York, 1893 )

Historical Association Leaflets (London, from 1906 )
Indiana University Bulletin History Teaching in

High School. (Blooroington, 1909.)

JAGER, () The Teaching of Ihstory, tr l>^ H J
Chaytor (London, 1908 )

JOHNSON, H History in the Elementary School (New
York, 1908 )

KEATINQE, M W Studies in the Teaching of History
(London, 1910)

MACE, W. H Method in History (New York, 1903 )

McMuRRY, C A Special Method in History (New
York, 1903 )

New England History Teachers' Association His-
torical Sources in Schools (New York, 1902 )
Syllabus for Secondary Schools (Boston, 1904 )
Various publications since 1897

New York State Education Department Bulletins
Course of Study and Syllabus for the Elementary
Schools, Syllabus for Secondary Schools (Albany,
1910)

North Central History Teachers' Association, Proceed-
ings, from 1899

Report of a Conference on the Teaching of History in
London Elementary School* (London, 1911 )

RICE, EMILY J Course of Study in History and Lit-
erature (Chicago, 1897 )

RUSSELL, J E German Higher Schools, ch XV
(New ed , New York, 1905 )

SALMON, LUCY M Some Principles in the Teaching
of History (Chicago, 1902 )

HISTORY OF EDUCATION — Its Value

— An appreciation of the value of the study
of educational traditions and customs is united
with the tardy recognition of culture history
in general The earlier study of historic as-
pects of education was connected either with
particular institutions, chiefly universities, or
with the philosophical interpretation of edu-
cation Recently, however, a wider significance
is recognized both because of the function of
the study in professional education and of its
cultural value Certain of these reasons may
be indicated briefly In the first place the
recent strong emphasis upon the genetic ap-
proach has brought into clearer light the .signi-
ficance of the historical, if a large proportion
of our educational ideas and practices have
no other support in the present but a historical
or traditional one, it is quite essential to the
teacher to know something of the origin and
significance of these customs Again as a
guard against the danger of extremes in moving
away from the restrictions of inherited stand-
ards, such a study is of value The waves of
opinion which are popularly called " fads and
frills'7 can be minimized by a study of past ex-
perience with similar schemes As an instru-
ment for broadening the interests and sympa-
thies of teachers, often far more restricted
than those of the children whom thev teach,
this study is of great value because of the broad
conception and wide social relation of educa-
tion which it gives When the Herbartian con-
ception of education as the development of
many-sided interests upon the part of the pupil
is considered, the importance of the same de-
velopment for the teacher is evident The
greatest professional significance is that the
contributions of historical study clarify standard
and ideals Where, as in teaching, no definite
purpose, adequate or satisfactory, can be
gained either from a knowledge of the subject
matter imparted or from the mind of the

293

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

child taught, some formulation of ultimate
standards is essential The study of the
relation of school work to social needs and
various historical stages contributes much to
this end On the technical side, much is to
be said for the training in the use of the com-
parative or historical method as well as for the
experimental through psychology or the logical
through philosophy On the cultural side
much could be argued for the value of a sub-
ject which represents society's conscious attempt
to perpetuate its achievements of the past and
to realize its aspirations of the future It is
needless to add that these values are not to be
found if the subject is to be conceived as a study
of schoolroom devices or the pedagogical ideas
of a few leading teachers or philosophers
It is only reached when treated, as by Plato
and Aristotle, as an essential part of the study
of society represented in its highest conscious
effort, — the culmination of the social process

Historical Development of the Subject —
The study of the history of educational thought
arid practice did not receive serious attention
until the end of the eighteenth century, when
it was stimulated by two movements The
first of these was the general interest in the past
and a desire to estimate human progress by com-
parison with the past Secondly, an impetus
was given to a study of antiquity by the revo-
lutionary and rationalistic movements of the
age which refused to recognize the influence of
the past Hence the desire by the opponents
of these movements to trace the evolution of
human progress and establish some standards
and norms to counteract what were regarded
as revolutionary proposals

Probably the earliest history of education as
such ,was the Traite des Choix et de la Methode
des Etudes (1675) by Claude Fleury, who was
associated with Bossuet as instructor to the
royal children This work was translated into
English in 1695 by S Keble. As Fleury states
m the opening sentences of his work that " to
understand well the Order of our pubhck
Studies, it seems to me Advisable to go to the
Fountain-head; that so we may see whence
every part is denv'd down to us ; how the whole
body of these Studies has been form'd in the
Succession of many Ages." The first part,
about fifty pages, is devoted to a history of
studies down to the " Restoration of Hu-
manity." The chief interest in this part is
perhaps a recognition of the influence of Ara-
bian and Hebrew thought on the Middle Ages
Otherwise the work, as might be expected,
is somewhat sketchy The second part is
devoted to a theory of the curriculum. In the
century following there appeared many his-
tories of individual schools, but no connected
history of education Among these may be
mentioned: Ludovicus, G , Histona Rectorum
Gymnaswrum, Scholar umque celebnorum (Leip-
zig, 1908-1911); Biedermann, Acta Scholastica,
Altes und Neues von tichulmchen (Halle, 1752-

1755) ; Burckhardt, De varus Germanice Scho-
larum a Caroh M tempore usque ad Soec. XVI
Mutationibm (1715), Schottgen, DC Stain
Scholarum ante Reformatwnem(l7l7); Ulnch,
Pragrnatischc Geschichte der vornehrnsten Katho-
hschen und pi otestantischen Gymnasien und
Schulen im Deutschland (1780) The author
of the last work hopes by a complete account
of the qualities and defects of certain schools
to lead to improvement and greater perfection
of teaching method and discipline in the schools
of his day The work gives an account, valu-
able because contemporary, of Basedow's theory
of the Philanthropirium (f 1774), a history of
the Furstenschulen of Saxony, and of schools
in Austria and Bavaria It is interesting to
note, as bearing out the introductory state-
merit, that the work which has usually been re-
garded as the first history of education, C A
MangelsdorPs Versuch emer Darstellung desxcn
was seit Jahrtausenden un Bctreff des Erzieh-
ungswesejis gesagt und gethan warden ist (Leip-
zig, 1779), was prompted by opposition to the
educational thought represented by Basedow
" If one desires," lie writes, " to form a correct
judgment on new proposals for improving edu-
cation, one must not only know what has been
done in various directions, but also what has
been said " This work was followed bv the
Geschichte des Schul- und Eiziehungs-Wesen*
in Deutschland von da Einfuhrung des Citric
tenthums bis auf die ncucstcn Znten, by Fr
E Ruhkopf (Bremen, 1794) This is an
attempt to record the most important steps in
the origin and progress of Gorman education
The work is based on source material, and LS
valuable, bibliographioallv, for the references
to earlier books on education, which, however,
contained nothing but biographies, lists of
births arid deaths, or collections of writings
The author refers to a plan for a History of
Education published by Schoppeilm in Magazin
fur Schulen about 1770, which was never carried
out He takes a broad view of education, and
recognizes the intimate connection of education
with the church, politics, and literature, and
claims his book to be the first attempt in a new
field. A significant step in advance was made
by Fr H Christian Schwarz, who in 1802 had
published Erzichungslehrc , to which he added
in 1813 Geschichte der ErzicJnmg in ihrern Zu-
sammenhang untcr den Volkern von alien Zeitcn
her bis aufs 7ieueste. A new edition in 1829
was preceded by the history, since a true con-
ception of present problems is impossible with-
out a knowledge of what has already been done
He is opposed both to the view which looks
upon the past as perfect because it is past, and
to the view " which holds that truth has never
yet been discovered and that every moment
brings something better than before." His-
tory of education is a branch of the history of
civilization, and while giving an account of the
past, affords insight into the present. The work
is comprehensive, and deals with the educational

294

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

history of most of the nations of antiquity up
to the philanthropinistic movements and the
new education. The importance of the his-
tory of education was also recognized by A H
Niemeyer, who added a historical section
(Vbetllick der allgerneinen Geschichte dcr Erzich-
ung und des Unternchts nebst einer specielleren
padagogischen Charaktenstik des achtzehnlen
Jahrhundertft bis auf die neuesten Zeiten) to the
later editions of his Grundsatze dcr Erziehung
und des Unternchts (1796) Here the history
of education is given in outline up to the eight-
eenth century, which receives more detailed
treatment A separate work, OriqinaL^tellen
gnechischer und romischer Klassiker ubcr die
Theone der Erziehung und des Unternchts
(1813) serves to supplement the earlier sum-
mary While the author recognizes the breadth
of the subject as an account of the theory of
education, the leaders, institutions, and writings
of the past, his work gives little more than
biographical sketches of educational leaders

The practical purpose of a study of the history
of education, emphasized by Schwartz, was
recognized in a number of histories written
about 1830 Thus A Kapp, in Cornnientatw
de histona rducatwnis et per nostrani eel ate m
culla et in poster um colenda (1834) would in-
clude a study of all types of education in addi-
tion to the school, for " the correct historical
account of a science or art leads to a clear knowl-
edge of the really true standpoint " He him-
self was the author of Platons Erziehungxlehre
(1833) and of Aristotle's Erziehungslehre (1837)
So in the forties most books on the theory of
education were preceded by some histoncal
account; as examples may be cited CJustav
Braun, Grundzuge der Erziehungslehre (1849),
and Rosenkranz, Die Padagogik a/.s System
(1848)

The history of education was not uninfluenced
by the Hegelian philosophy of history Hegel's
own Lectures on the Philosophy of History,
dealing as it does with the development of
human Geist or spirit toward self-realization,
may to that extent be regarded as a history of
education in its broadest sense Several works
accordingly appeared in this field with a pre-
conceived law of progress to serve as a standard
of judgment. Fr Cramer devoted his lifetime
to the study of history of education, but never
completed the work He published in 1832
Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unternchts im
AUertum, which in 1839 was brought down to
the time of Lucian; and in 1843 appeared his
Geschichte der Erziehung und des Unternchts in
den Niederlnnden wdhrend des Mittelalters He
regards as the main aim of education not its
purely practical aspect, but a knowledge of
the educational means of ancient times, what the
human efforts were in all fields, and how the
divine idea to bring the human race to perfec-
tion has developed and revealed itself in human
progress. History should trace the influence
of divine providence in the direction of human

affairs without any subjective additions With
K Schmidt, Geschichte der Padagogik dmgestclll
in wdtgeschichtlicher Entwickelitny und im w-
gantschcn Zusammenhangc nnt dew Kuttui-
leben der Volker (1860-1862), the idea of the
God-man is the central point in world history,
progressive evolution is accordingly the embodi-
ment of God in man, and the history of educa-
tion attempts to accompany the spirit of man
through the struggle for freedom At the same
time this work contains a great deal of material
and a full bibliography

The work of Karl von Raumer, Geschichte
der Padagogik vom Wiederaufblulien klassischei
Studien bis auf unsere Zeit (J847), is important
m a historical survey, for this work more than
any other has exercised an influence on the
histories of education written in English. Von
Rauiner began his studies with a course of
lectures at Halle in 1822, and continued at
Erlangen from 1 838 to 1 842 While he recognizes
that a history of education must keep in view
the cultural ideal of the time and show how this
ideal was worked over into the practical field
of education, he devotes the greater part of his
work to biographies of educational leaders as
the embodiment of the ideals of their day
Nor does he accept the theory that a history
should be an objective account of facts, for
if the history of education, for example, is to
have any value, it must be approached with
subjective problems and standards.

More comprehensive than any of the pre-
ced ng works is the Geschichte dci Erziehung
von Anfa?ig an bis auf unsere Zcit (1884-1902),
issued by K A Schmid with the collaboration
of many scholars, each one a specialist The
work represents the modern conception of
history as an account of facts as they really
were and in their actual connection Systems
of education remain unintelligible when fieed
from the general intellectual atmosphere in
which they are set So extensive a work would
have been impossible foi one man alone, and
it is representative of another modern tendency,
not to issue general histories but monographs on
special topics and publication of source material
Since Schmid most of the general histories of
education have merely been textbooks based on
previous works, but an exception must be made
in favor of Paulson's Das deutschc Bildungs-
wesen in seiner geschichtlichcn Entwicklung
(Leipzig, 1906), which, in spite of its short com-
pass, gives a good account of German education
as part of the development of German culture.
It was pointed out earlier how the first histories
of education were histories of individual schools.
Valuable special studies were A Heppe's
Geschichte des deutschen Volksschulwesens (1858) ;
Grasberger, L , Erziehung und Unterricht im
KlassischenAltertum (\8ft4) ; Kehr, K , Geschichte
der Methodik des deutschen Volksschulunternchts
(1877); Paulson, F, Geschichte des gelehrten
Unternchts (1884) Since then the number has
increased rapidly, the most scholarly and valu-

295

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

able series being the Monumcjdn German ice Pa-
dagogica (q.v.), edited by Kehrbach and issued
since 1881) Under Kehrbach's influence was
organized in 1X90 the Gewllschaft fur deidsche
Erziehung*- und Schitlgcxchichtc for systematic
research into the local educational history
and the collection and publication of records
bearing on education m German-speaking
countries School ordinances, textbooks, biog-
raphies, diaries, pictures, etc , are investi-
gated In addition much local research is
carried on, as an example of which may be
cited H Heyd, Geschichte der Entwcklung des
Volksschulwesens im Grossherzogtum Baden (1894-
1897), done under the auspices of the Elemen-
tary Teachers' Association of the duchy The
following series explain their purpose with-
out any further description: Fr Marin, Bib-
liothek ' padagogischer Klassiker (1869-1895) :
G A Lindner, Padagogiache Klassikcr , Karl
Hichter, Padagogische BMiothek, G Frohlich,
Die Klassiker der Pddagogik, E Friedrich,
and H Gehrig, Die pddagogischen Klasnker;
R Vormbaum, Evangehxche Schulordnungen
de* 16 , 77, und 18 Jahrhunderltt, A Richtcr,
Neudruckc padagogischer Schnften, H Sehutze,
Austese aus den Werken beruhmter Lehrer und
Padagogen des Mittelalters ; Aug Israel, Samm-
tung selten gewordener padagogischer Schnften
des 16 und 17 Jahrhunderts t Kurz, F X ,
Bibhothek der Kathohschen Padagogik, Von
Ufer, Internationale Bibhothek fur Padagogik
und den Hilfswmsenttchaften, tiammlung der
bedcutendsten padagoqiwhen Schnften For the
history of the universities excellent material can
be found m the work of W Erman and E Horn ;
Bibhographie der deutschen Unwerxit&tcH (Leip-
zig, 1904), a comprehensive list of works
dealing with universities up to 1899 To this
may be added the monograph series edited by
Th Kappstem, Die deutschen Hochschulcn
(Berlin, 1907-)

English — Histories of education in English
have in the main followed the work of Von
Raumer ah a model Few of them have even
attempted to trace the development of educa-
tion in its broadest aspect as a branch of the
history of civilization, and the majority have
been content to give accounts of the educational
leaders and their theories Probably the eai hest
systematic survey m English was given in a
small volume issued in Harper's Family
Library m 1842 The author, II I Smith, Pro-
fessor of German Language and Literature in
the Theological Seminary at Gettysburg, Pa ,
was evidently familiar with the earlier German
works The volume gives a very creditable
survey of educational development, and is
superior to many published much later Bar-
nard, while in general covering the whole of
the history of education in different issues of
the American Journal of Education, either based
his contribution on German sources or trans-
lated parts of Von Raumer German Teachers
and Educators (1878) is an expansion of the

296

Get man Educational Kcjormw*, collected from
the American Journal and published separately
in 1863, being thus probably the first history
of education in English This had been pre-
ceded in 1859 by the translation of Vol IV of
Von Raumer, German Umveifutiei* A similai
collection on English education from the Ameri-
can Journal was made in 1876, when two
volumes, English Pedagogy, The School and
the Teachers in English Literature , were pub-
lished This work is of great value for the col-
lection of source material and the light thrown
on English education by the quotations of
writers who were not professional educators,
and has hardly been surpassed up to the present
Another work which has had arid still has
a great vogue is R H Quick's Educational
Reformers (1868), also based largely on Von
Raumer; this was expanded in 1890. Here,
too, the treatment is confined almost entirely
to education of the schoolroom The aim
which Quick had in mind was to acquaint practi-
cal men in education with " what has already
been said and done by the leading men engaged
in it, both past and present " (1868) , in a latei
edition (1890) the aim is stated to be " to select
a few people especially worth knowing about
and to tell concerning them m some detail just
that which seemed to me specially worth know-
ing " As professor of education' in the College
of Preceptors, Joseph Payne ((/.?;.) delivered
the first course of lectures on the history of
education in English, which aimed at nothing
more than a treatment of the art of education
at different periods In general the emphasis
which was prominent with the German his-
torians is also found here, to understand the
history of the subject as an aid to the solution
of modern problems Few have recognized the
comprehensiveness of the educational influences,
or, if they have, as Seeley did who saw that the
" details . embrace a study of the historv
and environment, of the internal, social, and
religious conditions of the people/' they have
failed to carry them out The following works
which appeared before 1900 may be mentioned
Browning, O , Educational Theories (Cam-
bridge, 1881), Painter, F V N, A Htstoiy
of Education (New York, 1886), Williams, S
G , The History of Modern Education (Syracuse,
1892); Munroe, J P, The Educational Ideal
(Boston, 1895), Seeley, L, Mutiny of Educa-
tion (New York, 1899) The appearance of
Thomas Davidson's .1 Htxtoiy of Education
in 1900 marks an epoch in the conception of
educational history in English This is the
first work which is not mainly biographical, and
is an attempt to trace educational development
as a phase in human evolution But while try-
ing to avoid the narrowness of earlier histories,
Davidson's book errs somewhat in exaggerating
the other side without giving a clear definition
of education An attempt to strike the mean
by making " evident the relation between edu-
cational development and other aspects of the

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

HISTORY OF EDUCATION

history of civilization and to deal with educa-
tional tendencies rather than with men," is
made in Monroe's Textbook in the History of
Education (1906) While not neglecting ' the
practical aim, to show connection between
theory and school practice, and the influence of
the past on the present, the work has the advan-
tage of constant reference to source material

Very little of the nature of the German mono-
graphs has been done in English, nor is the
interest in the history of education so strong
either in England or America as m Germany
A valuable contribution on Education in Eailv
England was nwh as early as 1867 by F ,!
Furmvall in the introduction to the Babees
Honk , but with the exception of Leach's English
Schools before the ftcformation (1896), Educa-
tional Charieix (1911), and his contributions
to the Victoria County Histories of England,
de Montmorency's State Intervention in Eng-
land, and Watson's English Giamniai Schools
to /6'6'0and Beginnings of the Teaching of Modem
Subject* ni England, little has been done
toward a comprehensive history of English edu-
cation , the series of monographs on the colleges
of Oxford and Cambridge, and seveial on the
large Public Schools may here be mentioned
In America the held is only just beginning to be
btudi »d * P M and I. L K

See EDUCATION, ACADEMIC STUDY OF

France — The history of education is hardly
taught in France, and only figures in the curncu-
lum of normal schools A ministerial decree of
Aug 3, 1881, introduced this subject into the
course foi the third yoai in the following terms
" Histoiv of Pedagogy, the chief educators
and their theories, Analysis of the most im-
portant works "

In the universities there are no special chairs
in the history or science of education except
wheie occasionally the professors of philos-
ophy or the instructors, few and far between,
who fill a chair in the science of education, de-
vote then courses to the history of a peiiod m
education or to some educational topic It was
in this way that the present writer as professor
of philosophy in the faculty of letters of the
University of Toulouse, took education as
the topic of his lectures, which resulted m the
two volumes on the History of Educational
Themes in France.

In the secondary schools, lycecs and colleges,
no attention is paid to the history of education,
but the candidates for the various aginations
(q v ) must study at least some sections The
decree of July 26, 1900, which regulates the
requirements in the practice of education which
candidates must attain to be permitted to pre-
sent themselves for the competitive examination
distinguishes between the practical apprentice-
ship as assistants in a number of classes in the
Lycees and preparation in theory by attendance
at twenty conferences dealing with secondary
education in general, its history and organiza-
tion in France and abroad,

Thus the history of education is not a regular
subject of instruction in France For a long
time those who were inclined to study it had
only the German authorities at their disposal
Thus Fritz, in giving a survey of the works on
history of education (in Esquisxe d'un Systeme
complet d 'Instruction et d* Education et de leur
Hwtotre, Vol III, ch I (Strassburg, 1843),
refers in the mam to German works and only
mentions one in French (Guizot, Essai sur
I'Histoirc et tsttr VEtat actml de r Instruction
publtque en France, Paris, 1816) A year
after Fritz's work there appeared Histone
critique et legislative de Vln^truction pubhque,
et de la Lihertti de VEnxeigncmcnt en France by
II de Riancey (Pans, 1844), winch aimed with
the help of a suivey of educational history to
establish some standards for furthei reform But
the contributions to the subject in France were
very small until the eighties, since when a large
number of works, the majority dealing rather
with French history, and particularly the pericd
during or subsequent to the Revolution The
standard work until this period was that of Jules
Paroz, Histoire umvciselle di la Pedagogic
(Paris, 1867)

The time has gone by when the efforts of the
Revolution in educational matters can be ig-
nored, or when a French university scholar, like
Thery, in his Ihstonc de lEdutation en Fiance,
can open the chapter on the Revolution with
these contemptuous words, On n'etudie pa.s Ic
vide, on n* analyse pas Ic neant It is precisely
this period in our history, which with the Report
of Talleyrand to the Constitutional Dynast} , of
Condorcct to the Legislative Assembly, of the
plans of Mirabeau, Lakanal, Daunou, has
been one of the most productive, pieparing the
ideas which have been assured their accom-
plishment in the Third Republic Collections
of important documents have been published
which enable scholars to investigate the edu-
cational part, of these the most notable is the
work of Gre"ard (q v ), La Legislation et V Instruc-
tion pnmaire depuix 1780 ju^qv'a nos T?n,ps,
including laws, decrees, and oidmances preceded
by an introduction Gre*ard was one of these
who contributed greatly to spreading a taste
for the history of education in France, especially
by his excellent studies of the most celebrated
educators, Mme de Maintenon and Mn e de
Rfonusat, and by his introduction to Fe'nelcn's
Education dcs FilJcs Mention must also be
made of M F Buisson, the second edition of
whose Diction no ire de Pedagogic has just
appeared, giving a caielul treatment of the
history of education and articles on the most
important educators The authoi's own His-
tone de la Pedagogic has been translated
into English by W H Payne, as well as a
few volumes of his series Grands Educateurs
(Pioneers of Education, London, 1908)

G r.

Its Place in the Curriculum — See KDUCV-
TION, ACADEMIC STUDY OF.

297

HITCHCOCK

HOBBES

References : —
BUHNHAM, W II The History of Education. With

Bibliography Proc Soc Coll Teachers of Edu-
cation, 190h (New York, 1908 )
FRITZ, T PJfifjuitibu d'un Syntbmt> complet d' Instruction

i't d' Education ct do leur Hibtoire, Vol III, Ch 1

(Strassburg, 1843 )
MONROE, P Opportunity and Need for Research

Work in the History of Education Ped Scm ,

Vol XVII, pp 54-02
REIN, W Encyklo^dibdits Handbuch der Padagogik,

ti v Historwchc PadayoQik
Report U S Com Ed , 1K93-1894, Vol I, pp 306-

308 ftibhoRiaphy of German Books on History

of Education
SCHMID, K A Encyklopadie der gesamten ErziehunQb-

und Untcrrichtswexens, s v Padagogik, Geachichte

der

HITCHCOCK, EDWARD (1793-1864) —
College president and scientist, was bom at
Dcerfield, Mass , on May 24, 1793 Ho re-
ceived his education in private schools and at
Yale College He was principal of the Deer-
field Academy (1815-1818), professor of chemis-
try and natural history in Amhcrst College
(1825-1844), and president of Amherst College
(1844-1854) lie served as state geologist of
Massachusetts, and was one of the founders of
Mount Hulyoke College (q v ) His writings
include Life and Labors of Mary Lyon (1852),
Rennnntccrtcc^ of Amhervt College (1863), and
several works on geology and botanv

W. S. M.

&v AMHERST COLLEGE

Reference : —

TYLEK, W S History of Amherst College. (Spring-
field, 1873 )

HOAR, LEONARD (1630-1675) — Third
president of Harvard College, and a prominent
clergyman and physician, was graduated at
Harvard in 1650, and subsequently took a degree
in medicine at the University of Cambridge,
England He succeeded Chauncy as president
of Harvard in 1672 " As a scholar and a
Christian he was very respectable, but being
deficient in the spirit of government, and fall-
ing under the displeasure of a few men of in-
fluence in the neighborhood, the students were
thus encouraged to array themselves against
him, and his situation was rendered so un-
pleasant that he was under the necessity of resign-
ing his office March 15, 1675 " He advocated
technical and industrial education as a part of
the college course W. 8. M.

See HARVARD UNIVERSITY

References : —

PEIRCE, BENJAMIN History of Harvard University.

(Cambridge, 1833 )
QUINCY, JOBIAH History of Harvard University

(Cambridge, 1862 )

HOBART COLLEGE, GENEVA, N.Y —

The successor of Geneva Academy In 1860
the present title was adopted Though largely
aided by Protestant Episcopal Societies and
individuals,, the college is nonsectarian in ad-

298

ministration. Hobart College is among the
institutions originally accepted by the Carnegie
Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching
(q v.). The institution confers the usual bache-
lor's degrees m arts, philosophy, and science,
and the degree of A M for one year's graduate
study m residence Admission is by examina-
tion or certificate from an approved four-year
high school In September 1908, the trustees
of Hobart College opened William Smith College
for the separate instruction of women, founded
through the gift bv William Smith, Esq , of
Geneva, of $475,000 The work of the two
colleges is conducted independently by a com-
mon faculty upon whose recommendation the
corporation of Hobart College grants to the
students of both institutions the same degrees
There was in 1910-1911 an enrollment of ninety
men and thirty-eight women, with a faculty of
twenty-three members C. G.

HOBART, JOHN HENRY (1775-1830) —
Founder of Hobart College (qv), was educated
at the University of Pennsylvania and Prince-
ton University His life was devoted to the
ministry and episcopacy of the Protestant
Episcopal Church In 1821 he established an
academy and divinity school at Auburn, N Y ,
which four years later became Hobart College
He was the author of several works on religion
and religious education W S M

See HOBART COLLEGE

Reference : —

McVirKAR, JOHN Life of John Henry Hobart (New
York, 1834 )

HOBBES, THOMAS (1588-1679) — Son of
an illiterate clergyman of the English church
He was brought up by an uncle, a glovemaker
in Malmesbury Hobbes' education began at
four years at a school in Westport, where lie
mastered Latin and Greek at an early age and
was able to translate the Medea of Euripides
into Latin iambic verse before he was fourteen
Entering Magdalen Hall, Oxford, at fifteen, he
received his bachelor's degree in 1608 lie
seems to have had little sympathy with flu-
pronounced Calvinism which prevailed in
Oxford under Dr Wilkinson, and was left very
much to his own devices in his university course
Later he became tutor to the son of the Duke
of Devonshire and throughout his life retained
his connection with the family, with the excep-
tion of two breaks During the Protectorate
he was appointed tutor of the Prince of Wales,
then m exile in Pans, where Hobbes became
a member of the learned coterie which gathered
about the genial Pere Mersenne He also
traveled much in Europe and acquired con-
siderable acquaintance with the mathematical
and physical sciences and philosophy of the
continent His devotion to the cause of the
English monarchy and nobility, however, ren-
dered him unpopular among the leaders of the
Puritan uprising, and gave a decidedly political

HOBBES

HOCKEY

cast to all his more important speculations, thus
illustrating a characteristic tendency of English
philosophy For if Hobbes be " the father of
English psychology/' he also led the way m
teaching that intellectual activity should, in
aim and application, be practical

Not long before the opening of the Long
Parliament (1640) he wrote his works entitled
On Human Nature arid De Corpore Politico.
At Paris he wrote others, including his master-
piece, Leviathan (1651), which is a treatise on
social polity It was, therefoie, not until his
fiftieth year that the germ of his system began
to fructify, in which the following points are
to be noted. (1) Hobbes sought a philosophical
foundation for his doctrine in the idea of motion.
With this as a starting point he believed that
the whole body of knowledge could be disposed
of in three sections under the headings of Body,
Man, and Society (2) Accordingly, in the work
De Cor pore, the idea of body is examined Here
he anticipated Leibnitz by attributing an atomic
structure, endowed with potentialities of feel-
ing, to matter He explained natural or phys-
ical phenomena in terms of the universal laws
of motion, as motion had been mechanically
explained by (lalileo and others (3) In DC
llominc he sought to deduce all subjective ex-
perience fiom sense, as sense is physically detci-
mmed by the body and its motions All knowl-
edge, therefore, grows out of sensations
After sensation there icmains behind tho mem-
ory of it, which may reappear in consciousness,
and, aided by signs (words, general notions,
definitions, and mathematical foi mulse) , be com-
municated to others All thought is merely the
addition and subtraction of sense percep-
tions (4) In DC Cive he attempted to bring
both society and man within the same principles
of scientific explanation as he found applicable
to nature, being the liist Englishman to make
such an attempt This part of his doctrine
starts with the idea that all human beings are
at war with each other But this state of things
is so unsatisfactory that there is all the more
need of an absolute ruler, king or assembly,
whose authority shall be law and to which all
aie compelled to lender unconditional obedi-
ence by formal contract Right and wrong are
thus merely the conduct which the State sanc-
tions or punishes. Even religion is a State-
regulated convention, from which there is no
appeal.

The great work of Hobbes, Leviathan, is an
elaboration, in a more popular form, of his
theory of the commonwealth, and it is in this
work that he touches on the question of educa-
tion. For in it he attacked violently the uni-
versities and their systems, maintaining (1)
that by their allegiance to the Puritan cause
they were subverting public order; and (2) by
their adherence to the old learning they were
working social mischief A bitter controversy
was aroused by these charges, which Dr. Wallis,
of Oxford, succeeded in meeting. As a reply

to Wallis he published his Six Lessons to the
Professors of Mathematics (1656), in which he
explains his anti-Euclidean view of geometry.
This he followed by other smaller works on the
same subject, written in a controversial style,
which, however, did not add greatly to his
reputation as a philosopher.

Hobbes was a man of immense energy, un-
tiring activity, and regularity of life. Some idea
of the range of his interests can be gathered
from the fact that he translated Thucydides and
at eighty-five turned four books of the Oefy/.s.sn/
into English rhymes, adding later the Iliad,
to which he prefixed an essay on the nature
of heroic poems. H. D

References : —

BALDWIN Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology,
Vol III, pt 1, pp 264-268

HOBBKH Work*, edited by Sn W Molesworth (Lon-
don, 1839-1845)

ROBERTSON, G C Hobbes, Blaokwood's Philosophic ul
Classics (Edinburgh, 1886)

STEPHEN, SIR L Hobbes (New York, 1904 )

WoonmiiDGE, F J E The Philosophy of Hobbes ?n
Extracts and Notes collected from his Writings
(Minneapolis, 1903 )

HOBY, SIR THOMAS (1530-1566). — Eng-
lish diplomatist arid translator of Castighone's
// Corteyiano. He studied at Cambridge and
tiavcled much in Europe; he was knighted in
1566 and was sent as English ambassadoi to
France He died in Paris The Courtyer of
Count Baldcssar Castiho was published in Lon-
don in 1561 , and its populanty is attested by the
number of other editions, 1565, 1577, 1588, 1608
Of Hoby, Ascham (q v ) says in the Scholcmasto
(Arber's reprint, p 66) that he " was many
ways well furnished with learning, and very
expert in knowledge of divers tongues. "

See CASTIGLIONE, BALD ASS ARE.

Reference : —

RALEIGH, W Sir Thomas Hoby's Courtier, in Tudor
Translations (London, 1900 )

HOCKEY, FIELD. — This is one of the fe\v
team games played by men and women Al-
though its origin goes back to the fourteenth
century in France, hockey was developed in Eng-
land, the home of nearly all modern athletic
games It is the favorite winter sport among
English women and is gaining m popularity
among men. The game was introduced to girls
in American schools and colleges in the autumn
of 1901 It was received with so much interest
and enthusiasm that it soon won a permanent
place in the athletics of schools and colleges for
women. Field hockey is a splendid, healthful
game; its effect upon the players is to develop
vigor, endurance, and mental alertness. It
offers to girls essentially the same advantages
that boys derive from football, lacrosse, and ice
hockey

The game is played by two teams of eleven

E layers — five forwards, three half backs, two
all backs, and a goal keeper. The outfit con-
299

HOCKEY, ICE

HOGG

sists of a hardwood stick which has a blade
about a foot long, bent at an angle of forty-five
degrees from the handle, which is about two
feet long. The ball used is a cricket ball or a
solid rubber ball painted white. The game is
played on a smooth field a hundred yards in
length by not less than fifty yards nor more than
sixty yards in breadth This space must be
marked out with whitewash lines and with a
flag at each corner The longer lines are called
the " side lines " and the shorter ones the " goal
lines. " Transverse lines are marked in the
centre and midway between the center and
the goal lines. Five yards inside each side line
is marked a dotted line, parallel with the side
line, this is called the " five-yard line." In
the middle of eacJi goal line, and if our yards apart,
are placed the goal posts. These are uprights
seven feet high with a cross bar on top and a
net forming a pocket behind the posts and
crossbar In the front of each goal line and
fifteen yards from it is drawn a line four yards
long, parallel to the goal line The ends of this
line are carried round in a curve, forming a
quarter circle, until they reach the goal line
at a point fifteen yards from the center of the
goal This half circle is called the " striking-
nrcle." G. L. M.

Reference : —

APPLEBEB, CONSTANCE M K Field Hockey for Men
and Women. (New York, 1903 )

HOCKEY, ICE. — A strenuous and fascinat-
ing game developed m Canada during the last
quarter of the nineteenth century. The Eng-
lish game of field hockey arid the old game of
" Shinty " or " Shinny " contributed the essen-
tial principles of the modern game of Ice
Hockey In the United States this game is
played by boys and young men in schools and
colleges where the climate permits of ice skating
during the winter months It is played on a
rink about 80 by 180, or 100 by 200 feet sur-
rounded by a wooden wall about two feet high.
At each end is a goal made of two posts four
feet high and six feet apart. The game is
played by teams of seven players — four for-
wards, one on each wing and two in the center,
a coyer-point, a point, and a goal keeper. The
players use high, long, and strong skates, and
a bent stick made of ash or hickory. The stick
has a blade about a foot long and three quarters
of an inch thick, bent at an angle of forty-five
degrees from the handle, which is three and a half
feet long. The game is to push and drive a
puck into the goal. The puck is circular, one
inch thick, three inches in diameter, and made
of vulcanized rubber.

The rules of the game resemble those of
American football; the player must be "on
side," and the puck must not be passed for-
ward to another player. As played in the
United States and Canada, it is a rough and
strenuous game. A good hockey player must

be a fine skater, and possess strength, agility,
pluck, good judgment, and endurance. Hockey
is a splendid game to develop physical vigor and
manly qualities when properly played, but like
basketball, and football it degenerates into a
rough and sometimes brutal game when not
properly supervised. Students should not be
permitted to engage in this sport unless they
have been examined by a competent physician,
and declared free from disease or organic
weakness

There is a real need for such games as ice
hockey, football, and basket ball for the best
physical and moral development of healthy
boys and young men, but these games require
most careful supervision by educational au-
thorities to insure beneficial rather than harm-
ful results G L M.

See ATHLETICS, EDUCATIONAL.

References : —

BOGKRT, B Ice Hockey. Outing Magazine, Jan , 1893
FARRELL, A. Ice Hockey (New York, 1910 )
PATTERSON, C E Hockey, a National Winter Game
Outing Magazine, February, 1903.

HOFWYL. — See FELLENBERG

HOGG, QUINTIN (1845-1903) — English
social reformer and founder of the Regent Street
Polytechnic, was born in London, February
14, 1845, the fourteenth child of Sir James Weir
Hogg, Baronet and Privy Councilor Quintin
Hogg was educated at Mr. Lee's preparatory
school at Brighton and at Eton (1858-1863),
where he showed intellectual promise, was very
popular with the boys on account of his athletic
distinction and public spirit, and founded in
Joynes' boarding house a Sunday Bible Class
and prayer meeting which went by the name
of the " Synagogue/' England was moved
at the time by a strong religious revival, and
Hogg, most manly of boys, had an unique in-
fluence upon the life of his contemporaries at
Eton. In 1863 he went into a tea merchant's
business in Mincing Lane, in the city of Lon-
don, and was touched with sympathy for the
wastrel boys whom he saw in the streets
Impressed by some experiences with these, he
devoted himself zealously to obtaining first-
hand acquaintance with their class, and, dis-
guised as a shoeblack, he spent nights with poor
boys, frequently sleeping in the open or under
arches. The beginning of the Polytechnic
may be traced to his efforts to teach reading,
with the Bible as a textbook, to two crossing
sweepers.

With his friend Arthur (afterwards Lord)
Kinnaird, he hired a room in Of Alley (now York
Place, Charing Cross) and started a ragged
school (q.v.). He and his friend held prayer
meetings for the Covent Garden porters and
classes for the flower girls at Charing Cross.
All this time Quintin Hogg was mastering the
details of his own business and taking a lead-
ing part in the athletic life of Eton and of Lon-

300

HOGG

don. In 1868 ho traveled in the West Indies
and the United States and formed a strong ad-
miration for the Americans. In 1871 he mar-
ried the daughter of William Graham, a famous
collector of pictures For nearly thirty-two
years Hogg and his wife devoted' their leisure
and a great part of their fortune to work among
young people in London. Their experience in
the United States and Canada made them strong
advocates of supervised, selected child emigra-
tion In America Ho^g met D L Moody,
whose subsequent work in England he did much
to forward The Ragged School, which had
been moved first to Castle Street, W. and then
to Long Acre, became the center of a widely
extending philanthropic work, Mr Kobcrt
Mitchell acting as secretary from 1872 onwards
Trade classes were organized with the aid of
grants from the Science and Art Department,
and the combination of educational with reli-
gious work \\as the distinctive feature of Hogg's
policy In 1881 he purchased the buildings
of the Polytechnic, an institution famous m
its time but then in decrepitude, winch had
combined instruction and amusement for the
young This was the first of the London
Polytechnics (q v.), which are institutions under
public management for the provision of m-
stiuction, rcci cation, and social intercourse for
young men and women of the wage earning
and lower middle cla.ss Hogg lived in Cav-
endish Square, in a house which adjoined the
Polytechnic at the back In order to make use
of the rooms which lay empty m the daytime,
a day school was established at the Polytechnic
in 1886 The large annual deficit on the work-
ing of the Polytechnic was mot from Qumtm
Hogg's private purse

Hogg's life was given to the fusion of the two
ideals of Christian service and educational
organization When his work came to maturity,
the Elementary Education Act, 1870,had already
provided a stronger, though still imperfect
substructure for technical instruction The
religious revival had moved some of the nch
to a new sense of public duty Collectivist
thought had diffused an ideal of social unity in
civic enterprise. The timeliness of Hogg's
work lay in the convergence of these different
currents of thought and opportunity

But educational work on a scale so large as
Hogg's could not permanently depend upon
private liberality. Its very importance not
less than its financial needs necessitated public
endowment and representative control In
1878 a Koyal Commission was appointed to
inquire into the condition of the parochial
charities of the city of London, many of which,
though wealthy, had become obsolete in appli-
cation. In 1883 the City of London Parochial
Chanties Act was passed and directed the
Charity C Commissioners to frame new schemes
for the application of city charities in such a way
as to promote the welfare of the poor of the
metropolis by education, free libraries, open

301

HOLBROOK, JOSIAH

spaces, and otherwise. The work of the Poly,
technic attracted the attention of the com-
missioners, and large subsidies were promised
from the city parochial funds, including a capital
grant of over £11,000 to the Regent Street
Polytechnic and a yearly endowment of £3,500,
on condition that supplemental y resources were
obtained from the public. Quintm Hogg now
for the first time appealed for subscriptions
The fact was disclosed that his personal ex-
penditure upon the Polytechnic alone had
amounted to £100,000 'Public opinion was
heartily responsive and in the course of a few
years ten new Polytechnic institutes, with four
branches, were established in London in imita-
tion of the work which Hogg had set going in
Regent Street.

Hogg, still immersed in the work of the
Polytechnic, died suddenly on January 16, 1903
At the " Poly/' as the Polytechnic is known
to its members, the memory of " Q H " will
always remain in affectionate remembrance.
Hogg's work was one of the causes which, at
a critical tune, prevented a breach between
religious activities and educational develop-
ments in England. It now needs to be sup-
plemented (1) by the systematic organization
of continuation classes for adolescents, and (2)
by an enlargement of the resources of the Uni-
versity of London and its moie scientific ad-
justment to the educational needs of the me-
tropolis M. E. S.

See BESANT, SIR WALTER, MECHANICS IN-
STITUTE, POLYTECHNICS, LONDON

References : —

IIooci, F L M Quintin Hogg a Biography (Lon-
don, 1906 )

WEBB, SIDNEY The London Polytechnic Institutes,
m England, Hoard of Education, Special Report* on
Educational Subject*, Vol II (London, 1S98.)

HOLBROOK, ALFRED (1816-1909) —
Normal school principal, son of Josiah Hoi-
brook (q v ), was educated in the public schools
of Massachusetts and at Groton Academy He
was for several years principal of the Western
Reserve Teachers' Seminary, and in 1855 he
founded the Southwestern Noi mal School at
Lebanon, Ohio, which ultimately assumed the
name of National Normal University He was
piesident of this institution foi fifty years He
wrote Methods of Teaching, School Management,
and an English grammar W S M

HOLBROOK, JOSIAH (1788-1854).—
Founder of the Lyceum movement (q v ) in the
United States and organizer of one of the earliest
industrial schools, was educated in the district
schools at Derbv, Conn , and graduated at
Yale College in 1S10 He organized an in-
dustrial school at Derby in 1819, after the
pattern of Fellenbeig's institution at Hofwyl:
arid in 1824 he established an Agricultural
Seminary at Derby, in which, besides the cus-
tomary secondary school studies, surveying

HOLIDAYS

HOLLAND

and practical agriculture were taught (See
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION.) His most im-
portant service to education, however, was the
development of the lyceum movement which
resulted in the organization of lecture courses,
the establishment of libraries, and the equip-
ment of schools with scientific appliances m
hundreds of towns in the country. (See AMERI-
CAN LYCEUM ASSOCIATION ) In 1826 he opened
an educational exchange in Boston for the manu-
facture and sale of school apparatus. In 1830
he began the publication of a series of Scientific
Tract* for the use of teachers and advanced
students In the next year ho was active in
the organization of the American School Society
(q v ) In 1832 he founded The family Lyceum,
a weekly paper for the diffusion of useful knowl-
edge He lectured widely before lyceum as-
sociations on scientific subjects, and was a
frequent lecturer at teachers' institutes con-
ducted by Horace Mann in Massachusetts and
Henry Barnard in Connecticut He was also
active in the American Institute of Instruction
(q v ) and the various educational associations
in New England, New York, and Pennsylvania

W. 8. M.

See AMERICAN LYCEUM ASSOCIATION: LY-
CELMS

Reference : —

BARNARD, H American Journal of Education. 1860.
Vol VIII, pp 229-256

HOLIDAYS, SCHOOL — In the United
States the public schools in cities usually begin
in September and continue until May or June
The common term in the North Atlantic and
North Central groups of states is from 180
to 200 days in the cities, 140 to 160 days in the
village or town, and 100 to 140 days in the rural
schools The shorter the term, the longer the
summer vacation Nearly all town schools
begin by October, the term being shortened at
the end During the regular school year cer-
tain holidays are commonly granted, the most
common and universal of which are every
Saturdav and Sunday in full, Thanksgiving
Day, on the last Thursday in November, and
commonly the Friday following it- from ten
days to two weeks covering Christmas and
New Year's, and from one or two days to a
week at, or near, Easter Other general holi-
days frequently observed as school holidays
are election day, coming early in November
in alternate years; Washington's birthday on
February 22 ; and Memorial Day on May 30
Admission Day is observed as a holiday in some
states; Columbus Day (October 14) is being
declared a school holiday in many states; and
Lincoln's birthday (February 12) is also
frequently observed in the Northern and
Western states in whole or m part as a holiday.

On the continent of Europe Saturday is
seldom a whole holiday In Germany schools
are commonly in session six mornings a week,

with from two to four afternoons m addition.
Wednesday and Saturday afternoons are com-
monly half holidays. About ten weeks of
vacation are allowed each year in German
schools, in addition to certain church festivals.
In Prussia and most of the northern states
two weeks are given at Easter ; about one week
at Whitsuntide, four weeks m the summer,
mostly m July , two weeks at Michaelmas ; and
two weeks at Christmas Bavaria, where the
summers are warmer, has no vacation at Whit-
suntide and only one week at Christmas, but
about eight weeks in summer The church
festivals of Epiphany, Candlemas, Annuncia-
tion, Corpus Chnsti, Peter- Paidstag, All Saints,
and Conception of the Virgin are observed in
Catholic countries, the Reformationsfcxt in
German Protestant schools , and the birthdays
of the reigning sovereigns commonly in all
monarchical countries Not to be omitted are the
holidays given when the thermometer registers
twenty-five degrees Celsius at ten o'clock A M
(Hitzefreiheit), at the discretion of the school
principal or the local school inspector (Orts-
schuhnspektor) . In France the week-holiday
is on Thursday, Saturday being a full school
day The summer vacation is of about two
months' duration, with short vacations at New
Year's and Easter, and on certain religious and
national holidays.

In England the common practice in ele-
mentary schools is to give about two months
of vacation throughout the year, usually divided
as follows: three to four weeks in summer,
two weeks at Christmas, one week at Easter,
and one week at Whitsuntide Special holi-
days are unusual, although a movement is OTI
foot to introduce the genoial observance of
Empire Day in schools In the secondary
schools twelve to fifteen weeks in each year are
given up to vacations, of which six or seven
weeks are taken in summer, three or four weeks
at Christmas, one to three weeks at Easter, and
in some cases, especially in the North, one to
two weeks at Whitsuntide In addition most
schools recognize a mid-term holiday of one or
two days, arid one or two half holidays in each
week or a whole holiday on Saturdays Special
holidays are observed on Plunder's Days in
the older schools, and occasional half or whole
holidays are given to celebrate any distinctions
won by a school either in scholarship, athletics,
or the more solid distinctions of later life

See SESSION, LENGTH OF E. P C.

HOLIDAYS, SPECIAL — See* SCHOOL
TERM, LENGTH OF, SPECIAL DAYS, also EX-
CURSIONS, SCHOOL; FESTIVALS, SCHOOL

HOLLAND. — See NETHERLANDS, EDUCA-
TION IN THE.

HOLLAND, PHILEMON (1552-1637).—
An English schoolmaster and translator, who
practiced medicine for some time before he

302

HOLLOW AY COLLEGE ROYAL

HOLY CROSS COLLEGE

became usher in Coventry Free School in 1608.
and then headmaster (1627-1628) He played
an important part in the civil life of Coventry,
and was given the freedom of the city in 1612
The " translator Gencrall in his Age " (as
Fuller calls him) was familiar with Latin, Greek,
Italian, and French, and had a good command
of the euphmstic style in English which was then
popular His translations were somewhat free,
since he worked on the theory that " each
nation hath sevenill manners, yea, and terms
appropriate by themselves " He translated so
many books, according to Fullei, " as will make
a country gentleman a competent hbiary for
historians " These translations included Livy
(1000), dedicated to Queen Eh/abeth, Pliny's
Natmal Hitttort/ (1601); Plutarch's Moiah
(MHKJ); dedicated to James 1, Suetonius'
Twelve Co?.sar.v (160(5); Camden's Britannia
(1610); arid Xenophon's Cyropwdta (1632)

References : —

J) id utn<t ry of National Biography

UHIHLKY, (1 Literary Portraits (London, 1004)

HOLLO WAY COLLEGE ROYAL — See

WOMEN, EDUCATION OF, LONDON, UNIVERSITY
OF

HOLMES, GEORGE FREDERICK (1820-
1897) — College president and textbook autlioi ,
was educated at Durham University, England,
and came to America in 1888 He taught in
secondaiv schools in Virginia and Georgia, was
professor in Richmond College (1845-1848), first
president of the University of Mississippi (1848-
1840) , professor in William and Marv College
(1849-1857) and the University of Virginia
(1857-1897) He was author of an extended
series of textbooks widely used in the South,
and of several historical works W S M.

HOLMGREN TEST — A method of test-
ing the ability to discriminate between colors A
large number of differently colored worsted
skeins, thoroughly intermixed, is shown the
subject to be investigated The experimenter
selects one of these, and, giving it to the subject
without naming its color, asks him to pick out
from the others, one by one, all worsteds of
similar coloring The normal subject does
this rapidly and without error The subject
with defective coloi vision will, however, if the
color given him to match falls within his defect,
show such hesitancy in selecting and such un-
certainty in his matches that the experimenter
mav, on this account alone, well be suspicious
But in addition to the uncertainty, he will make
positively wrong choices There are two main
tests, —the green test and the red test For
the first a bright, low-saturated green, neither
yellowish nor bluish, is given as the test color
The red-green color-blind person will then
chiefly choose, as similar colors, the grays, the
browns, and the slightly reddish, yellowish, and
bluish hues. For the red test an unsaturated

red is chosen as the test color The errors will
include worsteds tinged with violet, and greenish
and brownish hues Sometimes one of these
tests will suffice, sometimes both are needed
In one or the other, however, both types of the
red-green color-blind will with fair certainty
betray themselves, as well as those commonly
termed " color-weak " The yellow-blue coloi-
blmd will choose a bluish red as similar to a
yellowish red or a bluish green as similar to a
yellow-green It has been found, however,
that many of the " col or- weak," and oven of
the color-blind, may, especially with practice,
successfully pass the Holmgren test, in cases
of doubt, therefore, one of the more exact tests
should be given R. P. A.

Sec EYE, NAGEL'S TEST

HOLT, JOHN — The writer of a very early
Latin grammar, the Lac Puerorurn, or Mi/Ike
for Children Holt was master of the school
attached to Magdalen College, Oxfoul, a school
renowned for its teachers of grammar, includ-
ing such men as Anwykyll, Stanbndge, Robert-
son, and Cooper Dr J H Lupton ( Lif< of
Cold, p 24) thinks that the earliest undated
edition of Holt's book was published between
1480 and 1496 The earliest dated edition
appears to be 1497, thirty years before Colet's
Mdiiio (1527), which was the basis of Lily's
Grammar The simplicity of Holt's grammar
is romiii kable, being written in the easiest
English, clearly with a view to helping chiidien
The earliest printed Latin grammars were m
English, the use of Latin in the textbooks was
established by Lily and the later grammarians
and was a constant cause of disagreement
amongst English teachers Holt begins with
the names of parts of speech, and proceeds t.o
the declension of the article With the aid
of woodcuts representing a hand or similar
device, he illustrates the different cases or
declensions by labeling different parts with the
appropriate names In a businesslike, sensible
and concise way Holt goes through the whole
of the accidence Thus in dealing with the
moods of the verbs, he calls them the showing
mood or indicative, the bidding mood or im-
perative; the willing mood or optative, leav-
ing the infinitive undescnbed Then he pro-
ceeds to the simple statement of the concords,
the ablative absolute, construction of verbs
with diverse cases, and other important con-
structions, all being arianged so as to give the
pupil the most important as well as the shortest
teaching The book ends with epigrammatic
verses of Sir Thomas More in praise of Holt's
book F. W.

See GRAMMAR, ENGLISH

HOLY CROSS COLLEGE, NEW ORLE-
ANS, LA — A school for boys conducted by
members of the Congregation of the Holy Cross,
established in 1879. Commercial and classical
courses are offered.

303

HOLY CROSS COLLEGE

HOME AND SCHOOL SOCIETY

HOLY CROSS COLLEGE, WORCESTER,

MASS — See jEsuh, SOCIETY OF, EDUCATIONAL
WORK OF.

HOLYBAND or HOLLIBAND, CLAUDE

(pseudonym of Claude do Samhens or A Sancto
Vinculo) — French Huguenot refugee in Eng-
land , came, to England in the second half of the
sixteenth century, at any rate by 1566, and
remained there till 1597 He played an im-
poitant part in the development of French
studies 111 England In 1566 Holyband pub-
lished his French Littleton This was intended
to appeal specially to lawyers and students of
the Inns of Court, and was published by Holy-
band's Huguenot compatriot, Vauti oilier In
157,'S an edition of Holyband's Ftcnch School-
mauler was published (the first edition, of which
no copy is known, is said to have been issued
in 1565) This contains dialogues on such sub-
jects as Getting up in the morning, Two
neighbours meeting, Welcoming any one to a
house, To ask the wav, To ask for a lodging, To
go to bed, To buy and sell Then follow.
Pro\crbs, (/reed, Ten Commandments, Graces,
etc In 1580 Holvband wrote his Treatise for
declining of (French) Vcibei and his de Proiuin-
citilione LtngiKr gallmv (in Latin) in the same*
vear In tins year (1580) also, he published
The TitxiMine of the Ficnih Tony* teaching the,
irai/e to mine all surtos of Vcrbe**; enriched so
phntifull,/ with Wordex and Phjaws

In 15U3 the Ticdbune was developed into A
D i ctinnane, French and English Tins was the
most ini])ortant French dictionary which had ap-
peared, and Miss Lucy E Farrcr has shown
that a copy was by 160S augmented by
Handle Cotgrave (</?>) and in 1610 handed
ovei to Ishp the prmtei, who issued the com-
plete vvoik as Cotgiave's French-English DK-
tionaii/ in 1611 Holyband thus deserves a
high place in the history of French studies in
England, and is an inteiesting example of the
close connection of the immigration of religious
exiles with the teaching of their native language
in the counti y of then adoption, partly of course
because schoohnasteis often took an important
pint m the religious controversies of their time
in their own country, and when exiled con-
tinued their old avocation of teaching for a
luing F. W.

References : —

J(1\UKL,u, Liu \ K I'n Dnwnnn <1( Cntginn Ln Vic
(t l< x (Kupr<\ d( (1l<i\id< <lc Nai////fNs, f//ws Claudius
Holyhand (Paris, 1(H)S )

\\ VIHON, FoBThH RtginuinybofttH Tniching of Modi rn
tiuhjech in Entjlivh (London, HM)<) )

HOLYOKE, EDWARD ( 1 6X9- 1 76!)) . —
Eleventh piesident of H;u\ard College, was
graduated at Harvard in 1705 He \\as libra-
nan at Harvard fiom 17()(.) to 1712, and tutor
from 1712 to 17 1C) He was president from
J7.J7to 17()|) " At the head of the university
he posseted a dignity peculiar to himseli.

His majestic appearance, his speech and de-
meanor, were calculated to impress with awe,
but notwithstanding his air of dignity and
authority, he was humble in heart."

W. S. M.
See HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

References : —

PKIHCE, BENJAMIN History of Harvard University.

(Cambridge, 1833 )
QUINCY, JOSIAH History of Harvard University.

(Cambridge, 1862 )

HOME AND COLONIAL SCHOOL
SOCIETY. — This society was founded by
John Stuckey Reynolds (1791-1874), a retired
civil servant, in 1836, though m the course
of a few years his original plans were several
times modified (1 ) The first title, " The Home
and Colonial Infant School Society," corre-
sponded with the first purpose, the training of
infants' teachers A widening of the purpose1
was indicated in 1845, when the words " and
juvenile " were added after " infant," but the
new title proved too cumbrous for daily use,
and it was in 1848 reduced to its final form,
" The Home and Colonial School Society.'1
(2) At the outset the students were not re-
quired to belong to any particular denomina-
tion if they held " the fundamental truths of
the Bible " and were " of decided piety," though
the committee in their first report seem to
regret the preponderance of Dissenters among
the students In 1841 the object of the society
was (as it still is) stated to be " the improve-
ment and extension of education on Christian
principles, as such principles are set forth and
embodied in the articles of the Church of Eng-
land " In 1846 critics were informed that the
committee " some years ago deemed it ex-
pedient to provide " separate houses foi Church
and Dissent, that these houses were "at a
moderate distance from each other," and that
the students met "only during school houis
and for lessons." The critics, however, were
not silenced, and in 1848 a rule (now the thir-
teenth of the society's " Laws ") was passed,
prescribing that " all individuals appointed to
reside " in the college should sign a declaration
of conformity with the Church (3) As Rey-
nolds accepted Wilderspin's theory that an
infant school ought to have both a master and
a mistress, married couples were specially m-
A ited to become students. At first the m-
\ itation was readily accepted, but m 1847 the
committee reported that the supply had dimin-
ished and that "these circumstances" had
" necessarily led to the training and employ-
ment of females almost exclusively." (If they
had waited a year or two, they could have
omitted the "almost.") (4) The first home of
the society was in Southampton Street, Hol-
boi n, London; but after two years the college
was lemoved to Gray's Inn Road, wheie, with
r epeated enlargements of its borders, it remained
till 1903.

304

HOME AND THE SCHOOL

HOME STUDY

The1 Ke\ (liMfles MHVO (</f), <>ue of the
earliest English disciples of Pestalozzi, was an
original member of the committee, and through
his influence the principles of the Swiss reformer
were included in the cuiriculurn He died in
1846, hut the good work was continued by his
sister, who wrote several textbooks and for many
years supervised the professional training The
Kcventy-Fifth Annual Report of the Society says
that "'the principles of Pestalozzianism which it
strove to inculcate and extend have long since
incorporated themselves in some form or other
into every department of the training of the
young, and are therefore no longei so distinctive
as they were, say, fifty years ago "

When in 1846 state grants were offered to
Training Colleges, the committee resolved to
accept them As some of the students had,
almost irom the beginning, been prepared for
teaching in nurseries or in private schools, the
operations of the society were divided into two
departments (still subsisting), a "government
department" and a "non-government de-
partment " The premises in the Gray's Inn
Road, being only adapted houses, could never
have reached a high standard of comfort or
convenience, and as the standard rose faster
than improvements could be made, the Com-
mittee determined to migiatc to the suburbs
Large and imposing buildings sin rounded by
fourteen acres of fine giounds were bought at
Wood Green, where in 1903 the college entered
on a Iresh career of usefulness and prosperity.

D. S-n
References : —

Home and Colonial School Society, Annual Reports
SALMON, D and HINDSHAW, W Infant Schools, their
History and Theory (London, 1904 )

HOME AND THE SCHOOL — See FAM-
ILY EDUCATION, PARENTS AND THE SCHOOL.

HOME EDUCATION. — See FAMILY EDU-
CATION.

HOME EDUCATION, INTERNATIONAL
CONGRESS OF. — See INTERNATIONAL CON-
GRESSES OF EDUCATION.

HOME GEOGRAPHY. — See GEOGRAPHY.

HOME STUDY, HYGIENE OF. — An im-
portant function of school instruction is to de-
velop interests that will deteimme and guide
the pupil's activity outside of the school For
the attainment of this end home study is an
important means. While hygiemsts strongly
condemn excessive home work and the evils
of worry and anxiety often connected with it,
the desirability of a certain amount of home
study, especially in the higher grades, is now
generally recognized. With home study it is,
of course, necessary that the home conditions
should be hygienic. The wholesome habits
developed in the school should not be broken

VOL. HI — x 305

by unhygienic work at home Pupils should
sit in correct posture and hold the book at a
proper distance fioni the eves, they should
work foi rational penods of 1nne, they should
breathe pure an , not overheated 01 too dry
All the commonplace but important rules
of hygiene foi intellectual work should be
observed

For many years there has been great conflict
of opinion among educators in regard to the
kind and amount of home study that is desir-
able. Recently special investigations have
been made by Schmidt and Mayer, which bring
out certain factors that are likely to be over-
looked It appears that in our large cities
frequently there is really no home, because a
whole family may be crowded into one or two
basement rooms, an attic, or the like, and suit-
able conditions for home work are out of the
question. Again it is shown that in most sub-
jects children working in a gioup of othei chil-
dren do more and better work than in the
relative isolation of the home. Certain kinds
of work, however, seem to be done bettci m
the home when the conditions are hygienic,
especially work requiring independent think-
ing, like composition in the mother tongue,
for example Schmidt's studies show apparently
that the ordinary disturbances in the home
from the presence of the other members of the
family, the noise of domestic work, and the like,
do not serve as distracting stimuli for ordinary
children Arid thus it would appear that for
some kinds of work in a moderate amount there
are distinct advantages in home studv, but
that for most of the school work, especially the
more mechanical part, the conditions are more
favorable in the schoolroom

The practice of students in regard to home
studv differs greatly in different countries and
in different grades of the school, and individual
variations are likely to be very great, some
children studying none at all, others perhaps
several hours a day .There is grave danger
that the best students will overwork Kemsies,
Griesbach, and Roller in Germany and Patzak
in Austria found some students in the higher
classes of the secondary schools who spent four
or five hours daily in home studv The regu-
lations and customs in differ ent countries in
this matter also differ greatly There is piob-
ablv, howe\ er, :i consensus of hvgiernsts that
home work should be limited and in regard
to the points included in the school regulation
at the city of Zurich For the secondary schools
it reads as follows: " The home work mu>t
be thoroughly prepared for by the instruction
The repeated copying of the same task as a
punishment is inappropriate From the fore-
noon to the afternoon of the same day no tasks
may be given For Sundays and holidays, as
well as the vacations, no more tasks are to be
given than from one day to another. Where
several teachers give instruction in the same
class, there should be an understanding in

HOMER

HOMER

regard to the number :md extent, and a proper
division, of tho homo tasks " W. H. B.

See SCHOOL MANAGEMENT

References: -

BURUKRHTMN, L Zm hdusluhcu Gcuundheitspflegc tier

tichuljugcnd (Leipzig, 1005 )
BURNHAM, \V H The Hygiene of Home Study

Fed Sem June, 1005, Vol XII
FALKENBKRU, W Dt< HaHNdufgabeH , fin Wegweiser

fili Ettern, Hawlehnr and (louvernanttn (Dics-

den, 1905 )
.)A<JKK, M Die Frago dor huiiMlichpii Albeit an unsern

hohcron Lchiuiistaltoii Heneht ubei den 1

internal Konyiex** fui Sthulhygictu zn hurnberg,

Bel IV (Nuremberg, 1904)
MAYER, A Vber Einzel- und Gettarntleistuug de.it Schul-

knides fiammlung von Abhandlungen zur Psycho-

logiNchen Padagogtk, Bd I, Heft 4 (Leipzig,

1904 )
MKUMANN, E Haux- und Sehula)beit, Experiment? an

Kinder n der Volksschule (Leipzig, 1904 )
HOLLER, KARL Hausaufgaben und hohere Schulen

(Leipzig, 1907 )
SCHMIDT, Fit Experiment die thUersttchurtgen liber die

Haumufgaben den tfchulkindcs (Leipzig, 1904 )
TRUMBULL, MARY The Employment of our School

Children The Worcester Magazine, March, 1905,

Vol VIII, No 3

HOMER — The name Homer means to us
the Ihad and the Odyssey, the two Greek epics
with which occidental literature begins It is
generally agreed that these earliest poems of
Europe are also the greatest A fact so strik-
ing, while it raises questions that cannot be an-
swered, itself goes far to justify the place which
Greek has held in occidental education, if
literature should have in education any con-
siderable place. These epics are also a poetic
picture (not a scientific description) of a his-
torical period, an early stage in the develop-
ment of European society In this sense they
may be called the beginning of European writ-
ten history, though they are fiction Archaeo-
logical imds, as idols, utensils, artistic handi-
work, lordly dwellings, also throw light on the
life of which they are the product, and are a
parallel to Homer on tfris side, at some points
perhaps of more scientific value, but for most
people these fragments have less interest than
the poet's whole

Such highly wrought compositions, of nearly
15,000 and 12,000 lines respectively, must have
had predecessors, though none survive. First,
the meter is not that of rude beginnings The
dactylic hexameter is bound by strict laws,
yet is flexible and expressive, and is employed
with a mastery that speaks of long practice,
it was probably formed long before Homer, by
the slow welding of two more primitive short
verses The language also is not the unmixed
speech of one region and a single period; it is
a literary dialect, as truly as the language of
Tennyson, combining for artistic use forms and
phrases that in living speech had belonged to dis-
tant localities and distinct generations and that
bear the marks of long poetic tradition. Again,
into the tale itself are skillfully woven some
elements that are shown to have originated,

306

and been highly elaborated in verse, in widely
separated parts of Hellas. Finally, there arc
allusions in the poems to earlier heroic lays,
tales of famous deeds, and to songs of labor and
of festival, and of mourning Far from being
themselves primitive, the two poems are the
culmination of a long development, the product
of an age of high poetic culture and informed
with the distinctive qualities of the greatest
Hellenic art, however undeveloped the people
may have been in other respects The date
of the poems is unknown, by inference and
conjecture it may be placed about 1000 to
800 B c

The Iliad is probably slightly the earlier
The title Iliad seems at first inappropriate,
only a small part of the war against Ilios, an-
other name for Troy, is included Yet around
the account of the wrath of Achilles and its
consequences the poet groups a sufficient ac-
count of the origin and of typical incidents of
the war to represent well the nature and spirit
of the whole The name is after all not an
artistic fault The subject of the Odyssey IN
the return of Odysseus after the fall of Troy

The two poems together present a wide range
of human life under forms both simple and
typical, so elemental that they are in essence
true for all ages. And this is done with dignity,
with a purity of taste that rarely errs, with a
rapid movement that is never hurried, with
a charm that holds the reader as it held the
ancient listener of every class In Greek edu-
cation, from the earliest of which we know any-
thing, the Iliad and Odyssey were the school-
books most widely used The language was
almost as antique by the fifth century B c as
that of Chaucer to us, it therefore gave the
Greek boy a little of the philological training
that comes with the study of a foreign tongue,
and was at the same time the basis of all later
poetic language, so far as that differed — and
it always differs — from daily speech The
substance also of the poems entered into all
later Greek literature

Were these masterpieces the work of one
master, Homer, or of two, or of a group or school
of popular poets? How did the Iliad and
Odyssey come into being? That is the Homeuc
question The two poems have about as much
likeness and difference as two novels of Scott
or of Thackeray have If one supreme poet
of that age is a marvel, still more are two
And yet more marvelous would be a whole
school of poets, of more than one generation,
all working in the same spirit, all anonymous,
who should by any kind of joint activity, con-
temporaneous or successive, produce two such
extraordinary works of genius Yet it is true
that each poem, while essentially a unit, con-
tains incongruities not easy to explain. We
must certainly admit later additions and in-
terpolations, of considerable extent in the Iliad,
less in the Odyssey After more than a century
of active investigation and vigorous discussion,

HOMER

HONDURAS

negmnmg with the Pwleyomcna of Wolf (1795),
scholars are tending toward definite acceptance
of one poet, wholly unknown except in the
poems, with moderate additions and changes
by successors and imitators, through whom,
mainly by pubhc recitation, the poems were
transmitted for several centuries, until written
copies became common The references below
will indicate where full discussion may be found
In modern schools since the Renaissance
Homer has been more read than any other
classic Greek author, both because of his
importance in the development of European
letters and because his peculiar charm is of
a sort that attracts young people as well as
their teachers At present Homer is taken
up after a very moderate amount of read-
ing in Attic prose, he is continued more or
less alongside of other authors in Gymnasium,
li/cee, and college; the difficulties of interpreta-
tion and the Homer; c question are a large topic
in university study Herbart and a very few
teachers have maintained that Greek study
should begin with Homer, on pedagogical
grounds Evidently that is an error Would
any one maintain that German boys should
begin English with Chaucer, or that we should
begin German with the Nibdungejihed?
Homer should rather be postponed till more of
Attic Greek has been read, both Iliad and
Odyssey might then be read rapidly and nearly
entire. Thus they would make more nearly
their proper impression, and give far more
pleasm e On the linguistic side at this first read-
ing the comparison with Attic forms, diction,
and syntax should aim at full understanding
ol the poet's meaning, and little more. And
the rhythm, a most important element in the
poetic 'form, is commonly quite missed. It is
in even, or two-four, time, while p]nglish and
German imitations, like Longfellow's Evange-
/mr, are in triple time. The simplest way to
acquire the true movement is to recite a few
lines while walking, this leads one naturally
to make the two halves of each foot equal, as
they should be For the English lines that is
a villainous distortion; for the Greek the true
ihythm is far more melodious and expressive
The titles below merely suggest a good line of
appioach to the works on Homer — a library in
themselves T. D G.

References: —

Editions —

Hornet i Opera Tom I, II, IlMts, III, IV, Odyssea
Kecog 1) B Monro et T W Allen (Oxford Umv.
Press ) Reeent, good, well-printed texts

Iliad, ed by D B Monro, and Odyssey, ed by \\ W
Merry School editions, complete, with brief Eng-
lish notes

Homers I lias, erklart von K F Ameis u C Hentze
2 Bde mil Anhang (Leipzig, Teubner )

Homers Odywt, erklart von K F Ameia u C. Hentze
2 Bdr nut Anhang (Leipzig, Teubner ) This and
the preceding have full German notes, with numer-
ous references to special works — the most satisfac-
tory single edition for a teacher New editions of
separate Hefte often appear The partial editions

in the College Series ((him and Co) are based on
this

Dialect and Grammar —
MONRO, D B Grammar of the Homeric Dialect 2d

ed (Oxford, 1H91 ) Indispensable for a teacher
SEYMOUR, T D Introduction to the Language and Ver<*<

of Homer (Boston ) For Schools Also in the

School Iliad, edited by the same

Lexicons —
AUTENHIETH, C Homeric Dictionary Tr bv R V

Keop, revised by Isaac Flagg (New York ) Brief,

for rapid reading
CAPELLB, C VollMndigex Worterbuch liber die Gediihtc

des Homeros u der Homeriden 9th ed (Leipzig,

1889 ) Indispensable for a teacher

Translations —
Iliad, by A Lang, W Leaf, and E Myers (London,

1883 ) Excellent prose version
Odyssey, by S H Butcher and A Lang Companion

to the preceding, equally good
Odyssey, by G H Palmer (Boston, 1891 ) Often

reprinted
Of the numerous translations in verse two ma^ be

mentioned —

CHAPMAN, G The Iliads of Homer Vigorous Eliza-
bethan English
WORHLEY, P S The Odyssey of Homer, new edition

(Edinburgh and London, 1895 ) In Spenserian

stanzas

Handbook^ —
BROWNE, H Handbook of Homeric Study (London,

1905 )

DORPFELD, W Troja u Ilion 2 vols (Athene,
1902 ) Full account of excavations at Troy

JLBB, R C Homer (Glasgow, Boston, 18X7 )
Still the best general introduction, but antiquated
on the archaeological side

KELLER, A G Homeric Study 2d ed (Ne\v York,

1906 )

LANG, A Homer and his Age (London, 19()(> )

The World of Homer (London, 1910 )
LEAF, W A Companion to the Iliad (London and

New York, 1892 )
MURRAY, G Rise of the Grttk Epic 2d ed (Oxford,

1911 )

ROTHE, C Die Ilias alt> Dirhlung (Paderborn, 1910 )
SEYMOUR, T D Life in the Homeric Agt (NV\\

York, 1907 )

HOMERIC EDUCATION

EDUCATION IN ANCIENT.

— See (iltEECh,

HOMES AND REFUGES FOR CHIL-
DREN.— See ORPHANS, EDUCATION OF

HONDURAS, EDUCATION IN — llun-
duras has an area of 40,000 square miles with
a population, in 1905, of 500,000, 01 less than
eleven inhabitants to a square mile The vast
body of the people are Indians, and of these it
is estimated that 90,000 are uncivilized The
republic is governed under a charter pro-
claimed m 1894 which provides for the election
of a president by popular vote for a term of
four years and a congress, the members of
which' are also elected by populai vote, in the
ratio of one to every 10,000 inhabitants The
administration of public affairs is intrusted to
a council of six ministers, one of whom has
general charge of public instruction The con-
stitution provides for a system of free, secular
primary schools, with compulsory attendance

307

HONDURAS

HOOLE

for children seven to fifteen years of age; but
by reason of the sparseness of the population,
and its racial character, as well as the political
upheavals of the eo tin try, little advance has
been made in the general diffusion of education
The latest official statistics (1909) give the
number of primary schools as 600, with about
32,000 pupils; an average attendance is main-
tained of 75 per cent For primary education
the government expends about $140,000 (silver)
annually

At the chief town of each of the sixteen de-
partments of the republic there is a school
for secondary education (cokgw) with normal
school attached. The government subsidizes
these departmental schools and also maintains
a Central Institute (secondary) at the capital,
Tegucigalpa. Recent efforts have been made to
raise the standard of training for teachers and
to induce young people to engage in the service
by increasing the appropriations foi salaries

For the higher grades of education the follow-
ing establishments are maintained: At Tegu-
cigalpa, the Central University , with depart-
ments of law, medicine, literature, and science
In connection with the university there is a free
public library, founded bv President Soto in
1S80, the College for Women, with courses in
modern languages, music, domestic economy,
physiology, and hygiene; the National Scien-
tific arid Literary Institute; a manual training
school for mechanic and decorative arts.
There is also a theological seminary and paro-
chial school attached, which is supported by
and under the control of the Roman Catholic
Church. The National School of Medicine
has recently been put upon a firm financial basis,
and it is hoped that it may soon recover its
former prestige About 25,000 pesos are
annually spent to support students of engineer-
ing and other practical professions in the United
States, Mexico, and Europe. The increasing
demand for engineers has led to preliminary
measures looking to provision for their profes-
sional training either by the reestabhshment
of the department of engineering, which was
formerly included in the university, or by the
organization of an independent school of en-
gineering.

Honduras, British. — A crown colony com-
prising an area of 7562 square miles bordering
on the Caribbean Sea The population numbers
about 41,000 The chief town is Belize, with
population between 9000 and 10,000. There
are forty-one public primary schools in the
colony, maintained almost entirely by govern-
ment grants, which amounted in 1909 to 3714
($18,000). The enrollment in these schools
was 44i7, and the average attendance 3187,
or 83 per cent of the enrollment There are
also five private primary schools, of which two
have secondary departments, and three private
secondary schools. Belize is a center for the
local examinations maintained by Cambridge
University. " A. T. S

308

References : —

Bulletins of the American Republics
Foreign Office Repoits (London, annual )
Gaceta O facial de Honduras
United States Consular Reports

HONOR SCHOOLS. — Examinations and
courses for degrees in the English universities
are divided into two classes, — the pass or
ordinary, and the honor school. The require-
ments for the pass degree are less extensive, and
demand less specialized study than those for
the degrees in the honor schools Generally
the studies for pass degrees are arranged either
in groups or are partly prescribed and partlv
elective The studies in the honor schools are
narrowly specialized, and demand intensive4
study in one or two allied fields The follow-
ing arc the honor schools at Oxford- liters
humamorcs, mathematics, natural science, juris-
prudence, modern history, theology, oriental
studies, English language and literature, modern
European languages. At Cambridge the honor
schools are known as Triposes and include1
classical, economics, historical, law, mathe-
matical, mechanical sciences, natural sciences,
moral sciences, medieval and modern languages,
oriental languages, and theological At the
Manchester University, to take a modern in-
stitution, the honor schools arc classics, his-
tory, English language and literature, modern
languages and literature, philosophy, architec-
ture, economic and political sciences, oriental
studies, Celtic studies The organization of
honor courses in the colleges of the United
States is very recent These are discussed in
the article on COLLEGE, AMERICAN The
Canadian institutions follow more generally the
English custom.

See UNIVERSITIES; CAMBRIDGE UNIVERSITY;
OXFORD UNIVERSITY, etc

HONORARY DEGREES — See DEGREES.
HOODS. — See ACADEMIC COSTUME.

HOOLE, CHARLES (1610-1667) — The
most important writer on contemporary school
practice of the seventeenth century, educated
at Wakcficld Free School, and graduated from
Lincoln College, Oxford (MA 1636) He
was master of the Rotherham Free School,
and afterwards Rector of Great Ponton, Lincoln-
shire. In 1642, at the outbreak of the Civil
War, he went to London and, as Anthony a
Wood says, " by the invitation of certain rioted
citizens he taught a private school there, be-
tween Goldsmith's alley in Rcdcross Street
arid Maidenhead-Court in Aldersgate Street.
By 16.51 he had removed his private grammar
school to Tokenhousc Garden in Lothbury,
not far from the Royal Exchange; where, as
in the former school, the generality of the youth
were instructed to a miracle " He became
later Rector of Stock near Chelmsford in Essex,
"where he mostly spent the remainder of his

HOOLE

HOPE COLLEGE

days with great content to himself and his
parishioners." Finally, Wood summarizes him
as " a noted royalist arid therefore suffered for
it in the beginning of the wars, was a good
Latmist, Grecian and Hebrician and admirably
skilled in classical learning."

Hoole's chief book is entitled- A New Dis-
covery [ = Description or Disclosing] of the old
Art of Teaching Schools, In four small Treatises,
concerning \ A Petty Schoolc, 2 The Ushers
Duty, 3 The Masters Method, 4 ftcholavtick
Discipline — in a Grammar School Shewing
how Children in their playing years may Gram-
matically attain to a firm groinidednc^ in and
exercise of the Lahnc, Greek and Hebrew Tongues.
Wniteti about Twenty-three years ago, for the
Benefit of Rotherham School where it was first
used , and after fourteen years tnaJ by diligent
practise in London in many paiticidars enlarged,
arid now at last published for the general profit,
especially of young Schoole- Masters, etc 1660

At the end of the " Address to All favourers of
good learning" Hoole gives a " Note of School
Authors most proper for every Form of Scholars
in a Grammar School " In one row he places
classical authors to be road, and in a parallel
row subsidiary authors to be consulted This
he does for each of the forms into which he
divides a school Hoole, in the course of his
woik, gives the names of between 250 and 300
authors and writers of textbooks allotted out
amongst the different forms of the school, and
the New Discovery is therefore a most important
storehouse of school bibliography

In the Petty School, Hoole shows how chil-
dren should be taught " with delight and profit,"
pronunciation, spelling, reading The Usher's
Duty is chiefly connected with the perfecting
of English reading and teaching Lily's Gram-
mai The Mattel's Method deals with the
training of scholars in Grammar, Authors, and
Exercises; Greek, Latin, and Hebrew. The
Petty School is a preliminary school, the usher
deals with Forms I, II, III and the Master's
work begins in Form IV.

Hoole deserves credit for laying emphasis
on the earliest teaching of the child He says :
" The Petty [i e. French petit] school is the place
where indeed the first principles of all religion
and learning ought to be taught, and therefore
rather deserveth that moie encouragement
should be given to the teachers of it than that
it should be left as a work for poor women or
others, whose necessities compel them to under-
take it as a mere shelter from beggary " Hence
he appeals for the appointment of well qualified
teachers for the Petty School, and the endow-
ment of such posts with adequate funds, es-
pecially praising Bathurst and Gouge for their
efforts in this direction. He considers forty
children as many as any one teacher ought to
have in one class In the section entitled
Scholastic Discipline Hoole deals with the
Founding of a Grammar School, arid appeals
jji provision of further schools and masters.

Besides the New Discovery, Hoole wrote: (1)
An Easie Entrance to the Latine Tongue. 1649
(2) Terminatwnes et Exempla Declinationuw
et Conjugationum 1650 and 1659. (3) Pro-
pria Quae Manbus, Quae Genus and As in
Praese nti, Englished and Explained 1650. (4)
The Latinc Grammar Fitted for the I7sc of Schools
1651 (317 pp.) (5) 'H KAINH AlA®rfKH.
Novum Testarnentum. II me editiom omnin
dijfficilwrum Vocabulorum Themata, quae in
Georgii Pasoris Lexicon Grammatice rcsolvuntur,
in margine apposutt Carolus Hoole In eorum
scilicet gratiam, qui pnma Graecae Linguae
tyrocima faciunt 1653 (6) A translation of
Maturinin Cordcrius's School- Colloquies. 1657
(7) Vocabularium Parvum Anglo-Latinum, In
iibum Puerulorum, qui pnma Latinae Linguae
Tyrocima faciunt. 1657 (8) Sentences for
children, Engbsh and Latin from Leonard
Caiman. 1658. (9) A translation of Come-
mus' Orbis Sensuahurn Pictus. 1659. (10)
A translation of Catonis disticha de Monbus,
Dicta insignia Septem Sapientum Graeciae,
Minn Publiam, wve Senecae Proverbia, Anglo-
Latma 1059 (This contains a valuable Pref-
ace by Hoole on his Methods.) (11) Chil-
dren's Talke, English and Latine 1659. (12)
The Common Rudiments of Latine Grammar
Usually Taught in all Schools 1659. (166 pp
including Index ) (13) Examuiatw Gram-
maticae Latinae in usum Scholarum adornatae
1660. (14) A Ccntuuj of Epistles English and
Latine; selected out of the most nwd School-
Authors — viz. Tulhe, Plnue, and Textor By
imitating of which children may readily get a
proper style for writing letters 1660 (15)
P. Tereiitu Comoedia Sex Anglo- Latinae.
Edited by Hoole, 1663 (16) Aesop * Fables
English and Latin 1700 F. W

References : —

ADAMSON, J W Pioneers of Education (Cambridge,

190o )
BARNAHD, H American Journal of Education, Vol

XVII, pp 1()1-207, and pp 224-324 Contains

Petty School, Usher's Duty, Master's Method,

Scholastic Discipline
Dictionary of National Biography
WATHON, FOSTER English Grammar Schools up to

1660 (Cambridge, 1908 )
WOOD, ANTHONY A Alhenae Oxonicnses (1817-1820

cd)

HOPE COLLEGE, HOLLAND, MICH. —

Founded in 1851 as Pioneer School, reorganized
as Holland Academy in 1857, and incorporated
as Hope College in 1866, this institution is co-
educational and is under the auspices of the
Reformed Church in America In addition
to the college a preparatory school and a school
of music are maintained. The requirements for
entrance are about fifteen units. The college
courses are arranged in classical, philosophical,
modern language, and natural science groups,
and all lead to the A.B. degree. There are
twenty members on the instructing staff. The
total enrollment in 1910-11 was 388.

309

HOPKINS BEQUEST

HORMAN

HOPKINS BEQUEST AND THE HOP-
KINS GRAMMAR SCHOOL — The fund
was established by the will of Edward Hopkins,
a London merchant who emigrated to Hartford
in 1638, and was many times governor of Con-
necticut. Subsequently returning, however,
to England, he died there in 1658. After
making other bequests, he left the residue of
his New England estate — besides £ 500 to
be delivered upon the death of his widow —
" to give some encouragement in those foreign
plantations for the breeding up of hopeful
youths in a wav of learning, both at the gram-
mar school and college " , two residents of each
Connecticut colony were named to execute
the trust After some hindrance the trustees
in 1664 gave £400 for the grammar school at
Hartford, and agreed to divide the remainder
equally between the grammar schools at New
Haven and Hadley, Mass , the latter being
obligated, however,' to give to Harvard College
the sum of £100. Eventually, New Haven
icceived £412 and Hadley £308. When the
widow died in 1699, none of the original trustees
surviving, then successors applied for the £500
bequest, but were told that the estate did not
suffice to pav it. In the hesitation to enter
upon a doubtful suit at law in a distant court,
nothing was done. In 1708 the Society for
the Propagation of the Gospel (qv], learning
of the failure of the bequest, moved in Chancery
that it be assigned to the Society Whereupon
friends of Harvard College moved vigorously
in the matter and recovered nearly £800, prin-
cipal and interest, of which sum the master in
Chancery awarded three fourths to Harvard
and one* fourth to the Cambridge Grammar
School It does riot now appear how this
direction of the fund was justified

The bequest so apportioned has been used
in the main as directed New Haven has
utilized her portion most successfully The
Hopkins Grammar School, organized in 1668,
has maintained an unbroken succession under
the original trust, and has proved a most im-
portant picpaiatory school to Yale almost
from the foundation of the latter. Hadley,
Hartford, and Cambridge have not maintained
separate foundations The first of these has
merged it> remaining colonial grants and dona-
tions in the town high school, the two latter
maintain from similar funds classical masters
in their respective high schools. At Cam-
bridge he is called the Hopkins classical master.

W. H. K.
References : —

BACON, L M An Historical Discourse on the two
hundredth Anniversary of the Founding of the
Hopkins (frammar School, New Haven (New
Haven, I860 )

BARNARD, American Journal of Education, Vol IV, pp
668 ff , Vol XVI, pp 407 ff , Vol XXVII, pp
145 ff , Vol XXVIII, pp 177ff,295ff , Vol XXX,
pp 745 ff

Hwtury of the Uojtkin* Fuiul Grammar School and
A<adt'mu in Hartley, Ma«« (Amherst, 1890)

IT. S Burci&u of Education Rep Com Ed 189W-
1'MK), Vol IT, pl> 1-M 1-*M> (Washington, 1900 )

HOPKINS, MARK (1802-1887). — Fourth
president of Williams College, born at Stock-
bridge, Mass , Feb. 4, 1802. He was in-
structed by private tutors and at the Clinton
Academy, and was graduated from Williams
College in 1824. Five years later he com-
pleted the course of instruction at the Berkshire
Medical School. He was for several years in-
structor in private schools at Stockbridge and
Richmond. For six years (1830 to 1836) he
was a professor, and for thirty-six years he was
president of Williams College. Under his
presidency the course of instruction was broad-
ened and the system of discipline modified
Physiology and other sciences were added to
the course, and he developed the theory that
" the college that is best is that in which there
is the least government " He made the pei-
sonal influence of the teaching staff the chief
factor in the government of the college. He
was active in promoting the cause of education
in mission fields, and gave three courses of
lectures on moral science before the Lowell In-
stitute (1844, 1860, 1861) In addition to his
numerous sermons and addresses on education,
he published Lecture* on Moral Science (1862),
Christian Ethics (1869), An Outline Study of
Man (1873), and Teachings and Court &ch
(1884) He died at Wilhamstown, Mass , on
June 17, 1887, having continued his connection
with the college as lecturer on mental and moral
philosophy after he resigned the presidency

W. S. M.

For portrait, see p. 219

See WILLIAMS COLLEGE.

References : —

ANDREWS, I W President Mark Hopkins Proc

N E A , for 1H87, pp 661-664
BARNARD, H Ameruan Journal of Education, IKM,

Vol XI, pp 219-232

CARTER, FRANKLIN Mark Hopkins (Boston, 1S92 )
SPRING, LEVERETT W Mark Hopkins, Teacher (New

York, 1888 )
WINSHIP, ALBERT E Great American Educators

(New York, 1900 )

HORMAN, WILLIAM (d. 1535). — English
schoolmaster, born at Salisbury and educated
at Winchester He may have studied at Cam-
bridge, and was fellow of New College, Oxford,
when he became master at Eton in 1487, in
1494 he became master of Winchester until
1502, when he became fellow and later vice-
provost of Eton Herman was the author of
many works in the fields of history, theology,
and giammar. His best known work was the
Vulgana, published by Pynson m 1519, a col-
lection of sentences in English and Latin ar-
ranged according to subjects, e.g , de pietate, de
impietate, de exercitamentis et htdis, etc. The
work presents an interesting picture of school
life as seen by one who knew the two best
schools of his day intimately In the Anti-
iMHWicon (1521) Horman came to the defense
of his friend, William Lily (q v ), whose melhod

:uo

HORNBOOK

HORNE

of teaching Latin had been attacked by Robert
Whyttington.

References : —

Dictionary of National Biography

LEACH, A F A History of Winchester College (Lon-
don, 1899 )

LYTE, SIR H T MAXWELL History of Eton College
(London, 1911 )

HORNBOOK. — A device for teaching the
alphabet and the first reading lessons to begin-
ners It consisted of a flat board with a handle,
and on this was pasted a sheet of paper contain-
ing the letters of the alphabet, the vowels, com-
binations of vowels and consonants (ah, cb, ib,
etc ), the Benediction (In the Name of the
Father, and of the Son, and of the Holy (ihost
\nicn), the Lord's Prayer, and sometimes the
Homan numerals. Over this was placed a
thin sheet of transparent horn, which gives the
name to the device, held down by narrow strips
of some thin metal and nails. The handles
were generally pierced with a hole by which
the hoinbook was fastened on the girdles or
round the necks of the scholars The backs
of the hornbooks, such as were used in noble
families, were sometimes covered with leather
embossed with a picture of St George and the
Dragon, or Charles 1 mounted on a horse, or
with silver or gold filigree work. When the
hornbooks came into use cannot now be traced,
but they were certainly known at the begin-
ning of the sixteenth century. In a manuscript
of Saciobosco, c 1442, a teacher is represented
holding in his hand a board shaped like the horn-
book, on which the Roman numerals up to nine
are written (see Smith, Kara Authmetica,
Boston, 1908) The hornbook, containing only
the alphabet, appears in an illustration in
Heiseh's Maiganta Phdoxophica,\&a\i?<[\n 1503.
By the end of the sixteenth century the use of
t lie hornbook is referred to as a common prac-
tice in English literature. And so it continued
to be to the end of the eighteenth century, for
in 1799 a large English dealer in hornbooks
found that orders for them came to a stop. In
America the use of the hornbook was as wide-
spread as in England, and declined at about the
same time, the end of the eighteenth century.
The hornbook of the English and American
type is not found in Europe, although similar
shaped alphabet boards without the horn were
used, as e.g m Holland (AB boordje), Germany
(ABC' Tabella), France (tablette, carte, La Croix
dc par Dieu), Italy (un abbici, centuruola). i
Since the letters of the alphabet in hornbooks
and primers were sometimes preceded by a
cross, the first line and frequently the whole
alphabet was called criss-cross (Christ's cross)
row. It is known that the hornbook was some-
times made in the shape of a cross, although
examples are difficult to find.

Gingerbread hornbooks were familiar in the
eighteenth century, the pupil being allowed
us {» H'Nvard to eat tlie letter which he learned.

Derivatives of the hornbook were the card-
board arid wooden battledores on which the
letters of the alphabet were printed In spite
of the great vogue of hornbooks, very few still
remain, and their value, once Id or 2d, has now
risen to $100 or $150
See PRIMER.

References : —

BARNARD American Journal of Education, Vol
VIII, pp 310-312, Vol XVII, pp 187 and 555

TUKR, A W History of the Hornbook (London,
1897.)

HORNE, THOMAS (1610-1654) - Head-
master of Eton College, 1648-1654 He was
educated at Magdalen Hall, Oxford, 1624-162S.
Between leaving Oxford and becoming head-
master of Eton, Home had taught a private
school (c 1633) in London, had been master
of the Free School at Leicester for two years
and headmaster of Tonbridge School from 1638
to 1848 His son William became headmaster
of Harrow Home was a translator of the
Janua Linguarum — as drawn up by William
Bathe or Bataeus (1564-1614), head of the Irish
College of Jesuits at Salamanca. The book
therefore is to be distinguished from the Janua
Lniguarum of Oomenius (qv), who borrowed
part of the idea from the Salamanca Janua.
Home's editorial work on the Salamanca Janua
is more careful than that of John Harrnar (q r ).
He revised the Knghsh of the former version of
William Welde and John Harmar, edited the
Latin text of the Janua, altered the order of the
words, and added marginal notes It is inter-
esting to note that Thomas Home was the last
translator into English of the Salamanca
Janua Linguarum (1645) and the first translator
of Comenius' Janua Linguarum (said to have
been published as early as 1634) In 1641,
while headmaster of Tonbridge School, Home
published ^ipay^yia — «s'/w Manuductio in
Aedem Palladia. This book discusses the most
valuable method of reading good authors It is
one of the best works of the period for showing
contemporary school aims in the teaching of
classics Home realizes the place of observa-
tion and comparison of words and sentences,
as well as phrases, and epithets, and the mental
discipline involved in the attention to the
minutiae, of composition, and insists, as Vives
and Ascham had done, on entries in paper
books of all that has been observed in the read-
ing of authors, and he gives a full account of
imitation in writing. (See COMMONPL\CE
BOOKS.) Home also wrote Rhctoncae Com-
pendium (Latmo-anghce), 1651. F W.

References : —

WATSON, FOSTER Thomas Home on the Method of
Studying Authors 1641. School World, January
and February, 1906

WOODWARD, W H In Otui Mariana (London,
1899 ) Gives ti transcript ot the Sloane MH
049, pp U27-22yin Brit Mus Libi.iiv — I^HIK ,i
letter from Thorn, IN Hoi ne to Samuel ILirtlih, Sept
12, 1C».V2

311

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE, EDUCATION IN. — In

North America, a group of subjects has been
assembled in colleges of agriculture under the
general name of Horticulture, including fruit-
growing or pomology, flower-growing or flori-
culture, vegetable-growing or olericulture, and
also ornamental gardening and the general
glass-house and nursery subjects It is not
a homogeneous group, but it has so happened
that persons have been trained to handle
it as a coordinate to the group of general
agriculture The group of general agriculture
lias included the mam or prevailing farm organi-
zation, the laismg of staple foodstuffs and the
rearing of animals, whereas horticulture has
comprised many of the adjunct and amateur
and semi-urban phases of farm life The old
pedagogical group of agriculture is being divided
into its component parts, and in the most ad-
vanced of the colleges of agriculture, the word
"agriculture" is no longer used as a name for
courses, animal husbandry, farm mechanics,
dairying, soil subjects, and others, have been
separated out of it, arid there is now a
tendency to separate the farm-crops part into its
units Similarly, horticulture is in the process of
division In some institutions the three mam
parts are now separated or in active process of
separation Whether these and other parts
of the subjects shall be treated as separate
entities and be coordinated under one ad-
ministrative unit known as horticulture, is
mostly an institutional question , but there can
be no doubt that now or in the near future the
parts must be handled by different specialists.
The horticultural industries ha\e now become
much differentiated and often highly specialized,
and they frequently comprise entire farming
schemes, and this calls for a very free handling
of the subjects in the colleges

In this country horticulture has developed
as a college subject rather than as a common
school or training school subject. Only very
recently have we begun with much hope of
success to found special separate horticultural
schools on the plan of European establishments
The earliest special developments of horti-
culture in the colleges of agriculture appear to
have been in Michigan under Tracv, Uarfield,
and successors (W. W Tracy was assistant
professor of botany and horticulture in the
Michigan Agricultural College in 1867, and full
professor of horticulture m 1869), New York
(1874) and Ohio under Lazeiiby, Iowa under
Budd, 1876 Probably the first full professor-
ship in horticulture in a university, with no
other name in the title, was that established at
Cornell in 1888 Probably the first experiment
station to employ :i " horticulturist " was the
New York Agricultinal Experiment Station,
at Geneva, 1882 At present, horticulture is
represented by a department 01 in the title of an
officer in practically all the American colleges
of agriculture, and also in experiment stations,
and the equipment in many cases is very large.

In most early professorships horticulture was
associated with botany, forestry, or landscape
gardening As a separate subject or chair,
it was often an offshoot of botany. Although
it touches affairs at everv point, horticulture is
primarily a biological subject, and it must always
have the closest associations with botany

The Field of Horticultural Education — In
the specialization in colleges of agriculture,
some of the subjects that formerly were in-
cluded in horticulture are segregated to separate
departments This is coming to be true of
plant-breeding and of some of tin* other appli-
cations of botany. But the real field of the
horticulture group still remains, sufficient in
range and variety to attract the best effort of
the verv best men In the applications, the
colleges of agriculture must assuredly teach
along the lines of public needs The public
needs m this held are well expressed in the kinds
of horticultural societies that are now most
prominent The vigorous horticultural societies
are of four kinds — pomological, floncultural,
market-garden, and nursery business These
represent four groat horticultural trades or
occupations, persons who are expert in one of
these occupations usually are riot expert in
others "Every highlv developed horticultural
department should have at least these divisions
If it is not desirable, in iinv commonwealth,
to have a separate nursery sub-department, it
will still be necessary to teach something of
nursery practice as an underlying and co-
ordinating part of all good horticultural work

Each of these divisions must be m charge of
a man who is export in the trade, as well as
thoroughly grounded m the science and philo^-
ophy of the occupation The laboratory u or k
should be abundant, and it should cover the
whole theory and process of the given art In
the pomological division there should be a
laboratory of, say, thirty acres of actual orchards,
in which all phases of the work, from start to
finish, may be in natural operation , arid if these
phases cannot be taught at the time of year
when the students are m the habit of coming
to college, the time of coming should be changed,
for the seasons, and the operations that follow
the seasons cannot be changed to suit a tra-
ditional college year Similarly, m the1 other
lines there must be ample areas that are used
as teaching laboratories, — actual nurseries,
actual glass houses of practicable extent, actual
garden farms in operation All the work, if it i^
to be of college grade, must be projeeted on a
background of sufficient training in the natural
sciences and the essential arts

To meet the needs of rural civilization, it is
essential that we build large and m such a way
that the future necessities will expand our scheme
rather than break it In material equipment
there must be (1) land, (2) a large area under
glass, (,3) orchaids, nurseries, gardens, (4) build-
ings containing special scientific laboi atones,
libraries, classrooms, and the like, (.">) museums

312

HORTICULTURE

HORTICULTURE

The museums should be active teaching equip-
ments. One museum might well contain cross-
s 'ctums of all the kinds of greenhouses and all
greenhouse appliances; another, all the spray-
ing machines, and these machines might he used
on occasion , another, the hand implements of
horticulture, another, all the horticultural
pottery, another, the horticultural products,
and others will be needed In addition, there
should be living museums, — one containing
the trees and shrubs (an arboretum) , another
containing the varieties of fruits, another con-
taining the perennial and other herbs There
should be some one place in every state wheie
all these various things are preserved and on
exhibition for the information of students and
the people

There is another class of subjects that is yet
undeveloped in horticultural departments
The dairy departments of agricultural colleges
are largely manufacturing eriterpnses, they
manufacture butter and cheese and other milk
pi oducts They cover a definite set of problems,
and this is one reason why they are developing
rapidly There are also horticultural manu-
factures, — canning, preserving, evaporating
of vegetables and fruits, the making of jellies
and juices and other secondary products, —
some 01 all of which should be investigated and
taught by the colleges of agriculture The
utilization of the waste products of fruit grow-
ing and vegetable growing has scarcely begun
to develop in this countiy, and the manufac-
ture of the staple horticultural products is not
vet taught

A s a School Subject — In the public schools
horticulture is not likely to be taught, in general,
as a separate subject or class Pieces of agri-
culture are put together into some kind of
educational plan or sequence, and some of these
pieces aie derived from horticultural subjects.
In particular schools fruit growing or flower
giowing or other applications may be intro-
duced to meet local demands Gardening may
be made a most useful adjunct to school work,
but its purpose in most cases — particularly in
the iormal school garden — is to provide a base
lot the development of nature study and for
general training rather than primarily to teach
garden culture as such The influence of plants
and oi planting on children is not yet sufficiently
understood Horticultural subjects will bo
increasingly important as means of putting the
pupil in touch with the situations in life.

Theic is undoubtedly to be a demand for
special training schools and trade schools of
horticulture Probably some of them will
soon be differentiated as floncultural or other
technical schools The fact that so much of
the horticultural work is manual and Is accom-
plished under glass, makes it very useful as a
training subject In the horticultural in-
dustries there will probably be an increasing
held for women, and horticultural schools for
women (one of which has recently been estab-

lished in the United Slates) mav be expected
to arise neai many of the populous centeis

A matnn (fmdcnittfj — - ( Jardenmg is t he gieai
outlet of the amateui No othei phase of land
work offers such Aanetv, covers so completely
the pi ogress of the seasons, is adaptable to so
many situations and climates, or allows such
complete expression of personality There-
fore the teaching of amateur gardening is of
the greatest importance both for country and
town In the colleges of agriculture the com-
mercial aspects of horticulture arc chiefly em-
phasized, but the amateur side mav be expected
to become prominent as the country matures
A different order of abilities is required in the
teacher of amateur gardening from that de-
manded in the handling of education for the
great commercial specialties, and we cannot
expect the subject to develop stronglv in the
colleges until special teachers are pro\ided
These teachers must be highly skilled in
the feeling for plants and well trained in the
skill of plant growing It i.s probable that the
special schools of horticulture, that aie veiy
strong on the manual side, will largely meet
these needs, particularly for town lot and subur-
ban gardening

Literature — There is a huge American
literature of horticulture, but there are no
school textbooks among these writings (if we
exclude school-gardening texts) All the texts
on agriculture contain more or less horticulture v
and horticulture is property a part of agricul-
ture. There are yet (MM 1) no books of college
grade in the generalised horticultural field,
that are prepared expressly as class 1e\ts, but
many treatises on particular subjects are used
as class books and reference books Textbooks
in fruit-growing, vegetable gardening, floricul-
ture, and the like, will undoubtedly soon
appear. They arc particularly needed foi col-
lege work Manuals of various kinds will be
helpful in the training schools L. H. B.

Horticultural Education in Europe differs
from similar work in America most conspicu-
ously in the fact that it is never given as a part of
a college or university course l'i equenth 1 here
are given special courses of instruction, essen-
tially like those provided in the se\eial 4l shoit
courses " oi American agncultuial colleges
The typical plan, however, is that of a special 01
" continuation " school, in which attention is
focused directly upon the technical training,
little or no attention being gi\ en to the questions
or materials of general education

One of the best of these institutions is the
Horticultural Institute ( KunifjhchcN (iartncr-
Lehranstalt) at Dahlern, in the suburbs of Ber-
lin This institution is thoroughly typical,
and a brief description of its organization will
give a fair idea of how such work is conducted
in continental countries The institute owns a
tract of approximately twenty acres of \ery
excellent garden land inclosed by a high fence
on all sides Within the privacy of this 111-

313

HOSPITAL ECONOMICS

HOSPITAL SCHOOLS

closure live the director and a few workmen
who are directly responsible for the care of the
place The plant consists further of a largo
classroom building, a small greenhouse equip-
ment, and a small experimental laboratory
No students live in the institute buildings,
though in many other places the residence of
students is an essential part of the plan.
About the buildings is a small tract laid off in
ornamental gardens, containing on a small scale
the usual features of an arboretum and nursery.
A large collection of plants is made unnecessary
through the close proximity of the unrivaled
Berlin Botanic Gardens There are extensive
plantations of dwarf and trained fruit trees
and of small fruits Garden vegetables are
cultivated on a smaller scale. The course of
instruction covers, two years, and is divided into
three principal vocational lines (1) garden art
(landscape gardening), (2) fruit culture, (3)
plant culture Instruction is given chiefly by
lectures, with occasional demonstrations and
praeticums There is less field work, either
required or voluntary, than in similar courses
in American agricultural colleges The reason
ior this lies largely in the fact that applicants
for admission are requned to present certifi-
cates showing one year of voluntary military
service arid three years of practical field expe-
rience. The work is designed, therefoie, to
meet the needs of men who have already entered
upon their professions and who have a fairly
substantial groundwork of experience upon
which to build their theoretical education

A number of the European schools are
founded by particular societies or by local
municipalities, in order to assist special indus-
tries There is, for instance, a school for the
canning industry in Brunswick, a district where
large quantities of fruit and vegetables are
canned, there is a school especially adapted
to the needs of vine growers at Geissenheim, in
the wine district; and so on Similar local
schools, some highly specialized and some moie
general in their scope, are to be found in Swit-
zerland and Austria The National School of
Horticulture at Versailles is the most important
one in France. In England there are several
horticultural schools, mostly of a strictly local
nature, the one at Wisley being perhaps the
most famous. In this connection, however,
the work at Kew should never be forgotten.
Here many of the best gardeners have received
their training The apprentice system is,
however, the most popular method of training
gardeners in England, and is in general the
typical method of horticultural education in
that country. F A W

See AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION; BOTANY;
GARDENS, SCHOOL

For references to the general field see under
the articles here referred to.

HOSPITAL ECONOMICS. — See NURSES,
EDUCATION OF.

314

HOSPITAL SCHOOLS. — A hospital mean*
primarily a guesthouse, and may be denned as
an endowed inn or public house for the recep-
tion of guOvSts gratis, whether they were travel-
ers, poor, aged, children (especially orphans
or foundlings), or sick Hospitals seem to
have been unknown to the ancients, Greek or
Roman, in classical times The Jews dispute
their invention with the Eastern Christians,
but the balance of evidence is in favor of the
latter The earliest hospital known to histoiy
appears in the middle of the fourth century
A D , when Eustathius appointed a superintend-
ent of the Hospital (xenodochnon 01 ptochotio-
pheion) for the poor at Sebaste in Pont us Epi-
phanius speaks of it already as a custom for
bishops to maintain such institutions ( Hieres,
75, c ]). One of the first acts of Basil the
Great (q v ) on becoming Bishop of Caesar ea
was to include hospitals for travelers, the poor
and the sick in the institutions which he
founded Julian the Apostate directed the
establishment of state hospitals as rivals to
those of the Christians The Council of Chal-
cedon in 451 placed the clergy in charge of
hospitals on the same footing as churches, and
Justinian (Codex I, 42, 46) deals with the five
classes of hospitals under the heading of
" bishops and clergy "

From the first hospitals became connected
with education Among the earliest hospitals
were orphanages arid foundling hospitals, owing
to the prevalent pagan practice of exposing
infants and deserting children Constantino
the Great himself established an orphanage at
Constantinople, and formally sanctioned the
gift of endowments to them The warden of
orphans (orphanatropus) . a priest, was a high
official The orphanage became the song school
(Scola Cantorum), and in Greek rituals the term
" orphans " was used as equivalent to choir boys

The earliest mention of hospitals in England
is found in a letter written by Alcuin (q v ) to
his old pupil Eanbald II, in which he recom-
mends to the newly made archbishop the estab-
lishment of guesthouses (xenodocheia), that is,
hospitals (hospitahd), at the same time that he
discusses the organization of the school St
Peter's, afterwards called St Leonard's Hos-
pital, which has been imputed to King Athel-
stan, c 932, may well have been founded by
Eanbald II on Alcuin 's advice and augmented
by Athelstari By 1280 this hospital was used
partly as a foundling hospital " ministering to the
poor and sick and to infants exposed there "
There were twenty-three boys in the orphanage
under charge of a woman, and they, together
with no less than thirty choristers, were educated,
two masters, one of grammar and the other of
song, being maintained to teach them The
dean and chapter of York attempted to close
the school in 1340 because the master was un-
licensed; but the King upheld the school as a
royal foundation, and " free from all ordinary
jurisdiction " The two schools were still being

HOSPITAL SCHOOLS

HOSPITAL SCHOOLS

maintained m the Hospital in 1 535, and only
ceased on the dissolution of the hospital, when
the Cathedral Grammar School was put on a
more substantial basis

At the Hospital of St Cross, near Winchester,
founded in 1132 by Bishop Henry of Blois, thir-
teen poor men were maintained, and dinners
were provided for a hundred other poor. In evi-
dence given in 1373 it appeared that among the
hundred poor men had always been included
" thirteen of the poorer scholars of the High
Grammar School of the City of Winchester "
There were also attached to the hospital four
hired priests, and, probably a later addition,
"thiiteen poor secular clerks' scholars," and
seven poor grammar (litterati) boys, two of
whom were called choristers and the rest served
in the church, " and the services finished, at-
tended school in the same hospital " In the
same manner three scholars of Durham school
received food, drink, and beds in St. Cuthbert's
Almshouse at Durham (1190). In the case of
the Hospital of St Katharine by the Tower,
founded in 1147 for thirteen poor women, six
scholais were added in 1272 to act as choristers
in the Hospital chapel or church The six poor
scholars are now represented by two elementary
schools, one for boys arid one for girls, in
Regent's Park, London, since 1826. At Norwich
Bishop Suffeld founded in 1249 what is now
known as the Great Hospital, originally God's
House or St (hies' Hospital, intended for the
infirm, under a master, four chaplains, and four
sisters In addition to thirteen poor people
who were daily to receive dinner, there were
also seven poor scholars who were to be named
by the master of the grammar school By 1430
the seven poor scholars had become choristers
in the Hospital church The Hospital was
dissolved by Henry VIII, who, however, pro-
vided for its reconstitution by his will, and in
addition to the Hospital a grammar school
was to be established with a " scolemaister "
and usher " to teche frely without any reward
other than their stypcnds of £10 and £6 13 4.
and convenient houses " At Bridgewater in
Somersetshire the rectory of Wembdon was
appropiiated in 1285 to the Hospital of St
John, founded before the reign of King John,
for maintaining six more chaplains and " thir-
teen poor scholars of ability to learn grammar,
who should be maintained in the Hospital but
attend the school of the town daily " Seven
other poor scholars of the school were to receive
daily pittance from the hospital kitchen, pot-
tage, etc. These boys were still being kept in
this way in 1535, the date of the Valor Ecde-
siasticus Precisely the same arrangement was
made at York, where St Mary's Abbey kept a
boarding school for fifty boys who attended the
cathedral grammar school

Instances proved by contemporary docu-
ments of the definite endowment of university
education in connection with a hospital are that
of the Englishman Joyce or Joicey at Paris,

in St Mary's Hospital, a room in it with eight-
een beds being set aside and stipends provided
for eighteen scholars or clerks (See COLLEGE )
This arrangement was imitated in the first uni-
versity college in England, the House of the Val-
ley Scholars, founded at Salisbury, in 1262, by
the Bishop Giles of Bridgeport, in connection with
and apparently in the precinct of the Hospital
of St Nicholas there (See Rashdall, Umvet-
sities of Europe, Vol II, p 706) So Merton,
the earliest college at Oxford, was in connection
with a hospital for the poor at Basmgstoke,
Hampshire, to which the scholars might them-
selves retire when old or incapacitated. In
like manner St Bartholomew's Hospital at Ox-
ford was annexed to Oriel College in 1325, and
St Julian's Hospital, Southampton, to Queen's
College in 1340 The colleges maintained the
poor, but took all surplus to themselves The
earliest Cambridge college was originally
planted in St. John's Hospital there in 1280
But the brethren of St John's were "regulais,"
and could not get on with the secular scholars,
so in 1286 the scholars were removed to what
is still called Peterhouse St John's Hospital
was itself dissolved under a Papal Bull arid con-
verted into the present St John's College in
1504, just as St John's Hospital at Oxford had
been dissolved by the Pope and converted into
the present Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1480
Both were following many precedents in con-
necting scholars with hospitals, though not of
actual dissolution and conversion of one into
the other

How much neglect and malversation there
were in the management of hospitals may be
seen from the decree, Quia Contmgit, of the
Council of Vienne (1310-1311), which appeals in
the Corpus Juris Canomci (Clement III, tit
XI, 2) under the misleading title of " Religious
houses and their subjection to bishops " Most
hospitals were then in the hands, not of secular
clergy, but of the religious or regulars, particu-
larly the Augustinian canons By this decree
the Ordinary is given power to investigate and
reform hospitals, which were no longer to be
conferred as ecclesiastical benefices. An ex-
ception was made in favor of the military ordeis,
the Knights of St John, and the religious, who
were only to be subject to their own superiors
In England the first Parliament of Henry V at
Leicester in 1414 investigated similar condi-
tions and empowered the ordinaries to hold
inquiries and reform the hospitals There was
a tendency more and more in the fifteenth
century, with the disappearance of leprosy, to
convert the funds of hospitals to other uses;
many hospitals became almshouses, and many
were connected with educational purposes.
Thus William de la Pole, Earl of Suffolk,
founded an almshouse, in which he also planted
a grammar school, at Ewelme, in Oxfordshire
(the license being granted in 1437 and the
foundation statutes made not earlier than 1448).
The " Howse of almesse " or " Goddis Howse "

315

HOSPITAL SCHOOLS

HOSPITAL SCHOOLS

was to consist of two priests and thirteen poor
men; one of the priests was to be " apte and
able to techying of grarner, to whose office it
shall longe and pertaync diligently to teche
and informe childer in the faculte of gramer."
The children of the lordship of Ewelme were
to be admitted to the school without tuition
The Hospital remains almost intact, but the
school has been sadly modernized and mauled
to make it an elementary school and so save a
few pounds in rates This institution is of
great historical importance, as the Earl of Suf-
folk was one of Henry Vi's mam agents and
advisers in the foundation of Eton, which prob-
ably owed its being in part as almshouse to his
influence and example To the same influence
may perhaps be attributed the school of St.
Anthony's Hospital, in Thrcadneedle Street,
for about a century and a half one of the most
famous of London schools In 1441 the rec-
tory of St Benet Fink was appropriated to the
Hospital founded in 1253 for sufferers from St
Anthony's Fire, and later (1441) continued as
a hospital for the poor merely The endow-
ment of the rectory was intended for the main-
tenance of " a master of fit Informers (hi/or-
mator) in the faculty of grammar to keep a
grammar school in the precinct of the Hospital
or some fit house close by to teach, instruct and
inform freely (gratis) all boys and others what-
soever wishing to learn and become scholars
(scolatigare) " It was a school precisely on
the same lines as Eton (q v ) A song school
had been already established in the preceding
year for the choristers of the hospital New
statutes were made for the hospital in 1446, and
in 1447 the hospital was brought into connec-
tion with Oriel College, Oxford, by maintaining
scholars studying there In 1475 the hospital
was annexed to St George's, Windsor, and
suffered thereby, for the canons, wishing to
increase the surplus payable to themselves,
cut down the salaries of the masters The
school, however, flourished in numbers, and
according to Stow, who was probably a boy
there, St Anthony's Hospital " commonly
presented the best boys and had the prize in
those days " at the disputations held in St
Bartholomew's Midy on St Bartholomew's
eve (August 23) A icgular feud existed be-
tween St Anthony's boys and those of St
Paul's, the former calling the latter pigeons,
because of the pigeons inhabiting then as now
the chuichyard, and the Paulines calling the
An tonics " pigs," because all stray pigs were
the perquisites of the hospital In 1589 the
school had sunk to little more than a parish
school, but it continued till the Fire of London
in 1666, after which it perished and was not
rebuilt The endowment was swallowed by the
dean arid chapter of Windsor At about the
same time the greatest of London Hospitals,
then as now, St Bartholomew's, was connected
with education In 1444 John Stafford, chap-
lain and citizen of London, left property to the

316

master of the Hospital, including among other
things " for the increase of the clergy and of
divine service " £1 13 4 a year more "for the
diligent instruction of boys m grammar and
song " This school has been left unnoticed by
historians of the hospital, although it may well
have contributed to the establishment of the
grammar and song schools in Christ's Hospital,
when a scheme was made for the four great
London hospitals at the end of Edward VI's
reign While in the fifteenth century, far from a
period of decadence in learning, schools were
added to hospitals, in the sixteenth hospitals
were boldly annexed and converted to educa-
tional uses, c g the Hospitals of St John at
Oxford and Cambridge In 1501 John Stans-
bndge (q v ) became master of the Hospital of
St John the Baptist at Banbury, which was
treated as a school and the mastership as a
schoolmastership rathei than as a hospital and
ecclesiastical preferment The school seems
to have ceased in 1558

The Valor Ecclesiasttcus of 1535 revealed the
extent to which the hospitals were mismanaged
In one after another there were only one or two
poor, and the master took nearly the whole of
the revenues to his own use, and where there
were none he took the whole A large number
of hospitals were still in the hands of the regu-
lars The acts for the dissolution of monas-
teries also included hospitals So fell the Hos-
pitals of St Bartholomew and St Thomas in
London and South wark, only to rise again in
enlarged form

The greatest of all hospital schools was that
of Christ's Hospital, London, founded in 1553
This was the only educational institution really
founded by Edward VI in the sense of ci eating
a new school where none had existed before,
and it was not founded as a school or foi educa-
tion piimanly, nor was its site nor a penny of
endowment given by Edward VI HLS con-
tribution to it consisted of a piece of parchment
and some confiscated church linen, and the
name of " the Hospital of Christ, Bridewell
and St Thomas, the Apostle " Christ's Hos-
pital was the deserted monastery of the Grey
Friars, the Franciscans or P'nars Mmoi, one of
the largest churches in the city next to St
Paul's It was acquired by the city from
Henry VIII in 1547, and in 1550 the Lord
Mayor, Sir Richard Dobbs, brought before the
Court of Aldermen a plan for the suppression
of vagabondage and poverty by taking " out
of the streets fatherless children and other poor
men's children that were not able to keep them
to the late dissolved house of the Grey Friars,
which they decided to be a Hospital for them."
In 1552 the Grey Friars was prepared as
Christ's Hospital by the subscriptions and
contributions of citizens and the common coun-
cil. This was part of a general scheme to deal
with every class of destitute poor, and the
charter included the " Royal Hospitals " of
Christ, Bridewell, and St Thomas," which with

HOSPITAL SCHOOLS

HOSPITAL SCHOOLS

St Bartholomew's, which the city already had,
made up the " Four Royal Hospitals " In No-
vember, 1552, 380 children were admitted into it
It appears from the evidence of a contempo-
rary, an official of the Hospital, that it was a
Foundling and Orphan Hospital for " gutter "
children, and this is confirmed by the names on
the admission book, which, however, only be-
gins in 1556. In 1639 it was ordered that no
child be admitted under three, but even as late as
1653 out of 218 children 120 were under four In
1677 a rule was made excluding children under
seven Education is so far mentioned in this
charter in that it says that one of its objects is
that " neither children yet being in their in-
fancy shall lack good education arid instruction
nor when they shall attain riper years shall be
without honest callings and occupations, nor
that the sick or diseased when returned to
health may remain idle and lazy vagabonds
but in like manner may be placed and com-
pelled to labour " Graf ton, the printer, how-
ever, who took a principal part in the estab-
lishment of the Hospital, and others were fully
convinced of the necessity of educating their
foundlings and orphans They put in two
44 scholemaisteis for the petties in ABC" " at
£2 13 4 a year, 13s 4d more than the barber
and not half what the porters got, a " teacher
to wrighte" was paid £3 6 8 a year, a
teacher of pncksong £2 13 4, a " schole-
maistcr for musicke" £2 13 4 But they also
provided for a " Grammar Schoole mayster "
at £15 a vear and u " Grammar Usher " at £10
a year Graf ton was put into the Fleet prison
in Queen Mary's reign because he allowed
" the children to learn the English primer in-
stead of the Latin absies [A B C's]," the latter
having the Paternoster and prayers in Latin.
At first the children were clothed in russet
(brownish red cotton), but at Easter, 1553, they
appeared in the blue cloth which has made the
" Blue coat boy " so famous throughout the
world But whereas of later years they have
been noted for going about bareheaded, they
originally had red caps Queen Mary wished
to suppress the Hospital and put back the
Fnars, but the Spanish Fiiars themselves ad-
vised against it Only one endowment was
given in her reign, but in Queen Elizabeth's
subscriptions, bequests, and legacies poured in,
and by Camden's time, about 1590, 600 chil-
dren and 1240 pensioners were maintained
But of these not more than 200 were in the
Grammar School, and only those who attained
the two highest forms, " Deputy-Grecians " and
" Grecians," were retained after the age of six-
teen In 1673 the above boys were increased
in number by the Mathematical School of forty
boys founded by King Charles II to prepare
them for sea — one of the earliest institutions
of its kind in recognizing that a classical edu-
cation was not good for all boys. In 1774 the
girls were moved to a separate establishment
at Hertford, where a nursery, afterwards trans-

formed into a pieparatory school had long born
established The number was then 800, of whom
about 200 boys undei twelve weie «t Hertfmd
Under a scheme of the Charily Commis-
sioner in 1890 the boys' school was lemoved
in 1902 to llorsham to an ample site and splen-
did buildings For about 150 years before the
scheme the Hospital was practically goveined
by those rich enough to pay £500 foi the privi-
lege of being govemois and having the pat-
ronage of appointing the boys, with the result
that the class of boy had been more and inoie
laised in wealth and the class for whom it was
intended was no longer found A third of the
boys are now admitted by competitive exami-
nation from elementary schools, and to that
extent the original class has now been restored
(See GRAMMAR SCHOOL, PUBLIC- SCHOOLS )

The Blue Coat School, as it was commonly
called, became a model for other foundations
of the same sort, though none of them attained
the size or fame or educational advancement of
Christ's Hospital The earliest of these was
Kmanuel Hospital, Westrninstei, in 1594, the
Charterhouse, which combined an ahnshouse
for decayed gentlemen with a grammar school
in the old Carthusian Monastery of London in
1611, but this catered more for the lower classes
like Christ's Hospital; the Blue Coat Hospital,
in the old St. John's Hospital, Exeter, followed
in 1632, the Green Coat Hospital, Westmin-
ster, 1633, Chetham's Hospital, Manchester,
1651, the Grey Coat Hospital for girls, West-
minster, 1706 Scotland also in George llenot's
Hospital in Edinburgh, 1628 (see HERIOT,
GEORGE), Gordon's Hospital, Aberdeen, 1732
(see GORDON, ROBERT), and diverse otheis,
including Morgan's Hospital at Dundee, build-
ing in 1867, followed the example. (See also
HUTCHESON EDUCATIONAL TRUST ) A new
crop on a smaller scale sprang from the Charity
School (q v ) movement in 1705, of which one
of the largest remaining is the Blue Coat
School at Sheffield These later ones aimed
rather at training children for domestic service,
and gave no more than a purely elemental y
education, and were strongly condemned by the
Schools Inquiry Commission in 1867 as wasting
large funds foi no appreciable educational result
or advancement of the children Many of them,
like Emanuol Hospital, Westininstei, now the
Westminster City School, have been turned
into higher grade or technical day schools,
meeting a much-felt want in large towns for
commercial and technical education of the
poorer boys The connection of hospitals with
general education has now practically ceased,
except in regard to medical education and
training, which arc treated under a separate
article (See MEDIC \LEDUCATION ) A F L

References : —

BESANT SIR W London; the City (London, 1910)
CLAY R M The Medieval Hospitals of England
(London, 1909 )

317

HOSPITIUM

HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION

LKVCH, A F Eiiylibh Schools at the Reformation

(London, 1806 )
Kducational Charters and Documents. (Cambridge,

1911)
On Christ's Hospital ' —

Annals of Christ's Hospital from the Foundation to the
Present Tim< . (London, 1807 )

JOHNSON, R B Christ's Hospital, Recollections of
Lamb, Coleridge and Leigh Hunt (London, 1896 )

PEARCE, E H Annals of Christ's Hospital. (London,
1904.)

TKOLLOPK, A W. History of Christ's Hospital. (Lon-
don, 1834.)

HOSPITIUM — See DORMITORIES; HALL;
UNIVERSITIES; STUDENT LIFE.

HOSTEL. — See DORMITORIES; HALL.

HOT AIR FURNACE. — See HEATING OP
SCHOOL BUILDINGS.

HOT WATER SYSTEM. — See HEATING
OF SCHOOL BUILDINGS.

HOUSEHOLD ARTS, HYGIENE OF. —

See MANUAL TRAINING, HYGIENE OF.

HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION. —

Terminology — Various terms have been used
to indicate the content of this broad subject,
to signify its connection with the home, and to
indicate the fact that science, fine art, and the
technical arts are fundamental. The terms
most in vogue at present are either home eco-
nomics, household science and arts, household
science, or household arts The English Board
of Education has introduced the term " house-
craft " (1911) The term " economics " is
perpetuated in the American Home Economics
Association, and is used in a number of insti-
tutions. The term " household science and
arts " would seem to include everything re-
quired, but it is inconveniently long. House-
hold science does not include the art applica-
tion. Household arts, on the other hand, while
it seems to emphasize the practical or applied
side, also implies a scientific and artistic basis
This last term is coming into common usage
in both the elementary and secondary schools,
and its use is spreading in higher institutions
Other suggested terms arc " Eugenics " or
" EuthemcH " (freely interpreted, the art of
right living) The term "household arts"
covers all that has been included under the
terms "domestic art" and "domestic science,"
together with other more recently developed
industrial, economic, and hygienic aspects of
home activities

Historical Development — In certain forms,
the subject has had a long history. In the
theoretical treatises on education some phases
of the subject are advocated in the sixteenth
and seventeenth centuries, when Comemus
(q.v ), and, in a more general way, Luther (q v ),
and many others emphasized the educational
value of household activities In the eight-
eenth century the philanthropists (q v ) gave

318

strongei expression to this belief, and at the
opening of the nineteenth century Pestaloz/i
(q v ) and other reformers began actual experi-
mentation for educational purposes. Earlier
than this the institutions of the philanthropm-
ists of Germany and the charity schools (q v )
of England had emphasized such activities quite
generally for practical purposes The monitor-
ial schools of Lancaster and Bell usually included
some instruction of this character Needle-
work was commonly found in all private schools
for girls. Sewing especially had a high social
status, and in the finer forms of lace making
and embroidery was incorporated in the private
schools for the well-born as a part of the " fin-
ishing education " of girls, so popular during the
eighteenth century The claims for recognition
of the domestic arts of cookery, laundry work,
housewifery, and ncedlecraft in the curriculum
of school or college received sparse recognition
in Europe before the middle of the nineteenth
century. After that date their introduction
into any scheme for the education of women or
girls was for manv years gradual, partial, and
tentative. During the last twenty-five years,
there has been developed a remarkable range of
diversified and more or less highly organized
courses of instruction in primary and secondary
schools, technical institutes, training colleges,
universities, and institutions working for social
betterment Peripatetic courses of instruction
are arranged in many countries for rural dis-
tricts; while post-school courses, residential 01
otherwise, provide for the needs of farmers'
daughters or girls of the leisure classes In the
United States these subjects have received uni-
versity recognition in the form of college courses
for under and post graduate students In Ger-
many, the United Kingdom, and Ireland, and in
Norway and Denmark, increasing attention is
given to the study of the scientific principles
which underlie the practical processes In the
United States about the earliest recognition of
this field was given by Miss Catharine E
Beecher (q v ), a pioneer in woman's education,
who published (1840) A Treatise on Domestic
Economy for the Use of Young Laches at Home
and at School In England Hannah More
(q v.), in the late eighteenth century, had writ-
ten on the subject The local development of
practical training relating to household arts sub-
jects is given briefly in the sections on the sep-
arate countries (See also BELGIUM, P^RANCE;
etc)

Aim of Instruction in Household Arts —
In its historical development the group of
subjects may be looked upon as a part of the
modern movement for an education that shall
better fit for daily life, a so-called practical
education More specifically it is an effort to
better the home life of the people, which origi-
nated everywhere outside of, rather than in, the
school system The movement in the schools
was strengthened by the development of other
handwork, the subjects formerly classed as

HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION

manual training, which included handwork foi
girls as well as for boys The earlier realization
that systematic school training in these home
arts was desirable, and the later conviction that
their importance justifies, if it does not compel,
their adoption as school studies, are the out-
come of. (1) the growth of preventive medicine
and hygiene; (2) the desire to counteract the
disintegrating influences upon home life and
industry of modern industrial and social changes ,
(3) the recognition of women's needs in lespeet
of technical and professional training, (4) at-
tempts to solve the problems of domestic
service

If the fifteen or sixteen nations in whose
educational institutions this teaching is now
general are grouped into three divisions, the
fact becomes apparent that the individual
philanthropists or societies which started the
movement in each country were prompted by
one or more of these motives. State recog-
nition and support is now invariably accorded
with greater or less cordiality to this instruc-
tion, but the pioneer work has been uniformly
carried out by philanthropic service and sup-
ported by private funds

Three groups of countries may be made
according to the underlying aims. (1) The
amelioration of home conditions, and the im-
provement of existing domestic work arid
methods (United States, Great Britain, Ire-
land, Germany, Belgium, Finland, Denmark,
Norway, and Russia) (2) The solution of the
problem of domestic service, although there is
now a tendency to move in the direction of the
first group (Sweden, Holland, Austria) (3)
Vocational arid professional preparation (France,
Italy, Hungary, and to some extent also Bel-
gium and Switzerland). In Spain, Portugal,
Greece, and Roumania the study of the domestic
subjects is still in its infancy, arid attention is
limited only to one or two branches

Much of the inspiration which led m 1889 to
the simultaneous organization of cookery classes
in Sweden, Norway, Finland, and Germany
sprang from Great Britain, where the pioneer
teachers in the first three of these countries
secured their training Though the standard
of training varies very widely (from three years
to six weeks), wholly untrained teachers are now
permitted only in France and Austria, and in the
rural districts of Switzerland, Norway, and
Sweden. State inspection of classes is general
throughout Europe All teaching is gratuitous
in primary schools, usually so in classes for
factory workers, and occasionally for adults
Fees, when charged, are always low, necessi-
tating heavy state and local subsidies The
urgent needs of the poorest classes dictated
the utilitarian methods general in these courses;
but in the girls' secondary schools of Norway,
Belgium, Germany, Great Britain, and Ireland,
the tendency is now to connect them closely
with laboratory work in elementary science and
with art studies in -the studio Contrary to the

usual custom, those subjects first found a fool-
ing in the secondary schools of Russia, Gei-
many, and Denmark, but they are not yet gen-
erally adopted into primary education in these
countries Special tiaining for matrons in
institutions, asylums, etc , exists in Russia and
Italy, Norway and Holland provide special
instruction for soldiers and sailors Efforts
to solve domestic service problems by special
training though attempted in several countncs
have had but moderate success

General Content — When household aits
began to form a subject of study in the United
States, cookery, sewing, and housewifery were
prominent. The need of scientific and artistic
foundations was soon felt Chemistry, physi-
ology, and physics were early required in the
course of Domestic Science The science
required was, however, elementary, but le-
quirements have since been raised Since
the importance of the home for individual and
social welfare has been recognized, emphasis
has been placed on the principles and prac-
tices that have to do with the pi opcr conduct
of the home The training of a better class of
wage earners is considered on the industrial
side, so that from this point of view house-
hold arts may be classed as a social science and
as a branch of economics Thus the subject
has passed through three stages of develop-
ment, all of which must now be given weight
(1) practical, (2) scientific and artistic, (3) eco-
nomic and sociological

The general divisions of these fundamental
problems are as follows (1) The food supply
its production, manufacture, tiansportation,
and cost; good quality in food, food sanitation,
pure food and inspection laws, how to buy,
composition and nutritive value, dietaries and
menus, preparation and serving (2) Clothing
and other uses of textiles textile fabiics, then
primitive beginnings, their connection with the
development of civilization, textile arts and
crafts related to clothing arid sheltei , modern
manufacture and cost of textile materials, tex-
tile adulterations, functions of clothing and
costume in health, beauty, and ethics of life,
the wardrobe, its repair and care, the making
of garments, hats, household articles and fur-
nishing, design in textile garments and house-
hold furnishing (3) Shelter the cost of build-
ing, rentals, and taxes and insurance, house
architecture, sanitation, and mechanics, house-
hold furnishing, for convenience, economy, and
beauty (4) Housewifery processes of cleans-
ing, preserving, and renovating all household
materials, including laundering (5) General
management the budget, accounts, savings,
insurance; system in purchasing, inventories
of household goods; household labor, relations
of employer and employee; division and order
of work; labor-saving apparatus Town and
state laws that affect the householder (6)
Care of the family: special needs of individual
members, as infants, children, the elderly,

319

HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION

home care of the sick; family needs and duties;
mutual occupations and recreations, hospi-
tality; municipal and state responsibilities of
the householder in connection with city arid
state? sanitation (7) The employment of wo-
men in industries, then occupations, wages,
clubs, settlements, pleasures, education, plans
of betterment, woman as a citizen, and her
relation to civics and the government

Household Arts in the Elementary School* —
Under the influence of the culture epoch theory
(7 v ) many of the simple industrial and house-
hold processes have been introduced into kinder-
gartens and the early giades of school Courses
in sewing under special teachers seldom begin
before the fifth or sixth grade, and in many
schools they are connected with lessons in de-
sign and discussions on textiles The handwork
ri the better class of schools is on interesting
articles connected with the home or the school.
Previous practice of the stitches is given, but
the " model system " requiring perfect work
has long passed away Organized courses in
cookery and other forms of home work are not
usually given befoie the so^s enth or eighth grade,
although in view of the fact that many pupils
are then likely to leave, they are advisable in
the sixth grade The subject usually includes
less ms on nutritive values and buying With the
present tendency to give vocational training in
the last few grades of the elementary schools,
cookery, sewing, millinery, and dressmaking
have been given an industrial Iras, and are
broadened and strengthened by academic and
art work, as they apply to the occupations
To meet the exodus from the sixth and later
grades many cities have organized special
houseiVjM arts' work in the afternoons With
this vo^tional preparation is also growing up
very slowly a system of vocational guidance
(q.v.).

The courses are still tentative, and need a
further working out in practical correlation with
academic work and art and with determination
of the length of time which should be devoted
to the different subjects and the elimination
of unnecessary material The domestic art
work in the higher grades is usually conducted
in the schoolrooms, although a special laboratory
is provided in a few schools Domestic science
requires a special kitchen Much discussion is
centered about the use of individual equipment
with small quantities of food and the gioup
system around a large range or stove Most
school kitchens are now equipped for individual
work on the part of each pupil it is felt that
this method helps to economize material and
tends to develop the pupil's initiative, but it
does not always give the ability to deal with the
practical problems of cookery in the home as
well as does the group method Where the
pupil cannot have enough material to make the
process really practical, the best practice should
include both individual and gioup work

There are many practical questions of time

division and laboratory management and
equipment, but at the present there is much
divergence of opinion in different parts of the
country Definite results, therefore, cannot
bo given In general it may be said that in the
lower elementary grades the time allotted is
usually from twenty minutes to one half hour
The processes and manipulation are simple,
and are conducted by the regular teachers in
the grade rooms In the sixth, seventh, and
eighth grades the common practice is three
quarters of an hour twice a week for two years
for sewing and one and one half hours once a
week for one year for cooking It is felt, how-
ever, for the latter subject that two periods per
week would be better.

Household Arts in the Secondary Schools —
Here the work in household arts is too new to
have evolved an ideal course There are differ-
ent points of emphasis, in some cases there is
an attempt to organize courses to secure college
credit; in some the courses vary according as
the previous training of the teacher concerned
was in art or science, in other cases the previ-
ous training and the tuture of the pupils is
taken into consideration There is also con-
siderable variation according to the type of
school, thus the classical high schools, if they
do not neglect the subject, oft or it as an elective
pi require it foi one yoai, peihaps with electives
in later yeais, the manual training, technical, 01
practical arts high schools and the recently or-
ganized trade schools oiler extensive work, often
in close connection wit! business methods, when
the students expect to become wage earneis
The tendency is now not to leave the different
subjects, c g sewing, dressmaking, millinery,
cooking, etc , isolated from the rest of the
curriculum, but the controlling aim is to give
the students insight into the industries as they
affect home and national life, into possibilities
of greater economy in living, as well as higher
ideas of woman's municipal responsibilities
Thus the courses are being gradually related to
instruction in art, science, industrial history,
geography, and arithmetic, and courses in
home sanitation, chemistry of foods, nutrition,
dietaries and menus on the one side, and
household management, house furnishing and a
study of costume on the other

In the secondary school the method and or-
ganization aio essentially the same as for the
elementary, but longer time is given to discus-
sion The same principle holds good in regard
to the number of lessons and the length of labo-
ratory periods In both domestic art and do-
mestic science from thirty to forty-five minutes
a week are necessary for the best development
of the subject through discussion, which would
include a review of the past laboratory work,
plans for that which is to be undertaken, and
the development of economic and social ideas
The teacher is much hampered by the lack of
suitable textbooks, since those that are written
accurately are usually too advanced for high

320

HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION

school pupils The Bulletin* of the United
States Department of Agriculture, of the various
associations of Textile Growers and Manu-
facturers, and the Bulletins for Farmers' Wives,
published by Cornell University, afford ma-
terial from which the teacher can assign some
work to be discussed in class Laboratory
methods in the practical work in cookery and
garment-making and m the housekeeping of the
cookery laboratory do not dilfei essentially, al-
though in some places the experimental method
mav be used to a greater extent and the pupils
trained to work with a largei degree of inde-
pendence

In a technical or trade school, however,
where preparation for a livelihood is given in the
fourth year, a large amount of practical work,
requiring at least four houis daily, should be in-
cluded The content of a coin se that counts for
college entrance should be more intensive along
scientific lines than one training for home work
or lor a livelihood

Household Arts for General Training in
College and University — Since the secondary
schools frequently offer little or no preparation,
the college courses in household aits are neces-
sarily elementary Domestic ait offers a study
of textiles including microscopical work on fiber,
chemical testing, dyeing and weaving, art in the
design of costume, interior decoration, house-
hold furnishing, household economics, and craft
work in dressmaking and millinery Many
colleges now offer courses in foods and in the
chemistry of nutrition and sanitation, which
require not only elementary but oigamc chem-
istry and biology as prerequisites Practical
courses are given, but usually in the fieshrnan
veai and sometimes not for college credit
Most of the colleges agree in placing a course in
household administration in the4 senior year,
presupposing a study of nutrition and some of
the domestic art subjects History of industry
and at least one course in economics or sociol-
ogy are also required in connection with the
household arts' work Where the subject
counts for credit about one third of the stu-
dents' time may be devoted to household arts

Normal Courses — The content of these
courses varies with the institution, but where
diplomas, or degrees, or both are granted, there
are given courses in art as applied to costume
and house decoration, chemistry as applied to
food and textile tests, biology, bacteriology, and
sanitation, dietetics, practical work in cookery,
millinery, and dressmaking, and housewifery,
laundering being sometimes included Courses
in the study of textiles as applied to the
economic training of the consumer are rapidly
developing, and in addition, courses in peda-
gogy and practice teaching The chemistry
covers elementary (sometimes a prerequisite)
and frequently organic chemistry of foods and
nutrition, and in n few instances physiological
chemistry

In college, university, and normal schools the

method is parallel with the teaching of other
college subjects. Lectures, discussions, and
notebook work may be as accurately and
scientifically conducted as in any of the natural
sciences or academic studies. There is no
dearth of sound reference books, so that read-
ings may be assigned and required, although the
majority of those dealing with textiles are
written from the point of view of the mill and
those on art in dress and home decoration are
rather trivial Here, and especially in advanced
work, the opportunity opens up for individual
research, with all the possibilities of exact
training that such work affords

Equipment and Cost of Maintenance —
These of necessity vary from country to coun-
try, from region to region, and from school to
school In some instances equipment runs to
the extreme of expense and elaborateness,
in others an effort is made to produce lesults
with the simplest possible equipment, or at least
that which approximates the home conditions,
possible or actual, of the children Equipment
ranges from the simplest materials furnished
by the child to whole buildings expensively
furnished Any statement of details would of
necessity be of suggestive value only and can be
obtained from much of the practical literature
bearing on the subject, to which reference is given
in the appended bibliography

United States — Historic Development -
Instruction in the household subjects origi-
nated outside of the school system and in its
modern foim sprang from the renewed interests
in all these lines at the time of the Philadelphia
Exposition in 1876 The work was started in
the eastern cities and was supported by private
funds in classes outside the schools V>ss suc-
cessful attempts had been made eapuer In
Boston an attempt was made to introduce
sewing into the lower grades as early as
1854 This met with little success until 1865-
1866 Special schools of cooking were estab-
lished in the two cities Public demon-
strators and lectuiers aroused public interest,
and later a demand followed for the training
of teachers Cooking schools were begun pri-
vately in Boston, e g by Miss Joanna S\\eeney
in 1874, in 1877 by Miss Maria Parloa, later a
teacher in the Lasscll Institute, whose president
had been interested in the teaching of cookery
in the South Kensington School. In 1879 the
Woman's Educational Association oi Boston
voted to support a cooking school and made a
contribution towards it, and on March 10, 1879,
the Boston Cooking School was opened, in \\hich
demonstration lessons were given to young
ladies, cooks, and girls The school was put on
a permanent basis in 1883, and in 1903 was in-
corporated with Simmons College Cooking
classes and kitchens were gradually provided in
Boston schools and were taken over by the
public school system in 1885 A normal class
was held in the Tennyson Street School in 18S(>,
and the Normal School of Cookery, which later

VOL in — y

321

HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION

became the Mary Hemenway Department of
Household Arts in the Massachusetts State
Normal School at Framingham, was opened in
1888. The School of Housekeeping, which was
incorporated with Simmons College in 1902, was
opened as a private institution in 1897

In New York City in the early severities, the
churches opened sewing schools In 1876 the
New York Cooking School was opened and was
incorporated in 1878 It is now conducted in
the United Chanties Building The Kitchen
(iardon Association of New York was incorpo-
rated on April 10, 1880, and included in its ob-
jects the piomotion of the domestic industrial
arts among the laboring classes. In 1884 this
association became the Industrial Education
Association To moot the demand for teachers
of sewing the first normal class was begun in 1 884
us a part of its work Instruction consisted of
technical sewing alone, for methods of teach-
ing the subject had not yet been completed
('lasses in cookery and domestic art were held
for public school children, and classes where
gnls could bo trained for domestic service were
also opened In the winter of 1886 a children's
industrial exhibition was held, representing sixty
schools uncl institutions from different parts of
the Union This brought children's handwork
before the public and had a direct influence in
the development of the work in schools In
1888 the College* for the Training of Teachers,
with a model school, was organized out of the
Industrial Association, the name being changed
to Teachers College in 1892 In 1911 the
School of Practical Arts was differentiated from
the other pedagogical departments and thus
the household arts subjects again became a
central objoct of instruction As early as 1888
both coo-lf y and sewing were introduced as
regular sti Hs into the New York City public
schools, one teacher being employed for each
subject Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, N Y ,
founded by Mi Charles Pratt, was opened in
1887, and science and domestic arts were in-
cluded at the beginning

In Philadelphia classes in cookery were offered
by the New Century Club in *1878 These
classes developed into a cooking school under the
direction of Mrs Rorer, which continued for
twenty-five years Drexel Institute, Phila-
delphia, was founded in 1891, and instruction
was begun in 1892 Domestic science and art
were important departments at the outset.
Cookery and sewing were introduced into the
elementary public schools of Philadelphia in
1885, and had found a place in the Girls High
and Normal School in 1880

The World's Fair at Chicago (1893) with
exhibits from Sweden and other European
schools gave an impulse to sewing as a school
subject In the fall of the same year the New
York Association of Sewing Schools was formed
and sei ved as a center of information concerning
courses, methods, and tiaining, held conferences
and exhibits, and issued publications; it grew

into a national society and had great influence
in the introduction of sewing as an educa-
tional subject into schools of various rank in the
United States In 1901, the society, considering
its work accomplished, was disbanded, for do-
mestic art had become a part of instruction in
educational institutions throughout the country

In the West the movement began in the state
institutions, Illinois, Iowa, and Kansas being
the pioneers. Iowa seems to have been the ear-
liest in domestic science, for at its opening in
1869 the young women students were required
to work each day in the dining room and
kitchen Kansas Agricultural College reports
the teaching of sewing as early as 1873- 1874
In 1875-1876 lectures on food were given in the
department of chemistry and a kitchen was
fitted up in 1877. Women were admitted to
the Illinois Industrial University (the State
University) in 1870 The catalogue of 1871-
1872 announced a School of Domestic Science
and Art In 1874 an instructor was appointed
for this work In 1875-1876 a well-organized
course was printed in the catalogue

Present Status — According to compilations
made by the United States Bureau of Edu-
cation in 1909 and 1910 sewing and cooking are
taught in 95 elementary school systems, 207
high schools; and 142 higher institutions

The most complete list is published by the
American Journal of Home Economics, 1911, as
follows- (a) Collegiate Institutions receiving
aid from the Federal (Government, 32, (b) Col-
legiate Institutions not receiving aid from the
Federal Government, 102; (c) Normal Schools,
102; (d) Secondary Schools receiving State
Aid for Agriculture and Domestic Science, 64;
(e) High Schools giving courses in Home Eco-
nomics, 632 Special Institutions (a) Schools
of Domestic Science and Arts, 12, (b) Industrial
Schools, 24, (c) Institutions for Defectives and
Dependents, 26; (d) Part-time Schools, 26,
(e) Institutions for Negroes receiving aid from
the Federal Government, 17, (/) Institutions
for negroes not receiving aid from the Federal
Government, 69; (g) Institutions for Indians,
137 Total, 1243.

State Universities. — (The statistics quoted
are taken from the Organization List of Colleges
and Experiment Stations, 1900-1905, see Bevier
and Usher, The Home Economic Movement.
Those of later date were obtained through corre-
spondence.) Arizona, 1900; Florida (State
College for Women), 1906; Idaho, 1897
(dropped in 1899; two years' course added in
1903); Illinois, 1900; Indiana (Purdue), 1905;
Kansas, 1910; Maine, 1909; Minnesota, 1900
(work for a degree, 1903); Missouri, 1901
(dropped in 1904; reorganized, 1906); Ne-
braska, 1898; Nevada, 1901; New York
(Cornell), 1908; Ohio, 1896; Pennsylvania
(State College), 1907; Tennessee, 1903; Utah,
1901; Vermont, 1908; Washington, 1909;
West Viiginia, 1899; Wisconsin, 1903; Wyo-
ming, 1907.

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HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION

State Agricultural Colleges. — A list of agri-
cultural and mechanical colleges in the United
States, published by the United States Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Jan 1,1910, mentions sixty-
seven institutions Of these forty-seven arc
stated as having courses in Home Economics
Two more offer courses in Dressmaking Of
the forty-seven, thirteen are connected with
state universities and appear in the list of
those institutions in the preceding paragraph
This leaves thirty-four state institutions which
offer such courses

Private Colleges — Well-organized courses
are now offered in many of the endowed colleges
and technical schools of the middle west The
work in the South has developed well in the
normal and industrial colleges In the East,
Brown University has included work in home
economics since 1903 in the Woman's College
Simmons College, Boston, incorporated in 1899,
opened in 1902, to aid young women to self-
support, numbers the School of Household
Economics among its four schools The Wom-
en's colleges of the East, Bryn Mawr, Mt
Holyoke, Smith, Vassar, and Wellosley, do not
offer it, although they give courses in applied
science, economics, and sociology that would be
included in the home economics subjects in
those colleges where such departments exist
Vassar, for instance, offers a course m house-
hold sanitation and in the chemistry of foods,
Bryn Mawr a course in methods of social re-
search, and a graduate course in problems of
nutrition (1909-1910)

In the colleges and universities most of the
courses offered count for the degree of B S
Graduate work leading to the MA is also
offered. In the University of Chicago the
home economics course counts for either
A B , B.S , or Ph B The subject counts for
college entrance to a very limited extent
Chicago and Illinois give two points credit each.
At the University of California domestic science
under certain conditions counts from one and
one half to six units

In 1907 the North Central Association of
Colleges and Secondary Schools accepted
household arts and sciences under the manual
training group, the subjects to count as follows,
plain sewing, one unit, sewing and millinery,
one unit, cooking, two units The revised
Regent's Syllabus for the state of New York,
1910, includes syllabi of sewing and textiles and
foods, which may prove a step toward the
counting of the subject for college entrance A
number of committees are at work on this sub-
ject, but progress is of necessity slow

Secondary School*. — - The growth of the work
in the high schools was at first somewhat
slow, but with the opening of the manual train-
ing high schools in different parts of the coun-
try, the number of schools giving household
arts increased notably Among these were
the manual training high schools, Saginuw,
Mich , Los Angeles, Cal , Providence, H.I

establishment of the technical and vocational
high schools has more recently added many to
the list of high schools, as, for instance, the
technical high schools of Cleveland and Cin-
cinnati, Ohio, Newtonville and Springfield,
Mass , the Cosmopolitan High Schools of Toledo,
the Washington Irving School of New York
City, and the William Penn of Philadelphia
Others to be noted are the Practical Arts
High Schools of Boston, and New Bedford,
Mass Other cities are following the lead of
these schools and in a few years every city will
have its high school of practical training in
which household art has an important part
Night schools in all of the large cities also
offer technical courses of high school grade,
which aim to affect the art of everyday living
arid the organization and management of the
home. For fuller discussion of this movement,
see INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

Special Institutions — Notable among the
schools that may be classed as philanthropic are
the schools or classes connected with the Young
Women's Christian Association throughout the
country In larger cities there are well-devel-
oped departments which are also beginning
training for domestic service

Courses in the household arts are now given
in a number of summer schools One of the
pioneers in this field was the Chautauqua Sum-
mer School, where demonstration lessons in
cookery were given as early as 1879 In 1900
well-organized courses were offered, the work
now covering a period of six weeks The
American School of Home Economics is a cor-
respondence school of good standing having its
headquarters in Chicago This school has
been valuable not only to housekeepers, but its
publications of twelve volumes hap ^n help-
ful in school work The Lake Plane nference
of Home Economics, founded by Mr and Mrs
Melville Dewey in 1899, has developed into
the American Association of Home Econom-
ics, organized in Dec , 1909, with a magazine,
the American Journal of Home Economic^
Various branches of this Association exist in
different parts of the country The subject,
too, is discussed in other associations of teachers
and is becoming a prominent feature in the
farmers' institutes and granges New York
City organized the Manhattan Trade School for
Girls in 1902 and Boston followed in 1904 in
the Boston Trade School Both were at fiist
under private control but were latoi taken
over by the Board of Education These
schools attempt to reproduce trade condition
in their instruction; consequently they are
organized as small factories To aid the
trades and to develop a higher class of work,
art, and academic courses adapted to the
specific needs of each of the trades repre-
sented in the schools are given. Wholesale and
custom work are taken in all departments A
system of business shops headed by trade woik-
ers who can teach as well as conduct \\oikionn >

323

HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION

gives the students real business organization
under which to work The results in both
schools show that such practical instruction
enables the workers to enter better positions,
to gain higher wages, and to continue to rise to
more influential situations

Training of Teachers — The training of
teachers of domestic arts for elementary and
secondary schools now finds a place in many
normal and in many university schools of edu-
cation The training for trade school teachers
is not at pi eaent as well organized as in Europe
but has been begun at Simmons College, Bos-
ton, and at Teachers College, Columbia Uni-
versity

The formal training of teachers was begun in
the Boston Cooking School, the Boston Nor-
mal School of Cookery, the New York College
foi the Training of Teachers, Pratt Institute,
and Drexel Institute From these centers,
and from the Kansas Agricultural College,
teachers were supplied for the new work all over
the country A one-year full time normal course
was offered by the Teachers College in 1890,
the course leading to a diploma tip to this
time a three-months' course with a certificate
was all that had been offered by this institution
At the present time the University of Chicago
and Columbia University train teachers of the
household arts, the former in the School of
Education, the latter in Teachers College
Several of the state universities and agricul-
tural colleges afford such opportunity Pratt
and Drexel Institutes continue their normal
departments Of 147 public normal schools
in 1910, 103 schools offered one or more
branches of household arts Of the 42 institu-
tions listed in the Lake Placid Report as train-
ing teachers (1907) only seven were state nor-
mal schools or colleges The demand for
household arts in the state normals is on the
increase, however This is due probably to the
awakening in regard to rural schools and the
quickening interest in household arts teaching
Training for Professional Service — The
training in America for higher professional
teaching is helping to develop still other voca-
tional positions for women Leaders of cul-
ture, artistic knowledge, executive ability, social
and industrial intelligence and business knowl-
edge, are needed for such positions as insti-
tutional directors, managers of settlements,
welfare workers, social secretaries, costume de-
signers, interior decorators and craft workers
There is also an evident inclination to consider
that highly educated and trained women can be
successful as heads of large business houses for
dressmaking, millinery, and embroidery, or for
foreign buyers These demands may lead to
the offering of degrees for women corresponding
to those in the engineering courses for men

Domestic art has become an important factor
in the medical piofession and is used increas-
ingly in work for epileptics, insane, and feeble-
minded Orthopedic hospitals, insane asy-

lums, blind asylums, orphanages, workhouses,
and reformatories find in it a valuable subject
which while offering practical help also has an
ethical and hygienic bearing. Settlements,
churches, and social clubs are also using the va-
rious subjects to help them in their work of
betterment and in fostering a wise enjoyment of
life. M S. W AND H K

Great Britain and Ireland — References to
the importance of attention to domestic econ-
omy in the education of well-to-do girls are
found m the writings of Hannah More, P>as-
mus Darwin, and other educationalists in the
eighteenth century In 1840 needlework was
" expected " in national schools for girls and
infants; it became compulsory in 1862. In
1846 also the Privy Council Committee on
Education considered the propriety of grant-
ing a gratuity to schoolmistresses who taught
domestic economy successfully in these schools,
the reports of various Royal Commissions hav-
ing drawn attention to the appalling home con-
ditions of the laboring classes School kitch-
ens and washhouses were equipped in certain
" industrial " schools, and during the next
fifteen years frequent reference is made to the
instruction of the female apprentices (pupil
teachers) in "domestic industry " The Privy
Council concluded, however, in 1860, that as
school laundries and kitchens were "expensive
to establish, expensive to maintain and difficult
to conduct," they would no longer "press foi
them," but directed that attention be concen-
trated upon needlework Henceforward until
1875, domestic economy was taught sparseh
and by theory only In that year practical
instruction in cookery under trained teacheib
was " recognized " by the Board of Education,
and in 1878 the plan of cookery " centers "
was started for primary schools, government
grants for such classes in day and evening schools
were first made in 1882-1883 A few years
later experimental classes in school laundry work
were held in London under a joint and most rep-
resentative committee; but the subject was not
admitted into the code until 1889-1890 Eight
years later " practical housewifery " was offi-
cially " recognized " by the Board of Educa-
tion Another ten years, and domestic science
was introduced viz the experimental study of
definite problems in hygiene and domestic
economy. All these terms were superseded in
1905 by that of "domestic subjects " (cookery,
laundry work, household management, dairy
work, needlework, elementary dressmaking)
At this date the curriculum was recast and
household subjects were definitely regarded as
a part of the program in all public elementary
schools, including special schools for mentally
and physically defective children. A circular
was issued in 1911, and the new term, "house-
craft," was introduced Domestic classes
for adults, directly designed to improve the
conditions of home life, were established all
over the country in 1890, as a result of the

324

HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION

money made available through the Technical
Instruction Act of 1889 These stimulated
the provision by numerous private schools of
courses, residential and otherwise

Women inspectors of domestic subjects were
appointed by the government in 1889 The
official recognition of domestic subjects in
secondary schools is relatively recent (1906);
admirable courses are now becoming general, in
which laboratory and art work are correlated
with the practical domestic arts Post-school
courses increase in popularity, while the example
set (1908) by King's College for Women (Uni-
versity of London), in its post and undei -gradu-
ate courses in household economics, is soon to
be followed by other universities Scholarships
for the residential housewifery centers and trade
school courses for girls on leaving the primary
schools indicate other lines of progress in large
cities Boys are taught cookery in the sea-
ports of three counties The provision of m-
stiuction for girls over eleven in primary
schools remains quite inadequate, though in
1909-1910 instruction in cookery was given to
.Slf> ,233 pupils, in laundry work to 118,040, and
in combined domestic subjects to 6707 Needle-
work remains obligatory for all girls, but is now
discouraged in infants' schools

The levival of interest in 1875 was due to the
lectures on the art of cooking given by Mr.
Buckmaster at the International Exhibition,
London, 1873, 1874 saw the foundation of the
National Training School of Cookery, the first
of these " recognized " by the Board of Educa-
tion for the training of teachers, as well as for
the instruction of the public Though some
of these schools are now under the management
of public education authorities, they were all
founded by private effort Their union for
examination purposes dates from 1876, it
developed in 1889 into the influential National
Union for the Technical Education of Women in
the Domestic Sciences, to whose persistent
efforts much progress is due So great was the
demand for teachers that many more training
schools were opened in the nineties (thntv
were " recognized " in 1897), when new subjects
were added Each training school issues its
own diploma in cookery, laundry, housewifery,
needlework, arid dressmaking, under specially
defined conditions, the requirements in gen-
eral education and special training are being
steadily raised, in spite of financial difficulties
which have crippled their efforts None but
trained teachers have ever been sanctioned,
their Association, with a membership of 1100,
was founded in 1896

Wales — In the Welsh primary schools
domestic art classes are on much the same lines
as those in England Twenty-nine out of thirty-
three local authorities made provision for
90,000 girls from these schools (1907-1908)
The first training school for the domestic arts
was established at Cardiff, 1892 Cookery and
'•umdry work are now taught in most of the

girls' secondai y schools in Wales, and a new tin or
years' home-making course (four hours a week)
appears in the program of the "mixed " highei
elementary schools at Glamorganshire This
county has by its enter pi ise in the initiation of
new developments in these subjects exercised
great influence foi good on adjoining local
educational authorities These include a
wider (e.g carpentering, care of children) and
reorganized curriculum, a greater emphasis on
the scientific and educational aspects of the
domestic arts, with no loss of the practical
spirit; a more consistent and closer connection
with general education and home life Special
rooms to facilitate these methods are a feature
in new schools A short course is now offered
to students at the University College of Noith
Wales

Scotland — Needlework is obligatory in
girls' primary schools in Scotland, otherwise
cookery, of which the organization now corre-
sponds generally with that in England, is the
only domestic subject taught At first (1884)
demonstration classes were frequently given to
a hundred pupils, though practive \vas alwavs
limited to twenty-four Pccuhai to Scotland are
the "supplementary classes," entered, aftei a
qualifying examination, by girls ovci twehc,
from the primary schools Nine homs a wcok
for from two to three years are devoted to
domestic science, while the general education is
also proceeding There are twenty-six such sup-
plementary centers in Glasgow alone, with an
attendance of ovei 2000 girls The first Train-
ing School for Cookery was founded in the early
eighties in Edinburgh, as a result of Mr
Buckrnaster's lectures, though official efforts
to give a more piactical chaiacter to the exami-
nation in domestic economy of female candidates
for the teaching profession date from 1859 No
recognition is yet accorded to the domestic arts
in the secondary schools for girls in Scotland

Ireland — No decided interest in domestic
subjects was taken in Ireland before 1886
The City of Dublin Technical School organized
classes in cookery, dressmaking, and laundry
(the latter unsuccessfully) in 1 887 The Dublin
School of Cookery, Laundry work, and Dress-
making, which owes its initiation to the Royal
Irish Association for Promoting the Training
and Employment of Women, in connection with
the Association for the Technical Training oi
Women and the enthusiasm of private indrvid-
uals, dates from 1893 It was taken over in
1903 by the Department of Agriculture and
Technical Instruction, with the object of train-
ing teachers, though short courses are given to
women of all classes It is now described as
the Irish Training School of Domestic Economy,
and considerable attention is given to the sci-
ences fundamental to the arts of cooking and
cleaning A residence house was opened in
1909, where students undergo a period of
preliminary practical instruction, before the
two-years' course for teachers A special one-

325

HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION

year couisc in housecraft \VHS orgjunzed in
*1910 at Alexandra College, Dublin Three
residential schools for well-educated girls were
established at the Ursuhne convents at Water-
ford, 1904, and Shgo, 1908, and in London-
derry, 1908, under the management of Victo-
ria College Eight corresponding residential
schools for working class girls are scattered over
the country Domestic subjects are also taught
(1909) in sixteen municipal and thirty-seven
technical schools in Ireland Courses in every
bianch of domestic economy, which admirably
combine the practical with the educational,
have been carried on since 1901 in fifty-eight
girls' secondary schools, under the Department
of Agriculture and Technical Instruction They
are described icspectively as " auxiliary "
(two years) or " special " (four years), and are
obligatory on all pupils Needlework has al-
wavs entered into the primary school program.
Cookery, laundry, and hygiene classes were
introduced in 1896

Denmark — A few advanced educationalists
advocated the introduction of domestic econ-
omy into primal y schools between 1870 and
1 880 , but needlework and hygiene only were
taught The first school for the training of
servants was started in 1872 by the Crown
Princess Louise, and has remained the most im-
portant among its successors In the nineties
several housewifery schools were started by
private individuals at Copenhagen and in a few
provincial towns, of these some are residential
courses, two to nine months All have very
moderate fees A tentative plan for intro-
ducing cookery and laundry work into the pri-
mary schools of Copenhagen was adopted in
1893, but it was 1898 before voluntary classes
were opened lor the elder girls Continuation
classes were organized for workers from four-
teen to twenty years of age at the same date

The domestic arts are now compulsory (four
hours a week) in the primary schools of Copen-
hagen and Frcdenksberg, for girls m Class VII,
age twelve to fourteen years, and in a very few
provincial towns, nowhere in the country
Copenhagen and Fredenksberg have twenty-
three centers — provincial towns twelve These
subjects arc taught in eight secondary schools
in Copenhagen and at seven in the provinces
Peripatetic teachers are employed in rural dis-
tricts by various associations of women Sixty
to one hundred and sixty hours of instruc-
tion are given to women and girls for a nom-
inal fee Little1 provision is made for the
technical training of girls in Denmark, though
the State subsidizes a school for professional
dressmakers in Copenhagen and another for
seamstresses University courses on the allied
subjects of hygiene, chemistry, biology, etc ,
are accessible to women, and a state grant for
further experimental work in domestic science
was voted in 1905 to Fru Berg Nielson, one
of the earliest advocates of housewifery teach-
ing in schools Practical demonstration courses

in dietetic cooking have been also organized at
the.umversity for young medical men

Sweden — A school of household training
for girls was opened by a committee of ladies at
Gothenburg in 1865 The first of a series of
schools for servants was started in 1870 at
Stockholm by Froken Hedda Cronius, to which
shops were attached for the sale of cooked provi-
sions; but the first cooking classes in Sweden
date from 1882 and are due to Fru Hierta Ret-
zms, whose name will be always honored in
connection with the great work she pioneered
in that country. The school was self-sup-
porting in two years It was presented by its
founder in 1893 to the Higher Training College
for Women Teachers, with the sanction of the
government, to secure trained teachers in
secondary schools for girls, with the result that
in 1908 twenty-eight out of thirty-seven such
schools were eligible for the government grant
in this subject The instruction is carefully
correlated with lessons in natural science, hy-
giene, bookkeeping, etc Courses last one to
three years, with one lesson a week The State
subsidizes four other training colleges for
teachers in primary schools in towns and one for
those in rural districts, the courses last about
eight to twelve months, fees vary, but are all
low A union of Swedish teachers was formed
in 1906 A bill was passed in that year making
an annual government grant of 60,000 kr , to
promote this instruction in primary schools,
higher primary schools, and people's high
schools No fees are permitted, classes arc
limited to twenty, the bare cost of the food
is charged for the dinners, etc School courses
usually cover two terms — four hours a day —
one day a week Boys learn cooking in some
of the seaport towns arid in one agricultural
school, they also help the girls in the kitchens
of the twenty " children's workshops," organ-
ized in Stockholm. Forty peripatetic courses
are at work in twenty-one of the Swedish pro\ -
inces, giving from five to seven courses of MX
weeks' duration each year to from fifteen to
twenty pupils at each course A large number
of private ccoles de fiancfas, with very complete
courses, also exist in Sweden Courses are
provided for work girls in some factories The
rapid development of this teaching in Sweden is
sometimes attributed to the admission of women
to the administration councils of schools

Norway — Great efforts to improve the
education and general conditions of the people
were made after 1814 Public opinion was edu-
cated by means of books and of a journal,
concerned with the need for greater efficiency
in daily life,, which appeared 1860-1870,
under the auspices of the Society for Promot-
ing Popular Education Fru Mina Weltesen
founded the first school for domestic training
at Abildso, near Chnstiania, in 1865, and car-
ried it on successfully for sixteen years The
movement grew rapidly after the establish-
ment of the first school kitchens at Christiania

326

HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION

in 18SD. Now cookery courses arc given
in the primary schools of every town - The
system is a combination of the English and
German Instruction is closely correlated
with science work Housekeeping appeared
in the program of girls' secondary schools in
1896, and is now a subject foi examination at
the age of fifteen to sixteen Needlework is
compulsory in all schools Trained teachers
were employed from the first in all state schools,
special short courses being arranged for ordi-
nary staff teachers Two years' courses in
housekeeping were introduced into training
colleges in 1902, and the government grants
include traveling scholarships for selected
students Chemistry and physiology must be
studied at a university, and the domestic arts
at a training school of domestic economy.
General pedagogical training is also insisted
upon, in order to utilize the educative value of
these practical subjects, to permit of correlation,
and to dignify it in the popular estimation.
Excellent private housekeeping schools have
been organized in different towns by private
individuals or by societies, such as the Society
for Fui thei ing the Inteiests of Women Some
of these are self-supporting, others receive
grants from the government, municipalities,
benevolent societies, etc They are largely
frequented bv voung ladies Courses adapted
to the needs of working women are also pro-
vided Free instruction is provided for one
third of the pupils in the piovincial residential
housekeeping schools, with a nine to ten
months' course The province defrays one
quarter total expense, government defraj'S
three quarters The subjects of instruction
are cookeiy, garden, laundry, dairv, needle-
work, chemistry, physics, biology, hygiene, etc
Short peripatetic courses of cookery and house-
hold management given by trained teachers
are organized in some country districts by the
Agricultural Society Residential schools for
the training of girls as domestic servants exist
in Bergen and Christiama, with a two years'
course Cookery courses have also been earned
on for soldiers since 1900, while the fiist school
for the training of ships' cooks and stewards
dates from 1893.

Finland — The movement was distinctly
educational from the first, and well supported
by trained teachers, many of whom took the
course in Mhiagtre Ptdagogique provided by
the people's high schools, others being trained
for shorter or longer periods at the training
schools now available for the purpose The
interest of the Association of Finnish Women
was first aroused in the subject in 1889, when
the organization of training upon educational
lines was determined upon Subscriptions
sufficed to send Mile Anna Olsoni (Mdme
Quist) to study the subject in Sweden and
Great Britain. After taking her diploma at
Glasgow in 1890, she returned, and in 1891
became superintendent of the Helsingfors

School of Tjaining in Housewife! v, al hist MIJ>-
ported by private subscriptions, the pioneer ot
many successors at, eg, Knpio, Tamiefois,
and Niborg Courses were and are offered to
teachers (for whom employment in schools of
different grades is subsequently msuied),
for girls on leaving school, foi young peasants,
and in high class cookery ior ladies In 1907
this society organized no less than twenty-tin ee
peripatetic courses, with 293 pupils, from fifteen
to forty years of age The fees, five to fifteen
francs, are supplemented by grants from the
State In 1 892 a great impetus was given to the
movement by the formation of a new union be-
tween men and women to work, in concert with
the Martha Society, for the advancement of
women's education, with the assistance of
grants from the State (3000 francs per annum)
Courses, varying in length from four days to six
weeks, have been organized by forty of its
branches all over the country, and a residential
school foi twelve pupils has been opened at
Kolaris in Lapland Cooking is not gen-
erally taught in elementary schools, though
the instruction of girls has alwavs included
needlework and knitting, to which the use of
the sewing machine is now added Ample pro-
vision for its acquirement is provided in higher
grade schools or by means of classes for adults

Russia -—The first cookery school in Russia
was opened in 1880 by the Society for the Pio-
tection of Public Health in St Petersburg
In 1888 a technical school for girls and women
was founded, which has now over 200 pupils
In 1890 a second cookery school was founded
in Moscow by the Society for Propagating
Practical Knowledge among Educated Women,
from which eight professional schools have
sprung. It supplies matrons for asylums, hos-
pitals, etc Four years latei the Society for
Encouraging the Professional Training of
Women opened a similar school in St Peters-
burg. Over 1200 students gained appointments
in the first six years Large numbers of scholai -
ships are given by private individuals and soci-
eties of importance

The teaching in the Russian training schools
is of three types, and generally is associated
with training in agriculture (1) courses in St
Petersburg foi the higher study of these arts,
designed for girls who have completed their
secondary school course, to prepare them for
independent woik in agriculture and fanning
(1907, 255 students) (2) So-called u Stebut
courses," from the name of then originator, of
which there aie three near Moscow and Sko\ ,
designed for girls from higher elementary
schools, these give both theoretical and practi-
cal instruction in both branches of knowledge
(1907, 120 pupils) (3) Schools of a more tech-
nical character, of which there are twenty-one
dispersed over the country under the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, which give very full and
thorough courses of two to three or four yeais,
mostly free for the farmer class All these

327

HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION

schools air subsidized by the government to a,
total sum of 36,000 roubles There are also a
few similar schools undei the Ministry of Public
Instruction Schools of cookery exist at Kiev,
Odessa, Tiflis, and othei large towns So fai
the subject is not taught in the public schools,
but it is required in institutions for orphan girls
of noble birth.

Holland — Great attention is given in Hol-
land to the training courses for teachers and
others These are comprehensive, and include
physics, chemistry, physiology, hygiene, book-
keeping and laundry work, as well as cookery
and dietetics Diplomas are granted after
examination by the Union of Teachers of House-
hold Arts (founded in 1900), which is subsidized
by the Dutch government This union or-
ganizes vacation courses for its mcmbeis by
specialists; possesses an excellent library, pub-
lishes an annual report upon the teaching of
housewifery in Holland, and is associated with a
Bureau of Women's Employments The De-
partments for Army and Navy require that a
proportion of soldiers and sailors shall attend
cooking courses, specially adapted to their re-
quirements, while other courses are arranged for
recruits to the colonial army Members of
the Association of Nurses and Sisters of Charity
have their special courses also The new House-
wifery School at Amsterdam has further or-
gamzed successful courses in dietetics for
doctors and medical students, the lectures on
biological chemistry and invalid diet being given
by university professors and supplemented by
practical work under the supervision of the
school staff There is a municipal school for
training domestic servants at Amsterdam, as
well as corresponding courses at the Hague and
elsewhere, these last being due to private
initiative Twenty-one housewifery schools
have been founded since 1888, which are kept
in close touch by their monthly journal Nine
prepare girls for examination in handicrafts,
domestic and otherwise, accounts, bookkeep-
ing, cutting-out, dressmaking, and the care
of children The remainder giant diplomas of
various grades, professional or otherwise, in
housewifery and cooking only The majority of
these schools receive grants from the State,
the province, and the city, where they are
situated. The numerous classes for working
girls and women owe their origin and spread
to various societies concerned with the public
welfare, as well as private individuals, and to
these sources is due the provision for the
training of philanthropic workers School in-
struction in practical cookery and laundry woik
is, so far, confined to a few primary schools in
Leyden, the Hague, and Amsterdam; but twelve
of the chief cities offer useful courses on leaving
schools to gnls who have gained their ceitih-
cates, and the training schools provide evening
classes and others for the general public.

Belgium — The first administrative measures
to promote the teaching of needlework in schools

328

were taken in J874, though the subject only be-
came compulsory in 1879 Technical training
for women, designed to relieve the? poverty and
unemployment brought about by industrial
changes, originated in 1844, and cookery classes
for their work-people were organized from 1871
onward by one large hrrn after another, but the
ample provision ior training in the domestic arts
by which Belgium is distinguished, is the direct
outcome of a grave social crisis — the strike of
1886 — to which the inefficiency of housewives
was believed to be a contributory cause Or-
ganized instruction, broadly speaking, dates
from the year 1887. Public institutions for the
necessary instruction of adults were soon opened
by wealthy governors of provinces or societies,
and after the experimental stages were passed
received grants from the State, which subse-
quently imposed its own regulations (1889)
Great elasticity is permitted to meet local needs,
and every effort is made to fix hours convenient
to young workwomen. A complete course
usually extends over two years These classes
are considered the continuation and rational
completion of the primary school course Great
impetus was given to this movement in pnmar>
schools by the central and provincial com-
mittees of influential women instituted for the
purpose by the Royal Decree in 1880, it spread
in 1881 to fifty secondary schools for girls, where
three years' courses, essentially experimental
and practical, now lead up to a diploma of
capacity (instituted 1893), granted upon a
syllabus and examination defined by the State
At the same time provision was made for the
training of the necessary teachers at Brussels
and elsewhere, at nrst by short temporary and
holiday courses, until time permitted their moie
complete preparation Hygiene, domestic econ-
omy, and needlework arc taught in three out of
the four years spent at a training college, by
inductive, experimental, and practical methods
All instruction is under the direction of the
Mimstere de I'lntdneur et de Tlnstruction, or
of the Mimstere de TAgriculture, de I'lndustne
et des Travaux Publics, according to whether
it deals with adults or pupils still at school
The couises in housewifery are usually brief,
limited, and theoretical, for the State does not
advocate teaching the practice of these arts at
this stage Inspectors find that adults profit
from the teaching far more than do children,
though the system of instruction at centers is
being introduced at Brussels, Bruges, etc ,
and is developing in connection with the
cantinc? scolatrc* Admirably organized work
is cairied on by the vcoles professionelles et
incnagcreb, which provide courses of from two to
three years, and the kcoles menageres, which
have courses of from one to two years, for
girls from fourteen and upwards of varied
capacity and social standing — chiefly lower
middle class About 300 of these schools
existed in 1901, and their number is reported
to have largely increased, while their pupils

HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION

number many thousands. In each tcole pro-
fatswrielle (trade school), domestic economy
and gymnastics must be taken in the general
course; but in the other two types of schools
mentioned, one half or the whole time respec-
tively is devoted to every branch of the
domestic arts Grants are given for outfit,
and an annual subsidy of two fifths the expen-
diture is made to those schools which fulfill
state requirements These trade, agriculture,
or domestic schools may be under private or
municipal control Many bursaries are given,
and fees vary widely, according to the means of
the pupils No peripatetic teachers or ambu-
latory schools are permitted in Belgium

Germany — In 1792 Hippel, the friend and dis-
ciple of Kant, when advocating the higher educa-
tion of women, drew attention to the need for
special training in domestic methods, on account
of their influence on human well-being, but the
first efforts made, a century ago, to arouse in-
terest in the subject, resulted chiefly in the estab-
lishment of schools for training servants, of which
many were founded between 1815 and 1875
In Goi many, the movement is the outcome of
prnate initiative, and is warmly supported by
Women's Societies, large employers of women's
laboi, etc These societies, of which the Lcttc
Vciciu at Berlin was the first, sprang into life
between 1850 and I860, though it was 1873
before the Grand Duchess Louise of Baden,
with the support of the Women's Association,
1 ounded the fu st house wifei v school at Carisi uhe,
cookery classes for adults were started in Ber-
lin in 1885, at the instigation of the Clown
Princess of Prussia, who, also, in 1888, secured
some housewifery instruction for working girls
FiMiilein Foester pioneered the first cookery
classes in a girls' primary school in 1889
Munich, Nuremberg, and Augsburg followed
the example of Cassel, and added an optional
eighth class, devoted chieflv to a very complete
course in housewiferv, which is closely corre-
lated with general education — no special
teacher being employed Thus organized in-
struction in domestic subjects came into being
relatively late, though great strides have been
made in the last twenty years , witness the
Official Code for Higha Gnl^ Rchooh in
Pn/.s.sm, 1908, which requues that at least one
vein's training be given to each girl in house-
ciaft, the rearing of childien, and kindred
subjects

So great a varietv of agencies aie now en-
gaged in the promotion of this instruction, that,
in the absence of imperial reports and statistics,
it is difficult accurately to describe1 their work
Sewing schools of a high standaid were the first
technical schools for women to get a firm foot-
ing in Germany, needlework is taught in every
grade of school, classes being provided also for
adults The state and municipalities have only
quite recently founded technical or industrial
schools for girls, such as are found in Berlin,
Leipzig, Dresden, Munich, Stuttgart, etc.

They owe their existence to private enterprise,
and have, unfortunately, no common standard
The Fortbildungaschulen, which now cover the
country, and the Fachschulen (see INDUSTRIAL
P]DUCATION) include domestic art courses for
teachers as well as pupils Many teachers are
trained locally, orm Berlin at the Lette Haus and
the Pestalozzi-Froebel Haus (q v ) Since no na-
tional regulations exist for this purpose, great
diversity of requirements are found State
grants are made chiefly by the Departments
of Commerce and Agriculture The former
founded model state housewifery schools at
Rheudt, Potsdam, and Ppsen, 1902. Great
opposition exists to making these subjects
compulsory in primary schools, but many pri-
vate societies endeavor to supplement the
omission When given, school authorities are
responsible for all the arrangements made
The chief distinctive characteristic of Germany
is the large development of residential home-
making schools (those of the Diakonienvcmn
give all lessons in relation to the practical needs
of life) They are frequented by middle-class
girls, who pay good fees for one and a half year
courses Reference must be also made to* the
Society for Country Housewifery Schools
(1897), founded by Frau von Kortzfleisch and
assisted by the Minister of Agriculture;
also of the traveling cooking schools for rural
districts, now at work in Baden, Bavaria, the
Palatinate, Lower Franconia, and the Rhine
provinces

Switzerland - The most striking features
are the rapid spread of such instruction, which is
taught entirely as an applied art, not as science,
during the past ten years, and the accessibility of
the classes Courses are given in the primary
schools of a few towns and communes, but are
universal rn Foitbildungsschulen (continuation
schools), Aibcit^chulen (trade schools), Haushal-
tungsKchulcn or ecolcs menag&res (housewifery
schools) — resident and non-resident Short
courses are provided for factory and other
workers, in urban and rural districts. A close
alliance between private societies and govern-
ing authorities does much to forward the move-
ment, which sprang, in 1881, from the desire of a
group of private individuals to improve the
teaching of needlework This became obliga-
tor v in schools in 1878, and is now carried to
great perfection in the trade schools at Zurich,
Genc\a, etc, \\hich confine their training to
neccllecraft , housewifely, and commercial work.
1881 saw the foundation of the first of many
succeeding icohb nu'nagcrcx, by La Societe
d'l'tilitf pubhqiH? <7r,s Femme&. There are many
of these residential housekeeping schools offer-
ing courses from three months to one year;
their fees vary, but are very low.

In 1895 the federal government decided to
make grants to these and similar institution*,
for training women rn trades for the domestic
aits, which from the first had received liberal
subsidies from the cantonal and local authorities.

329

HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION

Trained teachers wore drawn at first from
Germany; now training schools exist at Berne,
Zurich, Fribourg, Geneva, etc No general
syllabus is yet imposed There is inspection
by the federal inspectress, but a good deal of
freedom is sanctioned Tri Geneva girls must
proceed, at the close of their sixth year in the
primary school, either to a secondary school,
where there are now optional courses in the
domestic arts, or to an ecole profewionalc et
menagere, for at least two years, whore one half
of the time is given to those subjects Other
towns are imposing similar regulations The
training of servants continues at Borno, Fn-
bourg, and Wintcrthur, but has not so far effected
a solution of the domestic problem Elaborate
courses, domestic or professional, in every
branch of needlework, are offered at a largo
number of special schools throughout the coun-
try; they vary in length from a few weeks to four
years. Very few of those classes arc froo, as is
constantly the case with those concerned with
cookery only.

Austria and Hungary — In the eighteenth
century the Empress Maria Theresa (q v )
issued a general ordinance, requiring that girls
be taught the best methods of sowing, knitting,
and domestic economy in every school, but a
century elapsod before the two former wore
introduced into elementary education The
whole group of subjects was made obligatory
in 1869, but the regulation as to housewifery
remained a dead letter and was suppressed in
1883. Opportunities for instruction in oookoiy
aio still chiefly the result of private enterprise,
though latterly some education authorities have
recognized the movement In Hungary, es-
pecially, this has occurred, and instruction is
given to the girls in the Repetition, or higher
grade schools In Bu da-Post there are thirty-
six such schools, numbering 4000 pupils
Cookery IB also taught in the technical schools
of that city, and in the normal colleges for
women teachers, but nowhere yet in elemen-
tary schools, though, through the persevering
efforts of private and educational societies,
courses are in some instances provided in an
annex to the schools, supported by foes and
subscriptions Austria and Hungary are
chiefly responsible for (1) the schools for serv-
ants and others attached to restaurants for
the sale of the food cooked, started in 1883 by
the Society of Housewives, taught bv export
but untrained teachers. In 1906 the Union of
Hotel Keepers combined with the country
housewifery schools to provide a one-year
course of training for teachers, from which much
stimulus is expected (2) The local farm or
housewifery schools, founded by agricultural
societies in the various provinces, for the
daughters of better-off peasants after leaving
school. Those include in their very practical
curriculum the care of children and sick
nursing. (3) The general provision by factory
owners and philanthropists of free cooking

classes for working girls (three months' couisos,
five evenings a week), which now number
over 2000 — twelve pupils to a course Un-
trained teachers are the great obstacle to
progress, as well as the absence of state interest
and aid. Both aro probably duo in part to the
peculiar racial conditions and difficulties of the
Empire. Official attention has boon concen-
trated for years upon technical as well as school
and normal college training in every branch of
the finest needlework for women and girls In
the largo and efficient trade schools and tech-
nical institutes scattered all over the Empire,
general and special instruction is given in laoo
woik, lingerie, dressmaking, millinery, embroid-
ery, design, drawing, and painting

France — Needlework was recommended as
a school subject in 1850, and made obligatory
in 1882, when practical teaching of the domestic
arts was officially, though riot actually, intro-
duced into primary and secondary schools ,
an tcole dc menage was instituted at Rhonns in
1873, with a throe years' course for girls on
leaving school, similar COUTH compttmentaires
wore organized more generally in 1884-1887
But the practical teaching of cookery and
housewifery has boon generally brief, restricted,
and theoretical, attention being concentrated
upon elaborate needlework The movement
to perfect girls in this art was begun in Pans
in 1842, a society to cope with its rapid develop-
ment was formed in 1856 Since 1886 those
ecoles professionelles have steadily grown in scope
and importance The mornings aro devoted
to general education, the aftoi noons to tech-
nical framing in every branch of noodlocraft,
dressmaking and cutting, millinery, etc Thoro
aro eight such municipal technical schools
(ecoles pratiques dc commerce et (I* Industrie) in
Paris, with an average of 300 pupils each In-
struction is froo, scholai ships being granted for
clothes and meals In the ecolot profotmon-
dlcs menagbrca (technical schools), each pupil
must have eight weeks' practical cooking, laun-
dry work, and housewifery during her throe
years' course; but in part as the result of the
relatively high level of cookery in Franco and
the belief that such training should bo given in
the homo, practical teaching in those arts is
still far from widespread. The Orders of 1887-
1888-1889 remained dead letters, but a groat
extension of the movement dates from 1897,
when the establishment of a training school was
required in every town of over 50,000 inhabit-
ants, and r/a.s.ses- infnagcte* became obligatory
for girls over thirteen in every urban school
numbering over 250 pupils Considerable in-
centive was given by the conclusions on the
subject formulated at the International Con-
gress on Primary Education hold in Paris, 1900
Court* complfmentairex manuels et manager*
for girls holding certificates from the primary
schools wore established in 1901, which cover
two years, with a weekly total of thirty-seven
and a half hours; and a three years' course pro-

330

HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION

vuled for girls up to sixteen or seventeen in the
tcoles pnmaircx suptn cures, in which needle-
work, dressmaking, millinery, and hygiene are
included Though students in the training
colleges for primary teachers do their own house-
work, training is only given in noedlewoik and
dressmaking, two to three hours weekly for
three years In one or two cases in the I y etc ft
<!<> jeuncK filler (public secondary schools for
girls) optional demonstration couises aie of-
fered, given by the cook of the establishment,
they are attended chiefly by girls who have left
school In 1903 the University of Lyons of-
fered a two years' course to women, six houih
a week, on applied biology, bacteriology, the
role of women in the family, hygiene, etc
The subject is slowly gaming iccogmtion in tin;
primary schools of Pans, chiefly in connection
with the cantincx xcolauc"*, foi which the* eldei
gills prepare the food No provision is made
for the adequate training of teachers Great
credit is, however, due to the woik of La Liguc
Patnotique deft Fran<;aises, for the promotion
of such teaching as does exist among women of
all ranks in France

Italy — The state and municipal recognition
and support now accorded to the domestic aits
is due to the influence of Queen Margheiita
at the end of the nineteenth century, as well as
to that of the venerable " apostle of training
in the domestic arts/' Signora A dele Levi Delia
Vida The parent institution of the numerous
scuolc profotoionnlc established at Rome, Turin,
Venice, Milan, Florence, Naples, Parma, Bo-
logna, Palermo, etc , for boys and girls of the
working and artisan classes, was staited by the
municipality of Home in 187() The Mimstei
of Public Instruction (Signor Boccelh) intro-
duced manual instruction into the primary
schools in 1889, the teaching of housewifely
followed in 1904 and became obhgatoiy in the
.scuo/c profcttMonalc in 1 907 These schools aim,
with every evidence of success, at the preserva-
tion of educational advantages, while stress is
comculentally laid on the acquisition of practical
skill Pupils are admitted, with a nominal
entiance fee, at ten years of age, there to finish
their elementary education and then to proceed
to some special line of handicraft All girls
must learn drawing and cooking, while choice
of three subjects must be made from needlework,
lace, white embroidery, dressmaking, noning,
hairdressing, artificial flower making, geometri-
cal and ornamental drawing and design, 01
bookkeeping, etc, The wages earned on leav-
ing average double those of untrained girls
These schools are subsidized by the State and
municipalities Several schools for the train-
ing of matrons for factories exist in North Italy.
Classes have been formed at Milan and other
cities for the training of young girls of the
working classes, while training for girls of the
upper classes are provided at Rome in 1907
These private efforts receive state aid

Australia — Cookery has been taught in

New South Wales since 1890, by 1905 both
sewing and cooking had been introduced into
the public schools Centers to which chikhen
from neighboring schools are sent have been
established throughout the State The courses
extend over one half year, with one meeting
of an hour each week The work is simple and
practical, i elating to duties of the home Provi-
sion has been made for the training of teachers
for the subject. In Victoria there are some
twenty-five fully equipped centers for cookeiy
throughout the State, the State is prepared
to double any local expenditure for the erection
of suitable kitchen and dining room. In West-
ern Australia there is a similar system of ccntcis
attended by children from definitely assigned
schools The subjects taught arc cookeiy,
laundering, sewing, and housewifery Perth is
the first town in the commonwealth to establish
housewifery and a complete cottage Here
cookery, laundering, care of sick, infants, and
young children, besides house care and man-
agement, house furnishing, arid decoration,
marketing, and cleaning. In Queensland many
branches of the subject are taught in the numer-
ous technical colleges and in " branch classes "
(extension) where no technical college exists

South America — The girls of the upper
classes are taught mainly in convents, in which
the domestic arts include sewing, embroidery,
flowei making, and lace making In the Ar-
gentine Republic there are so-called " profes-
sional " schools in which domestic science and
needlework are taught. At Buenos Aires three
trade schools for girls are maintained, while
there is also a commercial school for women
Girls from seven to thirteen in the primary
grades of Brazil have needlework. Higher
work is provided in manual tiaming schools,
normal colleges, polytechnic schools, and schools
of arts and trades At Montevideo, Uruguay,
some branches of household arts are taught
in the school of arts and trades.

Canada — At present domestic science and
art are taught m a great number of the large
public school systems throughout the country,
usually by peripatetic teachers For advanced
work provision is made in many agricultural
colleges and special schools of household arts
or science4, the best known being the Macdonald
Institute at (hielph, Out , and the Macdonald
College at Ste Anne de Belle vue, Que. (See
CANADA, EDUCATION IN.) A. R.

In general see the article on INDUSTRIAL
EDUCATION

References —

Belgium, Miniatures de I'lndustrie et du Travail*

Report, 1900
BEVIKH, ISABEL, and USHER, SUSANNAH Home

Economics Movement (Boston, 1906 )
(Conference of \ssoriationofDomestic Science Tea chore

(Liverpool, 1909 )
Congre-8 de Fnbourg, Enseignemont Manager, Report,

1908, Vol 1, 2
Congr&s Internationale des OEuvres et Iiibtitutioufc

F6mmmes, Report (Pans, 1889 )

331

HOUSEHOLD ARTS IN EDUCATION

HOWARD UNIVERSITY

OOOLEY, ANNA M Domestic Art in Woman' 'A Education
(New York 1911 )

COKADI-RTAHL, EMMA Dan hauswirthschaftliche Bil-
dungswcbcn in der deutschen Schweiz, 1909

England, Board of Education Regulations for the Train-
ing of Teachers of Domestic Subjects, 1909 Circular
(719) Teaching of Needlework, 1909
Interim Memorandum on the Teaching of Housecraft,

1911

Report*, 1907-1908, 1910-11

Regulation* for Secondary School*, 1907, 190S, 1909
Revised Codf of Jieyulnfions for Public Elementary
School*,, I860, 1S61, 18G4-1S71, 1873, 1874, 1875,
otc

Spcaat Report* on Educational Subject* Vol I,
1890-1807, Domestic Economy Teaching, Vol II,
1878, Thr Heuristic Method of Teaching or the
Art of making Children discover Things for Them-
•sclve.s, Vol VIII, 1902, Education in the Nether-
lands, Vol XVI, 1896, School Training for the
Home Duties of Women, Belgium, Sweden, Nor-
wa\ , Denmark, Switzerland, France, Vol XIX,
1907, School Training for the Home Duties of
Women (Germany arid Austria)

FHA NK , Louis U Education Dornestique des Jeune^> Filles
(Pans, 1904 )

HODSON, F , ed Broad Lines in Science Teaching (Lon-
don, 1909 )

International Council of Women Health of th( Na-
tion* (Aberdeen, 1906 )

Ireland, Department of Agiiculture and Technical
liiHtiuction Program for Day Secondary Schools,
1908

Program of (he lush Training School of Domestic
Economy, 1909-1910

KINIVE, HELEN Equipment for Domestic Science

Teaching (New York, 1909 )

Methods of Teaching Domestic Science (New York,
1912 )

Lal\( Placid Report* on Home Economics (Boston,
1899-1909)

New South Wales, Commissioners on Agricultural,
Commercial, Industrial, and other forms of Tech-
nical Education, Legislative Assembly, Report,
1905

North of England Education Conference, Report,

Sheffield, 1908, Manchester 1909, Leedb, 1910
Report of Proceedmgb of Fourth International Con-
gress on Technical Education (London, 1897), con-
taining (1) History of Training Schools for Tiachers
of Domestic Economy in England, (2) Treatment of
1 Domestic Science a* an Element in Girl* Edueatwn,
(3) The Rdation between Gerund and Technical
Education, (4) Technical Education in Secondary
Schools, (5) The Teaching of Domestic Economy in
Girls1 Secondary Schools

Rt'i|>ort of the London County Council Conference
of Teachers, 1910 (1) The Corjdation between the
Teaching of Domestic Economy and Expenmental
Science, (2) Practical Domestic Economy Teaching
in a Secondary School

NORTON, A P Teaching of Home Economics (Bos-
ton, 1910 )

Privy Council of (Jreat Britain and Ireland Minutes
of Cojntrnttcc of Council of Education, 1846-1854,
1855, 1856, 1857, 1858

K \VENHILL, ALIOL Housecraft in Secondary Schools
for Girls Education, Feb 14, 21, 28, Mar 6, 1.*,
1908

Teaching of Domo-stii Science in the United States
In English Board of Education, Special Report*,
Vol XV (London, 1905 )

SMYTH, \ WTATT Teaching of Domestic Subjects
Physical Deterioration (London, 1904 )

Women's Industrial Council, (1) Technical Education for
Girls in England and Elsewhere, 1897 (2) Do-
mestic Science Teaching, 1904 (3) Technical
Education for Women and Girls, At Home and
Abroad, 1904-1905

UOOLMAN, M S Tfi( Making of a Trade School

(Boston, 1910)

Sewing - A Hibtor> of Education Household Arts
Review, February, 1910

HOUSES, SCHOOL. — See ARCHITECTURE,
SCHOOL.

HOUSTON COLLEGE, HOUSTON, TEX

— An institution for the education of colored
men and women, established in 1845. Ele-
mentary, college preparatory, normal, indus-
trial, and theological departments are main-
tained.

HOVEY, CHARLES EDWARD (1827-1897)

— Normal school principal; graduated at
Dartmouth College in 1852 He was principal
of the High School at Frammgham, Mass ,
1852-1854, superintendent of the schools at
Peona, 111, 1854-1857, and first principal of
the Illinois State Normal School, 1857-1861
He was editor of the Illinois Teacher, 1850-
1861. W. 8. M.

HOW, SAMUEL BLANCHARD (1790-
1868), — Sixth president of Dickinson College,
was graduated from the University of Pennsyl-
vania in 1810 and the Princeton Theological
Seminary in 1813 lie was president of Dick-
inson College from 1830 to 1832 He was the
author of several works on religious education

W. S. M.

HOWARD COLLEGE, BIRMINGHAM,
ALA. — An institution founded m 1842 umlei
the auspices of the Alabama Baptist State
Convention Academic and collegiate depart-
ments are maintained Ten units arc required
for entrance to the college, which grants the
degrees of A B and A M There is a facultv
of thirteen members

HOWARD, JOHN — See PENOLOGY, EDU-
CATIONAL AbPECTS OF

332

HOWARD PAYNE COLLEGE,
WOOD, TEX — A coeducational institution
under the control of the Baptist General Con-
vention of Texas, founded in 1880 Prepara-
tory, college, normal, business, music, expres-
sion, and art departments are maintained

HOWARD UNIVERSITY, WASHING-
TON, DC — A coeducational institution for
all races. The university buildings, with the
exception of the medical and law schools, stand
on a campus of twenty acres The institution
maintains a college of arts and sciences, a
teachers' college, a school of manual arts and
applied sciences, an academy and commercial
college, as well as the schools of law, medicine,
and theology The entrance requirements arc
fifteen units of work The degree of A B is
conferred on the completion of a college course
or a four years' course in the teachers' college
The entrance requirements to the school of
medicine are those of the Association of Ameri-
can Medical Colleges, and a four years' course is
offered. The New Freedmen's Hospital affords

HOWE

HOWELL

clinical facilities to the medical college. The
school of law which is situated in the city
offers a three years' course, the requirements
for which are a four years' high school course.
There are 121 members on the faculty

HOWE, SAMUEL GRIDLEY (1801-1876).
— Founder of American institutions for the
education of the blind, was born at Boston on
Noy 10, 1801 He was educated at the Boston
Latin School and Brown University, graduat-
ing m 1821 Three years later he completed
the course at the Harvard Medical School He
served for six years in the Greek war of libera-
tion, and for a time gave his services to the cause
of liberty m the ill-fated kingdom of Poland.
At the suggestion of Dr. John D Fisher he went
to France in 1831 to study the methods of
educating blind children, and in the following
year he opened at South Boston the Peikins
Institution and Massachusetts School for the
Blind, and during the next forty-four years he
ti ainod the teachers and shaped the policy of
practically all the schools for the blind m the
United States (See the article, BLIND, EDUCA-
TION OF ) One of his notable triumphs was the
edueation of Laura Bridgman (qv), a deaf-
blmd girl, and through her education the de-
velopment of a system of touch tiaining now
widely used in the education of deaf-blind
children In 1846 he was chairman of a com-
mission for the study of idiotic and feeble-
minded persons, which resulted in the estab-
hshrnent of the Massachusetts School for
Feeble-Minded Children In cooperation with
his wife, Julia Ward Howe, he founded the
Daily Commonwealth in 1851 He originated
the Massachusetts State Board of Chanties
and Corrections in 1863, — the first of its kind
m the United States, — and was its first presi-
dent He was intimately associated with
Horace Mann (qv), in the establishment of
the Massachusetts common school system
He wrote numerous papers on the education of
the blind and feeble-minded, several works on
Greek modern history, and a number of text-
books for the use of the blind. W S M
^ See BLIND, EDUCATION OF; DEAF-BLIND,
EDUCATION OF TIIE

References : —

BARNARD, H American Journal of Education, 1863,
Vol XI, pp 389-399

LAMSON, MARY SWIFT Life and Education of Laura
Bridgmnn (Boston, 1879 )

RICHARDS, LAURA E Life and Journal* of Samuel
Gndley Howe (Boston, 1909 )

SANBORN, FRANK B Samuel G Howe, the Philanthro-
pist (Now York, 1891 )

HOWELL, JAMES (1594^-1666) —His-
toriographer Royal of England (1661), and
educationally of importance from his interest
in advancing the study of foreign languages
both by study in England and by his advocacy
of travel abroad as a means of education He
Js now best known by his letters from abroad.

Howell was of a Welsh family, educated at
Hereford Grammar School, whence he was
entered at Jesus College, Oxford, and gradu-
ated B A in 1613 With foreign missions and
secretaryships he lived until 1642, when he was
appointed as clerk of the Council, an arrange-
ment upset by the Civil War He turned to
writing for a livelihood, and, as Mr Arbor says,
" he is one of the earliest instances of a literary
man successfully maintaining himself with the
fruits of his pen "

In his Instructions for Famine Travel (1642)
he claims to show " by what course arid in
what compass of time, one may take an exact
survey of the kingdoms and states of Christen-
dom, and arrive to the practical knowledge of
the languages to good purpose " In this short
treatise he points out the educational use of
travel, " which may be not improperly called
a moving academy, or the true Peripatetic
School " More direct contributions of Howell
to educational progress arc to be found in the
direction of linguistics (1) He published a
new edition of the French- English and English-
French Dictionary of Handle Cotgravc (</ v ) in
1650, adding his " Animadversions " The
book is addressed to nobles arid gentry, and to
merchant adventurers both English and the
" Dutch here resident " foi commercial pur-
poses (2) The Polyglot Dictionary of Howell
marks the highest development, up to 1660, of
polyglot dictionaries, from the point of \iew of
the English people The compiehensive nature
of the work was intended to meet the needs of
nobles and gentry, of commercial people and
of scholars Howell not only pioduced his
modern languages lexicon, but did foi adages
or proverbs generally in England what Erasmus
had done for classical adages in Europe Still
further, he hi ought his native Welsh language
in line with other languages as \voithy of
knowledge arid study by other nations (3)
HowelTs Grammar A New English Gnim-
mar, Prescribing as certain Rules a,s the Lan-
guage will bear, for Forrcners to learn English
There is also another Grammar of the Spanish or
Castillan Toung, with some special rcmaiks upon
the Portuguese Dialect etc Where unto i^ an-
nexed Discours or a Dialog eontarning a Peram-
bulation of Spain and Portugal!, which may
serve for a direction how to traveU through both
Countreys, etc For the service of Her Majesty
(i e Queen Catharine of Bragan/a) whom God
Preserve 1662 This contains the English
grammar 011 one page and the same rendered
into Spanish on the other Howell attempts
" a grammar of English in itself," riot an
English grammar, " to learn another language
as Lily for Latin and Littleton foi French "
(vSee HOLYBAND.) Accordingly (p 83) Howell
writes an account of Divers superfluous letters in
English Orthography, and advocates phonetic
spelling as much as possible, his maxim being
Frustra fit per plura quod fieri potest per paw-
ciora. F. W.

333

ROWLAND

HtJBNER

References : —

ARBER, A Ed Howell, Instructions for Forreine Travel.

(London, 1809 )

BENNETT, W H Epistolce Ho-ehance (London, 1890 )
HOWELL, J Familiar Letters Temple Classics, 3 vols

(London )

JACOBS, J Epwtolcc Ho-ehancE (London, 1892 )
WATSON, FOSTER The Beginning of the Teaching of

Modern Subjects in England. (London, 1909 )

ROWLAND, GEORGE (1824-1892). —
School superintendent, was educated in the
public schools of Massachusetts and at Am-
herst College, graduating in 1850. He was
tutor in Amherst from 1850 to 1853; instructor
in the Chicago High School, 1858-1860; prin-
cipal of the same from 1860 to 1880, and city
superintendent of schools in Chicago from
1880 to 1892 His educational publications
include Practical Hints for Teachers of Public
Schools (1889), a grammar, several Latin texts,
and numerous addresses on educational sub-
jects W. S. M.

Reference : —

LANE, ALBERT G , et al. George Rowland. Proc. N. E.
A. for 1894, pp 222-231

HRABANUS, MAURTJS. — See RABANUS
MAURUS

HROSWITHA. — See ROBWITHA; WOMEN,
EDUCATION OF

HUARTE NAVARRO, JUAN DE BIOS

— Physician, psychologist, and educationist,
born at Samt-Jean-Pied-de-Port, in Navarre
(Basse-Navarre) about 1536 Though French
by birth, he was Spanish by training Huarte 's
name lives on account of his book, in which the
mental activity brought to bear on the greatest
educational problems affords ground for nam-
ing it one of the most remarkable original works
issued by the press in the sixteenth century
(1575) This work was translated from an
Italian version by Richard Carew (q.v ) in
1594, with the title Examen de Ingenios, The
Examination of men's Wits In which, by dis-
couenng the vanetie of natures, is shewed for
what profession each one is apt, and how far he
shall pro/it therein By John Huarte Trans-
lated out of the Spanish longine by Mr. Camilla
Camilh Englished oat of his Italian, by R. C.
Esquire Insisting on the essential differences
in individual abilities, Huarte points out that
it is thus necessary educationally to make an
examination or trial of minds to see the diverse
natures or " wits " and from such an inquiry
to determine the special directions from which
they are to find suitable nutriment in the
material of knowledge

Huarte suggests classification of pupils on
the basis of temperament or of psychological
characteristics, rather than on common pos-
session of the same details or bulk of knowledge;
and claiming the authority of Galen, Huarte
would wish state officials to sound the wit and

334

natural application of children so as to set each
to learn the art most suitable to each,Mand " not
leaving it to them to act of their own choice "
There is much that may be regarded as anti-
quated about Huarte's views of temperament
and the soul in its three aspects But Huarte
is certainly in accord with later educational
writers m his emphasis on self-activity as the
principle of the human soul, m his theory of
the effect of climate on character, in his idea
of heredity and the influence of dieting on
temperament and thence on educational pro-
cesses Huarte also takes up questions of
parentage, on the physical side, discussing the
birth and prenatal conditions of " wit " m
children

Huarte has taken ideas from Plato, and still
more from Aristotle Yet his debt is greatest
of all to Galen (see Dr Guardia's Essai, p 253)
Huarte cites from classical authors and from
the Scriptures m the manner of post-Renais-
sance writers Di Guardia has given a full
account of the critics of Huarte.

Besides Richard Carew's translation in 1594,
another was undertaken in 1698 by Edward
Bellamy, who describes the book as " useful
for all Fathers, Masters, Tutors, etc " It will
thus be seen that the suggestions of Huarte
logically led to the advocacy of child study, and
he deserves recognition as one of the most im-
portant of the pioneers of the subject

Huarte was adversely criticized by Antonius
Possevinus e Societate Jesu, Cultura Ingemorum
. . Examen Ingemorum lo Huartis ex-
penditur (which first appeared in Possevmus's,
Biblwtheca selecta de ratione studiorum, Rome,
1593; and afterwards was separately published,
eg 4th ed , Venice, 1604), and by Jourdam
Guibelet (Docteur en M&lecme), Examen de
V Examen des Espnts (Pans, 1631). F. W.

References : —

GUARDIA, J M Essai sur VOuvrage de J. Huarte Ex-
amen do* Aptitudes diver ses pour les Sciences A
comprehensive work (Pans, 1855 )

Nouvelle Biographie Generate, Vol XXV, p 334 Con-
tains an account of the editions of the Examen in
different languages

SALILLAS, RAFAEL Un Gran Inspirador de Cervantes
El Doctor Juan Huarte y su Examen de Ingenios
(Madrid, 1905 )

WATSON, FOSTER The Examination of Wits Gentle-
man's May , March, 1905, pp 238-255

HUBNER, JOHANN (1668-1731). — Ger-
man schoolmaster and author of textbooks
in scripture, history, and geography He
graduated at Leipzig, and for a time lectured
there, in 1690 he became rector of the gym-
nasium at Merseburg, and in 1711 rector of the
Johanneum at Hamburg in succession to Fa-
bricius (q.v ) His success, however, lay more
in his textbooks, especially Kurze Fragen aus
der alien und neuen Geographie and Zweimal
zwei und funfzig auserlesene biblische Histonen
und Fragen (1714). Both works were trans-
lated into many foreign languages, and the

HUE

HUGHES, THOMAS

litter at any rate had a great vogue for many
years The biblical stories were short, and
Hubner's method was to have pupils read
them two or three tunes and then be ready to
answer questions on the text Hubner's book
furnished the questions without answers Hub-
ner also issued a number of school atlases
and maps Just before his death he published
Die ganze Historic der Reformation in funfzig
kurze Reden nebst emem Schauxpiele von He-
kehrung der Sachsen zurn Chnstentum (The com-
plete history of the Reformation in fifty brief
Addresses, with a Play on the Conversion of the
Saxons to Christianity, 1730).

References : —

Ally f mane deutsche Biographic

KEHR, C Genchichti der Methodik dcs dcutschen Volks-

XLhulunlerrichts, Vol VI, pp 58-00 (Gotha,

1890)

HUE — This term refers to the specific
qualitative difference between colors, which
may, however, possess equal saturation (r/ v )
and brightness (q v ). The hue and the tone of
a color are distinguished by reserving the latter
term for monochromatic lights (see COLOR),
while " hue M refers to mixed lights as well Thub,
red, yellow, blue, etc , are tones, scarlet, purple,
crimson, etc , are hues Buff and yellow, lilac
and lavender, on the other hand, would not
differ so much in hue as in saturation, or, to
use the artist's terminology, in chroma

R. P. A.

HUGH OF ST VICTOR 0096-1144) —
A twelfth-century scholastic theologian, phi-
losopher and mystic ; was born at Blanken-
burg in the Harz, and at an eaily age took
the habit of the Canons Regular of St Au-
gustine at Hamerleve, near Halberstadt. There
he received his early education In 1115 he
went to the house of his ordci, the cele-
brated monastery of St Victor, near Pans,
where the entrance seven years previously of
William of Champeaux marked the foundation
of the Victonne School of mysticism From
1133 to his death in 1144, Hugh was head of the
school Besides works on general theological
subjects and on saci amental theology which
earned him the title of Alter Augustmus, he
wrote a number of important treatises on mys-
tical theology, namely, DC Area Noc Mystica,
De Area Noc Morally De Vanitate Mundi, De
Arrha Ammoe De A more Spon^i ad Sporusarn.
These are published in Migne's Patrologia
Latina, Vols CLXXV-CLXXVII.

As a mystic, Hugh did not go to the length
of condemning all rational philosophy On
principle, he avoided the discussion of ques-
tions which, though they occupied almost ex-
clusively the minds of his contemporaries,
seemed to him to be futile. Such, for instance,
was the question of Universals He himself,
especially in the work Eruditwnis Didascahw,
developed a system of philosophy in which he

attached paramount importance to psycholog-
ical introspection But while he appreciated
philosophy, he maintained that all rational
knowledge must be supplemented, and in a
sense superseded, by mystic contemplation
He taught that knowledge is not to be valued
for its own sake, but as a means of attaining a
contemplation of higher spiritual truths In
the treatise De Contemplations et ejus Speciebus
(pub by Haur6au in 1859) he distinguishes
three stages in the mystic life of the soul The
first is the preparatory stage, m which the soul
by thought (cogitatio) seeks God m the material
world, the second LS the meditative stage, in
which the soul by reflection (meditatio) seeks
God in itself; the third is the contemplative
stage, in which the soul by intuition (content-
platio) seeks God Himself The faculties by
which truth is perceived in these successive
stages are called respectively " the eye of the
flesh/' " the eye of the intellect," " the eye of
the contemplation " It was by means of this
doctrine that Hugh exerted a very widespread
influence among mystical writers and teachers
all through the Middle Ages W. T

References : —

Catholic Kncy doped m, s v Hugh of St Victor
HAUHhAtr, J B H-ugw* dc M Victor (Puris, 18,V) )

(Euvrc<i dc Huoues dc tit Victor (Pans, 18SO )
MiuNB, J P Patrologia LatirM, CLXXV-CLXXVU.

(Paris, 1K63 )
MIUNON Lcs Origins de la scolastique et Hugues de

$autt Victor (Paris, 1895 )
SCHMIDT Hugo von St Victor ah Padagog (Meiasen,

189,3 )
TURNER, W History of Philosophy (Boston, 1903 )

HUGHES, JOHN (1797-1864) — Leader
of the Roman Catholic movement for the
division of the public school funds, and founder
of St John's College, was educated at Mount
St Mary's College, Md and attained distinc-
tion as an ecclesiastic in the Roman Catholic
Church He founded St. John's College at
Fordham (q v ) , and conducted the campaigns
(which failed) during 1840-1842 m the munici-
pal elections of New York City and the legis-
lature of New York State for the admission of
Roman Catholic schools to a participation in
the common school funds W. S M.

See PAROCHIAL SCHOOL SYSTEM.

Reference : —

HABSAUD, JOHN R G Life uf the Mu*>l Reverend John
Huuh^ (Now York, 1866 )

HUGHES, THOMAS (1823-1896) —Au-
thor of Tom Brown'x School Day s, born at
Uffington, Berks , and educated at Rugby and
Oriel College, Oxford At Rugby he came
under the influence of Thomas Arnold (q v ), of
whom he has drawn such a reverent picture in
the story of the school By profession Hughes
was a barrister, but his interests were mainly
in the social questions of the day He took up
the cause of trades unionism, cooperation, and
the relations between employers and workmen.

335

HUGUENOTS IN EDUCATION

HUMANE EDUCATION

He was intimately associated with F D.
Maurice (qv.), the Christian Socialist move-
ment, and the Working Men's College m Great
Ormond St , London Here he conducted a
Bible class, out of which came his work, The
Manhucw of Christ (1879) lie was principal
of the college from 1872 to 1883. His interest
m social reform influenced him to enter poli-
tics, and from 1865 to 1874 he sat m the House
of Comnum.s His admiration for Lowell
prompted him to visit New York and Boston,
where he was received with enthusiasm as the
author of Tom Brown' ft School 7)a/y,s and as a
sympathizer with the North during the Civil
War In Arnenca, too, at Rugby, Tcnn., he
established a colonv on a cooperative basis,
which, however, was financially a failure

In addition to Tom Binwn'b School Da//.s,
\\hich he wrote in 1853 and published anony-
mously in 1857, Hughes was the author of
Tom Brown at Oxford (1861); The Scouring of
the White Lloisc (1889), Memoir of a Brother
(1873), Vacation Rambles (1895) But his
fame will always rest on Tom Bioiun's School
/M/fs, which, more than any other work, spread
far and \\ide the fame of Rugby, the reforms
of Arnold, and the spirit of the public school
For some time it was thought that the pioto-
type of Tom was Hughes himself or his elder
brother, George, and that Arthur was Dean
Stanley, but the author denied this strongly m
the preface* to Tom Brown at Oxford

Reference —
Dictionaiy of National Biography, Supplement

HUGUENOTS IN EDUCATION, IN-
FLUENCE OF —See CALVINIBTS AND EDU-
CATION, FHANCE, EDUCATION IN

HULL HOUSE --SEE SOCIAL SETTLE-
MENTS AND EDUCATION

HUMANE EDUCATION. — This f oim of
education is a product of the humane move-
ment of the past ccnturv, which began m a
distinctive way in England in 1822 with the
passing by Parliament of the first law for the
prevention of cruelty to animals and with the
organization of the Royal Society for the Pre-
vention of Cruelty to Animals. In the United
States its beginning was marked by the or-
ganization of the American Society for the
Prevention of Cruelty to Animals in 1866
The movement has since spread so rapidly that
organized protection of animals against cruelty
and neglect is now world-wide

The term " humane education " might fit-
tingly be applied to anv effort aimed at the
inculcating of humane ideals or the furthering
of humane practices by precept or rule of ac-
tion. Such effort would include at least three
aspects: (a) the instruction of children along
humane lines, (b) the educating of teamsters
and others dealing with animals in best methods
of care and treatment, (c) the forming and

stimulating of public opinion — through press
and pulpit, through special literature and
through exhibitions — to a more humane at-
titude and practice. Only the first of these
phases will be dealt with here.

The philosophy underlying humane educa-
tion varies among its advocates As a rule
the basis is emotional rather than rationalistic.
This basis finds its most consistent expression
in the view of an equality of absolute rights on
the part of all sentient creatures. It is re-
garded as a mistake to suppose that the rights
of animals are in any way antagonistic to the
lights of men Animals, as well as men, in
this view, have the right to live a natural life,
to attain an individual development, subject
to the limitations imposed by the permanent
needs and interests of the community And
in determining what these permanent inter ests
arc, there should be equality of claim on the
part of all orders of animal creation This is a
philosophy of individualism applied to all sen-
tient life Another view, that may properly
be contrasted with this, would take into ac-
count the desires and pleasures of the inferior
animals, but not from the standpoint of the
positive rights of the animals themselves
Man's sovereignty over the animal kingdom
is recognized, and the effects of man's acts upon
human character and welfare is viewed as a
dominant consideration Rights are relative
The rule of nature is that the lower generally
serves the ends of the higher The question
of suffering and destruction inflicted by the
stronger upon the weaker should be made a
subject of scientific study as well as of senti-
mental regard In any scheme of humane
instruction, the sympathy of the young is the
motive that forms its cornerstone With the
philosopher of absolute rights the major aim is
to arouse that sympathy by dwelling on cases
of extreme cruelty and suffering, to reach a hu-
mane attitude by developing a keen apprecia-
tion of wrongful acts The relativist, on the
other hand, tends to lay stress on a knowledge
of the structure, habits, and functions of ani-
mals What ought to be done, rather than
what ought not to be done, is emphasized, and
a cardinal purpose is to teach that unnecessary
and wanton injury or destruction of either
plants or animals is uneconomical, injurious to
society, and dangerous to the character of the
offender Actual instruction along humane
lines, however, is ordinarily based on no well-
reasoned philosophy of animal treatment
The mass of those associated with the anti-
cruelty movement are not doctrinaire They
simply follow the opportunist policy of dealing
with cruelties as they arise, and of mitigating
severities of animal treatment as far as the
prevailing situation will permit Humane edu-
cational schemes usually share thin opportunist
quality.

Private Organization — For the most part,
humane education is carried on under private

336

HUMANE EDUCATION

auspices Humane workers have steadily em-
phasized the need of humane instruction in
public schools, and some progress has been
made in this direction, but the larger effort
has been expended on instruction given in small
groups, organized in any opportune way
Various titles are given to such groups " Jun-
ior Humane Society" is sometimes applied,
" Young Defenders " is the name used in the
parent American anti-cruelty society, but
" Band of Mercy " groups are much the most
numerous, and their activities are typical of
scope and method, by whatever name chil-
dren's organizations of this sort may be known
The first Band of Mercy was established^ by
Mrs Caroline Smithies at Wood Green, Eng-
land, in 1875 At her death the movement
was continued by her husband and daughter,
and later, in 1883, a union of all bands in the
kingdom was formed, with the Royal Society
for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals at
the head Under the arrangement the Royal
Society became the governing body for the
union, but the bands retained their freedom of
direction and responsibility in all local matters,
including financial independence Uniform
cards of membership, members' badges, and
registers were adopted bv all bands The
governing body provided these at cost A
half-penny monthly journal, pieviously and
since issued by the Royal Society, entitled
Band of Mercy, became the organ of the union
The bands have multiplied m number Their
formation has been promoted m many direc-
tions, as separate and distinct organizations,
or within Sunday or day schools, or m connec-
tion with Bands of Hope or other moral, Asocial,
or religious associations The Royal Society
has been particularly insistent that each band
should have a formal organization and a per-
manent secretary Members pay small dues
Regular meetings are held at which lectures or
addresses are given, Band of Mercy melodies
sung, readings and recitations delivered, stones
and anecdotes related, and interesting or meri-
torious work done bv members reported

The pioneer in American Band of Meicy work
was Mr (ieorge T Angell of Boston He
founded the American Humane Education
Society, which has been instiumental m forming
more than eighty thousand such bands in the
United States 'How many of these are^ active
organizations it is impossible to say To each
band of thirty or more members the Society
sends each month a copy of Our Dumb Animals,
from which leadings and recitations may be
selected. Twelve Lessons on Kindness to
Animals, published by the Society, badges,
members' cards and other matter are likewise
provided Effort is made to have Band of
Mercy Day observed in the public schools
In Massachusetts a day in April has been ob-
served in this way for three years past, and m
the schools of Boston for four years In 1909
a pamphlet of thirty-two pages, the Humane
VOL. in — z 3

HUMANE EDUCATION

Manual, was gratuitously dwtiibulod to the
15,000 teachers of the State In 1908 a
similar pamphlet containing a reprint of selec-
tions from the chapter on animals m Hyde's
Practical Ethics was so distributed This work
is in the hands of the State Organizer of the

Society ..

An interesting experiment along these lines
has been undertaken in New York by the
American Museum of Natural History A series
of lectures dealing with animal life were planned
to be given at the museum and at various settle-
ment houses throughout the city The lec-
tures were used as a starting point for the
formation of settlement bands of " Young De-
fenders," who are expected to protect street
dogs and stray cats from molestation and to
report cases of ill treatment to the anti-cruelty
society Another method of reaching children
is that of instituting humane essay competi-
tions in schools, to the winners of which suit-
able prizes are awarded In Buffalo, for
instance, more than 1500 such essays weie re-
ceived from pupils in the sixth, ^venth, eiKhth,
and ninth grades and high schools in the 1909
competition In Rochester the Humane bo-
ciety offers puzes to publie, private, and paro-
chial schools m a similar way

Even m a hasty survey of private efforts for
the humane education of children it would be
a mistake to leave the impression thai its object
ends with the attaining of a more kindly at-
titude toward dumb creation Its mateiial in
the mam deals with animals, and is calculated
to further their humane treatment, but its
aim — however quixotic and inspirational its
methods — is the broader one of de\ eloping a
more considerate attitude in every aspect of

1 °State Provisions — State legislation has done
little to further humane education, beyond rec-
ognizing humane societies, Audubon societies,
and other organizations as agencies for its
promotion A succession of New \ork laws
provide for an agreement with the American
Museum of Natural History mNew \oik ( ity,
by the terms of which materials, specimens
etc are provided for free instruction in natural
history in normal and other schools foi the
preparation of teachers, and m free common
schools Further, lectures are provided for,
to be given on holidays and at other suit-
able times to artisans, mechanics, and other
citizens In Illinois, California, and some
other states the law provides for an annual
"Bird Day" in the schools The law of
Colorado requires that two lessons per week
(not less than ten minutes each) be given in
the schools on the humane treatment of ani-
mals The law of North Dakota prescribes a
like period for " a system of study of the hu-
mane treatment of animals," as do the laws of
South Dakota, Montana, and Wyoming, me
latter three, however, specify "a system ol
humane treatment as embodied m the laws of

HUMANE EDUCATION

HUMANISM AND NATURALISM

the respective States, and do not prescribe a
definite period of instruction In California
humane education is compulsory in all primary
and grammar schools having more than one
hundred census children in the district This
instruction may be oral, and the purchase of
textbooks may not be required of pupils In
Oklahoma the law prescribes instruction in
schools to the amount of not less than one half
hour per week on the " humane treatment and
protection of dumb animals and birds; their
lives, habits, and usefulness, and the important
part they are intended to fulfill in the economy
of nature " The Illinois law is similar, but is
the most extended of any of the state laws
The Pennsylvania law provides for not more
than one half hour per week on the " kind
treatment of birds and animals," and those of
Maine and Washington for not less than ten
minutes. The law of Texas prescribes that
" suitable instruction shall be given in the
primary grades once each week regarding kind-
ness to animals of the brute creation and the
protection of birds and their nests and eggs.'*
The New Hampshire statute provides for " a
well prescribed reading course dealing with the
principle of the humane treatment of the lower
animals " Idaho arid Utah have been re-
ported as having compulsory requirements

In England, France, and Germany, humane
education is in no decree compulsory, although
in all varying effort is made to link up private
humane effort with the work of the schools
Literature is given to pupils and teachers,
teachers' conferences are held, and other de-
vices arc employed similar to those used in
the United States In France activities have
perhaps been more systematic and effective
than in the other countries Humane instruc-
tion there finds a place in the schools inci-
dental to the general scheme of moral and
civic instruction More than six thousand
SocifMs Protector ices have been formed in the
schools under the patronage of the national
society for the protection of animals The
English Code of Regulations for Public Ele-
mentary Schools contains a note to the effect
that instruction " should be especially directed
to the inculcation of courage, truthfulness,
cleanliness of mmd, body, and speech, the love
of fair play, consideration and lespect for
others, gentleness for the weak, kindness to
animals," and other considerations But Eng-
lish humanitarians lament their failure to carry
out this suggestion in specific ways.

R C. M
References : —

ANGELL, G T. Band of Mercy Information American
Humane Education Society. (Boston )

Humane Education A Bulletin of the San Diego (Cal )
State Normal School 1906

KKAUSE, FLORA HELM Manual of Moral and Humane
Instruction. (Chicago, 1910 )

McCREA, R C. The Humane Movement Columbia
University Press (New York, 1910) (See es-
pecially pp 279-280, 313-319, giving list of period-
icals and titles of leaflet literature inhumane fields.)

338

SALT, H 8 Animals1 Riyhts Humanitarian League

(London, 1905 )
WHITEHBAD, E K Dumb Animals and How to 7'mz

them. (Chicago, 1910 )

HUMANISM —See COURSE OF STUDY,
THEORY OF; CULTURE; HUMANITIES, LIBERAL
EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE AND EDUCATION.

HUMANISM AND NATURALISM — In

edueatipnal literature, humanism has usually
a specific meaning, indicating a distinctive
intellectual tendency that marked the revival
of learning in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
turies For that aspect of humanism, see
RENAISSANCE AND EDUCATION.

Under the present caption, only a somewhat
rarer and also looser signification of the term,
belonging to certain problems in the philosophy
of education, receives consideration From the
side of educational practices, this philosoph-
ical question originated in the just mentioned
historic sense of humanism As a consequence
of the revival of learning (along with the back-
ward state of the natural sciences), linguistic
and literary culture succeeded theology as the
controlling factor in higher education By the
nineteenth century, however, natural science
had made such extraordinary advances that
its representatives were naturally restive, and
even rebellious They challenged the prac-
tical supremacy of language and literature,
and attacked on intellectual grounds the theo-
ries that were advanced in justification of this
supremacy Upon the practical side, the case
was decided m favor of the claims of the nat-
ural sciences — not, of course, that the human-
istic studies weie excluded, but that the claims
of scientific bUidy were admitted upon sub-
stantially equal footing, whether by insertion
of some natural science into the old classical
course or by affording students an option be-
tween a literary and a scientific course The
adjustment thus far reached represents, how-
ever, a working compromise through concession
to forces strong enough to force recognition,
rather than a solution based upon any gener-
ally recognized philosophy of the relations of
man and nature to each other. As ideals
humanism and naturalism are perhaps more
sharply opposed to each other now than at any
previous period

Humanism may be defined as the conviction
that spiritual and ideal values are of supreme
rank in the make-up of reality, and that these
values tire most adequately expressed in the
great or classic achievements of humanity
in literature and art — especially literature.
Naturalism rests upon the conviction that,
negatively, humanism is a survival of the
geocentnc medieval philosophy, with its false
conception of the place of the "earth and of man
m the universal scheme, and with its exag-
gerated teleological interpretation of things;
positively, that man and his affairs are a subor-
dinate part of nature, seen in their true place

HUMANISM AND NATURALISM

HUMANISM AND NATURALISM

only when nature is made the chief and primary
object of study Incidentally, naturalism
almost always has as one of its implications
that language and^ literature are too artificial,
factitious, and, as it were, ornamental, to be a
sound basis for education Science, it is urged,
presents mankind with truths concerning reali-
ties of existence, language and literature with
man's accidental and fanciful reactions to these
realities ,

Philosophically viewed, the controversy is a
reflection of the time-worn discussion of the
relations of spirit and matter, mind and nature,
subject and object; and the supposed antago-
nism of naturalism and humanism originates in
dualism (q v ) respecting these concepts Greek
classic philosophy presents, upon the whole,
a view of things in which there is a balance
between naturalism and humanism From one
standpoint, that of value, a humanistic ideal-
ism dominates; the life of reason as exhibited
in the realization of distinctively human func-
tions is the supreme moral good, and hence the
ultimate measure of worth in education. This
conception was embodied in the Aristotelian
conception of a liberal education and in the
notion of the liberal as distinct from the me-
chanical and industrial arts But reason is
not a peculiar and isolated property, much less
creation, of man On the contrary, nature, in
virtue of its orderliness, and especially in view
of the fact that its order shows itself m the
tendency to achieve specific ends, is itself
rational, and the attainment of rationality by
man is nothing but the realization in conscious
thought of the relations immanent in nature.
From the side of conditions or efficient means
nature also, not man, is supreme The values,
or goods, of life are absolutely dependent for
their achievement upon the efficacious work-
ings of physical conditions, even the contribu-
tion of human deliberation and effort, regarded
as a causal factor, falls withm the scope of
nature. Or, as Aristotle puts it, mind is the
actualizing, the complete energizing, of the
body, a view which makes it impossible to
regard mind as a separate independent causal
force In short, classic Greek idealism was
idealistic in the sense that it had a teleological
view of nature. Nature and mind were not
regarded as two forces working either together
or against each other, but as means and end,
causal conditions and final values, potentiality
and actuality.

Medieval philosophy, even when professedly
following Aristotle, introduced two profound
modifications into this view. On the one
hand, nature as it now exists is fallen or cor-
rupted, being implicated in " an aboriginal
catastrophe/' the denial by the first man of
God's will as law, and the substitution for it of
human inclination This profound perversion
of reality affected all physical nature, in itself
completely good, as well as human nature.
The inevitable result (taken of course in con-

nection with the barbarous state of society)
was a depreciatory attitude toward all knowl-
edge of a natural kind, in contrast with
knowledge having to do with man's redemption
— the subordination, both in philosophic theory
and educational practice, of natural knowledge
to supernaturally revealed science, or theology
Medieval philosophy also inverted the relation
between mind and nature, for it regarded mind
as the sole ultimate efficient cause of natural
existence, instead of conceiving mind as the
final cause, or good, of natural things
Thereby a metaphysical dualism of spirit and
matter was superadded to moral dualism of
the first state and ultimate destiny of man as
contrasted with the present state of nature

Renaissance philosophy was humanistic in
both the narrower arid the wider sense of that
term It found in the revival of Greek philo-
sophic thought a means of justifying the grow-
ing interest in the phenomena of physical and
human nature Like Greek thought, it rested
in a conception which united humanism and
naturalism Naturalism was opposed to super-
naturalism, and hence represented the means of
satisfying distinctively human, instead of theo-
logical, potentialities and aims. The prevail-
ing way of conceiving the relation of man and
nature was that of a microcosm to a macrocosm
Man was in small edition that which the uni-
verse was in large As Wmdelband truly says,
the natural science of the seventeenth century
was the daughter of the humanism of the six-
teenth century.

This union, resting upon the use of Greek
thought and the emulation of the free Greek
spirit to justify a free and full satisfaction of
human capacity through natural conditions,
was, however, soon undermined from both
sides Humanism became more technical,
more literary and philological, and less philo-
sophical. Moreover, the rise of the Piotestant-
Cathohc controversy diverted the study of
language and literature from social and aesthetic
channels, and made its use a weapon of reli-
gious dispute As natural science woiked itself
free from the earlier mystical and imaginative
traits, it became more and more purely me-
chanical, more and more indifferent to teleologi-
cal considerations. Nature mechanically viewed
is indifferent to mind, or even opposed to it,
since the chief mark of mind is its purposive-
ness This tendency of natural science toward
dualism was reenforced by the growing moral
and political interest in the self or ego, and by
the development of the idea that the final
source of certain knowledge (as against the
authoritative impositions of dogmatic beliefs),
was to be sought simply within the inner self,
the field of personal consciousness. These two
latter factors conspifed with the discovery of
the " inner world " as a field for literary ex-
ploitation, to mark off mind, reason, as a realm
by itself, sharply contrasted with nature.
Natural and mechanical science was concerned

339

HUMANITIES

HUMBOLDT

with the "object," and over against the object
stands the " subject," defined and described in
terms exactly antithetical to those applicable to
nature, or the object The resulting dualism
motivates directly all the philosophic problems
of the seventeenth century, and supplies the
background of the controversy between natu-
ralism and humanism in education.

The difficulties and problems that arise in
rigid philosophic dualism are paralleled m
educational controversy By assumption,
there are two separate words, and yet both of
them are necessary to make up the whole ac-
count of our ical experience The result is,
inevitably, whether in pure theory or in edu-
cational, a mechanical compromise assigning
one isolated region to mind and humanistic
study and another to matter and to naturalistic
studies. The same forces, however, that have
tended to break down the rigid dualism of mind
and matter have operated, though independ-
ently, to render questionable the division of
studies into exclusively human and exclusively
physical. The rapid development of the his-
torical, anthropological, economic, and other
social sciences has introduced a large and nn-
I>oi tant body of material that will not fit easily
into either of the older rubrics Obviously
humanistic in matter and import, it also em-
phasizes both in its subject matter and its
methods of explanation processes that connect
man's life with natural conditions The theory
of evolution when applied to humanistic sub-
ject matter tends also to bring out its continuity
with natural conditions Industrial conditions
are seen to have the most intimate bearing
upon human affairs, and they also arc bound up
with the natural sciences As long as economic
affairs weic regarded as out of the pale of serious
concern by all those occupied with man's
higher interests, it was an easy matter to side-
track them intellectually and educationally
Now that the close connection of economic
conditions with success m attaining the highest
political and moral status of society is generally
recognized, the thinness and superficiality of a
humanism that excludes from attention all
reference to industry, commerce, and applied
science become increasingly obvious As a
consequence, contemporary philosophy and
contemporary educational theory may be said
V> be confronted with a common problem:
The discovery of the common background or
matrix in which humanistic and naturalistic
interests are united, and the tracing of their
respective differentiations from this community
of origin, — a differentiation, however, which
should not become a separation, and which,
accordingly, secures the possibility of fruitful
interaction between them whenever desired.

J. D

See IDEALISM AND REALISM IN EDUCATION;
NATURE

HUMANITIES, THE. — This term came

into use in the fifteenth and sixteenth cen-
turies as an English equivalent of the Latin
literce humaniores, meaning in effect literary
culture, "letters " The sense of the term was
probably influenced by reminiscence of the use
of the word Humamtas by Aulus Gellius and
Cicero to denote the liberal culture befitting a
man as a man. It was influenced by a dif-
ferentiation from "divinity," so as to designate
the studies of human interest as distinct
from the theological studies which had domi-
nated medieval education — especially to desig-
nate secular instead of " sacred " rhetoric,
poesy, and grammar This wider sense of the
term shaded naturally into a narrower one
Since as a matter of fact the material of literary
secular culture was at first the Latin, and then
the Greek languages and literatures, the term
"humanities" came to mean almost exclusively
the study of Latin and Greek Humanity is
still in use in the Scottish universities as a
technical term for the study of Latin , and at
Oxford the classical studies are known as
hterce humaniores Generally speaking, in the
seventeenth century a humanist meant a gram-
marian or philologist. In the nineteenth cen-
tury the use of the term was influenced by the
conflict in higher education between the clas-
sical studies and the sciences of nature In
the course of the contioversy, the term tended
to broaden its meaning, and to revert to des-
ignating whatever concerns man as distinct
from physical nature. J D

See HUMANISM AND NATURALISM, LIBERAL
EDUCATION, NEO-HUMANISM , RENAISSANCE AND
EDUCATION

References : —

FARRAR, F W Essays on a Liberal Education (Lon-
don, 1867 )

FINDLAY, J J Principles of Class Teaching (Lou-
don, 1902)

GOODSELL, W Conflict of Naturalism and Humanism
(New York, 1910 )

HUMBOLDT, FRIEDRICH WILHELM
CHRISTIAN CARL FERDINAND VON

(1767-1835) —The German philologian and
statesman in his short connection with the
educational administration of Prussia exercised
a strong influence on its future development
A profound scholar himself, he readily seized
the opportunity afforded by his position to
introduce the characteristic features of the New
Humanism (q v ) into Prussian higher educa-
tion. But from another direction, too, his
strong faith in independence and self-activity
led him to introduce much-needed reforms in
all branches of education, so that in the uni-
versities the spirit of academic freedom was
given the greatest scope, while in the elementary
schools the Pestalozzian methods and the
encouragement of individual development
found a strong advocate in Humboldt. Edu-
cated privately by skillful teachers, he later
attended the universities of Frankfort-a-0 ,

340

HUMBOLDT

HUME

ijJdttingen, and Jena, interested above all in
the humanities and especially in Greek culture.
In 1790 he entered the Prussian civil service,
hut retired within a year In 1802 he was ap-
pointed minister to the Vatican, where his
duties did not prevent him from forming a
circle of friends interested like himself in classi-
cal studies In 1808 he became Privy Coun-
cillor and Director of Ecclesiastical Affairs and
Public Instruction, an office which he held for
about eighteen months In this brief penod
he instigated the reorganization of the system
of admission to the universities which resulted
in new regulations for the \htturientenprufung
(q v ) An important step in advance was made
bv the introduction of an examination for
secondary school teachers Hitherto appoint-
ments were made locallv, and the candidates
were as a rule students of theology or clorgy-
men Humboldt desired to establish a secular
teaching profession The examination of
teacher* was placed in the hands of a commis-
sion which should also consider educational
methods and systems, new curricula, textbooks,
and other publications To reform elementary
education voung men were sent to Yverdun to
study Pestalom's work, while through Hum-
boldt's influence Zoller was enabled to open a
normal school at Konigsherg, based on Pesta-
lozzian principles Humboldt himself evinced
?in interest in the teaching of drawing and
music The whole work of Humboldt was
directed to raising the cultural standards of the
nation and to give it a feeling for the beau-
tiful and aesthetic In 1810 Humboldt re-
tired from educational administration, but in
the interval up to his complete severance
from political life in 1819 he held several im-
portant posts which required delicate diplomatic
ability

As a scholar Humboldt ranks high in the
field of philology He established a reputation
as a critic by a review of Goethe's Hermann und
Dorothea in 1800 His chief works were, how-
ever, in linguistics, the principal of those being*
Prufung der Untersuchungen uber (he Urbe-
wohner Hispa?nens vermittelst der baskiwhen
Sprache (Researches nito the Original Inhabit-
ants of Spain by meant of the Basque Language,
1821), and Uber die Verschicdcnhntder inenxch-
Jtehen Spraehen und ihren Emfluxs auf die
geistige Entwiekelung dcs Menvehengeuehleehts
(The Heterogeneity of Languages and its In-
fluence on the Intellectual Development of Man-
kind, 1836), a treatise on the philosophy of
speech and language as the peculiar expression
of a people's characteristics His works were
published in seven volumes (Gesammelte Werke)
m 1840-1852, and under the title Gesammelte
Schnften in 1904-1908. For portrait, see p 586

Reference : —

SPKAWIER, E. Wdhelm von Humboldt und die Reform
r/fv BiMiinfjwieftena Full bibliography (Berlin,
1M10 )

HUME, DAVID (1711-1776) ~ The phiicr
opher; born and died in Edinburgh. Hume't
works include A Treatise of Human Nature,
An Inquiry concerning Human Understanding,
A Dissertation on the Passions, An Inquiry
concerning the Principles of Moials, Political
Discourses, History of Englajid, Dialogues
concerning Natural Religion, essays on Suicide,
the Immortality of the Soul, Miracles, A Par-
tieular Providence and a Future State, various
other Essays Moral and Political, and a short
autobiography He left no strictly educational
writings, and his influence on the history of
education was so indirect that it is impossible
to estimate its amount But ID psychology,
ethics, metaphysics, history, religion, and eco-
nomics his influence has been very great in-
deed In psychology and metaphysics he
carried through the prevailing doctrines of
Locke (q v ) and Berkeley (q v ) with unrelent-
ing logic to conclusions so repugnant to common
sense that (as he fully realized) neither he nor
anybody else could really believe thorn Tak-
ing his cue from Berkeley's doctrine that we
can form no conception of any material sub-
stance beyond our own ideas, such as these
are usually supposed to reveal, ho procoodod to
prove that neither can we form any conception
of a mind or any other reality behind them,
such as they aro usually supposed to belong to
Thus ho resolved one's very self into "nothing
but a bundle or collection of different percep-
tions (i e thoughts and feelings) which suc-
ceed each other with an inconceivable rapidity,
and are in a perfect flux and movement "

This doctrine of the self is one example of
the general philosophical " skepticism " in
Hume which aroused Kant to \\nto his Cutique
of Pure Reason and stirred Thomas Hoid and
his Scottish followers to develop the philosophy
of " common sense," all more or loss unsuccessful
attempts to solve the problem of the possi-
bility and nature of knowledge Neither
British nor German philosophy can bo fully
understood without a knowledge of Hume

Hume's doctrine that a cause is practically
nothing more than a uniform antecedent, and
need not in any way resemble or bo "greater"
than its effect, has helped us to break avvay fiom
a vast amount of medieval philosophizing, and
prepared the way not only for the agnosticism
of Huxley and Spencer, but for a genuine phi-
losophy of evolution In ethics and economics
Hume clearly enunciated the principles after-
wards worked out so successfully by his younger
friend Adam Smith Hume's Essay on Mir-
aeles, intended to be " an everlasting check
to all kinds of superstitious delusions," did not
attempt to prove that miracles cannot happen,
but only that no amount of testimony is suffi-
cient to prove one. Our only reason for be-
lieving in testimony at all is our experience of
its truthfulness — of the usual or uniform
conformity between a man's statements and
the facts ho tells about. But we mean by a

HUMPHREY

HUMPHREY

miracle a violation of the laws of nature — a
single event contrary to the uniform experience
of all mankind To adduce the strongest kind
of testimony for a miracle is therefore only to
pit one experience of uniformity against an-
other. The very thing that makes us trust the
witness makes us disbelieve his tale But in
fact the testimony usually adduced for miracles
is not strong at all The witnesses are not
usually trained observers, and they are in-
fluenced by religious enthusiasm and our
common love of wonders " Miracles " are
commonest amongst ignorant peoples; and
the more you believe in the miracles of any one
religion, the more you must discredit those of
every other' Hume's argument concerning a
future state is somewhat similar to that con-
cerning miracles If we happen to believe in
such a state, well and good, but the fact that
things are not altogether as they should be in
this world docs not prove that they will be
better anywhere else In these two essays
Hume shows the influence of his historical
training In the Natural History of Religion
he discussed historically the probable origin of
popular religious beliefs. H. A. A.

References : —
AIKINS, H A Philosophy of Hume (with bibliography).

(Now York, 1893 )
GUEEN, T H , and GROSE, T H Hume's Works. 4

vols (London, 1874-1875 )
HUXLEY, T H Hume (London, 1879 )
KNIUHT, W Hume (London, 1886 )
SELBY-BK.UE, L A Hume's Works (Oxford, 1888 )

HUMPHREY, HEMAN (1779-1861) —
Second president of Amherst College; was born
at Hartford, Conn , on Mar. 26, 1779 He
was instructed by private tutors, and was
graduated from Yale College in 1805 For
several years he served as pastor of Congrega-
tional churches He was president of Amherst
from 1823 to 1845 He proposed the establish-
ment of a department of education in the college
foi the training of teachers, but the proposition
was never carried into effect (see EDUCATION,
ACADEMIC STUDY OF, in the United States)
In 1838 he traveled in England, France, and
Belgium for the purpose of inspecting educa-
tional institutions He was also active in the
cause of temperance His published writings
include numerous addresses on education, an
edition of the New England Primer, and a work
on Domestic Education (1840) W. S. M.

See AMHERST COLLEGE; EDUCATION, ACA-
DEMIC STUDY OF.

Reference : —

TYLER, WILLIAM S History of Amherst College. (Spring-
field, 1873 )

HUMPHREY, or HUMFREY, LAURENCE

(c 1527-1590) — Writer on the education of
nobles in the time of Queen Elizabeth, was edu-
cated at Cambridge and at Oxford, was H A in
1549, and, becoming M.A. in 1552 from Mag-

dalen College, Oxford, lectured in that college
on natural philosophy and on moral philos-
ophy In 1553 he joined the Protestant exiles
in Basle, and then in Zurich, and afterwards
at Geneva. In 1560 he was made Regius
Professor of Divinity in the University of Ox-
ford, and in 1561 he was chosen president of
Magdalen College, Oxford. Humphrey was
permeated with the Calvinistic views in religion,
acquired abroad, and, as Anthony a Wood says,
" did not only . . stock his College with a
generation of Nonconformists, which could not
be rooted out in many years after his decease,
but sowed also in the Divinity School . .
seeds of Calvin isrn, and laboured to create in
the younger sort ... a strong hatred against
the papists "

Humphrey's chief educational work was
entitled The Nobles, or Of Nobihtye. It was
first published at Basle in 1560, in Latin, as
Opti mates , sive de Nobilitate, ci usque antiqua
onginc, natura, disciphna His own English
translation appeared in London in 1563, as
The Nobles or of Nobihtye. The Original
nature, dutyes, ryght and Christian Institution
thereof Joined with it is an English transla-
tion of the Lytle Treaty se of Philo a Jewe,
concernynge Nobihtye Humphrey's Nobles is
dedicated to Queen Elizabeth and also to the
Right Honourable and Worshipful Gentlemen
of the Inner Temple

Humphrey lays down the demand that the
Nobility ought to learn and to give ear to wise
counsels. He recalls the names of previous
writers on the subject, Lucas Gauncus (Bishop
of Civitate), and Hieronymus Osonus, and
stoutly defends the distinction of classes as
against Anabaptists and others At the same
time Humphrey declares that as to an " idle "
Noble, he allows him " not so much as one
inch of Nobility " Christ is the fane and type
of Nobility Nobles must " believe soundly
and live uprightly," and have piety toward
their country, a congenial topic for the Eliza-
bethan age They must be " liberal," a
quality most proper to noblemen, and this
liberality must be shown towards the learned
To these the nobleman's chest should be open
Similarly, he must be " liberal " to God's
saints, and hospitable toward strangers Jus-
tice must characterize the noble in all his
dealings With special regard to " institu-
tion " or education, it is the duty of the no-
bles thernselvcs to cultivate virtues Temper-
ance must be cultivated Sports are to be in
moderation ; and only for the purpose of making
men manlier. But learning is a pursuit worthy
of the Noble, and Humphrey declares he will
give not merely his own opinion, but describe
the " ancient princely way " of education
A learned careful teacher is necessary even for
the elements Grammar should be learned
" briefly " The shortest of Cicero's Epistles
follow Then Dialogues, e g those of Erasmus
(q v\ and Castalio (q v ). Terence must be

342

HUNGARY

HUNGARY

taught for his colloquial phrases, but with care
that nothing undesirable be acquired from him.
Even at first Greek and Hebrew should be
learned (" preposterously do all Universities,
schools and teachers that contrary it ")

Another book by Humphrey, of considerable
importance in its age, was the following In-
terpretatio Lmguarum . sen de Rah one con-
vertendi et exphcandi autoreft tarn .sorrow quam
prnfanos, hbri tres Basilese, 1559. F. W.

Reference : —

R< /tort of ir »S Commissioner of Education, 1903, Vol.
I, pp 324-327

HUNGARY, EDUCATION IN. — Hungary,
constitutional kingdom: area of Hungary
proper, 109,007 square miles; population,
16,838,255 (1900); ethnical elements Hun-
garian or Magyar 8,702,301, German, 2,135,-
1S1, Slavonic people Slovak, 2,019,641,
Roumanian, 2,799,479, Croatian, 1,678,569,
Servian, 1,052,180; others, 397,761 Division
of population by religion Roman Catholic,
9919,913, Greek Catholic, 1,854,143, Gicek
Oriental, 2,815,713, Evangelical Augs 1,288,-
942, Evangelical Helv, 2,441,142, Unitaiiaiis,
08,568, Jews, 851,378; others, 14,760 Capi-
tal, Budapest., population 732,322 Minister
of Public Instruction and Worship Count John
Zichy

Historical — The educational history of
Hungary hardly begins before the influences of
the Reformation made themselves felt in the
sixteenth century Stephen I, it is true, had
as earlv as the eleventh century ordered the
establishment in every parish of schools for
the teaching of religion and reading, but the
decree had little permanent effect In 1854
the diet ordered that the funds of the despoiled
monasteries should be used to create schools,
and by this action stimulated the Catholic
Church to new educational activity But
placed between the Turks and the Austnans,
the Hungarians had little opportunity for
development in the sixteenth and seventeenth
centuries. After the crowns of Hungary and
Austria were united in 1689, the educational
history of the two countries developed along
similar lines until the nineteenth century A
wholesome rivalry continued between the Prot-
estant schools and Jesuit colleges until the sup-
pression of the latter in 1772, and under the
protection of Maria Theresa the national
spirit was fostered without interference In
1777 the Ratio Educatioms, a Hungarian
edition of Felbiger's (q v.) Austrian regu-
lations, was promulgated, but, since it iden-
tified education with the Catholic Church,
was refused recognition by the Reformed
Church. The anti-national measures of Joseph
II, including the exclusive use of the German
language, aroused so much opposition that
they were withdrawn in 1790, with the excep-
tion of the freedom of worship Before the
close of the eighteenth century, the distinctive

features of Hungarian nationality, pride of
language, and the spirit of religious and social
toleration had been wrought into the schools

The doctrines of the French Revolution of
1789 found ready sympathy in Hungary, but
its manifestation was checked by the Napo-
leonic conquests The deeper movement of
1848, which swept over all western and central
Europe, revived the spirit of Hungarian pa-
triots, and, led by Kossuth, they achieved
momentary independence The Estates of the
Realm were replaced by a national assembly,
and the draft of an elementary education law,
conceived " in a modern and national spirit,"
was drawn up by Baron Joseph Eotvos, the
first Hungarian Minister of Education The
effort was ended by the disastrous War of In-
dependence, and the absolute rule that fol-
lowed destroyed the legal basis of the old
school system No other was adopted until
the reorganization of the Empire after the
brief war with Prussia, which ended in the
defeat of Austria in the decisive battle of
Sadowa By the compromise of 1867, Austria
and Hungary became two distinct states undei
a common sovereign, and the same year the
Emperor of Austria, Francis Joseph, was law-
fully crowned King of Hungary, which was once
more assured entire control of its internal
affairs

The Ministry of Public Instruction — The
political idealism which marked the delibera-
tions of the Hungarian leaders in the short
term of independence achieved in 1848 found
new and permanent expression in the measures
adopted for the internal conduct of the state
in 1867 Baron Eotvos was again made Min-
ister of Worship and Public Instruction, and
a central department of education was con-
stituted which by its scope and divisions il-
lustrates the completeness of the service undei
its direction The ministry is organized 111
ten departments, including distinct depart-
ments of higher, secondary, and elementary
education , practically five ^ departments arr
subdivisions of the last named The staff of
the ministry includes a corps of inspectors and
several educational experts The Hungarian
Board or Council of Education formed by the
appointment of the King or the minister is
primarily an advisory council to the minister,
but it also has important executive functions
The laws pertaining to education are prepared
and enforced by the minister who has exclusive
jurisdiction over schools maintained by the
State The right of inspection is also exercised
over other schools so far as consistent with
their legal autonomy and in proportion to the
measure of state assistance which they receive.

Elementary Education. — In his capacity as
Minister of Public Instruction Baron E6tvos,
in 1868, one year before the adoption of a new
education law by Austria, drew up and carried
through the legislature the law of elementary
education in Hungary (Act XXXVIII, 1868),

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making the education of all children compul-
sory, in day schools from the ages six to twelve;
in continuation schools (Sunday or evening)
from twelve to fifteen The civil officers of
the parish were required to compel the enforce-
ment of the compulsory provisions Children
educated privately were required to pass an
annual examination at the elementary public
school The duty of establishing and main-
taining schools was imposed upon the parish
authorities, but denominational schools were
recognised It was further ordered that where
the local authorities and the religious denomi-
nations should both fail to make due provision
of elementary schools, the Minister of Public
Instruction, acting in the name of the State,
should provide schools. As a consequence of
the legal provisions the elementary school
system comprises national schools, public
schools managed by the civil parish (cities,
villages, etc ), denominational schools adopted
as public schools, and schools under private
managers A measure of unity is secured by
legal conditions binding upon all public schools.
These conditions comprise a common program
and specified requirements as to school build-
ings and classrooms; they make eighty the
limit of the number of pupils in a school; they
le quire that bovs and girls shall be taught
separately and that the schools shall be open
for at least eight months a year in the country
and nine months in the city. Teachers must
possess the legal qualifications, must receive,
at least, a certain minimum salary, and must
be guaranteed a pension after the prescribed
period of service Finally the law requires
local inspection of schools by duly qualified
officials These provisions appear the more
remarkable when it is remembered that the
Hungarian school law preceded by thirteen
years the first of the series of laws regulating
the present system of primary education in
France, and by two years the passage of the
act of 1870 by which the English government
assumed dnect responsibility for the education
of the masses In its regard for established
customs and vested interests, the Hungarian
law recalls the salient provisions of the English
Act, which was undoubtedly inspired in part
by the interchange of counsels between its
author, Mr W E Forster (</ v ), and his cele-
brated contemporary, Baron Eotvos.

The law of 1868 proscribed somewhat mi-
nutely the internal organization of the schools.
It distinguished two courses of elementary
education the six years day school course and
the three years continuation course, and re-
quired that state schools and communal schools
should make provision for both The six years
school may be under the management of one
or more teachers, and the schools are called
undivided or divided (graded) accordingly.
Although the law required sepaiate schools for
boys and gills as a matter of theory, mixed
schools are very common. The obligatoiy

program for every school includes, besides tha
three elementary branches, religion and ethics,
grammar, geography, natural history, natural
science, civic rights and duties, history of the
constitution, elements of geometry, drawing,
singing, physical exercises, needlework for
both boys and girls, and practical training
in agriculture and gardening An official
syllabus is issued by the Minister from time
to time, dealing with the purposes and matter
of the several subjects and giving extended and
admirable suggestions to teachers for the work
of instruction A section of the syllabus is
devoted to the undivided schools, which pre-
sent special difficulties The national language
and literature (Hungarian or Magyar), the
national history and the rights and duties of
citizens form the very core of the school in-
struction; hence the intense sentiment of na-
tional life diffused throughout the land
Second only to this group of studies is the
instruction in natural science, with its comple-
ment in the training in agriculture The
latter, which begins in the fifth school year, is
thoroughly systematized and pursued with
enthusiasm as an essential factor in national
prosperity The branches of elementary in-
struction arc reviewed in the continuation
schools with some extension and with greater
regard to their ethical and social bearings By
the official syllabus of 1902, the continuation
course in agriculture was brought into closei
relation with the immediate local conditions,
and, as a result, the technical side of the con-
tinuation schools has been highly developed
in parts of the country. The greater number
of these schools have farms or gardens attached ,
forty-five schools of this class have large ex-
perimental farms and are provided with special
teachers of agriculture.

The judicious spirit which marks the law of
1868 is illustrated by the special provision for
communities below and above the general level
of the country The parish authorities were
charged to provide for the instruction of chil-
dren living on farms within their jurisdiction,
either by means of schools or itinerant teachers
This is a matter of peculiar significance, since
in the great Lowland (Alfold), which constitutes
a third of the entire territory of the realm, the
greater part of the inhabitants live on widely
scattered farms and are unable to comply with
the school law; hence the State has intervened
and is supplying the means of elementary
education to these scattered homesteads In
other parts of the country, especially in the
northwest and southeast districts, the multi-
plicity of languages and of church affiliations
threatens the unity of elementary education.
Here again the State intervenes, and without
interfering with parochial or other schools,
establishes state schools

The organization of city schools differs from
that of ruial schools not alone through force
of circumstances, but. by direct enactments

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These provide for city high schools based upon
the fourth year of the elementary school course
and continuing the instruction of pupils on
quite different lines The city schools for boys,
which are practically the same as the burgher
schools of Austria, are organized in four classes
(originally in six), and their studies are the
same as those of the four junior classes, or forms,
of the secondary schools The crowded obli-
gatory program includes religion and ethics,
the mother tongue of the pupils, style, and
history of literature, the Hungarian language,
the German language, arithmetic, mo hiding
practical arithmetic, geometry, the geography
of Hungary, and universal geography, history,
natural history, physics, chemistry (the last
three with special regard to industry, commerce,
and agriculture), rural economy or industry
(in accordance with the wants of the parish
and the surrounding country), outlines of
common and civil law, bookkeeping, drawing
and caligraphy, singing, gymnastics and drill
(Regulations 1879) Recently sloyd was in-
troduced Optional branches are Latin,
French and other languages, and music The
city schools for girls included four years or
iorms from the start Pupils who complete
the course are admitted to the schools of in-
dustry and commerce for girls, or, if they pass
examination, to the fifth class of girls' high
schools, if fourteen years old, they are eligible
for admission to normal schools (Regulations
1887)

Teachers — The training of teachers was a
cardinal principle in the scheme of national
education comprised in the law of 1868 Nor-
mal schools existed in Hungary before this date,
but the law made explicit provision for their
classification, distinguishing between normal
schools for the preparation of teachers of ele-
mentary schools and those for teachers of
higher schools, and fixing the standards of
graduation, conditions of students' life, etc
All the authorities entitled to establish ele-
mentary schools may maintain normal schools,
but they must conform to the legal require-
ments Official regulations of 1903 introduced
uniformity for all normal schools of the same
order, state and private The program of the
elementary normal schools is arranged for four
years, and comprises general subjects and those
strictly professional, the latter being enforced
by the critical observation of the work of
student teachers m the model or practice
schools The Hungarian language and litera-
ture, Hungarian history, and the German lan-
guage are obligatory subjects in the course,
other languages spoken in Hungary are op-
tional In the normal schools for women,
which follow the same general program as those
for men, special attention is given to domestic
economy, household work, artistic embroidery
and needlework, dairy work, care of poultry,
etc , and the official instructions emphasize the
importance of these industries, and of women's

influence as excited through the home life
The recent movement for the highei education
of women promises also to open up othei chan-
nels for the exercise of their artistic and manual
skill

Above the ordinary normal schools are two
state colleges which prepare teachers for the
higher elementary and city schools, and serve
as models for similar colleges maintained pri-
vately The course of instruction covers three
years, and is conducted on the group or depart-
ment system The central groups aie (1)
languages and history, (2) mathematics and
natural science The subjects comprised m
each are arranged m special or sub-groups, all
additional branches form side groups By
reason of this arrangement students may enter
for special subjects and at any time In all
sub-groups the following subjects are obliga-
tory (1) preliminary study of philosophy
(psychology and logic), (2) theory of educa-
tion and teaching, with history of educational
theories and institutions, (3) history of Hun-
garian literature, (4) teaching m the practice
schools One of the side groups comprises
music, vocal and instrumental, which is in-
cluded in the course of instruction in all training
colleges In school programs generally, Hun-
garian music is second only in importance to
the Hungarian language and literature

Tuition is free in all state normal schools,
and the expenses of boarding are covered par-
tially or entirely by scholarships Intending
teachers, whether graduates of normal colleges
or others, must pass examination for a teacher's
diploma, conducted by a government board
composed of members of a training college
staff and representatives of the ministry
Separate boards are constituted for the exami-
nations for the different grades of diplomas
Every diploma must certify that the recipient
knows the Hungarian (Magyar) language, a
requirement which was extended to teachers
of denominational schools by a law of 1907
In all continuation schools the Hungarian
language has been made the medium of instruc-
tion

Conditions of Service — Teachers of state
schools are appointed by the Minister of Public
Instruction, of communal public schools by
local boaids, of denominational schools by the
managers of the same The teacher of a public
school has a life tenure unless removed for
crimes or misdemeanors, and m accordance
with recent laws a teacher must receive a
specified minimum salary, whether engaged in
a public or private school (Acts XXVI and
XXVII, 1907) A pension fund is maintained
partly by state and local appropriations, and
partly by assessments on the individual salaries,
and teachers can claim a pension after ten
years' service, after forty years' service they
receive full pension (Acts of 1872, 1891)
From the same fund aid is extended to the
widows and orphans of teachers. The sohci-

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hide for the welfare of teachers has led to the
creation of " Teachers' Homes," where the
children of teachers and school officers are
cared for while pursuing professional study.
The Teachers' Home in Budapest, the Francis
Joseph Home, was opened in 1899 The
Hunyadi Teachers' Home at Koloszv&r began
operations in September. 1904 Both the
intellectual and social welfare of teachers are
promoted by their membership in teachers'
guilds, which is required by the law of 1868.
These guilds, or associations, are animated
centers of pedagogical discussion and reform
as well as mutual benefit societies Teachers
have the advantages of the Hungarian Museum
of Educational Appliances at Budapest, which
was opened in 1877 and in 1906 combined with
the Teachers' Library The annual appro-
priation for the entire institution is about
12,000 crowns ($2400)

Unifying Influences — In the union of
public and denominational schools, the Hun-
garian system of elementary education re-
sembles that of England. But whereas the
sense of national solidarity is preserved in
England by many influences stronger than the
school, in Hungary the school is the very
source of its existence Hence, of necessity,
the Hungarian language is required in all
schools, elementary and normal, since unity of
language is essential to national consciousness
Moreo\er, so far as possible, the law seeks to
impart a common character to all public schools
of the same order, whether established by the
State or the commune, and to this end has
made very careful provision for their super-
vision and inspection State schools are under
the control of boards of trustees formed partly
oy election and partly by appointment Parish
s( hools (municipal and district) are under
local school boards whose members are ap-
pointed by the local administrative councils.
These school boards attend to the external
affairs of the schools, including the appointment
of teachers, their salaries, etc. The profes-
sional supervision and inspection of public
schools is intrusted to the royal inspectors
and the local administrative councils. The
inspectors are appointed by the King upon the
nomination of the Minister, one for each county
or school area They are the responsible
heads of the system, exercising practically the
same authority as a state superintendent in
the United States, they arc also the inter-
mediaries between the local authorities and the
ministry The chief inspector is assisted by a
corps of sub-inspectors

The duties of the local council in respect to
school affairs are judicial and executive (Act
XXVII, 1876, amending provisions of the act
of 1868) Although the managers of denomi-
national and other private schools have in-
dependent control of their institutions, they
are subject in a measure to the supervision of
the royal inspector and to the local councils.

Statistics of Elementary Schools — Accord-
ing to the official report, for the year 1907,
the total number of children in Hungary of
the obligatory school age was 3,125,000
(1,564,000 boys, 1,561,000 girls). The en-
rollment in elementary schools was 1,848,176
children (948,918 boys, 899,258 girls); in
general continuation schools 347,000; in the
agricultural continuation schools 140,655; and
in the higher schools of this class 8356, or a
total enrollment in continuation schools of 496,-
011. This gives a grand total of 2,344,187,
or 74 per cent of the children of obligatory
school ages The corresponding total for 1909
was 2,775,278. The number of elementary
schools in 1907 was 16,561, classified as follows-
State schools, 2046; district, 1473; denomina-
tional, 12,734; private, 271, proprietary, 37;
of the total number of schools 68 5 per cent
were " undivided " schools with one teacher
each. The number of teachers engaged in
public elementary schools was 30,194, of whom
28,600, or 94 per cent, had government diplomas
Of the elementary schools 1 1,527 had a general,
2040 an agricultural, 102 a general and an
agricultural continuation school attached
57.67 per cent of the said schools used Hun-
garian (Magyar) as the exclusive language of
instruction; while in 17 97 percent other lan-
guages of instruction were used in addition to
Hungarian Consequently the percentage of
schools where Hungarian is the language of
instruction may be put at 70 91 per cent In
1907 the amount appropriated for state ele-
mentary schools was 10, 570,010 crowns ($2,114,-
002); the amount appropriated for the sub-
vention of public parochial, denominational,
and private schools was 4,864,000 crowns
($972,800), or nearly half the sum appropriated
for schools supported entirely by the State.

Supplementary Agencies — Infant Homes.
— The system of infant protection for which
Hungary is noted may be said to date from the
efforts of the Countess Teresa Brunswick, who,
with the support of Count Sze*che*nyi, the
leader of the reform movement in Hungary in
the early years of the nineteenth century,
established 'the first infant home at Buda, in
1828, called Garden of Angels (Angyalkert) In
1836 an association was formed for carrying on
the work, in which several prominent men,
among them Louis Kossuth, were actively en-
gaged Through the efforts of this association
a training college was established for direc-
tresses of infant homes In 1848, when the War
of Independence broke out, eighty-nine homes
were in operation, all of which were greatly
crippled by the war. Baron Eotvos proposed
to include this work in the measures of 1868
pertaining to popular education; but, owing to
the objection of the legislature, the matter was
deferred for some years Meanwhile the first
Froebel kindergarten was opened (1869) and
an association formed to promote this work,
This association and the Hungarian Infant

346

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Protective A Donation are still active centers
of efforts in behalf of young children The
first legislative provision concerning this matter
deals with the qualifications of teachers of
infant schools (Act XXXII, 1875) The com-
plete organization of the system of infant
protection was accomplished by the law of
1891 (Act XV) The special features of the
system are- provision for the establishment of
infant homes by the State and by local au-
thorities; the requirement of special training
for the teachers and of other persons on the
staff of the homes; the obligation placed upon
parents to send their children between the
ages of three and six, who cannot be properly
cared for at home, to infant homes, under
penalty of a fine ranging from twenty filler to
one crown The magnitude of this work is
indicated by the following statistics: number
of infant homes reported in 1906-1907 (a)
state, 582, (6) municipal, 1421; (c) denomina-
tional, 338; (d) others, 254, total, 2595, among
these are 1913 which make use of the Hun-
garian language only In these homes were
245,214 children, of whom 57 per cent were
Hungarian-speaking, there were 1913 certified
mistresses, 427 certified nurses and 332 un-
certified nurses, total staff, 2672, the expense
of maintenance was, in round numbers, 3,000,000
crowns ($600,000)

Among the marked features of infant homes
should be noted the admirably planned and
equipped buildings They are provided with
ample halls, playgrounds, arid covered courts,
where the children engage in free sport and
directed games The system of training is
remarkable for its sympathetic adaptation to
the impulses and capacity of childhood, the
awakening of the national spirit by songs,
stories, and pictures of national life, for the
use of the Hungarian language, and for the
grasp of Froebeliari principles, with modifica-
tions to suit the national circumstances and
purposes

Defective Children — The provision for the
care and training of the blind, the deaf and
dumb, and of children who are mentally and
physically defective, has been brought under
the supervision of the State, in the same man-
ner as the system of popular education The
following statistics relate merely to the educa-
tional side of this work, as reported in 1907.

INSTITUTIONS

NUMBER OF
CHILDREN

FUNDED CAPI-
TAL, CROWNS

1652

1,900,614

Orphan asylums .
Children's Aid societies

4314
4339

17,512,007
660,989

Summer colonies, eto

1032

230,000

Institutes for the Deaf and Dumb

(3) ... ...

91

1,212,368

Institutes for the Blind

88

131,000

Homes for child cripples
Homo for feeble-minded chil-

64

131,000

dren (1)

105

32,529

Industrial and Commercial Education — In-
dustrial education has along history in Hungary,
beginning, as in other countries, with schools
established by certain religious orders, and
gradually coming under the supervision and
fostering aid of the State Commercial educa-
tion has a briefer history, and although regulated
by special laws was left largely to the initiative
of societies and private managers until the close
of the last decade The significant facts in the
progress of this practical education since 1867
are the measures adopted for their regulation
by the State

The agencies for both industrial and com-
mercial training fall into two general classes,
apprentice schools and technical or professional
schools proper The apprentice schools are
under the direction of the Minister of Public
Instruction; trade schools or industrial tech-
nical schools, and also the technical high
schools, pertain directly to the Ministry of
Commerce, although the education department
is consulted m respect to their scholastic in-
terests Commercial education is organized
under the direction of the Minister of Public
Instruction, but in regard to the higher order
of commercial institutions the departments of
education and of commerce act conjointly
The courses of training for apprentice schools
are based upon those of the elementary primary
schools; the industrial and commercial sec-
ondary or high schools, m like manner, rest
upon the more advanced courses of tlie higher
primary and city schools Hence these forms
of specialized training bear the same relation
to the education of the artisan and trading
classes as the agricultural schools bear to that
of the farming population In accordance vuth
the purpose of maintaining vital relations
between technical schools and the industries
to which they pertain, the organized agricul-
tural schools are placed under the Ministry of
Agriculture

Apprentice School* — The establishment of
apprentice schools is obligatory upon all com-
munities in which there are fiftv apprentices
working in shops or factories, the masters of
trade are also obliged by law to procure the
attendance of their apprentices at these schools
(Laws of 1872, 1884, 1893) Boys may enter
the apprentice schools at twelve years of age
after finishing the course of the elementary
school The instruction given in the evening
and on holidays occupies seven hours a week,
two hours on each of two week days, and three
hours on Sundays; the latter are exclusively
devoted to drawing The branches of instruc-
tion are (1) the mother tongue, (2) geography,
history, and nature study, (3) penmanship,
(4) arithmetic and bookkeeping, (5) drawing
and sketching The course is given in detail
by the central government. If the religious
communities desire to have these apprentices
taught religion, they may do so, but they must
do it at their own expense In 1906-1907

347

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Hungary had 465 apprentice (evening and
holiday) schools with 83,518 pupils and 3607
teachers; of the entire number of schools
fifteen were state schools, 423 district schools,
two denominational, and twenty-five belonged
to factories and companies The expenditure
for these schools was provided as follows-
437,886 crowns were allotted by the Treas-
ury and from the National Apprentice Fund;
1,241,758 crowns contributed by district au-
thorities and other supporters, thus the total
necessary expenses amounted to 1 ,679,644 crowns
($335,928) In the same year there were ninety-
one commercial apprentice schools, of which
two were state schools (Fiume and Brasso),
sixty-three district, and twenty-six belonging
to companies The total number of pupils was
7160, and the number of teachers, 417 The
sum disbursed by parish authorities and com-
panies for the schools was 223,983 crowns

The commercial courses for women in 1906-
1907 numbered twenty-four, of which seven
were in Budapest The pupils numbered
1456, and the expense of the courses, amount-
ing to 141,452 crowns, was met chiefly by
tuition fees

The system of technical schools is crowned
by the Polytechnicum at Budapest, and the
system of commercial education by four insti-
tutions of high standing, namely, the Oriental
Commercial Academv, Budapest, a training
college for teachers of commercial schools, and
two commercial academies, one at Budapest,
the other at Kolozsvar The total expenditures
of the Education Department upon trade and
commercial instruction in 1907 was 1,450,638
crowns ($290,127)

Secondary Education — In his project for
the reform of education in Hungary Baron
Eotvos included the secondary schools, but the
time was not favorable for any material change
in institutions so deeply rooted in custom and
sentiment, and it was not until 1883 that a
measure was carried dealing with the system
of secondary education Previous to this time
its development had followed the same course
in Hungary as in Austria, excepting only for
the authorized independence of the schools of
the Reformed and Eastern churches, which was
exercised mainlv in respect to administration
and to religious instruction Many influences,
social and professional, conduced to the general
adoption of the courses and standards of in-
struction prescribed by the regulations of 1777
and 1806 (Ratio educationis) These regula-
tions prevailed till 1849, when, under the r6-
gune of absolutism, the Austrian system was
forced upon the public secondary schools of
Hungary The endeavor, during this period,
to make German the medium of instruction was
partly counteracted m Hungary by the general
use of Latin, which accounts for the command
of Latin as a spoken language, on the part of
educated Hungarians even to the present time.
A permanent advantage from the alien influ-

348

ence was the official recognition of modern
studies, which was continued after Hungary
recovered its autonomy

The present organization of secondary schools
is based upon the law of 1883, the work of
August Trefort, Minister of Public Instruction
from 1872 to 1 888 This law recognizes second-
ary schools of two orders: classical, represented
by the gymnasia, modern, represented by the
realschulcn The programs of the two are
nearly identical in duration (eight vears) and
study scheme, with those of the corresponding
schools in Austria ((/ v ) A single difference
should be emphasized, namely, the inclusion of
both the Hungarian and German languages as
compulsory subjects, and the conduct of the
final or leaving examination in the Hungarian,
requirements applied equally to state and
denominational schools The widespread com-
plaint of the overcrowded programs of the
secondary schools led to a revision of the
same in 1890 under the direction of Dr Julius
Wlassics, at that time Minister of Public In-
struction. Among the changes effected was
that of allowing students in the classical schools
a choice between Greek and certain specified
studies, as a consequence Greek has been
dropped in many gymnasia Notwithstanding
this change, the literary requirements are still
excessive

As to the relative standing of the gymnasia
and the rcalschulen, it should be observed that
students who pass the final examination of the
classical schools may be admitted to any uni-
versity courses, students from the realschulen
are restricted as regards rights of entrance to the
polytechnic, the mining, forestry, and agri-
cultural high schools, and to university coin ses
in mathematics arid natural science

The professors of secondary schools must be
university graduates who have supplemented
their general studies by professional training,
and must have successfully passed the govern-
ment examinations for admission to the service.
A seminary aild practice school were established
at Budapest in 1872, in connection with the
university faculty of arts, by Dr Karman, who
had been a student in Ziller's Seminary at
Leipzig, and was thoroughlv imbued with the
Herbartian spirit In 1895 a state normal
college for secondary teachers was organized
at Budapest under the auspices of Minister
Wlassics, and this, also, is a center of Her-
bartian principles Teachers of secondary
schools attain to full appointment after three
years' probationary service At this stage they
receive an annual salary of 2000 crowns
($400) in the capital, and 1600 crowns ($320)
in the provinces The teachers under full
appointment are divided into two classes
Salaries in the lower class begin at 2600 crowns
and rise by periodical increase to 3200 crowns;
in the higher classes the salaries increase by
successive additions, from 3600 to 4400
crowns. Directors receive from 4800 to 6000

HUNGARY

HUNGARY

rto\vns After Unity years' service teachers
and dncetors may be retired with a pension

MatuttH'^ The total number of secondary
schools reported in 1WM> was 202, of which 170
were classical and thirty-two modern Of the
classical schools thirty-eight were maintained
by the State, and of the modern schools twenty-
five The number of secondary students was
68,159, of whom 50,283 were of the Hungarian
nationality and 6254 Germans As regards
religious affiliations, the largest contingent,
i e 27,499, were Roman Catholics, and the next
largest 14,455, of the Jewish faith The total
number of teachers was 3711 The expendi-
ture for secondary schools in 1906 amounted
to 19,347,745 crowns ($3,869,549) Of this
amount 3,380,587 crowns ($676,116) were
derived from fees, the remainder from public
appropriations and endowments The esti-
mated value of the property of secondary
schools is about 90,000,000 crowns ($18,000,'-
000)

High Schools for Girl* — Separate schools
arid a distinctive type of education for girls
mark the Hungarian system This is illus-
trated by the arrangement of city schools and
by the creation of special high schools for girls
The first of the high schools was established at
Budapest in 1875, and the example was soon
followed by municipal and church authorities
The course of instruction was based upon the
sixth year of the elementary school, and ar-
ranged for six additional vears The purpose
to maintain high scholastic standards in the
new schools was indicated by requiring the
same qualifications for the teachers as are
required for those of secondary schools for
boys The present organization of the high
schools was determined by a ministerial decree
of June 12, 1901 The official piogram com-
prises the following studies religion, Hun-
garian grammar and literature, German, French,
psychology and theory of education, history,
geography, zoology and botany, mineralogy
and chemistry, hygiene, housed aft, physics,
arithmetic, drawing, calligraphy, needlework,
singing (optional from the fifth class upward),
physical exercises Among the optional sub-
jects are the English and Italian languages,
taught from the fourth class upwards in two
hours a week respectively

In the year 1895, by the authorization of
Dr. Julius Wlassics, young women were ad-
mitted to the university, and thus were en-
abled to devote themselves to philosophical,
medical and pharmaceutical callings, with
certain restrictions It was therefore necessary
to make arrangements for a course of studies
preparing them for the new privileges For
this purpose a course of studies on classical
school lines was established at the Budapest
High School for Girls during the school year
1897-1898; so that those who were preparing
for the university might have special and
suitable training, commencing with the fifth

class and lasting four years The Budaj>e,s1
High School has since been transformed into
a girls' classical school, and other schools of the
same character have been established Hence
the education of girls is now proceeding in two
courses one marked by the predominance of
modern languages and domestic science; the
other closely assimilated to the classical school
for boys. The high schools for girls have
mixed faculties of men and women, and their
development has created a demand for women
teachers having the same qualifications as the
professors of secondary schools for boys, re-
ceiving the same salaries, and enjoying the
same distinction In 1905-1906 the high
schools for girls numbered thirty-two, of which
sixteen were state schools The number of
students was 5817, including 1008 boarders
The majority, i c 5367, were Hungarians The
schools employed 524 teachers, of whom 343
were women The expenditure for the high
schools for girls in 1905-1906 was, in round
numbers, 1,970,000 crowns In the budget of
1907 the State appropriated ioi this purpose
the sum of 1,325,000 crowns ($265,000)

Higher Education — The Royal Hungarian
University of Sciences of Budapest is the chief
center of classical and scientific studv and re-
search in the kingdom Its origin is tiaced to
the establishment of a university under the
direction of the Jesuits at Nagvszombat in
the seventeenth century, it was nationalized
in the eighteenth century and transferred from
its original home to Budapest The universiU
of Kolozsva> (Klausenburg) \\as founded in
1872 by the incorporation of the existing Acad-
emy of Law and Institute of Surgery The
Royal Polyteehmcum was organized as a uni-
versity of technical sciences in 1871 The
latest official statistics pertaining to these
three institutions are presented in the following
table —

1

Dates

Pro-

EXPENDITURES

of
ortyin

Total

fit-

Stat<
UmveraUieit

ami

,/,V,"s ««^

UHttHi

V'y/s I it
Library

organ- 191 1 ' "*,
'*«- i .* .

Crown*

rquivn-

/ton

Budapest

1783

0858

351

?,7H»,8r»9

$700,012

482,(MK)

Kolozsvur
(Klausen-
burg)

1581
1872

2359

130

1,701,011

358,094

110,0901

University of

Technical

Sciences
(Budapest)

1782
1871

1349

155

1,430,840

349,841

90,395

i Not mcludms: the vols belonging to the library of the
TranHylvanian National Museum, with which it is united

The distribution of university students by
faculties and the number of doctors' diplomas
conferred in the year of the latest available
report, were as follows* —

349

HUNGARY

HUNGARY

BUDAPEST

KOLOZBVAR

FACULTIES

Number of stu-
dents

Number

Number of stu-
dents

Number

of

of

Ordi-

Extraor-

diplomas

Ordi-

Extraor-

nary

dinary

nary

dinary

Theology

78

9

6

Law

3091

152

309

1428

211

Medicine

1258

166

149

202

82

20

Arts

1203

234

74

360

59

18

In the same year the distribution of students
by faculties in the technical university and the
number of diplomas conferred were as follows
in the department of engineering, number of
students, 382; number of diplomas conferred,
106, department of mechanical engineering,
students, 587; diplomas, 121; architecture,
students, 96; diplomas, 13; general department,
students, 8; diplomas, 11

Among recent events in the history of the
University of Budapest, which illustrate both
the scope of that institution and the general
development of higher education, the following
are particularly noteworthy. The expansion
of the faculty of law to include political science
and the institution of seminars for the promo-
tion of research and practical training. In the
medical faculty special courses of training for
pharmacists and school doctors have been
established In 1889 the Pasteur Institute
arid Hospital was established. The faculty of
arts from its foundation served as a preparatory
course for students of the other faculties, and
it has become also a center of training for
teachers of secondary schools and an examina-
tion board for candidates aspiring to that service.
Since 1885 the faculty of arts has comprised
seminars which are partly for the training of
teachers, partly for the purpose of initiating
students into the methods of research The
faculty can boast of five seminars, those of
classics, modern philology, history, geography,
and mathematics. By a royal decree of Nov.
18, 1895, women were admitted as undergradu-
ates of universities and university colleges in
order that they might be prepared as teachers,
doctors, and chemists. Permission is given to
women students in each case after a statement
has been made by the university or college in
question and diplomas are issued to them after
a successful completion of the prescribed uni-
versity career In addition to these two uni-
versities, the Minister of Education announced
(1912) a bill to provide for the establishment
of two new universities at Pressburg and
Debreczin, only the former to include a medical
school A royal academy has existed at Press-
burg since 1794, with a faculty of law and polit-
ical science and courses in philosophy. At
Debreczm a Reformed Higher Institution

350

(Hochschule) was established in 1549 and now
has theological, legal, and philosophical faculties
with 277 students in 1910.

The Baron Joseph Eotvos College is a unique
institution at Budapest, the object of which is
to give deserving students of the Budapest
University, who intend to enter the teaching
profession, an opportunity for holding social
intercourse with their fellows and of acquiring
the necessary theoretical and practical knowl-
edge to qualify them for their work. The
college is directly subordinate to the Minister
of Public Instruction, who delegates his au-
thority to the curator For the expert guid-
ance of the resident students four tutors
(chosen by the curator from among the teachers
in the service of the State) are appointed by
the Minister (for periods of three years in ro-
tation) for special duties They are present in
the college during the hours devoted to private
study, to give individual or combined instruc-
tion to the candidates, and, as occasion arises,
to hold special courses of lectures

Higher education in Hungary includes,
further, independent colleges of theology main-
tained by the various religious denominations;
and colleges of law The schools of midwifery
were raised to the rank of state professional
schools by regulations of 1873, and placed
under the control of the Minister of Public
Instruction The Royal Hungarian College
of Mining and Forestry, under the direction
of the Minister of Finance and the Minister of
Agriculture, makes provision for the scientific
education of surveyors of mines, surveyors of
smelting works, and surveyors of forestry It
was attended in 1907 by 355 students, 117 in
the mining department, 238 in the forestry
department Students are admitted by com-
petitive examination, and those who 'fail to
satisfy the rigid requirements for promotion
during the four years' course are eliminated.
Tuition is free; the purpose of the school is to
secure a body of highly trained experts for the
state service of mining and forestry In ad-
dition to the liberal support of higher education,
the State contributes to the maintenance of
the schools of painting and sculpture and the
conservatories of music, which preserve from
age to age the distinctive traits of national art
The following art institutions are under the
immediate direction of the Minister of Public
Instruction, and receive liberal appropriations
annually from the State. The Royal Hun-
garian College of Art is both a school for the
training of teachers of drawing and for the
development of independent artists; the stu-
dents for 1907 numbered 347, of whom ninety
were women; the State grant for the year was
183,080 crowns ($36,616) A special school of
painting for women was established in 1885
under the auspices of the ministry. The an-
nual appropriation for the school is about
21,000 crowns (=$4200). The National
Academy of Music is entirely supported by

HUNT

HUTTEN

the State at an annual expenditure of about
230,000 crowns ($46,000) The Theatrical
School was opened m 1863 in connection with
the National Theater, and m 1873 was put under
the charge of the Minister of Public Instruction.
The age for admission to the school is sixteen
for women and eighteen for men, and only
such pupils are retained as show decided dra-
matic talent The diploma of the school admits
the recipient to membership in the National
Association of Actors In 1907 the State ap-
propriated 82,000 crowns ($16,400) for the
current expenses of the institution A. T. 8.

References —

ALDEN, PERCY (ed ) Hungary of To-day By mem-
bers of the Hungarian Government, etc (Illus )
(London, 1909)

Board of Education (England) Special Reports on
Educational Subjects, Vol VIII, pp 483-540

Congrfcs International d'Enseignement M6nager
Fribourg, les 29 et 30 Soptembre, 1908 Premier
volume Rapports avant le Congret>, pp 51-54

DYMOND, T S Agricultural Industry and Education in
Hungary (Chelmsford, 1902 )

JOST, G Hongne, Croatie et Slavome Revue Peda-
gogique, Vol XXXVIII, pp 272-298, Mar 15,
1901

Hurigarv Vallas-6s kozoktatasligvi Mmistenum Edu-
cation in Hungary (Budapest, 1908 ) (English
edition )
Vallas-6s k6zoktatasugvi Mimsterium UEnseigne-

mint en Hongne (Budapest, 1900)
Vallas-eb kozoktatasugyi Mimsterium (Royal Hun-
garian Ministry of Public Instruction and Worship )
Dan ungansche IJnterrichtbweaen (Budapest, 1877-
1898) 14 vols m 11

Vallas-6s kozoktatasugyi Mmistenum A kirdylyi
magyar egyetemek epuletei Les Bdtimcntb den Um-
verwtes royales hongroises (Budapest, 1900-1908)

Lohrplan der unganschen Gymnasien Lohrplan der
unganschen Realschulen File of La Revue de Hon-
gne

MALTKKOVITK, S Magyarorszdg kozgazdasdgi ev Koz-
rnivelodtn ailapota ezerevus ftnnalldtakor (The
cultural a?id economical situation of Hungary at its
Millennium ) I-IX (Budapest, 1897- 1898 ) French
and German edition in two volumes (the latter en-
titled Das Konigreich Ungarri )

REK-H, EMIL Hungarian Literature (London, 1898 )

SZTER&NJI, JOSEPH L' Enneignement industnel et pro-
fewionel de la Hongne (Budapest, 1900 ) Trans-
lated in abridged form for Report of the Commis-
sioner of Education, 1899-1900, Vol I, pp 865-878

VARUA, J DK Hungary, a Sketch of the Country, its
People, and its Conditions In Hungarian and
English (Budapest, 1907 )

HUNT, MARY HANCHETT (1831-1906).
— Temperance educator , was educated at the
Palapsco Institute, Maryland, and was for
several years instructor of chemistry there
She was the leader of the movement that made
temperance physiology a compulsory part of the
school instruction in the United States She
was the author of thirty textbooks on tem-
perance physiology. W. S. M.

See TEMPERANCE INSTRUCTION IN SCHOOLS

HUNTINGTON, FREDERIC DAN (1819-
1904) — Educational writer, was graduated
from Amheret College in 1839, and later took a
course at the Cambridge Divinity School He
was for five years (1855-1860) a professor in

Harvard College, but, most of his life wah given
to the ministry of the Episcopal Church His
Unconscious Tuition, published originally in
1856, was a notable contribution to the litera-
ture of education, and is still widely read

W. S. M.

HURON COLLEGE, HURON, S D —

A coeducational institution established by the
Presbyterian Synod in 1883 at Pierre as Pierre
University; the title and location were changed
in 1898 Academic, collegiate, commercial,
music, and elocution departments are main-
tained The entrance requirements are equiva-
lent to sixteen points of high school work
The degrees of A B and B S are granted on
the completion of appropriate courses The
faculty consists of twenty-four members

HUTCHESON EDUCATIONAL TRUST,
GLASGOW, SCOTLAND —An endowment
left by George Hutcheson (1550-1639) and
Thomas Hutcheson (1589-1641), public writers
and notaries of Glasgow, and now devoted
largely to educational purposes George Hutche-
Hon left a tenement of land for the building
of " one perfyte hospital for entertainment of
the poor, aged, decrepit men to be maintained
therein," and for its maintenance added bonds
of the value of about $12,000 Thomas Hutche-
son supplemented this by a sum equal to
about £600, and for himself gave bonds amount-
ing to about £12,000 for founding in connec-
tion with the hospital " a commodious and
distinct house of itself for educating arid har-
boring twelve male children, indigent orphans,
or others of the like condition and quality, sons
of burgesses " In 1821 a Royal Charter wats
obtained The scope and purpose of the
endowment was extended, as in the case of
many similar endowments in Scotland, foi
educational purposes In 1876 the school was
extended and a new school was added for girls,
both schools being called Hutchcsons' Gram-
mar School Moderate fees are charged and
a limited number of free foundationers are
admitted

Sec HOSPITAL SCHOOLS

References : —

Dictionary of National Biography, sv Hutcheson, George
and Thomas

STRONG, J A History of Secondary Education in Scot-
land (Oxford, 1909 )

HUTCHINS, JOSEPH (1747-1833) —Text-
book author and college professor, was gradu-
ated from the University of Pennsylvania in
1765, and was for many years professor in
Franklin College His First Principles of
English Grammar (1790) antedated the text-
book by Lindley Murray (q v ) by five years.

W S M

HUTTEN, ULRICH VON (1488-1523).
— German humanist and reformer Of an er-

351

HUXLEY

HUXLEY

ratic and unstable character, living generally
on the generosity of patrons of learning, Ulrich
von Hutten won the admiration and friendship
of many of the humanists whose center was
at Erfurt. Huttcn's chief works were the De
Arte Versificandi, Liber unus (1510), which
gives the rules of Latin prosody in 422 ^hexam-
eters; patriotic poems addressed to Emperor
Maximilian, who gave him the laureate crown
in 1517; orations against Ulrich, duke of
Wurttemberg, who had murdered a relative of
Hutten, and in the last stage of his career,
when he joined the cause of the Reformation,
prose writings arid poems in the vernacular,
in which he was as successful as with Latin
Hutten is credited with an important part
in the publication of the Epistolce Viroium
Obscurorum (q.v ). It is now well established
that in the first part of the letters Hutten had
no share whatever, but he was probably the
chief author of the second part which appeared
in 1517 A man of strong impulses and con-
siderable ability, Ulrich vori Hutten threw him-
self as enthusiastically into the fight for liberal
culture as into the caUvSe of political and re-
ligious freedom

References : —

HouMNfl, E Index Bibliographic^ Huttenianus (Lon-
don, 1858 )

Opera <jua> repcnn potuerunt omnia (Leipzig, 1859-
1861 )

STRAUHH, D F Ulrich von Hutten , tr by Sturge,
G (London, 1874) , also new Gorman edition
(Bonn, 1805)

VOICJT, G Ulnch von Hutten in der deutschen Literatur.
(Leipzig, 1905 )

HUXLEY, THOMAS HENRY (1825-1895).
— Scientist, educational thinker, and social
reformer, was born at Ealmg, near London,
May 4, 1825, the son of a secondary school-
master Briefly educated at Dr Nicholas's
school in Ealmg, whore his father was a teacher
t.ill 1835, Huxley showed an early turn for meta-
physics and for scientific inquiry The lad's
real education came through private reading,
conversation, and intimacy with older people
Anatomical studies and Carlyle's writings on
philosophy and history deeply influenced Hux-
lev during adolescence Admiration for Car-
lyle impelled him to acquire a knowledge of the
German language subsequently invaluable to
him as a scientific thinker In 1841 he went,
a boy of seventeen, as assistant to a medical
man, Mr Chandler, in Rotherhithe Among
the population surrounding the London docks,
he came face to face with the grimmest aspect
of the social problem, and throughout life was
a zealous reformer of social conditions, holding
firmly to the middle way between repressive
collectivism and crippling laissez-faire Studies
at Charing Cross Hospital (especially under
Wharton Jones) completed his medical train-
ing, during which he won brilliant distinction
at the London University. In 1846 he was
appointed assistant surgeon to H.M.S

Rattlesnake, a frigate sent out l>v the Hnli.sh
Admiralty on an exploimg expedition to Nev\
Guinea Thus Huxley, like his intimate
friends, Charles Darwin (q v ) and Joseph
Dalton Hooker, began his scientific career on
board a ship of the British Navy His work on
the Rattlesnake established Huxley's scien-
tific position On his return to London in 1851
(aged twenty-six) he was elected Fellow of the
Royal Society, becoming a member of its
Council and receiving its Royal Medal in 1852
But pure science was long in bringing Huxlev
pecuniary preferment. In 1852 he, like his
friend Tyiidall (q v ), was an unsuccessful
candidate for a professorship at the UmversiU
of Toronto The death of his mother, and
his father's illness, in 1852, combined with his
own failure to find a suitable post, brought him
nearly to despair. He was on the brink of
giving up science and of emigrating to Sydney
as doctor or squatter. In 1854 the tide turned
He was appointed lecturer in the Government
School of Mines in Jermyn Street, London, and
entrusted with coast survey investigations
under the Geological Survey, to which he be-
came naturalist in 1855. He also was ap-
pointed lecturer on comparative anatomy at
St. Thomas' Hospital. Now established, he ^
rapidly rose to eminence in the scientific world

A characteristic of Huxley's writing was his
intimacy with the best current scientific thought
in France and Germany. No earlier English
scientific writer had shown the same European
knowledge Huxley was one of the few who
were initiated by Darwin into the argument of
the Origin of Species before the publication of
the book, which was submitted to the judg-
ment of Huxley, Lyell, and Hooker In Dar-
win's words, he acted as the lattcr's ''general
agent " His famous reply to Bishop Wilboi-
force at the Oxford Meeting of the British
Association in 1860 gave him national fame
In 1862 Huxley began his scientific lectures to
working men No one did so much to secuie
public acceptance for the thesis of natuiui
selection

Huxley as a teacher was magnetic II is
students found his intense love foi science in-
fectious and his lectures memorable As Dean
of the Royal College of Science, London, ho
introduced changes of organisation which are
of historical importance from the point of view
of educational method.

Huxley showed an untiring interest in ques-
tions of education. In 1854 he delivered at
St. Martin's Hall, London, an address on the
Educational Value of the Natural Histonj
Sciences, urging that biology demands a promi-
nent place in any worthy scheme of education
In 1865 he supported the scheme for a group
of international colleges (to be established in
England, France, and Germany, so that a boy
could in turn acquire a sound knowledge of all
three languages while continuing the same
course of education), which had been put f<n-

352

HUXLEY

HYGIENE

ward by Dr Leonhard Schmitz and Richard
Cobden, but was fatally interrupted by the
Franco-German war of 1870 At the same
period he supported Dean Farrar's (q v ) pro-
posals for the introduction of scientific teaching
into the great Public Schools In 1866 he
published Lessons on Elementary Physiology,
a textbook which had great formative influence
upon later educational manuals In 1868 he
addressed tho South London Working Men's
Club on A Liberal Education and Whereto Find
It

In 1870 Huxley published tho Lay Sermons,
a model of style in the accurate populai izution
of scientific thought In tho same year (tho
Elementary Education Act having just boon
passed) he wrote a powerful ossav on The School
Board*, What They Can Do and What They
May Do He was elected a member of the first-
London School Board, and had an almost de-
terminative influence both in planning tho
course of study and m tho retention of the
Bible in tho curriculum Ho advocated infant
schools, continuation schools, technical educa-
tion, and " an educational ladder from tho gut-
tor to tho University " Tho first elements of
physical science wore to bo taught in the schools
" There is no form of knowledge or instruction
in which children take a greater interest "
Girls wore to bo taught the elements of house-
hold work and of domestic economy Physical
training and drill wore to bo part of the regular
business of every school Drawing and music,
as civilizing arts, were also to find a place in
every course of training History, except the
most elementary notions of it, he regarded as
too advanced for children of olomontary school
ago He declared himself "in favor of reading
the Bible, with such grammatical, geogiaphical,
and historical explanations by « lav teacher
as may bo needful, with rigid exclusion of any
further theological teaching than that con-
tained in tho Bible itself" But Huxley was
strongly opposed to any teaching of religious
formularies, c g even the doctrine of tho
Trinity, in olomontary schools aided from pub-
lic funds

Huxley became secretary of the Royal
Society m 1871 and president in 1880 In
1881 he declined tho Linacro Professorship of
Physiology at Oxford and to be nominated for
the mastership of University College, Oxford
Ho refused all titular honors from the State, ex-
cept a Privy ( 'ouucilorship in 1 892 The latter he
accepted because, though incidentally carrying
a title, " it was an office, in virtue of which a
man of science might, m theory at least, be
called upon to act as responsible adviser to the
Government should occasion arise " His con-
nection with the Science and Art Department
from 1854 to 1890 was intimate and loyal. Of
the good which that department did in stimu-
lating scientific study and teaching he was one
of tho chief authors* But ho was not blind to
tho dclocts <>i tho system, payment by results,
VOL in — 2 A 3

which he accepted as the best practicable plan
From 1877 onwards, Huxley was an ardent and
powerful advocate of technical education The
great address given at Manchester in 1887 is a
locus clasfticus of contemporary English thought
on the subject

But he was out of sympathy with modern
developments of English thought as to tho
relation between tho State and secondary
education, holding that, while social wolf are-
justifies a system of compulsory olomontary
education with a rich curriculum, beyond that
individuals must bo left to rise through in-
nate capacity, rather than bo lifted by state1
help into places for which they may have no
real qualification

Since Thomas Arnold, Huxley was perhaps
tho most powerful personality in English edu-
cation Bravo as a paladin, absolutely feai-
less arid disinterested, profoundly learned,
affectionate, humorous, tender, aitistie, at
heart intensely religious, but the implacable foe
of dogmas in which ho did not behove and of
ecclesiastical authority which ho distrusted 01
denied, ho represented at its best a transitional
phase in English speculation and practice* in
tho sphere of ethics and politics Throughout
his life he was a great antiseptic influence m
English thought upon education and tho func-
tions of tho State M E S

For portrait, sec p 621

References : —

TLODD, E Thomas Henty Huxlcij (Now York, 190J )
HUXLEY, L Life ami Letters of Thomas Henry Huxlty

(New York, 1901 )

HUXLEY, T II Evolution and Ethics (Now York, ISWb )
Methods and /intuit* (New York, 181)6)
Science atui Education (New Yoik, 1894)
UmvorsitiPh Actual arid Ideal In Abcrdun Kcctojuil

Addresses (Aberdeen, 1902 )

MITCHELL, I* C Thomas Henry ffuituj, a tikctch of
hi* Life and Work (Oxfoid, 11)00 )

HYGIENE — Hygiene (from vyuwt, In-
giono, health) is usually defined as the science
that treats of the prevention of disease and the
preservation of health It is ospeciallv an
applied science, and, in a certain sense, an ait
It aims, m the words of a modem writer, " to
make growth more perfect, life more vigorous,
decay loss rapid, death more remote " Tho
positive note in this definition of aims is char-
acteristic of recent hygiene It is no longoi
satisfied with the mere attempt to prevent
disease, hut it emphasizes especially the need
of normal healthful development and the ac-
quisition of vigorous habits of health that
shall be prophylactic against disease

The scientific study of hygiene is recent
The attempt to practice hygiene is very old
The art of hygiene is supposed to have begun
with the ancient Egyptians; and a crude mass
of folk traditions representing more or less
clearly the experience and superstitions of the
race in regard to the preservation of health has
come down to us On account of the recency

HYGIENE

HYGIENE, PERSONAL

of the scientific study, a vast amount of error
is mingled with the truths of experience that
have survived But while the scientific method
as applied especially to hygiene is recent, and
the results are still so meager that some in-
vestigators call it the science of the future,
nevertheless the same ideals and the same
methods are employed here as in other parts of
the field of science, and here as elsewhere the
most rigorous scientific experimentation under
controlled conditions and with verification of
results is demanded

The subject of hygiene naturally divides into
personal and public hygiene Hygiene in a
broad sense includes also the study of condi-
tions that favor the healthful development of
the human species (eugenics); the conditions
affecting the health, preservation, and develop-
ment of special races (racial hygiene); and
the conditions that favor the healthful develop-
ment of human society (social hygiene).

Public hygiene has many divisions, on the
one hand, sanitation as regards soil, water, food,
air, cleanliness in general, protection from
disease, care of the dead, the defective, the
feeble-minded, etc ; and on the other hand, the
hygiene of occupations — military hygiene,
naval hygiene, the hygiene of factories, etc.
An introduction to the subject of public hy-
giene is given by such American textbooks as
those of Bergey, Harrington, and Sedgwick,
and the scope of it is shown by Weyl's great
handbook Among these various departments
of public hygiene none is more important than
child hygiene and school hygiene, and the
whole field should interest teachers These
subjects and personal hygiene are treated
b?low in special articles W H B.

SOP EUGENICS; HYGIENE, PERSONAL; HY-
GIENE, SCHOOL; HYGIENE, TEACHING OF

References : —

ABBOTT, A C The Hygiene of Transmissible Diseases*

2d ed (Philadelphia, 1901 )

BERGEY, D H The Principles of Hygiene. (Phila-
delphia, 1906 )
HLYTH, A W Manual of Public Health. (New York,

1890)
HARRINGTON, C A Manual of Practical Hygiene for

Students, Physicians, and Medical Officers. (New

York, 1901 )
LEHMANN, K. B Die Methoden der praktischen Hy-

Uienc (Wiesbaden, 1901 )

M KPFIE, R C Air and Health (London, 1909 )
N OTTER, J L , and FIRTH, R H Theory and Practice

of Hygiene (London, 1908 )
\USSBAUM, C Leitfaden dcr Hygiene fur Techniker,

Verwaltungsbeamte und Studierende dieser Facher

(Munich, 1902 )
P \RKRH, L C , and KENWOOD, H R Hygiene and

Public Health 4th ed (Philadelphia, 1911 )
RUBNER, M Lehrbuch der Hygiene (Leipzig, 1907 )
SALEEBY, C W Health, Strength, and Happiness; a Book

of Practical Advice (New York, 1908 )
SEDGWICK, W T The Principles of Sanitary Science

and the Public Health (New York, 1902 )
STEVENSON, T , and MURPHY, S F A Treatise on Hy-

(fiene and Public Health (Philadelphia, 1892 )
UFFELMANN, .1 Handburh dcr Hygiene (Wieii, 1890 )
WKYL. T Hatuihuch dei Hygiene (Jenu, 1893 )

10 vols und Supplement, 4 vols , 1901-1904

Periodicals —

Archiv fur Hygiene Herausgegeben von M Qrubner.
(Munich, 1896- )

Deutsche Vierteljahrschrift fur offenthche Gcsundheits-
pflege Herausgcgeben von F Adickes (Bruns-
wick, 1896- )

Journal of Hygiene G H F Nuttall, editor (Cam-
bridge, 1901-1910 )

Journal of the American Public Health Association B
R Rickards, editor (Urbana, 111 , 1904- )

Journal of the Royal Sanitary Institute Edward Stan-
ford, editor. (London, 1899- )

HYGIENE OF GRADING. — See GRADING,
HYGIENE OF.

HYGIENE OF INSTRUCTION. — See HY-
GIENE, SCHOOL.

HYGIENE, PERSONAL — Personal hv-
giene consists of two important parts, somatic
hygiene and mental hygiene. On account of
the great individual differences in strength,
endurance, ability to work and to resist disease,
the problem in both these fields must be an
individual one The solution is of vital im-
portance, especially for the teacher, not onlv for
the preservation of the teacher's own health,
but for the right performance of one's profes-
sional work and to enable one to set a proper
example before one's pupils. Mental hygiene
is quite as important for the teacher as somatic
hygiene, and the teachings of mental hygiene
and the hygiene of instruction are so important
for sound education that for pedagogical as-
well as hygienic reasons the teacher cannot
ignore them

The subject has also important social aspects
In its wider sense personal hygiene IM the very
basis of disease prevention and health preser-
vation. All plans for community or national
freedom from disease must rest upon and
depend upon the care with which the individual
members of society settle their problems in
personal hygiene If every member of anv
given social unit would persistently apply his
rights of franchise in favor of more stringent
and effective laws of hygiene and sanitation, the
problems of personal hygiene would be far
easier The difficulties of personal health
control are largely difficulties which are of a
community origin. The transgressions of one
member of a community are visited upon the
jives of his innocent fellow citizens Equity
in matters of this kind is secured only through
law backed by strong popular sentiment
Then, if every member of any given social unit
is protected from hygienic or sanitary injury
inflicted by his fellow citizens, he may organize
his policy of personal health control with every
prospect of success Under such circumstances
it would be possible to develop a community in
which each member practiced intelligent habits
of bodily nourishment, supervising the food he
would eat, the food he would drink, and the
food he would breathe; intelligent habits of
excretion; intelligent habits of exercise, in-

354

HYGIENE, PERSONAL

HYGIENE, SCHOOL

telhgent habits of rest, and intelligent habits
of cleanliness. Men of such habits are men of
health, men of strength, men of efficiency
A community or a nation with such habits
would have solved the problem of prevention
of disease and have conserved its resources in
terms of human life, human happiness, and
human prosperity, with all that such conserva-
tion means economically, socially, and politi-
cally

Another very important relationship of
personal hygiene is its relationship to intellec-
tual efficiency The uncorrect/ed, incapacitat-
ing, remediable physical defects of school
children, the time lost through absences due to
preventable disease, the paralyses and other
organic degenerations following the preventable
diseases and leaving chronic incurable condi-
tions obstructive of further mental develop-
ment and destructive of that already attained,
the disturbed home conditions producing ner-
vous strain, poverty, undernourishment, and
lowered resistance, following parental disease
or death, arc all samples of serious avoidable
and preventable conditions affecting the in-
tellectual activities of school children If the
personal hygiene of school children and the
personal hygiene of the communities in which
they live were what they ideally ought to be
arid what they could be, these destructive
conditions could not exist

Furthermore, the aggressively healthy child
is the most efficient child academically as well
as physically considered, The teacher that is
working with sound healthy minds will secure
larger educational results than under less nor-
mal conditions This fact is effectively proven
by the experiences of our open-air schools, the
introduction of school lunches, the progress of
pupils who have been relieved of incapacitating
physical defects, and the studies of men who
have compared schools and school children
representing various types of physiological
health.

The Scope of Personal Hygiene — In its
narrower sense, personal hygiene has been
construed as including only those physiological
and anatomical arid very intimate personal
relationships and habits which are obviously
personal. Such a conception would bring the
following topics under the heading of " Per-
sonal Hygiene". Care of the clothing, skin,
scalp, nails, eyes, ears, nose, teeth, mouth,
throat, heart, lungs, alimentary canal, genito-
urinary organs, bones, joints, brain and nervous
system, food, water, ventilation, tea, coffee,
alcohol, and tobacco In some texts " first aid
to the injured " (q v ) is included

A wider construction of the scope of personal
hygiene includes everything that bears upon
the health of the human body. (See
HYGIENE, TEACHING OF ) Such a scope
would include the various subtopics connected
directly and indirectly with the following sub-
jects. ' Bodily nourishment, including food,

water, and air, the excretions, exercise,
rest; the influence of abnormal conditions on
health (e g. defective vision, bad teeth, ade-
noids, constipation), the influence of certain
habits on health (e g. rapid eating, bad habits
of vision, smoking, drug habits, sexual habits,
etc ) , the causes of disease ; the carriers of
disease, our defenses against disease, and the
nature of our common diseases

Personal hygiene considered from this point
of view would be rational and comprehensive
Its relationship to sex hygiene (q v ) domestic
hygiene, school hygiene, medical inspection
(q.v.), school nursing, community hygiene,
industrial hygiene, military, naval, and national
hygiene is obvious These special divisions of
hygiene are important because they represent
personal hygiene under special conditions
The hygiene of all society and of all the enter-
prises of society depends upon the hygiene of
the individual. On the other hand, the in-
dividual is more than powerless unless society
as a whole stands for such regulations arid such
customs as will make possible, easy, and prac-
tical the application of the laws of health

T. A. S. and W. H B.

For methods of instruction and content of the
subject see HYGIENE, TEACHING OF

References : —

BLAIKIE, WM How to Get Strong and How to Keep so
(New York, 1899 )

CLOUBTON, T S. Hygiene of Mind. (London, 1900 )

FOREL, A H Hygiene of Nerves and Mind in Health
and Disease Authorized translation from the
second German edition by H A Aikins (New
York, 1907 )

GALBKAITH, A M Personal Hygiene and Physical
Training for Women (Philadelphia, 1911 )

GREENE, C A The Art of Keeping Well (New Yoik,
1906)

GXJLICK, L H The Efficient Life (New York, 1907 )

HOUGH, TH and SKDUWICK, W T The Human Mech-
anism, its Physiology and Hygiene and the Sanitation
of its Surroundings (Boston, 1906 )

LB BOSQUET, M Personal Hygiene (Chicago, 1907.)

PYLE, W L A Manual of Personal Hygiene (Phila-
delphia, 1907 )

SCHMIDT, F A U riser Korper, Handbuch der Anatomic,
Physiologic, und Hygiene der Leibesubungen (Leip-
zig, 1903 )

STOREY, T A Individual Instruction in Personal Hy-
giene Proceedings of the Fifth Congress of the Amer-
ican School Hygiene Association, February, 1911,
pp 149-152

WOODHULL, A A Personal Hygiene (New Yoik,
1906)

HYGIENE^ SCHOOL —School hygiene, one
of the most important departments of public
hygiene, is concerned with the conditions of
health in the schoolroom and the sanitation
of the school surroundings During the last
fifty years the scientific method has been more
and more employed in this field, and a solid
nucleus of scientific fact has been collected A
rich literature has been contributed in the form
of articles not only in the special periodicals
devoted to the subject, in reports, proceedings
of societies, and the like, but in the archives of
Hygiene, of Medicine, Physics, Ps\ ecology,

355

HYGIENE, SCHOOL

HYGIENE, SCHOOL

Anthropology, and even in those of Architec-
ture and Engineering, as well as in the edu-
cational journals The three large German
handbooks, by Bagmsky and Janke, Burger-
stein and Netolitzky, and Eulenberg and
Bach, show the scope of the work already done;
and the little textbooks by Shaw, Kotelmann,
and others, furnish convenient cornpends of
the elementary facts and principles

The history of the development of the subject
IB interesting, but can be briefly told The
anci?nt (?reeks, with their emphasis upon
physical training in early education and the
important treatises by Philostratus, Lucian,
and Onbasius, were pioneers in school hygiene
While in the Middle Ages hygiene was largely
ignored by writers and teachers, with the
Renaissance came a new interest in health and
physical development Vittormo made play
and hardy nurture a prominent feature in his
school Luther emphasized the need of physi-
cal exercise Comenms insisted on spacious
classrooms, playgrounds, physical training,
sound health as a condition of a sound mind,
and the adaptation of instruction to the pupil's
htage of development The Jesuits practiced
hygiene in their schools, and the reformers like
Locke, Rousseau, and Basedow preached it
School hygiene in the modern sense began with
the founders of gymnastics, — Guts Muths,
Jahn, and Ling, — and with the work of phy-
sicians like Frank and Lonnser, and was placed
upon a solid foundation by the special studies
of a long line of investigators from Lang, Zwez,
Fahrner, Von PettenkofTer, Cohn, and 'Bar-
nard, down to the present time

School hygiene draws its facts from many
sources, and naturally it overlaps other related
subjects, such as general hygiene, sanitary en-
gineering, medicine, child hygiene, etc The
subject naturally divides into three parts —
the construction and sanitation of the school-
house, the hygiene of the school child, and the
hygiene of instruction All of these are, of
course, ultimately concerned with the health
of the child, but the classification is a conven-
ient one The aim of all of these is positive,
the development in the school child of habits
of healthful activity Especially and directly
is this true of the last two divisions — the
hygiene of the school child and the hygiene of
instruction

Hygiene of the School Child — Child hy-
giene in an important sense is a special subject
because the child's body differs from that of the
adult The hygiene of the school child de-
mands special consideration because of the
special work required in the school. It is
based upon the character of the child's body
and the laws of growth, and it seeks to deter-
mine the needs and to avoid the dangers of
each stage of development Hence among the
important contributions to school hygiene in
the last twenty- five years have been many
scientific studies of growth and development, of

the diseases and abnormalities of school chil-
dren, and of the defects of the various sense
organs Thus the relation of physical develop-
ment to intelligence, the incidence of disease
by years, by grades, by seasons, by months of
the school year, the relation of defects to school
progress, etc Methods of detecting and
controlling contagious diseases have been in-
vestigated, and certain important correlations
have already been established By the intro-
duction of health inspection into the public
schools in recent years not only is the impor-
tance of school hygiene emphasized, but a large
amount of valuable material for the study of
the subject is being collected The school
should be made the most important factor in
public hygiene; for in it practically all the
children are collected, and conditions can be
controlled in the interests of health The prime
importance of this part of school hygiene for
the teacher is obvious (See CONTAOIOUR
DISEASES; EAR , EXCLUSION FROM SCHOOL ,
EYE ; MEDICAL INSPECTION, etc )

Hygiene of Instruction — While this de-
partment of school hygiene may be said to have
begun with the Greeks and been treated by Com-
cnius, it has been developed only in recent years.
It is now so important, however, that Burger-
stem devotes some four hundred pages to it in the
second edition of his handbook, and each year
brings important new contributions It em-
phasizes the hygienic importance of the mental
habits formed by education and of the secondary
effects of instruction, and it studies every edu-
cational principle and method and the matter
of instruction from the point of view of hygiene
Thus each. subject of instruction is considered
with regard to the effect of the discipline on
health (See articles on the Hygiene of ARITH-
METIC, READING, DRAWING, SPELLING, SING-
ING, etc )

The many problems concerned with the
period of study — fatigue, the best alternation
of periods of work and rest, the length of the
school day, one session or two, recesses, pauses,
etc. — have all been made the subject of
scientific investigation The importance of
this newer field of school hygiene is seen when
one considers the fact that an important means
of curing nervous and mental disorder is re-
education, the development of healthful habits
of mental activity — wholesome interests,
habits of attention, self-control, and orderly
association — in fact, the very habits that are
essential for hygienic school work. And when
one further reflects that the inmates of such
institutions were a few years ago pupils in the
public schools, the advantage of developing
such habits as prophylactic against nervous and
mental breakdown is obvious More and
more scientific investigation and observation
are showing the hygienic importance of such
mental training; and the hygiene of instruc-
tion has become of vital significance to the
teacher

356

HYGIENE, SCHOOL

HYGIENE, TEACHING OI<

The Construction, Equipment, and Sanita-
tion of the Schoolhouse. — First of all the
sanitary surroundings of the schoolhouse have
been made the subject of investigation The
schoolroom is a workshop The conditions
must be made hygienic for the work to be
done in it The work required is performed
chiefly by the brain, by the eye, and ear, arid
by the hand under the control of the eye and
the brain Thus the conditions necessary are
not merely the avoidance of whatever would
be injurious, — a stagnant, poisonous, and, or
overheated atmosphere, too intense light, glare
from surrounding buildings, noisy occupations,
unsuitable rooms, etc , but in every way the
optimum conditions for such work — especially
abundant and properly regulated light and an
ample supply of oxygen So important is the
condition last mentioned both for the health
of the pupils and the work to be done that the
desirability of schools out of doors, or in con-
ditions approximating those out of doors, is
now being emphasized Since in most parts of
the country, howevei, a large amount oi indoor
work seems necessary on account of inclement
weather, it is becoming more and more impor-
tant to provide hygienic conditions in the school-
room

Thus this department of school hygiene is
concerned first of all with the optimum condi-
tions for a workshop where the laborers are
growing children and the labor brain work
Architectural and artistic considerations are
important, but secondary First of all must be
considered the health of the workers For
example, the unit m a schoolhouse is the school-
room, and the size of the room should be de-
termined by consideration of the average hunts
of normal sight and hearing, and the problem
of construction is that of grouping a sufficient
number of such units in a schoolhouse in a
convenient way to give suitable light, air, etc
Many scientific studies have been made of the
best forms of construction, and of methods of
heating, ventilation, lighting, etc., and from
these and the experience in building millions of
schoolhouses certain definite norms for con-
struction have been established If we could
bring together into one schoolhouse all the good
features that are actually incorporated in
various schoolhouses throughout the country,
features which actual experience has shown to
be of practical utility, we should have a model
schoolhouse Most schoolhouses, however, are
seriously defective in certain aspects, and some
apparently ignore modern hygiene altogether.

W. H. B.

See articles on ARCHITECTURE, SCHOOL ;
HEATING; VENTILATION; LIGHTING, etc.

References : —

ALLEN, W H Civics and Health (Boston, 1909.)
BAQINBKY, A Handbuch der Schulhygiene. 3d od.

(Berlin, 1900 )
BARRY, W F The Hygiene of the Schoolroom (New

York, 1904 )

BUWJWKHTKJN, JL.und NKTOLIT/KI, .) A Handbuch der
Schulhygieru (Jena, 1(J02 )

BURNHAM, W H Outlines of School Hygiene Pcd
Sem, 1892 Vol 2, pp 9-71

BURRAGE, 8 ,and BAILEY, H. T School Sanitation ami
Decoration (Boston, 1S9() )

DREBHLAR, F B American School ho aaca United
StatcH Bureau of Education Bulletin (Wash-
ington, 1911 )

EOLENBERG, H , und BACH, T Schulgesundkeihlchn
Das Schulhaus and dan Untemchtswesen ootn hi/-
gtemxchen Standpunkte (Berlin, 1906 )

FURST, M , und PPBIFPBB, E Schulhygiemsches 7V; s-
chenbuch (Hamburg, 1907 )

HOPE and BROWN Manual of School Hygiene (Cam-
bridge, 1901 )

KOTELMANN, L W J S(hool Hygiene, tr by .1 A
Bergstron» and E Conradi (Syracuse, 1899 )

LINCOLN, D F School and industrial Hygiene Phila-
delphia, 1880 )

SHAW, E R School Hygiene (New York, 1901 )

WEHMER, R Enzyklojtfidischeti Handbuch der Schul-
hygiene (Vienna, 1CK)4 )

YOUNG, A Cl. School Hygiene and School Houses
Seoenth Annual K( port of the Maine Statt Board of
Health, August, 1892
Journal* and Report* —

ArnerKcin Physical Education Review J II MeOurdv,
(Springfield, Mass , 18% )

American School Hygiene Axso( lalwn Procccdi nfj\, 1 907—

7)«« Schulhau*. Fachleute von K VaiiMelow (Berlin,
1899- )

I Internationalen Kongress fUr S< hulhygiene /{<-
ruht (Nurnberg, 1904 )

II International Congress on School Hygiene Ttan-
Mictiona (London, 1907 )

III Congrea International d'Hygiene S< oLure Com pit
Kendu (Pans, 1911 )

Internationales Archivfur Sehulhijutene llcransgegeben

von A JohanneBsen, Munich, 190.5
School Hygiene Ur Eder, editoi, London, 1410-
Zeit8chnfl fdr Scnulgt^undheit^pfltgt HcniiiNgegchen

von Dr Stepham (Hamburg, 1888 )

HYGIENE, SOCIAL —See SEX HYGIENE

HYGIENE, TEACHING OF — The im-
portance of the teaching of hygiene can hardly
be overestimated. Health represents a uni-
versal human interest Its importance can be
estimated only in terms of human value
Efficiency, to adopt the modern slogan, is
impossible without it Both directly as con-
tributing to personal well-being and mdnecth
as contributing to the welfare of others, health
is a prime condition of human happiness and
even of morality. Such truths, which are so
commonplace as to be merely platitudes,
should not only be taught to the young, but
should be made vital by training Hence the
aim of education from the point of view7 of
hygiene is the development of habits of health-
ful activity both physical and mental This
training in habits of health should be supple-
mented by suitable instruction at different
grades To insure such training and such
instruction, an adequate course in hygiene and
proper training are imperative in the prepara-
tion of all teachers This is the consensus of
hygiemsts, and a resolution to emphasize this
need was passed by the Second International
Congress of School Hygiene at London, 1907

Instruction in Hygiene in the Schools —
The extent to which instruction in the pnn-

367

HYGIENE, TEACHING OF

HYGIENE, TEACHING OF

ciples and practice of hygiene has been intro-
duced into the schools of the United States is
indicated by the recent investigations of the
American School Hygiene Association. Mey-
lan reported on 116 colleges, of which 75 per
cent were giving instruction in hygiene.
Twenty-six per cent of the colleges reporting
on the details of their work were giving instruc-
tion in personal hygiene only; 24 per cent were
giving instruction in general hygiene; others
reported in smaller percentages that instruction
is being given in emergencies, community
hygiene, industrial hygiene, and mental hy-
giene. Seventy-nine per cent of these colleges
reported that students were required to undergo
a medical examination before taking up their
work Seventy-nine per cent reported regular
sanitary inspections of school buildings and
dormitories; 77 per cent inspected kitchens;
83 per cent inspected the water supply and
grounds Twenty per cent of these colleges
accepted hygiene as a credit for admission

Guhck reported on 90 public normal schools
and on 2392 public high schools Seventy-
four per cent of the normal schools and 16 per
cent of the high schools were giving instruc-
tion in hygiene At the last Congress of the
American School Hygiene Association, Gulick
reported on 758 cities having graded public
school systems He found that 45 per cent of
those cities "have regular organized systems of
medical inspection in their schools " and
" about one quarter of the cities have systems
under the Board of Health " and three quarters
are under the Board of Education " Only a
little more than one half of them undertake phys-
ical examinations " Seventy-six of those cities
were employing school nurses, and forty-eight,
school dentists (See MEDICAL INSPECTION.)
Twenty-five per cent of those cities were using
individual drinking cups, and 75 per cent had
sanitary drinking fountains. (In some of the
cities both systems were in use ) "Over one
half of these schools use moist cloths for dust-
ing, in nearly all of them dust-absorbing corn-
pounds are used m sweeping; and in nearly
a tenth of them the schools are supplied with
vacuum cleaners " Most of these cities re-
ported that their schoolroom floors were washed
once in a month or once in three months^ " al-
though it is by no means rare to find cities in
which they are washed once in five months or
never washed at all." Adjustable 'desks are
reported m about one half of the cities heard
from " Ninety-five per cent of the cities teach
their children the effects of alcohol and tobacco ;
61 per cent have special courses on the preven-
tion and cure of tuberculosis, and 48 per cent
give lessons in first aid." It is very evident from
these reports that a large number of the larger
cities in the United States have made provision
for instruction in the principles of hygiene and
have organized systems of medical and hygienic
supervision which must be more or less effective
in establishing the practice of hygiene.

Europe, Canada, Australia, New Zealand,
Japan, China, Mexico, and Argentina are re-
ported as having plans for various improve-
ments in school hygiene. Medical inspection,
school nurses, open air schools, school lunches,
school dental clinics are being reported from the
larger cities all over the world. On the other
hand, little is being said about the introduction
of hygiene into the curricula of the schools
It is difficult to introduce a new subject into
the school curriculum School curricula every-
where are already overcrowded, and it has
been difficult to secure time and opportunity
for the instruction of pupils in the principles
and practice of hygiene in the primary and
secondary schools France has provided some
instruction in her primary schools The
teacher gives this very elementary instruction
as a minor part of his regular work The
higher schools have more advanced instruc-
tion given by the teacher or professor of nat-
ural history The English Parliament (May,
1911), considered a bill "to require that in
public elementary schools instruction shall be
given in hygiene and to girls in the care and
feeding of infants," and the Education Board
issued syllabuses on these subjects. The status of
instruction in hygiene m the secondary schools
of the British Isles was stated by C E Shelly
at the International Congress on School Hy-
giene, London, 1907 (see Proceeding s,p 919) as
follows' "It cannot be said that hygiene has
any existence as a recognized subject of instruc-
tion in the Secondary Schools of this country
with the exception of a certain number of
training schools for teachers " No instruction
in hygiene is required by law in Russia The
instruction that is given is given voluntarily,
arid is optional The same condition is general
throughout Europe Attempts have been
made in Germany to provide school instruction
in sex hygiene (qv.). At last reports the au-
thorities repressed the effort Austria is at
present giving such instruction in connection
with anatomy to pupils in the preparatory
schools. This plan has been in operation
three years It is reported that recently this
instruction has been extended to the lower
Austrian schools so that pupils who leave at the
age of fourteen years will have had its benefit

Scope of a Course in Hygiene. — Authorities
differ as to the proper content of a course in
the principles of hygiene. The older texts
combined a study of anatomy and physiology
with a study of the influences that act injuri-
ously upon the organs and therefore upon their
physiological activities Some of the later
texts minimize the amount of anatomy and
physiology presented and emphasize the presen-
tation of more purely hygienic material.

Leaving out of consideration the essential
value of an intelligent knowledge of the main
facts of human anatomy and physiology, there
remain obviously very strong reasons why an
intelligent knowledge of hygiene is impossible

358

HYGIENE, TEACHING OF

HYGIENE, TEACHING OF

without an equally intelligent knowledge of
anatomy and physiology The teacher must
be well informed in these fundamentals, for he
cannot afford to be ignorant of the basis of his
subject. The pupil must necessarily be con-
tent to take many things for granted, but his
hygienic education will be more valuable in the
proportion in which it is based on a real knowl-
edge of its scientific basis The amount of
time necessary to give an adequate knowledge of
physiology and anatomy will depend on whether
or not physiology is taught elsewhere in the
curriculum as well as on the age of the pupil
and on the phase of hygiene under considera-
tion

There are different points of view also con-
cerning the content of elementary, intermediate,
and advanced courses in their relation to each
other A common plan is to consider the same
subject matter year after year, going more
deeply into the details each time The oppos-
ing plan is to take up new phases of hygiene
each term, utilizing at the same time the facts
already presented Another variation ITI the
conception of the proper content of a course m
hvgiene is that which includes procedures cal-
culated to develop the practice of hygiene
Habit is most important We must have the
knowledge, but the knowledge is of little use if
it is not applied in the daily habits of the in-
dividual The procedures that tend to develop
habits of hygiene are physical exercise (games,
sports, plays), swimming bathing, tooth-brush
drills, hygienic and medical inspection with the
correction of bad habits of hygiene and of reme-
diable incapacitating physical defects, routine
exclusions for contagious cases and cases ex-
posed to contagious disease This conception
combines instruction in the principles of hygiene
with instruction in the practices of hygiene It
unites classroom instruction with the applica-
tions of hygiene in the various departments and
divisions of the school

It is most desirable from the standpoint of
educational method and effective results to
combine the essentials of related anatomy and
physiology with a carefully graded sequence of
hygienic subjects, at the same time insisting
on the practice of health habits and procedures
from those of simple cleanliness and exercise up
to those of individual relief from the handicap
of physical defect and those of community
protection against communicable disease

Methods of Instruction in Hygiene. — There
is the same necessity for sound educational
methods in presenting the subject of hygiene to
school children or college students as there is
in the presentation of any other subject taught
them The object of this instruction in hy-
giene is the establishment of right habits of
living based upon a rational knowledge of the
reasons why those habits are right The sub-
ject is essentially scientific in its foundations
and logical in its application All the argu-
ments that have been advanced in support of

better educational methods of teaching scien-
tific subjects and all the arguments that have
been advanced in support of educational
methods that will best develop the power of
reasoning are arguments in favor of the em-
ployment of the best educational methods in
the teaching of hygiene The subjects which
are basal to hygiene, such as physiology, anat-
omy, and bacteriology, should be taught by
the methods that have been found most effec-
tive for those subjects The need for dissec-
tions, models, illustrations, diagrams, charts,
specimens gross and histologic, arid clay mold-
ing in anatomy; of illustrations, references, labo-
ratory experiments, and so on in physiology, of
cultures, experiments, and specimens in bac-
teriology is as important when these subjects
are a part of a course in hygiene as they are
when they are independent

The curricula of our schools are already
overcrowded The addition of hygiene as a
complete subject means a large addition. For
these reasons there are very few schools in
which hygiene is presented in anything like its
complete form The commonest school method
is that which utilizes a selected textbook from
which the pupils prepare their recitations
Charts, diagrams, illustrations, and practical
questions accompany the recitations Where
departments of biology exist, or where physi-
ology or bacteriology is taught, these sub-
jects are often made to cover hygiene or
various parts of it Many of our high schools
and colleges are placing hygiene in the Depart-
ment of Physical Education, where it has a
peculiar appropriateness A good deal of
hygiene is taught by the medical inspectors
and nurses in some of those schools that have
an efficient system of medical inspection

Teaching of Hygiene in the Primary Grades
— The young child on entering school brings
with him the habits of hygiene which have been
taught him at home. If his mother has taught
him good habits of eating, good habits of ex-
cretion, good habits of bathing, good habits of
exercise, arid good habits of rest, the problem
of his hygienic instruction during his elementarv
years in school is much simplified In fact, he
has already received a quality of instruction
which from the standpoint of his physiological
well-being and efficiency will never be surpassed
at any other time in his life As a rule, how-
ever, the young child on entering school, par-
ticularly the city child, is in need of more or
less forceful instruction in the habits of hygiene,
and has a faulty knowledge of even the simpler
principles of hygiene The individual need for
and the character of instruction must be deter-
mined by the teacher or authorities in charge.
It is obvious that such matters as cleanliness
of the body and wearing apparel, care of the
teeth, eyes, ears, nose, hair, and nails, habits of
play, excretion, and posture, will figure promi-
nently in this early instruction. The teacher
will have profitable recourse to informal talks,

359

HYGIENE, TEACHING OF

HYGIENE, TEACHING OF

IHM'SOIIM! talkis, mul the use of simple charts,
pictures, diagrams There should be hygienic
and medical examinations supported by a
requirement that reaHonable hygienic and
medical advice munt be respected This com-
bined instruction in principles and practices of
hygiene will tend even at a very early age to
establish principles and practices in the thoughts
and acts of the child.

The Teaching of Hygiene in the Grades and
in the High School —Throughout the later
work in the grades and in the high school there
should be the same careful correlation between
the instruction in the principles of hygiene on
the one hand and the procedures and conditions
of applied hygiene and sanitation on the other
hand as they exist in the school system, its
buildings, grounds, and material equipment.
The educational influences from these various
sources should be harmonious. There should
be no inconsistencies be.twcen general scientific
hygienic principle and local hygienic practice
The subject matter in any given course in hy-
giene should include particularly the hygienic
features connected with the health problems
which occur in the daily lives of the individuals
concerned Such a course would logically
include the following topics Food, its physio-
logical importance and requirements; its
source, its contaminations, its preparation,
its mgestion , the influences of emotional states
on its digestion, its assimilation and its excre-
tion Water, its physiological importance;
its contamination Air, its physiological impor-
tance, its contaminations, its alterations under
various meteorological conditions, ventilation
The excretions, their physiological significance;
care of the bowels , the kidneys , the skin , the
lungs Physical exercise, its importance, its
necessity, its varieties; its abuse Rest;
mental and physical rest, relative rest and
recreation, sleep The influence of abnormal
conditions on health, eg defective vision,
obstructed breathing, adenoids, tonsils, de-
fective and unclean teeth, diseased gums,
sluggish ulcers, wounds and old areas of irrita-
tion , exposures to heat, to cold, to moisture and
to drafts, fatigue The effects of bad habits on
health; e y rapid eating, mouth breathing;
unwise use of the eyes, sex habits, the abuse
of tea, coffee, alcohol and tobacco, opium and
cocaine habits. The causes of disease, such as
pathogenic bacteria and other parasites The
carriers of disease, such as the fly, the mos-
quito, the flea, the rat, and careless human
beings Our defenses against disease, such as
fresh air, sunshine, cleanliness, and good health
Special hygiene, such as domestic hygiene,
municipal hygiene, community hygiene, indus-
trial hygiene, school hygiene, "sex hygiene."
First aid to the injured, and the care and
feeding of infants

Legal Requirements. — In most city school
systems special emphasis is laid on the un-
hygienic influences of alcohol and tobacco A

number of stale legislatui<is have enacted laws
requiring such instruction in the schools of the
state The importance of this instruction is
great No course m hygiene can be complete
without including a discussion of alcohol and
tobacco There is, however, a question as to
the wisdom of specifying through state law that
these subjects be included unless the law is
made to cover in addition other equally impor-
tant subjects such as dental hygiene, the hy-
giene of alimentation, pathogenic bacteria, the
fly and the mosquito as carriers of disease,
spitting, and so on Emphasizing the impor-
tance of instruction concerning the unhygienic
effects of alcohol and tobacco through legal
procedure must inevitably make other senouslv
important phases of hygiene seem to be a
matter of secondary consideration See ALCO-
HOL; TEMPERANCE, INBTRUCTION IN

Instruction in the Training School for
Teachers — The hygiene taught in the training
school for teachers should include instruction
in anatomy, physiology, bacteriology, and
certain phases of sociology Special emphasis
should be placed on the instruction in school
hygiene, domestic hygiene, municipal and
community hygiene, industrial hygiene, and
certain of the general features of military hy-
giene and sanitation In addition to the special
topics noted in tins paper for instruction in the
grades and high school, the normal school
should cover the following topics in school
hygiene: the school site, buildings, and play-
grounds, the material equipment, including
benches, blackboards, lighting, ventilation, heal ,
water, toilets, accommodations foi exei cise, rest ,
and eating; school supplies, such as pencils,
books, chalk, apparatus and utensils; the stand-
ardization of schoolbooks , systems of cleaning,
such as moist wiping, special sweeping, vacuum
cleaning, periodical and special fumigation, and
antiseptic cleaning; the food, dress, weight, and
morbidity of school children, the fatigue ol
school children; infectious diseases and school
epidemics, the ears, eyes, noses, throats, teeth,
and mouths of school children, nervous condi-
tions, cripples, defectives, arid the morbid and
criminally inclined T. A S

Sec HYGIENE, PERSONAL, HYGIENE, SCHOOL

References : —

BURNHAM, W H The Hygiene of the Kindergarten

Kindergarten Review, Vvl XIX, No 10, pp 590-.5W
CABOT, R C. The Problem of Teaching Sex Hygiene

Proceedings of the American School Hygiene Axm>-

ciaiion, Vol III
ELIOT, C W, School Instruction in Sex Hygiene

Praceedings of the American School Hygiene AHKOCHI-

tion,Vo\ III
GARTNER, A Hvgiene-unterrieht in Sehulen und

Semmaren Sctiulhygienuches Taschenbuch, pp

290-297. (Leipzig, 1907 )
GULICK, L H Status of Physical Education in Ninety

Public Normal Schools and 2392 Public High

Schools in the United States. Proceedings of the

American School Hygiene Association, Vol. II
What American Cities are Doing for the Health of

School Children Proceedings of the American

School Hygiene Association, Vol HI.

360

IIYMEH'S COLLEGE

HYPEILESTHESIA

HINEH, L N Some Suggestion*; for a Course of Study
m Hygiene Proceeding* of the American School
Hygiene Association, Vol III

MEYLAN, G L Instruction in Hygiene in Colleges
and Universities Proceedings of the American
School Hygiene Association, Vol II

STOHEY, T. A Individual instruction in Personal Hy-
giene Proceedings of the American School Hygiene
Association, Vol III

HYMER'S COLLEGE, HULL —Sec
GRAMMAR SCHOOL, ENGLISH, COLLEGE, ENG-
LISH; PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

HYPJBSTHESIA, or HYPOJESTHESIA —

The decrease in ability to appreciate stimuli
The term is applicable to all forms of sensation,
including vision, hearing, taste and smell, as
well as touch, pressure, and pain, but is com-
monly applied onlv to the latter group of sen-
sations Since special words are employed to
describe the decreased ability in vision, in
hearing, in smell, in taste, in temperature
sensations, and in pain, it is customary and the
best usage (although the custom is not always
adhered to) to restrict the use of the simple
terms ending in -testhesia 0 c an-, hyper-, and
hvposBhthosia) to the pressure-like sensations
such as those of touch and pressure S. I. F.
See ANALGESI\, ANESTHESIA, HYPERES-

THES1A

HYPALGESIA, or HYPOALGESIA —

The decreased ability to appreciate painful
stimuli See ANALGESIA, ANAESTHESIA

HYPATIA OF ALEXANDRIA — One of

the most eminent women teachers of antiquity,
and one of the ablest of the later Greeks In
spite of her remarkable position and the somber
tragedy of her death, few passages relating to
her survive, but they uniformly ascribe to her
an exceptional distinction for culture and in-
fluence no less than beauty arid virtue She
was probably born between 360 and 370.
Suidas says that she nourished under Arcadms
(395-408) Philostorgius places her story in the
reign of Valens (364-378); and John Malalas
describes her as an " aged woman " at the time
of her death (416). Her father, Theon, was a
distinguished teacher of astronomy and mathe-
matics at the Museum. Two of his many
works still survive. But the daughter, Suidas
says, surpassed her father in ability, and went
on from mathematics to philosophy She
wore the philosopher's cloak, and expounded
Plato, Aristotle, and " the other philosophers''
(probably Neoplatonist) to large bodies of
students The statement that she taught on
the street seems to be a misinterpretation.
The article in the Lexicon of Suidas is a late
and adulterated epitome of an earlier writer,
but the letters of Bishop Synesius, an enthusias-
tic pupil, and the Ecclesiastical History of
Socrates confirm her position Socrates says
that she " surpassed all the philosophers of the
time, and taught in the Platonist (Neoplatori-

361

ist) school founded by Plotmus " The Neo-
platonist school had by that time been detached
from the Museum, and its one woman teacher
drew pupils from all parts of the Greek world
Hierocles, Synesius, Troilus, and other known
scholars were amongst her pupils Her chief
distinction was in philosophy, but she im-
parted " all disciplines, " — mathematics, me-
chanics, astronomy, and philosophy, — and
the letters of Synesius refer to her technical
skill Two large1 works are mentioned as hav-
ing been written by her, but they have not
survived an arithmetical Commentary on
Diophantus and a Commentary or? the Come
Sections of Apollonian of Perga She is
described as a fluent, precise, and attractive
speaker, and is uniformly praised for beauty
and high character Suidas tells that the
leading persons of the city used to visit her, as
it was the custom at Athens for magistrates
to visit distinguished teachers Socrates nar-
rates that she was friendly with Orestes, the
Prefect, arid that this friendship led to her
lamentable fate A mob seized her as she
entered her litter, dragged her through the
streets, and, after tearing her flesh from her
bones with oyster shells or broken pottery,
burned her remains The cause is obscure, but
Socrates seerns to suggest that the Archbishop
Cyril's followers laid the blame for the friction
that existed between the Prefect arid Cyril on
the aged and influential pagan teacher The
murder was perpetrated in 416, when Hypatia
must have been in or beyond the sixth decade
of her life She is the heroine of Charles
Kingsley's Hypatia J M

References : —

MEYER, W A Hypatia von Alexandrien (Heidelberg,

1886)
WOLF, S Hyixitia, dtc Philosophin von Alexandrian

(Vienna, 1879 )

HYPER — A prefix to indicate an exagger-
ated degree of any characteristic Thus hy-
persesthesia is an excessive degree of sensitivity

HYPERJSSTHESIA. — An increased sensitiv-
ity to stimuli in any sensory held, but usually
applied to the abnormal sensibility of the skin
and the underlying tissues The hyperaes-
thesia may be of peripheral 01 central origin,
due to abnormalities in the sensory end organs
or in the spinal cord or brain, respectively
Certain substances applied to the skin produce
a peripheral hypersensitiveness which is nrob-
ably due m large part to the increased Mood
supply Examples of this are the conditions
following the application of very hot, not burn-
ing, stupes, of mustard plasters, of turpentine
and of cantharides to the skin to act as
" counter irritants " All of these leave the
skin hypersensitive, at times so much so that
the individual cannot bear the pressure of his
clothing Pedagogically the hyperaesthesia are
of little importance, except that in a highly

HYPERALGESIA

HYPNOSIS

nervous individual of unstable mental make-up
they may lead to convulsions, to voluntary
isolation, etc 8 I F

See ANAESTHESIA, ANALGESIA, and the refer-
ences there given

HYPERALGESIA —The exaggeration of
the pain sense, whereby (1) pain-producing
stimuli are felt to be more painful than nor-
mally, and (2) the pain threshold is lowered and
stimuli which do not produce pain in a normal
individual or in normal parts give rise to pain
sensations Sections of the body with a
lowered pain threshold are sometimes called
" tender areas "

See ANAESTHESIA, HYP^ESTHESIA; HYPER^S-
THERIA 8 I F.

HYPERMETROPIA — See EYE, especially
Sections on Hygiene of the Eye and Tests of Vision

HYPEROPIA — (vTrep, over, and cty, eye).
That condition of refraction where the eyeball
is too shallow, and hence parallel rays of light
come to a focus behind the retina The hy-
peropic eye is an undeveloped eye It is, in
fact, the normal condition of the human eye in
infancy Even with children of school age
some investigators have found the majority of
children with hyperopic eyes, but the number
of such eyes decreases with the increased age
and highci grade of the pupils, although the
defect remains permanent in a considerable
percentage of cases While it is the normal
condition for young children, the fact of this
prevalence of hyperopia makes certain hy-
gienic precautions necessary In the first place
the- undeveloped eve of childhood, the hyper-
opic eye, is better fitted for looking at objects
at a distance than for near work Reading, for
example, ib an occupation peculiarly ill fitted
for the hyperopic eyes of children, for their arms
are too short to hpld a book conveniently even
at the normal distance of twelve inches, while
a greater distance would be desirable for them
The error of refraction can be overcome by
accommodation, but the child with hyperopic
eyes reads with great muscular strain This
defect, especially when combined, as frequently
happens, with astigmatism, often causes head-
ache and other physical disorders.

When the hyperopia amounts to two diopters,
or in any case on the advice of a competent
oculist, the error of refraction should be cor-
rected by the use of convex lenses The fact
of hyperopia as the normal condition of the eye
in infancy, the changing degree of refraction
as the eye develops, and the need of adaptation
to the actual condition at each stage, illustrate
the importance of yearly tests of children's
vision and of expert advice when marked
changes occur W. H. B.

See EYE, especially sections on Hygiene of
the Eye and Tests of Vision, also DESKS AND
SEATS, READING, HYGIENE OF; WRITING.

HYPNOSIS — The phenomena of the hyp-
notic state are induced through a psychological
alteration of consciousness and control, which
in turn are presumably conditioned by a change
of status of brain-functioning Though plau-
sible theories have been offered in explanation
of the susceptibility to assume the hypnotic
state, it cannot be said that we understand its
nature, nor just what happens in the nervous
system when hypnosis ensues Psychologi-
cally we find in hypnosis a handicapped or
impaired functioning, the loss of relation to the
environment, to the normal assimilation of
experience as material for the personal memory-
continuum, and to the normal initiative and
direction of the mind's concerns The losses
thus entailed lay the hypnotized subject open
to the direct suggestion or command of mes-
sages and influences that reach his altered
consciousness; so that exaggerated suggesti-
bility comes to be the most conspicuous symp-
tom of the state That other handicapped
states offer analogous relations is set forth
under the term " suggestion " (q v ) Through
the large areas of excluded mental action and
responsiveness there goes out to the impres-
sions that enter an intensive concentration,
which again conspicuously characterizes the
phenomena of this state In this respect the
analogy of the state to somnambulism as it
spontaneously occurs m predisposed individuals
is very close, and gave to the state the name
of artificial somnambulism.

The typical phenomena may be briefly sum-
marized The state is induced by the consent
of the subject who passively yields to the re-
quest to seek sleep, to yield the command of
his thoughts and to relax A sharp command
(partly reenforced by strokmgs or similar manip-
ulations), such, for example, that he cannot
open his eyes, may then be successful, and the
attempt to open the eyes fail or succeed only
after repeated trials The anticipation of the
altered condition being thus gradually estab-
lished, it is entered upon by trained subjects in
response to any sign or suggestion, and simi-
larly a snap of the fingers, an upward stroke,
a sharp call in an altered tone, breaks up the
state, and restores the subject to the normal
condition. The development of the symptoms
proceeds rapidly and through suggestion The
subject becomes responsive only to the presence
and word of the operator He sees and hears
nothing that is not presented to his avenues of
sense by such imposed suggestion He will
regard the fountain-pen as a stiletto, and the
upholstered chair as his victim He will see
a blank card as a photograph; and he will fail
to see objects really present which he has been
informed are spirited away (negative hallu-
cination). He will perform actions seemingly
impossible to his normal powers of self-com-
mand; and hysterical subjects — the hysterical
state either emphasizing or complicating the
hypnotic disposition — will show mental m-

362

HYPNOSIS

HYPOTHESIS

fluence over functions (such as the healing of
scars) physiologically removed from conscious
influence Though obviously endless m
variety, the hypnotic phenomena present but
the developments of suggestibility, made pos-
sible by the limitations of responsiveness and
the surrender of directive control Similarly,
the actions of the (deeper) hypnosis remain
unrecalled to the waking consciousness and
find no place in its memory sequence But
here the psychic impairment becomes more
subtle and exhibits the typical relations of the
subconscious phenomena For it may be
shown that what is thus excluded from the
normal consciousness is not wholly excluded,
and by indirect and circumventing devices
may be shown to find some sort of registry
Likewise the hallucinations and the insensibili-
ties of the hypnotic state are not wholly com-
plete; and what the hypnotic consciousness
fails to perceive yet finds indirect record (See
SUBCONSCIOUS ) The situation becomes yet
more complex through the possibility of post-
hypnotic suggestion, for here the suggestion,
though imposed in hypnosis, is yet acted out m
the normal condition. The subject realizes
his action, gives some excuse for it, if it is foolish
or improper, and accepts it as his own conduct,
clue to an impulse for which he cannot quite
account

The applications of hypnotic suggestion for
the curative treatment of disease, particularly
of nervous functional troubles, has the same
basis as that of waking suggestion, but through
the artificially induced state lowers the resist-
ance which a more nearly waking conscious-
ness might, in spite of a consenting effort,
obstructively exercise Questions of legal re-
sponsibility and commission of crimes in the
hypnotic state have also led to critical discus-
sions, and have raised the question an to
whether the subject does not recognize the
sharn character of the crime which he hypnoti-
cally commits Yet the practical submission
of the subject to the operator's will has led to
a more cautious use of the process, and affects
the bearing of its practical applications.

Historically the state is connected with the
older theories of an actual physical influence
streaming from the operator's person and
physically affecting the subject, and again to
the theories of special sensitiveness of the
subjects by virtue of which they developed
powers beyond the normal The former comes
directly from Mesrner and the doctrine of ani-
mal magnetism, or an all-pervasive magnetic
influence which the favored operator embodies
in his own person ; the latter found its develop-
ment in the notion of " sensitives " or " me-
diums " later absorbed by the spiritualistic
sense of the term. It was the outgrowth of
these unsupported notions and the explanation
of the phenomena on the basis of an altered
physiological and psychological state that was
the special contribution of James Braid (1795-

1860), and which inaugurated the modern
study of the topic. (See MESMERISM.) J. J.

References : —

BINET, A Suggestibility (Pans, 1900 )

BRAMWELL, J MILNE Hypnotism, its History, Prac-
tice, and Theory A convenient review of the topic,
with much historical matter (London, 1903 )

LOWENFELD Der Hypnotismus (WieHbaden, 1901 )

MOLL, A Hypnotism A concise survey of the field
(London, 1901 )

VINCENT, R H The Elements of Hypnotism More
popular (London, 1905 )

HYPNOTISM — Sec HYPNOSIS

HYPOTHESIS — A supposition, a theory,
or a mode of explanation held tentatively pend-
ing further inquiry, because of its value in the
organization of knowledge and in direction of
inquiry The increased importance attached,
in the development of modern science, to mak-
ing and using hypotheses is a necessary part
of the evolution of inductive and experimental
science. It marks the attainment of a genu-
inely critical reflective attitude, and provides
the working method for dealing with the other-
wise insoluble antagonism of dogmatism and
skepticism The older and classic scientific
attitude (commonly called deductive, but better
termed subsumptive or authoritative) as-
sumed that science was possible only where
there existed a body of absolutely certain and
definite fixed principles of " truths/' under
which empirical or observable data might be
brought. Only as the body of experienced
data was subsumed under the absolute first
principles did the former acquire logical sys-
tcmatization and rational justification, that is,
the characteristic traits of a science These
first principles were themselves, accordingly,
of a radically different nature from that of the
facts of experience The former were univei sal
and necessary, self-evident truths of reasons
or rational intuitions, innate ideas, a priori to
all experience The latter were a posteriori,
the result of sensations and imagination,
contingent, fluctuating, particular When ac-
ceptance of ultimate rational principles was
made the foundation of all science, doubt and
denial of their existence led to skepticism re-
garding the possibility of knowledge Dogma-
tism and skepticism thus exhausted the
philosophies of knowledge

The modern scientific movement began when
men gave up the notion that science consisted
in defining and classifying existences just as
they were found and substituted the search for
processes and energies which made the objects,
or brought them into existence. The latter
point of view necessarily involved the use of
imaginative conceptions of possible causes
The speculative danger latent in the new
method was checked by insistence that the
imaginative conceptions, or hypotheses, must
lend themselves to mathematical statement, de-
duction, and to corroboration by the results of

363

HYPOTHESIS

HYSTERIA

experimental observations Descartes' theory
of knowledge marks the transition from the
older to the newer, or scientific, logic. He
retained the notion that science begins with
truths or concepts of pure reason, and that
what was needed was concentric deduction from
these universals, until the phenomena revealed
to sense observation were approximated At
the same time he insisted upon the necessity
of definite and accurate (mathematical) for-
mulation of these ultimate notions and upon
methodic procedure, n series of intermediate
steps from the universal to the particulars
When the Cartesians called these ultimate
principles " hypotheses," they did not mean to
imply their doubtful character, but rather that
they were " placed under " all the particular
facts of existence and of science When New-
ton said that he did not make hypotheses (non
fingo hypotheses), he did not mean (as is some-
times stated) tnat he did not gratuitously in-
vent them, but that he did not employ them
in the Cartesian way In the modern sense,
no one invented or used hypotheses more
freely than Newton, but, as against the Car-
tesian theory of the world, he held that general
interpreting principles must not be derived
from pure thought, but be suggested by ex-
perience and then transferred by analogy to
other phenomena, their verification existing
in the suggestion of new or experimental ob-
servations exactly confirming the deductive
results In Kant, we find again an inconsistent
compromise of the old and the new logics He
recognizes that science does not consist in the
mere accumulation and classification jof facts,
since it requires conceptions which the mind,
from its own initiative, uses to cross-examine
existing observations and employs also as
methods of undertaking new experimental
constructions. To quote his own words:
" When Galileo caused balls which he had care-
fully weighed to roll down an inclined plane,
or Torricelh made the air bear up a weight
which he knew beforehand to be equal to a
standard column of water, a new light broke
on the mind of the scientific discoverer It
was seen that reason has insight only into that
which it produces after a plan of its own, and
that it must itself lead the way with principles
of judgment and force nature to answer its
questions " But in his general philosophic
formulation of this insight, Kant overlooked
the fact that the " principles of judgment "
with which thought approaches objects are
purely hypothetical in character and are ap-
proved or rejected according as they work out
in experimental construction of objects. Ac-
cordingly, his philosophy, though called critical,
was at bottom a revival of dogmatic rational-
ism, since he held that knowledge requires a
fixed stock of a priori concepts that are imposed
once for all upon objects The inherent diffi-
culties in this position conspired with the
constantly increasing emphasis upon experi-

364

mental verification to discredit the older em-
piricism and rationalism alike, and led to the
formulation of the doctrine that all general
ideas, or concepts, are originally purely hypo-
thetical, gaining certainty as they work success-
fully to interpret and organize observations
and to direct further fruitful experiments In
placing the standard of value ror concepts in
their use, instead of their structure, the result-
ing functional empiricism becomes truly critical,
assigning a distinctive important r61e to con-
cepts, a r61e not capable of being played by
facts and observations by themselves, but
insisting also upon the need of experimental
test J. D.

See CONCEPT ; IDEA ; JUDGMENT ; KNOWL-
EDGE; METHOD; PRAGMATISM.

HYPSICLES. — See GEOMETRY.

HYSTERIA. — Among medical men there
is the greatest difference of opinion regarding
this topic; some deny the existence of a special
disease under this name and would group the
patients under other headings, while others
include all cases that cannot clearly be diag-
nosed in other ways In other words, for
some hysteria does not exist as a medical
entity, for others it IB the name for a scrap
basket into which cases are thrown if they do
not fit into the regular pigeonholes It is,
therefore, difficult, perhaps impossible, to do-
fine the term in any manner that will be satis-
factory to all, but it may be said that the best
opinion is that hysteria is a disease of a nervous
character, with varied manifestations which
may simulate the conditions in many organic
diseases, nervous and otherwise

The symptoms in hysteria have been the
subject of much discussion, and on the limita-
tion of the symptoms depends the conception
of the disease The symptoms in this disease
are extremely varied, and in a general way may
be confused with corresponding symptoms in
other diseases. The following classes of symp-
toms may be distinguished: (1) emotional in-
stability; (2) abnormal suggestibility, which
Babinski regards as the chief characteristic of
hysteria, to the extent of holding that the other
accompanying phenomena of the disease are
due to the suggestion of the examining physi-
cian or the patient's reading; (3) sensational-
ism due to an exaggerated ego, which leads to
a desire to win notoriety and sympathy in any
way whatever; (4) motor disturbances, eg..
convulsions and tremors as well as paralysis ana
motor defects; (5) sensation disturbances;
(6) vasomotor, trophic, and secretory disturb-
ances, about which, however, there is little
agreement. Jelliffe, in the best account of the
whole hysteria problem, has given the broadest
expression to hysteria in defining it as "a
general tendency to certain reactive expres-
sions," which have already been noted above.
Babinski throws aside the classical °vmptorns

IAMBLICHUS

ICELAND

*ts noted by Charcot and his followers as arti-
facts and poor observation, and attributes the
disease wholly to suggestion Other psy-
chological explanations of hysteria have been
advanced, and in general it may be said that the
psychological hypotheses are more satisfactory
than those of a physiological nature, e g those
in which attempts have been made to correlate
the symptoms with cerebral conditions The
most important of the psychological explana-
tions are those* of Janet and of Freud. The
definition of Janet, which gives his general
explanation, is as follows* " Hysteria is a form
of mental depression, characterized by the
retraction of the field of personal consciousness
and by the tendency to the dissociation and
the emancipation of systems of ideas and of
functions, which by their synthesis constitute
the personality " The symptoms are due to a
narrowing of the field of consciousness, to an
inattention which produces in general an am-
nosia The anesthesias are, according to this
view, due to lack of attention to the sensations
from the body and the paralyses to a similar
cause. The sensation elements are grouped in
a subeonsciousness, if we may speak of such
a thing, and thev are there combined just as aie
the conscious perceptions The combinations
give rise to impulses which arc not consciously
controlled, and there appears to be a splitting
or a doubling of the personality.

Most authors agree, that although the hys-
terical manifestations do not become obtru-
sive until the third and fourth decades of life,
the impressions that lead to the manifestations
are obtained during the first fifteen years The
explanations of Babmski and of Freud indicate
the possibility of hysteria formation in children
The abnormal stimulation of bright children,
the fixation of the attention upon his health,
and the peimitting a child to daydream help
in the formation of the characters that become
hysterical. The vicious habit of obvious
concealment from maturing children of all
matters of a sexual nature, with the consequence
of the acquisition of false notions, arid the
harsh treatment of childish fears lead to the
formation of abnormal modes of reaction and
to repressions and concealments of emotional
states which may become nuclei for hysterical
manifestations in later life. 8 I F

References : —

HABINSKI IM xeniaim m&dicalc, 1909, p 1

NdMK, O Die Hy stern- (Vienna, 1904 )
P Thi Major fiumptamn of Hysteria (New
rk, 1908)

K, S K Hysteria, in Osier, W , Modern Mcdi-
rtne, Vol VII (New York, 1910 )

IAMBLICHUS — See NEO-PLATOMSM.

IBN EZRA, ABRAHAM BEN MEIR (ABEN
EZRA) (1092?-! 167) — A Jewish scholar, poet,
philosopher, and mathematician The first
period of his life was spent in Spain up to 1140,

his home being m Toledo; the rest of his davs
was spent abroad, nrnnfy in Italy Ibn Kzra
traveled much, and, in addition to the coun-
tries of the Mediterranean coast, visited France
and England His reputation rested for sevei al
generations on his commentaries on the Holy
Scriptures, for he raised the art of Biblical
exegesis to the degree of a science He helped
to revive Hebrew scholarship outside Spam
Ibn Ezra also wrote on grammatical terms in
Hebrew, on style, and meter (Zahot, 1145)
In his philosophical works, traces of Neo-
platonic influences may be found His mathe-
matical writings were numerous and include
works on the peculiarities of the numbers one
to nine (Sefer ha Ehad) , on arithmetic (Sefer
ha Mispar) , on the calendar (Sefer ha Ibbur) ,
on the astrolabe ( Kelt ha Nehoshet) on three
chronological questions (Shalosh She 'elot) ; and
composed astronomical tables (Luhot), and
translations of the astrologer Mashallah He
is the subject of Robert Browning's poem,
Rabbi Ben Ezra.

References : —

BAOHER, W Abraham Ibn Ezra als Grammatiker.
(Strasburg, 1882 )

FRIEDLANDEK, M Essays on the Writings of Ibn Ezra
(London, 1877 )

GRATZ, H History of the Jews Vol III (Phila-
delphia, 1898 )

ROSIN, D Reimc und Gedichtc des Abraham ibn Ezra
(Breslau, 1885-1894 )

STKINSCHNEIDER, M Abraham Ibn Ezra Ztschft
fur Mathematik und Phyt>ik, XXV, Supplement,
pp 28 59

ICELAND — A large mountainous volcanic
island in the North Atlantic Ocean (latitude)
63° 24/-66° 32', (longitude) 13° 32'-24° 35' W
Area, 40 437 square miles , climate compara-
tively mild, especially in the south The popu-
lation is 83,000 (1909), engaged chiefly in sheep
raising and in fishing

History and Government — The effort has
been made, but on very slight evidence, to iden-
tify Iceland with the Thule of Pytheas, traces
of Irish settlers (monks) were found by the
first Norse discoverers The Norwegians began
to migrate to Iceland in the year 874, arid in the
next sixty years the island was fully settled
Government, in the form of an aristociatic ic-
public, was organized m the year 930 Chris-
tianity was introduced in the year 1000 The
Icelandic republic lasted until 1264, when Ha-
kon, King of Norway, helped by the long-con-
tinued feuds between noble families of the
island, was able to induce the Icelanders to be
incorporated in the Norwegian monarchy.
Iceland with Norway was united to Deri m ark
in 1397 The main events under Danish rule
to the opening of the nineteenth century are
as follows Introduction of the Reformation,
practically complete in 1550 when the Danes
had become the real national leaders, the last
Catholic bishop, Jon Aiason, and his sons be-
headed, the grant of a monopoly in Icelandic

365

ICELAND

ICELAND

trade to a kind of colonial company of Copen-
hagen merchants, 1602 — an economic blunder
of the Danish government, which brought the
island to the brink of rum , abolition of the Althing
in 1800, which meant the sweeping away of the
last traces of Icelandic independence.

In the nineteenth century, especially after
1830, there was a marked revival of national
feeling and a struggle for national independence,
resulting in 1843 in the restitution of the Althing
in the form of modern legislatures (advisory
only) The constitution of the millennial year,
1874, gave the Althing legislative power subject
to the veto of the King, the executive power
being in the hands of a governor The present
constitution, adopted in 1903, gave the Althing
increased power and placed the executive power
in the hands of a minister, an Icelander residing
in Iceland and having a seat in the King's cabi-
net

Language and Literature — The main body
of the settlers of Iceland having come from Nor-
way, the language naturally was developed from
the West-Northern dialects of that country
and got its literary form in Iceland on account
of having been comparatively early put to
literary use; it has been preserved far better m
Iceland than in any of the other Scandinavian
countries The modern written language differs
from that of the Sagas about as much as Tenny-
son's language differs from Shakespeare's
This has the far-reaching educational result that
every bov and girl has access to real classics, at
the same time interesting to youthful minds
It is impossible to understand the intellectual
characteristics of the people without reference
to the national literature which is taught in all
schools.

The Icelandic Literature comprises 1
Eddas — Sacmundar Edda (Older Edda), a
collection of cosmogonic, epic, and didactic
poems, collected without doubt in Iceland and
largely composed there. Snorra Edda, a text-
book of mythology explaining the constantly
recurring metaphors (Kenmngai ) of the ' 'Scalds,'7
giving the myths of the Scandinavian race and
copious quotations from the older poets, showing
their use m poetic technique.

2 Sagas, which can be divided into three
groups: (1) Historical sagas, mainly by known
authors, as Snorn Sturluson's Heimxknngln
(history of the kings of Norway); the Stur-
langa saga, written by a contemporary and par-
ticipant in the events, Sturla Thordason. (2)
Family sagas relating the actions of the leading
aristocrats at home arid abroad, founded always
on fact, but idealized for aesthetic motives. The
form in some instances is concise, as in the mod-
ern short story (Maupassant) ; such is the story
of Gunnlang, the Worm Tongue. Sometimes it
is of epic proportions; stories of whole country-
sides or families, as in Njafa, the most artistic
and famous of all (3) Romantic and legendary
sagas often written under foreign influence
(Chansons de geste, Briton lays, etc.). These

366

are almost entirely medieval, and lack the
realistic spirit of the genuine sagas The Eddas
and sagas belong, it may be said, to the period
c. 850-1300

Besides the Eddie poetry, generally simple in
form, — as Beowulf, — is the scaldic poetry,
court poetry in praise of kings and princes, ex-
tremely artificial in form To the period 1300-
1500 belong the historical ballads (nmur) arid
some splendid religious poems in the old scaldic
meter, as Eystemn Asgrimsson's Jjilja From
the fifteenth down to the nineteenth century,
there was a lull in the intellectual life of Ice-
land, broken, however, by a few notable produc-
tions, as Ilallgrimin Pjetursson's Passion Psalms,
the sermons of Bishop Jon Vidahn, and the poems
of Stefan Olafsson and Benedict Grondal (the
elder) .

The poetic renaissance came in the nineteenth
century, coinciding very nearly with the political
awakening The leader in this development
was Jonas Hallgrimson, whose influence was felt
to the end of the century The chief poets of
the later romantic school, 1850-1880, were Stein-
gnmur-Thorsteinson, Benedict Grondal the
younger, arid Matthias Jochumscm To this
period succeeded that of realism (1882), inau-
gurated by the poet-journalist Jon Olafsson
Lyric poetrv reached its height in this period in
Hannes Hafstom, author of the spirited ballad,
" The Death of Skarphedmn " The realistic-
impulse naturallv gave nse to novelists, of whom
the greatest is Gestur Palsson, arid to dramatic
art The latter is stimulated by the establish-
ment of a permanent theater at Reykjavik

Educational Beginnings — Iceland having
been settled mainly by the Norwegian aristoc-
racy, the intellectual standard was naturally verv
high from the beginning The vikings and local
chiefs who emigrated to Iceland were often men
who had traveled far and wide, and had seen the
civilization of the Celt, the Frank, Saracen, and
Byzantine On the other side, Christianity in
Iceland was introduced more as a political than a
religious measure, and its sponsors were the
weightiest men of the land, the aesthetic and
moral ideas are still closely connected with the old
belief The people are almost without exception
Lutherans, the State supporting the Lutheran
Church, but there is complete religious liberty
The island foims one bishopric with 105 parishes
In earlier tunes the educational supervision was
entnelv in the hands of the clergy Primary
education was always well provided for, the
children being taught at home by their parents
or by peripatetic teachers The pastor would
visit each family in his parish once a year, exam-
ining the children in the elementary branches,
if it was found that a child had not received
proper training, the pastor had the power to or-
der it taken away from the parents and educated
at their expense by some more competent person.
Present Conditions — Since the new public
school system was introduced, 1907, great prog-
muu i,«« K«™ „.„,!« Illiteracy is practically

ress has been made

ICELAND

IDAHO

unknown, and almost everybody can write and
knows the elements of arithmetic Young and
old are very fond of reading, and the young
people acquire on their own accord further
information, especially a knowledge of Danish,
of later years also of English, and thus gain
access to larger literary fields, the ancient and
modern Icelandic literature, as well as newspa-
pers and periodicals, are eagerly read Each
town has a public school, and there are a number
of higher schools, a classical college at Reyk-
javik with about 100 students (a continuation
of the old cathedral schools at Holar and Skal-
holt), two teal (or scientific) schools, thiee
schools for women , arid some public high schools.
At Reykjavik an1 the following special institu-
tions a normal school, a school of navigation, a
commercial college, and a technical school, also
agricultural schools at Holar and Hvanmaevn

The three professional schools, of theology
(est 1847), medicine (est 1X70), and law (eat
1907), were in 1911 incorporated into the
University (Hdnkdli) of Iceland, which also cm-
braces a faculty of philosophy and history, liter-
ature, and language of Iceland The unnersity
was inaugurated Get 4, 1911

The national library (Lan(hbdliaf>(ifn) at Reyk-
javik has the most complete collection in the
world of books printed in Iceland (73,000 -vol-
umes and 0400 Icelandic MBS ) Besides the
college library at Reykjavik, with a large and
valuable collection of books and Mss , Iceland
has three county hbiaiies The national
archives (Rikiskjalasafn, cst 1SS2) have the safe
custody of all mil and ecclesiastical iccords
more than thirty years old The aielurological
museum (Fw/f ,7;. />«*«//*), established JXb'3, hah
about 0000 objects The society of naturalists
(/.s/r//:Av7 n<itfnrnfiae(li*ltti), established 1XX9, lias
a museum of natural histoiv All th se collec-
tions air housed in the national libran building

Of learned societies, etc , must be men-
tioned the Icelandic Literary Society (II id
iblt'trka nat nni}nic<li\fjd(ig, established ]S1(>,
the Icelandic Historical Society (11 id i^Unzha
ftfignffaj), established 1902, the Agricultural
Society, etc

The financial estimates of 1910-1911 carried
a total of 2,930,000 crowns (111785,240) Of tins
amount 502,000 crowns ($134,436) were voted
foi the ( lunch and education, and 145,000
crowns for scientific and literary purposes
Thus it appears that 22 per cent of the total
budget was for intellectual and religious institu-
tions

Iceland has about a do/en printing establish-
ments (the first introduced in 1530), which at
present issue about twenty newspapers, pub-
lished once or twice a week, and some ten peri-
odicals During the last century many Ice-
landers emigrated to America and established
flourishing settlements in North Dakota and
Manitoba; they publish journals of then own,
which are also much read in Iceland.

ST. ST. and T J

References —
BAEDEKER, KARL Norway, Sweden, Denmark, with

Excursion* to Iceland and 8pttzhf ryen (New York,

1909 )
BljirroN, 11 F Ultima ThuU or a Hummer in Inland

(London , 1875)

CLLASBY ami VHJFUHHON An Icelandic- English Dic-
tionary (Oxford, 1S74 )

Enti/clofMfditi Hntanniea, llth od , s 'v Jet land
GUDMUNDHHON, V Inland rim Beg inn dm £0 Jahr-

hundtrls, nhrrs von R Pallr&ko (Knttovita,

1904 )

HERRMANN, P Inland 3volh (LnpziR, HH)7 1(W) )
STURLUHON, SNOKKI Htimskrinijla, or The Sngav of

Ihe Vorxt Kingx Tr b> S LairiK (Nou York,

1KS9 )
TuoitoDDrti- N, THOUVALDK History of the Ciultza-

tion <tf It eland
VIGFUHHON, (J Prolegonuna to lh( Murluuya tioga.

(Oxford, 1878 )

ICKELSAMER, VALENTIN (1500M54P).
— The author of the hrst German grammar
He was born in the old free city of Rothcnburg
on the Tauber and studied hrst at the Uni-
versity of Krfurt and then at Wittenberg, where
he was attracted by the fame of Luther and of
Melanchthon In 1525 he held tho positron of a
CJer man schoolmaster in Gothenburg, which city
was then agitated by the socialistic movement
later culminating in the peasants' rebellion
Ickelsamer took an active part in this move-
ment, in consequence of which he had to flee
from the city He went to Erfurt and from
there to Augsburg There, in 1534, he pub-
lished his Deutsche Granunatica (German Gram-
mar) m which he made a strong plea for the
study of the mother tongue The book con-
tained interesting remarks on orthographv and
etvmologv, but its chief object was to sho\v a
new method of teaching reading based on the
phonetic value of the letters In tins Ickelsamer
was about three hundred vears ahead of his
time, for it was not until the second half of
the nineteenth century that the old alphabetic
method was finally discarded in the schools

F M

IDAHO, STATE OF —First organized as
a territory bv ('ongress in JS(f3, Idaho was
admitted 'to the I'm/m in 1X90 as the fortv-
fourth state It is located in the Western
Division, and has a land area of 84,290 square
miles In size it i,s a lit lie larger than Kansas,
nearlv twice the size of Pennsyhama , and
uouJd make ten states the size of Massachu-
setts For administrative purposes it is divided
into twentv-three counties, arid these, in turn,
aie (Inuled mtv) school districts of irregular
and \ar\mg si/e In 1010 Idaho had a popu-
lation of .T25,594, and a density of population
of 3 S people to the square mile

Educational History — Owing to the small
number of inhabitants in the territory, little
was done toward the establishment of schools
previous to 1870 In that year the census
returns showed onlv 4ttfi pupils m the schools
of the territory, and a total school population
of only 888 'By 1875 the school population

367

IDAHO

IDAHO

had increased to 3852; by 1885, to 15,399; by
1890, at the time of the admission of the state,
it had increased to 27,311; and by 1908 it had
reached 85,216 In 1875 the laws which had
previously been passed were gathered up,
added to,' and reenacted in the form of a new
school law for the territory The territorial
controller was made ex officio territ rial su-
perintendent of public instruction, the auditor
of each county was made er officio county
superintendent of schools; and three trustees
were to be elected to take charge of the schools
of each school district The mam lines of the

E resent school system were laid down in this
iw; the chief changes since that time being
in the increase of the powers and duties of the
county and state school officials, at the expense
of the district organizations The trustees of
each district, under the law of 1875, examined
and licensed all teachers, adopted textbooks,
and generally managed the schools, while the
superintendents collected information, made
reports, and apportioned funds A county
school tax of from two to five mills was levied
for the support of the schools In 1874 there
were seventy-seven school districts, fifty-
three schoolhouses, three school libraries, and
2030 pupils in the territory The increase of
the territory in both population and schools
was slow during the eighties, was moie lapid
after its admission as a state in 1890, and has
been still greater since 1900 For some time
the progress of the schools was lotanled in
certain counties by trouble with the Mormons,
but after 1890 this seems to have disappeaied
In the revised school law of 18S3 the office of
county superintendent was created and sep-
arated from that of county auditor, teachers'
institutes were begun, and the functions of
the State Superintendent's office were enlarged
In 1887 the separate office of State Superin-
tendent of Public Instruction was created
Since the admission of the state, educational
progress has been rapid

The act of admission gave the state a large
amount of land for educational purposes The
common schools received the sixteenth and
thirty-sixth sections in each township, or a
total of 3,068,231 acres; two townships, or
46,080 acres, were given for a state university,
40,000 acres were given for a state school of
science, which, in 1907, was added to the state
university endowment fund, 100,000 acres
were given for normal schools, 40,000 acres
for a state academy, arid 40,000 acres for a
state industrial school. The constitution fixed
the minimum sale price at $10 an acre, but the
sales so far made have been for more than
twice this price. Only about one tenth of the
school lands are now under lease These lands
will, in time, sell for a good price, and the funds
thus created will yield a large income for edu-
cation The state constitution of 18<H) made
very detailed provision for a state system of
education A State Board of Education and a

368

State Board of Land Commissioners were
created; the public school fund and lands
were carefully safeguarded, a minimum price
of $10 an acre was set on all school lands; any
form of aid to sectarian or religious schools or
societies for any purpose, as well as religious
tests and the teaching of religious tenets, were
forbidden, compulsory education was author-
ized, the university was located, and the title
to umversitv lands was confirmed; and the
territorial office of county superintendent was
abolished, the probate judges of the county
being made ex officio county superintendents.
In 1892 the University of Idaho was created,
and the same year the first state teachers'
association was organized In 1893 a free
textbook bill and a compulsory education law
were enacted, and state normal schools were
established at Lewiston and Albion In 1896
the constitution was amended to provide for
the re-creation of the office of county superin-
tendent In 1899 the State Textbook Com-
mission was reconstituted, and its work made
more definite. In 1901 the Idaho State Acad-
emy, a secondary and technical school, was
established at Pocatello, and a State Liljrary
Commission and traveling libraries provided
for In 1903 the Idaho Industrial Training
School, a reform school for boys and girls, was
established at St Anthony In 1905 the Stale
Board of Education was given power to issue
teachers' certificates of a higher grade, valid
anywhere m the state ; and the compulsory
education law, long a dead letter, was revised
and strengthened, and county probation officers
provided for In 1907 three six-weeks normal
schools were organized In 1909 rural high
schools were established, a State Board of
Examiners was created, the system of certi-
fication was changed into a full state certifi-
cating system, required meetings of school
trustees were provided for, and a state school
law commission was created In 1911 this com-
mission reported, and its report was accepted by
the legislature, and a new school code enacted
This materially enlarged the powers of the State
Boaid of Education, changed the plans for certifi-
cating teachers and apportioning school funds, and
made changes in the management and instruction
in all rural high schools.

Present School System. — At the head of
the school system is a Superintendent of Public
Instruction, elected for two-year terms by the
people, and an ex ojfficio State Board of Edu-
cation, consisting of the State Superintendent
of Public Instruction, the Secretary of State,
and the Attorney-General There are also a
State Board of Land Commissioners, created
by the constitution, and composed of the mem-
bers of the State Board of Education, with the
( Governor added, a State Library Commission,
consisting of the State Board of Education,
with the President of the State University
added; a State Textbook Commission, consist-
ing of the State Superintendent of Public

IDAHO

IDAHO

Instruction and MX others, appointed by the
State Board of Education, two to be practical
business men and four to be teachers of at least
five years7 experience, and a State Board of
Examiners, who read and grade all examination
papers and grant all teachers' certificates for
the entire state To the State Board of
Education is given general supervision over the
schools of the state and the preparation of a
uniform course of study for the elementary and
high schools of the state The State Supenn-
t »ndent acts as the executive officei of the Board ;
apportions the income of the school fund seini-
annually; visits the counties, and holds meet-
ings with the county superintendents; makes
rules and regulations for the conduct of teachers'
institutes, and appoints assistant conductors for
each one, prepares and distributes all blanks
and forms used, arid makes a biennial report
to the Governor He or she (women have held
the office continuously since 1899) is also a
member ev officio of the Boards of Trustees of
the two State Normal Schools, of the State
\cademv, and of the State Industrial School.

The State Board of Land Commissioners is
charged with the duty of locating, protecting,
renting, and selling the school, university, and
other lands granted to the state by the General
(io\ eminent by the act of admission The
State Library Board has charge of the traveling
libi aries ot the state, and is directed to cooper-
ate with public and other libraries anywhere
in the state The State Textbook Commission
selects the textbooks to be purchased and sup-
plied to the schools of the state, high schools
included, and makes six-yeai contracts with the
publishers

In each county there is a County Superin-
tendent of Schools, elected by popular election
toi a two-year term He (or she) must be a
practical teacher of at least two years' ex-
perience in Idaho, and must hold at least a
first grade teachers' certificate to qualify for the
office He is required to hold monthly meet-
ings with his teachers, to visit each school each
teim, to apportion the school money to the
districts, to conduct an annual teachers' in-
stitute, may require trustees to make repairs,
or to abate a nuisance, may transfer pupils and
their quota of funds from district to district;
keeps all records, and makes an annual report
to the State Superintendent of Public Instruc-
tion

In each school distnct a board of three
school trustees are elected, one each year, at
an annual school election . 1 )istnct lines may be
altered and new districts created by the Board of
County Commissioners. Any district may estab-
lish a kindergarten or a high school, and all must
provide a five months' term of school and have
an average daily attendance of five. Trus-
tees have charge of all school property, and are
empowered to employ teachers and fix their
compensation; by vote of the district may
build, rent, furnish, or sell schoolhouses and

sites, may spend 25 pei cent of the school
money for fuel, janitoi, supplies, and equip-
ment; must spend 3 per cent of the school
money for the school library, mav dismiss
pupils; must compile an annual school CCIISIH
of all pupils six to twenty-one in the district,
and must publish an annual financial leport
Teachers must make a yearly report to the
County Superintendent of Schools Any dis-
trict having a valuation of $150,000 may be
organized as an independent distuct by the
County Commissioners Such independent dis-
tricts have six trustees, who have, in addi-
tion to the powers and duties of trustees of
ordinary districts, power to levy a special tax
sufficient to provide a nine months' school If
a district employs 35 teachers, it may also employ
a superintendent and adopt its own textbooks

School Support — No state tax is levied, but
a required county tax of not less than five 1101
more than ten mills is levied, and any school
district may vote a local district tax up to
twenty mills The apportionment of income
from the state school fund is made to the
counties on the sole basis of the numlxr of
school census children In the counties all
county taxation, fines, and license moneys
are added, and the total is then appor-
tioned to the districts, one thud equally to
each, without reference to its size, and two
thirds on the basis of school census, less 5 per
cent, which is withheld foi apportionment to
the rural high schools District tiustees must
levy a tax sufficient to provide five months of
school, and the voters of any district mav \ote
a further tax up to a total of 20 mills Inde-
pendent districts have special taxing pn\ ileges

Educational Conditions — Of the popula-
tion of 1900, 152 per cent were foreign born,
57 7 per cent were males, 3 5 per cent of the
total population were Indians, and 1 7 per cent
were Chinamen But 6 2 per cent lived in
cities of 4000 or over, while the remainder
lived in country districts or in little towns
The state is sparsely populated, huge areas
being practically uninhabited The chief occu-
pations are mining and agncultuie The com-
pulsory education law has long remained unen-
forced It was revised in 1905 and made more
definite, and a probation officer was appointed
for each county to assist the Judge of the Pro-
bate Court in dealing with the worst offenders
By the new law childien eight to sixteen
years of age are required to go to school the
entire time the schools are in session, though
children over fourteen aie excused if they have*
completed the eighth grade, as are all children
who are instructed at home or who are physi-
cally or mentally incapacitated, or whose
labor is necessary for the support of themselve i
or their parents. Trustees are required to
report all delinquent children to the County
Superintendents of Schools, who in turn reports
them to the Probate Judge

In material conditions the schools have made

VOL. Ill — 2 B

360

IDAHO

IDEA AND IDEATION

very nipid progiess \u1hin the past fifteen years.
Many of the town and high school buildings are
substantially built and fairly well equipped
The average value of the school buildings of the
state IH about $3000 The schools are rapidly
being graded and standardized All schools
follow a state course of study All pupils
who complete the eighth grade pass the uni-
form state examination, and tins certificate is
required for admission to the high schools of the
stat > Manual training, domestic science, and
agriculture aie included in the state course of
study as optional studies, and a number of
schools are reported as making a beginning in
these subjects Two towns are reported as
offering regular instruction in manual training
In a few places large consolidated schools have
been established, and the pupils are transported
to the central school The st-ate has a good
school libraiy system which has been in ex-
istence for a long time Each school district
must make yearly additions to its school library ;
the traveling library system is efficient, and
any town or city may levy a tax of one mill for
library support On petition of twenty voters
in anv school district, an election must be called
to vote on the question of a similar library tax
on the property of the district

Teachers and Training — For the tram-
ing of new teachers the state maintains two
state normal schools, and since 1907 has main-
tained three summer schools, offering a six
weeks' course of instruction The certification
standards are better than in many other states,
and tho certification plan has an especial merit
in thai it provides for a partially graded series
of examinations loading up to the highest
diploma

Secondary and Higher Education — The
state maintains the Academy of Idaho at
Pocatello, and the University of Idaho at
Moscow (q v ) The Academy of Idaho offers
preparatory, business, and technical courses.
The University of Idaho is the only institution
of higher learning in the state. High schools
are developing rapidly, considering the sparsity
of population, there being fifty-one public and
private high schools on the University of Idaho
list of inspected institutions in 1908, arid new
schools are being organized each year The
union-district high school law of 1909, and the
authorization of two-year agricultural high
schools in the same year, will add a new stimulus
to their development The state maintains
the Idaho Industrial School at St Anthony, a
reformatory institution for both sexes, and in
1909 established a state institution for the deaf,
dumb, and blind of the state, who had heretofore
been cared for elsewhere, under the supervision
of the State Board of Education. B. P. C.

References : —

Biennial Reports of the Superintendent of Public In-
struction of Idaho, 1887-1888 to date Ten Reports
ofec offwio officers before 1887-1888 Revised School
Laws of the State of Idaho, 1909 ed

370

IDAHO, UNIVERSITY OF, MOSCOW,

IDA — A coeducational state institution estab-
lished in 1889 Its government is in the hands
of a board of nine regents appointed by the
Governor In addition to the college courses,
preparatory, music, engineering, and agriculture
courses are offered. The entrance require-
ments are sixteen units Courses are offered in
the college of letters and sciences leading to the
degrees of AH, H S , Mus H , and B S in
domestic economy, as well as the A M and
M S The college of agriculture gives a four-
year course leading to the degree of B S , and
a short winter course of a general nature The
college of engineering provides four courses in
different departments of engineering, each lead-
ing to the appropriate degree The State
Teachers' Certificate is given to those graduates
with the A B or B S degree who have taken
courses in education The enrollment in
1910-1911 in all departments was 527 The
faculty consists of fifty-four members, of whom
nineteen are full professors

IDEA AND IDEATION — Ideation de-
notes either the act of thinking or the course,
the stream, of ideas, according as ideas are
regarded as manifestations of a soul substance
or spiritual entity, or as mental contents which
in their associations and sequences make up the
mind Upon a third view, it expresses the
function exercised by ideas, the results they
effect in subsequent experience So far accord-
ingly as the word is not a synonym for the pro-
cess of thinking (qv\ its meaning depends
upon that assigned to the term " idea "

Historically, the term "idea" dates from the
Platonic philosophy With him, it means an
absolute, unchanging, immaterial archetype,
standard, or pattern, which the manifold chang-
ing particulars of sense that are called by
the same name partially share in and repre-
sent It was the form, the nature, the essen-
tial character of a set of particular existences
It was their universal, generic, and also their
end, their completion, or perfect reality
Through its presence, and only through its
presence, are change's controlled, or made other
than an aimless, chaotic flux which as a flux
is unknowable because not enduring long
enough to have any assignable character
Within the world of physical change or becoming,
these ultimate immaterial essences appear as
mathematical forms Mathematical relations
supply nature with all its regularity and recur-
rence, with whatever is constant, or resembles
constancy, amid the scene of change They
also supply the only conditions through which
nature may be, in any genuine sense, known,
be matter of science The usual charge against
the Platonic theory of ideas is that it confused
mental concepts with things. If the charge
means that Plato began with psychical exist-
ences or even with logical abstractions arid
ended with hypostatizing them, it quite misses

IDEA AND IDEATION

IDEALISM

the method and object of Plato. He began
with changing objects, acts, and beliefs, and
concluded that self-consistent beliefs, stable
modes of behavior (individual and social), per-
manently real objects (and no object not per-
manently real can be truly real at all) all imply
unified eternal essences, which as unified and
eternal must be immaterial This meaning of
the term (or of its Latin transliteration of the
Aristotelian eido*, species, namely) lasted
through the entire scholastic period, nomi-
nalism alone denying the objective existence
of archetypal standards of action and belief
Moreover, through the use of final causes in the
medieval science of nature, these standard
patterns, in the form of the ends for the sake of
which events occur, were assumed also to be
the keys to the natural sphere Even to-day,
jinv one who believes in absolute eternal objec-
tive standards or types of justice, truth, law
(whether natural or moral), etc , to which par-
ticulai sets and events tend to conform (or
should conform) accepts the essentials of the
Platonic doctrine of ideas

Quite early in modern thought,, however, the
term "idea" began to change its signification,
taking on a more distinctively mental coloring
The notion of objective pattern shaded over
into that of internal design, a mental copy
according to which an action is carried on, the
not ion of objective end similarly shades into that
of con*ci<m\ intent, purpose as a mental copy of
some result to be accomplished In this way,
the term "idea" came to designate any object so
far as that object was held in mind, whether for
purposes of action or thought According to the
scholastic theory of knowledge, the species,
the kind, was always the real object of knowl-
edge, even in dealing with a particular thing;
that is, in ///i* table the table-character is what
is grasped by intelligence, whatevei does not
take the form of such a universal is incogni-
zable John Locke also called the immediate
object of the mind in knowledge an idea, but
according to him general characters are never
directly apprehended objects or simple ideas
On the contrary, sensible qualities, red, hard,
loud, sweet, etc., are the forms, the ideas, which
mind grasps or ''knows" directly. But
Locke also accepted the notion that many of
these qualities exist only in mind, and so he
tended (though with some ambiguities) to hold
that the objects of the mind m knowledge
are mental objects only Locke's influence
practically determined, accordingly, the sub-
sequent sense of the term "idea" — namely,
mental event, occurrence, existence, especially
if any cognitive force is attached to the
mental existence However, even this restric-
tion was not always observed, idea was often
used to designate any mode of so-called psychic
existence, such as a feeling, desire, etc (The
word " thought " has also been used in the same
loo--e style ) On the other hand, some surviv-
ing flavor of the earlier intellectual connota-

tion clung to the term, so that, following Hume,
many psychologists reserved the term for
secondary or revived mental events, keeping
the terms "sensation," "feeling," "impression"
for the primary.

The significance, of the term IB still further
confused by the fact that it lias developed a
sense intermediate between the oiigmal Pla-
tonic objective one and the modern psychic
one: a logical usage to denote meaning
(what is meant), conception (what is conceived),
the object of intellectual reference as distinct
from the act of referring The fundamental
importance of meanings in mathematics, the
fruitful way in which these meanings interact
for the production of new meanings which no
inspection of the original meanings could have
revealed, the objective coherence of the result-
ing systems, have led to the formation of a
school of Neo-realism which insists that the
science of mathematics proves the independent
existence of intellectual essences, not subject
to the flux of time and non-physical in char-
acter Moreover, many critics have pointed
out that the psyc ical school confused ideas
as meanings with ideas JIB private, psychic
existences, thus making knowledge impos-
sible, since knowledge requires that sensation,
image, idea, have a stable icference beyond it^
own existence. The use of hypothetical mean-
ings as tools of inquiry has meantime suggested
still another sense for the term " idea " — that of
tentative hypothesis, suggestion, theory This
interpretation mediates between the two con-
ceptions of meaning as puie objective essence
and idea jis mere psychic existence As uncer-
tain and tentatively used, the hypothesis or
suggestion is mental, in its application and
possible outcome, if confirmed, it is subjective

J D

See CONCEPTION; HYPOTHESIS, METHOD,
THINKING, also Associ \TION OF IDE\S

IDEAL COMMONWEALTHS - Set lio-
PIAS AND EDUCATION

IDEALISM —In the history of thought,
idealism covers two things very different liorn
one another, each kind including inanv varieties
and both distinct from the meaning of the term
"idealism" as employed in life In the latter
sense, idealism means a pnusewoithy motal atti-
tude, consisting in devotion to high amis, to
ideals, even at the expense of personal loss in
material comfort and financial gam. In its
technical philosophical meaning, the two types
of idealism are characteristic of ancient and
modern thought, respectively The former
is primarily a teleological theory of the cosmos,
of nature, the latter is primarily an assimi-
lation of nature to consciousness. C lassie
idealism was a systematized method of inter-
preting nature from the standpoint of final
cause (see CAUSE) It held that nature exists
for the sake of realizing purpose, the ultimate

371

IDEALISM

IDEALISM

purpose being the Good The degree of reality
possessed by any temporal or phenomenal form
of existence is accordingly measured on the
scale of the degree in which it embodies or
realizes the End, the Good. Reason, intelligence,
was conceived as either the. highest, the final,
good of existence or at least as an indispensable
element in the culminating end It was not
conceived, however, as either the efficient cause
of nature or as the stuff out of which apparently
physical things are made. Nor was the proof
of idealism sought in psychological or episte-
mological grounds On the contrary, the
theory of knowledge was such as would now
be termed realistic It hold that the human
knower, the individual mind, became intelli-
gent or rational through the process of knowing
objects that exist independently of it, by means
of appropriating to itself the amount and kind
of ultimate reality embodied in them In the
phraseology of Aristotle, sensation is a realiza-
tion of the sensible qualities of objects; imagi-
nation of their form so far as still immersed m
particular cases ; reason of their universal form,
free from particular limitations. And while
Plato and Aristotle, the two great names of
classic idealism, disagreed m many respects,
they were at one in holding that our mental
operations are to be viewed and explained from
the standpoint of objective realitv, not objec-
tive reality from the standpoint of our opera-
tions of knowing Consequently, while much
is made of reason as explaining the order, the
harmony, and proportion found in nature, little
is made of the chief concept of modern idealism,
consciousness, so that the term hardly appears
as a significant conception

Modern idealism may be said to have found
its points of departure in two convictions
(a) The most certain, the best known, thing is
an individual's own inner life, his play of emo-
tions, hopes, fears, pleasures, pains, ideas,
memories, etc , what was later termed con-
sciousness, or the psychic, (b) all objects as
known are relative to the processes of sense-
perception and judgment that are involved in
knowing them (1) From the feeling that the
surest, the most accessible region, in fact the
only directly accessible and absolutely sure
thing, is the individual's own inner life, it was
but a step to the conclusion that the sole
escape from skepticism as to the possibility of
scientific knowledge of the world, as well as the
sole way of explaining how a physical world
can interact with a mental world, is to resolve
that external world itself into psychic material.
The assimilation of the objective to the sub-
jective has been the characteristic trait of
every form of modern idealism (2) The con-
viction that sense qualities are relative to the
individual percipient had been held by some of
the sophists in antiquity Under the prevail-
ing conditions of science at that time, however,
such a theory could issue only in intellectual
nihilism, the denial of all stable knowledge.

The case was quite otherwise with the begin-
nings of modern science. All those interested
in removing from science the incubus of ex-
planation through final causes fastened upon
it by scholasticism and in substituting a me-
chanical mode of explanation, were interested
in reducing physical nature to a homogeneous
medium, to mass, motion, space, and time
capable of interchangeable statement in terms
of one another. The most obvious obstacle
to the accomplishment of this ideal was the
diversity of static qualities presented by natural
objects. By the simple device of relegating
color, sound, smells, tastes, to the mind of the
percipient, this obstacle was overcome, and
the residual "real" object was left with only
properties that lent themselves to mathemati-
cal formulation arid mechanical explanation
Hence, it was those most interested in the prog-
ress of physical science that were most em-
phatic in declaring the purely mental nature of
the " secondary " qualities Galileo, Descartes,
Hobbes, all taught that they are " effects "
produced by the real object on the sentient
mind, useful as signs to point to powers
in the object, but having a purely mental
status

It was the work of Berkeley (q v ) to carrv
this line of argument into a thoroughgoing
idealism. With acumen and vigor he pointed
out that to common sense, to the plain man,
the real object arid the perceived object are
identical, that as a matter of fact the so-called
primary qualities (extension, resistance, and the
spatial-mathematical properties generally) are
inseparably bound up \vith the visible and
tangible qualities, and hence that the so-called
material real object was but an " abstract "
idea Hence the entire world of known arid
knowable objects was mental esse equals
per o pi Berkeley, as a theologian, had no
difficulty in attributing the permanent and
orderly relations manifested in the world of
perceived objects — their " laws " — to the
work of divine mind, leading us to expect, in
regular and reliable ways, one perception to
follow upon another Hume (qv), with his
antitheological bias, had no difficulty in show-
ing that upon Berkeley's own principles, God,
being unperceivable, has no valid status, and
that mind itself must be resolved into the
simple flux or stream of changing perceptions.

Since his time, idealism has flowed in two
separate channels Empirical, psychological,
or subjective idealism has stood for the Berke-
leyan resolution of existence into perceptions
and their associations, simultaneous and succes-
sive — minus, of course, his assumption of
spiritual soul substance, divine and human.
But since one school of philosophic theory, and
upon the whole, the orthodox one, had always
attributed slight, or even negative, importance
to perceptions as compared with conceptions,
in determining the framework of knowledge
and in giving certainty, there arose another

372

IDEALISM

IDEALISM AND REALISM

typo of idealism which identified " Reality "
with conceptual, or rational, contents; whose
motto was esse equals intelligi This school of
rational idealism is also termed objective realism,
because it has taught that thought relations
constitute objects independently of relation to
any individual percipient, which, as merely indi-
vidual, is only sentient and hence incapable of
general (scientific) knowledge except as it is in-
formed by the same a priori or objective rea-
son that constitutes the objective world itself
Its chief motif has been the necessity of perma-
nent and universal relations for the existence
of objects of scientific and systematized knowl-
edge, and the identification of these relations
with the various functions of rational thought
This type of idealism was introduced by Kant
and was carried to its culmination by Hegel,
who, however, introduced another and indepen-
dent conception, that the objective manifesta-
tion of mind is found more adequately presented
in social life, in the state, and in the historic
phenomena of politics, art, and religion than
in nature Schopenhauer, in turn, gave ideal-
ism a further distinctive turn by finding the
clew to the nature of existence in will rather
than in rational thought.

It may almost be said that, barring mate-
rialistic and agnostic philosophies, these two
types of idealism divided the field between them
for a century after Kant At present, there are
many signs that the idealistic movement has,
temporarily at least, spent its force At least,
there is a strong realistic tendency in active
progress This movement is too recent and
too close to permit of any accurate and just
assignment of causes Some of the mam
reasons for it are, however, obvious One is the
exhaustion of interests in the type of problems
that gave idealism its original impetus An-
other is a number of inherent inconsistencies
that no type of idealism has completely over-
come. Allied to this, is the seeming deadlock
between the two kinds of idealism Moreover,
there is a growing feeling that the complete
resolution of everything into psychical exist-
ence, whether sentient or rational or a fusion of
them both (as in Bradley and Royce) in break-
ing down all distinction between mind and
anything else, defeats its own end — that of
attributing some distinctive, significant place
and efficacy to intelligence in the scheme of
existence. Concretely, the most influential
force has probably been the development of
the doctrine of biological evolution and its
evidence that mind, instead of being the sole
monopolistic existence, is itself an expression of
life, and the means by which life secures its
most effective control of the environment in the
furtherance of its own active processes At
present, the realistic movement has both a
pragmatic and an intellectuahstic form, the
two agreeing in their common opposition to
traditional idealistic systems rather than in
a positive body of convictions J. D.

References : —

BERKELEY, G Works (London, 1901 )

BRADLEY, F II Appearance and Reality (London,
1897)

CAIRO, E Critical Philosophy of Jmmanuel Kant
(Glasgow, 1889 )

FICHTE, J G Grundlage der gesamten Wissenschafte-
lehre. (Leipzig, 1802 )

FOUILLEE, A Le Mouvement idealiste et la Reaction
contre la Science (Pans, 1896 )

HERBERT, T M The Realistic Assumption of Modern
Science (London, 1879 )

HOFFDINU, H History of Modern Philosophy. (Lon-
don, 1908 )

HUME, D Philosophical Works (London, 1875 )

KANT, I Kritik der reinen Vernunft (Riga, 1787 )

LADD, G T A Theory of Reality (New York, 1899 )

ORMOND, A T Foundation** of Knowledge. (London,

1900 )

ROYCE, J Spirit of Modern Philosophy (Boston,

1892 )
The World and the Individual (New York, 1900-

1901 )

SCHOPENHAUER, A Works (Leipzig, 1891 )
TAINE, H L'Idealisme Anglais (Paris, 1896 )
WATSON, J Christianity and Idealism (London,

1897)

See also BALDWIN, J M Dictionary of Philosophy
and Psychology Vol. Ill, Pt II, pp 615-620, for arti-
cles in current magazines, etc

IDEALISM AND REALISM IN EDUCA-
TION — Two idealistic systems of philosophy
have had a peculiarly intimate connection with
the theory of education, the Socra tic-Platonic
movement in antiquity and that of German
transcendentalism in recent times They have
also exercised a significant influence upon edu-
cational practice The effect upon practice
has not been so much direct as reflex, consisting
chiefly in affording a supposed intellectual
justification for procedures that originated
independently of philosophy The Platonic
idealism, so far as it affected education, was a
development of the method pursued by Socrates
in his endeavor to arrive at fundamental prin-
ciples and standards of action Socrates urged
that since no man would voluntarily do vio-
lence to his own being or deliberately seek his
own harm, ignoiance of his own real nature and
its proper end, or good, was the source of all
evil doing Moreover, ignorance was the
cause of the divisions, the struggles and fac-
tions, of civil life Wherever there is kn >wl-
edge or true understanding, dispute is impossible,
agreement and knowledge are equivalent The
search for knowledge, the process of learning,
is, therefore, of necessity a search for that
which all men have in common, and which,
accordingly, they have a mutual interest in
reaching Argumentative dispute, the desire
to conquer in argument, is ipso facto evidence
of lack of love of wisdom or knowledge. Its
opposite, comparison of ideas with a view to
discovering their common basis and intent,
Socrates called dialectic Since opinions and
beliefs could differ only if they meant to refei
to the same thing, a common underlying reality
was implied in them.

In the dialectic method there were accord-
ingly three elements: (a) The presupposition

373

IDEALISM AND REALISM

IDEALISM AND REALISM

of an objective universal as the proper subject
matter of knowledge, (b) the implication of
this universal in all particular opinions and
beliefs, (c) the possibility of its discovery by
systematic comparison of particulars The
resultant discovery formed the concept or
definition of the object in question — justice
or whatever ethical reality might be the
object of search. Unless there were such ob-
jective universals, the moral anarchy of sub-
jectivism was inevitable; anything was good
or right that seemed to be right or good to
an individual at any particular moment The
further consequence was social discord and
strife, for only an objective universal gave any-
thing common, that is supplied a basis of unity

Plato extended the Soeratic method from
moral realities and knowledge of them to all
realities and the proper method of knowing
them Knowledge as distinct from private
shifting opinions is possible only by virtue of
unchangeable substantial universals in which
all the particulars of a class participate and
through leferencc to which they can be defined
and understood These objective umversals
wore the Platonic Ideas (q v ) or Forms More-
over, since all particulars were changing, they
\\cre capable of order and uniformity only in the
degree in which their changes tended toward
their universal It was then their end, their
good, or peifection Hence true or dialectical
knowledge consists in knowing the ends for
which natural things exist, a thing without an
end is a mere monstrosity.

There are many phases of Ihe Platonic
idealism that are reflected in his own eduea-
t lonal theory In fact, education was of central
importance in his philosophy, since it was only
by a pioper method of education that men
could become skilled in the use of the dialectic
method and be enabled to turn the eye of the
soul from the sense appetites and opinions,
that correspond to mutable particulars, upon
the eternal universal. But a more important
consideration for our present purpose is the
fact that while the details of the Platonic
scheme remained practically without influ-
ence, the two chief aspects of his method be-
came firmly embedded in all higher education
These were the setting of dialectical above
physical inquiry, and of discussion of final
causes above search for efficient causes. Phys-
ical science dealt with just the particular and
changing things which, according to this phi-
losophy, were relatively unreal, they corre-
sponded only to sense knowledge and mere
probability, or opinion. More important was
the elaborating and comparing of ideas and
beliefs, matters of classification and definition,
rather than of observation and experiment
Knowledge of antecedent conditions and con-
stituent (physical) elements was, moreover,
held m contempt compared with knowledge
of the end or purpose for which things existed
And this latter was a matter of development

374

of meanings rather than of external observa-
tion of facts.

That for over fifteen hundred years education
followed these lines is too well known to need
recording There is also no need to say that
causes quite independent of the Platonic idealism
were responsible for the neglect of the phvsical
sciences and mechanical methods of analysis
But the Platonic dialectic as elaborated through
the Aristotelian logic furnished the intellectual
tools for the entire patristic and scholastic sys-
tem of education, and the philosophic ideas
through which the leading ideas were defended
and systematized Even in the humanistic edu-
cational ideal, the feeling that preoccupation with
ideas and beliefs is intrinsically more worth v than
inquiry into natural existences is t ) a considerable
extent a survival of the dialectic side of classic
idealism

In the general sense of tho term, accordingly,
Realism in education began with the reaction
of the Renaissance period against the su-
premacy of those forms of subject matter
that could be dealt with by pure logic It con-
tended that such subject matter consisted
simply of abstractions at its best, and at
worst simply of wouls Moreover, since onlv
ideas and beliefs that were alreadv in the mind,
or that were alreadv current, could be analyzed,
defined, and systematized bv purely dialectic
method, this method confined men to tradition
and authority In the interest, then, of both
reality and mental emancipation, the Realism
of the sixteenth and seventeenth centimes
called men from ideas to things Francis
Bacon is the great representative of this move-
ment, philosophically , RO far as philosophic
Realism influenced education it was chieflv
through his work The older methods were,
however, too deeply entrenched to undergo
much more than slight transformations m
externals The Baconian Realism was but
prophetic; there were no well-developed
methods of inquiring into fact and no organized
subject matter available for educational pur-
poses

The transcendental idealism of tho later
eighteenth and early nineteenth century had a
symbolic and an institutional form, the former
represented in education by Froebel, the latter
by Hegel. Both are dominated by the idea
of a progressive development or unfolding of a
spiritual self-consciousness (which is the prin-
ciple of totality) in and through tho particulars
of nature and human experience

According to romantic (or symbolic) idealism,
particulars (especially those approximating
mathematical form) are suggestive, illustra-
tive, allegorically symbolic of the absolute
truth. Accordingly they may bo employed to
awaken in the mind of infancy the absolute
truth or reality already implicit or latent in it.
Froebel's great natural aptitude for perceiving
the educative force of plays and games, and
modes of occupation was accordingly utilized

IDEALISM AND REALISM

IDIOCY

by him in the interest of a religious, quasi-
mystic, quasi-mathematical formalism, the
formalism being explained and sanctioned by
its supposed correspondence in the realm of
feeling and sense with spiritual essence arid
law in the absolute sphere

Hegel's idealism was substantially an out-
growth of his opposition to the subjective
idealism he attributed to Kant and Fichte
According to him, absolute mind is externalized
in physical nature, but truly objectified in
social institutions arid history The state is
objective reason and will Only by partici-
pating in this realized spirit can the potential
mind, latent in individuals, get rational sub-
stance or body for what otherwise is a mere
empty capacity for consciousness The un-
qualified necessitv of social institutions as the
agencies through which the latent rationality
of individuals is to be awakened arid devel-
op d or brought to full reality, was thus the final
lesson of the Hegelian idealism The accom-
plishing of this end constitutes education

Remarkably enough, the great metaphysical
realist, Herbart, reached essentially the same
conclusion by an opposed route According
to him, there is no one final, all embracing,
absolute reahtv, there is a plurality of reals
Moreover, there is no intrinsic tendency in the
individual mind to evolve according to its own
inner law into realization of supreme reason or
spirit There is only the capacity to react in a
characteristic way to every contact with a
real Education is thus not the growth or
development of the mind in accord with its
own innei nature, it is a forming or shaping of
mind through the presentation of the external
reals which operate upon it The earlier
reactions persist as ideas and form the mental
inateual through which all later preservative
Reactions are received and organized By
controlling the earlier presentations, in terms of
which the later are " apperceived " and made
effective, we can accordingly control the forma-
tion of mind and character, this latter being,
indeed, but the complex of patterns formed by
past contents as they operate* in determining
the reception and organization of new contents.
In deriding, however, the order and sequence
of the presentation of materials, Herbart was
almost wholly under the influence of the notion
of recapitulation of the culture of the past
As the earlier contents in the history of the
individual dominate the assimilation of the
later, so these earhei contents aie to be assim-
ilated to the culture products of the earlier-
stages of civilized mankind Thus, in spite of
their radically diverging bases, the Hegelian
and the Herbartian systems, as applied to edu-
cation, agree in the primacy of social material,
the former emphasizing the value of institu-
tions, the latter of culture products

It is out of the question in a matter involv-
ing a» many important considerations and issues
as the idealistic-realistic controversy to do

more than point out some of the chief points
involved in passing j udgment upon it From the
earlier hrstoric division it appears that the ques-
tion concerns the respective places of meanings
and of natural existences in the scheme of
experience From the latter discussion, the
issue is seen to have to do with the respective
functions of inner development and outer
control If one commenced the investigation
of the problem with educational interests
uppermost, one's most probable conclusion
would be that existence and meaning, internal
growth and outer direction, are mutually com-
plementary, not exclusive rivals As matter
of fact, the beliefs of the greatest number of
men have always been duahstic rather than
exclusively idealistic or realistic But, again,
from the standpoint of that direction of growth
of character and intelligence that we call edu-
cation, what is needed is not a division of the
field into separate region H, or into two dis-
connected kinds of force, but a cooperation of
two distinctions which are both relative to the
evolution of life and experience In short,
from the standpoint of education, the need is
for a philosophy which translates the static
divisions of mind and world, inner and outer,
that characterize traditional dualisms into
dynamic interacting factors of growth, thereby
going beyond both traditional idealism and
realism J D

See DUALISM, HUMANISM AND NATURALISM

IDENTITY — See SELF

IDEOMOTOR (Idea and Motor) —
Many active processes are dependent upon
ideational processes rather than upon sensory
stimulation These motor processes are said
to be aroused through the action of ideas and
the processes thus aroused are said to be
ideomotor rn character Thus the activity of
an insane person may be aroused through the
presence of certain fixed rdeas (q v ) The
significance of the word rn psychological dis-
cussion is that it draws attention to the fact
that many rnotoi processes depend upon cen-
tral nervous activities and are not dependent
upon external sensory stimulations

C H. J

IDIOCY — The tenn specifically used to
denote the lowest grades of mental defect,
although it has been, and unfortunately is
still, sometimes used loosely to apply to almost
any grade of deficiency In the definition
adopted by the British Royal Commission on
the Feeble-minded and agreeing with common
usage, an idiot is described as " a person so
deeply defective in mind from birth, or from
early age, that he is unable to guard himself
against common physical dangers/' being
differentiated on this somewhat economic
basis from (1) the Imbecile (q v ) in that the
hit to,, while " capable of protecting himself

375

IDIOCY

IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA

under usual circumstances, is incapable of other than the anatomical and physiological
carnine his living " and rom the Feeble- anomalies to amenta m general," and divided
inbded ( *.), wh" while " capable of earnmg a according to etiology into porencephahc, sc e-

lll-u w- ;'- ' •' • " rotic, and hydrocephalic; (2) microcephalic;

(H)mongoliau, (4) epileptic (q.v.); (5) vascular,

living

.,
under favorable circumstances," is in-

of "competing on equal terms with hia

^Mwayiw^/M and Incidence — l<or
poses of description idiots are frequently divided
into three groups, high, medium, and low
grades, although obviously theie is no definite
line of demarcation between these groups any
more than there is between the larger division
of idiot, imbecile, and feeble-minded Suffi-
cient evidence exists for the statement that
there is a continuous distribution of cases
thiough all grades of deficiency from the
merely dull or stupid person to the lowest
grade of idiot.

The following typical classification is em-
ployed by the New Jersey Training School for
Feeble-minded, " The low-grade idiot is the
perfectly helpless child, the middle-grade idiot
the one who is able to feed himself, but who
eats almost anything, the high-grade idiot, the
child who eats with some discrimination, dis-
carding that which is not food " More com-
monly idiots are divided roughly into two
groups, the profound, or complete, and the
superficial, or incomplete, and again on the basis
of their disposition into apathetic and excitable
(Ireland) In the first case " the defect is so
profound as to involve the fundamental or-
ganic instincts, and even that of sucking is
absent " (Tredgold)

Perhaps the most satisfactory classification
for general purposes is on the basis of the
clinical varieties and characteristics and their
etiology Such a description will apply to all
degrees of deficiency Thus Tredgold, follow-
ing for the most part the clinical groups pro-
posed by Ireland, first divides deficients into
two classes, primary and secondary, according
as the deficiency is due in the first instance to
hereditary factors, " the results of inherent
defects of the germinal plasm " and including
probably about 90 per cent of the cases.
In the secondary class, including about 10 per
cent of the cases, " there is no marked hered-
ity, and no inherent ability to develop, but
the growth of some portion or the whole of the
brain is interfered with, or arrested, bv disease
or other adverse environment " These terms,
primary and secondary, as thus defined, are
proposed as being more accurate than the more
usual terms, " congenital " and " acquired "

To these classes a mixed class of cases must,
as Shuttleworth and Potts point out, be recog-
nized "in which the actual lesion supervenes
upon a brain originally imperfect in develop-
ment, and to such cases, occurring at a crisis of
early life, has been given the name developmental
The chief clinical varieties recognized are
(Tredgold): (1) simple amentia corresponding
to the " genetous " group of Ireland and pre-
senting " no special distinguishing features

ngoan , epiepic q.v. ; vas,
*°™, or inflammatory, again subdivided into
pur- the three classes given under (1); (6) syphilitic ;

-

(7) infantile cerebral degeneration; (8) cretin-
ism (qv), (9) amentia due to nutritional
defect; (10) amentia due to isolation or sense
deprivation

The number of persons classified as idiots
depends somewhat on care and method of
classification According to Tredgold there
were m England in 1906 " approximately 8654
persons corresponding to 0 25 per thousand of
the entire population The class is thus about
one third as numerous as the imbeciles and
comprise about 6 per rent of all amounts " As
regards sex, there is a small preponderance of
male idiots

Reference should be made to the idiot savants
or idiot geniuses They furnish evidence for
the specialization of mental defect They may
be gifted, foi example, with unusual memory
of one sort or another, — numbers in the case
of some of the arithmetical prodigies, in music,
art, or craftsmanship, but signally wanting in
most, if not all, other respects (F. Peterson,
Idiot Savants, in Popular Science Monthly,
Vol L, p 237) For the details of methods
of training that have been attempted begiji-
mngwith the early attempts of Itard (De V Ed-
ucation d'un H omine Sauvage, 1801) and the
notable work of Seginn (Idiocy and its Treatment
by the Physiological Method, 1866, republished
by Teachers College, Columbia University)
The reader is referred to these writings and the
appropriate chapters m the following selected
bibliography W. F. D.

See DEFECTIVES, SCHOOLS FOR; FEEBLE-
MINDED

References : —

BAKU, M W Mental Defectives (Philadelphia, 1904 )

IRELAND, W M Mental Affections of Children (Phila-
delphia, 1900 )

NORWWOHTHY, N Psychology of Mentally Deficient
Children (New York, 1906)

SHUTTLBWORTH, O , and POTTS, W. A Mentally De-
ficient Children (London, 1910) ,,«0v

TREDGOLD, A. F Mental Deficiency. (London, 1908 )

IDIOSYNCRASY -- A characteristic which
marks the individual as different from his fellow.
See ATYPICAL, GENIUS

IDIOTS —See IDIOCY , DEFECTIVES, SCHOOLS
FOR.

IDLENESS — See ATTENTION; INTEREST,
SCHOOL MANAGEMENT

IDO - See LANGUAGES, ARTIFICIAL.

IGNATIUS OF LOYOLA. — See JESUITS,
EDUCATIONAL WORK OF.

376

ILLINOIS COLLEGE

ILLINOIS, STATE OF

ILLINOIS COLLEGE, JACKSONVILLE,

ILL - - A coeducational institution founded in
1829 and chartered in 1835. Interested and
influential in its foundation was the " Yale
Band," consisting of seven men from Yale
College, as well as the Presbyterians of the
surrounding country The institution became
coeducational in 1903, when the Jacksonville
Female Academy arid the Illinois Conservatory
of Music were merged with it The require-
ments for admission are fifteen units The
college grants the degrees of A B and A M
The faculty consists of twenty-one members

ILLINOIS, STATE OF — Originally a
part of the old North- West Territory Or-
ganized as a separate territory in 1809, arid
admitted as the twenty-first state in 1818 It
is located in the North Central Division, and
has a land area of 56,000 square miles In
size, it is a little larger than New York and
New Jersey combined, a little smaller than
New England, and about the size of England
and Wales For administrative purposes, the
state is divided into 102 counties, these in tuin
into townships, and these into school districts
In 1910 Illinois had a population of 5,638, .i91,
arid a density of population of 100 6 persons
per square mile About two fifths of the popu-
lation of the state is in Chicago and the adjoin-
ing residential towns

Educational History — The first school of
which there is any record was kept in Monroe
County, near St Louis, in 1783, and other
schools were opened in neighboring counties
before many years The first schools in Cook
County were opened in 1816 (See CHICAGO,
CITY OF ) The first constitution in 1818 made
no mention of education The first legislation
with reference to schools was in 1819, when the
Legislature incorporated three academies, at
Edwardsville, Carlyle, and Bellville The
charters of the Edwardsville and Carlyle acad-
emies provided for the free instruction of poor
children, and, as soon as financial conditions
would permit, girls were to be admit ted I n 1 825
the first general school law was enacted This
provided for common schools in every county,
free to all white children, three to twcntv-one,
for the subdivision of the counties into school
districts of not less than fifteen families, and
foi the election of three trustees for each dis-
trict by the voters at a called school meeting
The trustees were to examine and Jure teachers,
to hold and lease property for the schools,
and to make an annual statistical and financial
report The support of the schools established
was to be derived from local taxation, fiom
the income of the sixteenth section lauds and
funds, from an apportionment of 2 per cent
of all state taxes collected, and from five
sixths of the income of the state school fund
Kach district was empowered to provide school
buildings and equipment, and the clerk of each
county commissioner's court was directed to

collect and transmit to the Secretary of Stair
the annual school jeturns No state, outside
of New England, had so advanced a law, Un-
people of Illinois were not educated up to such
iin advanced conception of education, the law
was nullified t wo years later, and the state lost
its chance of educational leadership in the ne\\
West In 1827 the whole or half support of a
school bv taxation was made optional with the
voters of each district, and no man could be
taxed for schools without first obtaining his
consent in writing For the next twenty-five
years little was accomplished, and church schools
furnished the chief means of education for the
state Excepting for a law providing for the
election of three Township Trustees and a County
School Commissioner to look after the school
lands, and the creation of a county school
fund in 1835 by depriving teachers of one half
of the public money due to them for the year
arid with it establishing a permanent school
fund, nothing whatever with reference to edu-
cation was done for ten years In 1837 pro-
vision was made for the incorporation of town-
ships, and for five Township. Trustees instead
of the thiee School Land Trustees, in case of
incorporation This board of five Trustees
was to manage all the schools, and to repoit
regularly to the County Commissioner of then
county Teachers were to be certificated by
the Township Trustees before they could re-
ceive any public money In 1841 the school
laws were revised, and the 1827 law with regard
to taxation was finally repealed In all town-
ships not organized under the 1837 law the
previous provision, requiring three Township
Trustees and a County School Land Com-
missioner, was reinstated, and in addition
three School Directois were to be elected foi
each school district, under either form of town-
ship organization These new officials were to
manage the school of their district, to care for
the building, to employ the teacher, and to
visit the school This cumbersome method of
combined district and towiibhip administration
has persisted until the present time In 1840
and in 1843 there was legislation with reference
to academies, as these were then being estab-
lished in numbers A few were chartered with
the specific privilege of receiving state money
on the same basis as the public schools, but this
plan was never generally adopted In 1845
instruction in the schools was required to be
wholly in the English language, and the people
were required to determine annually, in school
meeting, whether they would tax themselves
to suppoit a school The limit of local taxa-
tion was placed at 15 cents on the $100 (1J per
cent) In 1848 a new state constitution was
adopted, but this made no mention of education,
further than to provide for the exemption of
school property from taxation and to permit
the Legislature to invest school districts with
the power to assess and collect taxes. It was
not until the constitution of 1870 that a sepa-

377

ILLINOIS, STATE OF

ILLINOIS, STATE OF

rate article on education was inserted Unlike
Indiana, the constitution of Illinois did not
pave the way for new features in school ad-
ministration, but on the contrary merely re-
corded what had been established previously
by legislation and fully accepted by the people
The first attempt to secure a form of super-
vision for the schools was made in 1845 by the

as ex officw County Superintendents of Schools
These ex officio County Superintendents were
directed to visit and inspect schools, to examine
and license teachers, and to make an annual
report to the Secretary of State The Secre-
tary of State, in turn, was to recommend
maps, charts, apparatus, and textbooks, to
endeavor to reduce to a uniform system the
means of supporting schools throughout the
state, and to report biennially to the Governor.
In 1854 this ex officio system was abandoned,
and the separate office of State Superintendent
of Public Instruction was created to be filled in
1855, and biennially thereafter, by popular elec-
tion Until an election, could be held, the
Governor was to appoint, and the first ap-
pointee was to report a bill to the next Legis-
lature which should provide for a free tax-
supported system of public education for all
the children of the state The proposed law
was accepted by the Legislature of 1856, and
marks the beginning of a real state system of
schools. Up to this time private and denomi-
national schools had occupied the field; from
now on public schools developed rapidly and
soon gained the ascendency The new law
defined and enlarged the duties of the State
Superintendent; retained the County School
Commissioners and changed them into County
School Superintendents; retained the previ-
ously established township and district school
boards; permitted the establishment of district
school libraries; provided for a two mill state
school tax, to be added to a 6 per cent income
from the school funds, and for local taxation;
required a six months' term, authorized bonds
for school buildings; and abolished the " rate "
and made the schools free This law is the
foundation of the present system, no funda-
mental changes having been made since that
time During the next twenty years, the terms
of the State and County Superintendents were
changed to four years each; the terms of Town-
ship Trustees and District School Directors
were so changed as to secure a retiring one
third each year; township high schools were
authorized; and special laws for city districts
were framed. In 1872, 1889, and 1909, the
school law was revised, but no fundamental
changes were made

In 1839 a state institution for the education
of the deaf and dumb was established at Jack-
sonville. In 1859 an institution for the edu-
cation of the blind, and in 1865 an institution

for the training of the feeble-minded \\ne aWi
established at the same place In 1S71 a
state reform school was established at Pontiac
In 1853 the state teachers7 association way
formed, and in 1864 a County Superintendents'
association was organized.

The new constitution of 1870 was the first
to contain a mandate for the establishment
and maintenance of a system of public schools
It also safeguarded all permanent school funds,
prohibited aid to sectarian or denominational
bchools, prohibited teachers and school officers
from being interested in contracts; and pro-
vided for a County Superintendent for each
county. The office of State Superintendent is
not mentioned in the constitution. Women
were first permitted to vote at school elections
in 1873 In 1874 a law was passed prohibiting
the exclusion of children from any school be-
cause of race or color, this law being still in
force In 1857 the first ntate normal school
was established at Normal, and a board of
trustees, termed the State Board of Education,
was created to manage the school In 1869 a
second school was established at Carbondale,
and opened in 1874 In 1867 the Illinois
Industrial University (now the University of
Illinois) was established at Urbaria In 1869
county normal schools were authorized, and
two county normal schools were at once es-
tablished, one for Cook County (Chicago) and
the other for Peona County (Peona). T\vo
additional state normal schools were established
in 1895, and a fifth such school in 1889 A
child labor law was enacted in 1891, and revised
in 1903 Kindergarten classes were authorized
in 1895, classes for deaf children in 1897, and
classes for crippled childen in 1903.

An educational commission was created by
the Legislature of 1907 and in 1909 reported a
recodification and condensation of the existing
school laws; a plan for the establishment of a
State Board of Education with sufficient power
to enable it to be of real educational service,
a plan for County Boards of Education for each
county to supervise the schools of the county;
a new and graded plan for the certification of
teachers, which, had it been adopted, would
have given Illinois the best certificating law in
the Union; a plan for making the township
the unit of organization for schools, and a
simplification of the present system of school
organization by abolishing the District Boards
of Directors; recommendations for the im-
provement of teachers' institutes, and a mini-
mum salary law providing for minimum sal-
aries of $315 and $385 per year for teachers
holding the two grades of teachers' certificates
Only the first measure, the recodification and
condensation of the existing laws, could be got
through the Legislature, and the chance of
finally organizing a strong and efficient state
school system was lost This Commission made
a second report in 1911, but no fundamental
changes were made in consequence.

378

ILLINOIS, STATE OF

ILLINOIS, STATE OF

Present School System. — As at present
organized, the school system of Illinois is as
follows: A State Superintendent of Public
Instruction, elected by the people for four-
year terms, heads the system. There is no
State Board of Education, or analogous body,
the so-called State Board of Education being
merely a Board of Trustees for the State Nor-
mal School at Normal. The State Superin-
tendent is required to supervise the public
schools of the state, to interpret the school
law, decide appeals, and advise school officers
as to their duties; to advise County Superin-
tendents as to the construction of school
buildings; to grant state certificates to teachers,
valid in any county, and to revoke them for
cause; to visit the charitable institutions of
the state; to prescribe the forms of reports;
and to make a biennial report to the Governor
He may also authorize Countv Superintendents
to procure institute instructors, remit forfei-
tures of the school fund for any failure on the
part of districts; require school officers of all
kinds to report; and may also request private
institutions to make reports But little power
and few functions are assigned to the State
Department, and the office is clerical rather
than creative.

For each county there is a Countv Superin-
tendent of Schools elected by the people for a
four-year term There are no County Boards
of Education. The County Superintendent is
required to look after and sell any township
school lands remaining; to visit every school
in his county at least once each year, to advise
and assist school officers, to conduct a teachers'
institute each year, examinations for teachers'
certificates each quarter, and examinations for
normal school and university scholarships as
necessary, to examine the Township Treas-
urer's bond, and to make an annual examination
of his books, to collect fines from the civil
authorities and to deposit them to the credit
of the school fund, to apportion the state and
county school funds to the townships and parts
of townships, and to notify the district trustees
of the amount distributed, to see that an an-
nual school census is taken by each district , and
to make quarterly and annual reports of his acts
and visits to the county authorities and annual
reports to the State Superintendent He is also
empowered to require reports from all school
officers, and to remove district officers for cause ,
to direct Township Treasurers in the keeping
of their books, to renew teachers' certificates
without examination, and to revoke them for
cause, and to determine disputes among school
officials.

Smaller than the county are the Congres-
sional townships, each of which is a school
township as well as a civil township. Frac-
tional townships with less than 200 children
may be consolidated with adjoining townships
For each township, three Township Trustees
are elected, one each year, at the annual April

school elections, to hold office for three years
each. These Township Trustees must "hold
semiannual meetings, must apportion the
school fund pro rata on census to all districts,
and must elect a Township Treasurer, for two-
year terms, who acts ex officto as clerk of the
township board They may also divide the
township into districts, and, on petition of the
voters, change the districts or consolidate them
The Township Trustees report annuallv in
detail to the County Superintendent, or, in
case the township is cut by a county line, to
the County Superintendents of both counties.
The Township Treasurer has charge of all
moneys; keeps all school accounts for the town-
ship and the districts, loans the principal of
the township funds, makes an annual financial
report to the County Superintendent, receives
the taxes collected and pays all orders of the
school districts, and acts as an overseer of the
financial and business affairs of the district
school authorities

For each school district, within the township,
the voters must elect a Board of School Direc-
tors of three members, for thiee-year terms,
one being elected each year The Board is
required to manage the schools of the district;
to determine the studies, apparatus, and text-
books of the schools, arid to loan textbooks to
indigents; to emplov teachers, and to dismiss
them for cause, to levy taxes for the support of
at least a six months' school m the district , free
and equally open to all, to notify the Township
Treasurer of the amount levied, to appropriate
funds for specific purposes, to borrow money,
and to issue bonds, to make an annual report
to the Township Treasurer and to the electors
of the district at the annual election, and, in
case the district lies partly in two townships, to
report to both Treasurers It is with these
District Boards of Directors that the chief
control of the schools of Illinois rests Dis-
tricts having 1000 or more inhabitants, and
up to 100,000 are managed by Boards of Edu-
cation, which have all of the powers granted to
District Boards of Directors, and, in addition,
the power to maintain schools up to ten months,
to examine teachers by examinations supple-
mental to the county or state examinations,
to buy, lease, and condemn school sites, to
employ a Superintendent and a sccrctarv, and
to print an annual report and course of study
Cities of ovei 100,000 inhabitants, of which
there is only one, are governed by a board of
education of twenty-one, appointed by the
mayor, and have still larger powers (See
CHICAGO, CITY OF ) Women are eligible to
election to any school office, and, if properly
registered, may vote at any school election

The system of school adrnmistiation in
Illinois is still further complicated by the pres-
ence of high school boards Any township,
any two or more townships or districts, and
any district haying 2000 or more inhabitants,
may form a high school district, by petition

379

ILLINOIS, STATE OF

ILLINOIS, STATE OF

and election. For such high school districts
a high school board of five trustees must be
elected. The high school district is separate
and distinct from the common school district,
but may levy taxes and conduct a high school
in the same manner as such a district

School Support — Illinois originally received
985,066 acres of land from the sixteenth section
grant, made by Congress for the support of all
schools This has all been sold excepting
6375 acres The fund produced by the sale
of this land belongs to the township in which
the land was located To this has recently
been added the county fund, created by the
act of 1835, which amounted in 1906 to $161,-
703 The combined fund now amounts to
about nineteen millions, and is loaned out by
the township treasurers for the benefit of the
schools of their townships The state also
received 3 per cent of the sale price of govern-
ment land within the state, for education,
five sixths of which went to form the perma-
nent state school fund and one sixth to the col-
lege fund To the five sixths constituting the
permanent state school fund was added $335,-
59232 from the surplus revenue of 1837,
being a little more than two thirds of that
received Both funds were borrowed by the
state and spent They amount, nominally, to
nearly one million dollars, upon which the state
pays interest at the rate of 6 per cent This,
with a state two mill tax, constitutes the state's
contribution, and m 1908 amounted to $896,-
276 58, or to about 3 per cent of the cost of
maintenance of the school system The in-
terest on the township fund, and the proceeds
of fines, forfeitures, and fees, each produced
about 3 per cent more. District taxation is the
main support of the schools, and produced
88 per cent of the cost of maintenance in 1909.
The remainder came from miscellaneous
sources Boards of directors and boards of
education in all the school districts of the
state, regardless of size, are permitted to levy
a local tax of 1J per cent on their assessed
valuation for maintenance, and ]£ per cent
for building purposes Bonds for further sums
may be voted by the people All school money
is apportioned to the counties, from the coun-
ties to the townships, and from the townships
to the districts on the sole basis of the number
of children under twenty-one years of age in
each subdivision The income from the town-
ship permanent fund is apportioned to the
districts on the same basis

Educational Conditions — The state is a
rich agricultural and manufacturing state,
with many railroads and much business. Not-
withstanding its large city population, nearly
one half of the total population yet live in
country districts Of the total population,
about one fifth are foreign born, and about two
per cent are negroes In illiteracy the state
had but 4.2 per cent. The educational system
of the state is characterized by an excessive

development of local management and control,
and little centralization in either management
or support. Cook County, containing the
large and wealthy city of Chicago, with its
large expenditure for education and its many
excellent schools, and the small, relatively
inefficient, and poorly financed rural schools of
the black belt of southern Illinois, stand at
opposite extremes of the educational system of
the state, as well as of the state itself The
10,613 ungraded schools, with that number of
teachers, are supervised by something like
40,000 school officials, not including the county
superintendents

Many districts report themselves as unable
to provide a six months school within the limit
of taxation allowed by law. One third of the
districts were reported as without a library,
and 924 of the 13,058 schoolhouses in the state
are reported by the county superintendents
as unsanitary and unfit Six hundred and
eighteen schools enrolled less than eleven
children. The district system has been so
strongly intrenched that no laws for the con-
solidation of schools and the transportation of
pupils have so far been enacted, though strongly
advocated Sixty-six schools in the state
report kindergartens, 134 as having manual
training, 70 as, having domestic science, 102
as having special teachers of drawing, 185
as having special teachers of music, and five
citieb provide day schools for the oral instruc-
tion of the deaf These extra educational
advantages are confined almost entirely to the
larger cities The private and parochial schools
of the state enrolled 16 6 per cent of the public
school enrollment, and in Chicago 35 per cent

Teachers and Training. — Of the teachers
employed 5 3 per cent were college graduates ,
7 per cent were normal school graduates; 21 5
per cent had attended some normal school,
14 per cent had not had the equivalent of a
high school education; and 10 5 per cent were
beginners Examinations for teachers' certifi-
cates are held quarterly m the counties, and
two grades of certificates are granted, valid
for one and two years respectively and in the
county where issued The standards for these
are low Special certificates may be granted
m almost any subject. State certificates,
valid in any county, may be issued on examina-
tion by the State Superintendent. Cities may
superimpose additional examinations for city
certificates As a means of improving teachers
in service, an annual county institute of at
least five days must be held by each county
superintendent, which is free only to the
holders of teachers' certificates For the train-
ing of new teachers, the state now maintains
five normal schools, all of which in 1910 main-
tained summer sessions for teachers in service.
The city of Chicago also maintains a city
normal college, requiring high school gradua-
tion for entrance Entrance to the state
normal schools is from the grammar schools,

380

ILLINOIS, STATE OF

ILLINOIS, UNIVERSITY OF

and the course is four years in length For
high school graduates, a two years' course is
arranged, and a one year's course is also ar-
ranged for those who must teach after one year.
In 1907 the legislature authorized the four
then existing normal schools to arrange for a
degree course of two years of graduate study,
leading to the degree of Bachelor of Education
College graduates may obtain the degree in
one year, and three eighths of the work may
be done in absentia

Secondary Education. — Any school district
having a population of 2000 may establish its
own high school and elect a high school board
of education to manage the school City
boards of education in cities of 1000 or over,
may establish high schools as a part of the
graded school system of the cities Any town-
ship may by petition and election establish
a township high school, and two or more

In addition to professional depaitmonts main-
tained by the larger of the above institutions,
there are also five independent theological
schools, four independent law schools, and five
independent medical schools, nearly all bring
located in Chicago

Special Institutions — The state maintains
the following special institutions for the edu-
cation of defectives the Illinois School for
the Blind, at Jacksonville, the Illinois School
for the Deaf, at Jacksonville, the School of
the Sqldiers' Orphans Home, at Normal,
the State Training School (Reformatory) foi
(iirls, at Geneva; the Illinois State Reforma-
tory for Boys, at Pontiac E P C

References : —

Bicn Kepts of the Supt Publ In^tr , 1854 to date
Constitutions of Illinois, 1818, 1848, and 1870
The School Law of Illinois, 1909 Revision

NAM&

LOf ATION

OPFNKD

CONTROL

FOR

Holding College
Illinois Wesleyan University .
Blackburn Colleen
Carthage College
Armour Institute of Technology
Chicago University

Abmgdon
Bloomington
Carlmvilh
Carthage
Chicago
Chicago
Chicago

18V*
1S5()
1895
1H70
1892
1S92
1870

M E
M E
Presbyterian
Lutheran
Non-sectarian
Non-sectarian
R C

Both sex*
Both se\<

Both He XI

I Both Hexc
Men
Both sexc
Both se\(

l)c Paul University
James Mil liken University

Chicago
Decatur
Effingharn

1908
11KM
18M1

R C

Presbj tenan
Non-sectarian

Men
Both sext
Both se xi

Eureka College
Northwestern University
Eumg College

Kureka
Kvanston
Ewmg
Galesburg

1855
1851
1807
1837

Christian
M K
Bapl ist
Non-sectarian

Both sex(
Both wexe
Both 8exo
Both sex«

Lombard College
Lake Forest College .
McKendree College

Galesburg
Lake Forest
Ix?banon
Lincoln

1852
1870
1828
1805

Non-sectarian
M E
Presbvtenan

Both nexe
Both H«-xo
Both sexe
Both ^exe

Monmouth

185h

Un Presbv tenan

Both sex<

Naperville

1801

Evang \ssoc

Both eexe

St Bede College

Penn

1841

R C

Men

Rook ford College

Hock ford

1840

Non-sectarian

Women

AuguHtana College .

Rock Isl-ind
Springfield

1800
1850

Lutheran
E\ ang Luth

Both nexe«
Men

t

Teutopolis

1802

R C

Men

Upper Alton

1827

Baptist

Both sexei^

»

Urbana

1807

Non-sectarian

Both sexet

!

West field College

West held

18(T>

United Brethren

Both sexef

Wheaton College

Wheaton

1800

Congregational

Both sexe*'

townships, or districts, may unite to form a
union high school On the petition of fifty
voters in any high school district, the question
of whether or not a manual training depart-
ment shall be established by the trustees must
be submitted for a vote, and if a majority votes
in favor of it the trustees must establish such
a department. These laws have resulted in the
formation of a large number of high schools, there
being about 700 in the state at the present time.
Higher and Technical Education — The
University of Illinois (q v.) founded in 1867
as the Illinois Industrial University, and
located at Urbana, stands at the head of the
public school system of the state It is one of
the largest of our state universities, and offers
a wide range of instruction. The state also
contains a large number of private institutions
of learning.

ILLINOIS, UNIVERSITY OF, URBANA,

ILL — An institution founded by the state UN
a land grant college in pursuance of the act of
Congress of 1862 The institution was in-
corporated in 1867 as the Illinois Industrial
University, and opened to students in 1868
At first labor on the farm was made compulsory,
but was soon discontinued. In 1870 shop m-
stiuction in the mechanics was introduced for
the first time in an American university
Women were admitted in the same year The
university received legislative authority to
grant degrees and diplomas in 1877, and in 1885
the present title was adopted In 1896 the
Chicago College of Pharmacy became the
School of Pharmacy of the University of
Illinois, and in 1897 a school of law, known
since 1900 as the College of Law, was opened
In 1 897 the College of Physicians and Surgeons
381

ILLINOIS WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY

ILLITERACY

of Chicago became the College of Medicine of
the University of Illinois In the same year
the State Library School was opened at the
university In 1901 the School, now the
College, of Dentistry, was organized The
School of Railway Engineering and Adminis-
tration was established in 1907. Courses in
business administration had already been in-
troduced in 1900 The government of the in-
stitution is in the hands of a board of nine
trustees elected for six-year terms, and the
(lovernoi of the state, the President of the
State Board of Agriculture, and the Superin-
tendent of Public Instruction ex officio Stu-
dents are admitted by certificate from an
accredited high school or by examination The
entrance requirements are fifteen units In
addition to the schools mentioned above, a
summer session and agricultural experimental
station are maintained The enrollment of
students in 1909-1910 was 5118, distributed
as follows graduates, 283, arts, 880, science,
297, engineering, 1303, agriculture, 628, library,
31, music, (>1, academy, 334 (discontinued,
1911), summer session, 313, law, 193, medicine,
526, dentistry, 108, pharmacy, 174 The fac-
ulty at Urbana includes 140 members of pro-
fessorial grade and 368 junior instructors and
assistants Edmund Janes James, Ph D ,
LL D , is the president

ILLINOIS WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY,
BLOOMINGTON, ILL — A coeducational in-
stitution founded in 1850 and comprising four
departments, an academy, college of liberal
arts, college of law, college of home economics,
school of fine arts, and school of music and ora-
toiy The lequirements of admission are fif-
teen units. The four courses, classical, Latin-
scientific, scientific, and English, lead to degrees
of A B and B S A high school education is re-
quired of candidates who wish to enter the col-
lege of law, which confers the degree of Bache-
lor of Laws at the end of a three years' course
Of the 737 students enrolled m 1910-1911, 241
were taking work in the college of liberal arts
The faculty consists of 42 members

ILLITERACY — A term used to denote the
inability to read and write in any language,
and applied to those ten years of age or over
In a few foreign countries, and in a very few
American states, statistics are also collected
which segregate those unable to read the lan-
guage of the country from the literate, and as an
intermediate class Classified statistics as to
illiteracy have been collected by the United
States Census decennially since 1840, and simi-
lar statistics are compiled and published at in-
tervals by most other nations. The ability
merely to read and write represents a very ele-
mentary test, and many who are able to pass it
are still illiterate in almost every other than the
technical sense of the term. Nevertheless, the
ability to read and write distinguishes those
who may learn and improve their minds from

382

papers and books from those who are shut of!
from this source of knowledge. Thus, the per-
centage of illiteracy to be found in a state or
nation is to a very large degree an index of the
extent to which the advantages of elementary
education have been provided for the people by
the government

Illiterate people should be classified as to age,
sex, nationality, and race to exhibit the exist-
ing conditions in any intelligent manner
Illiteracy under the age of ten is generally
neglected in all educational statistics, so that
little can be told, except in cities where a good
school census is taken, as to the degree to which
compulsory education laws are enforced during
the early school period. The next measure of
illiteracy, after the total number ten years of
age or over, is usually the percentage of the
voting population which is illiterate This is
higher than the former, as it includes a laiger
percentage of older persons Statistics for
those who have passed certain age periods, such
as forty or fifty years of age, show a still further
increase in the percentage of illiteracy Classi-
fied by sex, the illiteracy of females nearly al-
ways exceeds that for the males of the same age,
race, or nationality, except that it is less in the
United States for the age period of ten to twenty-
four years In some Catholic countries, and
in all Mohammedan and Asiatic countries, the
illiteracy of the femaleb is markedly highei
than among the males In Turkey, India, and
China we rind a high illiteracy among the
males, and an almost complete illiteracy among
the females

The least illiteracy to-day is to be found
among the people in the countries to the noith
and west of Europe, and of Teutonic or mixed
Teutonic stock It was in these countries that
the Protestant revolt made its greatest head-
way, and the ability to read the word of Cod
and to participate in the church services were
regarded as of great importance for salvation
The lowest percentage of illiteracy to-dav is
found among the Teutonic nations (the (J<r-
man states, Sweden, Norwav, Denmark, ard
Finland), the Mixed Teutonic nations (Switzer-
land, Scotland, the Netherlands, and England),
and in France As we go to the south and east
of Europe, the percentage of illiteracy increases
rapidly, reaching its highest points in Spain and
Portugal in the one direction, and in Russia,
Servia, and Roumania in the other. Greece,
Italy, and the different states of the Austro-
Hungarian Empire also have a high percentage
of illiteracy.

Various methods are, however, employed to
discover the number of illiterates in different
countries. In Great Britain it is usual to com-
pile statistics of illiteracy from the number of
those who sign the marriage registers by mark;
a supplementary test is also afforded by taking
tests among the army and navy recruits. On
the Continent the statistics of illiteracy are
drawn mainly from the conscripts for the army.

ILLITERACY

ILLITERACY

In both tests the statistics are of course true
only of people at a certain age In the United
States the census accepts a declaration of each
person as to his or her literacy. How varying
the basis of calculation is shown by the follow-

living in the rural districts of some of the older
states; the very high percentage of illiterate
among the colored race m the Southern states,
the marked illiteracy among the Mexican
element in the southwest, the great influx of

COUNTRY

P. C.

ILLIT-

KHATE

BASIS

YKAR

COUNTRY

P C
ILLIT-
ERATE

BASIS

YhMi

KITKOPK

AMRKICA — Cunt

\uritria .

202

Populatioo over 10 yr

1900

British Honduras

088

All ages

1901

Belgium

186

Population over 10 yr

1900

Canada

171

Population over 5 > r

1001

Belgium . .

85

Army recruits

1908

Chile

499

Population over 10 yr

1007

Bulgaria

05 5

Population over 10 yr

1005

Costa Rica

802

All ages

1802

Bulgaria

584

Marriages

1001-1910

Cuba

508

Population over 10 vr

1890

Denmark

02

Army recruit*

1 907

Guatemala

927

All ages

1891

England and YValon

1 8

MarnageH

1901-1910

Mexico

75 3

Population over 1 1 yr

1000

Finland l

i 5

Population over 15 yr

1900

Newfoundland

458

Population over 5 yr

1001

Finland

49

Army recruits

1899

Peru

865

All ages

1876

I'riitK (

14 1

Population over 10 \ r

19(H)

Porto Rico

79 (i

Population over 10 yr

1890

I ranee

35

Artiiv recruitH

1904

AUSTRALIA

Franco

4 1

Marriages

1901-1010

New South Wales «

40

Population over 10 vr

1001

(Jorman Empire*

00*

Arniv recruits

1905

New South Wales

1 0

Marriages

1901 10H)

OJnat Britain

13 -»2

Army recruits

1007

New Zealand 6

1 7

Population over 10 vr

1 000

(Jreooe '

572

Population over 10 vr

1007

New Zealand

03

Marriages

1001-1010

(Iri'e-co

{00

Army recruits

No date

Queensland 6

106

Population o\erl() vr

1901

IFungar\ •>

40 0

Population over 12 A r

1900

Queensland .

20

Marriages

1001-1010

Ireland

174

Population over 10 v r

1001

South Australia *

4 5

Population over 10 jr

1001

Ireland

8 1

Marnagen

1901-1010

South Australia

08

Marriages

1001-1010

Itals

4H2

Population over 10 yr

1001

Tasmania

67

Populat ion o v <- r 1 0 v r

1901

1 tnl\

•JO b

Armv re< ruits

1905

Tasmania

24

Marriages

1901-1010

Italx

387

Marriages

1001-1010

Victoria 7

32

Population ov< r 10 >r

1001

\1 iltese Islands *

57 5

Population over 5 yr

1001

Victoria

04

Marriages

1001 1010

Netherlands (The)

1 4

Arm\ re< nuts

1908

Western Australia *

4 4

Population CM er 10 \ r

1001

VefherhuidH (The)

22

Marriage*

1901-1910

Western \ustralia

00

Marriages

1001-10

Poland

r>9 J

Population over 10 j r

1897

ASIA AND ()( KAMA

Portugal

7*4

Population over 10 vr

1900

Ce\ Ion (All races)

783

All ages

1001

Priisisia

0 (Mi

Armv recruit*

1 903

Covlon (European

Prussia

04

Marriages

1901-1910

race)

11 0

All ages

1001

Koumania

61 2

Population over 7 vr

1909

Ceylon (Other than

Hotimama

01 5

Armv recruits

1908

European

784

All ages

1901

Kuwia

700

Population over 10 v r

1807

India

02 5

Population over 10 >r

1901

Russia

01 7

Armv recruitH

1804

Philippine Islands 9

55 5

Population over 10 N r

100M

Scotland

1 f>

Marriages

1901-1910

Russia 10

873

Populat ion over J 0 vr

1897

Servia

78 f»

Population over 11 vr

1900

Hawaii

363

Population over f> yr

1896

Sorvia

30 7

Marriages

1901-1010

AFRICA

Spam

587

Population over 10 yr

1900

Algeria

77

Armv recruits

1909

Sweden

03

Army recruits

1007

Cape of Good Hope

Switzeiland

05

Armv recruits

1905

(AH races)

658

Population over 10 vr

1004

United Kingdom

1 0

Armv recruits

1903-04

Cape of Good Hope

VMFRICA
Continental U S ,

(European race)
Cape of Good Hope

(>2

Population over 10 vr

1904

total popula-

(Other than Eu-

tion

77

Population over 10 vr

1910

ropean race)

862

Population over 10 vr

1004

Native white,

EgvpU

027

Population over 10 vr

1007

native parents
Native white,

57

Population over 10 vr

1910

Natal (European
race)

20

Population over 10 vr

1004

foreign parents

It)

Population over 10 vr

1910

Orange River Col-

Foreign born

ony (European

white

128

Population over 10 v r

1910

race)

73

Population over 10 v r

1004

Negro
Indian

305
502

Population over 10 vr
Population over l()yr

1910
1000

Orange Hiver Col-
onv (Aborigines)

906

Population over 5 yr

1004

Chinese

290

Population over 10 yr

1900

Orange River Col-

Japanese
Argentina

182
544

Population over 10 \ r
Population over 6 vr

1900
1895

onv (Mixed and
other colored)

85 9

Population over 5 vr

1004

Bolivia

829

Population *<vcr 7 vr

1000

Transvaal (Euro-

Brazil

852

All ages

1890

pean race)

30

Population over 10 v r

1004

» No definition of "illiterate" is given m the census report
8 Including Croatia and Blavonia
1 Native Maltese population

4 Excluding aborigines

5 Excluding Chinese

ing table, in which the term " illiterate" in-
cludes all persons unable to write their own
language, except in the case of countries marked
with an asterisk, where illiteracy is based on
inability to read: —

In the United States a very determined cam-
paign has been waged against illiteracy during
the past thirty years. The relatively high per-
centage of illiteracy among the native whites

"Excluding nomadic aborigines

7 Including Chinese and aborigines

8 Excluding full-blooded aborigines
« Civilized population

w Caucasia, Siberia, and Central Asia

foreigners into the cities and states of the
North Atlantic and North Central groups of
states, and particularly the rapid shift in
immigration from the north and west of
Europe to the south and east, after about
1880; and the increasing state and national
consciousness that an illiterate population is a
national danger, — all alike have tended to
stimulate the American states in their efforts

383

ILLITERACY

ILLITERACY

to abolish illiteracy from among them Great
headway has been made in the Southern states
not only in reducing the illiteracy among the
colored population, but among the poor native
whites as well. The history of education in
the different Snith'»rn states (SOP articles on
the different Southern State School Systems,
ALABAMA, ARKANS\S, FLORIDA, etc ) during
the past thirty years is in large part the story
of a battle to reduce the illiteracy of their
people, to provide elementary educational ad-
vantages for all, and to enact and enforce
some form of compulsory education and child-
labor laws Arizona and New Mexico have
also made commendable progress in reducing
the illiteracy of the Mexican portion of their
populations (See articles on the school sys-
tems in those states ) In the states of the
North Atlantic and the North Central groups
of states the efforts tj roduce illiteracy have
been seriously interfered with by the great
immigration of foreign elements, coming largely
from countries where illiteracy is high and where
primary education is but poorly provided for
Tho French Canadians from Canada have
caused much concern to the mill towns of New
England. Similarly the great influx of South
Italians, Greeks, and Russian and Polish Jews
into the cities, and of Magyars, Slovaks, Lithu-
anians, Poles, and other nationalities from the
south and east of Europe into the mining regions
and manufacturing towns of the Northern and
Eastern states, have caused much concern there.
Schools have been increased in numbers and
improved, educational advantages have been
multiplied, and in cases extended to the parents
also, and compulsory education and child-labor
laws have been enacted, revised, and enforced.
The results of all of these efforts , in the different
parts of the country, has been a marked reduc-
tion in the percentage of illiteracy, considered
as a total or by states as wholes But owing to
the growth of the country the total number of
illiterates has a little more than held its own
during the past forty years (For full detailed
figures, by states and for the decennial periods,
as woll as by race, sex, and ages, seo the Reports
of the United States Census. The Thirteenth
Census, for 1910, gives the latest figures avail-
able )

An analysis of tho figures contained in those
reports gives the following results In thirty
years the percentage of illiterates, ten years of
age or over, has boon cut in two (17 0 per cent
in 1880; 13 3 per cent in 1890, 10.7 per cent
in 1900; and 7.7 per cent in 1910) Tho per-
centage of illiteracy among the female sex is
still slightly greater than for tho males, though it
has been reduced much more rapidly. Among
persons between tho ages of ten and twenty-five,
however, the percentage of illiteracy among the
females is less than among the males. The
percentage of illiteracy among the negroes is
still high (30 5 per cent in 1910), though this
has been more than cut in half during the past

384

thirty years. The large percentage of ilhtei-
ates among the colored race in a few of the old
slave states raises the average for the race above
what it would be for most of tho Southern states
Among the white population alone, the per-
centage of illiteracy has boon nearly cut in two
also during tho past thirty years (9 4 per cent
in 1880; 7 7 per cent in 1890, 6 2 per cent in
1900; and 4 9 per cent in 1910). This high
average for the country as a whole is the result
of adding in tho large number of illiterates of
foreign birth (native-born whites, 3 0 per cent;
foreign-born whites, 12 8 per cent), just as the
large number of illiterates among the native-
born population is tho result of adding in the
illiterates of tho colored race

Illiteracy among children has decreased
greatly everywhere, and illiteracy is less preva-
lent in tho cities of 25,000 population and over,
despite their largo foreign-born element, than
in the small towns and country districts.
Tho percentage of illiterates among the children
of native-born parents is, strange to say, much
greater than among the native-born children
of foreign-born parents In tho Southern
states there aro relatively fow foreign-born
people, and the problem of illiteracy is among
the negroos and poor whites In tho Northern
and Eastern states there are relatively fow ne-
groes, but a largo foreign-born population, so
that tho problem there is among the foreign-
born in tho cities and tho native whites of tho
rural districts In tho western part of the
North Central Division tho foreign-born is
largely from tho noith and west of Europe
and largely Teutonic in stock, tho rural schools
aro good, and tho percentage of illiteracy is tho
lowest to bo found in tho United States Kan-
sas, Nebraska, Iowa, Minnesota, and the two
Dakotas aro situated in this gioup, and all ha\o
a very low percentage of illiteracy In the
mountain and Western states, if wo omit a rela-
tively small number of Indians, tho illiteracy is
almost entirely among a foreign-bom n imng
and agricultural element in the population

One significant thing about tho tables pub-
lished, when analyzed closely by states, is the
growing illiteracy in tho \illages and lural sec-
tions of a number of the states, particularly
the older states This is partly due to the
incoming oi a cheaper foreign-born agricultural
laborer, and in part to the inefficiency of the
rural school and tho lack of the enforcement of
compulsory education laws by country people.
Tho first is one which is likely to cause tho
illiteracy of country districts to increase rapidly
during the next few decades As scientific
agriculture, carried on on both an extensive
and an intensive scale, takes tho place of tho
old style of farming, the size of farms and the
number of large farms worked by a scientific
agricultural superintendent and cheap foreign
labor may both be expected to increase. The

Eroblom of education in rural communities will
ecome more and more acute, and tho need of a

ILLUSION

ILLUSTRATIVE DRAWING

reorganization of rural education along rational
administrative lines will be increasingly felt.
(See article on RURAL SCHOOL PROBLEM )

The idea of free schools for all, supported by
the taxation of all, is an expression of the fear
of an ignorant citizenship. As the problems
of government increase in number and complex-
ity, and as the franchise is extended to new
peoples and in new directions, the national
peril of an ignorant and an untrained citizenship
is felt with increasing force. The good of the
community and of the State, as much as of the
individual, demand as high a general level of
intelligence on the part of the masses as is within
reasonable attainment, and nowhere is this more
forcibly pushed upon the attention of statesmen
than in a democracy such as our own The
deeper this conception takes hold of the national
consciousness, the more marked will be the ten-
dency not only to stamp out illiteracy in the
usual technical sense of the term, but to insist
upon the attainment of at least the rudiments
of a common-school education before the child
is allowed to leave the school and begin work
The recent tendency of our American states to
revise their compulsory education laws so as to
require attendance at school every day that the
schools are in session, the extension of the com-
pulsory education peiiod from fourteen to six-
teen, and the Massachusetts insistence upon the
ability to undertake the work of the fourth
school grade to be considered able to read and
write, are all tendencies in this direction.
The German and French requirements of the
completion of certain grades of work before
leaving school are similar illustrations of this
tendency. E P 0

Sec also articles on ATTENDANCE, COMPUL-
SORY; CHILD LABOR; CHILDHOOD, LEGISLA-
TION FOR THE CONSERVATION AND PROTECTION
OF, and LEAVING CERTIFICATES For the last
available statutes on illiteracy in any country
01 state, see the article on the school system of
that country or state.

ILLUSION — In many cases the process
of perception is so disturbed by the conditions
under which it takes place that the resulting
image or mental process is not adequate as a
representative of the external object from
which the percept was derived Thus if for
any reason one sees an object as very small
when he should see it as large, an illusion is
said to arise Such an illusion occurs when we
look upon human beings from a great height
If we looked at them at the same distance in
a horizontal direction, we should see them as
larger than when we look down upon them
from above. The contrast between two such
cases of perception makes it clear that one or
the other of these percepts is not adequate to
represent the external object Simple geo-
metrical figures illustrate very clearly what is
meant by an illusion Figure I shows two
horizontal lines which arc of exactly the same

length The additional oblique linos, however,
so disturb the process of perception that we are

Fig I

unable to recognize the two horizontal lines
as equal to each other In Figure II the long
lines are parallel to each other, but the inter-
cepting oblique lines so disturb perception

\\X\\\\\

that we see the long lines as converging and
diverging, not as parallel

The reason why these illusions persist in
adult life seems to be that there is no motive
which would lead us to overcome them In-
deed, the motive is in some cases very strong
for the maintenance of certain regular, typical
forms of interpretation which are illusory
Thus, it is an illusion when we see a reflected
object behind the mirror, but this illusion is
due to the general perceptual habit of recogniz-
ing all objects as placed in the direction from
which light comes, and it would be disastrous
to our mental life to overcome this natural
perceptual habit The presence of the illu-
sions is not a large consideration in educational
discussions so long as we deal with the practical
side of school work For purposes of scientific
study of perception, however, illusions lend
themselves as very helpful instances of com-
plexity which are capable of ready analysis
and experimental study. C H J

References : —

JUDD, C H Genetic Psychology for Teachers, Chap 1

(New York, 1903 )
SANFOKD, E C A Course in Experimental Psychology.

(Boston, 1894 )

ILLUSTRATIVE DRAWING - In the kin-
dergarten and the pnmai y grades drawing is
used as a means of expression, paralleling speech,
dramatization, song, and play, arid preceding
written composition The drawing is kept
spontaneous both in selection of fact and inven-
tion of form, no direct method being used to
improve the form and technique chosen by the
child to illustrate, exposit, or narrate his mean-
ing Later when he begins to write, the mak-
ing of illustrative pictures accompanies his
written compositions This spontaneous draw-
ing frequently goes under the term " illustm-
tive drawing " H. S.

See DRAWING.

VOL. in — 2c

385

IMAGE

IMAGINATION

IMAGE. — A term used in general to de-
scribe the experience which one has when he
remembers anything Primarily the term is
applied to visual memory Thus one has the
image of a face which he recognized yesterday
Secondarily the term is carried over to refer
to auditory and tactual memories and all other
recalled experiences Thus one is said to have
an auditory image of the word which he heard
an hour ago Images have different degrees
of vividness, completeness, and assertiveness
Thus certain individuals sec clear visual re-
productions whenever they try to recall their
past visual experiences , others have very dim
reproductions An image may lack certain
of the elements which the original percept
contained Thus one recalls a building, but is
quite unable to supply in his image the details
of architectural devices which he originally
saw Finally, one may have an image which
haunts him and demands his attention, while on
the other hand he may be able easily to set aside
the experience as a mere trivial memory In or-
dinary usage the term " image " is broadly synon-
ymous with the term "idea " More strictly em-
ployed, the image is only one phase of the idea,
namely, the content phase, whereas the term
"idea" (q v ) refers to the general processes of
comparison present in all complex thought

O H. J.

See GENERIC IMAGE; IMAGINATIONS; MEMORY,

References : —

GALTON, SIR F Inquiries into Human Faculty (Now

York, 188.S )
STOUT, G F. Manual of Psychology (New York, 1899.)

IMAGELESS THOUGHT — The use of this
expression has lately arisen in psychology in
protest against the doctrine that thinking and
all conscious processes arc composed entirely
of sensory images, along with present sensations
Thought was regarded as a combination or
sequence of pictures, either visible to the
u inner eye/' or audible to the inner ear, etc ,
and the practical inference was sometimes
drawn that the way to develop thinking power
is to cultivate the powers of imagery When
Galton found that good thinkers were often
deficient in powers of imagery, at least of visual
imagery, doubt was t hi own on the image
doctrine It had to be admitted that the
image was often a very inadequate picture of
the object of thought The concept ion of
meaning (q.v) now arose, an image, however
imperfect as a picture, might symbolize or
stand for a thing or fact, and serve the purpose
of thought as well as a complete and highly
colored mental picture. The meaning was
the important thing from a practical point of
view, but was supposed to be very elusive in
consciousness, so that introspection would
show only the images with vague halos of
meaning and intangible feelings of the tend-
encies of the image In consciousness the
image was still supposed to be the prominent

386

feature. But recent experimental studies, in
which the effort has been made to describe
what is present in mind during actual thinking
processes, have found that oftentimes the mean-
ing is clear and prominent in consciousness,
while the image, if present at all, is so elusive
as to escape detection. Such " imageless
thought " is now an admitted fact in some
individuals. Whether it is an ultimate fact,
as some contend, or whether it is to be ex*
plained away as due to a blending of many
obscure images, or whether it is composed of
sensations of muscular tension and move-
ment (which are sure to accompany any think-
ing activity), or whether it is a nearly uncon-
scious and automatic process, resulting from
previous training in thinking on a given sub-
ject,— all these alternatives are still open, as
the psychology of thinking stands to-day
From the practical point of view, it would
certainly seem that the cultivation of imagery
— however valuable this may be on its own
account — is not to be regarded as essential
to the development of powers of thinking
What is essential is the ability to grasp mean-
ings and relations, and this may best be made
the direct object in view — success being
tested by ability to handle meanings and re-
latioriK rather than by ability to handle images

R. S. W.
References : —

ANUBJLL, J R Imageless Thought Ptych. Kcv , Vol
xiu , pp 296-322.

IMAGERY. — See IMAGE, IM \GELEKS
THOUGHT, IMAGINATION; MEMOUI , also EYE-

AND RAR-MlNDEDNESb

IMAGINARY NUMBERS. — See COMPLEX
NUMBERS.

IMAGINATION. — This twin is employed
to indicate that the content of consciousness is
made up of images derived from past experi-
ences In view of the fact that human conscious
experience deals veiy largely with visual content,
the word "image" is appropriate in the de-
scription of most processes. Imagination is
related to memory In memory the image is an
exact reproduction of the curlier experience, or
in HO far as it departs from the exact repro-
duction of theeailier experience, it is defective
On the other hand, in imagination memory im-
ages are more or less readjusted. Moments of
a number of different meinoHeH may bo brought
together in a single now image. Thus, one may
construct an imaginary scene in which a num*
ber of different actors are brought together,
These different actors may each of them be
remembered characters, but the whole scene
will be an imaginary scene in the sense that
these particular persons were never presented
simultaneously in experience

The power which an individual has of thus
rearranging his ideas in undoubtedly u very late

IMAGINATION

IMAGINATION

product in animal evolution The higher
forms of animal life undoubtedly have memory
images, but they do not have the power of
working over these memory images into new
combinations The behavioi of animals goes
to indicate that they nevci succeed in thinking
of new combinations which they may work out
in the environment New combinations in
the environment, as appear in the human con-
struction of machinery, indicate a very high
development of the power of imagination For
these recombinations of material objects must
be anticipated by some recombinations of ideas
in the mind The earlier stages of imagination
appear in mythology Here primitive man,
impelled by his desire to explain nature, brought
together ideas which are not presented in this
combination in his actual experience Such
primitive imagination may be described as men-
tal play The myths which resulted were of
importance not merely in satisfying the mo-
mentary demand for an explanation of given
phenomena, but they also cultivated the power
of mental recombination and furnished the
experience out of which grew the principles by
which the products of imagination could be
criticize 1, for as soon as primitive man began to
consider explanatory systems of ideas he found
himself in conflict with othois who had made
similar efforts to imagine explanations, and
each thinker was thus impelled to work out these
combinations of ideas which would most vahdly
represent the external conditions He ulti-
mately became critical of his own imagina-
tions, and abandoned the mythical explanation
for a more scientific investigation of the facts
This scientific investigation inquired, no less
than the earlier mythological explanation, a
recombination of ideas. But this recombination
of ideas was undertaken more critically than the
primitive imaginations.

There grew up as a result of this more critical
type of intellectual effort what is known us
scientific imagination The scientist has no
hesitation in combining ideas in a form which is
not immediately suggested by direct observa-
tion Thus in modern physics, light is ex-
plained as a system of vibrations and is usually
illustrated in 'classroom work by various gross
forms of wave motion which are explained to the
student to be representations which he may use
in constructing an imaginary picture of what
actually goes on when light travels through
space. The student is warned during such dem-
onstiations that the pictures which are fur-
nished to him are not exact representations of
light vibrations, but merely material which he
may use in constructive thinking

The importance of such constructive think-
ing for human mental life is unlimited As soon
as man learned to recombine his ideas through
imagination, he gained a power over his external
environment which he could not have so long
as his images were merely reproductions of past
experiences. He could now bring together,

first in thought and afterwards in a practical
way, elements of his experience which nature
would never bring together He could plan a
complete transformation of his surroundings
He could lay out a plan reaching into the
future and involving combinations that no
individual has ever seen

Children are sometimes said to be more
imaginative than adults. The statement in this
unqualified form is not justified by a study
of mental development Mental development
progresses in the direction of more and more
active recombinations of experiences. Greater
activity in this case does not mean that the
individual is likely in the later stage of mental
life to make more fantastic combinations of
experiences. For example, the adult who is
acquainted with the laws of zoology cannot
imagine a dragon with the same confidence that
a child imagines a dragon breathing fire The
adult is limited in his possibilities of imagina-
tion because he knows that animal tissue would
be injured by contact with fire In this sense,
therefore, his imagination is restricted by his
larger experiences On the other hand, the
adult is capable within the limits of his knowl-
edge of physics and chemistry of thinking of more
combinations than the child could possibly
imagine He may work out the mechanical
principles of physics in a great variety of
different kinds of imagery. He has freedom,
therefore, to make mental combinations accord-
ing to certain laws of experience Indeed, he
may for purposes of fiction abandon some of the
rigid laws of physics which he knows He may
for example think of various types of flying
machines which he knows could not be actually
constructed When such fantastic imagina-
tions are indulged in by adults, they gne
pleasure arid am use merit, but they do not at-
tract the same type of belief that they do in
young children The principles of criticism
here operate to protect the adult from any
serious consideration of his fancies The term
" fancy " is used to mark off these imaginations
which *ure free and amusing, but are not under-
taken for serious practical purposes In the
child there is a confusion between fancies and
serious imaginings, because the child is not
supplied with the canons of criticism which the
adult possesses

Adult imaginations are accordingly more criti-
cal, while they are at the same time more num-
erous and more varied in type Imaginations
may be classified from various points of vie\\
Literary imagination is that type of imagina-
tion in which combinations of characteristics
and events are worked out for purposes ^of en-
tertainment or instruction Scientific imagi-
nation is that type of imagination in which the
forces of nature are thought of for purposes of
explaining phenomena Mechanical imagina-
tion is that type of imagination which is
exhibited by the inventor

The cultivation of the imagination is undoubt-

387

IMBECILES

IMITATION

edly an important part of the work of the
school. There is danger in school instruction
that the child's efforts to make combinations of
ideas will be unduly suppressed by the critical
teacher The child whose combinations of
ideas are thus suppressed is likely to lose the
tendency which he naturally exhibits, because
he will regard criticisms as unfavorable to all
activity of the imagination. The skillful teacher
should load the child to recognize the value of
constructive, critical imagination as distin-
guished from mere fancy. There should
be no abatement of the power to recombine
ideas in the forms other than those which are
dictated by actual experience, but there should
be a gradual increase in the critical power which
the child exhibits in the examination and
classification of his own imaginations. Where
tho child shows a disposition to use only one type
of mental imagery, he should be encouraged
to broaden the scope of his imagination.
(See EYE- AND EAR-MINDEDNESS.) The prac-
tical interest which the individual attempts to
work out constitutes a strong incentive for the
cultivation of imagination, for whenever a per-
son is trained to attack intelligently a new
situation, he will naturally fall into the way of
planning beforehand for this situation Plan-
ning in advance is always a form of imagination

C. H J.
Reference. —

JAMBS, W Principles of Psychology, ch. xvui (New
York, 1890.)

IMBECILES, EDUCATION OF — See DE-
FECTIVES, SCHOOLS FOR; IDIOCY.

IMBECILITY. — A term used to describe
a degree of mental deficiency severer than that
of the feeble-minded (q v.), but superior to that
of the idiot (q.v.). According to the definition
accepted by the British Royal Commission
on the care and control of the feeble-minded,
imbeciles are " persons who are capable of
earning a living under favorable circumstances,
but are incapable from mental defect existing
from birth or from an early age (a) of com-
peting on equal terms with their normal fellows;
or (/;) of managing themselves and their affairs
with ordinary prudence "

From tho institutional standpoint the group
ranges from the child "who plays a little and
tries to help but can do nothing 'alone, to those
who can do simple tasks of short duration, such
as^ washing dishes, scrubbing floors, or sweeping"
(Goddard). Because of the frequency of moral
weakness and deficiency among imbeciles, they
are commonly grouped also according to the
degree of moral sense, as moral imbeciles of
high, middle, or low grade See IDIOCY.

Tredgold estimates that the number of
imbeciles (in England) corresponds to 0.73 per
thousand of the population, being about
" half ah numerous as the adult feeble-minded,

388

and about three times as numerous as idiots "
There is a slight preponderance of the male sex

W. F. D.
See DEFECTIVES, SCHOOLS FOR

Reference : —
See under DEFECTIVES and IDIOCY.

IMITATION. — The term is used in ordinary
language to designate any repetition of any
act or thought which has been noted by an
observer Thus, one imitates the facial ex-
pression of another, or his mode of speech.
The term has been brought into prominence
in scientific discussions through the work of
Gabriel Tarde, who in his Les Lois de limita-
tion points out that imitation is a fundamental
fact underlying all social development The
customs of society are imitated from genera-
tion to generation. The fashions of the day
arc imitated by large groups of people without
any consciousness of the social solidarity which
is derived from this common mode of behavior
There is developed through these various forms
of imitation a body of experiences which is
common to all of the members of a given social
group In complex society the various imita-
tions which tend to set themselves up are fre-
quently found to be in conflict, thus the
tendency toward elaborate fashions in dress
is constantly limited by the counter-tendency
toward simpler fashions The conflict of tend-
encies leads to individual variation from the
example offered at any given time, arid, as a
result, there are new examples to be followed
Complex social examples are thus products of
conflict

This general doctrine of Tarde has been
elaborated by a number of recent wnters
Royce calls attention to the fundamental im-
portance of imitation as a means of social in-
heritance The same doctrine is taken up by
Baldwin in his Mental Development in the Child
and Race, and in Social and Ethical Interpreta-
tions. With these later writers, imitation lakes
on a significance which is somewhat technical
and broader than the significance which it has
either with Tarde or in the ordinary use of the
term Baldwin uses the term to cover that
case in which an individual repeats an act be-
cause he has himself gone through the act
In such a case, one imitates himself, and sets
up what Baldwin terms a circular reaction
The principle of imitation is thus introduced
into individual psychology as well as into
general social psychology, and the relation be-
tween the individual's acts and his own imagery
is brought under the same general principle
as the individual's responses to his social envi-
ronment The term " imitation " in this broader
sense is closely related to the processes which
are described under SYMPATHY (q v.).

The term " social heredity " has very, fre-
quently been used in connection with all of
the processes here under discussion Society

IMITATION

IMITATION

tends to perpetuate itself in the new individual
in a fashion analogous to that in which the
physical characteristics of the earlier genera-
tion tend to perpetuate themselves in the
physical characteristics of the new generation
Since modes of behavior, such as acts of cour-
tesy, cannot be transmitted through physical
structure, they would tend to lapse if they were
not maintained through imitation from genera-
tion to generation. Thus, imitation gives uni-
formity to social practices, arid consequently
is to be treated as a form of supplementary
inheritance extending beyond physical inher-
itance, and making effective the established
forms of social practice. C. H. J.

See SYMPATHY; SOCIAL HEREDITY

Imitation in Education. — Large reliance
upon imitation in education has been defended
upon two grounds, one psychological, the other
sociological Psychologically, it is claimed
that out-of-school experience shows that the
child acquires the larger part of his skill in vari-
ous directions by imitation, so that economy
and efficiency require that it be the chief re-
source for learning in school Socially, it is
contended that the chief distinguishing feature
of social life is identity of mental contents, .
especially of thought and beliefs, on the part
of the various individuals who constitute
society, and that this identity is secured by
imitation Largely under the influence of
Tarde, older biological theories of society were
replaced by " psychological " conceptions of
society, and imitation was made the chief,
if not the sole, category of social psychology
If this doctrine be accepted, appeal to imitation
is not merely a valuable psychological expe-
dient, but is an ethical necessity

Both of these conceptions are questionable
V common fallacy seems to underlie them both.
vVherever there is a social group, people are
ound doing the same sort of things; and,
what is even more important, believing the
same sort of things and using the same stand-
ards of valuation Since it is demonstrable
that this similarity is acquired, and since it is
certain that the younger members of society
have learned from the older, it is an easy
conclusion that the likeness is due to imitation
But this explanation hardly does more than
to take a result and then give it the name of
a cause or force. The certain fact that persons
do, externally viewed, imitate one another,
that is, do alike and think alike, and that this
community is essential to society is translated
over into a belief that imitation is a natural
internal force, working to bring about the like-
ness Closer inquiry shows, however, that
other causes are chiefly responsible, and that
so far as there is a distinctive psychological
tendency to imitate, it works effectively only
in subordination to these other factors

Upon the personal side, the initial factor
is the tendency of native impulses and acquired

habits to complete or realize themselves in some
external form The child spontaneously, nat-
urally or instinctively as we say, tries to effect,
something, urged on by the force of his own
impulsive tendency. He reaches out his hand,
makes babbling noises, tries to throw a ball,
to walk, etc. Intent upon his end, he uncon-
sciously selects and adapts anything he notes
that might help him He does what he sees
others do in the same situation, not in order
to imitate them, — a matter of which he may
be quite unconscious, — but as a way of exe-
cuting hin own inchoate tendency. The mere
imitation of others, apart from selective use,
is found in imbeciles, in the less intelligent
children, and m the more mechanical and empty
moments of intelligent children. When reliance
upon imitation is urged in teaching, the essen-
tial thing in the natural situation, personal
initiative in a certain direction, is forgotten, and
there is substituted for it a servile dependence
upon the ends of others. Since the process of
selecting and adapting the observed actions of
others to one's own results involves intelligence,
while taking the acts of others as one's ends
abrogates judgment, it is not surprising that
objection is made out of school to the latter
process.

Further examination shows that mutation,
even in its subordinate r61e, is properly called
such from without, not from within. Psy-
chologically what occurs is a case of the wider
principle of senson-motor adaptation. While
the human infant is not limited to predeter-
mined coordinations of sensory stimulus and
motor response, as are the young of lower ani-
mals, the necessities of life require that there
be some preference for certain forms of be-
havior in connection with certain modes of
excitation. A stimulus of light, for example,
at once induces movement of the eyes in fixing
and following it This act operates in turn as
stimulus to the body to throw itself into a cer-
tain posture, to the arm and hand to reach, and,
at times, to follow by tracing the movements
of the light Persons watching a runner, a
baseball batter, or one performing a gymnastic
feat unintentionally sway the body sympa-
thetically Externally viewed, there is accept-
ance of another as a model for copy, psy-
chologically viewed, there is the only comple-
tion of the sensori-motor coordination involved
in every act of perception. Accordingly ? from
the side of individual development, " imita-
tion " is but a species of a wider genus. Per-
sons act much alike and think much alike be-
cause they are subject to the same stimuli and
are urged on by the same needs.

The case works out in a similar way from
the social side. Mere imitation would nevei
even make a beginning of a society, be-
cause it would only give a number of persons
doing the same thing at the same time. A
society involves diversity of activities on the
part of different persons (division of labor, in

389

IMITATION

IMMIGRATION AND EDUCATION

a wide sense of that term) and cooperation
of different acts to a common end But in
addition to this co-adaptation of different acts
to a single result (which is found m machinery),
there must be also an intellectual and emo-
tional appreciation of the common end and
of the relation of the diverse individuals to it
This fact has been partially recognized in
Baldwin's version of Tarde's theory, for he
criticizes Tarde on the ground that his doctrine
would apply equally well to a collection of
tuning forks where one vibrates in response to
another Consequently he amends the con-
ception to read imitation of thoughts, or mental
content.*, not of acts In effect, this is to sur-
render the idea of imitation and keep merely
the name, for thoughts or mental contents
as such, cannot possibly be imitated, being
invisible and unobservable And the details
of Baldwin's account show that what he really
is dealing with is the various processes by which
one person arrives at community of beliefs and
ideas with others This confirms our state-
ment that the so-called " imitation " is simply
a name for the fact that different persons do,
in the same community, think alike, that like-
ness of thought being necessary to social life, but
t hat it is not a causal factor by which this com-
munity of ideas and emotions is brought about
Educationally, the emphasis upon imitation
as the essential fact about society not only fails
to throw light upon the causal forces by which
social direction is brought about, but in a pro-
gressive society sets up a false ethical ideal
It makes identity of belief a good, and the
supreme social good, just by itself Such a
standard obtains only in static communities,
controlled by conformity to custom, and it is
a symptom and a cause of their stationary
nature The intellectual arid moral progress
of the human race has come through first tolerat-
ing and then encouraging divergencies and
diversities of thought, — the essence of indi-
viduality, — and through the conception that
more identity of thoughts is not an end in
itsolf, but an incident of the accomplishment of
other ends More specifically, it is quite con-
trary to the spirit of a democratic and pro-
gressive society to set up as a conscious end
the idea that one, even if he be only an im-
mature child, shall repeat the acts of another
so as to arrive at a state of passive acquiescence
in the ideas of others Whether as a psycho-
logical method or as a social standard, imita-
tion occupies a subordinate position J D.

References : —

BALDWIN, J M Mental Development of the Child and

Race (New York, 1895.)
Social and Ethical Interpretations (New York,

1897)
MACDOUQALL, W Social Psychology (New York,

1908)
ROYCE, J. Century Magazine, May, 1894, Psych

Review, Vol. II, 1895
TARDK, G Leu lom de Vimitahon (Paris, 1890) ,

tr. by E H Parsons (Now York, 1903).

IMMIGRATION AND EDUCATION.—

Immigration creates duties for the administra-
tion of schools by introducing into the body
of citizens elements which are alien in speech,
and are generally of lower intellectual attain-
ments than the mass of the community.
Broadly speaking, the problem of assimilating
the immigrant is the problem of overcoming
the contrasts between his condition and that
of the older resident, of wiping out the inequal-
ities of social condition introduced by his com-
ing among us. So far as these inequalities
result from a different upbringing, the problem
of assimilation is that of education in its largest
sense But the educative value of environ-
ment, of laws and of institutions, of contact
with other and unaccustomed modes of life
and thought, are not here in question. It is
also impossible hert* to discuss the difficulties
which arise from the places of origin oi im-
migrants The specific subject to be considered
is how far the established agencies of education,
the schools, mav and do contribute to the
assimilation oi the immigrant

It is necessary, therefore, to have not only
a very clear view of what the problem is, but
also how far the schools aie able to affect it
Before going into the details of the situation
created by immigration, it may be well to
remembei the necessary limitations upon the
activities of the school administration, and to
bear in mind that after the age of fouiteen vnus
has been passed the influence of the .school
system upon any class of individuals depends
upon their consent Our subject, theiefoie,
falls naturally into three divisions, the influ-
ence of the schools (a) upon the adult in n i-
grant, (6) upon the child iiniingiant, and (c)
upon the second generation, or children of
native birth and foreign pai outage In its
first phase, the predominant influence of the
school concerns language, in its thud phase,
general education. In the second phase the
two influences intermingle in van ing pro-
portions.

Statistics of Immigration — The nun igiants
arriving in the United States are largely adults
The figures published by the Conmnssioner-
General of Immigration show that of 9,555,673
immigrants in the years 1889 to 1910, 8,398,624
or 87 9 per cent, were over fourteen years of age,
How widely this proportion departs from a nor-
mal age distribution of the population can be
seen from the fact that in 1900 among the na-
tive whites only 61 1 per cent were over four-
teen years of age.

The figures cited show the predominance of
the adults among the immigrants. The follow-
ing table shows 'the races which in the fiscal
years ending June 30, 1899, to June 30, 1910,
have contributed to the immigration to the
United States. For convenience of reference
the proportion of persons over fourteen years
of age and the proportion of males and females
have been added : —

390

IMMIGRATION AND EDUCATION IMMIGRATION AND EDUCATION

IMMIGRANTS FOR YEARS ENDING JUNK io, Schools for Adult Immigrants So In. as

1899 TO 1910 these persons are adults, nnd most of them ;m>,

----- __- — — - the schools can as a rule help them to ;i knovvl-

Put OM e(*ge °f English only in so fai as they sho\v

TOTAL

themselves willing to avail themselves of the

UACE on PEOPLE

OF IMMI-

Ioveri4 opportunities which the evening schools affoid

U HANTS

Male

Foi mile

\CHIW Originally established for the benefit of persons

*— who had had no early opportunities foi an

African (black)
Armenian

33,630
20,498

02 2
70 5

37 S
23 :>

st) ^ elementary education, our evening schools no
ss 8 longer serve to any large extent to educate the

Bohemian and Mora-

native population in the three R/s Besides

vian . .
Bulgarian, Servian,
and Montenegrin .

100, ISO
97,391

57 0

95 7

43 0
43

7-M> the higher grades and high school woik inain-
9S 2 tamed for those who wish to continue an educa-

22, 51)0

90 0

4 0

955 tion already begun, they serve principally to

Croatian and Sloven-

teach the Knghsh language and a few rudiments

ian . , , .

335,543
44,211

84 9

15 1
31 5

J^J to foreigners No comprehensive investiga-

Dalmatian, Bosnian,

tion has yet been undertaken as to the extent

and Hercegovinian

31,696

92 3

77

974 to which this service is being rendered by the

Dutch and Flemish .
East Indian . . .

87,058
5,786

057
980

34 3
2 0

780 evening schools of the country

English

408,614

()1 5

38 5

85 0

Finnish ....

151,774

(>(> 1

33 9

t)0<J NUMBER OF IMMIGRANTS TO THE UN1TFI)

115 783

58 1

H 9

843 STATES 1892-3 TO 1910-1911 OJ< FOURTEEN

German . . . .

754,375

59 4

K)0

S30 YEARS OF AGE AND UPWARD, TOGETHER

Greek . . . .
Hebrew . . .

210,902
1,074,442

95 1

4 9
434

90 2 WITH THOSE UNABLE TO RE \D AND WRH 1 :

Irish
Italian, North . .

439,724
372,bbS

479
783

52 1
21 7

^4 7 From Reports — Bureau of Immigration

Italian, South . .

1,911,933

78 (>

21 4

kS 4 -"-"- " ~— -" " --

Japanese

148,729

83 8

16 2

^k 3 UNABIR 10 KF\L> AND \\ KITL

Korean .

7,790

90 8

9 2

93 2 Fl8t u YBAR

Lithuanian .

175,258

70 ()

294

<j.> T ENDING TOTAL

• ** 1 T fft

Magyar . . .

338,151

722

278

ut\ L. JUNX 30 XT i
908 Number

PC r ( ..iit

Mexican

41,914

GO 0

340

78 1 i

Pacific Islander

357

784

21 (>

94 1

Pohah

949,064

69 5

30 5

908 1893 359,153 2 01,038

' 17 0

Portuguese

72,897

59 5

40 ,">

707 1891 227,002 2 39,773

' 17 5

Roumanian . .

82,704

91 0

9 0

977 1895 213,449 2 42,302

1 198

Russian

83,574

850

15 0

927 1890 290.526 78.130

-1 20 9

Ruthemari (llussmak)

147,375

744

250 955 1897 197^205 43JH)8

1 21 S

Scandinavian .

586,306

bl 8 38 2

905 1898 191,032 43,057

< 22 5

Scotch . . . .

136,842

0*5

305

84 0 1899 207,732 00,440

22 0

Slovak . . .

377,527

705

29 5 90 7 1900 393.948 93.570

23 8

Spanish . .

51,051

828 172 909 1901 425,35b 117,587

27 ()

Spanish American

10,669

699 301 i 844 1902 574,b80 102,188

28 2

Syrian . . .

56,909

079 321 841 1903 754,615 185,607

24 0

Turkish . .

12,954

903 37 978 1904 702,720 168,188

24 0

Welsh .

20,752

651 M9 823 1905 911,831 230,882

25 3

West Indian (ex-

1906 i 904,462 205,008

275

cept Cuban)

11,569

578 422 ' 863 1907 1,147,005 337,573

294

Other peoples

11,735

920 80 955 1*08 070,722 171,293

255

Not specified . .

77

700 234 870 1909 063,492 191,049

28 8

Total . . . 9.555.073

69 r> «fr> 879 191() 921,061 253,509

27 5

-~-- -

1911 760,750 182,273

24 0

- _ _ - _____

In the entire number here given the non-
English-speaking races predominate They con-
stitute an aggregate of 8,549,741, or 895 per
cent of the total There is quite a contrast be-
tween these figures and those of the census in
which we find reflected the influence of the older
immigration. The earliest distribution of the foi -
eign born by countries of birth is in the census of
1850. In this census there were enumerated
2,244,602 persons of foreign birth, of whom
756,079, or 33,8 per cent, were from non-Eng-
lish-speaking countries On the other hand, the
provisional figures of the census of 1910 show
that of 13,342,500 foreign whites 9,571,700, or
71.7 per cent, are from non-English-speaking
countries. In other words, recent immigration is
bringing to our shores an increasing number of
persons who do not know our language

1 Fiftoon yoar« and over

2 Sovontern yours and over
1 Sec note*i l and 2

A few illustrations drawn from school reports
of larger cities will show the importance and
extent of this service which is rendered to the
foreigner by the evening schools In New York
City in the school year 1909-1910 there were
80,309 pupils enrolled in the elementary eve-
ning schools, and of these 33,436 were foreigners
learning English In Newark in the same year
there were 9135 pupils enrolled in the evening
schools of elementary grade. Of these 3055
were in classes for teaching English to foreign-
ers The superintendent estimates further
that among those in other evening schools a
large proportion, certainly over one fourth, were

391

IMMIGRATION AND EDUCATION

IMMIGRATION AND EDUCATION

NUMBER AND PER CENT OF IMMIGRANTS

for foreign adults, which arc frequented by

ADMITTED TO THE UNITED STATES WHO

persons, such as watchmen, who pursue then

WERE FOURTEEN YEARS OF AGE OR OVER

regular callings at night

AND WHO COULD NEITHER READ NOR
WRITE, DURING THE FISCAL YEARS 18)9
TO 1910, BY RACE OR PEOPLE

Illiteracy among Immigrants. — The prob-
lem of the immigrant is not only one of language,
but of general education. Unfortunately we

Compiled from Reports of the Commissions r-General of
Immigration

possess no generally accepted standards by
which education can be statistically measured,

•

except for such slight minimum of education

NUMBER 14

UNABLE TO HEAD
OR WRITE

as is represented by the ability to read and

R\f'F OH PhOPhh

\ EARH OF

write In the absence of other measures, this

\UMITTED

IVr

becomes important. It is a familiar fact that

( Ynt

the immigrants do not measure up to the stand-

ard of literacy which prevails in the nation at

African (black)
Armenian

30,177
23,523

5,733
5,624

190
23 9

large, and especially in the white population.
The table on the preceding page summarizes

ravian

79,721

1,322

1.7

by years the illiteracy of immigrants

BulKauun, Servian,

There is in these figures no evidence of im-

and Montenegrin .
Chinese
Croatian and Slo-

95,596
21,584

39,903
1,516

41 7
70

provement during the period, but rather the
reverse This change may be due in part to

venian

320,977

115,785

36 1

the shifting of the character of immigration.

Cuban

36,431

2,282

63

In this connection the table of illiteracy bv

Dalmatian, Bosnian,
and HerzpRovmian
Dutch and Flemish

30,861
68,907

12,653
3,043

41.0
4 4

races which precedes is of interest
An examination of this table reveals great-

EavSt Indian

5,724

2,703

472

diversity. Many of the races here represented

English . .
Finnish . ...
French

347,458
137,916
97 638

3,647
1,745
(, 145

1 0
1 3
b 3

show a less degree of illiteracy than was found
in 1900 in the native white population of the

German . .

625,793

32,236

52

United States (4 (54 per cent) Others show

Greek . .

208,608

55,089

264

a much larger percentage, which in several cases

Hebrew . . .
Irish . .
Italian, North . .

806,786
416,640
339,301

209,507
10,721

38,8)7

260
26
11 5

represents more than half the immigrants
Some of the races represented in the table have

Italian, South

1,690,376

911,560

539

been coming to the United States in greater or

Japanese

146,172

35,956

246

less number for many years These are the

Korean ....
Lithuanian

7,259
161 441

2,763

38 1
48 9

Dutch, English, Flemish, French, German,

Magyar . .

1 307J082

2 35,004

11 4

Irish, Portuguese, Scandinavian, Scotch, Span-

Mexican

32,721

18,717

572

ish, and Welsh The remaindci are compara-

Pacific Islander
Polish ....
Portuguese ....

336
861,303
55,930

83
304,675
38,122

247
354
68 2

tively newcomers Designating the former
for convenience as the old and the latter as the

Roumanian . . .

80,839

28,266

350

new immigration, we have the following results

Russian
Ruthonian (Russmak)
Scandinavian . .

77,479
140,775
530,634

29,777
75,165
2,221

384
534

04

as to illiteracy among the two classes in the
period 1899 to 1910

Scotch

115,788
342,583

767
82,216

07
24 0

ARRIVALS 1899-1910, FOURTEEN YEARS OF

Slovak ....

Spamph

46 418

6 724

14 5

ACE AND UPWARD

Spanish- American

9 008

547

6 1

Syrian . . .

47,834

25,496

533

— __ __ _„ —

Turkish . .

12,670
17,076

7,536
322

595
1 9

PER CJ-NT
JOTAL ILLITERATE IILITFRATE

West Indian (ex-

l

cept Cuban)

9,983

320

32

Othr*r peoples .

11,209

5,001

446

Old . 2,122,282 103,948 49

Not specified . . .

67

5

75

New . 0,276,342 2,134,863 340

Total ....

8,398,624

2,238,801

267

Total 8,398,624 2,238,811 267

1 Including 693 " Hungarian " in 1899

2 Inrludmg 35 " Hungarians " in 1899

of foreign birth In Jersey City in an enroll-
ment of 2240 in evening schools 1122 were of
foreign birth In Philadelphia in a total regis-
tration of 12,230 in elementary evening schools
6354 were of foreign birth Chicago in the
school year 1907-1908 had 20,133 enrolled in
all its evening schools, and among them were
12,344 in the foreign classes and 1267 other
persons of foreign birth in other classes. There
are also a very few interesting day classes

It would be a mistake to assume from these
figures that immigrants are necessarily more
illiterate than formerly They merely show
that if immigration came to-day from the same
countries as formerly there would be less illit-
eracy than at present In 1850, 42 per cent
of the foreign born were Irish Ten years
earlier, in 1841, the Irish census ascertained the
fact that 53 per cent of the population were
illiterate Hence we may infer that the illiteracy
of the immigrant was as great sixty years ago
as it is to-day.

392

IMMIGRATION AND EDUCATION IMMIGRATION AND EDUCATION

The statistics of illiteracy among immigrants
arc in part borne out by the, census figures
for the illiteracy of the foreign born The cen-
sus figures are as follows. —

I CENSUS PEH CENT ILLITKHATE

1880 12 0

« 1890 13 1

1900 129

1910 128

The wide difference between these figures
and those of the immigration authorities might
be accounted for on the supposition that the
older immigration had less illiteracy, and hence
the percentage was less among the foreign
born, with its many representatives of this class,
than among the recent immigrants As we
have seen, this position is hardly tenable The
explanation may be in part that among the
birds of passage who come and go there are
more illiterates than among those who perma-
nently remain in this countiv

It is clear from the consideration which has
already been given to the ages of the immi-
grants that the public school can do little
toward reducing this illiteracy Only a small
proportion of the immigrants themselves come
perforce under the operations of the school
system, since relatively few are under fourteen
years of age, the usual limit of compulsory
school laws Night schools can, as we have seen,
do something, but their influence is limited
Those who in the struggle to get a foothold
yet find time to avail themselves of the oppoi-
tumties such schools afford, are for the most
part those who have a reading knowledge of
their own languages Befoie consideinift the
question of the relation of the schools to the
small class of child immigrants, we may inquire
how far the illiteracy of the immigrant and
of the foreign born tends to perpetuate itself
in the second generation

Illiteracy among Children of Foreign Parents.
— On this point the census enumerations bear
gratifying testimony The native whites of
foieign parents have a smaller percentage of
illiteracy than the native whites of native
parentage The testimony of the census of
1900 was as follows. —

NATIVE WHITK

Native parents .
Foreign parents .

I** K C>NP lLLir*,U\TK

North Atlantic North Central

1 7
15

2 S
1 3

Instead of figures for the United States, those
of the divisions where the foreign element is
most numerous are given in order that the two
groups may be compared under circumstances
as nearly as possible identical In each case
the proportion of illiteracy is gratifvingly small,
but it may be noted that in each group of states

mentioned it is less for the persons of foreign
than of native parentage This apparent
advantage in favor of the foreign element is
due to the fact that they are more largely
city dwellers than the pure native stock, and
enjoy on the whole better educational advan-
tages. If the two groups be compared in the
same localities, as, for instance, in the cities, there
appears a slight advantage in favor of the purely
native stock, though, as already noted, the
amount of illiteracy for either class is insig-
nificant In the disappearance of the differ-
ence as respects illiteracy between native and
foreign elements in the second generation we
have indirect evidence of the service of the
schools in assisting in the assimilation of the
immigration.

Schools and Young Immigrants — We may
now return to the question, what can the schools
do for the child immigrant? This manifestly
depends upon the age of the child, which deter-
mines the length of time which it will stay under
the school influence If the child is under
school age at the time of its arrival in the United
States, it enters the school with little more hand-
icap than children of the same race who are
born in this country If, on the other hand, the
child is twelve years old when it comes here,
it is not likely to have more than two yearb'
schooling

Just how the children arriving in the United
States are distributed as to ages is not appar-
ent from the statistics of immigration An
investigation conducted by the Immigration
Commission in twelve different cities in the
United States showed that of 38,254 children
having foreign fathers there were 8724, or 22.8
per cent, born abroad Of the latter informa-
tion was available as to the age1 of anival in
the United States, as follows* —

A OK

NUMBER

ONT

Under six years
Six and seven year*
Eight and nine years
Ten yeara and over

4785
1647
1108

838
8378

57 1

197

132

_100

1000

It appears that more than half the children
had not yet reached the age of school attend-
ance

For the older child the problem of the public
school is largely one of language rather than of
general education How can these children
be taught to understand what is going on around
them in the school? Where they are few in
number the common expedient is to put them
into the first grade and hope that they will
gradually be able to take part in the school
work This is largely leaving them to work
out their own salvation, but it places them in
favorable position to do so It introduces
them to the English language in its simplest

393

IMMIGRATION AND EDUCATION IMMIGRATION AND EDUCATION

forms, as the vocabulary of the teacher in first-
grade instruction is of necessity limited to
simple words and is combined into simple
sentences. Better results are obtained when
it is possible by reason of their number to place
these pupils in a special class under a teacher
skilled in teaching them English and awaiting
a certain proficiency in English, before assign-
ing them to the regular grades Such classes
are a regular feature of many school systems
of our cities with a large immigrant popula-
tion. The obstacle to the generalization of this
system is that there are not enough children
of this description in each of the schools to
constitute special classes This is in practice
largely overcome bv the habit of the ininugiants
of settling in definite localities in 1 he cities where
they find others of their race

Special Classes — In New York City, where
the special classes for foreigners are highly
developed, the foreign-born child of eight years
of age or under is usually placed in the regular
grades, the special classes being considered
necessary only for older pupils With upwards
of 600,000 pupils in the elementary schools of
New York City in 1900, there weie 1240 in
these special classes Cincinnati gives to the
newly arrived children who are nine years ot
age or over training especially in English
One class suffices for the city It is obvious
that the needs of the older immigrant child,
however important to the individual himself,
do not present a problem of such magnitude
that it taxes in any way the lesources of the
school system

For the younger immigrant child, who was
brought here by his parents as an infant, and
who enters school at the same age as other
children, the problem of language is of no
special significance It is riot infrequently sup-
posed that the language problem is the most
serious one in the education of the child of for-
eign parents The experience of the schools so
far as the younger children are concerned,
refutes this view The foreign child who enters
the first grade, or better still the kindergarten,
has no unusual difficulty The language of the
schoolroom is so simple that its comprehension
is readily acquned and the child advances
at an equal pace in his knowledge of English
and his studies It is understood that in the
Philippine Islands no difficulty is encountered
in teaching in the English language, and the
writer had a like experience in conducting the
schools of Porto Rico In these instances Eng-
lish IH used as a medium of instruction when
there is far less English as a background in the
environment of the child than in our American
cities It is not contended that foi these very
young children an ignorance of English is not
a factor of some importance. But its impor-
tance consists not in a direct impediment to
the progress of the child, but in its significance
as an indication of a home environment unfa-
vorable to the school progress of the children.

Native Children of Foreign Parents. — Our

discussion of the relation of the schools to the
immigrant children has brought us by natural
stages to the consideration of a group among
them, in which the fact of foreign birth has
little significance except as it involves foreign
parentage There is in fact little difference ten
years later between the child who was brought
into this country as an infant in arms and his
one or two years younger brother or sister who
was born in this country We may therefore
now inquire as to the relation of the schools to
children of foreign parentage.

The native children of foreign parentage in our
schools represent the offspring of many raoeh,
which may or may not vary from the native \\ hite
American in language, but are supposed to \aiy
to at least some extent in tiaditions, ideals,
and aspirations Such differences appear, so
far as the record goes, to have had little effect
in perpetuating among the second generation
that great degree of ignorance which we term
illiteracy. It may, however, be that if we
could establish some higher standard of pio-
ficiency it would be seen that there was some
divergence between the progress of childien
of native as compared with foreign pai outage
Considerable light can be had en the problems
of school advancement by a study of the
facts of grades and ages of the pupils, and es-
pecially of the relation of the two expressed
in the now familiar concept of letardation (</ v )
The ^ investigations of the Immigration Com-
mission in 1908 conducted by the writer, the
results of which have been only partially
published, cover a wide range, embiaeing n
study of pupils in thirty-seven diffeient cities
These investigations distinguish pupils by
parentage determined by the race of the fat lief
The contrast which here concerns us is between
white children having fathers bom in this
country, and those whose fatheis were born
abioad Inthelattei group are included native
whites of foreign parentage, the predominant
element, and foreign white, but as we have
already seen, the last-named are comparatively
few in number It would exceed the limits of
space to give anything more than a few brief
notes of the main results of this investigation

PUPILS IN SCHOOL AT EACH AGE FOR 1000
AT AGE OF NINE YEARS

(/HIl.DKbN 01-

Natw fathers
Foreign fathers

5 YLAHH

84
89

0 Yh\U8

73,'J
772

7 Yl AHH

943
1)34

394

The figures for the ages are used to establish
certain probabilities in regard to entering and
leaving school Pupils in school in the early
ages are compared with the estimated number
at nine years of age computed by taking the
average of those reporting the three ages eight,

IMMIGRATION AND EDUCATION IMMIGRATION AND EDUCATION

nine, and ten years. The results in proportions
are given on previous page.

In like manner we can compare the older
children in school with the computed number
at the age of eleven.

PUPILS IN SCHOOL AT EACH ACiE FOR 1000
AT AGE OF ELEVEN YEARS

Native f ith «t i
Foreign fath -is

MM

9r>9

YfcARH

7<>9
665

Yl AKM

YKARH

297
145

YKARH

173
71

IS

't AKH

57

These parallel figures show clearly that thoic
IK veiy little difference between the children
of native fathers and those of foieign fatheis
with respect to their early entrance in the
schools There is, however, a smaller repre-
sentation of the children beyond the school
age among those whose parents are foreign
than among those whose parents are native
Such a smaller representation might be due
in the case of individual races to the fact that
in these ages there were fewer childien in the
community But with respect to the childien of
foreign parentage as a whole, such an explana-
tion is not valid, and the more obvious one that
childien of this class drop out of schools sooner
than those whose parents are native applies

Confirmation of the conclusion that the ehil-
dien of foreign parentage leave school at an
eaihei age than those of natne is found in the
following figures, which distribute the childien
among the different schools

PER CENT OF \LL PUPILS IN DIFFERENT
^ OF SCHOOLS

("HII

1>H> N 01

KlNIH K-
0 \KTKN

PHIMMM

GllAMM^H

HIGH
SCHOOL

Native
Foreign

fathers
futhorc*

43
4 4

52 1
57 b

.415

.'I,* rf

9 1
4 7

It will be noted that in the grammar and high
schools where the children are of older age the
proportions are less for the children of foreign
parents than those of native parents

With respect to the progress of children
within the schools, we have a convenient meas-
ure in the concept of retardation This is
calculated in the following ratios for all ele-
mentary pupils and also for those pupils who
are tenj eleven, and twelve years of age
PER CENT OF PUPILS WHO ARE RETARDED

CHILDREN OF

Native fathers .
Foreign fathers .

ALL ELEMENTARY

34 1
360

PUPILS, 10, 11, AND
12 YEARH OF AGE

42.0
462

By both methods of calculation it appears
that the retardation of the children of foreign
parents is somewhat gi eater than those of
native parents, but the most remarkable
result of these investigations is not that the
difference is so great, but that the difference
is so small In other words, this investigation
confirms in general terms the showing of the
census that so far as intellectual attainments
are concerned any difference between the na-
tive and the foreign stock practically disap-
pears in the second generation

It is to be noted that in the foregoing per-
centages in the investigation of the Immigra-
tion Commission we are dealing with the pupils
of foreign stock, and not merely with those of
foreign parentage Had the investigation elim-
inated the children of foreign stock who were
born abroad, it is more than likely that even
the small differences which have been observed
would disappear in the contrast between the
children born m the United States of foreign
parents compared with those born of native
parents In a more limited investigation under-
taken by the commission, where it was possible
to make this distinction, there weie a number of
cities in which the retardation of the children
born in the United States of foreign parents
was even less than that of purely native chil-
dren

This special investigation brought out clearly
the fact that the language inherited by children
of foreign birth was not in itself a serious
obstacle to the progress of children in American
schools. The backwardness of the foreign
child and the child of foreign descent, so far
as it is established by this investigation, ap-
pears as a result of vanous conditions of home
life which are unfavorable to the best profile ss
of the children in the school However great
the duties which immigration creates for the
administration of schools in the United States,
the records show that the schools have in large
degiee mastered those duties and have c< n-
tnbuted in no small measure to the gradual
process of assimilation by which the foni^n
elements are merged into the body of the An ei-
ican people H P F

References . —
AYKKS, L I* Lngyaidt in our ,S'r/wo/y, Cli X (New

York, 1909)
COMMONS, ,J II tfwr.s and hnwiuianh in Annum

(Now York. 1907 )
Library of Congress Li*{ of Kool>n on Immigration

(Washington, 1904 ) ^r

ROBH, E A ftocial Psychology (New York, 190S )
STEINEH, E A On the Trail of th< Immigrant (New

Y\>rk, 1906)
U S Bureau of Immigration Annual Report (Wasn-

U S Bureau of Statistic Arrivals of Alien Pa«-

8cngcrs and Immigrants in thf United States from

1820-1892 (Washington, 1893)
Immigration and Passenger Moixment at Ports of the

Unittd Mate* (Washington, Annual )
U S CoN(,RKS« Report of the Immigration ("ornnu^ion

(Washington, 191 1 )

395

IMMUNITIES

INCIDENTAL EDUCATION

Much periodical literature will be found under the title
Immigration, in Poole's Index to Periodical Literature
and in the Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature
(Cumulated)

IMMUNITIES. -

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT.

• See EXEMPTIONS,

IMPERIAL COLLEGE OF SCIENCE AND
TECHNOLOGY —See LONDON, UNIVERSITY
OF.

IMPRESSION — A general word referring
to sensory mental processes. Thus one re-
ceives a visual impression from a bright object,
an auditory impression from a source of sound.
Practically synonymous with the word " sensa-
tion " In ordinary parlance, the word is used
with a somewhat more general sense to refer to
striking experiences as well as simple sensory
processes C. H. J.

See SENSATION.

IMPRESSION — In Method — The tra-
ditional methods of teaching in the lower
schools have been for the large part dogmatic
and authoritative. They called for a receptive
attitude on the part of the child, rather than
ono which is active There is, however, a
vigorous reaction expressing itself against such
modes of procedure Its effects are noted in
the effort to introduce subjects which call for
increased motor and mental activity upon the
part of the child, thus manual training, smg-
nig, drawing, and play have grown in favor A
similar effect is found m the domain of teaching
method. Teaching the children to study
rather than merely to memorize is a move-
ment toward the development of a larger
initiative in the pupil Dramatization and
"action work" as modes of instruction are
other influences suggesting increased emphasis
by the modern teacher on the self-activity of
the child The popular pedagogical phrase,
" No impression without expression," sum-
marizes the modern psychological attitude
toward instruction H. S.

See TEACHING, PRINCIPLES OF; MOTOR
ACTIVITY

IMPULSE — Activity which is not pre-
ceded by deliberation, which follows imme-
diately upon an external impression and is con-
sequently likely to be relatively unmtellgent, is
described as impulsive The term " impulse "
is used not only for the above described type
of activity, but it is used as a general term
to indicate any tendency on the part of in-
dividuals toward definite lines of action. That
is, there is a general impulse toward imitation
(q.v.), an impulse toward self-preservation.
(See INSTINCT ) Impulsive activity is charac-
teristic of undeveloped individuals. The sav-
age is impulsive in his activities rather than
deliberate. The child is impulsive

C. H. J.

396

References : —

GIDDINOS, F. H Principles of Sociology. (New York,

1896.)
WUNDT, W. Outlines of Psychology. (Leipzig, 1897.)

IMPURITIES IN THE AIR OF SCHOOL-
ROOMS.— See AIR OF THE SCHOOLROOM;
CLEANLINESS OP THE SCHOOLROOM; HEATING
AND VENTILATION.

INATTENTION. — See ATTENTION.

INCENTIVES. — See REWARDS AND PUN-
ISHMENTS, also ATTENTION; INTEREST, MO-
TIVES; SCHOOL MANAGEMENT.

INCEPTION. — (Latin indpere, to begin,
commence ) The ceremony of admission to
the rank or grade of master or doctor in the
medieval universities. With it was connected
the entrance on the teaching career by actual
performance of duties pertaining to it Two
influences may be traced in the ceremonv of
inception: (1) Of Roman law, "according to
which a man was invested with the de fnctu
possession of his office by an actual and solemn
performance of its functions " (Rashdull),
and (2) the guild initiation of a master by older
members, and possibly the ceremony of in-
vestiture of a knight The ceremony at Parih
University was performed in the schools of the
respective faculties, and consisted of the placing
of the cap or biretta on the candidate's hoad
and the granting of the ring and the book by
his former master, who also conferred on him a
kiss and a benediction The mcoptor was then
placed in the master's chair and delivered a
lecture or held a disputation The expenses
of the ceremony were considerably increased
by the custom of making presents to the older
master, of contributing to the society's funds,
and of giving a banquet to the now colleagues
Inception became in time more important than
the Chancellor's license to teach, and corre-
sponded in every way to the compulsion to
belong to a guild before a trade or craft could
be practiced.

The inception or pnncipium was common in
Pans and the northern universities, at Bologna
the corresponding ceremony or public exami-
nation was known as the convent UH, which was
conducted in the cathedral and was moio
elaborate and expensive than at Paris Com-
pare the use of the term commencement (q v )
for the graduation ceremonies in American
universities.

See DEGREES; UNIVERSITIES.

INCIDENTAL EDUCATION. — It is held
by some that a certain mental capacity can be
trained without explicit attention to this par-
ticular faculty Thus, if we carry on a course
in history, there may oe an incidental training
of the moral sense. The possibilities of leav-
ing certain phases of education to be taken

INCIDENTAL METHOD

INDETERMINATE EQUATIONS

care of in a secondary way in connection with
major forms of training has been much dis-
cussed. It would be economical, if we could
relegate the training in reading to the science
class, devoting the major attention in this
class to the subject matter, and yet securing
incidentally for the children the ability to use
language. A distinction of importance should
undoubtedly be made in these discussions A
certain type of training may be incidental from
the point of view of the child, but explicit and
primary from the point of view of the teacher
On the other hand, a certain type of training
may be incidental both for the teacher and for
the child In this latter case the training
which is treated as incidental is likely to be
neglected altogether In the former case,
while the child regards himself as working for
a given end, he may be induced through skill-
ful guidance to carry on a variety of activities
which will conduce to training in a number of
different directions The secondary lines of
training are incidental in this case only for the
child, not for the teacher C. H. J.

See FORMAL EDUCATION; FAMILY EDUCA-
TION.

INCIDENTAL METHOD — Any plan call-
ing for the teaching of a series of facts, forms,
or skills incident to the systematic stuclv of
some other subject utilizes the "incidental"
method of teaching Arithmetic, spelling, and
grammar are among the subjects that are
sometimes taught incidentally Thus if arith-
metic is not taught systematically as a subject
till the third school year, it is taught inci-
dentally during the first two years, that is,
such arithmetical facts are taught as occur in
the normal experience of the child or within
the other school subjects. Again, those who
propose that the subject of grammar should
not be taught as a separate subject suggest
that its important and useful facts might be
taught as mere incidents of written composi-
tion A still further instance is found where
it is urged that spelling should be discontinued
as a subject with the close of the sixth school
year and taught incidentally thereafter

H. 8.

See METHODS, TEACHING

INCIDENTAL PERIOD. — In arranging
the school program it is the practice in some
schools to leave certain class periods un-
assigned to a specific activity, such as a recita-
tion in arithmetic or a study period in history.
These hours are termed " free " or " un-
assigned " periods, and are utilized by the
teacner only as special need occurs, such as the
need to bring up a class in language, or to
render additional assistance to individuals who
are behind in their work Because of the use
of such time for incidental needs that arise in
the course of the regular teaching, they are
termed " incidental periods " H. S.

INCOHERENCE. — See SPEECH DEFECTS

INCOMMENSURABLE QUANTITIES -

Quantities that have no common measure with
a quantity arbitrarily taken as the unit For
example, it the side of a square is taken as
unity, the diagonal of the square is incom-
mensurable with it, and numerically it is repre-
sented by V2 The number V2 is called an
incommensurable number, there being no
integer or common fraction that will exactly
divide it and unity Incommensurable num-
bers have of late been the subject of extended
study, notably by Dedekind and G. Cantor

From the standpoint of the secondary school,
the interest in incommensurable numbers and
magnitudes centers in the work in radicals in
algebra and in the so-called " incommensurable
cases " in geometry The scientific study of
incommensurable numbers is so recent that no
attempt has been made to introduce the modern
theory into elementary algebra On the other
hand, the study of incommensurable lines,
surfaces, and volumes found place in Euclid's
Elements, and hence it still appears in many
textbooks in plane and solid geometry A
popular treatment of the subject from the
numeiical standpoint would be quite as easy
as one that relates to geometry It is, how-
ever, the growing opinion that the concept is
too abstract for the immature mind of the
high-school pupil The treatment of the sub-
ject in the current geometries is not scientific,
and, since it is merely a popular introduction
to the theory and is understood by a relatively
small number of pupils, it is, at the present
time, passing out of the high-school curriculum
in the United States. It is felt that its place
is m the caleuluh, wheie the theory of limits is
treated with some approach to scientific rigor
It is entirely proper, in the secondary school,
to speak of the incommensurable, both in
algebra and geometry, explaining its general
nature Any serious attempt at a scientific
treatment of the subject is, however, out of
place at this point m the pupil's education,

D. E. S.

INCORRIGIBLE CHILD —See EXCEP-
TIONAL CHILDREN, SPECIAL CLASSES; TRUANT
SCHOOLS

INCUBATION PERIOD OF DISEASES.

— Sec CONTAGIOUS DISEASES

INDEPENDENT WORK. — See SCHOOL
MANAGEMENT.

INDETERMINATE EQUATIONS. — An

equation is said to be indeterminate when
there are indefinitely many roots that satisfy
it For example, x + y = 4 is satisfied by the
following pairs of roots (0, 4), (1, 3), (2, 2),
(3, 1), (4, 0), (5,-l), and so on indefinitely,
and by an infinite number of non-integral roots,

397

INDETERMINATE FORMS

INDIA

such as (3J, i), (7f,-3f), and (V2, 4-V2). A
system of equations is indeterminate when
there are indefinitely many roots that satisfy
each and every one of the equations. In
general, if there are n equations and n H- 1
unknown quantities, the system is indeter-
minate The subject of indeterminate equa-
tions, particularly of the second degree, was
first studied extensively by Diophantus (qv),
and hence such equations arc often called Dio-
phantine equations An indeterminate equa-
tion may have only a limited number of positive
integral roots, as in the case of x + y - 4,
or it may have an unlimited number of such
roots, as in the case of x — y = 4 In the
older textbooks on algebra the former of these
two kinds of equation often appeared, with
the direction that the equation was to be
solved in positive integers. At present, so
crowded has the course in elementary algebra
become, the subject plays practically no part
in the work preparatory to the American col-
lege, although it is found occasionally in the
college course Since it does not lead to any
other theory of much importance, it is generally
felt that the time which an extended study of
the subject would require may better be devoted
to other work The subject of alligation (q v )
is an early phase of this one, representing a
crude form of indeterminate analysis applied
originally to questions of the mixing of metal
in coinage

Aside from the general subject of indeter-
minate equations, there is the special question
as to when an equation or a system of equa-
tions is determinate, and this properly forms
a significant topic in elementary algebra In
this connection the graphic representation of
an equation is helpful

As an example of an indeterminate equation
of the second degre^, suppose two positive
integers are to be found such that if their
product is taken from the sum of their squares
the difference shall be a square. In other
words, required to solve the equation

z2 + y1 - xy = a square, say z2,

in positive integers The equation is satisfied if
r = 2mn — n2, y = m2 — n2, z = m2 — mn +
n2, and special solutions may be obtained by
substituting any positive integers for m and
7i, with the limitation that m shall be greater
than n DBS

INDETERMINATE FORMS — Certain
quantities met in algebra are in forms such
that it is frequently impossible to determine

their value. For example, -, •» , 00° are such

forms. In the secondary school such expres-
sions are properly avoided, being relegated to
the calculus where they have place. When
met in elementary algebra, as in the case of
(a — 6) •*• (a — 6) when a = 6, they are best

398

passed over without reference to the funda-
mental principle of limits that is involved

It is sufficient, when the symbol - arises m

the interpretation of a problem in elementary
algebra, to say that a-0 - 0, where a is any
finite number; whence, if we think of 0 as
being admitted as a possible divisor, we have

a « — . It is therefore reasonable to define

the form - as standing for indetermination.

While not satisfactory as a scientific proof, this
simple explanation of the reasonableness of the
definition is sufficient for elementary algebra.

DBS

INDEX OF PROHIBITED BOOKS — See

LITERARY CENSORSHIP.

INDEXES — See BIBLIOGRAPHIES OF EDU-
CATION.

INDIA, EDUCATION IN. — Political Or-
ganization of the Empire. — Strictly speak-
ing, the term British India applies only to
the divisions under direct British adminis-
tration, and does not include the native
states which are indirectly under British rule
Th^ft^jtive states have independent control of
their eotHjational affairs, but they are rapidly
adopting ci^ system developed for British
India For purposes of administration, India
is divided into nine great provinces, namely,
Madras, Bombay, Bengal, Eastern Bengal, arid
Assam, united provinces of Agra and Oudh,
Punjab, Central Provinces, Northwest Frontier
Provinces, and Burma There are also the
following minor charges Coorg, Ajmer-Mer-
wara, British Baluchistan, and the Andaman
Islands Each of the nine provinces is under
the administration of a governor, or a lieu-
tenant-governor The governors of Madras
and Bombay are appointed by the Crown ; the
remaining chief officers are appointed by the Gov-
ernor-General with the approval of the Crown.
The minor charges are each under a chief
commissioner

Each province is usually broken up into
divisions under commissioners, and these,
again, are divided into districts — numbering
in all about 259 — which are the units of
local administration. The supreme executive
authority in India is vested in the Governor-
General in Council, often styled the Governor
of India. He is appointed by the crown, and
usually holds office for five years The control
of the Governor-General extends to all the
provinces, but they enjoy a large degree of
administrative independence varying with their
importance. The local government of British
India is vested in municipal boards, the mem-
bers of which are, in large majority, elected by
the ratepayers (Acts of 1882-1884). For rural

INDIA

INDIA

tracts, there are district and local boards which
are in charge of roads, district schools, and
hospitals

The area of the British provinces is 1,097,901
square miles, the population (census 1901),
232,072,832, the average population pei square
mile, 211. The area of the native states is
690,272 square miles, the population (census
1901), 61,325,376, population per square mile,
189 The totals for India are, then: aiea,
1,766,642 square miles, population, 294,361,056,
population per square mile (census 1901), 167
The total as given in census of 191 1 is 320,132,537.

Ancient Systems of Education — The Hindu
System. — The endeavor of the British govern-
ment to engraft a system of modern education
upon its Indian Empire is impressive by reason
of the enormous population dealt with, and
the character of the native civilization and
culture From time immemorial India has
been a land of schools, of literature, and of
philosophy, inseparably associated with the
religions which dominated its people before
the advent of the English, and have pro-
foundly affected the course and progress of
education under their auspices The first of
these, the Hindu religion, gave to the land tho
Vcdic literature, the Brahmans or priestly
class, and the caste system, in other words,
all that has proved vital and permanent in
Hindu higher education

The Vedas reveal the religious ideas and the
movement of this Aryan people from the time
they began their invasions of India, swept
onward from the Indus to the Ganges, over-
came or scattered the indigenous tribes, and
eventually organized kingdoms each under its
own ruler, but all dominated by the powerful
priesthood

In the absence of chronological records, all
dates in the early history of India air infer-
ences chiefly from the Hindu language and
literature; but it is generally agreed that the
Brahmanic period began about 500 B c arid
continued with little abatement of power to
the thirteenth century of our era The Brah-
maris were the priests, teachers, and lawgivers
of the people, the custodians of the Vodic
hymns and authors of the whole body of litera-
ture based upon them — the mythologies,
rituals, commentaries, and laws — for all of
which they claimed divine sanction This
sacred literature, together with heroic, secular
poems and a crude science, also of Brahmanic
origin, were the substance of Hindu higher
education. The Brahmans determined the
limits of knowledge for the castes below them-
selves, the Kshatnyas (warriors), the Vawya*
(husbandmen), and the Sudras (artisans and
traders) Below the Sudrcw was an undefined
mass of people, the indigenous tribes, low-down
Aryans, and mixed peoples, indiscriminately
termed Pariah* (outcasts) For these there
were no rights nor privileges, and no instruc-
tion excepting what filtered down through the

all-pervading religious ceremonials — mcanta-
tions, sacrifices, and idol worship — still main,
tained in parts of India

On account of the difficulties of Sanskrit,
the language of tho Vedic literature, the Brah-
mans had a practical monopoly of learning,
tho majority merely learned by rote the hymns
and prayers and ritual used in the religious
ceremonies, leaving to the few that lifelong
absorption in learning which was ono condition
of attaining supreme bliss.

Tho sacred obligation to teach, laid upon
every one of the higher caste, was accom-
plished in general by oral instruction, which
imparted to tho privileged the religious idoas
and caste obligations that made up tho chief
concern of life As the social organization
developed, there gradually grew up separate
schools of literature, of law, of Vedanta, and
ovon separate schools of astrology or astronomy
and of medicine

While the Brahmanic or Sanskrit schools of
learning reached but a small fringe of the
immense population, the village school had a
much wider range It was an integral part
of tho village hfo, which, like tho caste system,
illustrates the organizing genius of the Brah-
rnans The soil, chief source of wealth in that
agricultural land, was controlled by the com-
munity, though not to the exclusion of private
ownership The civil offices — headman, ac-
countant, priest, schoolmaster, otc — wore
horoditary in families,- and carried for tho in-
cumbent an allotment from the village land
Tho various industrial arts, carpentry, pottery,
weaving in cotton and silk, leather work,
stono cutting, and tho higher arts fostered
by royal luxuiv and by the religious coro-
moiuais, — architecture, sculpture, and the
goldsmith's art, — woro also hereditary The
ciaftsman, like the civil officers, had his allot-
ment of the village lands, and he was, more-
over, a member of a guild which had rights
and obligations of its own Thus industrial
art was a product of family training

The village school (pathsala), like the village
itsolf, was founded on the sanction of the
Shatfrab (books of sacred laws) In its primi-
tive form it was a mere class of village boys
fiom five years of ago to ten or twelve years,
sons of petty landowners, traders, and cul-
tivators, assembled around tho master, undor
a spreading tree 01 in a shod The instruction
\sas 01 al, and as each boy had his own task,
the older pupils taught the younger Tracing
tho letters on a sandboard with the fingers,
and afterwards on the ground with a crayon,
constituted the earhost exorcises; later, words
and sentences woro written on palm leaf or
on prepared wooden tablets, with a reed pen
dipped in charcoal ink, the numeration tables,
money, weights, measures, and simple accounts
completed tho course of instruction In some
parts of India, especially in the Punjab,
there wero attempts at regular gradation of

399

INDIA

INDIA

classes, and in the trading centers, there
was a class of schools termed Land6, in which
boys learned to write a special business char-
acter The village schools, in which only the
vernacular language was used, were entirely
distinct from the Sanskrit colleges (toh) The
former had an eminently practical aim ; what-
ever formative influence they exercised was
due to the personal character of the teacher,
to the ethical maxims which were copied and
recited, and to the stones and verses rehearsed
to the pupils

The Brahmariic system of caste and caste
education in its full development was limited
to the " middle land " of India; that is, to
the region north of the Vindhya range com-
prising the river systems of upper India with
their fertile valleys; but the village system
and the religion of Brahma spread throughout
India

Antagonistic Influences — Every religious
movement that subsequently developed in
India was a reaction against Brahmanic domi-
nation, the tyranny of caste, and the monopoly
of learning Chief among these reactions was
Buddhism, which prevailed over Northern
India from the sixth century B c to the eighth
century A D , when it was driven out of the
Indian peninsula by the persecutions of the
Brahmans. Buddhism left no schools in the land,
but it struck at the heart of Brahman ism
by its doctrines and its recognition of secular
teachers (See BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM ) A
similar influence was exerted by the Sikhs, the
Protestants of the Punjab, who arose in the
fifteenth century, and whose schools remain to
the present time

Mohammedanism — The Mohammedan re-
ligion was introduced into India by an alien
people in the eleventh century, and its power
and permanence were assured by the estab-
lishment of the Mogul empire in the sixteenth
century The fiist revelation to Mohammed
is contained in a single verse of the Koran:
" Head in the name of thy Lord! " In obedi-
ence to this command, every mosque in India,
like the cathedrals of Europe, had a school
attached, in which children were taught the
Arabic alphabet and selected verses of the
Koran. In the higher schools, which were
supported by imperial grants and private
bounty, learned Mohammedans taught Arabic,
the sacred language of the Koran, and Persian,
the language of the royal circle and of the
courts of law, where Moslem rule was estab-
lished To the study of language were added
rhetoric, logic, literature, law, and crude
science All students were welcome, and the
Persian schools became a common meeting
ground for Hindu and Moslem youths, even
women were not ignored in the scheme of uni-
versal instruction

The Moslem teachings operated as an organ-
izing influence among the outcasts and the
aboriginal tribes, and at the same time they

modified the rigid caste notions of the Brah-
mans themselves As a consequence, many
treasures of Vedic literature were translated
into the vernaculars

At the advent of British rule in the seven-
teenth century the population of India was
comprised substantially in the two great bodies,
Hindus and Mohammedans, in about the pro-
portion of four to one In this comparison
aborigines, who in 1872 numbered five and a
half million in a total of 191,096,603, are not
included Unlike as were the principles of
the two systems, the effects of their intellectual
disciplines were similar Both gave excessive
development to the memory and fostered a
passion for abstract reasoning, qualities which
must be kept in mind in the endeavor to esti-
mate the progress of Western education in the
empire Schools of both systems, in number
about 40,000, are still in operation, as shown
by the government reports Many of the old
village schools have been transformed into
modern primary schools, and a few Sanskrit
and Persian higher schools partially trans-
formed into modern colleges

As to the existence, general character, and
wide diffusion of the ancient schools, all au-
thorities agree; but no statistical measure of
their operations was attempted before tin1
English occupancy. Investigations carried on
111 three presidencies, Madras, Bombay, and
Bengal, between 1823 and 1835, showed about
the same condition in all The most complete
of these investigations was made in Bengal by
Mr W Adams, who reports 3355 schools with
41,247 pupils in a population of 7,789,189
Mr Adams estimated that of the adult male
population about 5 55 per cent could read and
w rite

The Transition Period — The British East
India Company was incorporated bv the
British Government in 1600, under the title
of the Governor and Company of Merchants
of London trading in the East Indies, and
soon aftei received the charge of Bengal from
the Emperor of Delhi During the first cen-
tury of the Company's operations nothing was
done in regard to education in their ever-
increasing domain The work was begun by
missionaries, who followed the traders early in
the eighteenth century, arid for a hundred
years more the record of English educational
effort in India is solely that of missionary zeal
reenforced at a few points by private under-
takings No action was taken by the govern-
ment in the matter until 1813, when, upon the
renewal of the East India Company's charter,
a clause was introduced providing for an annual
expenditure of 100,000 rupees (equivalent at
that time to $50,000), by the Company's
Court of Directors, for education in India,
The appropriation was expended largely in
scholarships to enable promising students to
attend the existing schools, and for some time
the government merely supplemented mission-

400

INDIA

INDIA

?uv uiiil private* agencies with a constantly
inn easing effort at their organization The
entire period, from the beginning of the eight-
eenth century until the middle of the nine-
teenth, when the Indian government was
charged with full responsibility for the educa-
tion of the native population, may be regarded
as a period of transition from ancient to
modern conditions It prepared the way for
a general system of native education on Euro-
pean lines and under government direction
Two essential conditions of the system were
worked out in missionary schools: the use of
the vernaculars in the instruction of the masses,
and the place of English in the scheme of
higher education The former was accom-
plished by the work of Carey, Ward, and
Marsh man in the Baptist mission at Serain-
pore These men, all oriental scholars of
note, devoted themselves to the double task
of teaching the humbler natives and translat-
ing modem textbooks into the languages
familiar to Hindu arid Mohammedan scholars
The question of English was practicallv settled
bv the action of Dr Alexander Duff, who
arrived at Calcutta in 1830 as the representa-
tive of the General Assembly of the Scotch
Church Ignoring all precedents, this ener-
getic leadei at once opened a school in Cal-
cutta with the express purpose of making
English the medium of instruction in the
science and literature of Europe The success
of the school arid Dr Duff's articles on the
subject, in the home papers, played a promi-
nent part in the famous controversy of 1834

While the mission schools were thus pushing
forward on new lines, the private institutions
established during this period — the Moham-
medan College founded by Warren Hastings
in Calcutta in 1780 and a Sanskrit College
established in 1791 at Benares by a wealthy
English resident — followed oriental models,
and thus prevented a sudden and disastrous
break between old interests and new purposes

In 1823 the Indian government created a
committee of public instruction to take charge
of the annual appropriation for the work and
of the institutions which had come under
government control These included one Eng-
lish and six oriental colleges, together with a
number of elementary schools in Bengal. The
committee became the organ of the govern-
ment for education, and local committees were
appointed to supervise the institutions that
had the benefit of the fund, and to report to
the central committee. In 1833 the annual
appropriation was increased from 100,000 to
1,000,000 rupees ($50,000 to $500,000), after a
hot debate over the question of the language
to be adopted as the medium of higher educa-
tion fostered by the government in India.

The opportune arrival of Lord Macaulay in
India as the Legislative Member on the council
of the Governor-General settled the contro-
versy m favor of the English language. Ma-

caulay's Minute on the subject, bearing dale
Feb. 2, 1835, was followed by a proclama-
tion issued by the Governor-General, Lord
Bentinck, on the 7th of March of the same
year, which declared that " the chief aim of
the educational policy of Government should
be to promote a knowledge of European litera-
ture and science " The use of the govern-
ment grants in printing oriental books was
discontinued, and the funds thus set free weie
thenceforth applied to promoting European
studies through the medium of the English

As a consequence of this decision English
schools were opened in all the provinces
Hoogly College (Bengal), established in 1830,
enrolled 1200 students, and an annex was at
once provided Statistics for 1843 gave a
total of fifty-one schools and colleges undei the
government, comprising 8200 scholars Of
these 5132 were studying English Moreover,
Christian, Mohammedan, and Hindu boys, with-
out regard to caste, came togethei, prompted
by the common desire to learn the English
language. The motive was obvious, the ex-
perience of centuries had taught the nati\es
the advantage of knowing the language of their
rulers, in the case of English, expectation was
stimulated by the declared purposes of the
government- to admit trained natives to posts
of importance The principles laid down in
Macaulay's Minute have never since been
surrendered, but the claims of the classic learn-
ing of India were recognized in 1X3!) bv a
minute restoring for its maintenance an annual
grant of 25,000 rupees

During this period advance was made in all
the provinces In Bengal higher education
received chief attention, in the Bombay
Presidency the foundations of a public system
of education were firmly laid by the vigorous
action of Governor Elphmstone, in Madras
native and missionary influences prevailed, in
the Northwestern Provinces a model system of
vernacular schools was developed through the
endeavors of Mr Thomason, the Lieutenant-
Governor, in the Punjab, which did not come
under the authority of the Company till 1X4!),
a marked impetus was given to the indigenous
schools and colleges

Before the close of the period all the agencies
of education, still at work in British India,
missionary and private, municipal, provincial,
and governmental, were fully established.

The Government System — Departmental
Period. — In 1853, when the lenewal of the
East India Company's charter was under
consideration, the feeling of the English nation,
aroused to the responsibility for this distant
possession, found free expression. In the year
following the education of the whole people of
India was assumed as a state duty, and the
Court of Directors " laid down with fulness
and precision the principles that were to guide
the Indian Government in the performance of
this great task." Their dispatch of 1854

VOL. Ill — 2 D

401

INDIA

INDIA

onns the permanent charter of education in
India In a sense this celebrated document
was simply the declaration of principles drawn
from the experience of a century, and already
formulated in Lord Macaulay's Minute and in
orders issued by Lord Bentmck and Lord
Auckland, acting in their capacity as Gov-
ernors-General But the Minute of 1854 gave
to these principles the commanding; sanction of
the British government, and expressed the
conviction and will of a nation The main
features of the policy thus announced were
(1) the constitution of departments in the
several piovmces or presidencies for the ad-
ministration of education, (2) the establish-
ment of universities at the presidency towns;
(8) the support of training schools for teachers;
(4) the maintenance of the existing government
colleges and high schools, arid the increase of
their number when necessary; (5) the estab-
lishment of new middle schools; (6) increased
attention to vernacular schools, indigenous or
other, for elementary education, (7) the in-
troduction of a system of government grants
in aid; and (8) inspection and periodical reports.

The instructions advised the largest freedom
to local initiative, and insisted that govern-
ment aid for education should supplement and
be proportioned to the local expendituie
The importance of higher education was em-
phasized both in deference to the spirit of the
people and as a means of preparing natives to
enter in due proportion upon administrative
and official careers; the importance of female
education was urged, and as regards govern-
ment institutions, it was ordered that the
"education conveyed in them should be
strictly secular "

Special reference was made in the dispatch
to the need of colleges of medicine and civil
engmeeiing, and grants were authorized for
schools of industry and design after the model
of schools maintained by Dr Hunter at Ma-
dras, and by Sir Jamsetjee Jeejeebhoy at Bom-
bay The plan worked out by Dr Monat of
the Bengal committee, for an agricultural
division in each zillah or district school, was also
endorsed It was an all-inclusive scheme
anticipating demands which have not yet
been fully met in highly advanced nations,
and which in India had necessarily to wait
upon the slow disintegration of long-estab-
lished institutions, customs, and prejudices.

In 1858 the East India Company ceased to
exist and the government of India passed to
the Crown There followed the Dispatch of
1859, issued by the Secretary of State for
India, which reiterated and confirmed the pro-
visions of the earlier dispatch, with a single
exception. The grant-m-aid system had failed
to promote vernacular education, and it was
declared that this purpose could only be
realized by the direct action of the provincial
governments

The Commiwwn of 1882 — The system of

education, started under government auspices
and aided by grants from the general treasury,
was mainly dependent for its development
upon the education departments of the several
provinces These departments naturally fa-
vored the interests of higher education, which
course accorded with the prevailing native
tendencies For fifty years very little progress
was made in the work of popular instruction;
a mere fringe of the people in the immediate
vicinity of the presidency towns was reached.
Moreover, the select company of native stu-
dents that passed through the schools and col-
leges, so far from helping to raise the average
level of the nation, were drawn away from its
vital concerns The education problem was
complicated, also, by other conditions fostered
by English rule, especially as these had tended
to exalt the Hindu race, the powerful Mara-
thas of the south and the quick-witted Bengali,
above their former masters, the Mohammedans
The menace of the situation was fully compre-
hended by Lord Ripon, Viceroy of India
from 1880 to 1884, and in the second year of
his administration he created a commission
charged with the duty of examining into the
educational system arid advising as to the
means of overcoming the dense ignorance of
the masses and welding together the antagonis-
tic races by common interests and sentiments
The Commission, which was remarkable both
in its membership and its exhaustive methods,
adhered strictly to the principles of the Dis-
patch of 1 854, but urged as a matter of supreme
importance the spread and financial support
of primary education For this purpose it
was declared that native methods must be
followed , particular attention paid to the edu-
cation of women; the confidence of the Mo-
hammedans secured; and the backward races
brought under modern influences The most
important outcome of the labors of this com-
mission was the increase of the central au-
thority in the general direction of education.
The change in this respect is indicated by the
series of quinquennial reports on the progress
of education in India issued under govern-
ment orders, the hist of the series covering
the period 1881-1882 to 1886-1887, and by
the creation in 1902 of the office of Director-
General of Education in India

The Commit on of 1904 — The resolution
of 1904 was the outcome of special inquiries
and conferences ordered by Lord Curzon, in
view of unsatisfactory conditions disclosed by
the third quinquennial report (1892-1893 to
1896-1897) on the progress of education. From
this report it appeared that after a temporary
advance, primary education was on the decline.
The political development that had taken place
since 1882 made the evil more alarming than
at the earlier date, at the same time the rela-
tion of primary education to the entire system
was more fully comprehended than ever be-
fore The higher institutions had stimulated

402

INDIA

INDIA

an artificial craving for official life, and like the
inferior schools had failed to reach the vital
interests of the country, its industrial needs
and social welfare. Hence the Resolution
comprehended the whole system in a common
criticism and called for reform in its conscious
aims and formal processes. Special stress
was placed upon the need of higher schools
of agriculture and technical arts, upon instruc-
tion in science and its practical applications
which foster observation and reflection upon
natural phenomena as a feature of secondary
schools

The resolution voiced the convictions of
many of the leading minds of the Empire, but
it went far beyond the expression of opinion,
and in no uncertain terms declared the purpose
of the viceroy to employ all the forces at his
command for the accomplishment of the pro-
posed reforms The sincerity of this purpose
is indicated by subsequent reports These ceased
to be merely exhaustive summaries, and gave
signs of vigorous activity This is especially
true of the series of occasional reports issued
from the office of the Director-General These
deal with particular phases of education, point
put defects, furnish suggestions, and follow
instruction with the record of expert inspection.
The effect is seen in the practical tendencies
everywhere imparted to education and in in-
creased appropriations for the work The
example is followed by native chiefs who are
responsible for education in their respective
states. In schools for princes conducted under
the joint supervision of British and native author-
ities, these future rulers become habituated
to western ideas and not only apply the educa-
tional system of the British provinces to their
own states but m several instances set the
advanced pace

Features of the System — The reduction
of the provincial reports on education to a uni-
fied scheme of statistical presentation was one
of the chief outcomes of the Commission of
1882. Maintained by the subsequent quin-
quennial reports, this scheme makes it possible
to grasp the common features of the system of
education as it has worked out in the different
provinces, and thus to form some conception
of the state and progress of the work in spite of
its magnitude and almost infinite variety of
detail.

Administration. — The Director-General of
Education in India has no authority over
schools and colleges, the work of his office being
that of general supervision and advice, made
effective by his voice in the distribution of
government appropriations for education. The
provincial education departments administer
the government appropriation and have general
direction of public education in their respec-
tive divisions, and, in some cases, the direct
management of public schools. As a rule, how-
ever, these are under the control of district,
rural, or municipal boards. Departmental super-

vision is maintained by means of inspectors,
of whom the larger proportion are recruited in
England. The principals of the government col-
leges, and a certain proportion of the profes-
sors are also drawn directly from England

By their examinations and the power of affil-
iating colleges, the universities have from the
first controlled the system of higher education
Additional powers were conferred upon them
by the Universities Act of Mar. 21, 1904,
embodying the reforms proposed by the reso-
lution issued by Lord Curzon The act author-
ized the universities to institute regular in-
spection of the colleges and provide for their
transformation into teaching bodies with power
to make full provision for the promotion of
study and research.

Colleges and secondary schools come within
the sphere of university influence. The col-
leges are subdivided into (a) arts colleges, of
which the majority are English, and a few ori-
ental, and (6) professional colleges of law, medi-
cine, and engineering. Their courses of instruc-
tion are regulated by the degree examinations
Secondary schools are subdivided into (a) high
and (b) middle schools, the former teach up to
the matriculation standard and are all Eng-
lish schools. The middle &econdary schools
may be either English or vernacular schools, the
latter correlate with the primary schools and in
the majority of the provinces are classed with
them There are also special schools, of which
the most important are for training teachers,
others are technical and industrial

All schools and colleges recognized by the
education department are classed as public,
hence, the term applies to institutions estab-
lished and maintained by public authorities,
and also to those under private management
which conform to the official regulations The
latter, which are established and conducted
by religious or other associations, and also by
private individuals, may be aided by public
funds, or unaided and simply recognized

It is necessary to have these distinctions in
mind in order to understand the detailed sta-
tistics presented in the government reports,
they are of interest also as illustrating the
course of the English government in utilizing
all the agencies of education and gradually
bringing them into a well-ordered system The
distinction between institutions under public
and those under private management may, how-
ever, be disregarded in a summarized state-
ment of their operations

Sources of Income — The expenditures for
education arc met by (1) provincial revenues,
(2) local or district funds; (3) municipal funds,
(4) fees, and (5) other private funds Provin-
cial revenues consist of that portion of general
taxation allotted to a province which the local
government devotes to education.

Local funds properly consist of that portion of
local taxation which district or local boards de-
vote to education. The system of local taxa-

403

INDIA

INDIA

tion vanes greatly in the several provinces
In some cases there is a fixed cess, or rate, on
agricultural lands for education; in others, a
proportion of the general land tax (cess) must
be devoted to education, in others, tolls and
similar levies take the place of a land tax Mu-
nicipal funds simply consist of that portion of
municipal taxation which is devoted to educa-
tion One of the features of the visit of the
King-Emperor to India in 1911 was the announce-
ment of a grant of fifty lakhs ($1,666,665) "to
the promotion of truly popular education."
Further grants in future years are also prdmiscd.
Operations of the System — Enrollment —
From the latest quinquennial report covering
the period 1902 to 1907, it appears that the
enrollment in all classes of institutions sus-
taining any relation to the government was, at
the latter date, 4,744,480 If to this number
be added the 644,152 students in schools known
to, but having no relation with, the education
department — that is, Arabic, Sanskrit, and
indigenous vernacular schools, the grand total
is 5,388,632, pupils and students. Disregard-
ing the independent indigenous schools, the
distribution of the pupils m the different classes
of public institutions at the beginning and end
of the period covered by the quinquennial re-
port, and also for the later year 1908, is shown
in the following table —

PUPILS BY CLASSES OF INSTITUTIONS

Per

1901-1902

1906-1907

tent
of In-

1908

crease

Artu colleges

17,651

18.91S

7 1

25,736

Prof 0881 on al colleges

5,358

6,250

l()(i

Secondary schools

622,768

713,342

14 5

754,267

Prnniir\ schools

3,204,336

3,937,866

22 9

4,199,14

Special Hchooln

36,380

68,104

870

102,002

Total

3,886,493

4,744,480

220

5,708,238

Number in institu-

tions under private

management

2,646,852

3,088,513

166

Number m institu-

tions under public

management

1,239,641

1,655,967

335

Relative Status of the Several Provinces in
Regard to Education — While the recent action
of the central government of India has im-
parted vigor and unity to the educational
work, it is, after all, an interest over which each
province has independent control; hence, for
an adequate conception of its development
each province should be viewed separately.
The following summary, covering the enroll-
ment in all classes of institutions by provinces,
may suffice to show the relative extent and vigor
of modern education in each

The statistics following fall into two groups:
one pertaining to popular education as the
term is generally understood; the other to the
education of those classes from whom the direc-
tive forces of the Empire, the professions, the
civil service, etc., are recruited.

PUPILS IN PUBLIC

Ratio of

INSTITUTIONS

total

pupils

PROVINCES

POPULA-
TION

\n
1906-

1901-1902

1906-1907

1907

to pop-

ulation

per cent

Madras . .

38,210,302

740,628

875,666

23

Bombay . .

25,171,308

568,902

646,777

25

Bengal

52,6u9,8b9

1,548,022

1,215,014

23

United Province*

47,091,782

368,495

536,897

1 1

Punjab

20,330,330

182,303

234,895

12

Burma

10,477,508

162,748

227,128

22

Kastern Bengal

and Assam

30.7S8.134

102,463 »

749,687

24

Central Prov-

inces arid

Berar

13,319,519

195,652

237,100

1 7

Coor«

180,607

4,325

4,355

24

North-West

Frontier Prov-

ince

2,125,480

12,955

16,961

07

Totals .

241,204,908

3,880,493

4,744,480

20

404

1 Assam only

The enrollment in primary schools is the
natural index to the state of popular educa-
tion in a country; but on account of the pecul-
iar position of women in India, the number of
girls in school must be disregarded in an esti-
mate of general progress. The enrollment in
schools for boys in 1907 was 3,631,000, equiva-
lent to 20 5 per cent of the boys of school-going
age In other words, above fourteen million
boys had not been brought into the primary
schools Nevertheless, the increase in this
respect above 1902 was marked, amounting to
621,539, pupils, or an average annual increase
of 124,307

Primary Education — Formerly reading, writ-
ing, and elementary arithmetic were the limit of
attainments for pupils in the vernacular schools
At present the following additional subjects
are compulsory in the number of provinces in-
dicated in each case by parenthesis Kinder-
garten methods for infant classes (4), drawing
(4); object lessons (5), geography (7); history
as a separate subject (3) , singing and recitations
(2); hygiene (4); agriculture, either alone or
included with object lessons (7), additional
science subjects (2); mensuration (4) , physi-
cal exercises (7) The following are optional
in several provinces, but nowhere compulsory.
English, Persian, and manual work for pupils
above the infant classes

This increased scope has been accompanied by
special adjustments of the programs to the
different demands of urban and rural life and
by endeavors to excite the interest of pupils
and parents in what are termed " middle ver-
nacular schools." These schools, which in some
provinces are classed with the secondary schools,
are the crown of the vernacular system, upon
them depends the welfare of the lower schools,
since they supply to the latter the best qualified
teachers. The enrollment in the middle schools
increased from 158,706 in 1902 to 184,132 in
1907, or 16 per cent. Their normal growth,

INDIA

INDIA

however, is prevented by the fact that parents
who are willing to keep their boys in school to
the age of fifteen or sixteen years prefer an Anglo-
vernacular school, since in most forms of cleri-
cal employment even a smattering of English
has value Unfortunately teaching pays loss than
the lower forms of clerical work, and this con-
dition cannot be changed without an enor-
mous expenditure For the five years 1902 to
1907, the expenditure for primary education in-
creased from 10,545,000 Rs ($3,395,490) to
13,671,000 Rs ($4,402,062), or from $1.05 to
$1 11 per capita of enrollment But this en-
rollment, as already shown, is a very small
proportion of the total population of school
age

Teachers of Primary, or Vernacular Schools —
The official reports of education in India, as
a rule, give very meager data with respect to
the teachers employed in the primary schools
There is a traditional respect for the office
which gives the teacher some advantage, but
the changing standards of social values threaten
to undermine this influence*, and the pecuniary
considerations are assuming more and more
importance Hence the slight increase in the
pay of teachers is noted as the chief element of
recent improvement in the conditions of the
service Provision for training teachers is also
increasing, and there has been marked advance
in the standards and methods of preparation for
the work, so far at least as these arc set forth
in official regulations Madras, the only prov-
ince that has recently reported the item, had,
in 1907, a force of 30,000 teachers in the 21,379
primary schools for boys, enrolling 692,409
pupils This is at the rate of one teacher for
twenty-three pupils In 1902 it was found
that the average throughout India was one
teacher to every twenty-six pupils

During the quinquennium, salaries have been
improved in the schools of Madras under public
management, arid a system of grading has been
adopted which offers prospects of promotion in
schools employing more than two teachers In
small schools, where the grading cannot be ap-
plied, the trained teachers receive about two
rupees a month more than the untrained teach-
ers Under this system the minimum pay
is eight rupees a month, from this amount
it rises by successive increments to forty rupees
or from $2 59 to $13. In eastern Bengal and
Assam the salaries range from three to ten ru-
pees a month

Teachers of Secondary Schools — In respect
to their financial status and qualifications,
teachers of secondary schools differ radically
from those employed in the vernacular or pri-
mary schools. As a rule, they are graduates of
the colleges, and so far as possible the scholas-
tic education is supplemented by professional
training

Training Colleges and Schools — The total
number of training institutions for men teachers
reported in 1907 was 318, with an enrollment of

8225 students. In these totals are included
six training colleges for masters of secondary
schools, with an enrollment of 270 students
For women teachers there were sixty-three
training schools, with 1297 students The total
expenditure for these institutions in 1907 was
1,141,045 Rs ($369,698)

The Mohammedan Problem — A favorable
change in the attitude of the Mohammedans is
indicated by the recent active cooperation on the
part of many of their leaders in the provincial
educational conferences, it may be inferred also
from the fact that whereas in 1902 Moham-
medanSj who constitute 22 2 per cent of the
population, furnished only 188 per cent of all
pupils, in 1907 their proportion had risen to
195 per cent.

Education of Girls — Particular interest at-
taches also to the increase in the number of girls
brought into the schools and to the endeavors
to adapt the instruction to their aptitudes and
social relations The advance in this lespert
is due in great measure to the aroused interest
of high-class natives in the promotion of the
cause A signal indication of this interest was
the organization of a Social Reform conference
in 1888 to consider means of ameliorating the
condition of women in India The conference,
which was attended by 6000 persons, mostly
Hindus, was held at Bombay at the same time
as the notable assembly of the Indian National
Congress At the meeting referred to, the
latter, which has become an organ for the ex-
pression of national aspirations, numbered
1889 representatives fiom eveiy province of
India They gave strong support to the Re-
form Conference, and spread the spint of its
purposes throughout India

This movement reaches to the very root of the
social life of the nation, and marks the bieaking
up of the most stubborn of its traditional cus-
toms Statistics as yet furnish no real measure
of its importance, they are, rather, valuable as
a point of departure for estimating its futuie
progress The total number of girls in all classes
of public institutions in 1907, i e 579,648, was
an increase of 186,480 above the total for 1902
They were distributed as follows 273 in col-
leges; 61,237 in secondary schools, 513,248
in primary schools, 1267 in training schools
for teachers, and the remainder in othei special
schools It is interesting to note that about
forty-two per cent of the girls under instruction
were attending schools for boys The total
enrollment was equivalent to 3.2 per cent of the
girls of school age, as against 22 7 per cent,
the corresponding ratio for boys

Secondary Schools — The courses of study
in secondary schools are determined by the
matriculation examinations of the universities
In several of the provinces measures have
been taken to organize special courses in the
secondary schools with a view to preparing
young men for entrance upon business careers,
but this movement has made little progress as

405

INDIA

INDIA

vet, and fully 95 per cent of the boys who pass
through the secondary schools pursue the
course leading to the matriculation examina-
tion It follows that secondary schools and
universities, including the arts colleges and
professional colleges affiliated to the latter, in

which students pursue their studies after
matriculation, represent a continuous course of
liberal and professional education. The second-
ary or preliminary course of study to the
matriculation examination is represented in
the following scheme —

COURSE IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS AS INDICATED BY THE REQUIREMENTS FOR MA-
TRICULATION AT THE UNIVERSITIES AGE FOR MATRICULATION 16 (MADRAS
AND PUNJAB, 15)

SUBJECTS l

REQUIREMENTS BY THE UNIVERSITIES

Calcutta

Madras
Compulsory

Bombay

Allahabad

Punjab

English /

Compulsory

Compulsory

Compulsory

Compulsory

Mathematics . . )

Additional mathematics

Elective

None

None

None

None

History and geography . .

Separate
and
Elective

Combined
and
Compulsory

Combined
and
Compulsory

Combined
and
Compulsory

Combined
and
Compulsory

Compulsory

Compulsory

Compulsory

Elective

Compulsory

•

Compulsory

Alternative
with a for-
eign lan-
guage and
elective

Alternative
with French
but one of
the two
compulsory

Elective

Compulsory

An additional classical language .

Elective

None

None

Elective

Elective

Compulsory

Elective
and alter-
native with
a classical or
foreign
language

Compulsory

Elective

Elective

Elective

Compulsory

Compulsory

Elective

Elective

1 The complete course is arranged for 10 years in the provinces of Madras, United Provinces, Burma, and
Assam, for 11 years, Bombay, Bengal, and Central Provinces, for 9 years, in the Punjab

NOTE — Physiology and hygiene are elective at Punjab, agriculture and surveying elective at Allaha-
bad, drawing at Allahabad and Punjab

English in the Secondary Schools, Colleges,
and Universities — While the efforts to develop
vernacular schools have not been fruitless,
the teaching of English still remains the pivotal
point of the government system of education
The stress of effort in the secondary schools is on
this language For example, of the total of
713,342 pupils (658,305 boys, 55,037 girls)
enrolled in secondary schools, 423,317 (395,513
boys, 27,804 girls) were studying English, as
against 164,031 taking a classical language and
611 ,391 (570,456 boys, 140,935 girls) a vernacular.
Pupils who enter a higher institution pass the
matriculation examination in which English
is an invariable requirement. When the stu-
dent has matriculated and entered college, his
studies are pursued entirely in the English lan-
guage, whether he chooses the arts or the science
course The only exception is the special
course in oriental studies offered in the Punjab
University But of students in secondary
schools, only a small number, about 11,000,

annually pass the matriculation examination,
and still fewer push on for a university degree
The desire for English is evidently the sign not
so much of a passion for modern learning, as of
the stronger passion for an immediate means
of livelihood and a passport to the favor of the
rulers

Higher Education — The number of ad-
vanced degrees conferred by the five univer-
sities in 1907 was 837 In this number
Bachelor of Laws is represented by 638 diplo-
mas, and Master of Arts by 195

Movements in Higher Education — Among
the important movements in India is that
which is furnishing new motives to student life.
These are supplied not only by the reorganiza-
tion of the universities, including the expansion
of their medical and engineering courses, but
also by the development of agricultural educa-
tion The first step in this direction was taken
in 1901 by the appointment of an Inspector-
General of Agriculture aided by a nucleus

406

INDIA

INDIA

TABLE SHOWING FOR EACH PROVINCE OF BRITISH
INDIA THE NUMBER OF STUDENTS IN ARTS COL-
LEGES, AND THE RELATION OF THIS NUMBER TO
THE ENROLLMENT IN SECONDARY SCHOOLS AND
IN PRIMARY SCHOOLS

FOR Evi- IIY STUDENT

NUMBER

IN ARTS COLLEGES

OF STU-

THERE ARE KN-

PROVINCES

DENTS

ROLLED IN

IN ARTB

CoLLhUEB

Kerondarji

Primary

school i

f< hoolt

MadraH . .

4b87

Pupils
20

Pupils
158

Bombay

2747

21

211

BonRal

5190

30

233

Eastern Bengal and Assam

1197

96

511

I nited Provinces

3068

28

144

Punjab

1598

42

101

Burma

135

392

1272

Central Province and Berar

274

169

692

Coorz
Northwest Frontier Province

0
22

270

499

staff of agricultural experts A further im-
pulse was given to the work in 1903 by the
donation of SI 50,000 by an American gentle-
man, Mr Henry Phipps, the greater part of
which sum was devoted to the establishment
of the Imperial Agricultural College and Central
Research Institute at Pusa in Bcrar In 1905
the government of India announced the in-
tention of setting aside twenty lakhs of rupees
($644,000) annually for the development of
agricultural experiment, research, demonstra-
tion, and instruction in India Local govern-
ments and administrations were consulted as
to the lines along which this development
should be guided, arid in an important dispatch,
addressed to His Majesty's Secretary of State
for India, the government of India defined
its general policy

The proposed scheme included the estab-
lishment in each important province of an
agricultural college and research station, ade-
quately equipped with laboratories and class-
rooms, and possessing a farm of suitable size,
the institutions to be conducted on the same
general plan as that of the central college at
Pusa Progress has already been made in the
practical application of the scheme The staff
at Pusa has been recently increased by the
appointment of a cotton specialist, and in the
chief provinces a whole-time Director of Agri-
culture has been appointed, with a staff of
assistants, consisting usually of the principal of
the agricultural college, an agricultural chemist,
an economic botanist, and one or two all-
around agricultural experts Nearly sixty ex-
perimental farms, in addition to the demon-
stration plots, have been established m various
parts of the country.

Relations have also been established between
the Education and Agricultural departments
for the control of rural education, and arrange-
ments have already been made in some of the
piovinces for training village* schoolmasters,
for short terms, either at an agricultural col-

lege or at the ordinary training college if the
latter has a farm attached, A system of
forestry schools (q v ) in affiliation with the
central school at Dehra Dun is also in course
of development

The educational conference called by Lord
Curzon at Simla in 1901 laid great stress upon
technical education, and as an immediate
result a system of state technical scholarships
was instituted The recipients are sent abroad
to pursue definite courses of instruction in
subjects connected with industrial science or
research. During the quinquennium fifteen
scholarships were awarded, and they are now
granted at the rate of ten annually

There are at present m India no technical
institutions of the highest order, but this want
will be supplied by the Indian Institute of
Science, to be located at Bangalore, Mysore
The project owes its inception to the liberality
of the late Mr J N Tata and his family, who
have donated for the purpose property in
Bombay estimated to yield an annual income
of Rs 125,000 (about $40,000) a year The
Mysore government and the central govern-
ment have contributed liberally, to the initial
expenditure and permanent support of the
Institute It is intended primarily to be a
center of post-graduate study and research,
particularly in science, and conducted with a
view to the application of science to Indian
arts and industries The constitution of the
Institute will resemble that of a university
which takes entire responsibility both of
teaching and examination Its diplomas will
be restricted to its own students

The material benefits of the English system
of education are most strikingly shown in the
awakened interest in the practical applications
of science To understand the spiritual change-
that is going on under the influence of new
ideals it is necessary to study the Indian
press, to follow the proceedings of the educa-
tional conferences, of the National Indian
Association, of the Indian National Congress,
and the scientific movements initiated ami
financed by native citizens The new vernacu-
lar literature shows what British education
has done for the preservation of the native
tongues, and reveals the spirit of Western ideas
and sentiments in a Hindu form In like
manner the new religious organizations, the
Brahma Saniaj and the Arya Samaj, embody
religious conceptions borrowed largely from the
West

Notwithstanding frequent outbursts of wild
or menacing passions on the part of native
leaders, their social and political activities
offer irresistible proofs of steady advance
toward " a higher state of society and a
nobler ideal of domestic and individual life "
The movement thus summed up by Sir W. W
Hunter, one of the most eminent leaders Eng-
land has furnished to this transforming Em-
pire, has its root in the schools modeled after

407

INDIA

INDIA

English types Its final stage is foreshadowed
in the recent admission of Hindus to the
government Council

Cost of Public Education — The total ex-
penditure in 1907 was 559 lakhs of rupees
($17,999,200), as compared with 401 lakhs
($12,912,200) in the year 1902, an increase of
39 4 per cent in five years Omitting cost of
administration, and other items pertaining to
the system as a whole, the direct expenditure
on public education was 45,579,102 rupees
($14,512,071), which was applied as follows
for university education, including arts col-
leges and professional colleges, 104 per cent,
secondary schools, 33.1 per cent; primary
schools, 34 1 per cent, special schools, 7.7 per
cent, for buildings and equipment, 147 The
proportion of the total expenditure borne by
each contributing source, as already defined,
was as follows by provincial revenues (in-
cluding government appropriations) 33 per
cent, by local funds, 164 per cent, municipal
funds, 36' per cent, fees, 265 per cent^ all
other private sources, 17 5 per cent; additional
public {sources, 3 per cent

The realization of the vital importance of
education to the uplift of India was empha-
sized by the central government in 1902 by
an assignment of 40 lakhs ($1,288,000) annually
for this purpose The greater part of this
fund has been devoted to primary education
In 1905 the government made a definite
assignment of 35 lakhs ($1,127,000) annually
for primary education At the same time
5 lakhs ($161,000) were assigned annuallv for
universities and colleges, 2J lakhs ($80,500)
for European education, and 2\ lakhs ($80,500)
for certain new departures in technical educa-
tion In addition, an appropriation of 20
lakhs ($644,000) is made annually to the
agricultural department, a largo part of which
is devoted to the improvement of agricultural
colleges The local governments have supple-
mented these assignments by further provision
from their own resources, so that the expendi-
ture on education from public funds in the
yoar 1907 was 296 lakhs ($9,531,200), as com-
pared with 177 lakhs ($5,699,400) in the year
1902, an increase of 67 per cent in the five
years

No detailed report of this vast system
operating in nine great provinces, comprising
a population three times as great as that of
the United States, has been issued since the
fifth quinquennial report, already cited, which
brings the record to 1907 Official summaries
for 1908 which have been given in a foregoing
table show an increase of 20 per cent in the
total number of pupils in public institutions
above the total for 1907 It is worthy of
note that while there was very slight increase
in the registration in colleges of arts and pro-
fessional schools, the increase in special schools,
which include normal schools and technical
institutions, was very nearly 50 per cent

The total expenditure for public education,
which was equivalent to $18,000,000 in 1907,
reached $20,000,000 the following year

ATS
References : —

ADAMS, W. Reports on the State of Education in Bengal,
1835-1838. (Third and final Report includes
Education in Berar.) (Calcutta, 1838 )

Annual Reports of the Provincial Departments of Public
Instruction, i e Bengal, Bombay, Madras, etc.

BHABHA, H J Special Report on Manual Training in
Schools of General Education (Mysore, 1909 )

BRYCE, J A Sketch of Native Education in India, under
the Superintendence of the Church of Scotland

CHOWDHRY, SYED NAWAB ALT Vernacular Education
in India (Calcutta, 1900 )

Indian National Congress, Reports British Committee
of the Indian National Congress, 1897-1905

Industrial Conference, Firnt, Benares, 1905 (Madras )

JAMEH, H R Education and Statesmanship in India,
1797-1910 (London, 1911.)

KERR, J A Review of Public Instruction in th( Bengal
Presidency, from 1835-1M1 (London, 1853 )

LEITNER, G W The Theory and Practice of Education
with Special Reference to Education in India (La-
hore, 1870 )

Lord Curzon in India, being a Selection from fan tipeechctt,
aft Viceroy and Governor-General of India, 1898-
1905 (London, 1906)

LYALL, SIR A The Rise and Expansion of the British
Dominion in India, 4th ed. (London, 1907 )

MAINE, STK H J R J)i<mtrtation» on Early Law and
Custom, etc (New York, 188ft)

MORRISON, J New Ideab in India (Edinburgh,
190f>)

MULLLU, F MAX Sacred Books of the East (Lou-
don, New York, etc , 1902 )

Office of the Director-General of India, Calcutta
Occasional Reports 1 Rural Schools in the Cen-
tral Provinces, India, 2 Vernacular reading Book*
in the Bombay Presidency. 3 Educational system
of Japan 4 Furlough Studio, 5 Training oj
Secondary Teach< rtt

REICH, J D The Heal India (London, 1 90S )

THOMAS, F W The HiKtury and Prospects of British
Education in India (Cambridge, 1801 )

THORNTON, W J Indian Public Worfa and Cognuh
Indian Topics (London, 1875 )

Time* (London ) Educational Supplement, Jan 2, 191J
(1) Popular Education in India (2) Purpose* of
the Imperial Grant March 7, 1912, Compulsory
Education in India

WARREN, J Schools in British India (Washington,
1873 )

WEVER, A F Inchschc Strnfin (Berlin, 1868
1879 )

The following are published by the Government Print-
ing Office, Calcutta, India —

Committee on Industrial Education Report 1902-1 903
Indian Educational Policy Resolution issued by
the Governor-General in Council on the llth of
March, 1904

LEITNKK, G W History of Indigenous Education in
th< Punjab since it* Annexation and in 1882

Progress of Education in India Quinquennial Revieww
first, 1881- 1882-1 KH6- 1887, second, 1887-1888-
1N91-1892, third, 1892 1893 , 1896-1897, fourth,
1897 1898-1901 -1002 , fifth, 1902-1907-.

Report of the Indian Commission, 1882.

Selection from the Records of the Government of India,
Home Department No LXXVII. A Collection
of Dispatcher from the Home Government on Edu-
cation in India, 1854-1868, § No LIV With
notes on the state of Education in India during
1865-1866. (A M Montcath, revised edition,
1867)

Also files of Indian journals, in particulai —

Educational Remew (Monthly, Madras )
Indian Magazine* (Monthly, London )

408

INDIA

INDIANA

INDIA, TRAINING FOR SERVICE IN.

— Sec PUBLIC SERVICE, TRAINING FOR

INDIAN NUMERALS — See NOTATION.

INDIAN TERRITORY. — Originally a
separate territory, Bet apart largely for the
homes of several of the civilized Indian tribes,
hut now included in the State of Oklahoma
Its area was 31,000 square miles, and its density
of population in 1900 was 120 persons to the
square mile Of the total population in 1900,
77 2 per cent, were white, 9 4 per cent were
negroes, and 134 per cent were Indians

See OKLAHOMA, STATE OF E P C

INDIANA, STATE OF —Indiana was
organized as a separate territory in 1800, and
was admitted to the Union as the nineteenth
state in 181 0 It is located in the North Cen-
tral Division, and has a land area of 35,910
square miles In size it is about three fourths
as large as Pennsylvania, and four and one
half times as large as Massachusetts For
administrative purposes, it is divided into
ninety-two counties, and these are in turn
divided into townships Cities and incorpo-
rated towns are usually segregated parts of a
township In 1910 Indiana had a population
of 2,700,876 arid a density of population of
75 2 people to the square mile

Educational History — The first school in
the territory of which there is any record was
taught by a French missionary at Vmcennes in
1793, and the second school was opened at
Charleston in 1803 The first act of an educa-
tional nature was passed by the first territorial
legislature, meeting at Vmcennes, in 1806
This established the Vmcennes University,
and gave to the new institution the seminary
township granted by act of Congress in 1804
for the benefit of an institution of higher learn-
ing in the territory This institution was
opened in 1810, maintained a feeble existence
for a tune, and in 1824 was declared extinct
and its lands forfeited for the benefit of the new
Indiana Seminary, afterwards University, at
Bloomington

The constitution adopted in 1816 was par-
ticularly noteworthy in that it was the first to
throw careful safeguards around the various
lands given by Congress to the state for educa-
tion, arid in that it laid a mandate on the leg-
islature, " as soon as circumstances will permit,
to provide by law for a general system of edu-
cation, ascending in regular gradation from
township schools to a State University, wherein
tuition shall be gratis and equally open to all "
In 1816 the first school law was adopted It
merely provided for the appointment of a
superintendent of the school section m each
congressional township, who was to attend to
the leasing of the land, and that, on petition
of twenty householders in any congressional
township, an election should be held to elect

three trustees for the township, who were to
open schools and to encourage education As no
means of securing school revenue were provided,
however, the law remained a dead letter In
1818 the Governor was instructed to appoint a
seminary trustee for each county, who was to
accumulate and invest funds with a view to
providing a county seminary for each countv
In 1824 another law was enacted, which made
the system consist of rural schools, the countv
seminary, and the state seminary, definitely
provided foi the election of three trustees in
each township, and made the beginnings of the
district system bv giving the trustees power to
subdivide the township, locate school districts,
appoint district trustees, erect schoolhouses by
the manual labor of able-bodied residents, and
examine teachers for the schools of the town-
ship This is the first general school law for
the state Again no funds were provided, so
that any schools that were opened were sup-
ported by the rate bill and bv private sub-
scriptions

In 1833 the district system was definitely
substituted for the township system Each
district was to elect three district trustees for
one-year terms, who should examine the
teachers and manage the school Each dis-
trict could determine whether or not it would
have a school, and no one was liable for school
taxes unless he sent children to school Re-
ligious and private schools were to share
equally in the school revenue By the laws
of 1836 and 1837, householders might make
contracts with teachers to teach their children,
under certain conditions In 1841 the cul-
mination of the process of decentralization
was reached by the enactment of a law which
made the requirement of a teacher's certificate
optional with the district trustees In 1831
the beginnings of county supervision were
made in a law which provided for the election
of a school commissioner for each county, for
a three-year term, whose duty it was to look
after the* funds of the local school corporations
In 1837 the beginnings of a county system foi
the examination of teachers was made by a
law authorizing the circuit courts to appoint
annually three examiners for each county, but
district/ trustees were still allowed to give such
further examinations as they saw fit In 1843
the first state supervision was instituted by
the designation of the State Treasurer^ to act
cr officio as Superintendent of Common Schools,
though the duties assigned to him were almost
entirely financial In 1 84 1 all the property of
the district was made liable for a district tax to
build a schoolhouse, and the year 1849 marked
the partial establishment of the principle of
general taxation for schools At the fall elec-
tion of 1848 a popular vote of the state was
taken on the question "Are you in favor of
free schools?/' the result being 78,523 for and
61,887 against As an outcome of this vote, an
optional law was enacted which provided for

409

INDIANA

INDIANA

a general tax of ten cents on all property, and
a poll tax of twenty-five cents, this to remain
in the counties where paid, and further permis-
sion was granted to levy a loeal tax for school
buildings, furnishings, and tuition The law
was not to go into effect in any county until
accepted by an affirmative vote of the people,
which was finally done in 61 per cent of the
counties. In counties accepting the law, the
office of county school commissioner, estab-
lished in 1831, was abolished, and his duties
transferred to the auditor, the number of
district trustees was reduced from three to one
to the district; and a detailed system of re-
ports and blanks was provided with a view
to securing better administration This law
marks the beginnings of a change from the
policy of decentralization which began in 1824
arid reached its culmination in 1841

Very little educational progress had been
made under the old constitution, and the pro-
posal to hold a convention to frame a new con-
stitution was seized upon as an opportunity by
the friends of education The new constitution
of 1851 made it the duty of the legislatuie " to
provide by law for a general and uniform
system of schools, wherein tuition shall be with-
out charge, and equally open to all ", enumei-
ated the items that were to constitute the
common school fund, and declared it to be a
perpetual fund; forbade special and local
legislation with reference to schools and school
funds, and provided for the election of a State
Superintendent of Public Instruction by popu-
lar election for two-year terms. The constitu-
tional provisions with reference to education
have remained unchanged since then

The school law of 1852 contained the sub-
stance of the present system A state school
tax of ten cents, to be distributed on census,
and local building arid tuition taxes were pro-
vided for, and township libraries established
In addition to the office of State Superintend-
ent of Public Instruction, a State Board of
Education was created, a body which has done
more than anything else to establish the pres-
ent well organized system of the state At
first it was made up of state officials, but in
1865 it was changed to an ex offiao body of
school men The development of the schools
was somewhat retarded by a decision of the
Supreme Court m 1854 that all local taxes for
support were unconstitutional, and from then
until 1867, when practically the same law was
reenacted and later held to be constitutional,
no local taxes could be levied to prolong the
term or to provide better facilities In 1854
the State Teachers' Association was organized,
in 1859 the number of township trustees was
reduced from three to one, in 1861 county
examiners were given larger power in regulating
the issuance of licenses to teach; in 1865 county
teachers' institutes were begun, in the same
year the State Superintendent gave up the
power to grant local licenses, and the State

410

Board began to issue state certificates; in
1865 the state normal school was established,
arid opened in 1870; in 1872 the first township
high school was started; in 1873 the office of
county superintendent was created out of the
office of county examiner, provision was made
for the organization of separate city school
systems with power to employ a city superin-
tendent, and the State Board of Education
began to commission high schools, in 1889
kindergarten arid night schools were authorized,
and the State Board of Education was created
a State Textbook Commission to select a uni-
form series of textbooks for the schools of the
state; in 1894 a state course of study was
issued; in 1897 the first compulsory education
law was passed, m 1899 the county superin-
tendent's term of office was extended to four
years and educational qualifications were es-
tablished for the office, the use of uniform ex-
amination questions furnished by the State
Board of Education was made mandatory,
and definite recognition of high schools was
made in the state law, in 1901 the time of
attendance required by the compulsory attend-
ance law was changed from twelve weeks to
the entire school session, and in 1907 a mini-
mum wage law was enacted and the State
Board of Education was created a State Train-
ing School Board, with power to designate
institutions as training schools, and with a view
to requiring all teachers in the state to secure
some kind of professional training In 1911
an optional medical inspection law was passed ,
county superintendents were given a fixed salary
instead of a per diem, and a state agricultural
and industrial commission was created. Along
with all these changes has come a great change
m the attitude of the people of the state toward
public education, which has done much to make
educational progress possible

Present School System — At the head of the
school system is a State Board of Education
and a State Superintendent of Public Instruc-
tion The State Board is composed of the
Governor, the Superintendent of Public In-
struction, the presidents of the state univer-
sity, Purdue University, and the state normal
school, the city superintendents of the three
largest cities, and three citizens of prominence
engaged in educational work and appointed
by the Governor, one of whom must be a
county superintendent. The Superintendent
of Public Instruction is president of the board
and acts, in part, as its executive officer This
board has gradually, by careful and intelligent
work, secured large authority for itself and has
done very valuable work in fostering new and
desirable educational undertakings. The
board is charged with the duty of considering
practical school questions, of examining
teachers for state certificates; of preparing
examination questions to be used by all county
superintendents in the examinations for county
certificates; and of examining and commission-

INDIANA

INDIANA

ing high schools The board also acts ex
officio as a State Board of Textbook Com-
missioners, to adopt uniform textbooks for
the schools of the state, fix their sale price,
and make contracts with publishers, and as
a State Training School Board, to accredit
institutions to tram teachers for the various
kinds of schools of the state, to prescribe
courses of study, etc

To the State Superintendent of Public In-
struction is given the general supervision of
the schools of the state and the care of the
school funds, he must visit each county once
in two years and examine the auditor's books
and ascertain the condition of the school funds,
prepare blanks and forms and prescribe
methods of bookkeeping, apportion the school
funds semi-annually to the counties; decide
appeals from the county superintendents,
and make a biennial report to the legislature
and an annual report to the Governor He
also serves ex officw as a member of the Board
of Trustees of the State Normal School

In each county there is a county superin-
tendent of schools, elected for four-year terms,
by the township trustees. He must hold at
least a three years' teachers' license to be eli-
gible He conducts eight public examinations
each year for county teachers' licenses, using
questions furnished him by the State Boaid of
Education, decides appeals from the decisions
of township trustees, provides for the exami-
nation of all graduates from eighth grade and
from the town and township high schools of
the county; conducts an annual teachers'
institute, holds a preliminary institute of the
teachers of each township before the opening
of schools, and visits each township institute
once each year, visits schools, carries out the
instructions of the State Board and the State
Superintendent, inspects the county books
to see that the school funds are properly pre-
served, and makes an annual report to the
State Superintendent and to the State Bureau
of Statistics A county board of education,
consisting of the county superintendent, town-
ship trustees, and the chairmen of the town
and city boards of education of the county,
meets semi-annually with the county superin-
tendent to consider the general wants and needs
of the schools, and all matters relating to the
purchase of school supplies

Each county is divided into townships,
cities, and towns. For each township one
township trustee is elected by popular elec-
tion. He has charge of the roads, bridges,
poor relief, and schools of the township He
has general charge of the educational affairs
of the township; power to locate and establish
a sufficient number of schools; may establish
a township high school if he has twenty-five
grammar school graduates in the township, or
may unite with other township trustees for
the purpose ; must maintain a six months term
and shall authorize a sufficient tax for the pur-

pose, within the limits set by law, may abandon
schools and transport pupils with the consent
of a 'majority of the residents of the school
district, must take an annual school census,
may transfer children and their funds to other
townships, employs teachers and makes con-
tracts with them in writing, according to the
minimum wage law, and must make a detailed
annual report to the county superintendent
and the board of county commissioners

Cities and incorporated towns are governed
by separate and distinct school officials, though
otherwise operating under the general school
law, unless of over 50,000 inhabitants, in winch
case they may have special laws relating to
the form of government The city council,
or board of town trustees, appoints three
school trustees, one each year for three-year
terms, to manage the schools They have
the same duties arid powers as township trus-
tees, and, in addition, may establish night
schools 111 a city of over 3000 inhabitants,
kindergartens in one over 6000, and a system
of industrial training in one over 50,000
Cities of 100,000 or over arc governed by a
board of five school commissioners, nomi-
nated by petition and elected by the people,
and to them are given certain large powers

For each subdistnct in the township, the
school director is elected by the parents each
year, or appointed by the trustee if the parents
fail to elect The meeting of parents may also
add additional branches of study to the course
of instruction of the school, designate the time
of year at which they desire the school to be
taught, direct that repairs be made, and
petition the township trustees to move, sell,
or repair the schoolhousc, or to dismiss the
teacher The school director presides at all
district meetings, serves ar, a means of com-
munication between parents and township
trustees; repairs the schoolhouse and provides
fuel and supplies, and suspends or expels
pupils

The State Board of Education, acting as a
State Textbook Commission, adopts a uniform
series of textbooks for the elementary schools
of the state for ten-year periods, copybooks,
histories, and geographies exccpted, these being
adopted for five-year periods A depository
is designated in each county, and from this
books are sent out to dealers and trustees
throughout the county for sale All schools
in each township, cities and in wporated
towns excepted, must be taught an equal
length of time The Bible is not to be excluded
from the public schools of the state Colored
children ma}' be taught with other children,
or in separate schools, as communities may
prefer.

School Support — The state originally re-
ceived 650,317 acres of land from the sixteenth
section grant, but most of this was sold when
the state was very poor, and brought but little
The total grant has produced a little less than

411

INDIANA

INDIANA

two and a half millions of dollars The state
also received $860,254 44 from the Surplus
Revenue of 1837, one half of which was added
to the permanent school fund From swamp
lands, saline lands, bank taxes, fines, forfeitures,
and escheats, additional amounts have been
added, so that the total permanent fund at
present amounts to about eleven millions
The interest on the Congressional Township
Fund is distributed to the townships to which
the fund belongs, but the interest on the re-
maining school fund, together with 94 8 per
cent of the state school tax of 13.6 cents, is
distributed to the different counties of the state,
arid from the counties to the townships, towns,
and cities, on the basis of the number of chil-
dren reported between the ages of six to twenty-
one. The remaining 5 2 per cent of the state
tax is held as a reserve fund, to aid poor a.nd
deserving districts to enable them to bring
their school term up to the minimum required
by law All state money must be used for
teachers' salaries only No county school tax
is levied, but the surplus dog fund and license
fees go to the school fund of the county Trus-
tees in townships, towns, arid cities up to 100,-
000 inhabitants, may levy additional local taxes
up to fifty cents on the $100 and a poll tax of
fifty cents for extending the school term (tui-
tion fund), and a similar tax but with $1 poll
for buildings, supplies, and other expenses,
including salaries Cities of over 100,000
inhabitants may levy up to fifty-seven cents
for all purposes. About two thirds of the
total revenue comes from local sources

Educational Conditions — The state, gen-
erally speaking, has relatively good educational
conditions There is but a small percentage
of foreign born in the state (5 8 per cent), and
these aie largely settled in a few districts, and
in the wealthier part of the state There are
but few negroes (2 3 per cent), and these are
mostly in cities, which renders the problem of
the education of the colored race easy to handle
Agriculture and manufacturing are the chief
resources Of the total population about 65
per cent live in country districts The southern
third of the state is much poorer than the
central and northern portions, and has much
greater difficulty in maintaining its schools

The compulsory education law, which re-
quires that all children, seven to fourteen years
of age, must attend school during the time the
schools are in session, is well enforced in the
cities, and fairly well enforced elsewhere The
county board of education m each county
is constituted a board of truancy for the
county, instructed to appoint one truant officer,
and charged with the enforcement of the law
Cities of 5000 constitute separate truancy
districts, and all cities may appoint truant
officers to enforce the law If children are too
poor to attend school, the township trustee
or the city board of education must provide
books and clothing Homes for incorrigibles

and confirmed truants may be established and
a special tax levied for their maintenance

The average value of the schoolhouses of the
state was about $3300 at last report This
has advanced rapidly within recent years,
owing to the abandonment of many poor and
small buildings and the substitution of one
well-built central consolidated school in their
stead. The movement for the consolidation of
schools and the transportation of pupils to a
centrally located school has made very rapid
headway in Indiana, some of the best con-
solidated schools in the country being found in
that state

Practically all schools outside of cities follow
a uniform state course of study, which is issued
by the State Superintendent, along with a
series of directions and bi-monthly questions
on the work to be covered The required
monthly township institute also tends to unify
the work of the schools The schools are well
graded, and high schools are numerous
Manual training is taught m nearly all of the
cities and in many of the town and rural con-
solidated schools Instruction in domestic
science is also given in many places There
are many public libraries in the state, a Public
Library Commission has charge of the public
libraries provided by the state, and liberal
township and city taxes for library purposes
are allowed Each community may do as it
desires with reference to providing separate
schools for the colored race, but equal educa-
tional facilities must be provided While
sectarian or denominational instruction is not
allowed, the law provides that u the Bible shall
not be excluded from the public schools "
Private and parochial schools are required to
report statistics to the county and state school
officials These schools exist chiefly in the
cities, and enroll but about 3 5 per cent of the
total enrollment of the state

Teachers and Training — The yearly sal-
aries paid have increased 50 per cent in ten
years, being now, on an average for all teachers,
about $500. This is due in part to the mini-
mum wage law, which now requires trustees
to sign written contracts with teachers, with
a $100 fine if the contract is made at a lower
rate than the minimum wage allowed by law
No statistics are available from which the per-
centage of teachers in the state who have had
normal training can be determined. The
minimum wage law of 1907 provides that all
new teachers must have had a high school
education or its equivalent, and have had in
addition twelve weeks m a professional training
school for teachers in the case of all beginners,
twenty-four weeks in the case of those paid on
the basis of three cents, and must be graduates
of a professional school to receive salary on
the basis of three and one half cents (The
basal minimum is multiplied by the grade made
in the examination for the respective licenses to
give the daily wage ) The State Board of

412

INDIANA

INDIANA

Education is designated as a State Training
School Board, to define standards arid equiva-
lents, designate institutions in which the pro-
fessional work may be done, and to outline
professional courses of instruction In addition
to these designated institutions, the state main-
tains a large state normal school at Terre Haute

For the improvement of those in service,
besides the monthly township and the annual
county institutes, there is the Indiana Teachers'
Reading Circle, organized in 1883, which is
one of the most successful organizations of its
kind in the United States Though conducted
by the State Teachers' Association, its work
has been accepted by the State Board of Edu-
cation, and forms a part of the examination
questions for teachers' licenses About 85 per
cent of the teachers of the state are members
of the organization The Young People's
Reading Circle, a branch for children, was
organized in 1887

Secondary and Higher Education. — The
high school has had a large development in In-
diana, there being 730 high schools in 1910 with
2054 teachers employed Of these 519 were
township high schools and 355 were fully ac-
credited four-year high schools. This develop-
ment is due in large part to the wise policy of the

State Board of Education, which fostered and
aided the movement years before the high school
was incorporated into the state school system
A commissioned high school must have a cer-
tain equipment and a four-year course of study,
at least two teachers, and at least an eight
months term, and the graduates of such school*
are accepted into the different state and pri-
vate institutions of higher learning without
examinations Some of the noncommissioned
high schools lack only in length of term, while
others are two and three-year schools in process
of evolution Seven cities maintain high
schools for the colored race, and four cities
maintain manual training high schools The
money for the support of high schools comes from
the same sources as that for common schools

At the head of the school system of the state is
the State University of Indiana (q v ) at Bloorn-
mgton, opened in 1824 Purdue University
(q v ) at La Fayette, opened in 1874, which
owes its origin to the Land Grants of 1862, is
a second higher institution, supported by the
state There is also a number of old denomina-
tional colleges in the state which share with
the state institutions the work of higher edu-
cation, and a number of private normal schools
which offer academic and normal work.

INSTITUTION

LOCATION

OPENED

CONTROL

FOR

Wabash College

Crawfordsvillc

1832

Non-sect

Men

Hanover College

Hanover

1833

Presby

Both sexen

Do Pauw Uinvors

Greeucastle

1837

M K

Both sexes

Concordia College

Fort Wawie

1839

Luth

Men

Univ of Notre Dame

Notn Dame

1842

R C

Men

Taylor Univers

Upland

184ft

M E

Both sexes

Earlham College

Earlham

1847

Friends

Both sexes

Franklin College

Franklin

1833

Non-se< t

Men

Butler College

Indianapolis

1855

Chr

Both sexes

fit Mary's Col and

Academy

Notre Dame

1855

K C

Women

Moore's tfill Col

Moore's Hill

1866

M E

Both sexes

St Memrad Col

St Memrad

1857

R C

Men

Union Christian Col

Merom

1859

Chr

Both sexes

Rose Polytechnic Inst

Torro Haute

1883

Men

Oakland City Col

Oakland City

1801

Bapt

Both sexes

St Joseph's Col

Collegeville

1891

R C

Men

Besides the two state institutions, the state
maintains the Indiana State School for the
Deaf at Indianapolis, founded in 1843, the
seventh of its kind in the United States, the
Indiana State School for the Blind at Indian-
apolis, founded in 1846; the Indiana School
for Feeble-minded Youth at Fort Wayne,
founded in 1887; the Indiana Soldiers' and
Sailors' Orphans Home at Kmghtstown,
founded in 1867: the Indiana Reform School
for Boys at Plamfield, founded in 1867, the
Indiana Industrial School for Girls at Indian-
apolis, founded in 1869; and the Indiana
Reformatory, established in 1906, an institu-
tion for neglected and wayward children, and
an outgrowth of the compulsory education
law.

References : —

Annotated School Law of Indiana, 1911 ed

BOONK, R G History of Education in Indiana (New
York, 1S92 )

Constitutions of Indiana, 1816 and 1851

RAWLKS, W A Centralizing Tendencies in the Admin-
istration of Indiana, c\\ II (Ne* \ork, 1903)

Rept* Supt Pabl Intttr Indiana, Annual, 1825-1860,
Bien 1861-1862 to date The recent reports
of this official aie among the best and most complete
of any in the Union, and contain excellent historical
information and statements as to present con-
ditionn

SKINNER, H M , HOBBES, B (" . and HUMPHREYS,
M G Historical Review of Education in Indiana ,
in Rcpt Snpt Publ Inxtr Indiana, 1885-1886,
Pt II, pp 3-47

WOODBURN, JAH A History of Education in In-
diana In U S Bur. Ed. Circ Inf. No. 1, 1891
(Washington).

E. P. C.

413

INDIANA STATE UNIVERSITY

INDIANS

INDIANA STATE UNIVERSITY, BLOOM -
INGTON, IND. — The first constitution of
the state, adopted in 1816, made provisions for
a state university as a part of the public edu-
cational system. In 1820 a state seminary, later
called Indiana College, was founded By act
of the General Assembly, 1838, Indiana Col-
lege was raised to the rank of a university,
and in 1852 was officially recognized as the
state university In 1856 as the result of a
lawsuit the university was deprived of a part
of its lands, and the loss was made up by a new
grant from the federal government, which
secured the future development After a
brief setback during the Civil War, progress
continued. The Federal Land Grant of 1862
created some difficulty, since the university
was at the time not definitely prepared to meet
the requirements of the act. A new institu-
tion was founded through a gift of Mr. Purdue,
to which the federal grant was assigned. In
1867 the first state appropriation was made to
the university and in that year women were ad-
mitted to the classes. The Indiana University
School of Medicine was established in 1903 and
gave a two years' preparatory course In 1908
the Indiana Medical College, located at Indian-
apolis, was united with it under the title of the
former. Under the administration of President
David Starr Jordan, who entered office in 1885,
the university advanced to the rank of the lead-
ing institutions. In 1889 the school of law,
which had been discontinued, was revived with
a three-year course. In 1895 and 1903 the
revenue from the state was increased, the uni-
versity receiving four elevenths of a tax of two
and three fourths cents on every one hundred
dollars of taxable property. In 1908 the School
of Education was established. The government
of the university is in the hands of a board of
trustees elected partly by the State Board of
Education and partly by the body of alumni
since 1891. The departments of the university
are the college of liberal arts, school of educa-
tion, graduate school, school of law, and school
of medicine. The admission requirements are
sixteen units Candidates are admitted by
certificate from commissioned high schools (see
HIGH SCHOOLS, ACCREDITING OF) or by examina-
tion The college gives the following courses
leading to the A.B. degree — classical, com-
mercial, chemical, engineering, arts-law, arts-
medicine, journalism, pedagogy. A summer
session is also maintained The enrollment in
1909-1910 was 2564, distributed as follows
college, 1828; graduate school, 137, school of
law, 143; school of medicine, 248, school of
education, 236. The faculty at Bloomington
consists of seventy professors and more than a
hundred junior officers of instruction.

References : —

BLACKMAN, F. W. Indiana University, in U. S. Bureau
of Educ. Circs of Inf. No. 9, pp. 220-231. (Wash-
ington, 1890.)

414

HARDING, 8. B. Indiana University, 1820-1904.

(Bloomington, 1904 )
WOODBUBN, J. A. Higher Education in Indiana.

(Washington, 1891 )
WYLIE, T A Indiana University (Indianapolis,

1890.)

INDIANS, AMERICAN, NATIVE TRAIN-
ING.— (The general discussion of the edu-
cation of primitive peoples is given under
that title. The present article is limited t')
the discussion of the concrete practices of
selected American tribes by one who was edu-
cated under the conditions he here describes )
It is generally assumed that the American
Indian had no definite standards of his own,
by which to measure life and initiate the young
into the tasks and philosophy of the race
This is not true. His ideals were surprisingly
high, and he found it impossible to accept the
material gains of a " superior race " without
spiritual loss For them he has sacrificed
against his will the simplicity and the generos-
ity of his manhood

Nature gave to our mothers strength of
body, and that sure intuition which led them to
absorb and to transmit to the unborn all that
is most vital and profound in the breathing
universe Silence and solitude in the sur-
roundings of the young wife — the expectant
mother, a hush that was only broken by the
sighing of the pine wood or the thrilling or-
chestra of the distant waterfall — these wore
the foundation of our spiritual training Again
in solitude and silence we learned to rise to
that which is beyond ourselves — the mysteri-
ous and holy1 In due time the child is born,
and becomes at once the center of the family
To this rude cradle the whole clan pays its
respects, as the latest comer from the Mysteri-
ous, the Great Giver of all life. The mother
will never allow any other duty or pleasure to
interfere with her duty to her child From
the moment that its wondering eyes opened
upon her in the wilderness, she has accepted a
sacred trust She straps the cradle to her
back while busy with her household duties, or
suspends it from the bough of a tree, where she
can still see and talk to the little one, ever
pointing him to nature, and beyond to nature's
God He is taught from infancy that he is
brother to the animal people, — the innocent,
dumb creation, — and that the trees and the rocks
are the embodiments of a mysterious Power,
and therefore worthy of reverence Above all
things he must seek spiritual guidance fasting
and in solitude ; he must honor and respect his
elders, and learn to hold his peace. Words are
weak, but silence is perfect equipoise, the evi-
dence of a perfect self-control, and it is silence
the Indian cultivates. He is admonished to
be truthful and chaste, to love his country
more than life, and never to violate the trust
of a friend There was much of the stoic in our
philosophy, and of the ascetic in our ideals.
The boy is early forbidden to say or think:

INDIANS

INDIANS

"This is mine1 " He is taught that the love
of possessions is a weakness to be despised, and
that one should desire to have only in order to
give This law forever wiped out from the
Indian mind all commercialism and every
possibility of material progress under tribal con-
ditions Trained to divide his last mouthful,
he could not easily compete with his brother in
a brutal and selfish struggle for existence

In order to be a perfect man, one must have
a perfect, symmetrical, and efficient body.
This demands absolute self-control in eating
and in all the pleasures of sense The Indian
exercised constant self-denial, and accustomed
himself to continual and severe exercise from
the age of six to sixty His courage was early
developed so that he should fear neither pain
nor death. Living the natural life, he had no
false modesty; he was naked and not ashamed;
his courtesy was from the heart

When the boy is seven or eight years old, Ins
father begins in earnest his training for man-
hood He is occasionally called upon to fast
for a day, and the father usually fasts with him
for the sake of example and sympathy They
both blacken their faces for a sign, and the
boy's comrades make the ordeal more difficult
bv secretly tempting him to break his fast
His nerves are tested and strengthened bv
awakening from sleep with a sudden war-
whoop, or by sending him for water after dark
in a strange country. Perhaps the father
compels him to dodge around a tree trunk,
while he sends arrows whizzing about his ears'
His faculty for observation and reasoning is
developed not alone by constant roving, but by
close questioning as well Each night he must
be prepared to stand an examination on the
things seen and learned in the woods that day
The language of footprints includes the dis-
tinction between the moccasin of different tribes,
the age of the trail, and the probable intention
of the traveler In the case of an animal, one
should tell the sex, the number of hours since
he passed, and something in regard to the cir-
cumstances, as whether he was hunting or
hunted. It was a common thing among us to
be able to distinguish the footprints of members
of one's own family, as well as to know that of
any member of the clan from an outsider's
The position of the sun and stars and the ordi-
nary weather signs and appearances must be
mastered for a guide to time, direction, and
locality It is almost unheard of for an Indian
to lose his way. He is carefully trained from
an early age to be independent in the woods,
so that he can take care of himself in an emer-
gency If he is belated and overtaken by
darkness, he must know how to settle himself
for the night without anxiety He must be
able to take fish and birds without a weapon,
know where to look for edible roots, berries,
and mushrooms, and how to start fire with
pieces of punk or flint and knife. He is
taught to make arrows for himself under the

direction of his grandfather, who is usually
his very good comrade, and later the bow,
with which he assiduouslv practices the off-
harid shot He must also learn to throw stories
accurately. The art of finding and outwitting
the game is a more complicated one, in which
he is systematically trained by his father,
grandfather, and maje kinsfolk In physical
training much stress was laid upon endurance,
and the disproportionate muscular develop-
ment of the white athletes was not desired
Swiftness and agility were essentials The
young warrior of our people might have posed
as a model for the Apollo, and his sun-browned
skin was as smooth and fine as satin The
jet-black hair received painstaking care, and
among the Plains Indians sometimes attained
extraordinary length

He never knew when or under what conditions
he might be tried, hence he must be a " minute-
man " both in war and hunting He was a
public servant — one who would be forever
disgraced if he failed to respond when called
upon for difficult or dangerous service, in sum-
mer or winter, by day or night He must be
always ready, able to run without food or
water, if necessary, and to sleep on frozen or
wet ground, for such was his Spartan training.
At the same time he had much personal liberty
as a boy, and was rarely punished or severely
scolded We Indians, even in childhood, had
a peculiarly sensitive dignity and intense self-
respect, which was cultivated by our elders
by every means within their power The
well-born child was distinguished and marked
out for an honorable future bv a series of
festivals given by the parents to celebrate and
announce every stage of childish progress,
such as the first step, the first shot with bow
and arrow, or the ear-piercing, which was a
sort of christening ceremony This gave him,
while still very young, a sense of standing and
responsibility as a recognized member of the
clan

His mental discipline consisted largely in
memorizing the legends of his people and the
brave deeds of their heroes, whether traditional
or authentic, all of which he was expected to
have at his tongue's end In this tubal lore
the wise and old men were the accredited
teachers The young man generally said very
little, willing to remain an apprentice until he
should be admitted to the war feast or the
council, which he well knew must depend
entirely upon his own courage and success
He had played with his sisters and girl cousins
until he was twelve years old, but if he were
seen with the girls after that age, the other
boys would threaten to put a dress on him I
It was now time to devote himself wholly to
manly occupations, and he might even go upon
the warpath as early as fourteen or fifteen.
The first hambeday (religious fast or vision),
came at about the same time, and was a period
of solitary communion with the Great Mystery.

415

INDIANS

INDIANS

With the ancestral philosophy as a foundation,
the Indian's out-of-door life made him a strong
reasoner and an independent thinker. He
was as ambitious to be a successful hunter as
a warrior, since the good hunter is also a feast-
maker and the social center of the tribe
Many of our most noted characters were of
this type, men of peace, whose generosity and
good will gamed for them not only the favor
of their own band, but intertribal distinction.

On the other hand, his sister was put through
a course of training equally rigid in its way,
according to our ideas of the womanly character
and vocation We Indians held firmly to the
belief that purity and modesty are the founda-
tions of womanly strength and of the sacred-
ness of home All her energies were subdued
to this end Free and sportive when with her
girl companions, in the presence of man she
became instantly mute, averting her face
from him with child-like, yet maidenly, timidity
and reserve The use of the eyes was strictly
inculcated by the careful mother, and the
" straight eye," that guarded, yet straight-
forward look, was deemed an index to the purity
of the maiden There was, in the old days,
no social gallantry or meeting of the young
men and maidens, save in one or two formal
dances Kven in these they did not take
partners, the boys dancing on one side of the
ring, and the girls opposite It was a sort of
Quaker gathering. The young girl must not
joke or talk freely even with her own brothers,
or with any man except her two grandfathers
When one came to ask her hand, she was not
expected to reply at once, but to keep him on
probation until satisfied that he was sincere
and worthy an answer. She had sometimes a
little teepee of her own within the parental
lodge, and went nowhere without the protection
of her grandmother, who was considered to be
her natural guardian and supported the part
with much dignity Every year, from the age
of twelve or fourteen, she joined in the virgins'
feast, where all take their oath upon the
" sacred stone " to their purity and innocence,
vowing to remain chaste until their marriage
The whole tribe attended this feast as specta-
tors, and if any girl was discovered or suspected
to be untrue to her vow, she might be publicly
disgraced

From early ehildhood the " little woman, " as
she is called, worked side by side with mother
and grandmother, helping or imitating her in
beaver-like industry. Tanning and dressing
skins, drying meat, making arid pitching the
skin teepees, fetching wood and water, cook-
ing — these were her hardest tasks, to which
she added the making and mending of the
family clothing and moccasins, the gathering and
drying of fruit, wild rice, and roots for winter
use All these the little girl " made believe "
in her earliest play, and learned to achieve
gradually, as strength and skill permitted. She
usually became an adept in needlework, whose

416

pride it was to see that her brothers "and male
kinsfolk were becomingly attired; nor were the
poor and old people of the clan forgotten.
While hunting, fishing, and war weapons were
made by the men and boys, the women made
everything else, including more or less fine
pottery in many tribes, the weaving of rush
mats and blankets of wool, basket-making of
vegetable fiber, and canoe-making All of
these are decorated in symbolical designs,
conventionalized from natural objects, such as
hills, a serpent, lightning, leaves, and floweis,
while the marvelous combinations of color are
likewise adapted from nature with much of
native artistry The Indian girl, as well as her
brother, was taught to repeat sacred stories
and legends of old, especially those which have
a feminine character Even her lullabies
spoke of the doe, the mink, and the ermine
(to which woman is often compared in the
language of compliment), or of the fairy sisters
who lure the lone hunter to follow their musical
laughter into the depths of the forest Her
dress was that of a miniature woman, a long,
straight robe reaching nearly to the ankles,
with wide flowing sleeves; and her home-made
dolls were attired after the same unvarying
fashion Her long, black locks were dressed
with perfumed oil, smoothly plaited and some-
times adorned with beads or shells to match
her necklace, but the woman might riot weai
eagle feathers, unless rarely in a sacred dance
She must learn by practicing when alone how
to laugh musically and gracefully, must sit
side wise in modest feminine fashion — never
cross-legged like a man, and etiquette even
prescribed a distinctive speech, many words
being used only by women or having a feminine
termination. The Indian girl could run, swim,
and ride almost as well as her brother, and as
she had much labor to perform, the woman was
often quite as muscular as the man, and of
heavier build She was apt at woodcraft, and
a close observer of bird and animal life, par-
ticularly of their home-making. She knew the
plants and flowers better than he, since it fell
to her to gather arid preserve them for food
or medicine.

Such was the practice and such the precepts
by which we were prepared to bear an honor-
able part in the life of our people.

Present System of Education. — It is said
that one of the early councils with the natives
of Virginia was concluded by an offer on the
part of the colonists to educate several of the
children of the forest with their own sons. The
Indians retired to deliberate upon the matter,
after which they replied as follows " We
thank you for your generous offer. We have
decided that the education of your schools will
not benefit our children in the life that is ours,
but we desire to convince you of our friendship
for the white man. If you will entrust us with
three or four of your most promising young
men, we will charge ourselves with their edu-

Sheldon Jackson Industrial School at Sitka, Alaska Graduating Class (1!)(H)), Carlisle Indian School.

Farming at the Call isle Indian School.

Gardening at the Carlisle Indian School

A Training School for Girls, Tucson, Arizona

A School Band

INDIAN EDUCATION.

INDIANS

INDIANS

cation, and we will make men of them." The
story illustrates, as well as may be, the com-
placent attitude of the conquering Anglo-Saxon,
who has been satisfied from the beginning that
his kind of education was not only best for
himself but for his red brother as well, and
that he was doing him the greatest favor within
his power by forcing upon him the customs,
philosophy, and religion of an alien race. On
the other hand, it shows us the unlettered sage,
firm in his original belief that his own ways
were best for himself He was not anxious to
impose them upon others, but made his counter-
proposal as the most courteous, and at the same
time the most logical method of conveying his
answer The first American had not the least
desire to copy or emulate his unbidden guest,
whose vices and weaknesses provoked in him
at least as much contempt as his brilliant
achievements aroused wonder and admiration.
This position he maintained with dignity m
every instance until convinced that he was
beaten, that he was no longer to be allowed to
live his own life, and must learn the language,
manners, and religion of his conquerors or
bo trampled under their feet When this point
was reached by an individual or a tribe, arid
not until then, he has voluntarily placed his
children in school and set himself with deter-
mination to " walk the white man's road "

The evidences of his success in this difficult
undertaking are so many and so varied, cover-
ing, as they do, a period of over three hundred
years, that it is curious how long the popular
fallacy has persisted that " the Indian cannot
be civilized " The only excuse for such a view
is to be found in the simple fact that the Indian
did not in the main, or until he was pushed to
the wall, desire to be ' 'civilized," and in the
further fact that until a very recent period no
systematic or comprehensive efforts were made
m that direction Sporadic and individual
efforts there have always been since the date of
the very earliest settlements in America, which
efforts have, from the beginning, met with
enough success to prove — if proof were needed
— that the natives of America are as capable
of taking on an alien culture as were the wild
Celts of adopting the manners and language of
the conquering Saxons. Man is, after all, a
progressive animal

The earliest education of the natives of thin
country by its invaders may be said to have
been the undesigned and inevitable alteration
wrought by contact Even without any con-
scious wish or intention on either side, a primi-
tive people could not live in close touch with
one more advanced, and not suffer a profound
change. The Indian passed at once into the
iron age. In every case, the first fruits of
civilization were knives, firearms, and whisky
These tended toward destructive mtcrnicene
wars, as they inflamed and brutalized his
simplicity; and the next wave brought with it
other dangerous and corrupting elements which

he was as little formed to resist. Venereal
disease and small-pox, scrofula and tuber-
culosis undermined his native vigor and
decimated the tribes, or in some instances
exterminated them altogether The white
man literally possessed nothing which the
Indian wanted or needed, while practically all
the possessions of the lords of the soil were
coveted by the invader He could not exist
without them, and m order to secure them he
created artificial desires which he could satisfy,
but at frightful cost to his victim. Trade was
at the first a mere farce, since the red man had
no conception of material values, no taint of
commercialism. He was generous and hos-
pitable, willing to give of his abundance without
return, and to accept pretty trifles with grati-
tude Told that a string of blue beads
were made from a piece of the sky, the credulous
chief was ready to exchange for them all that
he had! But after two or three generations of
schooling in the tricks of trade, he became al-
most as sly and avaricious as his teacher, and
in the same way he has come to be in man3r
instances a " grafter " in politics and a hypo-
crite in religion This process in its several
stages, differing in detail but alike in its general
features, has been in evidence m widely sepa-
rated portions of the continent during the past
three hundred years

Those enthusiastic propagandists and able
organizers, the Roman Catholic clergy, have
been leaders in the designed and deliberate
instruction of the natives, not only in religion,
but in art and industry Their courage and
good intentions are worthy of all praise, how-
ever one be inclined to demur as to the benefit
of imposing their system in its entirety upon
a naturally reverent and superstitious people
They have commonly succeeded in grafting
their ceremonials upon the " pagan " ritual,
and by a free use of holy water and the sign of
the cross have made more nominal converts
than all other religious bodies put together
It should also be admitted that they have much
that is tangible to show for their labors As
early as 1567 the agricultural education of the
Indians in Florida was attempted by the
Jesuits, and nearly two centuries later early
Franciscan missions in California and other
parts of the southwest achieved results mainly
practical and social Domestic animals and
the agricultural arts were permanently ac-
quired The discipline of the fathers was
rigid, and amounted to a benevolent servitude
In 1834 the missions were secularized by the
Mexican government against the protests of
the order, and their extensive property divided
among the Indians, who soon lost or were
deprived of it Early French missions included
those among the Abenaki in Maine, the Hurons
in Ontario, Michigan, and Ohio, the Iroquois
in New York, the Ottawa in Wisconsin and
Michigan, the Illinois in the Middle West, and
the tribes of Louisiana Bishop Laval founded

VOL in- —

417

INDIANS

INDIANS

a school at Quebec for French and Indian
youth. Other pioneer missionary work, ex-
tending into the nineteenth century, was con-
ducted in the Missouri River region by Father
Ravoux, Father De Smet, and other less noted
explorer-priests, among Flatheacls, Chippewas,
and Sioux

One of the avowed objects of colonizing
Virginia, as stated in the early charters, was
that of " bringing the infidels and savages to
human civility! " The council of Jamestown
in 1619 voted to educate Indian children in
" religion, a civil course of life, and in some
useful trade " A few were taken to England
to be educated In 1663 the colonists de-
manded children as hostages for the good be-
havior of the Potomucks, which hostages were
to be " civilly treated and brought up in Eng-
lish literature " At about this time King
James issued a letter authorizing collections to
be taken m the cathedrals for " the education
of the children of these Barbarians," and
about fifteen thousand pounds was received
In 1621 the Company had allotted one thou-
sand acres of land and received subscriptions
to endow an Indian school, wherein the " most
towardly Indian children " should be fitted
for college But an end was put to these early
projects by a sudden uprising of the incensed
natives to rid the land of the troublesome
invaders; and although the larger part of the
colonists owed their lives to the warnings of
Christian Indians, no further efforts were made
until the founding of William and Mary
College in 1693. The charter of this institu-
tion declares one of its main objects to be
" the propagation of the Christian faith
amongst Western Indians " There was, ap-
parently, some difficulty in obtaining pupils,
one explanation of which is given by Governor
Spotiswood, who writes to England " They
(the Indians) urged the breach of a former
compact, when, instead of their children
receiving the promised education, they were
transported, as they say, to other countries
and sold as slaves "

In Massachusetts the famous "Apostle to
the Indians," John Eliot, who translated the
Bible into the vernacular, labored with them
in things secular as well as spiritual He
founded the Christian Indian town of Natick,
laid out, built, and planted by Indian labor,
and it was not his fault that the " Praying
Indians " of Natick, who are said to have
been thrifty and industrious as well as diligent
church-goers, suffered cruelly from race prej-
udice during King Philip's War Daniel
Gookin was appointed Superintendent of In-
dians in the Massachusetts colony in 1656,
and held the office until his death thirty
years later His duties included the conduct
of schools among them, as well as the pres-
ervation of good order and discipline These
schools, however, were much hampered by lack
of means and of suitable teachers, two diffi-

culties which have largely persisted to this
day. It was a part of the New England
plan, as in Virginia, to give to selected youth
a college education, to fit them for the Chris-
tian ministry, and to instruct their wilder
brethren. The charter of Harvard College
contains a provision for the education of
Indians, and not a few availed themselves of it
But the sudden change to a sedentary and
indoor life caused many to faM sick and die.
One youth who was about to be graduated,
" a good student and pious man," says Gookin,
was shipwrecked and drowned off Nantucket,
and another who had taken his degree died
soon after " of a consumption." A third
student at twenty years of age is said to have
been " an extraordinary Latin poet and a
good Greek one "

At about the middle of the eighteenth con-
tury, an industrial boarding-school was estab-
lished at Stockbndge, Mass , and the missionary
at that place wrote of them: " There are many
Indian youth that read English well " Several
of these completed their studies afterward at
Dartmouth College, which was founded in
1755 as " Moor's Indian Charity School "
The school originated with the Reverend
Eleazar Wheelock of Lebanon, Conn., who
took into his own family a Mohegari by the
name of Samson Occum. The youth proved
an apt pupil, and became a Christian preacher
of much force and distinction He was sent
to England to raise funds for the school, after
it had been incorporated as a college and
removed to New Hampshire, and was highly
successful in this, being a most interesting
speaker He also wrote a number of striking
hymns, one of which is sung in the churches
to this day At Dartmouth, Indian and white
youths were educated together, many of the
latter being trained for missionary work among
Indians The gifted and friendly chief of the
Six Nations, Joseph Brant, who was brother-m-
law to Sir William Johnson, was one of its early
scholars, and afterward sent two of his sons there

The Moravian missions in Pennsylvania were
very successful, and the story of the sad exile of
^he converts from their prosperous villages and
the brutal massacre of ninety innocent and un-
resisting Christian Indians in 1781 is one of the
blackest chapters in history

There were Russian and English schools for
the natives established m Alaska in the latter
part of the eighteenth century. In the Canadian
colonies much pioneer work was done by Roman
Catholic missions, but it was not until 1867 that
the provincial government took up the work
systematically. In 1904 there were in Canada
24 industrial, 46 boarding, and 228 day schools in
operation The natives of the Dominion are for
the most part law-abiding, prosperous, and con-
tented, having proved neither a menace nor a
burden to the commonwealth.

The first appropriation by the United States
government for Indian education was the sum of

418

INDIANS

INDIANS

five hundred dollars voted to Dartmouth College
in 1775. Cornplanter, speaking for the Senecas,
appealed to General Washington in 1776 for a
teacher, " to teach our children to read and write
and our women to spin and weave," and agreed
to send nine Seneca boys " to be under your care,
and learn to become wise and good men " The
first general appropriation of $10,000 was made
in 1819, and until 1870 all government aid for
this purpose passed through the hands of mis-
sionaries of various denom nations Afterward,
for nearly thirty years, government schools and
church schools aided by government funds ex-
isted side by side, until in 1900 these " contract
schools " were abolished, the religious societies
assumed the care and support of their own
schools, and the annual Congressional appropria-
tion is applied under the law entirely to schools
conducted by the government. The original
$10,000 had gradually increased by 1870 to over
$100,000, but it should be remembered that this
appropriation, which has now grown to several
millions annually, is in large part the Indians'
own money, being interest on trust funds or
made in fulfillment of treaty stipulations, " for
value received " It is not disbursed as charitv,
but as partial payment on an enormous debt
By this time, also, there were constant appeals
and demands from the Indians for the establish-
ment of new schools, and the further develop-
ment of those already in existence

In 1878 seventeen prisoners of war from St
Augustine, Fla., were admitted to Hampton
Institute, Va (q v ), at their own earnest
desire and the generosity of its large-hearted
founder, General Armstrong (qv), who soon
sent to Dakota Territory for fifty wild Sioux,
and added an Indian Department Tins
experiment was followed the next year by the
establishment of a school of similar character,
for Indians only, in the abandoned military
barracks near Carlisle, Pa , by General II
H Pratt, who built up at that place the largest,
most famous, and in many ways the most suc-
cessful Indian school in the country About
one thousand pupils at Carlisle and one
hundred at Hampton are given a grammar-
school education, with a little normal or busi-
ness training, one half of their time being
devoted to agriculture, domestic work, or one
of the mechanical trades, taught both for its
educational and practical value. Through the
" Outing System," originated by General
Pratt and since extended to some western schools
and reservations, boys and girls are placed in
selected farmers' families to work for their
board and attend the public school, or during
the summer to work for wages, thus learning
effectively by association and example.

The eastern or " non-reservation schools,"
now twenty-six in number and scattered widely
over the country, have probably accomplished
as much in the way of educating public senti-
ment and furnishing inspiration and example
as in more direct results. Carlisle's brilliant

record in athletics, its football team having mot
and defeated the teams of some of our leading
universities, has done much to attract popular
attention to the " educated Indian " The
excellent bands of some of the larger schools
are likewise a widely popular feature. The
great majority of their students, even though
not graduates, become self-supporting and
self-respecting citizens, cultivating their allot-
ments, making decent homes, or filling re-
sponsible positions in the Indian Service, while
an ever-increasing minority compete success-
fully in the various trades and professions in
white communities Of those who fail it should
be said that much more is expected of them than
is at all reasonable, in view of their meager
training, often covering only three to five years,
their frequent lack of physical vigor, and the
general stagnation of their home surroundings

Reservation boarding and day schools were
first established by the government in 1878
The courses in these are elementary, and in
all of the boarding schools the industrial
feature has been made prominent, but has
only gradually been introduced into the day
schools The evils of appointments made
under the political " spoils system" have
greatly handicapped the service, these evilh
having been reduced, but not entirely elim-
inated, by placing most positions under civil
service rules It is chiefly because of a higher
personnel and greater continuity in the service
that a comparison between mission and govern-
ment schools has been generally, though not
always, to the disadvantage of the latter
Some of the smaller schools, especially clay
schools, hampered by poor equipment, ineffi-
cient teachers, and a discouraging environment,
were by many thought to be almost useless
During the last few years, however, there has
been some change in local conditions and a
decided change in the official attitude in this
regard, and a recent Commissioner of Indian
Affairs has recommended the gradual abolition of
the non-reservation schools and the development
of the simpler and less expensive day-school
system, as better adapted to the present needs
of the people The last report of Indian schools
gives 343 schools, including mission, with a
total enrollment of nearly forty thousand pupils,
and involving an annual expenditure of five
million dollars. These figures do not include
the New York Indians, who are under state
control. Eleven thousand Indian children are
admitted into the district schools

A Superintendent of Indian Schools was
appointed in 1882, and a force of traveling
supervisors some years later The first super-
visor in the field, in 1890, was a woman, and
the most practical and successful Superin-
tendent, holding the office for some ten years,
was also a woman, Miss Estelle Reel of
Wyoming Each year there are graduates
who pass on into higher institutions, such as
art, normal, or nurse's training schools, acad-

419

INDICULUS UNIVERSALIS

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES

emies and colleges, so that we have now a
considerable number of native teachers and
preachers, and some lawyers, dentists, and
physicians A few have succeeded as authors,
artists, and lecturers, and we have representa-
tives of our blood in both houses of the national
legislature The results of a generation or two
of systematic work are immeasurable, and the
best evidence of the Indian's capacity and
progressiveness is the list of those who have
won recognition and a livelihood in the most
exacting and most arduous pursuits of modern
life C A. E.

References : —

BARNARD, H Anuncan Journal of Education, Vol.
IV, p 66,5, XXIV, p 384, XXVII, pp 17-57

FLETC'HfcR, A (' Report on Indian Education and Civi-
lization (Washington, 1888)

HAILMAN, W N Education, of tht Indians In Butler,
NM Education in the United States, No I4) (New
York, 1910 )

Handbook of American Indians Smithsonian Insti-
tution (Washington, 1907.)

Reports of the Commissioner of Indian Affairs 1870-
1900 (Washington )

INDICULUS UNIVERSALIS — A nomeri-
4ator or dictionary of the names of things,
compiled by the Jesuit, Francis Pomcy,
similar in its mclusiveness to the Janun Lw-
guarurn of Comemus, excepting that usually
there is not the same amount of descriptive
matter that there is in Comemus, i c Forney's
book remains strictly a nomericlator Po-
mey (1619-1673) became a Jesuit in 1636, and
was a teacher in various schools and chiefly at
Lyons He wrote many books, particularly
a large French and Latin dictionary, arid a
small one (Flos Lahnitatitt) t a Pfintheutn
mythicum (1659), a rhetoric, arid Colloquia xcho-
Instica (1668) The Indiculus Univetwhs (in
French and Latin) was published at Lyons in
1667 It went through many editions, and has
been issued in several languages, c g Italian,
Spanish, German, Dutch, and English (See
Backer, Bibliothkque de la Compagnie de
Jtsus (1895), Vol VI, p. 989) An English
edition by A Lovell, M A , appeared in 1679

F. W

INDIFFERENCE. — See ATTENTION; IN-
TEREST; SCHOOL MANAGEMENT

INDIFFERENCE POINT — There are cer-
tain experiences which arc neutral with refer-
ence to their feeling tone, giving neither pleasure
nor displeasure. These are said to be at the
indifference zone or point. A simple illustra-
tion of this fact can be given by observing the
transition which takes place in feeling tone
when one passes from warm temperature sen-
sations to cold. Between warmth and cold
there is a central point at which no pleasure or
its opposite is experienced C. H. J.

Reference : —

\VUNDT, W Outlines of Psychology (Leipzig, 1895 )

INDIRECT METHOD. — See DIRECT
METHOD.

INDIRECT VISION — The field of vision
is large, and includes not only those objects
which are in the center of clear vision, but also
objects which lie around these objects which
are most clearly seen The importance of the
field of indirect vision for the individual is
that he receives from this indirect field warn-
ing of objects that are moving toward the
center of the field However, because of the
obscure character of the objects in the indirect
field, the individual is not burdened by atten-
tion to these indirect objects He can con-
centrate attention and experience upon the
small number of objects at the center of clearest
vision The structure of the retina is different
in the outlying regions It is more sensitive
in these outer regions to differences of light and
shadow, and consequently reports all differ-
ences in movement of objects; while at the
center of vision it is more sensitive to color
differences C. H. J.

See EYE

INDIVIDUAL. — See SELF; PERSONALITY

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES —• Every in-
dividual has characteristics which differentiate
him from every other member of his race The
biologists have long recognized the importance
of individual differences They commonly use
the term " variation " to indicate these de-
partures of individuals from the racial type.
When the variations are marked, the term "mu-
tation " is sometimes used to designate the
distinguishing characteristic The two biologi-
cal terms " variation " and " mutation " are
sometimes employed in describing human char-
acteristics The term " individual differ-
ences " is used more commonly to call attention
to the fact that along lines which the biologist
would neglect there are characteristic differ-
ences that are of importance to the educator
and to the student of sociology and psychology.
Thus the appearance of a very tall or a very
short individual would be of importance to the
student of physiology and biology, but it would
be of relatively small importance to the stu-
dent of psychology. The appearance of a black-
haired family in a light-haired stock would be
another important event for the consideration
of the biologist, but these physical characteris-
tics are of no great importance to the educator.
On the other hand, when an individual appears
who is notably deficient or notably strong in his
ability to work out number combinations, or to
develop skill in one of the arts, we have a
type of variation which is of great significance
t > the educator. These differences may be
described as mental variations or mutations.
Indeed, it may be said that in mental life we
have a sphere of most plastic adaptation and
readjustment. The nervous system has been

420

INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY

INDIVIDUALITY

described as the organ of variation, and con-
sciousness has been described as the sphere of
readjustment. When animal forms reach the
stage of complexity in which structural read-
justment is difficult or well-nigh impossible, the
readjustment in function which appears through
the use of powers in a great variety of ways takes
the place in a measure of the earlier variations
in structure which are of prime importance in
biology and physiology

An important question for the student of
education is the extent to which individual
variations may be affected through educational
agencies. The students of heredity have
made it clear in recent investigations that thorp
are marked individual differences in ability at
the beginning of individual life. Tho question
now arises whether the individual differences
which arise from hereditary endowments mav
be emphasized or overcome through educa-
tional practice. There are two schools of
thinkers, one of which emphasizes the funda-
mental hereditary endowments and lays very
little stress upon the modifications which can
be produced through education Tho popular
mind, on the other hand, is impressed with the
possibilities of modifying the hereditary endow-
ments through educational activities

The answer to this question has yet to bo
worked out with the aid of such methods as arc
described under the topic TESTS (q.v ) See also
ABILITY; EVOLUTION; HEREDITY. C H J

References —
G ALTON, F Inquiry into Human Faculty (London,

1883)
THORNDIKB E L Educational Psychology (Now

York, 1910 )
WHIPPLE, G M Manual of Mental and Physical

Tests (Baltimore, 1910 )

INDIVIDUAL PSYCHOLOGY — That
branch of psychology which deals with the
characteristics that distinguish one individual
from another Much attention has been given
to differences in individual imagery. (See EYE

AND EAR MlNDEDNESS AND MEMORY ) There

are undoubtedly differences in individual in-
heritance (See HEREDITY ) The importance of
these individual differences is great in educa-
tional practice, as indicated in the adoption of
the elective system (q.v ) as distinguished
from the required course The whole problem
of grading (q v ) is related to this matter of
individual differences.

See ABILITY, GENERAL AND SPECIAL; ADO-
LESCENCE; CHILD STUDY; PSYCHOLOGY; also
GRADING AND PROMOTION

INDIVIDUAL READING. — In the teach-
ing of reading in the elementary schools, the
traditional practice in assigning lessons is to
require the same work of all members of the
class. More recent practice separates the
class into several groups to each of which a
different assignment is made. This is done to
give the child an increased interest in preparing

his work at home and reading it aloud to his
fellow pupils at school Under this method
the child knows that most of the class will be
hearing unfamiliar material, the meaning of
which he must make clear to them Such a
method likewise increases the attention of the
class, doing away with the listlessness which
characterizes children who are compelled to
listen to a selection which they themselves have
prepared and with which they are thoroughly
familiar H. 8.

See READING, TEACHING OF.

INDIVIDUAL TEACHING. — Any device
by which the school program or other organiza-
tion of classroom instruction allows of increased
attention to the special needs of individuals is
termed a method of individual teaching.
Where the individual adaptation is attained
through the teaching of small groups, it is
more properly called " group " instruction.
Hence the term " individual " teaching more
stnctlv applies to that instruction which
attempts to meet the needs of a single child
at a time Such particular care by the teacher
may extend from that momentary attention to
a pupil which is incidental in class instruction
to the use of a supplementary teacher whose
chief function is to teach children who require
prolonged personal attention H. S.

Sec (Jiioup INSTRUCTION, SCHOOL MANAGE-
MENT

INDIVIDUALITY — The idea and fact of
individuality are among the most familial and
best known things m experience Thev are also
among the most difficult to describe and define
Individuality is such a fundamental matter
that it can hardly be defined without presup-
posing itself or giving a purclv verbal equivalent,
such as the unique, the distinctive to the point
of the irreplaceable An indication of its
meaning is given by its logical usage, where it
always implies contrast with a kind, sort, or
class This implied contrast also gives an indi-
cation of the place where the conception oi
individuality is important for educational
philosophy. School administration and in-
struction require a certain uniformity oi rule
and method, these in turn presuppose4 same-
ness of character in those dealt with In
so far individuals are regarded as niembeis,
specimens of a class, distinguished from one
another by purely external and physical
traits Since, as a matter of fact, there are in-
trinsic mental arid moral differences, the purely
uniform, or class, standpoint leaves out of con-
sideration conditions that cannot safely be
ignored The idea of individuality serves as a
reminder of these outstanding conditions It
calls attention to those traits which are unique,
non-repeatable, which are differential, and
which accordingly require special treatment,
particular readaptation of general or class
methods and standards.

421

INDO-CHINA

INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION

History shows a continual, even if irregular,
movement toward individuation, the recog-
nition of the increasing importance of indi-
vidually distinctive traits. In savage societies,
the individual is also lost in the group —
in the clan or tribe Not till a comparatively
recent point of historic development do we find
individuals possessing rights on their own
account in contradistinction from their status as
members of a family, guild, class, caste, etc.
Their ns:4 from submergence in a class is a
part of the growth of democracy as a social
principle From the scientific side, the appear-
ance of the doctrine of evolution has empha-
sized the importance of individual differences
and variations, as against the older notion of the
fixed species within which the individual was
placed and which exhausted his important or
essential nature

One of the most fundamental of all philo-
sophic cleavages centers in the question of the
method of valuing the facts of individuality.
Professor James has divided philosophies into
those which tend to assume the priority of the
whole and to derive the individuals from the
whole as its constituent parts or specimen
instances, and those which assume the priority
of the parts, the individuals, and make the
whole secondary, dependent upon the arrange-
ments reached among the individuals The
former philosophies approximate monism in
substance and rationalism in method, the latter
are pluralistic and empirical The prominence
of the concept of the organic in nineteenth-
century idealism is owing to the fact that it
seemed to yield a conception for reconciling the
otherwise opposed ideas of individual and uni-
versal, whole and part. It may be ques-
tioned, however, whether the notion of the
organic is a solution or only a peculiarly vivid
presentation of the terms of the problem.
The proper method of dealing with the question
is probably suggested by the connection that
exists between the common, generic, or class-
universal and the facts of stability, order, con-
servation on one hand, and between individual-
ity and variability, freedom, progress on the
other In a static and finished world, indi-
viduality would have no meaning; while a
world lacking in universal characters, in
characters that make things capable of reduction
to classes, would not present any signs of law,
permanence^ and conservation. For the fur-
ther educational significance of the term, see
EDUCATION: and PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION.

J D.

INDO-CHINA — See FRENCH COLONIES,
EDUCATION IN.

INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION. — There
are two complementary movements of thinking
involved in directing inquiry to a well-grounded
conclusion When a perplexity occurs or a
problem presents itself, the first step is to

clarify the obscure situation This consists in
such analysis of the situation as indicates a
principle, law, or relation. Induction always
terminates in an idea or proposition which is
general because a statement of a relation, a
universal Deduction is the application of the
generic factor to the interpretation, explanation,
and organization of specific data The two
movements are complementary because induc-
tion terminates in the universal with which
deduction sets out, while the validity and scope
of the universal is determined by its appli-
cation, under test conditions, to new facts —
this application being deduction

In Aristotelian logic, syllogism and demon-
stration correspond to what is now called de-
duction. The term which was translated into
Latin as deductio designated simply the method
of reductio ad absurdum, or the indirect proof of
a proposition by showing that its contradictory
proposition involved a logical absurdity or
self-contradiction Induction was a method of
collecting instances or particular cases, and was
perfect when all cases agreed, and formed, there-
fore, a class as it was imperfect when a number
of cases (not all) agreed, so that the most that
could be said was that some S is P, or that
usually S is P Perfect induction was known
as induction by simple enumeration After the
rise of modern methods of induction, many
logicians denied that the method of enumeration
was a true case of reasoning, on the ground that
it merely summed up in u single statement what
was already known, instead of discovering any
new truth

In the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries
attacks upon syllogistic logic because of its
barrenness and verbal character were wide-
spread Interest centered in a logic that could
be employed to wrest nature's secrets from her,
while the syllogism was fitted, as Bacon said,
only for argumentation Agreed in their oppo-
sition to the old organon oi thought, tho new
logicians at once divided among themselves
Some, Descartes and his followers, sought the
new method in a new type of deduction, others,
the British empiricists, in a new form of induc-
tion According to the former school, we should
begin by making a tabula rasa of all traditional
beliefs, and seek for some concepts that are so
inherently clear and certain that their meaning
cannot be disputed nor their truth doubted
From these most general truths, by combination,
further truths were to be established, proceed-
ing by graded steps, so that at no time should
any new factor be introduced which was not
clearly defined and certain In this way, reason
was to proceed until reaching particular phe-
nomena or concrete events, in space and time.
These deduced phenomena would be approxi-
mated by actual sensible phenomena, and would
constitute the rationality or explanation of the
latter. Descartes even went so far as to offer a
system of (to him) self-evident first principles,
from which, given an original chaotic state of

422

INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION

INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION

nature, the whole existing order of the world
might be rationally deduced Stated in the
above fashion, the method appears as formal and
as fruitless as ever the syllogistic logic had been,
but, as matter of content, the whole scheme
was conceived in mathematical terms In effect
it was a plea for the application of mathematics
to nature. Toward the development of a
mathematical science of nature, Descartes
himself took the first step by his invention of
analytic geometry And for succeeding men of
science — however it may have been with
philosophers — deduction has meant mathe-
matical procedure, which, entering upon a bril-
liant career, became a chief tool of scientific
exploration and formulation.

Francis Bacon is popularly reckoned the
father of modern induction — an attribution for
which Macaulay is probably largely responsible
As a matter of fact, while he made much of
induction, the method he proffered under that
name is a confused mixture of the older method
of cataloguing and the newer method of analv-
sis Sir Isaac Newton was both the practi-
tioner and the forrnulator of induction proper,
Locke's influence on the philosophic side
blending with Newton's According to New-
ton, the beginning must always be made with
observations, these observations by analogy
suggest some force or principle, known on other
grounds to exist in nature, though not previously
known to be concerned in the phenomena in
question This principle is then to be treated
deductively, or mathematically, and thereby
phenomena predicted which have not been pre-
viously observed, but which must be found if the
theory is true Further observation must then
be resorted to to see whether the indicated phe-
nomena do exist If the actual phenomena
agreed precisely with the deduced phenomena,
the theory should be accepted until contrary
evidence is discovered So consistent was
Newton in his demand for precise corroboration
that when the observed astronomical data did
not exactly agree with the results he calculated
on the basis of his theory, he held the theory of
gravitation in suspense until new data enabled
him to revise his calculations For a time the
Newtonian and the Cartesian theories of the
constitution of the solar system were rivals, but
as the immense superiorities of Newton's
explanation became more and more evident,
the inductive-observational method was as
firmly established in the natural sciences of
facts, as the deductive in the mathematical

No important developments in the theory of
induction took place after Newton's time until
toward the middle of the nineteenth century,
when suggestions by Wheweil and Herschel were
taken up by John Stuart Mill, whose Principles
of Logic is almost as classic a statement of an
empirical inductive logic, as Aristotle's had
been of a syllogistic logic According to Mill,
we reason or infer, originally, from particular
to particular, from one case to another. This

is due to an inherent propensity to geneiahze,
or to assume that what happens in one ease will
also happen in other cases The sole scientific
warrant for this belief is the uniformity of na-
ture, which is itself an induction from a vast,
literally countless, number of particular observa-
tions, where not a single contiary or negating
instance is found. This widest of all inductions
is, then, the logical ground upon which all other
inductions rest

In the development of his system Mill alter-
nates between two different definitions and
treatments of induction, one conventional and
rather sterile, the other based on the actual
procedure of experimental science According
to the former, induction is the process of in-
ferring that what has been observed to happen
in a certain number of observed cases will al-
ways happen in cases resembling them Evi-
dently such a statement is vague It raises
the questions How great must the number of
observed cases be? What is it that really
happens in the original cases — no easy matter
to determine because of the complexity of
natural events Just what degree of resem-
blance must exist to warrant belief in the same
thing happening in other cases9 And how shall
we make sure that the required kind of similarity
exists7 In dealing with such questions, Mill
passed over to the idea that the crux of induc-
tion is found in the various methods that analyze
the observed cases and bring to light within
them some unvarying coexistence or sequence of
elements Induction is thus the method of find-
ing in the phenomena some relation which is
not directly observable

Mill never clearly apprehended, however, the
transformation which he himself effected in the
notion of induction According to his first
and official views, induction simply extends to
all cases what is found in some cases Accord-
ing to the later, his working, though not pro-
fessed, view, it consists m finding out what
really happens or exists in " some cases " The
emphasis has shifted from the mere quantita-
tive collection and mechanical comparison of
instances to the qualitative and experimental
analvsis of the one typical case, or to the few
carefully selected cases Empirical collection
of a great number of cases remains indeed of
great importance, but as an assistance and
safeguard in the selection and analysis of a typi-
cal case and in testing the resulting hypothesis,
not as furnishing the original premises of an
inductive inference

Educational methods have reflected and have
suffered from the divorce of the deductive and
inductive phases of reflective inquiry character-
istic of the history of logic The chief error upon
the side of the inductive movement is in sup-
posing that the mind begins with a lot of sepa-
rate, independent objects, such as this, that, and
the other river, and then proceeds by me-
chanical comparison to select the things they
statically have in common, and to reject the

423

INDUCTION AND DEDUCTION

INDUCTIVE GEOMETRY

qualities not found in (hem .-ill As n matter of
fact, induction consists in grasping wlwt is
mgmficant, what is intellectually important,
in any one rivei Comparison and contrast
with other rivers is of value, not in pointing out
external likenesses and differences, but in help-
ing to weigh the relative importance of quali-
ties, and to seize upon and to emphasize any
property that gives a clew to understanding
other features The trait of generalization
found in induction does not primarily have to
do with what is common to a number of cases,
but with the law or i elation which LS significant
in any case

Educationally this means, that it is impor-
tant to deal with a xuigle river basin as a typical
case, so as to get an idea of what is important
in it, rather than to deal superficially with a
large number of river systems Moreover, the
importance of any feature means its power to
explain other features Hence what should be
emphasized in inductive study is the cauxal, the
productive or dynamic factors. These can best
be brought out by a thorough study of a nver
system treated as a type, while compaimg a
large number of cases without caieiul analysis
of any one case brings into relief only static
properties, effects, not causes

It will be noted that when the inductive
method of instruction takes as its object the
discovery of causal or explanatory features, it is
organically connected with deduction, since the
motive of discovering these basic features is
to get a principle which may be applied to inter-
preting and organizing the other facts chaiac-
tenstic of rivers. This application is deductive
On the other hand, the mere selection of prop-
erties common to a number of objects throws no
light upon why they are common, nor does it
help explain the traits which, being dissimilai,
are eliminated. Hence induction is arbitrarily
separated from deduction

Other errors in the method of instruction due
to this mechanical division of induction and
deduction are the following (1) Teaching any
subject so that isolated facts are amassed, with-
out using them so that there is gained a view
of some inclusive situation in which the different
clews are connected arid hence significant
(2) Or, when the weakness of this method is per-
ceived, the teacher is content to leave the pupils
with only a vague notion of the whole to which
the details belong This vagueness can be
expelled (and the special facts made really sig-
nificant) only as the mind realizes how the par-
ticulars go together to make up the inclusive
whole.

It goes without saying that when induction is
isolated from deduction, the latter must also
be isolated and hence fail to exercise its proper
function Educational errors of method flow-
ing from this isolation are the following,
(1) Beginning with definitions, rules, principles,
laws It may sometimes be pedagogically ad-
visable to present a definition or law at the out-

set, especially with older students, but in all
cases it should be recognized that this is a
psychological device for directing attention to a
problem, not a statement of a true logical prin-
ciple Logically, the general principle or law
has no meaning until in the course of dealing
with some individual complex situation need
has arisen for explaining various particulars by
binding them together into a more coherent
system (2) Even when the explanatory prin-
ciple has been properly reached, there may be
failure in the proper use of deduction through not
securing its application to new cases It is at
this point, not at the outset, that the refer-
ence to a number of cases becomes most impor-
tant When, by a study of a type case, the
pupil has become possessed of its principle, or
generic nature, this principle must be ex-
panded, clinched, and tested by application to a
variety of other cases not previously studied.
So far as possible this application should
involve not only new observations, but also
a factor of experimentation (q v ) Mathemat-
ics, primarily a deductive study, suffers par-
ticularly in education from lack of application
of its general principles to concrete empirical
situation The application of a mathematical
conception simply to other mathematical cases,
however adequate in abstract theory, is, peda-
gogically, simply an elaboration of the prin-
ciple, not a deductive testing of its meaning

The prior discussion may be summed up by
saying that educational method has lagged be-
hind the development of scientific method It
has tended to remain at the plane of the earlier
scientific practices in which induction as deal-
ing with particulars, and deduction as dealing
with universals, were separated from each
other. Educational method should adapt it-
self to the change in scientific method, in ac-
cord with which reflective inquiry is concerned
with complex objects and situations, in which
induction serves to discover, by analysis, a re-
lation or principle, while deduction employs that
principle synthetically to reconnect paiticulars
into a more comprehensive situation or object

J. D

See ABSTRACTION; ANALYSIS AND SYNTHESIS ,
CONCEPTION; GENERALIZATION; HYPOTHESIS,
KNOWLEDGE; METHOD.

References —

OOLVIN, S S. The Learning Process (Now York,
1911 )

DEWEY, JOHN How Wf Think. (Boston, 1911 )
Studies in Logical Theory. (Chicago, 1903 )

LOTZE, H Logik (Leipzig, 1880)

MILL, J S Principles of Logic

MILLER, I E Psychology of Thinking. (Now York,
1910)

SIGWART, C VON Logic. Tr by H Dandy. (Lon-
don, 1895 )

VENN, J Principles oj Empirical or Inductive Logic.
(London, 1889 )

INDUCTIVE GEOMETRY. — See INTEN-
TIONAL GEOMETRY.

424

INDUSTRIAL ART

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL ART. — See MANUAL TRAIN-
ING; DESIGN, ART IN EDUCATION; ART IN THE
SCHOOLS, ART SCHOOLS.

INDUSTRIAL ART SCHOOLS. — A type
of schools uniting many of the features of art
schools and of industrial or technical schools
(For detailed discussion of principles underly-
ing the work of these schools, see articles on
ART SCHOOLS, ART IN SCHOOLS; DESIGN,
DRAWING; INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION ) Instruc-
tion in drawing and design forms the basis of the
work Specialized instruction is given along
one or more of the following lines ceramics,
designing for special industries, jewelry work,
costume designing, decoration, bookbinding,
illustration, metal work, etc These schools
form an important part of the educational
bvstem in many European countries, notably
in Austria, Germany, Switzerland, Great Brit-
ain, arid France In Great Britain such schools
have been fostered by the national govern-
ment, which, aroused by the International Ex-
position hold in London in 1851, realized that
the country must have well trained designers
and craftsmen if its commerce was to be main-
tained in competition with the artists of foreign
workshops In London, besides the largo cen-
tral industrial art schools, there are niimei-
ous local centers under the direction of the
County Council and many schools conducted
under private auspices

In the United States, industrial art schools
wore not developed until after the Philadelphia
Centennial Exposition of 1876, when several
were established within a few years The
School of Industrial Art of the Pennsylvania
Museum was an immediate outgrowth of the
Exposition, and to-day is the most important
school in the United States devoted entirely
to the industrial arts It is divided into two
separate branches — the School of Applied
Art, whoie the enrollment in 1911-1912 was
S'U, and the Textile School, with 250 students
The Rhode Island School of Design, at Provi-
dence, makes a specialty of jewelry and silver-
smithing, as these arc some of the chief indus-
tries of the locality. For the same reason the
School of Industrial Arts at Trenton concen-
trates on china and pottery, the principal local
industry

The II Sophie Newcomb Memorial College
of Tularie University, New Orleans, was estab-
lished in 1887, and has been the pioneer in the
South A pottery was erected in 1901, and
Newcomb ware haw a recognized artistic and
commercial standing In Cincinnati the Ohio
Mechanics' Institute, although established as
early as 1828, did riot have a day department
until 1899 New buildings have recently
been erected, and the industrial museum is
being developed along art lines, the aim being
to make industrial art the special feature of
the Institute.

The public schools throughout the United

States aie developing courses in industrial arts
both in the elementary and secondary schools
in the belief that this will provide a means for
intelligent selection of a vocation arid aid in
creating an appreciative public. The demand
for competent teachers of the industrial arts,
particularly for secondary schools, is in excess
of the supply The most important of the
normal schools having industrial art courses
are Teachers College, Columbia University,
New York, Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, NY ,
and the Normal School of Manual Arts at
Santa Barbara, Cal

The following are the most important in-
dustrial art. schools in the United States
New York State C College of Ceramics, Alfred,
NY.; Maryland School of Art and Design,
Baltimore, Md , Ohio Mechanics Institute,
Cincinnati, Ohio, James Milhken University
(pottery and metal work), Decatur, 111 ;
Evening Drawing School (five years' course
for jewelers and silversmiths), Newark, N ,1 ,
Newcomb Memorial College, Tulane Univer-
sity, New Orleans, La (pottery, embroidery),
School of Industrial Arts, Teachers College,
Columbia University, New York, N Y ,
New York School of Fine and Applied Art
(costume illustration, jewelry, commeicial
design), New York, N Y , Pratt Institute
(jewelry, metal woik, etc ), Brooklvn, N Y ,
Bradley Polytechnic Institute (metal, wood
work, and horology), Peona, 111 , School of
Industrial Art of the Pennsylvania Museum,
Philadelphia, Pa , Rhode Island School of
Design (jewelry and metal work), Providence,
R I ; School of Industrial Arts (pottery),
Trenton, N J ; School of Ceramics of the
University of Illinois, Urbana, 111

F N. L

See ART; ART SCHOOLS; ART IN SCHOOLS,
DESIGN IN DRAWING; INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL DAY SCHOOLS —See IN-
DUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION —General
Outline. — The term " industrial education "
may be used in a very comprehensive sense 01
in a more restricted meaning In a large wav
the term includes all education relating to
the industries, and in this sense would include
instruction in industrial arts in the element urv
school, trade and technical instruction designed
for the industrial workei, and the professional
education of the engineering schools In
common usage, however, the term has come to
be used in a more limited fashion as denoting
the field of vocational education aimed to meet
the needs of the manual worker in the trades
and industries, and in this sense is used in the
following article In this conception industrial
education has to do with the secondary field
beyond the point at which boys and girls leave
the elementary school and below that of the
college (See MANUAL TRAINING for the

426

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

former, and TECHNICAL EDUCATION for the
latter.)

The need for industrial education, as far as
it is a matter of schools, has arisen since the
industrial revolution of the eighteenth cen-
tury, which introduced the factory system as
the universal type of modern industrial organ-
ization During the four or five centuries
when the handicraft system of small masters
and establishments was the prevailing basis of
production, the matter of industrial training
was met in a simple, and on the whole, a com-
petent manner within the conduct and organiza-
tion of trade procedure (See APPRENTICE-
SHIP EDUCATION; GILD, MEDIEVAL, AND EDU-
CATION )

It is true that the gild records of England
and the Continental countries disclose many
items indicating frequent attempts on the part
of masters to take advantage of apprentices
through failure to provide competent instruc-
tion in their craft, as well as to furnish proper
food and findings; and the repeated occurrence
of regulations as to fines and other penalties
aimed at such abuses, shows very clearly that
such conditions were not uncommon It is also
unquestionably true that, particularly in those
countries where the period of apprenticeship
was of considerable length, as in England and
in many trades in PVance, a large amount of
time was consumed in menial tasks of little
industrial value to the young worker On the
whole, however, the handicraft system under
gild supervision, as trades were then practiced,
undoubtedly made for a fairly effective sys-
tem of industrial training, and this particularly
because of three elements inherent in the sit-
uation, all of which have disappeared under
present conditions. (1) It was distinctly to
the master's immediate advantage, with his
small staff of workers, which permitted of very
little division of labor, to give his apprentice
a thorough training in order that he might reap
a full labor return during the period of the inden-
ture (2) The master, being not only employer
and merchant, but chief craftsman, working side
by side with his assistants, was free to give in-
struction at such times and in such directions
as he saw fit. (3) The fact that the appren-
tice in the regular order of things expected
in a few years to become himself a master must
have stimulated his ambition to obtain as
broad a knowledge of his craft as possible

The influence of the factory system upon this
situation was not only that division of labor,
constantly extended, no longer allowed the
learner, if employed to the greatest economic
advantage, to obtain a broad experience in all
branches of a craft, but. even more important,
that the entire relation between employer and
learner was changed The master craftsman,
no longer taking direct part in the processes
of production, became the capitalist employer,
whose first concern is the development of high-
est immediate productive efficiency. The

learner, on the other hand, entering into such
an organization, faces for the most part a
wage earning career in which his place will be
determined not alone by his abilities and ambi-
tions, but by the particular opportunities af-
forded him for breadth of experience and for
comprehension of these experiences. In such
a situation it has ceased to be the immediate
interest of the employer to bestow more atten-
tion upon the learner than will suffice to make
him most rapidly into a productive unit at
some process in the range of the establishment
Still less is there economic incentive for the
wage earning worker in a commercial establish-
ment to give time and effort to extend the train-
ing of the learner. Productive efficiency is
the sole aim of the modern organization of
industry For this purpose it is a highly
adapted instrument, but education lies outside
of this purpose These latter considerations
operate so powerfully upon the case that even
in trades representing very little division of
labor, the value of apprenticeship training has
often fallen to a very low point

To sum up the situation presented by modern
industrial conditions in this connection, it
should be noted, first, that grades of skill and
the extent to which division of labor is carried
vary greatly in different industries Second,
that the typical manufacturing industries
employ a large number of workers of low-grade
skill, requiring little initial instruction or expe-
rience to adapt themselves to their tasks, which
often involve only a narrow range of machine
operations, and a smaller number of highly
skilled workers demanding breadth of expe-
rience and trained intelligence for their equip-
ment. Third, that the economic interest of
the employer is mainly concerned with the
supply of the latter class, and that any meah-
urcs undertaken by him to train such a clash
are necessarily based on the prospect of future
return and not of immediate profit. -Fourth,
that such training on the part of the employer
involves labor in addition to the purely produc-
tive work of an industrial organization, and
for that reason an additional element of ex-
pense. This element of expense and the
extreme mobility of labor under modern con-
ditions, which leave no guarantee to the em-
ployer that the learner will remain in IILS
employ after receiving a training, constitute
the chief obstacles to the development of ade-
quate measures of industrial training within
commercial establishments To these ob-
stacles is added the fact that, besides skill of
hand, modern industry requires in its expert
workers increasing knowledge of mathematics,
science, drawing, and technical matters in
order to insure proper comprehension of new
methods and new forces, and for instruction in
these branches the organization and personnel
of an industrial establishment is not well
adapted

These conditions, in which modern industry

426

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

Imds the task of competently training high-
grade workers within its own organization
difficult, expensive, and not assuredly profitable,
have brought forward the demand for an
outside agency, viz. the school, to assist in
the task. The problem thus presented of
supplying the deficiencies of training under
commercial conditions, and of supplementing
this training by additional instruction, is
evidently one that must find its solution in par-
ticular and varied measures adapted to the
needs prescribed by different localities and
different industries From the nature of the
case there can be no general solution, but only
a multitude of particular solutions

The precise ends, then, placed before indus-
trial education looked at from this purely
economic aspect, are to supply either breadth
of practical experience along particular lines, or
knowledge leading to the comprehension of
technical practice, or both, to youth having op-
portunities or ambitions to fit themselves as
high-grade workers.

To this problem the leading countries of
Western Europe have addressed themselves
with increasing seriousness for something
over half a century, and m the United States
conviction as to its importance has been
rapidly developing during the last few years.
The particular ways in which European
countries have approached the problem have
been markedly differentiated by racial tem-
perament, institutional development, and m-
industnal conditions Germany, with her pol-
icy of fostering the old trade gilds and their
supervision of apprenticeship, has found her
particular problem met to a large extent by
specialized industrial continuation schools, at
first conducted in the evening and now to an
increasing extent in the day These schools
have devoted themselves almost wholly to
supplementary technical instruction; but in
the continuation schools of Munich, Dr
Kcrschensteiner has introduced trade work both
to broaden the commercial routine and to lend
zest and point to the other instruction

One of the chief reasons why the continuation
schools fulfill such an important function in
German life is the fact that apprenticeship
is not only general, but is entered into at the
age of fourteen, at the time when youths leave
the compulsory Volksschule. Another fea-
ture that distinguishes the German con-
tinuation schools, though shared to some extent
with those of Austria and Switzerland, and
which marks their seriousness of purpose, is
that attendance upon them is generally com-
pulsory until seventeen or eighteen years of
age In the cases where the continuation
school classes have been brought into the day,
employers are compelled by law to allow their
apprentices time for attendance. Compul-
sory attendance upon the primary school is
in this way immediately followed by the com-
pulsory attendance at continuation schools of

all boys, and sometimes girls, who do not
attend higher schools

Germany realizes full well that differentiation
and specialization lie at the heart of effective
industrial education, and must not only set
the keynote of instruction as between various
trades, but must be recognized in training
the many grades of workers needed for her
industrial army. Not only the rank and file,
but the foreman, the superintendent, the mas-
ter, and the technical office clerk must be pro-
vided for ; and to this end have been developed
for those whose ambitions and resources extend
beyond the instruction of the continuation
schools large numbers of day industrial or
technical schools that touch all the important
industries of the country. One of the salient
characteristics of all these institutions, save
an almost negligible few, is that they do not
admit beginners to a course of practical work
as a substitute for apprenticeship, but require
for admission one to four years of experience
under commercial conditions and then present
courses of scientific and technical instruction
bearing on particular industries. Another fea-
ture of many of these day schools, which illus-
trates a contrast between the German point
of view and that of some other countries,
particularly of the United States, where only
large schools or classes are usually considered
worth while, is the small size of the student
body, a condition the Germans seem contented
to maintain, provided the institution secures
sound, definite, practical results of impor-
tance for its locality or the Empire

In the efforts to adjust all of those schools as
closely as possible to the actual industrial
situation, many of the states have removed their
control from the Ministry of Education and
Public Worship and placed them under the
Ministry of Commerce and Industry The
financial assistance afforded to industrial edu-
cation by the state governments also repre-
sents another well defined policy and is a large
element in the support of the various schools,
being often one half to two thirds of the cost
of maintenance To the towns, however, is
generally left the initial burden of buildings
and equipment, a task in which they are often
assisted by the local chambers of commerce and
the gilds And finally it should be noted that
the measures for individual education have the
hearty sympathy of the German labor unions,
and that these bodies particularly approve
the impartial supervision conducted by the
State. The whole fabric of German industrial
education in this way represents a remark-
able example of cooperation between schools,
employers, and workers, or, looked at in a larger
way, between the state, municipalities, cor-
porations, and the public, and testifies in a
striking manner to the solidarity and unity of
German life, and the profound belief in the
school as an instrument of social efficiency.

Austria, following to a large extent in the

427

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

footsteps of Germany, has also placed strong
emphasis upon the continuation school and has
made attendance thereon compulsory during
the period of apprenticeship The Austrian
government, however, because of less satis-
factory conditions of apprenticeship than in
Germany, arising partly from the many races
and nationalities in the country, has given more
attention to the development of schools that
supply a practical training as a substitute for
apprenticeship These craft schools, or Fach-
schulcn, are widely distributed throughout
the Empire, and comprehend both purely tech-
nical courses and art instruction as applied
to the industries, the latter forming a very
marked feature of Austrian education Admis-
sion to those schools is nominally limited to
those fourteen years old who have finished eight
years of the elementary schools, but in outlying
districts pupils under this age are allowed to
enter The duration of the courses in these
schools is two, three, or four years, as the con-
diuons of the particular industry demand, and
the certificate given at the end of these periods
is often accepted in place of apprenticeship
experience Among these schools are many
dealing with the home or cottage industries
— a phase of industrial education to which
Austria has given particular attention An-
other distinctive feature of governmental ac-
tivity is the eifort to promote and sustain the
lesser industries or crafts, which are conducted
111 establishments of small size To this end
the Department for the Promotion of Crafts,
under the Ministry of Public Works, has,
particularly since 1908, through industrial
museums and other institutions in different
parts of the country, fostered exhibitions for
handworkers, illustrating technical processes,
and lectures upon advanced methods of pro-
duction Courses are also provided for those
who hope to become masters, not only in tech-
nical methods of production, but in the economic
principles essential for the successful conduct
of a small business The department goes
even further, and assists in the formation of
associations of handworkers, to which it sup-
plies modern machinery and tools to be used
in common by its members, and for which it
requires payment only on long-term loans at
a low rate of interest

Switzerland, with her scant natural resources
and consequent economic dependence upon
skilled artisanship, has directed her main ef-
forts to the fortifying and advancement of her
apprenticeship system To this end the can-
ton of Zurich passed a law in 1905, the provi-
sions of which have been followed by other
cantons, which requires all apprentices to
attend a continuation school for four hours
weekly, and provides that this period may be
taken from the working time. This provision
is resulting to a large extent in bringing the
instruction time in such schools into the day
instead of evening To further insure high

428

and progressive standards of apprenticeship
training, Zurich and other cantons have made
it obligatory upon every apprentice to take an
examination at the end of his course, which shall
test his technical ability and knowledge of the
trade. These examinations are supervised by
the State, which also bears the necessary ex-
pense, and are conducted largely by trade
organizations At the successful passing of
the examinations, a certificate of apprentice-
ship is issued. Switzerland also gives liberally
toward the maintenance of trade and technical
schools for advanced training of the more
ambitious workers

The development of industrial education in
France presents marked contrasts in some re-
spects to the measures above noted Appren-
ticeship in France has been in a more or less
unsatisfactory condition ever since the aboli-
tion of the gilds or corporations by the Na-
tional Convention in 1791. Various attempts
have been made to effect improvements both
by municipalities and by associations, but these
have not been particularly successful, and the
most distinctive efforts of the French govern-
ment in the field of industrial education have
been directed toward the creation of schools
that shall articulate directly with the elementary
schools and supply a practical training to take
tbe place of apprenticeship These schools
(E coles pratiques de commerce et d'mdustne)
admit pupils at thirteen years of age at the
close of the primary school period, and give a
three years' course, involving a generous amount
of practical training in school workshops.
The same feature of building directly upon a
previous school training rather than upon
required practical experience, characterizes
the national schools for foremen, and those for
superintendents and managers In the em-
phasis placed upon this approach to trade
training, the system fostered by the French
government stands alone among European
countries Although there are a very large num-
ber of drawing and industrial evening classes
throughout France, the continuation school
has not received the attention or emphasis given
to it in the Germanic countries Attendance
upon such schools is voluntary, and their ses-
sions are almost always held in the evening

United States — In the United States the
conditions which force attention to the prob-
lem of industrial education have only recently
appeared. This country has lived over the
long industrial history of western Europe in
the brief span of little more than a century.
Beginning with many of the activities of the
hunting and fishing stage, as illustrated in the
life of the pioneer and settler, eastern America
passed through in rapid succession the agricul-
tural or farming stage, the handicraft period,
with its independent town economy, ana
reached in the closing years of the nineteenth
century a highly developed national system
marked by immense manufacturing growth.

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

Throughout this rapid evolution almost to
the present time, the great demand for intelli-
gent labor consequent upon the exploitation
of the enormous natural resources of the coun-
try, has afforded countless opportunities for
advancement to the individual workman gifted
with superior wit and adaptability Practical
ingenuity and power of quick comprehension
and adjustment have often under these con-
ditions been of more importance in winning
to positions of leadership and mastership than
highly trained skill and technical knowledge
When to this situation has been added an enor-
mous current of immigration that has served
to supply riot only skilled workmen, but
a great army of unskilled and semi-skillod
workers increasingly needed for manufacturing
operations, it is apparent why for a generation
of advanced industrial organization both the
American employer and the native-born Amer-
ican workman have remained comparatively
indifferent to the need of industrial education

This period, however, has come nearly to an
oiid, and the stress of international competi-
tion arid lowered margins of profit make it
more and more evident that American indus-
trial development can only be maintained by
recourse to old-world methods, and the adop-
tion of comprehensive and effective measures
that will insure a competent supply of highly
expert workers What has already been ac-
complished in the United States is largely the
result of private enterprise and philanthropy
Until within a very few years, the public school
svstern has given little or no attention to
industrial education and has devoted its cnei-
gies entirely to general and non-vocational in-
struction

Evening Schools — The first serious efforts
to react upon the industrial situation weic
represented in the establishment of a number
of important evening schools (qv), affording
instruction in drawing, science, and mathe-
matics Cooper Union and the Mechanics
Institute of New York, Franklin Union, and
the Spring Garden Institute of Philadelphia, the
Ohio Mechanics Institute of Cincinnati, and
the Virginia Mechanics Institute of Richmjnd
were all founded or opened their classes about
the middle of the nineteenth century. Such
schools, and many others, among which should
be mentioned the evening classes of the Young
Men'n Christian Association (qv), have ac-
complished an important work in supplying
supplementary technical instruction to the
ambitious young workmgman in the larger
cities Even in this direction, however, which
represents the simplest and least expensive
approach to industrial education, the public
schools have been slow to follow Their concern
has been almost entirely with general studies,
and it is only of late years that differentiated
and specialized courses, related to industrial
practice, have been introduced in the public
schools of a few of the more important cities.

The early work of the evening industrial
and technical schools consisted of various
lines of drawing, to which were gradually
added courses m science, mathematics, ai d
technical subjects Beginning about 1890, cer-
tain of these institutions established practical
shop courses in a few of the high-grade mechan-
ical trades, intended to broaden the experience
obtained by the student during the day. Jn a
few cases such classes have been incorporated
in public evening schools, where they have some-
times performed a valuable practical service
in advancing those employed at like occupa-
tions during the day, and sometimes have served
merely to give a little tool dexterity to the
amateur or the clerk

Technical Schools — The next important
reaction of organized education upon the indus-
trial situation was that which took place for
the most part in the period of mining and rail-
road expansion following the Civil War, and
which resulted in the establishment of many
engineering schools or institutes of technology
The establishment of such schools was at first
through private foundation, but the passage of
the Mornll Act in 1862, by which large land
grants were made to the states for the support
of instruction in the agricultural and mechanical
arts, resulted shortly in the inclusion of engi-
neering departments in most of the western
colleges and universities The development of
this type of institution has been widespread in
the United States, and has produced an insti-
tution equal, and in some respects superior,
to anything of its kind to be found abroad
The function of such schools is to produce the
engineering and technical expert, the men
needed to design industrial constructions,
to devise technical processes, and to superin-
tend industrial production They, conse-
quently, he outside the scope of this article
and are fully treated under Technical Educa-
tion (q v )

Manual Training — The first serious agi-
tation for the inclusion of industrial training
in the public schools was not for real voca-
tional training, but for the inclusion of manual
work in the general course of study as an cle-
ment of culture and general efficiency The
Manual Training School connected with Wash-
ington University, St Louis, opened classes
in 1880, and was rapidly followed by the estab-
lishment of manual training high schools in
other cities, some on private foundations, but
in many cases organized as part of the public
school system From the high school manual
training gradually made its way downward
into the elementary school, until it is now repre-
sented in many cities throughout all the grades,
The office of such instruction, however, both
in theory and results, is not vocational train-
ing, which is always a matter of specialized
instruction and self-determined groups, but as
a broadening and energizing element in gen-
eral education (See MANUAL TRAINING )

429

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Trade Schools. — The first important at-
tempt to deal with the problem of industrial
training in day schools took the form of a
trade school for the building trades. In 1881
the New York Trade School (q v ) was founded
by Richard T. Auchmuty. The founder was
an architect by profession, and felt very keenly
the small part played by American trained
mechanics in the various building trades. Con-
vinced that the apprenticeship system in the
building trades was no longer effective, and that
modern conditions gave no hope of its revival,
he turned to the plan of a trade school as the
only solution of the problem To meet the eco-
nomic difficulties involved in attendance, the
courses in the school are only four months in
duration, and only young men between the ages
of seventeen and twenty-four are admitted.
The airn of the school is to give a knowledge of
processes and skill of hand sufficient for immedi-
ate practical usefulness, leaving speed arid per-
fected skill to be developed in after experience.

The development of schools which aim to take
the place of apprenticeship in whole or in part
after this point was very gradual In the first
twenty years aftei the New York Trade School
was founded, only two important institutions
were added, viz the Williamson Free School
of Mechanical Trades near Philadelphia, and
the Baron de Hirsch Trade School of New York
Since the year 1910 some ten or twelve institu-
tions that may strictly be called trade schools
have developed in different parts of the country
under either public or private support, as well
as a number of commercially conducted schools
in the building and other trades. In 1907
the trade school entered upon the stage of
public administration In that year the al-
ready established Milwaukee School of Trades
was taken over by the city under the terms of
the industrial education law passed by the
Wisconsin legislature Since that date public
trade schools have been opened in Philadel-
phia, Pa , Portland, Ore., Worcester, Mass.,
and Indianapolis, Ind

Certain of these schools — the New York
Trade School and the Baron de Hirsch School
— represent the short-course type; the others
offer courses of two or three years in which prac-
tical trade training is supplemented by instruc-
tion in drawing and technical practice, and
in some cases by science and mathematics.
Tuition m such schools is either free or on a
nominal basis, a condition made possible either
bv large endowments or public support. Such
schools are still somewhat in the experimental
stage They labor under very severe economic
difficulties, first among which is the problem
of support presented to the student worker dur-
ing the period of instruction Training for the
skilled trades in the United States is in com-
mon practice restricted to the period above
sixteen years of age, and as the great bulk of
the youth who will form the mechanics and
industrial workers of the country must of

necessity enter upon remunerative work at
sixteen or shortly after, the sacrifices necessary
to permit attendance at a trade school can be
expected only from a comparative few. The
second aspect of the economic problem in
relation to such schools is found in the large
expense of administration, instruction, ma-
terials, and physical maintenance in propor-
tion to the number of students that can be
instructed Furthermore, it is only in a few
high-grade trades, the full command of which
involves extensive subject matter arid breadth
of experience, that trade school training can
claim sufficient advantages over training under
commercial conditions to repay its expense.
It is, consequently, only in cities representing
exceptional concentration of such industries
that tiade schools can expect support, and it
is not yet entirely clear whether the results
obtained will prove proportionate to their ex-
pense.

In the earlier agitation for industrial train-
ing in the United States, the tiade school
occupied the forefront of discussion and was
usually considered as the one institution needed
to solve the entire problem, but as the great
economic difficulties of attendance for youth
and young men who are to become ordinary
workmen have come to be better apprehended,
it is seen that such institutions can, as far as
numbers are concerned, fulfill only a very sub-
ordinate office, and that this in the case of the
long-course schools will probably be to train
a comparatively small number of highly
equipped workers in a few of the skilled trades

Preparatory Trade Schools — Conditions
similar to those noted above in the case of
England have recently brought forward in the
Eastern states the type of school called a pre-
paratory trade school or intermediate indus-
trial school. The situation of the fourteen-
year-old boy in the United States is more acute
even than in England, inasmuch as the disin-
clination on the part of employers in the skilled
trades and high-grade industries to employ
youth below sixteen years of age is much moie
general Since the report of the Massachu-
setts Commission on Industrial and Technical
Education in 1906, which pointed out the laige
numbers of boys and girls in that state who
leave school at fourteen before graduation from
the elementary school, the demoralizing influ-
ences that surround them, and the lack of eco-
nomic progress made by such children, interest
in a type of industrial school that shall aim
particularly at the ages from fourteen to six-
teen has been steadily growing

The first school of this type to be established
was at Rochester, N Y , in 1908. Since then
a considerable number of schools providing
practical work in one or more of the large
trade groups, together with related instruc-
tion in drawing, elementary science, history.
English, shop calculations, accounting, ana
business forms, have been organized in Massa-

430

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

chusetts and the state of Now York Such
schools aim to give the advantage of some
amount of industrial intelligence and knowl-
edge of shop methods and materials to the boy
or girl of sixteen in entering upon industiial
employment rather than to impart a trade
training

This type of school points to the fact that
forces other than the purely economic enter
into the movement for industrial education,
and that responsibilities are involved in the
conduct of such education beyond those of
developing industrial efficiency The causes
that have brought the preparatory trade school
into being in the United States are not alone
the economic advantage to the industries in
preparing better material for entrance therein,
an advantage that employers would be quick
to perceive yet slow to bring about, but rather
the recognition on the part of the public of a
social obligation to better the opportunities
for great numbers of young persons to enter
upon more substantial careers These schools
also serve to illustrate the fact that any insti-
tution which enters upon the task of industrial
education cannot escape the responsibilrtv of
advancing at the same time the training of its
students in social and civic efficiency It rs
very evident that no school under any form of
representative government can command pub-
he support or churn a large place as an educa-
tional factor in dealing with the education of
youth that does not attempt to instruct the
individual in his relations to the State as well
as in promoting his economic efficiency

Part-time and Cooperative Plan — The two
schools just described aim to prepare lor
entrance into the industries by training be-
ginners, u task only economically justifiable
when such training cannot be obtained under
commercial conditions Of late years new
types of school — the part-time day school and
the cooperative school — that aim 1<> give
instruction to the individual at the same time
that he is gaining practical experience in the
industry, have assumed importance Such
schools do not attempt the entire task of train-
ing the learner at any period, but divide the
work with organized industry, leaving to in-
dustry the practical training, and providing
in the school those elements that industiv
cannot readily supply These schools, to-
gether with evening industrial schools and cor-
respondence schools, bring formal instruction
into essentially cooperative relations with
industry, avoiding the large financial bin den
of practical trade training, with its many diffi-
cult problems, and undertaking only those
lines of instruction with which the school is
prepared to deal readily and effectively.

The important practical results of the Ger-
man, and, in particular, the Munich contin-
uation schools, that have brought instruction
into the period of the regular working day, have
produced a growing conviction as to the impor-

tance of such schools in the development ol
industrial education in America The more
individualistic spirit under which industry is
conducted in the United States, arid the great
variety of conditions represented, make prog-
ress toward such an arrangement necessarily
a very gradual matter, and it will undoubtedly
be a considerable time before any general
agreement among manufacturers will be reached
to allow learners in their establishments to
attend industrial schools during the working
hours Nevertheless, the increasing discussion
and study of this plan, and the recognition of
its important advantages, indicate that its
considerable extension may be expected in
the near future Such a plan is more rapidly
applied in cities, where the concentration of a
few high-grade industries gives a large number
of apprentices and learners in particular lines
If such schools are to increase beyond the held
of these few skilled trades, it is evident that
the problems of instruction become complex
and difficult In the case of low-grade factory
industries, where little opportunity for tech-
nical instruction is to be found in industrial
content, school instruction must necessarily
assume other directions and find its opportunity
in increasing the social horizon or honiekeeping
usefulness of the pupil, or in aiding to develop
capacity for change of occupation It is
evident that the beginnings of such schools as
are represented at Cincinnati and Worcester,
Mass , must be necessarily upon a voluntary
attendance basis, and many years must ob-
vrously elapse before public opinion in the
United States reaches the point of authorizing
compulsory attendance for a term of years, as
is the case in southern Germany

The cooperative plan by which the students
spend half their time at woik in industrial
establishments and half in school, and which
was first developed in the Engineering Depart-
ment of the University of Cincinnati, lias lately
been applied to students of high school grade
This plan differs from the part-time plan in some
important respects In the first place the stu-
dent body consists of enrolled high school stu-
dents and not of apprentices already employed
in commercial establishments This fact insures
a higher grade of academic preparation than is
generally the case with apprentices, and the
larger amount of time spent in school allows
the general education to be carried much fur-
ther Encouraging beginnings have been made
with this type of school at Fitchburg, Mass ,
and Cincinnati, Ohio, but it is too early to
define its future place Whether, on the one
hand, any considerable number of those aiming
at and fitted for regular mechanics work in
the trades will be drawn to such schools, or
whether, on the other hand, they will develop
capacity for training leaders of the foreman and
expert type, remains to be seen.

In this same group of supplementary or
cooperating schools might be included the cor-

431

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

respondence schools (q v ), which enroll a great
number of young men engaged in industrial
employment in the United States, and afford
instruction by mail in a large number of tech-
nieal subjects

Appieniiccslup and Corporation Schools —
The apprenticeship or corporation school,
which has been developed in several indus-
trial coiporations of large size in the United
States, is in a sense a part-time school in which
both practical training and instruction are
given within the commercial establishment
(See APPRENTICESHIP SCHOOLS ) Such a plan,
which allows a maximum coordination between
all lines of instiuction, will probably be in-
creasingly adopted in the case of raihoads and
other large corporations dealing with high-
grade workers, but for the great majority of
industrial establishments, such a system is
hardly practicable, and division of labor be-
tween the employer on the one hand and the
public school on the other is the method
making for gicatest efficiency and economy

Secondary Technical School** — The middle
technical schools of Germany have no exact
counterpart in the United States, but the sev-
eral schools for the textile industry corre-
spond closely to this typo Most prominent
among these institutions are the Textile School
of the Pennsylvania Museum at Philadelphia,
established 1884 and noted for the high grade
of its instiuction, three state-aided schools in
Massachusetts at Lowell, New Bedfoid, and
Fall River, and the Textile Depaitment of the
Georgia School of Technology at Atlanta
None of these schools requires previous prac-
tical training in the textile industry for ad-
mission, but m each school there are a number
of mat in e students with such experience, and
the character of the work approximates closely
to that of the German schools

Of late years othei technical schools 01 classes
of secondary rank have appeared, such as the
day courses in machine design and applied
electricity of Pratt Institute, Brooklyn, the
Technological High School of the Ohio Me-
chanics Institute at Cincinnati, and certain
courses in the Drexol Institute, Philadelphia,
and in the Lewis Institute of Chicago

Technical High School* — The question
whether technical high schools with the same
lequirernents of admission as regular public
secondary schools can bo incorporated into the
American public school system has received
considerable discussion of late years The
manual training schools, as above noted, do not
contribute trained workers to the industries,
and strong arguments have been made toward
the conversion of these schools into technical
high schools, having the distinct purpose of
preparing pupils for industrial leadership, that
is, for positions in industrial life requiring
skill and technical knowledge, and of greater
importance and responsibility than those of
skilled mechanics The serious question facing

such a proposition is whether such results can
be secured from a type of school that does not
require practical experience before entrance,
as in the case of the German technical schools,
or provide parallel experience, as in the case
of the cooperative schools

Legislation — Laws have been passed in a
number of states providing for state super-
vision of industrial education and in seveial
eases for the establishment and assistance of
industrial and trade schools Massachusetts
was the first to act in this direction In 1906
a State Commission on Industrial Education
was created, with power to superintend the
establishment and maintenance of industrial
schools for boys and girls The act further
provided for the reimbursement to cities and
towns of a part of the amount expended for
the support of such schools After two years
of trial, the plan of an independent commission
was found to be unsatisfactory, and the admin-
istration of the law was vested in the leorgan-
izcd State Boaid of Education, with piovision
for a special commissioner to deal with the
field of industrial education Since the reor-
ganization the state board has accomplished
very important woik in standardizing the
various types of schools that come under its
control in regard to scope, courses of study,
and methods of instruction, as well as in further-
ing the establishment of a considerable number
of schools

New York State enacted a law in 1900
authorizing the establishment of general in-
dustrial schools, trade schools, and schools of
agriculture, mechanical arts, and hornernak-
ing, and providing for the award to such schools
of a certain measure oi state suppoit The
disbursement of state moneys to the schools LS
by the terms of the act placed in the hands of
the State Commissioner of Education and made
dependent upon his approval of the courses
of study maintained The establishment and
conduct of these schools is referred to the local
boards of education, but the appointment of
advisory boards representing the local trades,
industries, and occupations is made compul-
sory The duties of such ad\isory boards
are to counsel with and ad vise the boards of
education in legard to the establishment and
conduct of t he schools

In 1907 a law was passed in the state of
Wisconsin empowering cities or school districts
to establish, conduct, and maintain schools lor
the puipose of gi\mg practical instruction in
the useful trades, and placing such schools
under the supervision and control of the local
school boards Permission was given to the
school boards to appoint advisory committees
to assist in the administration of the trade
schools, and provision was made for the levy
of a special local tax for the establishment and
maintenance of such schools The law was
amended in 1909, and the minimum age of
entrance to a trade school reduced from six-

432

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

teen years to fourteen years for both young men
and young women. In 1911 the state passed
a number of acts relating to industrial educa-
tion, which among other measures piovides
(1) for a modification of the apprenticeship
laws of the state by which apprentices shall
receive instruction of not less than five hours
a week (2) That whenever any evening school,
continuation classes, industrial school, or com-
mercial school shall be established for minors
b°tween the ages of fourteen and sixteen work-
ins; under permit provided by law, every such
child shall attend such school not less than live
hours per week for six months in each year, and
every employer shall allow all imnoi employees
over fourteen and under sixteen years of age
a corresponding reduction in hours of work
(3) That employers shall allow a reduction in
hours of work at the time when the classes are
held whenever the working time and that of
the class coincide (4) That a state board of
education be appointed to control the distribu-
tion of state moneys under the act-
Other states have recognized industrial edu-
cation through legislative1 measures to the ex-
tent of pioviding official machinery for the
development and supei vision of such woik,
and in still other states investigating commis-
sions have been appointed with the object of
ultimate legislation in this direction

r R u

Germany — The history of industrial educa-
tion in Germany is intimately bound up with
the development of continuation schools and
with the svstem of apprenticeship Established
at hrst to give instruction in reading, writing,
arithmetic, and religion for one or two hours
on Sundays, the early continuation school, like
its present successor, aimed to secure efficient
citizens The hrst Sunday continuation school
appears to have been founded by the Bishop of
Samland in 15G9, this system was warmlv sup-
ported and encouraged by the pietist Spener
Continuation Sunday schools were estab-
lished by law in Wurttemberg in 1695 to
supplement the limited work of the elementary
schools, in 1739 they were extended to boys
who had left school, in 1810 these schools weie
authorized not only to repeat the elementary
school work, but to give further education
Baden instituted the Sunday school system in
1750, and in 1803 attached continuation schools
to the existing elementary schools In Bavaria
the schools were introduced in 1771, and in 1803
attendance was made compulsory for appren-
tices up to the age of eighteen Repetition
courses were provided for in Prussia by the
Generallandschulreghinent (1763) At the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century the spread
of continuation schools was encouraged by town
councils and industrial associations, but the
interest was soon relaxed as the system of ele-
mentary schools became more widely estab-
lished The real success of the continuation
schools goes back to the Industrial Law passed

VOL. in — 2p 433

by the Noith Gciiuan Federation in 1869, by
which local bodies were allowed to make attend-
ance at continuation schools compulsory on all
workmen under eighteen, while employers were
compelled to allow such attendance This law
formed the basis of the later Imperial Industrial
Law of 1891 (Reichsgewerbeordnung) extended by
the law of 1900 —

SECTION 120 — Employers of labor are required to
icnmt to those of their employ ten under eighteen yearn
of age who attend a Continuation School arranged hv the
Government or bv the local authontv the neressan
tune for pchool attendance as pi escribed hv the authoi-
it\ in question Classes ait onlv allowed on Sundav,*>
if they do not interfere with attendance at Divine S<r\-
ice

SECTION 142 — By the by-law of a Distrn t or Town
Council attendance at Continuation Schools <an l><
made compulbory foi nude persons under eighteen
years The regulation** necessary to enforce ( ompul.soiy
regular attendance at such schools may be fixed by the
local authonty, and the duties of pupils, parent.*., guar-
dians, and employers may be so defined as to ensure the
regular attendance, the discipline, and the oiderlv
behavior of the pupils Those pupils are relieved
fiom the attendance at such compulsory schools who
attend a gild or Fath school, provided that such a school
is leeogmzed bv the superior administrative authority
as equivalent in status to the said Continuation $< hool

SECTION 150 - A fine of twenty marks ($5), oi,
if this is not paid, imprisonment up to three da\s for
every offense, is imposed upon any one contiavining
any of the above regulations

The greatest impetus to the development of a
system of further education came immediately
after the Franco-Gorman war, which \vas con-
sciously inspired by the desire to enter into the
commercial and industrial competition oi the
world. Continuation schools weie made eithei
(1) compulsory by local by-laws, as in Piussia
(1874), Baden (1874), Saxe-Altenburg (1889),
Saxe-Coburg-Gotha (1874), Anlmlt (1874),
Brunswick (1878), Oldenburg (1874), Mecklen-
burg-Strehtz (1873), Schwar/burg-Rudolstadt
(1875), Lippe (1874), Reuss j L (1874, com-
pulsory by state law 1900), Alsace-Lori aino
(1873), or (2) compulsory by state law, as in
Bavaria (1803), Saxony (1873), Wuittetnboig
(1895), Hesse (1874)/ Saxe-Weimar (1874),
Saxe-Meimngen (1874), Mecklenburg-Schwenn
(1905), Schwarzburg-Sondershausen (1874),
Waldeck(1895), Bremen (1908), 01 (3) waslett
voluntary asm Reuss a L , Schaumburg-Lippe,
Hamburg, and Lubeck In the movement lor
the spread of cornpulsoiy systems the J)citt\cln'
Verbmid Jur da* Foitbildung^chultrcbcii (f
1892) has taken a very prominent part

Within the last twenty vears the development
of continuation schools intended foi general
education rather than specific industrial or
vocational training coalesced with another
movement for the provisions oi industrial edu-
cation. While the gilds continued in full vigor,
the apprenticeship system, with all that it im-
plied in the way of tiaming and moral oversight,
could take the place of a state-organized system
of vocational education. But the rise of Ger-
man solidarity and the introduction of national
free trade broke the power of the gilds, and some-

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

thing had to take the place of the appientice-
ship system At the same tune the growing
complexities of industry which made more and
more demands on science, made deniable a
training of a type which the individual employer
could not give. In 1765 the Gcsellxchaft fur
Beforderung der Kunste and nutzlichen (rewerbc
(Society for the Promotion of the Arts and Use-
ful Trades) was established in Hambuig, and
recommended classes for architectural drawing
Classes were organized, and new subjects were
added constantly. In 1865 the society's school
was taken over by the city and was maintained
as the Allgememe Gewerbubchulc The success
ot this school led to similar establishments in
Berlin (Handwerkerschule), and at Hanover,
Brunswick, Kiel, Lubeck, Magdeburg, Cologne,
Breslau A Feiertagsschule fur Gescllcn und
Lehrhnge (Vacation School for Journeymen and
Apprentices) was established at Munich in 1793,
giving instructions in the three R's, chemistry,
physics, geometry, practical mechanics, law,
history, geography, and nature study The
school met with considerable success, and in
1825 an elementary section was added At
Weimar and Eisenach and other towns of Saxe-
Weimar free industrial schools (Freic Gewerbc-
schulc) arose toward the end of the eighteenth
century which laid special emphasis on drawing
and geometry In Saxony town councils and
industrial corporations established schools about
1820 for instruction in arithmetic, German, and
drawing, and by the law of 1835 continuation
schools were empowered to teach such subjects
as were not taught in the lower schools, but in-
terest flagged when after 1859 the gilds were de-
prived of the power to compel attendance on the
part of their apprentices The most continu-
ous development of industrial schools with
voluntary attendance has taken place in
Wurttemberg Beginning in 1818 there were
eighteen such schools in 1826, in the preceding
year they were placed under the charge of the
Royal School Board; instruction, given on Sun-
days, covered drawing, industrial arithmetic,
geography, geometry, mechanics, trigonometry,
bookkeeping, and estimating In 1853 the
schools were placed under the Royal Commission
for Industrial Continuation Schools, with repre-
sentatives of the Departments of Education
and of the Interior Evening Industrial Schools
were soon added by the Commissioner They
were maintained by local bodies with support
from the state. After Wurttemberg joined the
Empire and the Reichsgewerbeordnung became
applicable to it, many communities made
attendance at the industrial improvement
school compulsory for apprentices

Present Position — Attendance at continua-
tion schools is now compulsory in twenty-two
out of twenty-six German states Of these,
nine still allow the local bodies to make their
own by-laws on the subject Prussia is still
among this number, except for the Western sec-
tion and Posen, where the compulsory system

434

has been introduced hugely for political and
administrative reasons As a general rule com-
pulsion applies only to boys The rapid and
extensive development of elementary educa-
tion has eliminated the necessity of general con-
tinuation schools where the work of the lower
school is repeated Many of these schools, of
course, still exist, but they are intended for the
class of unskilled laborers In most states
attention is given almost ent rely to commercial
and industrial education. (The formei is dis-
cussed under COMMERCIAL EDUCATION.) The
reasons for this arc theoretical and practical.
It has been recognized that the success of
instruction depends on concentrating on the
vocation of the pupils; this gives unity to
the pupils' work and on the other side meets the
practical demand for more efficient workmen
to assist in the rapid industrial advance of
Germany. Hence the aims of these lower in-
dustrial schools may be defined as efficiency
and citizenship, and in so far as the instruction
is not narrowed down to the pupils' vocation,
but takes in all its ramifications, such educa-
tion may serve humanistic and cultural ends.
Hence the reformed continuation school re-
quires a different kind of equipment Work-
shops and laboratories are now regarded by
theorists as important adjuncts of the schools,
and have been adopted largely in South Ger-
many Practice varies, however, and in some
systems only theoretical instruction is given
in the schools, while the practical work is re-
garded as sufficient. The value of the new
type of industrial continuation schools is shown
by the number of students who come volunta-
rily after the period of compulsory attendance
to take work in the classes for journeymen and
master workmen.

Where attendance at a continuation school
is compulsory on girls, instruction is given to
tram them as mothers and housewives a^ well
as to render them more efficient at their voca-
tion.

The period of compulsory attendance inns
parallel, as a rule, with the period of appren-
ticeship, that is, from fourteen to eighteen yeais
of age. Within this period a boy must attend
school for two or three years. The increasing
importance of the industrial continuation
schools in the national system is attested by the
growing practice of holding the classes during
the day It is recognized that with the increas-
ing importance of the studies, pupils cannot be
expected to be fresh at the end of a long day.
Thus in Wurttemberg, Hesse, and Weimar no
instruction is permitted after 7 P.M.; in Prussia
it is not allowed after 8 or 8 30. The tendency
on the whole is now to have special school
buildings, made necessary by the need of in-
creased equipment, and to give instruction
throughout the day. The number of hours
which a pupil is obliged to attend varies con-
siderably; where the instruction is merely
repetition of primary work, two hours a week

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

are sufficient, where ail attempt is made
to make the education of real social value from
four to eight hours a week are given. Instruc-
tion extends over the whole of the usual school
year, that is, for about forty weeks. Different
arrangements are made with different trades
and industries, so that attendance does not
become an unnecessary burden; thus in some
places bakers and confectioners are released
from school during the rush of the Christmas
holidays, builders and painters, on the other
hand, 'attend mainly during the slack winter
season. On the whole, employers are now will-
ing to allow their young employees the necessary
time for school attendance, and are beginning to
recognize the value of the instruction given,
though it is indirectly at their expense for the
time being The greatest opposition is met
with m commercial offices, where it is some-
times a matter of difficulty to release the young
clerks at certain times of the day. But the
school authorities are ready to accommodate
the hours of school attendance to the wishes
of employers.

The provision of industrial continuation
schools has been more rapid than the supply of
properly qualified teachers For the general
continuation schools the elementary school
teachers were a good source of supply, and even
with the addition of new academic subjects,
the elementary teachers gave satisfactory
service, pieparing themselves privately for
their special work The training of teachers
of drawing was also of a high standard, though
hero too the new industrial needs required a
different emphasis The chief difficulty arose,
however, upon the introduction of workshops
and machine shops into the school and the
arrangement of day classes Two methods of
supplying teachers have been adopted, ele-
mentary school teachers are given short courses
and make themselves acquainted with the prac-
tical working of a factory, and master work-
men are taken from the factories and given
short courses in methods of teaching In only a
few instances have special courses been estab-
lished for training industrial teachers; the most
notable institutions are the training school at
Carlsruhe at the Building Trades School, and
the courses at the Imperial Technical School at
Strassburg Generally, however, short six
weeks' courses are given: in Berlin courses
are held in upholstery, baking, hairdressing,
book trades, modeling, metalwork, masonry
and carpentry, house painting, pottery and
anatomy, hygiene and first aid. Visits are
made to factories, and instruction is given in
tools, machines, and materials. At Dusseldorf
a short course of lectures on method is given to
teachers selected from the trades The Deutsche
Verem fur Fortbildungsschulen conducts short
courses at Leipzig and Frankfort a. M. for
continuation school teachers. Courses are also
conducted by the Prussian Ministry for Com-
merce and Industry and by the Ministry of

Agriculture for teachers in their respective
fields. Another means of training has been the
encouragement of journeys of investigation
(Studienreisen) . But it seems highly probable
that a more definite system of training will be
introduced as the number of industrial schools,
fully equipped on the mechanical side, increases,
and the candidates will be drawn equally from
school and workshops Further must be
mentioned conferences and discussions, as for
example a three-day course in technical draw-
ing held at Chemnitz, and conferences on spin-
ning held in the same town

The administration of industrial continua-
tion schools has in most states been taken
out of the hands of the central boards of
education In Prussia the supreme control is
under the Ministry of Commerce and Labor, in
Saxony the Ministry of the Interior, and in
Wurttembcrg the Higher Industrial School
Council The publicly maintained schools
are locally under the municipal authorities,
which in all cases receive state grants Gener-
ally there are associated with each school ad-
visory councils representing the community,
chambers of commerce, gilds, arid othei indus-
trial societies. Frequently the gilds, and indus-
trial societies contribute to the support of
schools, in a number of cases these bodies fur-
nish the necessary tools and mechanical equip-
ment.

The continuation schools may be divided
into three broad divisions, — general, indus-
trial, and commercial The general continua-
tion schools give instruction in the elementary
school subjects, and add drawing, CIMCS, and
hygiene. The commercial courses are provided
for girls as well as boys (See, howe\er,
COMMERCIAL EDUCATION ) The purely indus-
trial courses are found in the laigei to\vns, where
the numbers of employees in different occupa-
tions justify such an arrangement organized in
groups. Where twenty-five to forty students
following one occupation are found, a special
course is provided for them. Where the
numbers are too small, and for unskilled labor,
the pupils are sent to the general continuation
schools Girls may be compelled, and those
in commercial occupations are compelled, to
attend continuation schools, but usuallv the
period of attendance is not so long as for bovs.
Courses for girls are, however, not so generally
provided The general courses cover not only
the elementary school subjects, but also female
handicrafts, household arts, cookery, etc

One general distinction must be made be-
tween North and South Germany The south-
ern states, on the whole, have been more
progressive in the provision of industrial contin-
uation schools and adapting courses to various
local industries and occupations, and have been
careful to combine theoretical and practical
work. In the north the schools as a rule con-
fine themselves to general theoretical courses
and leave either employers or associations to
435

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

take care of the practical sides So a com-
parison can be made between the subjects
taught in Prussia and in Bavaria Prussia:
German, arithmetic, drawing, business routine,
and composition, technology, government,
labor laws and conditions, insurance, economics,
industrial arithmetic, and practical drawing,
according to the various trades, are found
generally, and in the larger towns also geom-
etry, trigonometry, algebra, physics, chemistry,
electrotechmcs, English, history, shorthand,
typewriting, bookkeeping, exchange, materials,
law, gymnastics, and singing Bavaria the
fundamentals are religion, German, business
correspondence, arithmetic, drawing, geometry,
nature study, chemistry, materials and book-
keeping, and then the specialized vocational
courses The following courses as arranged
m a few representative towns will indicate the
organization more clearly

Strassburg. (1) Building groups (stone
masons, cement workers, stovemakers, joiners,
cabinetmakers, coopers, locksmiths, boiler-
makers, tin and copper smiths, upholsterers,
etc ) (2) Commercial groups (3) Trade
groups (grocers, shoemakers, druggists, errand
boys, bakers, butchers, tailors, waiters, cooks,
barbers, confectioners, printers). (4) Unskilled
labor

Leipzig- (1) Unskilled labor (2) Technical
groups (3) Combined technical groups where
the numbers are not large enough for separate
classes (4) Private schools

Berlin (1) Building trades, clerks, metal
workers, art crafts, provision dealers, potters,
tailors, woodworkers, leather workers, con-
fectioners (2) Private schools (printers,
butchers, chimney sweeps, saddlers, painters,
barbers, etc ) (3) Unskilled labor

Dusseldorf ^ (1) Unskilled labor (2) Engi-
neers, electricians, mechanics, and watchmakers,
plumbers and fitters, building trades, painters,
art crafts, printers, turners, gardeners, confec-
tioners, bakers, shoemakers and tailors, up-
holsterers, decorators, barbers and hairdressers,
butchers, errand boys

The Munich system, which, as organized by
the School Superintendent, Dr G Kerschen-
stemer, has attracted attention throughout
the world, deserves more detailed treatment
Here attendance at a continuation school is
compulsory for boys up to eighteen, or during
their period of apprenticeship; for girls the
period of obligatory day attendance is three
years Boys attend from eight to ten hours a
week, girls only six hours, although they may
attend a voluntary course up to twelve hours a
week An eighth class has been organized
in the elementary schools, obligatory for boys,
voluntary for girls. This class is intended to
bridge the gap between the elementary school
and employment, and is preparatory to the in-
dustrial courses of the continuation school, the
chief emphasis being on manual work The
continuation schools for boys consist of twelve

436

general and fifty-two trade schools for appren-
tices. The general courses are attended by
errand boys, unskilled laborers, and the groups
which are too small for a special school For
girls there are forty compulsory schools giving
household training, and twenty-one voluntary
schools providing household training, commer-
cial, and industrial courses A trade or indus-
trial school is established where there are
twenty-five apprentices of one industry. Higher
divisions are also provided for journeymen and
master workmen who attend voluntarily. The
schools, with the exception of six, are located in
their own buildings; the six exceptions use
primary schools Attached to each school are
associations of employers who pay for materials,
discuss courses of study, recommend technical
teachers, supervise and examine the practical
work The board of each school consists of the
headmaster, a member of the city council, and
three employers. Pupils attend one day 01 two
half days, forfeiting wages for that period
The teachers are drawn from journeymen, arti-
sans, master workmen, and professional teachers
The expenses of maintaining the school for boys
are shared by the state arid the city, schools for
girls are maintained by the city alone The
curriculum covers drawing and arithmetic,
practical and applied to the special industries,
tools; machines, physics, chemistry, German
literature, religion (up to sixteen); civics, his-
torical development of the specific trades and
their interrelations; the individual in i elation
to town and state; hygiene, gymnastics, and
games

The schools are organized as follows- (1)
Commercial classes (2) General continuation
classes. (3) Technical or trade classes (turn-
ers, druggists, wood carvers, stokers, chimney
sweeps, coachmen, saddlers, glovemakers, vat-
tcrs, coopers, locksmiths, smiths and carnage
builders, carpenters and joiners, upholsterers,
decorators, stovemakers, watchmakers, engi-
neers, mechanics, plumbers, fitters, bookbinders,
printers, photographers, lithographers, barbers,
confectioners, house painters, enamclers and
gilders, innkeepers, butchers, shoemakers, ma-
sons, jewelers and goldsmiths, stucco and stone
workers, dentists' assistants, glass and porce-
lain workers)

The best organized state system is that of
Wurttemberg, which in 1907 passed a compre-
hensive law for the establishment of industrial
and commercial continuation schools. Local
communities are compelled whenever for three
successive years the number of employees
reaches forty to establish industrial continuation
schools in the first place and commercial schools
in the second. All workmen under eighteen must
attend such a school for three years, although
local by-laws may extend this period to four.
Girls' schools may be established locally. Tui-
tion may be charged, and employers may be
compelled to pay it. Instruction should be
given during the day up to 7 P.M. for 280 hours

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

a year. Teachers are trained at Carlsruhe for
industrial schools, and at Leipzig and other
universities for commercial They arc drawn
from elementary school teachers and from
employees in workshops and factories All arc
required to have had practical work in shops for
at least two months The schools do not give
practical work, as is the case in Munich Schools
have also been established for women's occupa-
tions, and give courses in needlework, embroid-
ery, machine stitching, dressmaking, knitting,
correspondence, bookkeeping, and commercial
arithmetic Traveling instructors have ior a
lo ig time been employed to give short courses
in handloorn weaving, technical courses (three
to twenty-one days), and courses for teachers,
masterworkmen, and merchants

Day Trade and Industrial Education — In
addition to the system of industrial continua-
tion schools, there exists in Germany a largo
number of day schools with courses varying
from a duration of six months to four ycais
Thev arc voluntary, and tuition is charged
Sch )ols have been provided by the states, by
cities and local authorities, and by private
organizations or societies interested in com-
merce and industry Generally there is a state
subsidy Here it is proposed to deal with
those scrn^ls which require only a knowledge
of the elementary branches for admission
They aim to furnish not only efficient workmen
arid servants, but to train master workmen,
supervis >rs, and foremen In most instances
the schools insist that candidates shall have had
practical experience in a workshop or factory
for one or two years In some schools attend-
ance takes the place of apprenticeship, in others
it is supplementary, and in others again the
courses are intended for journeymen The
schools are known as middle or lower technical
schools (mittlere und ruedere Fachschuhii), to
distinguish them fiom the higher technical
schools and the technical universities, both of
which have higher entrance requirements
(Sc>e TECHNICAL EDUCATION )

In Prussia a number of industrial schools
(Gewerbeschulen) arose in 1828, and met with
success; the entrance requirements were raised,
and in 1878 they were transformed into
Obcrrealsckulen. New schools were established
to take their place, e g Municipal Artisan
School m Berlin, 1880, lion Workers' School
at Remscheid, 1880, Machine Construction
School at Cologne, 1881; Spinning Schools at
Aachen, Berlin, Cottbus, 1883, Industrial
Arts School in Dusseldorf, 1883 In 1884 this
type of schools was placed under the Ministry
of Labor and Commerce The development was
rapid after 1890. and many municipal schools
were taken over oy the State (See Rep U S
Com Ed 1910, pp. 324-329, for list of voca-
tional schools in Prussia ) The following types
of schools have been developed, building
trade schools for the preparation and training
uf workmen and foremen in all that pertains to

building, masonry, carpentry, sanitation, drain-
age, surface improvement, etc Many officcis
for city, state, army, and i ail way administra-
tion of buildings and loads are trained Stu-
dents are admitted at the age of sixteen, and
must have had practical experience The course
lasts four years, and is given as a rule in the
winter months

Schools for machine construction and foun-
dry work give a two years' course for lower
technical officers based on common schooj
training and four years practical experience
Many of the lower schools are attached to a
higher technical school, and in some cases stu-
dents are allowed to pass from the one to the
other

A two years' course of study and practice is
provided in the Schools for Metal Industries at
Iscrlohn, Remscheid, Siegen, and Schmalkalden.
The entrance requirements are the common
school branches In these courses are trained
pattern makers, engravers, locksmiths, turners,
printers, etc

At Hohr and Bunzlau schools are rrain tamed
foi the ceramic industries One year of prac-
tical work in addition to the common school
branches is required for entrance. Couises
are given in German and arithmetic drawing
and painting, chemistry, physics, mineralogy,
geology, ceramic technology, and piactical
work in the shops

The textile schools were reorganized in 1896.
and afford training for master workmen and
young manufacturers in spinning and the
allied trades Traveling teachers are also
employed for the country districts where the
handloom has still been retained

There are besides special schools, like the
navigation schools, schools of mines, schools for
blacksmiths For girls and young women there
are courses in women's handicrafts, machine
stitching, white work, laundry, dressmaking,
art embroidery, lace making, commercial sub-
jects, and household arts

The other German states have provided simi-
lar schools through the same organizations as in
Prussia. Variations occur as demanded by the
different industries In addition to the types
of schools referred to above, there are, for
example, in Bavaria schools in the wood in-
dustries — carving, cabinet making, toys, etc,
Such schools are maintained at Berchtesgaden,
Oberammergau, Partenkirchen, arid Furth
Saxony spends more on industrial schools of all
grades than any other German state. At
Chemnitz the Technical Institute has several
thousand students in the different departs rnts
of machine construction, industrial drawing,
building construction, textile branches Each
of these branches is also cared for by separate
institutions in other towns textile schools at
Reichenbach, Zittau, Plauen, Groschorau, etc ;
machine construction at Mittweida, Zwickau,
and Haimchen. To the Royal Industrial
School at Plauen a museum is attached, with

437

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

models, designs, patterns, natural objects, etc.
The handworkers' schools aim to give general
industrial courses to apprentices and master
workers, such schools are found at Dresden,
Leipzig, and Bautzen. In Saxony are located
a number of national schools maintained pri-
marily by private societies throughout Germany
with state or city support. Among these may
be mentioned the Tmworkers' School at Aue,
the Locksmiths' School at Rosswem, Watch-
makers' School at Glashutte, Turners' and Carv-
ers' School at Leipzig, Tanners' School at Frei-
berg, and the Millers' School at Dippoldiswalde

The same provision of industrial schools is
found in Wurttemberg. At Reutlingen there is
the Techrncum for the weaving industry, giving
instruction in spinning and weaving for manu-
facturers, superintendents, and master workmen
engaged in the textile industries. Other schools
in the same field are located at Heidenheim,
Laichingen, Sindelfingen, and Sontheim. A
state school for skilled mechanics at Schwen-
mngcn offers courses in watch and clock making
and electrotechmcal work. Supported by the
state and city, there is at Stuttgart a school for
the book printing trades under the auspices
of the Union of Proprietors of the Book Print-
ing Establishments.

Industrial Art Schools. — Within the scope
of industrial education must also be included
the industrial art schools, which are nearly
all under direct state control While the ar-
tistic side of the industries is by no means
neglected, the emphasis in the industrial school
falls primarily on the industry involved The
industrial art schools give instruction in the
arts as applied to industries, and as a rule are
general in scope, and while a few provide courses
with reference to special industries, they require
a preparatory general course. The schools
admit pupils at the age of sixteen, and generally
require two years of practical workshop expe-
rience The course extends over two years
While fees are charged, numerous scholarships
are offered. Some schools have, in addition
to the general course, preparatory courses of
two years, pupils being admitted at the age of
fourteen. The instruction in the industrial
art schools covers the following subjects: all
branches of drawing, architectural drawing,
modeling, decorative arts, wood carving,
painting, enameling, chasing, pattern design-
ing, engraving, art embroidery Some schools,
especially in Bavaria, give courses in glass
and porcelain painting. In Prussia there are
industrial schools at Berlin (Kdnighche Kunst-
schule and Konigliche Kunstgewerbemuseum) ,
at Breslau (Konigliche Kunst- und Kunstge-
werbeschule), at DUsseldorf (municipal Kunst-
gewerbeschule), at Frankfort a. M. ( Kunst-
gewerbeschule of the Kunstgewerbe-Verein),
Hanau a M. (Konigliche Zeichen-Akademie)
for training art-jewelers, gold and silversmiths,
etc.). The two chief industrial art schools
are the Konigliche Kunstgewerbeschulen at

438

Munich and Nuremberg. In Saxony there are
several special industrial art schools in addition
to the Konigliche Kunstgewerbeschule at Dres-
den, which also has a preparatory school. At
Plauen courses are given in the application of
the arts to textiles The Konigliche Akademie
der graphischen Kunste und Buchgewerbe at
Leipzig pays special attention to the applica-
tion of the arts to all branches of the book in-
dustry (lithography, woodcuts, engravings,
photography, and manifolding). The state
Kumtgewerbeschule at Stuttgart has preparatory
courses m addition to the special courses which
arc divided into five courses, the arts applied
to furniture, models, and woodcarvmg, decora-
tive arts, chasing, and the teaching of drawing
Similar provisions are found throughout the
country.

England. — As in Germany, industrial edu-
cation in England has developed along seveial
different lines. The system of apprenticeship
disappeared earlier in England than on the
European continent, and, although the indus-
trial and commercial development was more
rapid, little was done to promote training until
the latter part of the nineteenth century
Classes for adults and young workers were
established in the eighteenth and early nine-
teenth century in connection with the Sunday
scjiooi movement (q v ), the Society for the
Promotion of Christian Knowledge (qv),
the Adult Schools (qv), and the Mechanics'
Institutes (q v ) But only the two latter move-
ments can be strictly said to have attempted
to improve the efficiency of the working classes
at their occupations It was not until 1851
that national action was taken to promote the
education of adults In that year the govern-
ment made grants to evening schools and classes
Two years after the Exhibition of 1851 the De-
partment of Science and Art was established
for the encouragement of instruction m drawing
and science. From 1860 grants were given by
the department on the result of written exami-
nations; grants were also made for buildings,
books, and equipment. In 1872 organized
science schools, which offered instruction in
science in courses of three years, were estab-
lished, and might be held by day or night The
Department made grants in respect of the sci-
ence work at these schools Many day science
schools in 1902 became secondary day schools
Grants have also been made by the Department
for instruction in drawing and design. The
Technical Instruction Act of 1889 was also
administered by the Science and Art Depart-
ment, and provided for " instruction in the
principles of science and art applicable to indus-
tries and in the application of special branches
of science and art to specific industries or em-
ployments." This act remained in force until
1902, and under it local authorities used the
powers intrusted to them to provide instruction
in almost every subject except the classics In
1899 the Science and Art Department became

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

a branch of the Board of Education. Many
private associations also supported and encour-
aged the introduction of scientific instruction
mainly into the evening classes. The chief
of these was the City and Guilds of London
Institute, an association founded in 1878 " for
the purposes of all such branches of science and
the fine arts as benefit or are of use to 01 may
benefit or be of use to productive and technical
industries, especially to commerce and indus-
try generally . . ." The department of tech-
nology of the Institute registers and inspects
classes in technology and manual training and
holds examinations annually in the subjects
taught in these classes in the British Empire
Much of the early work in science and the
technical branches, encouraged by the different
movements referred to above, by various asso-
ciations, and by the Department of Science and
Art, has now been taken over by the local
universities and technical schools, and since
1902 by secondary schools (See ENGLAND,
EDUCATION IN; TECHNICAL EDUCATION )

In the present article only those forms ot
industrial education which are based directly
on an elementary school course will be treated
Such instruction is given in higher elementary
schools, evening schools (q v ), and in day trade
and technical schools This classification is,
however, incomplete if it neglects the provisions
made by employers for giving special trade in-
struction to their apprentices (See APPREN-
TICESHIP AND EDUCATION.) Nor is any account
given here of the preparatory courses in the
manual arts in elementary schools. (See MAN-
UAL TRAINING.)

Higher Elementary Schools — These schools
were first recognized by a Minute of the Boaid
of Education (Apr. 6, 1900) as schools organ-
ized to give a four years' course to pupils be-
tween the ages of ten arid fifteen, with a cur-
riculum including practical and theoretical
science. Instruction was to be suited to the
special circumstances of the districts which
they served By Article 38 (IV) of the Board of
Education's Code for 1905, it was to be a con-
dition of the recognition of such schools that
" the curriculum must have for its object the
development of the education given in the ordi-
nary public elementary schools and the provi-
sion of special instruction bearing on the future
occupations of the scholars, whether boys or
girls " The reason for the establishment of
such schools was thus stated by the Board
44 The scholar who must at the age of fifteen
begin an industrial employment or enter the
lower ranks of business needs a course of in-
struction different from that of the secondary
schools, and yet one which is higher in standard
and somewhat more special in aim than that
given in the ordinary public elementary
schools " The number of such schools in the
year 1909-1910 in the whole of England and
Wales was not more than fifty-one, containing,
on the last day of the school year, 10,771 schol-

ars, of whom only 1375 were fifteen years of age
or over The hope that children would be
induced to stay and complete a three years'
course ending at fifteen years of age has been far
from realized In a number of cases no satis-
factory attempt appears to have been made to
give the curriculum a bias appropriate to the
circumstances and the probable future occupa-
tions of the scholars The Board's conclusion
is that 4< it can hardly be said that the majority
of higher elementary schools are in any special
degree fulfilling what the Board conceived to
be the true function of a school of this type."
But, as the Board of Education admit, the com-
parative failure of higher elementary schools in
England does not really indicate the failure of
the principles underlying the scheme for their
establishment

As often happens, the central government has
made its regulations too advanced, and the
higher grants earned by a school definitely classi-
fied as a higher elementary school are eaten up
by the greater costliness of fulfilling the struc-
tural and other conditions required to secure
recognition It is probable that large numbers
of schools classified as ordinal y elementary
schools, e g such schools as have been recently
organized in London under the name of central
schools, are performing quite successfully the
functions of a higher elementary school.
According to the Report of the Education
Committee of the London County Council
made in March, 1910, the central schools
should " be schools which will give their pupils a
definite bias toward some kind of industrial or
commercial work, while ensuring that their in-
telligence should be fully developed, and they
should occupy a distinct position from the sec-
ondary school They should avowedly frame
their curricula with a view to the pupils leaving
at an age between fifteen and sixteen Their
com ties should be so framed as to provide foi the
pupil the best possible equipment for entering
upon the industrial or commercial world as soon
as he leaves school, while at the same time
qualifying him to enter upon a special course of
training for some particular industry at a poly-
technic or similar institution, if he desires to
continue his education further " The central
schools were mtioduccd in London in April,
1911 A similar type of school was established
in Manchester in the same yeai

Evening Schools — The development of in-
dustrial training in higher elementary schools
and in the higher classes of elementary schools
may fairly be considered as an attempt to link
on directly the elementary with the technical
schools But an intermediate link is felt by
some to be, if not absolutely necessary, at any
rate desirable For the fairly large proportion
of children who leave the elementary schools
at fourteen without reaching the higher classes,
and who are quite unfit to take their places in
the technical school even of a comparatively low
grade, it has long been sought to form a link

439

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

by means of evening continuation schools; and
certainly the evening continuation schools of
Great Britain have done magnificent work,
not only for the imperfectly educated, but also
for thoso who have left the higher classes of
elementary schools, where no attempt whatever
has been made to bear industrial considerations
in mind The impasse caused by the Cocker-
tori Judgment (q v ), which forbade the use of
rates for higher education in evening schools, was
lemoved by the act of 1902, which permitted
local authorities to support higher education
By the regulations of 1903 evening continuation
schools may provide instruction in manual train-
ing (wood and metal work), any generalized or
special branch of science, including mathemat-
ics, home occupations and industries The
curriculum is flexible, and may be adapted to
local requirements. Evening technical classes
with four or five year courses have also been
established in connection with technical schools
They cover instruction in mathematics, draw-
ing, physics, mechanics, machine construction,
and some specialized work, c g mechanical or
electrical engineering.

Day Trade Schools — A recent attempt has
been made to provide the link bv means of cer-
tain day schools in various localities popularly
desmbed as " trade schools " or " preappren-
ticeship schools " As a matter oi fact there are
two grades of such schools (a) the preap-
prenticeship school, (b) the trade school proper
or apprenticeship school — the avowed object
of which is to provide a substitute for the
obsolescent apprenticeship system Of the
latter a useful account has been given bv Mr
Blair, the education officer of the London Count v
Council, in a paper read before the Imperial
Education Conference held in London in 1911
He describes these schools as a development
of the day school for boys or girls of thirteen or
fourteen years of age, designed generally to pro-
vide a more specialized industrial curriculum
than is held to be admissible m an elementary
school Their object is to prepare boys and girls
to become intelligent workpeople with a chance
of rising later, and it is naturally expected that
many on leaving the trade school will pursue
their education through the avenue of the tech-
nical school properly so-called, in many cases,
of course, by attendance at evening classes

As a typical illustration of one of the ten
trade schools for boys in London may be taken
the School of Building at Bnxton, opened in
190S The course is for three years, and ad-
mission is restricted to boys between thirteen
and fifteen years of age, who have passed the
sixth standard of an elementary school, or its
equivalent " The curriculum, which is com-
mon to all students during the first year, and
which is looked upon as a probationaiy period,
includes building construction, workshop prac-
tice, study of materials, workshop arithmetic
and mathematics, experimental science, geo-
metrical and plan drawing and lettering, free-

hand drawing of building details, English
literature, history with special reference to
industrial changes and the development of
public and domestic architecture, geography
with special reference to building materials,
English composition, and business correspond-
ence. Briefly this is: —

8 hours per week workshop practice (general) ,

0 hours pei week technical and drawing office instruc-
tion,

4 hours per week elementary science,
10 hours per week English, mathematics, and art applied
to building,

2 hours per week physical instruction

At the end of the first year the principal advises
the parents of the boys attending the school a^
to the most suitable vocation or craft to select
for their sons, this recommendation is based
upon any special aptitude shown during the
first year, reports from the masters, the charac-
ter of the boy, and the position of the parents "
In the second and third years the courses arc
divided into two mam sections, an artisan course
arid a higher course for architects, builders, and
surveyors, and the development of the time
table in the direction of greater specialization
is shown by the fact that in the second year, in
place of an eight hours a week course in work-
shop practice of a geneial kind, ten hours are
devoted in the second ycai to specialized in-
struction, and fifteen in the thud year It is
clear that the last year's course is hardly dis-
tinguishable at all irom that of a technical in-
stitution properly so called.

Of the six trade schools or apprenticeship
schools for girls in London it may be said that
they provide instruction in eleven skilled trader
for women " The school hours are from nine
to five, Saturdays being free About two thuds
of the school time is devoted to trade work, the
remainder being given to art and general educa-
tion The trade teaching is in the hands of
teachers who have obtained their knowledge of
the trade in first-class business houses As far
as is possible in a classroom, workroom condi-
tions are set up The equipment and arrange-
ment of the room is similar to that of a trade
workroom Workroom methods and trade
standards of work are adopted, the chief differ-
ence being that, whereas m a workroom many
workers may combine to produce one article, in
a classroom each girl is responsible for and re-
quired to carry through all the processes of the
article she makes Very little formal work is
done, as far as possible all completed work is
real work made for a particular purpose The
ingenuity of the teachers is called upon to pro-
vide sufficient variety of work to provide prac-
tice and experience of the various branches of
the trade which each girl must learn A record
is kept of the trade work of each girl and of the
time spent in producing it "

Of the preapprenticeship type of school for
boys, the Trade Preparatory School at Liver-
pool may be taken as an illustration The

440

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

conditions of admission arc much the same as one of the London trade schools for 1909- 11)10

those described above for the London Trade
School. " The full course of instruction is
arranged to extend over two years, and occu-
pies six hours per day on five days per week for
forty-two weeks in the year The curriculum
comprises workshop practice in wood and metal,
practical mathematics (including the applica-
tions of arithmetic, mensuration, algebra, etc ,
to workshop problems), practical drawing of
simple engineering and building details, with
constructive and solid geometry and hand
sketching; elementary science (including lab-
oratory work) in mechanics, physics, and
chemistry, English (including composition,
geography, etc ) ; physical exercises The
time at present allocated to each of the subjects
is as follows —

Woikshop practice*
Practical mathematics
Drawing

Experimental science
English .

Physical cxereiHos .

Total .

There is very little specialization of the work
even in the second year, and there is no thud
year, for the boy who is willing to pursue his
education fuither is expected to pass on to a
technical school propel "

In the same class of school may be reckoned
the schools of domestic science for girls which
have sprung up in various towns all over
England and Wales, of which the York Tei-
race School of Domestic Science in Liverpool
may be taken as an example (Sec HOUSE-
HOLD ARTS ) It should be added that there is
a tendency to graft on to the general courses in
these schools instruction in such branches of
woman's work as millinery, upholstery, etc

The ten trade or apprenticeship schools for
hoys in London contain 780, and the six London
trade schools for girls 620 pupils There are,
as yet, no reliable statistics for the rest of the
country, inasmuch as it is very difficult to dis-
entangle the figures for the two types of
school, namely, the apprenticeship type and
the preapprenticeship type; but it is probable
that there are at least fifty schools These
figures, both for London and the country at
large, are so small as to show that even as an
experiment the day school link between the
elementary school and the technical school has
hardly passed out of the embryonic even into
the infant stage The costliness of the schools
is against them In London of the 736 boys
only 378 pay fees; of the 620 girls only 229 pay
fees; and where education is not wholly free,
the real measure of public appreciation is not the
number of free, but of fee-paying scholars
The net cost to the rates is probably a good deal
higher in the schools of the apprenticeship type
than of the simpler preapprenticeship type
Thus the net cost to local rates of each girl in

was £J4, 18s The net cost of a girl in the
Liverpool York Terrace school was £4, 8.v 10</
The net cost per head of the Liverpool Boys'
Preparatory Trade School was £0, 19s

The trade schools echo the general complaint
in England, to be heard in technical institutions
of all kinds, namely, that they have not yet
won the full confidence and sympathy of employ-
ers But there is reason to believe that the posi-
tion in this regard is improving partly because
employers are becoming more intelligent under
the spin of international competition, and
partly because the schools are endeavoring
more strenuously to turn out young people with
the qualifications that square-headed employers
are actually found to appreciate, not those that
the domed foreheads of the school authorities
think they ought to appreciate It is noteworthy
that, in this regard, the success of the girls'
trade schools in London has been greater than
that of the boys

This day school experiment, however small,
is a valuable one, but it is probable that, until a
compulsory system of continuation schools is
established the bulk of the real industrial edu-
cation of the country will continue to be sup-
plied by the higher classes of elementary schools,
which are endcavoung to connect themselves
up directly with technical institutions, and by
the link between the elementary school and
the technical institution furnished by the e\ en-
ing continuation school

In conclusion it may be said that Fust, the
present situation in England is one of expen-
ment and development Out of the weltei of
discussion ceitain principles aie emerging, arid
in the application of these principles there is
infinite variety But this ferment is all to the
good, for it indicates the keen intcrestof active-
minded people, above all of teachers of exeiy
grade, in new problems, and something making
for the good of the people is more likely to
result from the geneial attitude of inqunv
than from any apathetic submission to this
authority or that Second, there is a gi owing
recognition of the tiuth that it is impossible to
have effective industiial education unless the
very basis of it is real work, and work which a
child or young person iccogmzes as useful work,
such work indeed as makes him realize that he
is not only an individual, but also a member of
society and a citizen J G L

France — The term "technical education"
(eiisngncment technique) has been adopted in
Fiance for that education which prepares for
industrial and commercial careers The term
"professional education" is sometimes used;
this term, however, is too broad, and leads to
confusion, since all the institutions which pre-
pare for law, medicine, teaching, etc , are pro-
fessional schools In the organization of tech-
nical education France is far from having at-
tained to the level of Germany, if it is true that
the number of pupils in Germany who attend

441

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

industrial courses can be estimated at 400,000
and that of students in commercial schools at
48,000. Groat efforts are still necessary to
develop a type of education on which the
economic future of the country depends. It is
especially in the lower grades of technical edu-
cation that there is room for progress if France
is not to be left behind by Germany, arid if the
so-called crisis in the system of apprenticeship
is to be remedied. In the higher and middle
or secondary grades of technical education,
there is little cause to envy foreign powers The
enrollment in these institutions is 3500 pupils
To these may be added in the intermediate
grade the four national professional schools at
Armentieres, Nantes, Vierzon, and Voiron, with
1327 pupils, the schools of watchmaking at
Ouses and Besangon, with 208 pupils; and the
fifteen professional schools for boys and girls at
Pans with 3116 pupils.

All these institutions, maintained or supported
by the State, are controlled by the Minister of
Labor and Commerce The National Con-
servatory of Arts and Trades was established
in Pans at the close of the eighteenth century,
and has been reorganized several tunes It
serves two purposes, it is an industrial museum
displaying models and machinery, and is an edu-
cational institution It .provides free public
courses, which are generally given in the evening
and are intended for those who are engaged during
the day Twenty-three different courses are
given in the conservatory, which may fitly be
called the Sorbonne of industry The follow-
ing is a list of the courses: geometry applied to
trades, mechanics, machine work, physics
applied to arts, industrial electricity, weaving
and spinning, civil engineering; art applied
to trades; metallurgy and metal work, gen-
eral chemistry in its relation to industry,
agricultural and analytical chemistry, indus-
trial chemistry; chemistry applied to coloring
matters, dyeing, and bleaching; chemistry
applied to limestone and cement, pottery, arid
glass work; agriculture, industrial hygiene;
political economy and industrial legislation;
industrial economics and statistics; insurance
and provident societies, commercial law; so-
cial economics; trades unions; industrial and
commercial geography.

The Central School of Arts and Manufactures,
established in Paris in 1828, became a national
institution in 1857, for the training of engineers
in all branches of industry. Foreigners are
admitted on the same terms as natives. The
course lasts three years There are twenty
professors. On leaving, the students receive
either a certificate of attainments or a diploma
of engineer in arts and manufactures The
holders of this title are much sought after for
industrial positions, but have no claim to any
official appointment. For government service
engineers are trained at the Polytechnic School
(Bcole poly technique), and the School of Bridges
and Roads (Ecole des Fonts et Chausstes).

National ScJwols of Arts and Trades (Ecolcs
natwnales des Arts et Metiers). — There arc five
of these schools (Chdlons-sur-Marne, Aix, Angers,
Lille, and Cluny) A sixth school is to be opened
in Paris in 1912 Boys between fifteen and
seventeen are admitted on an examination
which includes written composition and oral
tests in orthography, arithmetic, elementary
geometry, lineal and ornamental drawing, and
algebra The schools are boarding institu-
tions, and admit about 300 pupils. About
three fourths of the pupils hold government
scholarships covering tuition and board A
three years' course is given, theoretical and
practical, for the industrial training of fore-
men, managers, capable and trained artisans.

National Professional Schools (E 'coles na-
twnales professionelles). — The four profes-
sional schools at Armentieres, Vierzon, Voiron
(established in 1881 and 1882, but opened
later), and Nantes (1900) are intended for the
training of artisans arid foremen in industry,
they also prepare for the competitive examina-
tion for admission to the National Schools of
Arts and Trades They were formerly under
the Minister of Public Instruction, but by law
of April 19, 1900, they were placed under the
Minister of Labor and Commerce Instruc-
tion is practical and theoretical, and is of the
same character as in the watchmaking schools
at Ouses and Besangon They all have courses
in iron and wood work, and also specialize in
the industries of their district, thus, Armen-
tieres has spinning and weaving, Voiron, weav-
ing and silk culture, Vierzon, pottery

Lower Schools of Commerce and Industry
($ coles pratiques de Commerce et d' Industrie)
— General preparatory training for industrial,
commercial, and agncultural pursuits is given
in the Higher Primary Schools (Ecoles Pn-
maires Supeneures) These offer courses of two
or three years, which are based directly on the
work of the elementary schools, but are not vo-
cational in any sense. (See further detailed
account under FRANCE, EDUCATION IN )
Special industrial schools based on manual
work were established by the government in
1880. These Ecoles manuelles d'apprentissage
(Manual apprenticeship schools) were under
the control of both the Minister of Public In-
struction and the Minister of Commerce and
Industry Their aim was to impart manual
dexterity and some knowledge of the science
underlying the industries. The dual control
(condominium) of this type of school proved
unsatisfactory, and a reorganization took place
in 1892. The manual apprenticeship schools
became lower schools of commerce and in-
dustry, and were placed under the Minister of
Commerce and Industry. They were intended
for the training of commercial employees and
artisans, and their justification was thus stated*
" With few exceptions apprenticeship in a
shop no longer exists to-day. It has become
indispensable to put at the disposal of business

442

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

men assistants who arc well prepared and to
supply to employers selected artisans.'* These
schools receive pupils up to the age of fifteen.
They may be established by municipalities,
communes, or departments and receive state
aid In 1910 there were 66 such schools (53
for boys and 13 for girls); 36 of the boys'
schools gave instruction in both commerce and
industry, 16 in industry, and one in commerce
alone The girls' schools gave the combined
courses. There were enrolled 10,350 boys and
285S girls In the industrial schools there is a
course common to all, — iron arid woodwork,
while the other courses vary considerably ac-
cording to the needs of the district, e g in-
dustrial chemistry and dyeing; wool weaving
and cloth manufacture; manufacture of fur-
niture; electricity; gunsmithmg; watchmak-
ing, cutlery; printing and typography; etc.
In the commercial schools the courses are also
distinguished by the local needs. Thus, the
choice between two modern languages is deter-
mined bv the geographical location of the
school, the course in merchandise varies ac-
cording to the local trade; and similarly in the
vine-growing districts, the chemistry of wines
is taught In nearly all the schools there is a
commercial bureau in which the pupils are
made acquainted with samples of prints em-
ployed m commerce. The girls receive train-
ing to equip them for the home or for employ-
ment as artificial flower makers, modistes,
corset makers, dressmakers, etc At the con-
clusion of the course of three years the gradu-
ates receive the Cerhficat des Etudes pratiques
cornmercialeft et industnelles.

In a number of these schools there have been
established normal departments which prepare
teachers of industry and commerce. It is
proposed to establish at Paris a normal school
for industrial education.

The efforts of the State are supplemented by
municipalities, chambers of commerce, com-
munes, and individuals. In Paris the town
maintains seven boys' schools for special in-
dustries, for the book industry,}' 6 role Estienne;
for iron and wood work, I Ecole, Diderot and
r Ecole Dorian; for furniture, V Ecole Boulle;
for fine arts applied to industry, VEcole Ber-
nard-Pahssey, for practical drawing, I' Ecole
Germain- Plain ; for the sciences applied to
industry, VEcole de Physique el de Chimie.
These schools give general and industrial (the-
oretical and practical) courses extending over
three or four years In addition there are also
eight industrial schools for girls, which prepare
for the recognized trades for women, such as
tailoring, millinery, flower making, fine lin-
gerie, etc.

A number of schools may be mentioned
throughout the country. Attached to the
University are the Chemical Institute of
Lyons, the Ecole de Brasserie (School of Brew-
ing) of Nancy; the Electrotechnic Institute of
Grenoble, etc. Due to private initiative or

municipal authorities are the Ecole La Mar-
timere at Lyons, celebrated for its special
methods of instruction; the Industrial Insti-
tute of the North, the Spinning and Weaving
School at Lille; the Technical Institute at
Rou^aix; the Industrial School at Tourcomg,
the Ecole Rouviere at Toulon, etc. The State
assists about 400 technical courses with sub-
ventions.

The Schools of Hydrography should also be
mentioned, of these there are sixteen, attended
by candidates for the merchant marine, and the
School of Forestry at Nancy and the Ecole de
Bergerie at Rambouillet.

As in other countries, chambers of commerce,
associations of workmen and employers, and
private individuals play an important part in
the promotion of commercial and industrial
education Such societies for industrial training
include, for example, the Society foi Elemen-
tary Instruction and the Polytechnic Associa-
tion (1830) and the Philotechnic Association
(1848) at Pans; the Popular Education Society
at Havre ; the Society of the Rhone for Industrial
Instruction at Lyons. Many schools of this typo
are distinguished from the preceding in that the
pupils are received at a more mature ago and aio
already following their occupations, while the
courses of instruction tend to be more special-
ized. Among these schools may be men-
tioned " the technical schools for masons es-
tablished by the Paris societies of masons and
stone cutters, courses for tailors maintained
by the incorporated body of tailors, schools*
for jewelry manufacture maintained by the
jewelers' syndicate." G. C

References —

A comprehensive bibliography of works on Industrial
Education is Riven in the Twenty-fifth Annual Report
of the U. S. Commissioner of Labor, pp 521-539 In
the following list only the most important and most
accessible titles are given.

ABTIER, P, andCuMiNAL, I. // Enseignment technique,
industnel et commercial en France et a I'Etrangir
(Paris, 1909 )

CARLTON, F T. Education and Industrial Evolution
(New York, 1908 )

COOLEY, E G Vocational Education in Europe
(Chicago, 1912 )

CREASEY, C. H Technical Education in Evening
Schools (London, 1005 )

DRAPER, A S Our Children, our Schools, and our In-
dustries Annual Report, New York State Edu-
cation Department (Albany, 1908 )

DUTTON, S T , arid SNEDDEN, D 8 Administration of
Public Education in the United States (New York,
1908)

GERMER, B , ed Die Fortbudungs- und Fachschulen in
den grosseren Orten Deutschlands (Leipzig, 1904 )

HANTTB, P H Beginnings in Industrial Education
(Boston, 1908 )

HOWARD, E D. The Cause and Extent of the Recent
Industrial Progress of Germany (Boston, 1907 )

KERBCHENSTEINER, GEOR(J. Organisation and Lehr-

plane der obligatorischen Fach- und Fortbudungs-

schulen filr Knaben in Mttnchen (Munich, 1910 )

Jahresbericht der mannhchen Fortbildungs-und Oewerbe-

achulen Munchens Annual since 1907. (Munich )

Staatsburgeriiche Erriehung der deutochen Jugend.

(Erfurt, 1909.)

443

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

KIMMINS, C W. Trade Schools m England Elem.
Sch. T Vol X, pp. 209-219

KLIMBURG, RUDOLF Die Enlwicklung des gewerblichen
Untemchtswesens in Osterreich (Tubingen, 1900 )

LAUTZ, TH. Fortbildunga- und Fochschulen fur Mad-
chen. (Wiesbaden, 1902 )

Massachusetts Commission on Industrial and Technical

Education, Report (Boston. 1906 )
Second Annual Report (Boston, 1908 )

National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Edu-
cation Bulletins (New York )

New York State Department of Labor, 26th Annual
Report of the Bureau of Labor Statistics, Part I.
Industrial Training (Albany, 1909 )

PACQUIER, J B U Enseignement professional en
France, son Histoire, sea differentea Formes, sea
Resultats (Pans, 1908 )

PERSON, H S Industrial Education (Boston, 1907)

Place of Industries in Public Education. Proceed-
ings, N E A 1910

SADLER, M E Continuation Schools in England and
Elsewhere (Manchester, 1908 )

Technical Education in France U Enseignement tech-
nique en France. Etude publiee a V Occasion de I' Ex-
position de 1900 (Pans, 1900 )

U S Bureau of Labor Conditions of Entrance to the
Principal Trades. Bulletin, No 67, 1906 (Wash-
ington )

U. S Commissioner of Labor Industrial Education
Twenty-fifth Annual Report (Washington, 1910 )

U. S Commissioner of Labor, Trade and Technical
Education Seventeenth Annual Report. (Wash-
ington, 1902 )

U S Department of Commerce and Labor Germany,
Industrial Education in Special Consular Reports,
Vol XXXIII (Washington, 1905 )

WARE, FABIAN. Educational Foundations of Trade and
Industry. (New York, 1901 )

WRIGHT, C D The Apprenticeship System in its
Relation to Industrial Education Bulletin, U S
Bureau of Education, No 6 (Washington, 1908.)

Germany —

CHAMBERLAIN, A H The Conditions and Tendencies
of Technical Education in Germany (Syracuse,
1908)

England, Board of Education, Special Reports on Edu-
cational Subjects Vol I, pp 481-511, Continua-
tion Schools in Saxony; Vol IX, pp 451-464,
Continuation Schools of Berlin

Educational Pamphlets No. 6, Continuation School
Work in the Grand Duchy of Baden and in Canton
Zurich, No. 18, Compulsory Continuation Schools
in Germany

Consultative Committee, Report on Attendance, Com-
pulsory and otherwise^ at Continuation Schooh
(London, 1909 )

England, Foreign Office, diplomatic and consular Re-
ports, miscellaneous series By Dr F. Rose No
566, The Technical, Agricultural, Industrial Com-
mercial, and Art Schools of Wurttemberg No 600,
Technical Instruction in Germany, Building and
Engineering Trades' Schools No 602, The Textilt
Schools for Special Branches of the Metal In-
dustries No 608, Special Schools for Ship En-
gineers No 615, Special Technical Schools for the
Ceramic Industries No 630, Technical Instruc-
tion in Germany , supplementary and ?niscellaneous

FECHNER, K , and SCHMIDT Munchener Volks und
Fortbildungsschulen Bencht uber den Stand des
Munchener Schulwesens im Jahre 1908 (Leipzig,
1909.)

HERBBT, F. Die Fortbildungsschule im Hcrzogtum
Braunschweig (Leipzig, 1907 )

KBRSCHENSTEINER, O Grundfragen der Schulorgani-

aation. (Leipzig, 1907 )

Jahresbericht der mannlichen Fortbildungs- und Gewer-

beschulen Muncht us. Annual since 1907. (Munich )

Staatsburgerhche Erziehung der deutschen Jugend

(Erfurt, 1901 )

Organisation und Lehrplane der obligatonschen Fach-
und Fortbildungsschulen fur Knaben in Munchen
(Munich, 1910.)

Das Munchener Fortbildungsschutwesen (Munich,

1901 )
Three Lectures on Vocational Training (Chicago,

1911 )
KLEY, W Die gewerbhche Fortbildungsschule in Indus-

trieorten (Leipzig, 1910 )
LEXIS, W Dasdeutsche Untemchtswesen, Vol IV, Pt 3

(Berlin, 1904)
Massachusetts Commission on Industrial Education

Second Annual Report, 1908, pp 258-324 (Bos-
ton, 1908)
PACHE, K Handbuch des deutschen Fortbildungs-

schulwesens (Wittenberg, 1896-1905)
REIMANN, C Fuhrer durch die Fortbildungsschulhteratur

(Meissen, 1907 )
ROMAN, F W Die deutschen gewerblichen und Kauf-

manmschen Fortbildungs- und Fachschulen, und die

industnellen und kommerziellen Schulen in den

Vereinigtcn Slaaten (Leipzig, 1910 )
SADLER, M E Continuation Schools in England and

Elsewhere (Manrhebter, 1906 )
SIERCKE, H Das deutsche Fortbildungsschulwesen nach

seiner geschichthchcn Entwicklung (Leipzig, 1908)
SNOWDEN, A A The Industrial Improvement Schools

of Wurttemberu (New York, 1907 )
U S Bureau of Education Rep Com Ed , 1910, Vol

I, pp 300-343
Verwaltungsbencht dcx Kdniglichen preussischen Lan-

desgewerbeamts (Berlin, biennial )

England —

BALPOUR, G Educational Systems of Great Britain
and Ireland (Oxford, 1903 )

Belgium, Mmistere de 1'Induatrie et du Travail Rap-
port sur V Enseigncment professionel en Angleterre
(Brussels, 1890 )

England, Board of Education, Reports and Codes
Report of the Imperial Education Conference, 1911
(London, 1911) Consultative Committee, Re-
port on Attendance, Compulsory or otherwise (1909) ,
Report on Higher Elementary Schools (1906), Regu-
lations for Technical Schools, Schools of Art, and
other School}* ami Clashes (Day and Evening) for
Further Education (London, 1908 )

KIMMINS, C W Trade Schools in England. Elem Sch
Teacher, Vol X, pp 209-219

SEATH, J Education fo~ Industrial Purposes (Toronto,
1911)

France —

BRIZON, P U Apprentissage Hier, aujourd-hui, de-
main (Pans, 1909)

BUISSON, F Dictionnaire de Pedagogic , s vv Ap-
prentissage, It! cole d1 , Apprentissage, K coles ?nan-
uelles d\ Pratiques de Commerce et d} Industrie,
Ecoles (Pans, 1911 )

CAQNINACCI, J H U Instruction professionel de
I'Ouvner. (Paris, ,1910)

CHATELIN, D Les Ecoles d' Apprentissage a Pans
(Pans, 1906)

England, Board of Education Special Reports on
Educational Subjects Vol I, The System of Higher
Primary School* in France (London, 1897 )

FARRINGTON, F E The Public Primary School
System of France. (New York, 1905)

France. Direction d'Instruction Technique Ecole*
pratiques de Commerce et d' Industrie (Paris, 1903 )
Mmistere du Commerce, de 1'Industrie, etc Con-
servatoire national des Arts et Metiers Programmes
des Cours publics (Paris, 1906)
Conseil superieur du Travail L* Enseignement pro-
fessionel (Paris, , 905 )

LAVBRGUE, P Les Ecoles et les (Euvres municipales
1861-1901 (Paris, 1900)

LEBLANO, R V Enseignement professionel en France
au Debut du XXe Siecle. (Paris, 1905 )

PACQUIER, J B L' Enseignement professionel en
France, son Histoire, les differentes Formes, ses
Resultats (Paris, 1908)

SEATH, J. Education for industrial Purposes. (To-
ronto, 1911 )

U S Bureau of Education, Rep. Com. Ed. 1910. Vol. I.
(Washington, 1910.)

444

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS

INFANCY

INDUSTRIAL SCHOOLS, ENGLISH.—

A term used in England with special reference
to the schools provided for wayward, truant,
and cnmmal children, or children of criminals
and drunken parents They include both day
and boarding schools. See for detailed ac-
count the article on REFORMATORY EDUCA-
TION.

INEBRIETY. — See ALCOHOL, THE USE AND
PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECT OF, INTOXICATION;
TEMPERANCE, EDUCATION IN.

INEQUALITIES. — If a, b, and c are

positive quantities, such that a + b - c, we
say that c is greater than o, or that a is
less than c These relations are symbolically
expressed thus: c > a, a < c, and these ex-
pressions are called inequalities Inequalities
are subject to some of the laws of equations,
but not to all of them For example, if a < r,
then a 4- x < c + x ; but ax is not less than
car, if x is negative The subject of inequalities
was formerly treated quite extensively in
elementary algebra, and it has an interesting
theory. Of late, however, it has been recog-
nized that it is of little value until the subject
of limits is reached, arid therefore it has but
slight treatment in our current textbooks on
tho algebra of the secondary school The
symbols > and < are due to Harriot, an Eng-
lish algebraist who wrote in 1631 At the same
Ceriod Oughtred, another well known Eng-
sh algebraist, used TD and d for the same
purpose, and these latter symbols were used
by several English writers of the seventeenth
century. D. E. S.

INFANCY, THEORY OF, IN EDUCATION

— Infancy denotes, biologically, the phase of
immaturity in the development of a function or
organ of an organism It is a more or less
relative term, since some one function mav be
quite undeveloped while others are fully opera-
tive The conception of infancy in contem-
porary educational theory is also colored by
its legal, or better, social sense Infancy
means the period of minority, the period when
an individual is legally represented by an adult
and is under special protection and super-
vision By a natural extension of this mean-
ing, infancy, in education, signifies the entire
period in which individuals are protected from
the assumption of the full duties of adult life,
especially those of economic self-support. So
considered, infancy consists of those years in
which children are shielded against the impact
of economic conditions, in order that their time
and energies may be devoted to adequate
growth; in other words, the years in which
the chief interest is education Quite ob-
viously, the biological and economic phases of
infancy go together. The immaturity of capac-
ity is the cause of economic dependence, while
the period of economic dependence preserves

the plasticity of organs that is favorable to
continuous educational growth. Thus tho
conditions favorable to education have been
identified with "the prolongation of infancy."

John Fisko is the author of the doctrine of
the importance of prolonged infancy. He
seized upon the fact that early perfection arid
high specialization of function are unfavorable to
further development, and that they render prac-
tically impossible the acquisition of new powers.
In some sense, the early perfection of animal
instincts and powers is the barrier that pre-
cludes learning, and hence development On
the other hand, the incompetency for special-
ized acts of the human young means a plas-
ticity (q v.) which permits arid demands learn-
ing— adaptation of capacities to new condi-
tions as these show themselves Consequently,
infancy (of some organ) remains as long as
genuine growth, transformation, is possible to
a human being Its opposite is not so mucli
competency of action as arrest of growth, ex-
haustion of potentiality, of possible assump-
tion of new directions of thought and action.

It follows that infancy is to be conceived
positively, rather than negatively, it marks
the presence of a powerful and significant
resource rather than the mere absence of
capacities Our tendency to conceive infancy
in terms of lack, deprivation, impotency, is due
to our taking certain specialized adult forma of
capacity as our standard, the lack and mi-
potency are purely relative and comparative.
If we emphasize the limit of growth which
characterizes adult specialized powers (the
fact that they evidence the formation of habits
that resist readaptation), adult powers arc u
sign of defect as compared with the mobile,
alert case of adaptation to the new that chai-
actenzes infancy Viewed absolutely, infancy
is a power, not an impotency It is power of
growth Viewed statically, crosswise as it
were, immaturity is mere deficiency of develop-
ment, and till the rise of the biological sciences
and of the theory of evolution, it was almost
universal to conceive childhood in this negative
fashion Children were simply partial, in-
complete adults, the object of education was
to hurry them through this period of lack into
the full competency of adulthood Put othei-
wise, education was a preparation for a future
which alone was fully real and significant Bui
the theory of education substitutes a length-
wise view for tins crosswise interpretation, it
reveals immaturity as the essence of life itself,
the power of continuing development, of re-
newal, of readaptation to the changing. It
represents, so to speak, the evolutionary im-
petus itself, as against the fixations of capacity
foi adaptation indicated by matured organs

The importance of the idea of infancy for
educational purposes requires that we note the
reflex influence of prolonged infancy upon the
social conditions of adult life. It is hardly
too much to say, as Mr. Fiske (q v ) also

445

INFANCY

INFANT EDUCATION

first pointed out, that the helplessness of
infancy has probably been the chief force in
socializing the human race in its progress out
of an animal condition Mutual defense and
economic efficiency have been powerful forces
in bringing about associations of human beings
Relations of sex have brought about even more
intimate and intense associations. But com-
binations brought about by these forces are
relatively transitory and instinctive as com-
pared with those due to the need of the con-
tinued care of the young. Although the young
of savage peoples are more precocious than
those of civilized races, the years in which
their dependence demands continued close
association are relatively long in contrast with
the weeks, days, or hours during which eco-
nomic and sexual needs hold people together
It is generally admitted, for example, that the
change of the marriage relation from a tempo-
rary to an enduring form has been chiefly ef-
fected by the presence of children, with their
long-continued need for support And this
latter motive can hardly have failed to react
into industry, changing it from a predatory
immediate satisfaction of physical wants
as they became urgent into systematized,
cooperative, and sustained modes of action.
And this is only to say, with respect both to
family and industry, that the presence of the
dependent young has been a powerful factor
in transforming instincts into conscious affec-
tions and thoughts The continued care of
children tends to change passionate attraction
into tender emotions, into sympathy, into
affectionate interest It also involves fore-
sight, planning ahead) taking into considera-
tion matters broader and longer than the
immediate satisfaction of organic appetite
An interesting light upon the education of adults
through the necessities due to the presence of
children is shed by the r61e which the need of
instruction has played in the organization of
science Desire to get knowledge into a form
in which it would be available and effective in
the training of the less advanced has been an
infinitely more powerful motive in bringing
together and systematizing knowledge and
beliefs than all purely logical motives put
together The need of education has been
the chief cause of a survey of experience wider
than that required by the narrow immediate
personal exigencies of appetite and circum-
stance This fact is illustrative of the funda-
mental intellectual and moral influence due to
the presence of infants — that is, of the rela-
tively helpless In the narrower psychological
sense of the term, applying to the period from
birth to the end of the third year, the subject
is discussed m the preceding article on INFANT
EDUCATION J D.

See EDUCATION; GROWTH; also CHILD
LABOR; CHILD PSYCHOLOGY; CHILD STUDY;
CHILDHOOD, LEGISLATION FOK THE CONSERVA-
TION OF.

446

References : —

BUTLER. N. M. The Meaning of Education. (New

York, 1905 )

CHAMBERLAIN, A F The Child, ch 1 (London, 1900 )
FISKE, J The Meaning of Infancy (Boston, 1909 )
HALLY, G 8 Adolescence (New York, 1907 )

Youth. (New York, 1906 )

HENDERSON, E N Textbook in the Principles of Edu-
cation, ch 2 (New York, 1910 )

KIRKPATRICK, E A Fundamentals of Child Study, ch 1
(New York, 1903 )

INFANT EDUCATION —Historical
Sketch — The education of the child for the
first three or four years of its life has among
some people received much attention, among
others very little So also has it been in the
discussion of education when education has
become a matter of philosophical or social
consideration

Among primitive people there exist many
customs relating both to the conduct of mother
or father, and to the conduct as well as the care
of the child. While most of these relate to the
care of the body, many of them relate even thus
early to the social education Some of the
Zuni or Pueblo Indians even have an mitiatoiy
ceremony within three years of infancy (See
PRIMITIVE PEOPLES, EDUCATION AMONG.)

Among ancient peoples whose civilization
was of a high order, the Greeks, perhaps, were
most acutely conscious of the importance of
utilizing the plastic period of infancy for im-
planting moral and aesthetic ideas and for
developing a sound physique. In his Life of
Lycurgus Plutarch tells us that the Lacedae-
monians attached the greatest importance to
the rearing of healthy and vigorous children
To this end the girls — future mothers of citi-
zens — received much the same rigid physical
and moral training as the boys The Greek
practices concerning infant education arc dis-
cussed in the article on Greek Education, the
ideals and theory are further presented in the
articles on Aristotle, Plato, and Plutarch, each
of whom wrote in detail upon the subject.
Aristotle and Plato also devote much attention
to the duties and obligations of the guardians
or political officials regarding the education of
infants as well as of youths.

With the Romans one finds a type of home
training of infants which has become famous
The position of the wife and mother in the
Roman household was one of far greater honor
and dignity than that of the Greek wife. The
newborn infant, far from being consigned " to
the mean dwelling of a hireling nurse," was
carefully reared by its own mother who divided
her time between household concerns and the
nurture of her children. If her cares were
too onerous, some female relation of irreproach-
able character was placed in partial charge of
the children. The Romans had a just apprecia-
tion of the value of imitation in the training
of young children. In his treatise called
Brutus, Cicero maintains that greater atten-

INFANT EDUCATION

INFANT EDUCATION

tion should be paid to the language which
children daily hear and imitate The fullest
statement of the educational theorist is given
by Quintiliau. By his time (c 118 AD ) the
emphasis upon intellectual pursuits and the
training of the accomplished orator had become
pronounced Hence we need not be surprised
to find this prince of educators and stylists not
only urging that parents and nurses be cultivated
persons, but taking his stand with one Chry-
sippus, who affirmed that no part of a child's
life should be free from tuition. Even though
the first three years be allowed to nurses, yet
" the minds of children may be imbued with
excellent instruction even by them " Qum-
tihan concedes that probably very little can
be accomplished in these early years; never-
theless " even studies have their infancy "
Yet the little child should by no means be
driven to intellectual tasks, but rather be led to
find amusement in them

During the Middle Ages the earliest stage of
education, like all other stages, was influenced
by a combination of the custom of primitive
peoples of the classical civilization and by Chris-
tianity The discussions on early Christian
education, CHRISTIAN CHURCH, EARLY EDU-
CATION UNDER, CATECHETICAL INSTRUCTION,
CHURCH SCHOOLS, MIDDLE AGES AND EDU-
CATION, and related topics give the details
for this period The school ordinances of
the German states during the sixteenth and
seventeenth centuries reveal, however, the per-
sistence of much of the ignorance and supersti-
tion of the primitive period into that late age

During the Renaissance and the centuries
following, ideas and customs with regard to
infant education very slowly and gradually
underwent modification. In the seventeenth
century the swaddling of infants was no longer
practiced in England and Germany, although
the custom persists in parts of Italy and France
down to the present time, despite the vigorous
protest of teachers The nurse becomes a
prominent figure in English child life in the
reigns of the Tudors and the Stuarts But
the habit of sending children from home to be
brought up by foster nurses never gams the
foothold in England that it obtains across the
channel The faithful nurse of the Tudor
period has been delightfully portrayed in
Shakespeare's Romeo and Juliet She it was
who cared for the bodily wants of her small
charges, and repeated those legendary tales,
ballads, and rhymes so dear to the hearts of
children. (See NURSERY RHYMES.)

For methods and materials which now began
to come in vogue, especially in this early in-
tellectual training, see the article on ABCDA-
RIANB, NURSERY RHYMES, etc The evil of
forcing young children beyond their mental
strength existed in the seventeenth century
as now, although it was probably not a com-
mon practice Sir John Evelyn, in his Diary,
proudly writes of his infant son* " At two and

a half old he could perfectly readc any of the
English, Latine, French 01 Gothic letteiK,
pronouncing the three first languages exactly "
Apparently this infant wonder, who died when
he was but just five years old, could decline
Latin and French nouns, conjugate most of
the regular and irregular verbs, and "had a
strong passion for Greeke " Luther and
Erasmus (qq v ) give some consideration to the
training appropriate to the very early years
But the most notable writers who consider infant
^''Wucation in the seventeenth century are Come-
nius and Locke In his well known work, the
Great Didactic, Comenius draws a sketch of what
he calls the " Mother-School," or " School of
the mother's knee " Here he quaintly describes
the process by which a very little child may
gradually acquire many valuable facts about
its world As the tree very early puts forth
the shoots that will later become its branches,
so in this first school we must implant in the
future man the seeds of all knowledge Locke
(q v.) is probably the first writer or theorist on
education who makes the child the center of the
entire process And for this reason he stresses
the physical, moral, and intellectual aspects oi
education Of the three the physical is funda-
mental or basic, but the moral is the most
important aspect The formation of habits of
good conduct, which can be begun in the period
of infancy, is the chief aim of education The
intellectual aspect is secondary, and comes later

With the middle of the eighteenth century,
the result of Locke's teaching becomes appar-
ent. In the bmile of Rousseau (1762) the
educational importance of the period of infancy
receives its first full recognition (See ROUS-
SEAU, JEAN JACQUES, for details) From the
writings of this reformer comes the conception
of education as the development of the powers
of the individual which makes the physical
and psychical growth of the first few years of
utmost importance Extreme as he was in
asserting that the nature of the newborn
infant is wholly good " as it conies from the
hands of the Author of Nature/' deteriorating
only in the hands of man, he performed an
incalculable service in directing the attention of
parents and teachers to the " primitive dis-
positions " of little children, and to the part
these should play in determining early home
education This* was an age of individualism,
and Rousseau would have even the little child
emancipated from an unintelligent and cramping
tradition, and given his full rights as an indi-
vidual In spite of all the inconsistencies and
exaggerations so frequently commented on by
Rousseau's critics, no one can deny that his
influence upon the course of infant nurture
and education was enormous

Pestalozzi and Froebel carried to practical
embodiment the more or less theoretic sug-
gestions of Rousseau From his Letter* on
Early Education it would appear that Pesta-
lozzi was as actively interested in infant

447

INFANT EDUCATION

INFANT EDUCATION

education as Ins famous successor Froebel
He writes with the utmost earnestness that he
despairs of accomplishing all that lie hopes
and plans for the uplifting oi mankind unless
the earliest stages of education be provided
for. The mother, with her unfailing fount
of maternal love, is the agent in whose hands
lies the future of human improvement. But
how is the untaught mother to direct these
powers? Pestalozzi would reply " By devel-
oping heart and brain and hands to the true
standard of all activity — the spiritual nature
of man " (See PESTALOZZI ) It was Froebel,
however, who stands as the great organizer
of the ideas and much of the practices relating
to infant education With Froebel the gospel
of the sacredness arid almost limitless possi-
bilities of childhood reached its culmination
The original nature of every little child he ear-
nestly believed to be whole and sound, since
this nature was but an individual expression
of the Divine Unity, of the spiritual life of
God pulsating through His highest creation
Therefore every unspoiled child unconsciously
and yet surely seeks that which is best It
follows that all early education should be pas-
sive following, not " prescriptive, categorical,
interfering " The details of Froebel 's ideas
and practices are given under FKOEBEL,
FRIEDRICH, and KINDERGARTEN In this con-
nection accpunt should be taken of the more
superficial and mechanical scheme worked out
in England under the mane of Infant Schools
(</ v ) chiefly by Wilderspm (q v ) Yet Rous-
seau, Pestalozzi, and Froebel were hardly more
than frontiersmen in the new domain of child
study, staking out the land and indicating
the work to be done by their more scientific
successors The modern psychologist and edu-
cator, using the suggestions thrown out by
these great pioneers, have patiently endeav-
ored to understand, by observation and experi-
ment, the unfolding mind of the infant Specu-
lation and hit-or-niiss empiricism have given
place to the painstaking methods of science in
the study of the little child, a study upon
which the earliest as well as the most advanced
education must be grounded if it is to bear
wholesome fruit W G

Theory —The term "education" has for so
many years been identified with the formal in-
struction of the schoolroom that the joining of
the terms " infant " and " education " seems
almost a paradox However, the present view-
point is more and more emphasizing the fact
that education is adjustment, LS change, is prep-
aration for service, the trend being always to
ward ideal ends or purposes. With this emphasis
on change and adjustment, no period in the
child's life offers such evidences of education as
do the years before he enters school, those years
before his education is supposed to have com-
menced If it be possible to point to any one
period of four years as the one in which the
greatest number of adjustments is made by the

child, when he learns most, this time must
surely be the period of infancy During this
interval the child passes from a being with little
or no mental life to one surpassing the highest
animals in intelligence, showing at least the
rudiments of all the human faculties; from a
helpless being that makes a few reflex and in-
stinctive movements to one that has control of
many voluntary movements which enable him
to care for himself, and to manipulate objects
and often people to do his pleasure; from a
being whose pains are expressed by a single cry
to one that experiences many human emotions
arid desires, capable of expressing himself in
symbolic human language, from a being that
merely vegetates to one that shows such poten-
tial powers that we recognize human capaci-
ties.

The importance of this period, which has been
emphasized by Preyer, Fiske, Miss Shinn, and
others, has been largely lost sight of during
the past fifteen years, a fact due to the wide-
spread influence of President Hall and his
followers The adolescent period has been des-
ignated as the critical one in the life of the
child, hence interest in educational circles has
been centering on the development of the in-
dividual during the early teens However, the
Montesson (q v ) movement in Italy, and, more
recently, the psychological investigations of
Jung and Freud, are again focusing attention
on the early infancy of the child. The results
of these two investigators in psycho-analysis,
although still in the tentative stages, indicate
that the desires, emotions, arid the mental and
physical habits formed in infancy, often before
the age of four years, have a very great in-
fluence in detei mining not only the physical
status of the child, but also the future emo-
tional arid volitional life of the adult The
general trend of development and charactei
given during these early years, even though for-
gotten, is, they claim, of lasting importance in
shaping the final product.

Even those who regard this peiiod as im-
portant, however, have offered few suggestions
and principles for education; these few are
very general and flexible in character This
lack is due to the fact that during this early
life the child is in the care of his parents and
physician, therefore he has not been subjected
to the same close investigation as has been
accorded the child of school age The day
nursery is the one institution with its chief
interest in children of this age, although to the
Montessori schools, wherever found, and to
the 6coles maternelles of France children are
admitted at two years, and to the infant schools
of England at three. Day nurseries were
founded for the care of young children whose
mothers were at work; the emphasis in these
institutions, especially in this country, has been
on the development of good health, the pre-
vention of disease, and on educating the chil-
dren through play.

448

INFANT EDUCATION

INFANT EDUCATION

The educational principles involved in infant
education center around two great topics,
whether applied by the mother to the training
of the child in the home, or by the teachers in
any of the schools mentioned, or by the nurse
in the day nursery; these are physical
welfare, and the process of habit formation
Of primary importance is the physical welfare,
especially during the first year, for upon health
must depend not only the habits of this period,
but also the intellectual development of later
years During this first year the child nearly
trebles his size, a rate of growtli far exceeding
that of any other period, though it continues
rapid for a year 01 two. In connection with
this fact, if one realizes that the proportion of
the weight of each of the vital organs to the
lest of the body, and the proportion of body
sin face to weight greatly exceeds what it will
be later, and likewise that the automatic machm-
ei y governing physiological operations is not
vet running smoothly, that about 11 per cent
of all children die during the first year and but
"2\ pei cent during the next two years, is a
fact, not so surprising Recent statistics show
that "a substantial reduction in the propor-
ti HI of mortality has taken place even in the
laige cities, but it is also apparent that the
decrease is more maikecl for children under five
than foi infants, — u fact which proves that the
health problems of the latter, have1 not yet re-
ceived sufficient attention " This, then, is the
most critical period of physical development,
and all the positive measures to insure normal
growth and to prevent disease should be care-
fully studied and provided by parents.

The factor having most to do with promoting
growth and preventing disease is piopei feed-
ing In the early months theie is no food
which can take the place of the natural one —
milk " Tests made in European countries
have revealed the fact that breast-feeding
yields the lowest infant mortality, that the
use of animal milk causes a larger death-rate,
and that the milk substitutes cause the largest
death-rates " After the child is weaned, his
food must still be fluids, and richer in albumi-
noids than that of the adult The way for
solid foods must be paved very gradually, for
the digestive system is still highly sensitive,
therefore easily upset

Because of the larger radiating sin face, and
the poorly regulated heating apparatus, the
infant is very susceptible to changes in tem-
perature, so that the clothing of the child and
the varying temperatures of rooms are im-
portant items in insuring good health To
expect an infant to thrive in the hot, dry air
of city apartments, where even plants wither
and die, is to expect the impossible Fresh air
and sunshine are more important now than at
any subsequent time. The furnishings of the
nursery and playroom are influential not only
in determining the emotional reactions of the
infant, but also in predisposing him to ceitain

aesthetic habits, and should therefore be chosen
with care

Plenty of sleep and lack of intense and
rapidly changing stimulation are necessary, as
well as plenty of opportunity to exercise the
muscles of the body without incurring too
great fatigue One of the most radical changes
in lecent years in infant education is along this
line The baby used to be considered the
plaything of the family, and was always ex-
hibi^ed and " shown off " to guests While
awake, the child was being played with con-
stantly, thus calling for constant change of
attention. The forcing of so much violent
sense stimulation upon the delicate, growing
nervous organism made the baby cross and
irritable, induced unnecessary and extreme
fatigue, and resulted often in an overexcitable
nervous system The present view is that,
though he should be played with and coddled
every day, yet much of the time he should be
left to himself, to play arid to exercise as he
pleases, without undue stimulation by adults
Other children later become his companions,
and the same principle holds true for the group.

The education of the infant has as its second
important factor the formation of good habits
The most important ones, perhaps, are the
physiological habits, those of muscular control,
— such as talking and walking, — those of
perception, and certain moral habits All
education at all times in the life of any indi-
vidual is conditioned by the capacity of that
individual The instinctive equipment of the
infant must determine the habits that can be
formed As some instincts develop later than
others, some habits must be begun after the
others are \vell fixed As the appearance of
the instinct, however, depends not only on the
stage of physical development reached by the
infant, but also upon the environment, it nec-
essarily follows that the presence of an ade-
quate environment at the proper time is a vital
factor in the normal education of a child The
formation of a habit on the basis of some in-
stinct, on this level of development, in every
case follows the same general course Blind,
uncontrolled movements are made in response
to the stimuli of the environment, sometimes
many; sometimes few, a proportion of them
meet with partial success The contrast be-
tween the two results, and their varying de-
grees of perfection, tend to develop conscious-
ness in connection with the situation, and the
movement which ended in success comes to be
deliberately repeated. This repetition of the
movement, with the correcting of errors and
eliminating useless movements through com-
parison with a standard, results in a good
habit The importance of the two factors of
pleasure from results, and the conscious en-
deavor to perfect the performance through
comparison with a standard, will vary in
strength and importance, the lattei factoi
playing a more prominent part as the rhrld

VOL. in — 2 a

449

INFANT EDUCATION

INFANT EDUCATION

grows older. The duty of the parent or teacher
is first, to see that the environment is of such
a character that the instinctive reactions will
show themselves; second, so to arrange
tilings that good and useful reactions shall
meet with success, and harmful or useless ones
with failure; third, to make sure that all the
elements which form the environment of the
developing infant, especially the habits, tem-
pers, and ideals of the adults who surround the
infant, shall be of a character worthy to serve
as standards toward which his growth may
proceed, fourth, to bear in mind that many
habits, particularly those in the intellectual
and moral fields, need to be progressive, not
fixed and left once for all.

In his learning at this stage the infant fol-
lows the animal method of trial and " acci-
dental " success; the pleasure which means
most to him is physical pleasure, and the pain
which really deters is physical pain Approval
and disapproval have considerable influence
with the child toward the end of this period,
and come to be sought or avoided, at least in
the beginning, according to their association
with pleasurable or unpleasurable physical
conditions The only motive appealing to
the infant is the individualistic one His only
aim is self-advancement and self-gratification
In all children between the ages of two and
three the control of this motive is hidden by an
apparent unselfishness; this is due to the in-
ability of the child to distinguish between him-
self and others, his own personality has not
vet been differentiated Because he is not yet a
self-conscious being, it makes little difference
to him whether he or some one else has the bite
or the coddling This state does not last long,
however, for at three, sometimes even before,
the consciousness of self appears, and in its
emergence the infant shows the individualistic
motive in all its strength. To expect a child
of three or four to act from any motive other
than some form of self-seeking is to expect not
alone what cannot happen, but a thing which
would be most unfortunate if it did happen.
The only method by which the social-minded,
altruistic adult can be made is through having
the child seek his own well-being alone, with all
his heart, mind, and strength He must learn
to know and to be much, before his giving can
count for much. Parents and teachers will
do well to recognize that this extreme egotism
of the young child is both natural and useful;
it must be developed, not suppressed. The
infant must be won gradually to social interests
and motives During the first three or four
years of the child's life it is scarcely possible to
make a beginning. In this period to train a
baby to be influenced by a word of approval
as well as by some reward in the way of food,
to want a story instead of a toy, and to be
willing to wait for rewards and pleasures in-
stead of demanding them immediately, is to
lay a good foundation for futuie conduct.

Regularity in the physiological processes
must be established during the period of in-
fancy. Habits of eating, sleeping, bathing,
and evacuation should be fixed. The health
of the infant demands at this time the estab-
lishment of such habits, and the well-being of
the adult, physically and in other ways, may be
largely conditioned upon them.

Muscular control comes gradually only, and
is evolved from many spontaneous, uncoor-
dinated movements; the baby, therefore,
should have wide opportunity to exercise all
his muscles, and clothing should not hamper
his movements or interfere in the least with
circulation or respiration. On a bed or a pile
of rugs he can twist, wriggle, kick, swing arms,
grasp at the air or anything else, and crow and
gurgle, thereby preparing for future muscular
control. Such control comes by degrees, first,
probably, the large muscles of the arm, then
" those of the eyes and head in turning toward
sights and sounds, then the body in sitting,
the hands in grasping, and finally, near the close
of the first year, the legs in creeping, standing,
and walking, and the vocal organs in repeating
sounds. " None of these habits is perfected
in this period, but some control is gained, to
be perfected and extended during the following
period The habits of walking and talking
seldom come together, but a fair degree of
control is attained in one, and then attention
is called to the other. Walking usually pre-
cedes, but if talking is begun early, it may be
delayed. 8mce both of these habits depend
on the development of the brain centers in the
third level, their appearance is some indication
of the development of the nervous system
Undue delay, therefore, in the appearance of
activity or in the control of either of these may
be a cause for anxiety, indicating a lack of
development in higher brain centers But forc-
ing the infant to walk before the muscles or
nerves are ready is unwise, and may result in
serious difficulty After the infant has gained
some measure of control of the muscles of arms
and legs, he is anxious to use them, and almost
any activity will satisfy him, just so he is doing
something that does not involve too much
fatigue. This, then, is the time to teach him
to dress himself, to pick up and put away toys,
and to help in many little ways, thus may be
established with little effort valuable habits of
orderliness and helpfulness.

The development of definite human language
from the incoherent babble of the infant has
always aroused the interest and wonder of the
adult, but the method here followed is that one
herein outlined. The babble, involving as it
does all the sounds of the language, approaches
at times the semblance of a word; the child is
then coddled and kissed and made much of.
Again and again, his process of accidental suc-
cess, with subsequent pleasure, takes place, until
the child finally deliberately says the word to
gain the result; thus grows his control of the

450

INFANT EDUCATION

INFANT EDUCATION

language, imitation of the words and accents
of others coming in as aids At first simple
words play the part of whole sentences, for
the normal and verbal relations do not exist
independently for the young child. For him
the object is always acting, for many months,
therefore, the verb is neglected, and the noun
takes the part of both; this is particularly true
of the copula, for gesture and intonation can
discharge its function The other parts of
speech appear in the following order adjec-
tive, adverb, preposition, conjunction, and the
pronoun at the beginning of the third year In
order that he may once for all learn the correct
forms, it is obviously important that the child
shall hear good language; this last fact bars
from approbation the use of " baby talk,"
despite the attractiveness it possesses for the
adult Opportunities for verbal expression
should be given, and situations presented where
needs are satisfied only after the use of such
expression The scope as well as the character
of the vocabulary of the child of three depends
primarily on the need he has been made to feel
for this kind of expression, and the amount of
pleasure he has derived therefrom The lan-
guage habits formed before school age control
for many years

The relation between the development of
language and that of ideas is a very close one,
at least to some extent the latter is conditioned
by the former The intellectual life of the
child at this age is largely perceptual and
imaginative He is becoming acquainted with
himself, with people, with objects From the
mass of unrelated sensory impressions he must
evolve unified wholes, possessing certain chai-
acteristics The line of development of this
perceptual faculty is suggested by the ordor of
language development noted above During
this process between the third and the fouith
year the confusion between the memory of
percepts and the images of imagination shows
itself The percepts are still hazy, lacking
many essential characteristics, and the im-
ages are extremely vivid and interesting, so
arises the confusion. The need at this time
is for manifold sense experiences, but with op-
portunity for repetition so that the percept
may be fixed with enough variety not to lose
the novelty. The broader and more complete
the sensory and perceptual experiences of the
infant, the greater the possibilities of future
intellectual development Toys afford one of
the chief educational means, they should be
few, simple, offering much chance for activity,
thus offering stimulation for initiative and
imagination. With the young child, toys
should be changed often, the old ones brought
back have the charm of novelty, and so stimu-
late to further knowledge Suggestions af-
forded by the toy congress and by toy exhibits
should be of great service to parents in making
this stage of the child's development normal
and healthful Before ho is four the child

should be asking for stones, these are a very
necessary part of his education, alike stimulat-
ing the imagination and giving material for
the dramatic play. Stories should be chosen
carefully, should be within the child's ex-
perience, yet with the wonder element promi-
nent Children of this age are especially in-
terested in other children and in animals, but,
whatever the content of the story, it must
possess movement, color, life, in order to ap-
peal Stones told at this time are often the
source of the night fears that trouble the ma-
jority of children These fears are due to two
factors, the child's lack of experience, which
prevents his distinguishing between possible
and impossible happenings, and his lack of
ability to distinguish between peicepts and
images If the story contains anything fright-
ful, the baby is very apt to recall it later, after
the darkness has added its mystery, making
even the familial room seem strange He
then may really behove that the boar is undor
the bed, 01 that a chance noise is the rattlo of
the witch's broomstick As it is the emo-
tional element in any situation that makes
the deepest impression on the young child, the
fear-producing factor may he in the telling of
the story rather than in its content The
probability of the child's developing night
fears at this time is considerably reduced if
fiom infancy he has been trained to go to sleep
in the dark, on the other hand, if he is be-
tween two and three years of age befoie he is
left in the dark to go to sleep, he will scarce!}
escape these night terrors, and then, if lie is a
sensitive, imaginative child, his suffering may
be extreme The other fears which appear in
many babies, such as fear of animals, wind,
etc , if they are not clue to the example of adults,
are usually transitory, and can be eliminated by
having some definitely pleasurable result con-
nected with the fear-arousing situation

The period of infancy is the natural time foi
the establishment of the habit of obedience
It is a natural outgrowth of the relation be-
tween the infant and the adult Obedience
must first be given to a personal authority,
because pleasure and good results arise from
it Punishment best understood is physical
pain, and, a little later, disapproval The
adult should be consistent and model ate in
his demands, but the obedience required should
be immediate and cheerful No other habit is
of greater importance than this one to the futuie
moral development of the individual The
adult's appreciation of law and his power to
command find their source in this habit of
obedience. Other moral habits, of self-con-
trol in emotions and desires, of cleanliness, of
consideration for others, of generosity, loyalty,
and truthfulness, must be begun during in-
fancy, the motive appealed to being the same,
some fonn of individual pleasure The child
of tin oo or four who has found out that " it
pays " to wait , V" things, to share with others,

451

INFANT EDUCATION

INFANT SCHOOLS

and to obey promptly, is in a fair way to be- O'SHBA, M V Linguistic Development and Education

come a social-minded, law-abidmc citizen ^ (^!wX°rk' lg?6>,. , „ _ ...

come a social-minded, law-abiding citizen

Briefly summarizing infant education cen-
ters about the child's physical welfare, primarily
depending on proper feeding, a wise environ-
ment including necessarily restful sleep, fresh
air, a lack of undue stimulation, judicious
" letting alone," and the formation of proper
habits as to muscular control, the correct use of
language, the regularity of the physiological
functions, responsiveness to proper incentives

The Mind of a Child (New York,

PREYER, WM

1890 )

SHINN, M The Biography of a Baby (Boston. 1900 )
TRACY, F. Psychology of Childhood (Boston, 1897 )
TYLER. J. M Growth and Education. (Boston, 1907 )

INFANT MORTALITY. — See MORTALITY
AMONG SCHOOL CHILDREN.

INFANT SCHOOLS. — The honor of estab-

the development and control of desirable lishmg the first infant school is generally

emotions, and the virtues of obedience and

self-mastery N. N.

References —

History

\RIHTOTLE The Politics, Jowett ed. (Oxford, 1885 )
BOESCH, HANS Kinderlehen in der deutschen Vergan-

genheit (Leipzig, 1900 )
C1LARK, GEORGE The Education of Children at Rome

(New York, 1896 )
COMENIUB, J A The Great Didactic (London,

FROEBEL, F, Education by Development (New York,

1899)

Education of Man (Now York, 1894 )
Mother's Songs, Games and Stories (Mutter-und
Kose-Lieder). (London, 1892)

GABQUET, F A Christian Family Life in Pre-Refor-
mation Days Educational Briefs, No 17 (Phil-
adelphia, 1907 )

GODFREY, ELIZABETH. English Children in the Olden

Time. (London, 1907.)
Home Life under the Stuarts. (London, 1903 )

GULICK, C B The Life of the Ancient Greeks
York, 1907)

HOLM AN, H Pestalozzi, an Account of his Life and
Work (London, 1908)

KIDD, DUDLEY Savage Childhood (London, 1906 )

LOCKE, JOHN Some Thoughts concerning Education.
(Cambridge, 1889 )

MONROE, PAUL Source Book in the History of Educa-
tion for the Greek and Roman Period (New York,

PAINTER, F V N. Luther on Education. (Phila-
delphia, 1886)

PARSONS ELSIE C The Family (New York and
London, 1906 )

PESTALOZZI, HEINRICH. Buch der Mutter Zurich,

1803 )
How Gertrude Teaches her Children (Syracuse,

1898)
Letters on Early Education (Syracuse, 1898)

PLATO The Republic (Jowett ed,) (Clarendon Press,
Oxford, 1888)

ascribed to Jean- Frederic Oberlm (q v ), but
the institution from which sprang the infant
schools of the British Islands and the tcoles
maternelks of France was established by
Robert Owen (q.v.). As soon as Owen had
obtained complete control of the cotton mills
at New Lanark, " a building which may be
termed the New Institution was erected in the
centre of the establishment with an enclosed
area before it ... intended as a playground."
The upper story was intended to serve for a
senior school, lecture room, and church, the
lower for an infant school To the infant
school children were admitted almost as soon
as they could walk There they were "per-
petually superintended to prevent them ac-
quiring bad habits, to give them good ones,
and to form their dispositions to mutual kind-
ness " They were taught also " whatever
(New might be supposed useful that they could
understand," and the instruction was com-
bined with singing and dancing and as much
amusement as was found requisite for health
and to render the little ones active, cheerful,
and happy. In fine weather they were much
out of doors. There was no punishment, and
"the children were not to be annoyed with
books, but were to be taught the uses and
nature or qualities of the common things
around them by familiar conversation" and
" by sensible signs — the things themselves or
models or paintings." The first master was
" a good obstinate dominie of the old school,"
but " he could not and would not attempt to
adopt what he deemed to be . . ' new-

uxiora, 1888 ) aaopi wnat ne aeemea to De . . new-
QUINTILIAN Institutes of Oratory Bohn Library f angled ' ideas/' Owen therefore sought among
Series (London. 1899 ) +u« ~rt~,,i«*;~~ ~r 4-u~ ,,;n /~ii j ° j f

Series (London, 1899 )
ROUSSEAU, J J Emdc (New York. 1908)
SUPER, C W Plutarch on Education (Syracuse,

iyiu )

TACITUS Dialogue concerning Oratory Monroe's

Source Book (supra), pp 362-363
Works. Bohn Classical Library, Vol V (London,

1884 )
WEBSTER, H Primitive Secret Societies. (New York,

Theory .

the population of the village (all depending on
the mills) " two persons who had a great love
for and unlimited patience with infants, and
who were thoroughly tractable and willing
unreservedly to follow " his instructions He
found a master in "a poor simple-hearted
weaver named James Buchanan (gv.), who had
been previously trained by his wife to perfect
submission to her will," who " loved children

,

ENGLAND, BOARD OF EDUCATION Report of the Consul- strongly" and had inexhaustible patience
tative Committee uvon the School Attend*™* nf

tative Committee upon the School Attendance of

Children below the Age of Five (London, 1908 )
FITZ, R K and G W Problems of Babyhood. (New

York, 1906 )
KIRKPATRICK, E A The Individual in the Making

(Boston. 1911 )
MAJOH, l) R Fi,t>t Steps in Mental Growth (New

York, 1906 )
MANUOLD, G B Child Problems (New York, 1910 )

452

wjth them> an(j wl?o was wiHing to be in-
structed. To aid him "a young woman about
seventeen years of age, known familiarly
among the villagers as Molly Young," was
appointed

The New Institution was only one of many
plans for forming the younger or reforming

Tho Infant School at Plav.

The Infant School at Work.

INFANT SCHOOLS

INFANT SCHOOLS

the older inhabitants of New Lanark, and,
Owen being skillful in attracting attention,
these plans became well known both at home
and abroad. The Marquis of Lansdowrie,
Brougham, James Mill, Zachary Macaulay,
Joseph Wilson, and other benevolent English-
men who approved of the infant school,
combined in 1818 to set up a similar one at
Westminster, and in order that the copy might
be perfect they obtained the services of Bu-
chanan as master He does not seem to have
had the originality or the enthusiasm necessary
for working well alone, but he inspired Wilder-
spin (q.v.), who had sufficient originality to
evolve a new type and sufficient enthusiasm
to make it popular Wilderspin was himself
instrumental in establishing a considerable
number of infant schools, and his advocacy
may have had some influence in inducing the
British and Foreign School Society (q v ), the
National Society (q v.), and the Irish Com-
missioners to make such schools an integral
part of their systems. His influence m Scot-
land can be plainly seen (See STOW, DAVID )

In 1836 the Home and Colonial Society (q v )
was founded to train teachers for infant
schools, and as a leading member of the Com-
mittee, Dr Mayo, had resided for nearly three
years at Yverdun, the methods of Pestalozzi
were inculcated. These must have tended to
correct the " bookishness " which was the
chief fault of the earlier schools, for Joseph
Fletcher, a government inspector who in 1845
examined the schools connected with the
British and Foreign School Society, reported
that a great improvement had been wrought
The improvement continued, and the Royal
Commission appointed in 1858 reported that
infant schools " form a most important part
of the machinery required for a national system
of education inasmuch as they lay the foun-
dation, in some degree of knowledge and in a
still greater degree of habits, which are essen-
tial to education, while without them a child
may contract habits and sustain injuries
which the best school will afterwards be un-
able to correct and remedy " Even then the
school for infants was too much a copy of the
school for older children, too much was thought
of " lessons, " and instruction was too often
allowed to usurp the place of education.
There was a gradual amendment till about
1874, when the introduction of Froebel's prin-
ciples effected not a reformation but a trans-
formation, surprising alike in its extent and its
lapidity. The aims as well as the methods
were changed, and the schools, though retain-
ing their old shape, were animated by a new
spirit

France — In the only country outside the
United Kingdom where it is an integral part
of the national system, the infant school may
be traced back to the efforts of Mme. de
Pastoret. The salle d'hospitahtt which she
founded in Paris in 1801 (see OBERLIN) does

not appear to have lasted long, but when, in
1 825, she heard from the Baron de G6rando,
who had recently visited London, of the
success of Buchanan and Wilderspin, her
interest was revived and she resolved to try
again With herself as president and Mme
Millet as treasurer she formed a committee
which on Apr. 1, 1826, opened in the Rue du
Bac what was called a salle d'asile This
excited the attention of M Cochin, the Mayor
of the Twelfth Arrondissement, who per-
suaded Mrrie Millet to go to England to study
the plan He soon followed, and in 1828 aftei
their return the committee opened in the Hue
des Martyrcs a salle d'asile on the English
model The same year M. Cochin opened
another in the Rue Saint-Hippolyte which by
royal command was named after him To
this was attached a normal department under
the direction of Mme Millet In 1833 the
mile d'asile was adopted by the government
as part of the national system and M Cochin,
published a manual in which he anticipated
several of the kindergarten occupations four
years before Frocbel had opened his first kin-
dergarten (q v ) In 1837 M de Salvandy
(q v ), the Minister of Education, appointed a
commission, with M. Cochin as president, to
make rules for the conduct of the s a lies d'asile
arid to draw up a program for the examens
d' aptitude of their mistresses Ten years later
M. de Salvandy founded in the Rue Neuve
Saint-Paul a maison provisoire d'&tudex, in-
tended to complete the instruction of persons
desiring to devote themselves to the direction
or the inspection of sallex d'asile This was
ultimately called the Ecole Pape-Carpenticr,
after the distinguished lady who for twenty-
seven years consecrated her talents and her
zeal to its superintendence

Benefiting by the experience of the English
pioneers, the French pioneers strove to avoid
the error of making the schools for infants
small copies of the schools for older children
The genius of the aalle d'awlc, said Mme Millet,
was to be found in the heart of a mother; and
Mme. Pape-Carpentier said that the salles
d'asile ought to be what M Carnot decreed
in 1848 they should be called, ecoles mateinellex
The old name was resumed after a decret of
Mar. 21, 1855. This decret arid the conse-
quential reglement fixed the curriculum and the
method as well as the name The curriculum
was to include the elements of religious in-
struction, of reading, of writing, of mental
arithmetic and of linear drawing, a knowledge
of common things, suitable manual work,
hymn singing, moral exercises, and physical
exercises. By a decret of Aug. 2, 1881,
which incidentally adopted once more the name
ecole maternelle, the curriculum was modified
It now includes (1) the first principles of moral
education; a knowledge of common objects,
the elements of drawing, of reading, and of
writing; exercises in the mother tongue,

453

INFANTILE PARALYSIS

INFECTIOUS DISEASES

notions of natural history and geography; suit-
able recitations; (2) manual exercises, (3)
singing and graduated " synoptic " movements.

D S~N.

See ENGLAND, EDUCATION IN; FRANCE,
EDUCATION IN
References : —

England, Board of Education Special Reports on
Educational Subjects, Vol VIII (1902) The
Ecole* materndles of Pans, Voi XX11 (1910)
Provision made for Children under Compulsory
School Age in Belgium, France, Germany, and
Switzerland (London )

Report of the Consultative Committee upon the School
Attendance of Children below the Age of Fwi (Lon-
don, 1908.) ,

G HEARD, OCT Education et Instruction (Pans, 1910 )
OWEN, ROBERT Autobiography (London, 1857 )
OWEN, ROBERT DALE (Robert's son) An Outline of
the System of Education at New Lanark (Glasgow,
1824 )

SALMON, D , and HINDSHAW, W. Infant Schools (Lon-
don, 1904.)

INFANTILE PARALYSIS. — Infantile paral-
ysis, or epidemic poliomyelitis, is considered an
infectious disease of contagious character It
n caused by a very minute organism which
cannot be seen under the most powerful micro-
scope, a germ of the kind called "ultramicro-
scopic " These minute parasitic bodies can
pass through the pores of earthen and porce-
lain filters, but no difficulty is encountered in
the modern laboratory in dealing with the
invisible virus in an accurate manner

The characteristic symptoms are a high tem-
perature, pain in the back and limbs, then
suddenly paralysis, generally in the muscles
of the leg The disease attacks especially
children between one and five years of age,
but adults are also affected Young children
are more likely to be attacked by the disease,
but it is more fatal with adults. It attacks
chiefly the spinal cord and the brain. The
virus is always contained in the central nervous
system, and may be absent from the other
organs The virus may enter the nervous
system through the blood or by the lymph
channels that connect the nasal mucous mem-
brane with the membranes surrounding the
brain The infection may come through the
blood by puncture of the skin by an insect, or
after swallowing or inhaling the virus into the
stomach or lungs, or it may come through the
upper nasal mucous membrane. The nose and
throat have come to be looked upon as the
places where the germs are introduced into
the body and expelled from the body. The
virus may survive on clothing and the like,
and may perhaps be carried by flies and
insects.

" While the period during which patients
remain infected is not accurately known, there
is reason to believe that in most instances the
danger is past about four weeks after the onset
of the disease, and this period has been adopted
as a safe average one of isolation. In excep-
tional cases of marked severity this period

should be extended somewhat in order to provide
a greater security."

There has been in this country an epidemic
more or less prevalent since 1907. This is
part of a pandemic which has embraced a large
part of the world. The prevalence of this
disease is an added reason for competent medi-
cal inspection in the public schools. It is
important that the disease should be detected
when it occurs among school children, and it
is necessary that other pupils from the family
where the case occurs should be excluded from
school for a period of four weeks from the
onset of the disease. W H. B.

See INFECTIOUS DISEASES. CONTAGIOUS
DISEASES; PARALYSIS.

References : —

FLKXNKR, SIMON Epidemic Poliomyelitis or Infantile
Paralysis Yale Review, October, 1911, Vol I
pp 68-64

HUBBR, J. B Rockefeller Institute's Work on Infantile
Paralysis Scientific American, Feb 5, 1910, Vol
102, p. 122

KLIENEBERQER, OTTO LUDWIG Uber die juvenile
Paralyse Allgemeine Zeit f Psychiatne, 1908,
Bd 65, S 936-971

MULLER, EDUABD Die spinale Kinderlahmung (Ber-
lin, 1910)

INFECTIOUS DISEASES. — Germ diseases,
distinguished from the so-called contagious dis-
eases only by the difference of directness in con-
tact required for transmission Consequently
there exists no real distinction between the two
groups. Besides the diseases discussed under
the caption Contagious Diseases (q v.)t the
most common school diseases, diphtheria,
scarlet fever, measles, whooping cough, murups,
as well as trachoma, infantile paralysis, grippe,
meningitis, typhoid fever, and tuberculosis
(qq.v.), are discussed under separate titles
The general relation of these diseases to the
schoolroom is discussed under the caption,
Medical Inspection of Schools (<yt>.). So far
as their importance in the school is concerned,
these diseases may be grouped into two classes
(1) Those diseases for which nearly all cities
exclude children, they are: smallpox (now
very rare where compulsory vaccination laws
are enforced), mumps, chicken pox, pedicu-
losis, ringworm, arid scabies. Second, those
diseases for which only a limited number of
cities exclude children; they are. tonsilitis,
tuberculosis, acute conjunctivitis, trachoma,
acute coryza, favus, impetigo, and molluscum
contagiosum.

All these diseases are infectious, and there-
fore communicable through the close contact
which is inevitable in the usual activities of the
schoolroom and schoolyard Some of them,
like mumps, chicken pox, smallpox, acute con-
junctivitis, tonsilitis, and acute coryza, are self-
limiting germ diseases requiring exclusion of
infected children for a definite period. In New
York City the period of exclusion for mumps
and chicken pox is as follows: —

454

INFECTIOUS DISEASES

INFORMATION

DISEASE

INCUBATION
PKRIOD

DURATION OF

iNFECTlOtW-
NEBS

I'l- ttJOI> OF

TBOL.ATION

Daya

Mild

Seven

cawH

cuscs

Mumps

14-28

2 weeks

14 days

28 days

Until the re-

moval of

the scabs

Chiokonpox

13-19

2 weeks

14 days

21 days

Exclusion of the other self -limiting infectious
diseases is usually for five to ten days according
to the severity of the case. (2) The parasitic
diseases, such as pediculosis, ringworm, scabies,
favus, impetigo, and molluscum contagiosum,
are not self -limiting, but, in most cases, they re-
spond readily to proper treatment Exclusion
from school must be supplemented with instruc-
tion to the parents for the treatment of those
cases, otherwise many children affected with
such diseases as pediculosis, scabies, impetigo,
or ringworm would be kept out of school for
indefinite periods Two methods have been
adopted in different cities for the handling of
this problem. One is to have the school nurse
visit the home and instruct the mother as to
the proper method of treatment The other
method is to send printed directions to the
parents with the notice of exclusion In Ev-
erett, Mass , printed directions and a drug
store prescription are given to children excluded
for parasitic skin diseases, as follows

Pediculosis (Lice). — Directions Saturate the
hair with crude petroleum. Keep it wet
for three hours Then wash the whole head
with hot water and soap. Repeat this process
on three successive days Then comb the hair
with a fine-toothed comb wet with vinegar.
To make the treatment easier and more thor-
ough, have the hair cut short before beginning
treatment While under treatment, keep away
from the fire or a lighted lamp Prescription:
IJ Crude Petroleum, 6 oz. M. Sig Apply to
the hair as directed.

Impetigo Contagiosa. — Directions: Wash
the affected parts with warm water and soap.
Apply the ointment morning and night until
the disease has disappeared Prescription:
ty Resorcin, .16; White precipitate, .50,
Adipis, q s. 15.00 M Sig Apply A M and i* M
until disease is cured

Ringworm. — Directions. Remove the scales
with soap arid warm water Dry thoroughly
and apply the medicine morning and night
until disease is cured Prescription:

1J Tincture of Iodine, 10, Alcohol, 20. M.
Sig. Apply once a day until disease has
disappeared.

Scabies (Itch). — Directions- Take a bath
with warm water and soap, scrubbing oneself
thoroughly. Then dry the skin by vigorous
friction, and rub into every diseased spot the
ointment the prescription calls for. Continue

45$

the treatment daily until disease is nirea
Prescription .

5 Sulphur, 750, Beta Naphthol, 7 50, Ad-
ipis, q.s., 90. M Sig. Apply as directed

0 L M

For References see CONTAGIOUS DISEASES;
HYGIENE; MEDICAL INSPECTION.

INFERENCE — The process of thinking or
reasoning, in so far as it arrives at new facts,
conceptions, or truths It is practically syn-
onymous with going from the known to the
unknown, from the uncertain to the established
In its widest use, it covers the entire process
of reflection so far as that terminates in dis-
covery. Sometimes, however, the emphasis
falls so sharply on discovery that inference
and proof are treated as the two antithetical
functions of thinking — inference making the
leap to the new, the hitherto unknown, while
proof tests and validates what is inferred As
demonstrative proof and deduction are usually
identified, this limited meaning identifies in-
ference with induction (q v ) J D

See PROOF

INFINITESIMAL CALCULUS — See CAL-
CULUS.

INFORMAL METHOD. — It is frequently
the case that some technical or conventional
fact is taught incidentally, as it occurs in the
setting of a content, rather than in the system-
atic relation that it boars to facts of a similar
sort. Thus in the composition period, the
teacher merely states to the child that good
usage requires " he doesn't " instead of " lie
don't." No attempt is made to give the child
a formal knowledge of the distinction through
a complete conjugation of the verb This at-
tempt to keep the facts of the formal subjects,
e g. arithmetic, grammar, spelling, composi-
tion, closely related to their content and use,
with a minimum of that distraction which
would come through reference to tables, rules,
inflections, or other systematic and formal
treatments, is called an "informal" method
of teaching. It is one species of the incidental
method, but refers particularly to instruction
given in formalities as occasion requires

H S.

See INCIDENTAL METHOD.

INFORMATION. — That phase or branch
of knowledge (q v.) which consists of facts and
ideas that have been communicated or trans-
mitted by others, and that are accepted, par-
tially at least, on the credit and authority of
others; that branch of learning (q v.) that con-
cerns the materials learned from other persons,
orally or through books. As will be seen from
the definition, information has two marks a
body of cognitive material existing irrespective
of its original acquisition and utilization — a
ready-made character; and dependence upon

INFORMATION

INGOLSTADT

social transmission Obviously the two traits
belong together The ready-made character of
information is due to its being carried along in
the social medium; while by means of the social
processes of communication, facts and ideas
discovered by any individual are taken up into
the general body of knowledge, independently
of the conditions of the original discovery

Without the funding of personal experiences
into information capable of separation from
the experiences in which it originated, so that
it may be acquired by others without the ne-
cessity of their repeating the original experience,
every generation would be obliged to redis-
cover everything by its own observations and
reflections — which means of course that man-
kind would be forever engaged in a hopeless
struggle to emerge from savagery Since
language is the medium of deposit and transmis-
sion, it is natural that language as the store-
house and vehicle of information should be,
upon the whole, the chief concern of schooling,
and that teaching should be largely identified
with the processes of purveying information.
On the other hand, the attacks which educa-
tional reformers have always found it necessary
to make against the domination of schooling
by language give evidence of certain dangers
lurking in the dependence of individual intel-
ligence upon social acquisitions. The material,
not originating in personal initiative and moti-
vation, may easily become a foreign dead load,
carried by memory, but not entering in a vital
way into personal observations, thoughts, and
acts Such an external second-handed body
of information is not only useless, but positively
harmful It weighs down native active tend-
encies, crushing them, and comes between a
person and his use of his natural judgment

There is, therefore, no problem in education
more pressing than the right adaptation of
information, as socially communicated knowl-
edge, with these modes of knowledge whose
achievement involves active personal response
Without the material of information, individual
experience is raw, crude, narrow, untrained
But without the organic assimilation of this
material, knowledge tends to be useless pedan-
try, or learning displayed simply for impressing
others by its sheer mass In the degiee in
which the body of information remains a
special isolated set of facts and ideas not enter-
ing freely into everyday direct experiences,
it fails wholly of its propei enlightening and
directive function It is suggestive to note
that we distinguish between a person of much
information and an informed person The
latter is not one who is possessed of a large bulk
of second-hand knowledge, but one who is wise,
posted, equipped to deal with the matters that
concern him In order that information should
be really informing, it is necessary that it be
communicated in connection with an active
direct experience, not simply in association
with other information. It is also necessary

that it be applied to use in some direct activity.
For example, scientific information communi-
cated in connection with the undertaking of a
laboratory inquiry so as to clarify the question
at issue and to direct the experiment intelli-
gently is much more likely to be assimilated
into effective knowledge (or '' wisdom") than
exactly the same material conveyed as just so
much matter to be learned by itself The same
may be said about the connection of, say, geo-
graphical material with the taking of excui-
sions, there is very much important knowledge
about the world that pupils cannot possibly ac-
quire by themselves, but this transmitted mate-
rial is likely to be fruitful in just the degree in
which it is conveyed in connection with those
activities in which pupils acquire something
through their own observations and reflections
In the latter case, the two modes of knowledge
blend and reenforce each other, in the former
they remain in mechanical juxtaposition, and
their isolation prevents the due efficiency of
both. J D.

See KNOWLEDGE.

INFORMATION TALKS —The contem-
porary emphasis on individual study by children,
and the use of the method of development by
tcacheis have in great degree neglected the
fact that there is a great deal of accumulated
information that the child does not have to
discover for himself or have taught him by the
slow inductive methods of teaching To over-
come this defect, information talks are now
frequently given by the teacher, the function
of which is to supplement the knowledge that
the child has gotten for himself in a vital but
more or less fragmentary way Such infor-
mation talks do not do away with individual
study or developmental teaching, they com-
plement it They usually follow rather than
precede the more individualistic modes of teach-
ing, the exception arising when the teacher
wishes by way of preliminary to develop in-
terest in a situation or to give a setting to the
problem under consideration These infor-
mation talks are for the most part short, ap-
pearing here and there as needed in the class
period. In elementary school practice they
are the correlatives of the university lecture,
undergoing such necessary modification and
subordination that a different name is applied
In the best pedagogical sense, information
talks arc a sane and useful application of the
lecture method 11 S

See LECTURE METHOD; TEACHING.

INGOLSTADT, UNIVERSITY OF, BA-
VARIA — An institution founded in 1472
by Duke Lewis the Rich of Upper and Lower
Bavaria, on the model of the University of
Vienna The Papal Bull of Pius II authorizing
the establishment of the university was dated
1459, but instruction was not actually begun
until thirteen years later. The institution

456

INHIBITION

INJURED

consisted of four faculties, of which the faculty
of philosophy early assumed the chief impor-
tance. During the Reformation Ingolstadt
sided with the Catholic party, one of the most
prominent members of the teaching staff being
Johann von Eck, who replied to Martin
Luther's ninety-five theses, thereby paving
the way for the Leipzig disputation between
himsolf and Luther in 1519. At the close of
the sixteenth century the university attracted
a large number of students, Jesuit influences
being paramount from the middle of the six-
teenth to the eighteenth century, i e to the
suppression of the Jesuit order in 1772 The
foundation for the present faculty of political
science (University of Munich) was laid in
1799 by the establishment of an institute of
camerahstics, which comprised a series of sub-
jects from the fields of jurisprudence, natural
science, political economy, statistics, technology,
agriculture, and forestry In due course of
time technology and agriculture were trans-
feried to the technical school at Munich, but
the subject of forestry is to this day included
in the faculty of political science of the Uni-
versity of Munich In 1800 the umveisity
was transferred to the city of Landshut, and
fiom there to Munich (q v ) twenty-six years
later Ingolstadt is also the seat of the first
Jesuit college founded in Germany (1555).

R. T. Jr.
Reference : —

LKXIS, W Das Untcrrichtswesen im deutschen Reich.
Vol I, pp 452-454 (Rcrlm, 1904)

INHIBITION. — A term applied to two
groups of phenomena, the one psychological,
the other physiological Psychological inhibition
consists in the conflict of parts of the content
of consciousness, and the partial 01 total sup-
pi ession of one by another. Awareness of
pain, for example, may be inhibited by other
sensations The soldier frequently suffers
severe wounds of which he remains uncon-
scious because of the inhibiting influence of emo-
tional experience In the hypnotic state one
of the most obvious phenomena is the inhibi-
tion of ccitain kinds of consciousness by others
which, pei haps, have been suggested by the
hvpnotizcr

Physiological inhibition consists in the pai-
tial or total suppression of one physiological
process* b\r another 01 others The phenome-
non is best known in connection with the func-
tioning of the nervous system. There are
certain specifically inhibitory nerves, as for
example the vagus, whose function is the regu-
lation of certain organic processes by suppression
or depression The activity of the heart may
be inhibited by stimulation of the vagus. But
the cases of inhibition which result from the
functioning of inhibitory nerves or centers,
if such exist, are few and unimportant in com-
parison with those which appear to be due to
the conflict or competition of impulses within

the nervous system The appropriate reflex
of the leg of the frog to stimulation of the foot
may often be inhibited by simultaneous stimu-
lation of the other leg. As Sherrmgton bays,
" the most striking thing that we know of in-
hibition IK that it is a phenomenon in which an
agent, such as in most cases excites or increases
an action going on, in this case stops or di-
minishes an action going on " R. M. Y.
References : —

BINET, T L'mhibition dans les phenomenes dp con-
science- Rrv Philos , T 30, 1890

McDouuALL, W The Natuie of Inhibitory ProcebHos
within the Central Nervous System Brain,
Part C II, 1903

SCHAPER, E A Text-book of Physiology, II (Now
York, 1900 )

SHERRINOTON, C S The I ntegrative Action of the
Nervous System (New York, 1906 )

WUNDT, W Phybiologische Psychologic (Leipzig, 1903 )

INITIATIVE — A term denoting originality
and independent force as factors to be main-
tained and secured in education. Initiative
is ctymologically connected with the word "in-
itial"; namely, something at the beginning 01
outset It thus refers to ability to originate4,
to undertake independently, some desired line
of action It is opposed to mere docility,
passiveness, imitativeness, and other concep-
tions that denote dependence upon others in
entering upon a new course of action The
demand for initiative as an indispensable part
of the educational aim is coincident practically
with the growth of democracy (q r ) In it
feudalistic society peisonal initiative is unde-
Hiied with respect to the masses of men, \\hat
is wanted is that they should readily subordi-
nate themselves to the carrying out of the
demands and ideas of others The propei
adjustment of the personal initiative required
by a democracy on its social and political sides
to the conditions of industrial employment und
wage-earning involved m the capitalistic re1-
gnne is a problem still to be solved, or e\ en
seriously considered, yet it is the heart of the
question of industrial education J D

See ACTIVITY; INDIVIDUALITY, FREEDOM

INJURED, FIRST AID TO. -- Instruction
in first aid as it is ordinarily given is of \aluc
because of its health- pi ('serving 01 life-saving
possibilities But in addition to this utili-
tarian quality, such instruction in the hands of
the well-informed and skillful teacher may be
given intellectual and scientific qualities. All
rational first-aid treatment is based on a scien-
tific knowledge of the relation between ana-
tomical structure and physiological function,
and between pathological cause and morbid
effect These relationships arc most easily
and successfully brought out in those courses
where instruction in first aid is made an es-
sential part of a general scheme made up of
instruction in hygiene and physiology In-
struction in first aid may then easily be educa

457

INJURED

INNATE IDEA

tionai as well as utilitarian. It is, however,
chiefly and most seriously valuable because of
its utility.

In planning a course of instruction in hrst
aid the teacher must take into account the
maturity of his pupils It is obviously useless
as well as dangerous, to instruct young children
in the use of poisonous antiseptics, and then
expect them to make any practical use of the
knowledge they may have gained through such
instruction

Anothei important consideration is the appli-
cability of the instruction given to the daily
affairs of the individual who is receiving the
instruction

Instruction in firtst aid should always bo
graphically illustrated and demonstrated in
every practicable way. In addition, the in-
dividual receiving such instruction will profit
a groat deal more, if he is permitted to do under
supervision the minutest details of what he is
being taught The application of simple ban-
dages, the construction of a sling, the technique
of resuscitation of the partially drowned are
samples of procedures that each member of
the class should be required to do step by stop
under careful supervision. In other words,
the teacher of first aid will do well to employ
appropriately the various practical educational
methods which he finds advantageous in his
other classroom or laboratory instruction

Instruction in first aid should emphasize
the need for medical help in appropriate cases
Serious consequences may be avoided, if the
non-medical attendant is not so sure of his own
ability as to neglect to call in expert help

Scope of Irish uction — The scope of a course
in hrst aid should include instruction concern-
ing preventive and protective measures, emer-
gency treatment, and emergency prophylactic
treatment appropriate to the maturity, intelli-
gence, and education of the individuals under
instruction and applicable to the conditions
under which they are most likely to have prac-
tical use for such instruction.

Preventive and Protective. — Instruction in
swimming, diving, rescue, and resuscitation
manoeuvres; management of the rowboat
and canoe, danger of the undertow, seapuss,
waves, breakers arid waves in the wake of the
passing steamer; the avoidance of street acci-
donts from automobiles, street cars, trucks,
railway trains, etc.; tho avoidance of injury
from lightning and electricity; the transpor-
tation of the injured, tho handling of fire-
arms, the handling, labeling, and storing of
combustibles and explosives, tho management
of small fires; what to do in case of fire; how
to smother burning olothmg; escape from
suffocation in burning buildings; escape from
burning buildings; poisons, their handling,
labeling, and storage; avoidance of frost bite,
freezing, heat exhaustion and sunstroke; avoid-
ance, particularly by children, of exposure to
injury from maddened animals; protective

measures in appropriate countries against poi-
sonous insects, snakes, plants, and fruits.

Emergency Treatment — Hemorrhage from
the limbs, trunk, head, nose, stomach, intes-
tines, or urethra Simple and compound
fractures of the legs, thigh, ribs, collar bone,
toes, fingers, forearm, upper arm, and skull.
Sprains and dislocations of the ankle, knee, hip,
sacro-ihac joint, fingers, wrist, elbow, or
shoulder. Poisoning with the various common
acids, alkalies, and poisonous domestic prep-
arations Foreign bodies in the skin (splin-
ters), tho eye, oar, nose, throat, stomach, and
trachea. Burning clothing, active acid and
alkali burns Fainting, shock, epilepsy, apo-
plexy, hysteria, convulsions, and delirium
Pain in the head, ear, face, teeth, chest, ab-
domen, groin, muscles, bones, and joints Hic-
cough, nausea, vomiting and diarrhea, croup,
asthmatic attacks, and other sudden evidences
of obstructed breathing

Emergency Prophylactic Treatment — In-
struction here should include, first, a discus-
sion of the serious value of early treatment for
the avoidance of later infection. This instruc-
tion should further include aseptic and anti-
septic treatment, simple dressings, bandages,
the cleansing of wounds, the approximation of
the edges of gaping wounds, special caro of
superficial and deep wounds of the skin and
scalp, special prophylactic treatment of powder
burns and Fourth of July accidents; special
treatment of other burns, special treatment of
wounds of the eye, car, nose, lips, and mouth

T. A. S
References : —

DULLKS, C W Atcidents and Emergencies, a Manual
of Treatment of Surgical and Medical Emergences
in the Absence of a Physician. (Philadelphia,
1909 )

FITZ, G W Principles of Physiology and Hygiene.
(New York, 1908 )

GULICK, C V Emergencies (Boston, 1909 )

LYNCH, C American National Red-Cross Text-Book
on First Aid and Relief Columns, a Manual of
Instruction (Philadelphia, 1908)
How to Prevent Accidents and What to do for Injuries
and Emergencies (Philadelphia, 1908 )

MORROW, A S The Immediate Care of the Injured
(Philadelphia, 1906 )

PYLE, W. L A Manual of Personal Hygiene (Phil-
adelphia, 1910.)

RIICHIE, J W Sanitation and Physiology (New
York, 1911 )

SARGENT, P , and RUSBKLL, A E Emergencies of Gen-
eral Practice (London, 1910.)

INNATE IDEA —The rationalistic school
has always attributed to thought or reason a
certain inherent content of its own, irrespective
of tho processes of oxperience. It has insisted
that without this original equipment experi-
ence itself would bo a floating, unorganized
mass of particulars, incapable of delivering any
general or scientific knowledge. The particu-
lar rnodo in which this inherent endowment
was conceived varied from time to time accord-
ing to conditions In the seventeenth century
the supposed rational stock was quite com-

458

INNER MISSION

INNS OF COURT

monly spoken of as ideas or conceptions which
the individual immaterial soul brought with it
to its union with the body as inborn ideas
In the interests of empiricism, Locke attacked
this whole theory, contending that none of the
tests relied upon by the innate school bore out
their contention; that the origin of all ideas could
be traced in experience itself, and that the belief
in mnateness, instead of being favorable to the
advance of science, tended to block inquiry
by consecrating as unquestionable principles
any long-standing prejudice, especially if class
interests were concerned in its maintenance
Locke's onslaught was substantially successful
against the doctrine which hc^attackcd. But,
as Locke himself held to certain innate powers
(such as comparing, combining, discerning,
abstracting) of the mind, it was not difficult for
the rationalistic school to regather its forces
The modified form of the conception found its
classical expression in Kant, who, denying the
existence of ideas, or mental contents, concep-
tions, beliefs, prior to sense experience, never-
theless held that the mind brought with it
certain a priori forms and categories to the
reception and organization of the materials of
sense The universal and necessary action of
these a priori forms alone made experience
capable of delivering coherent and instructive
judgments. J- D

Sec INTUITION.

INNER MISSION. — See WICHEKN, J. H

INNERVATION — The process of sending
a nervous impulse out from the central nervous
system

See NEUVOUS SYSTEM.

INNS OF COURT, LONDON —Originally
these were the Hostels or Inns in which lived the
apprentices, who belonged to the Gild of Law,
the residence of those studying under the Masters
of Law. The earliest of such Inns is said to
be that of Clifford's Inn, which in 1344 was
established in a demise from Lady Clifford
to the lawyers of the Couit of Common Pleas
Thavies Inn seems to have been established in
1348. The origin of these Inns is apparently
connected with the exclusion of the clergy from
practicing as lawyeis in the civil courts, and
the necessary consequence of training of lay
lawyers In the first instance, senior members
of the gilds of law teachers and learners of law
established their own voluntary classes and
small residential Inns, in considerable numbers.
The number of such students gradually in-
creased, until, as Dugdale says, they divided
themselves into two bodies, e g the Society of
the Inner Temple and that of the Middle Temple.
The Inner Temple is first mentioned in 1440
and the Middle Temple in 1442. About the
year 1470, Sir John Fortescue wrote his De
Laudibus Legum Anglioe, in which he states
that there were four Inns of Court, and ten

lesser Inns called Inns of Chancery, um each
of which there are an hundred students at the
least, and in some of them, a far greater number,
though not constantly residing After

they have made some progress here, and aie
moie advanced in years, they are admitted into
the Inns of Court, properly so-called; of these
there are four in number " They were Lin-
coln's Inn, the Inner Temple, the Middle
Temple, Gray's Inn. " In these greater Inns,"
Fortescue continues, " a student cannot be
well maintained under eight and twenty pounds
a year (£450 a year of our money), and, if
he have a servant to wait on him (as for the
most part they have), the expense is propoi-
tionally more ... As to the merchants,
they seldom care to lessen their stock in trade
by "being at such large yeaily expenses So
that there is scarce to be found, throughout the
kingdom, an eminent lawyer, who is not a
gentleman by birth and fortune; consequently
they have a greater regard for their character
and honour than those who are bred in an-
other way "

With regard to the education of the stu-
dents, Fortescue gives the following interest-
ing account. " There is both in the Inns of
Court and the Inns of Chancery, a sort of
Academy or Gymnasium, fit for persons of
their station; where they learn singing, and
all kinds of music, dancing, and such other
accomplishments and diversions (which are
called Revels) as are suitable to their quality,
and such as are usually practiced at Court At
other times out of term, the greater part apply
themselves to the study of the law Upon
festival days, and after the offices of the Church
are over, they employ themselves in the studv
of sacred and profane history here evciy-
thing which is good and virtuous is to be
learned: all vice is discouraged and banished
So that knights, barons, and the greatest nobil-
ity of the kingdom often place their children
in these Inns of Court, not so much to make
the laws their study, much less to live by the
profession (having laige patrimonies of their
own), but to form their manners and to pre-
serve them from the contagion of vice
Neither at Orleans, wlieie both the Canon and
Civil Laws are professed and studied, and
whither students resort from all parts, neither
at Anglers, Caen, nor any other University in
France (Paris excepted), are there so ninny
students, who have passed their minority, as
in our Inns of Court, wheie the natives only
are admitted."

Forteseuc devotes a chapter to answering
the question why the laws of Kngland are not
(in 1470) taught in the universities, and his
answer is that in the universities " the sciences
are taught only in the Latin tongue, whereas
the Laws of Kngland are written, and made up
of, three several languages, English, French and
Latin " He mentions that the English " to
this very day " speak French in their diversions

4.r>9

INNS OF COURT

INSANITY

and their accounts. " In the Courts of law,
they formerly used to plead in French, nor had
the practice entirely fallen out, (1) by reason of
certain law terms, more apt m French than in
English, (2) Declarations upon Original Writs
are learned and practised in French, (3) Re-
ports of pleadings etc , in the King's Courts
are digested and reported m French; (4) Many
Acts of Parliament are penned in French "

The advantage of studying in the Inns of
Court, as against the universities, is further
emphasized by proximity to the Courts of Law,
where students may hear proceedings and listen
to the judges and thus become experienced in
all sorts of law learning and court practice at
the same time Mr C. E A Bedwcll says
it is difficult to define the status of the Inns
of Chancery in their earliest days, but by the
time of Fortescue the relationship of each one
to the Inn of Court to which it was attached
approached to that of a college to its univer-
sity

The Inns of Chancery ceased to exist with
the sale of Clifford's Inn in 1900 Stow says
the Inns of Court were replenished with young
students, graduates, and practicers of the law.
whilst the Inns of Chancery wore furnished
with officers, attorneys, solicitors, and clerks
that follow the courts of King's Bench or
Common Pleas Stow mentions that young
students from the universities and some
straight from grammar schools came both to
the Inns of Chancery and the " houses of
Couit," and having spent time in studying the
first elements and grounds of the law, they per-
formed (before admittance as barristers), the
" exercises " of their own houses, called " bolts "
and " moots" — the course taking seven years
— the same length of time as apprentices in
business

Educationally, the " boltings " and " moots ''
are interesting, and represent to law what
laboratory work is to science teaching The
" boltings " were thus the " sifting " of the
law with regard to cases, m which " an ancient
and two bamsteis sit as judges, three students
bring each a case, out of which the judges
choose one to be argued, which done the stu-
dents first argue it, and after them, the bar-
risters " This exercise, being a private one,
was regarded as inferior to the " moot," which
was substantially the same kind of arguing of
eases by the students to enable them to see
rvery point of a case, but was a public exercise.
The place chosen for the exercise was called
the Moot-Hall. The Inns of Court appointed
a bailiff of the moot, who chose the inootmen
for the Inns of Chancery, and whose duty it
was to " keep accounts of the performances of
the exercises both there and in the house "
For account of the exercises in the different
Inns, see Sir Wm. Dugdale's Origines Jun-
diciales (1666-1680). J. E. G. DE M.

See LAW, EDUCATION FOB THE, for an account
of the present practice.

References: —

BEDWELL, C E. A. Inns of Court Quarterly Rev.,
October, 1908

FORTESCUE, SIR J De Laudibus Regum AnglUK
(1470) Tr by Grcgor F. (Cincinnati, 1874.)

HEADLAM, C. Inns of Court (London, 1909 )

LUDERS, A An Essay on the Use of the French Lan-
guage in our Ancient Laws and Acts of State. (Bath,
1807.)

WATEHHOUHE, E Fortescatus Illustratus. (London,
1663)

INNSBRUCK, THE IMPERIAL ROYAL
LEOPOLD-FRANCIS UNIVERSITY OF —

The University of Innsbruck in the Tyrolese
Mountains, Austria, was established by Em-
peror Leopold I between 1670 and 1674, the
charter dating from the year 1677 The Em-
peror Joseph II transformed it into a lyceum
in 1782, but it was restored to university rank
ten years later by Leopold II In 1810 the
institution was abolished by the Bavarian gov-
ernment, but in 1826 it once more opened its
doors under Austrian protection with facul-
ties of law and philosophy. In 1857 a theologi-
cal faculty (Catholic) was added, and twelve
years later a medical faculty The universitv
library owes its origin to a collection founded
in 1745 by the Empress Maria Theresa, various
collections of dissolved Jesuit colleges having
been added latei The attempts made in 1904
to organize in Innsbruck a faculty of law and
political science, in which instruction was to bo
given in the Italian language, met with failure.
The University had 1227 students (fifty-one
women, all auditors) in the winter scmestoi of
1909-1910, of whom 225 were auditois The
largest faculty, contrary to the condition exist-
ing in all other German and Austrian universi-
ties, is that of theology (337 students), con-
trolled by the Jesuits, which is followed by law
(266), medicine (213), and philosophy (186)

R T , Jr
References : —

Die Leopold-Franzens Umversitat zu Innsbruck in den
Jahren 1848 bis 1898 Fiatttchrtft htraus-

gcgebcn vom akademischen Senat dcr LCUK konigl
Universit&t Innsbruck (Innsbruck, 1899 )
PROBST, J Geschichlc dcr UmverKitat in Innsbruck
scit ihrer Entstehung bis 1860 (Innsbruck, 1869.)

INSANITY. — A term for a number of
abnormal mental states, which are combined
into complexes to make up distinct diseases
The usual statement that insanity is a mental
disease or that it is an absence of sanity does
not define, because we must then state what wo
mean by mental health or by sanity. The
general term may be compared with that
applied to any organ of the body, c g liver
disease, heart disease, etc., and we find that
the connotations of such terms are equally
vague We, therefore, speak more properly
of the insanities than of insanity. The variety
of forms that are grouped under the general
term " insanity " will be considered below.

When the varying phenomena of the insane
are grouped, it is found that the differentiation
of insanity from sanity is made from two points

460

INSANITY

INSANITY

of view: the duration of the abnormal mental
conditions and the variation of the present
conditions from the normal conditions of the
individual. The best definition of the term
is as follows: "Insanity is a disorder of the
mind, due to disease of the brain, manifesting
itself by a more or less prolonged depaiture
from the individual's usual mannci of think-
ing, feeling, and acting, and reMiltmg in a
lessened capacity for adaptation to the envi-
ronment " (White). It will be seen that this
definition excludes all the abnormal individuals
who from birth depart from the normal in a
mental way, i e. all the cases of retaidation,
including idiocy, imbecility, and psychopathic
inferiority, for their condition is continuous and
not a departure from the usual manner of their
thinking, feeling, and acting On the other
hand, there arc excluded the tcmpoiary depar-
tures from the normal, such as slight intoxica-
tions, profound grief, fits of angoi, etc The
ethical and legal aspects, so often taken as the1
main criteria, of knowledge of right und \vrong
are not considered, because these vary in the
insanities as much as in normal conditions

Perhaps of the gicatest importance is the
factor of the individual variation, ? e the
variation of the indiudual from his usual
manner of feeling, thinking, and acting In
themselves the individual mental states may
be greater 01 less than those of the othei indi-
viduals in the environment without warranting
the conclusion of "insanity." The example ot
the savage transported to a civih/ed countiy
makes this clear In an educated poison
actions sinulai to those of the savage aie taken
as signs of an insane state

Psychologically considered, the abnormalities
of the insane aic only diffeient in dcgiee from
noimul mental functions So far as the ab-
normal mental conditions have been analyzed,
no qualitative difference from the normal has
been discovered The insanity is always a
difference in the amount or the prominence1 of
this 01 that mental state or states, and not a
difference in the quality of the mental states
No new functions are introduced, and theie aie
no new qualities of normal mental pioccsses
developed in the insane Another popular mis-
conception is that the tcim " insanity" is almost
synonymous with the term "delusion," that all
insane persons are egocentric, fantastic, abnor-
mally excitable, or expansive The quiet gen-
tleman whom I meet daily has none of the lat-
tei qualities, but he is incapable of adaptation
to the en\ ironmcnt because he can perform no
work that the &pmts do not approve, and he is
often hindered by the action of the spirits

In civilized communities the proportion of
insanity to the total population is almost a
constant, 1 : 300. The initial symptoms are
often noticed before the age of twenty, but the
disturbances do not usually become sufficiently
profound to warrant or to require institutional
care for a number of years.

There are both physical and mental causes
for the insanities Head injuries, chrome and
exhausting diseases, and various intoxications
(q v.) are some of the bodily causes, and on the
mental side any great shock, mental sticss, or
worry may bung about a more or less perma-
nent derangement of the mind The mental
factors have recently been given more promi-
nence than hitherto, and many of the patients
who were previously supposed to be insane
from physical causes are now recognized as
purely psychogenic cases

The caily classifications of the insanities
were largely symptomatic, and can be com-
pared directly with the classification of the
levers into hot and cold, intermittent, remit-
tent, and continuous On the other hand,
classifications have been devised to indicate
the probable causes of the conditions, and we
find mentioned the insanities of childbirth,
of puberty, of the climacteric, of lehgion, and
many otheis The current classifications oi
the insanities are cither that of Kraepehn 01
modifications of the Kiaepehnian This author
introduced into the consideiation oi the in-
sanities a new conception, vi/ , that the dii-
feient forms were to be different latcd not
because of the prominence of some symptom
und not because the patient 01 his relatives
assigned some cause, but because of the char-
acteristics of the condition from the beginning
to the end In other words, Kiaepelm takes
into account causes, com he, oi development,
and the final result The following classifi-
cation is a convenient one paranoia and
paranoid states, mamc-depiessive insanity,
paresis, dementia precox, melancholia, involu-
tion, senile psychoses, infection-exhaustion
psychoses, toxic psychoses, psychoneuroses,
psychoses due to or game disease and injuries of
brain (qq p )

The infection-exhaustion psychoses are simi-
lar to the toxic psychoses, in that confusion
and delirium aie usually the prominent symp-
toms All of these psychoses are probably due
to the presence in the blood ol toxins that act
upon the nervous structures in much the same
way as those introduced from without, such as
alcohol, opium and its derivatives, cocaine, etc
The infection-exhaustion psychoses may be
divided into (a) infection, (h) delirium, (c)
febrile clelnium, (d) post-febnle psychoses, and
(e) collapse psvchoses All forms have cloud-
ing of consciousness, a greatei 01 less amount of
confusion, hallucinations and delusions, and
for months these svmptoms may alternate
with normal mental states In the most
severe states stupor is found The senile
psychoses are of little interest here, except in so
far as they are associated with rather definite
mental disturbances of memory The term
" second childhood " describes only some of
the senile, insane, and from the educational
point of view these are of interest in that they
enable us to make certain analyses of forgetting

461

INSISTENT IDEAS

INSOMNIA

and of memory loss In many cases we find
hallucinations, delusions, depressions, exalta-
tions, and on the physical side epileptic and
apoplectic attacks. Mental derangements are
also sometimes found associated with brain dis-
ease or injury. These patients differ greatly
in their symptoms, but all may be briefly
descnbcd as ''demented." The injury effects
often give a means of diagnosis of the part of
the brain which has been injured, and a cure is
sometimes produced by appropriate surgical
intervention Aphasia is sometimes associated
with these psychoses, and it often simulates a
profound dementia.

Although insanity was defined as a "disorder
of mind due to disease of the brain," we are
still completely at a loss to correlate certain
mental diseases with brain changes In the
manic-depressive psychoses, m paranoia, in
dementia piecox, and in the psychoneuroses
no typical cerebral alterations have been
found These conditions are, therefore, some-
times called " functional " in contradistinc-
tion to the " structural " diseases, such as
paresis, the senile psychoses, and the in-
sanities due to disease and injury of the brain
In paresis the nerve cells are found to be
greatly degenerated, and the cerebral cortex is
found to have many abnormal elements, due
to the disintegration of the cells or to the
development of the non-nervous elements
The greatest changes are said to be found in the
frontal and posterior association areas In the
senile insanities there is found atrophy of the
brain, so that the convolutions are shrunken,
and small or large areas of softening (or dis-
integration) are often found associated with
occlusion of the arteries The changes in the
cortical cells differ from those in paresis,
although both are retrograde and destructive.
The pathology of the psychoses due to brain
disease or injury differs in accordance with the
part of the brain injured. In dementia precox
changes in the structure of the cortex have been
observed, but it is not certain that these are
typical of the disease

It will be noted that all the developmental
defects, idiocy, imbecility, and other forms of
retardation, have been omitted from the dis-
cussion of insanity As was noted above,
these are not forms of insanity, but defects or
lacks of development, and are to be treated in
separate articles. S. I. F.

See IDIOCY.

References : —

KIIAEPEUN, E Psychiatric (Leipzig, 1809, New
York, 1002 ) "

MEYEK, A A Few Trends in Modern Psychiatry
Psychol Bull , Vol I, 1904, pp 217-240.

WEHNICKE, C. Grundnss dcr Psychiatric, 2te Aufl.

(Leipzig, 1900 )
WHITE, W A Outlines of Psychiatry, 3d ed

York, 1911)
ZIEHEN, TH Psychiatrie, (Leipzig, 1902 )

(New

INSISTENT IDEAS. — See FIXED IDEAS.

462

INSOMNIA — Abnormal wakcfulness of
loss of sleep. The condition is the opposite of
narcolepsy (q.v.). Insomnia may be total or
partial, and may continue only one day, or for
long periods The varieties of insomnia are
numerous, those most frequent being the condi-
tions in which the individual goes to sleep at
the normal time, but wakes up soon and
remains sleepless the remainder of the night,
and those in which the individual finds it
difficult to go to sleep and lies awake for hours,
tossing about until exhaustion overcomes him
and sleep ensues. In both cases the amount
of sleep may be normal, but the going to sleep
arid staying asleep are abnormal These two
kinds of insomnia are often due to bad habits of
sleep, and not to any pathological nervous
condition of the individual Losses of amounts
of sleep aic common in many nervous and
mental diseases, especially in the cases of
excitements, eg in mania and in disturbed
dementia precox. In the insane and in men-
tally normal people who suffer great pain the
amount of sleep may be greatly reduced, and
the patient sleep little, if at all, foi several days
It is usual to find, however, that individuals
complain of sleeplessness even when they have
had a normal quantity of sleep, and one
should hesitate to accept the individual's opin-
ion regarding the amount and character of his
sleep.

The effects of loss of sleep are much greater
than those of the losses of food, and the effects
are found to be mentally effective as well HS
physically. On the physical bide there are
loss of body weight, changes in the tempera-
ture of the body, and reflex nervous phenomena
A few days' loss of sleep will produce a delir-
ium, a condition that would not follow star-
vation for five or six times the number of davs

On the mental side slight or continued
loss of sleep is accompanied by inability to
fix the attention, memory defects from inatten-
tion, and feelings of lassitude When children
exhibit these symptoms even to a mild degree,
it is important to inquire regarding the amount
and character of the sleep, for some cases of
retardation are due to bad family surroundings
that prevent the child having a sufficient
amount of sleep.

Most of the cases of insomnia are due to bad
habits, and must be treated as such If the
sleeplessness be due to concomitant pathological
conditions of the body, the latter must be
treated, and the insomnia will disappear It
should be remembered, however, that bad
habits are formed here as well as for other bodily
and mental activities, and it is not uncommon
to find that the habit of sleeplessness is formed
by only a few days' illness Sleeplessness
may also be due to imaginary causes, and it is
most easy to produce a sleepless night by call-
ing the attention of one who has taken coffee
to the fact that this beverage is a stimulant
and will produce wakefulness On the other

INSPECTION Otf SCHOOLS

INSTINCT

hand, it is equally easy at times to produce
sleepiness by calling attention to monotonous
sounds and by recommending innocuous drug-
like prescriptions. S. I. F.

References : —

AGRESSE Hommeil et inwmnie (Paris, 1901 )
BROWN, S Disorders of Sleop. In 20th Century Practice

of Medicim , Vol. X, p 813 (New York, 1897 )
MANACEINE, M DE Quelques observations oxpen-

mentales sur 1'influencc do I'lnsomnie absolue.

Arch ital de biol., Vol XXI, 1894
PATIUCK, G. T. W., and GILBERT, J A On the Effects

of Loss of Sleep Umv of Iowa Stud, m Psychol ,

Vol I, pp 40-61, 1897.

INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS. — Some sys-
tem of school control through inspection has
always existed, since the time when education
wan in the hands of the Church and teachers
were licensed by the scholastic us 01 the chan-
cellor, to the modern period when the State has
taken over the charge and maintenance of
schools. For the medieval period see BISHOPS'
SCHOOLS; CHURCH SCHOOLS, CHANCELLOR,

SCHOLASTICUS, VISITATIONS. During the

Reformation period immediate inspection and
visitation of schools was exercised by the local
pastor, and consisted usually in an examina-
tion of pupils and teachers. The earliest sys-
tem of state inspection was probablv intro-
duced at Gotha (q v ) uridei Ernest the Pious
(q r ) Inspection by official inspectors of the
State was introduced on a large scale when the
State began to supply funds for the mainte-
nance of schools Thus in England the fir>t
government inspectors were appointed in 18M,
when a grant was made in aid of school
buildings. Inspectors who visited Chuich of
England schools had to be approved by the
Archbishop The first instructions weie issued
in 1840, and required the inspectors to report
on the number of schools in their districts and
the state of education there, to inspect aided
schools, and to recommend the appointment
of teachers. These remained essentially the
duties of inspectors for many years After
1861, when payment by results was intro-
duced into elementary education, the inspectors
began to examine the pupils, and this system
left its mark on English inspection The large
majority of inspectors were professionally un-
ti ained, although from 1879 a number of school-
masters were appointed as assistant inspectors.
Administrative duties, such as the examination
of legistets, time-table, and log-books, con-
tinued The broader function of supervising
instruction and the teaching piocess, and in this
way assisting the teachers, is only gradually
being recognized as of primary importance.
No special professional qualifications are yet
demanded from those who aie appointed co
inspectorships, as long ago as 1879 Mr Rath-
bone moved in the House of Commons that
" before being appointed to an independent
post, newly appointed inspectors should have
one year's training under an experienced in-

spector, unless they have previously been
engaged in the education of childien foi a
sufficient time to make this unnecessarv "
The great need of the present, however, is a
requirement oi professional training and expe-
rience as a necessary qualification for appoint-
ment, if the inspecting staff is to secure the
confidence and professional support of teachers
Special inspectors are also employed for art,
domestic subjects, drawing and handicrafts,
rural education and agriculture, music, and
the training of teachers The employment of
local ^ inspectors, in most cases teachers of
experience, by local authorities is increasing
rapidly. Since 1899 the Board of Education
has undertaken to inspect secondary schools
on request, while all schools which desire to
qualify for the state grant must submit to an
inspection of both instruction and premises

See SUPERVISION OF TEACHING; SUPERVI-
SION, PRINCIPLES OF; also ACCREDITED SCHOOLS ,
ENGLAND, EDUCATION IN; FRANCE, EDUCATION
IN, GERMANY, EDUCATION IN.
References : —

JULFOUR, G Educational Systems of Great Britain

and Ireland (Oxford, 11HW )
HULMA.N, II English National Education (London

1XQS)
YOXAM., SIR J II , and GRAY, E The Red Code

(London, annual )

INSPECTORS, STATE. — Sec SUPERVISORS,
RICH SCHOOLS, STATE SYSTEMS OF.

INSTINCT —Use of Term —Modern
writers have not agreed upon a fixed meaning
of the term "instinct." The field of instinct is
the common ground of both psychologists and
biologists The experimental biologists take
an objective viewpoint with respect to instinct
For them, instinct is a combination of congenital
resp >nses, unfolding themselves serially under
appi >pnate stimulation: the series as a whole
being generally but not necessarily adaptive* in
character (always so from a Darwinian .stand-
point) Each unit reaction or element in this
senes may be looked upon as a "reflex " An
instinct is thus a concatenated series of reflexes
Such a series of reflexes, or an instinct, is illus-
trated by the first attempts at nest building of
young birds, by the first fighting responses in
young animals of any kind, and by the captur-
ing, killing, and eating of prey (as appears in
kittens), etc The combination must be ob-
served on its first appearance if it is to be seen
" pure," i c without the presence of the
habit-factor.

Reflex — If this definition of instinct is to
be acceptable to the animal psychologists, it
is necessary to add that the term '• reflex "
(including tropisms under this heart) should
not be understood to mean an absolutely fixed
and unalterable type of response. Jennings,
Mast, Yerkes, and many other American writers
have shown that the responses even of the pro-

463

INSTINCT

INSTINCT

tozoa and of the lower metazoa are not reflex
in the sense of being fixed and stereotyped.
Two factors determine the overt observable
response* the extra-organic stimulation (sen-
sory stimulus) and the mtra-organic processes
(physiological states) If either set changes,
the overt response changes, either gioatly or
little; e.g the stentor may react in several
different ways or in the same way, but more or
less intensely, to the same (extra-organic)
stimulus, provided the physiological state of the
animal be different at different moments of
stimulation Yerkes has shown that the
amount of the reflex movement of the leg of tho
fiog called forth by an electric stimulus can be
greatly increased by introducing an auditory
stimulus simultaneously with the electric
stimulus, although the auditory stimulus calls
forth no visible response when given alone.
As the interval between the auditorv and the
tactual is gradually increased, the reenforce-
ment of the reflex response gradually decreases,
and finally gives place to an actual inhibition
Similar conditions hold in the case of the human
knee jerk and other reflex-like phenomena

In general terms, then, while the reflex is the
simplest type of organic response, calling on the
structural side for the presence merely of an
open pathway from receptor to effector (or
from sensory surface to muscular mass when
the nervous system is lacking), at the same
time many influences, as has been well brought
out by Sherrmgton, arc at work, or mav be at
work, to alter the perviousriess of this path-
way (blockage on the reverse at the synapses,
momentary or more lasting differences in
tonicity of the musculature, etc.), and thus to
alter the intensity, and to some extent, even
the character of the so-called "simple reflex"
responses " Simple reflex," then, is a mere
concept — a general term to cover sogmental
reactions which appear at first sight to be rela-
tively simple in character. If the individual
units composing the series of responses which
are grouped together to give us the total pic-
ture of an instinct in action are variable in
their futiction, then the series as a whole must
necessarily offer still greater possibilities of
variation. If the above contention for the
variable character of the simple reflex is
granted, the biological or objective definition
of instinct is acceptable

Presence of Consciousness —The older
psychologists, the early naturalists, and the
metaphysicians have complicated the discus-
sion of instinct by bringing in the question as
to whether consciousness is present, and if so,
to what extent. This additional element of
consciousness in the instinctive response was
supposed to differentiate instinct from reflex.
However interesting a question this may be
from the standpoint of general psychological
theory, it seems relatively futile to attempt to
introduce psychological considerations of a
structural kind into any discussion of instincts

in the present state of animal psychology. If
instincts are defined as above, it is clear that,
neither the human animal nor one lower in the
scale is conscious of the end to be gained by the
first exercise of any instinctive group of re-
sponses. Even the human adult cannot image
what has never formed a part of his perception.
It is unreasonable to suppose that there can be
any plan, picture, or image of a nest of any
kind in the mind of the thrush which hap been
hatched in an incubator and reared in isolation
from all other birds; nevertheless, at the
proper time she will construct her nest true to
the species type, and go through with the
whole breeding cycle. The separate move-
ments from a psychological standpoint are not
voluntarily initiated; there are no images
anticipatory of the series of acts or of their
results. As James states it, the animal is so
constructed that it must act in that way, in the
presence of such stimuli. On the other hand,
it may be argued with some justice that the
process may be and probably is an intensely
conscious one from the standpoint of the pres-
ence of sensations, one has good reasons for
supposing that the bird is visually aware of the
stick and the twine — of their form, size, and
color (though even these functions are really
hypothetical until decisive experiments have
been made), -~ and that she is conscious of her
movements toward them, of their weight and
contact values as she picks them up, and,
furthermore, that she is vividly conscious of
her own emotional state It may be likewise
argued that after the bird has built her first
nest, arguing by analogy from human processes,
she might be able to image it when absent from
it, since by building it instinctively she has
laid a perceptive basis for the rise of an image
In other words, while the animal is not planning
or controlling the situation voluntarily in this
first exercise of the instinct, she is "feeling"
vividly her emotional state and is conscious,
however poorly she may analyze the experience,
of the visual, auditory, tactual, and kinsesthetic
stimuli which assail her from within and
without as she successively goes through with
the separate acts

Method of studying Instincts — Present-day
comparative psychology, looking at instincts
from the above objective standpoint, is taking
up individual instincts and making a detailed
experimental study of them. It is thus rapidly
enlarging and making more definite our con-
cept of what in any given case is an instinct.
It is showing that what was earlier called in-
stinct is in most cases a delicate and complex
combination of instinct and habit. It is impos-
sible except by laboratory methods to separate
the congenital (phylogenetic) from the acquired
or habit form of reaction (ontogenetic). With-
in the last few years it has been shown that the
responses of practically every organism, from
amceba to man, are plastic and modifiable, and
that all animal forms actually do alter their

464

INSTINCT

INSTINCT

original or primary congenital modes of rc-
nponse, where necessary, in the direction of
habit The young of any given species must
be watched from the moment of birth until
the last instinctive cycle (those connected with
reproduction) appear. This has now been
partially done, but only in a general way, for
the young of several species of birds and mam-
mals The work of Morgan, Spaldmg, Porter,
Watson, Craig on the birds, and of Wesley,
Mills, Small, and Yerkes on young mammals,
shows quite clearly that many apparently
simple instincts are not completely congenital
at all Lloyd Morgan has shown that the
drinking response in young chicks is very im-
perfect until habit factors enter in Breed, at
Harvard, has shown that the pecking response
in the same animal is very imperfect at birth,
and that it is only gradually learned.

Many of the instincts at birth, however,
appear, though later experiments may prove the
case to be otherwise, perfect without modi-
fication, such as the building of the first nest
by young birds, brooding, rearing of the young,
many of the responses of the insect a, etc
Unquestionably, as these activities are engaged
in from season to season, habit factors mav arid
do enter in The scientific way, then, of ap-
proaching the problem of instinct is to isolate
the young animals, and to observe what reac-
tions will from time to time unfold themselves
(congenital responses), and then to determine
experimentally how these congenital responses
are supplemented and changed by habit

The explanation of why there is a congenital
response taking place before experience or
tuition can have played any part must be
sought for on evolutionary grounds. All
organisms arc born into the world with certain
structural modifications which force the animal
to react, however imperfectly, in a certain
way in the presence of certain stimuli. The
origin of such structures is a mooted question
to-day, and no satisfactory answer can be
given. We sketch below the two most impor-
tant hypotheses

Origin of Instincts. — Darwin's theory of
the origin of instincts by the process of grad-
ually heaping up favorable fluctuating varia-
tions, the process as a whole being under the
influence of natural selection, has already been
discussed (See DARWIN.) In recent yeais
Darwin's theory has been shown to be un-
tenable In the first place, while it is true that
all individuals of a given species do show
fluctuating variations when compared with
the norm or average, it has been shown by a
number of investigators, including Nillson,
De Vries, Jennings, Morgan, Pearl, and others
that such variation cannot be heaped up along
specialized lines, as Darwin supposed Fluctu-
ating variations are not inherited; conse-
quently, they have no bearing on the theory
of evolution.

u The use-and-disuse hypothesis " (and the

theory of lapsed intelligence of Wundl , ('ope, and
others, based on it) of Lamarck, and espoused
as a supplementary hypothesis by Darwin,
has been practically abandoned by biologists
for lack of experimental support. The same
may be said of the third of Darwin's principles
for accounting for the origin of instincts,
namely, his theory of secondary sexual char-
acters. Being forced to abandon these Dar-
winian hypotheses, we are forced by the
experimental method to seek some other mode
of accounting for structural differentiations
Fortunately, the recent work of Bateson,
De Vries, Nillson, McDougall, Vail, and Shull,
and of Tower and others, throws light on this
question. De Vries's work on the evening prim-
rose, (Enethera Lamarckiana, is probably best
known For over twenty years De Vries bred
this plant under conditions of scientific accu-
racy. His first culture gave a wholly new
mutation — i e. a wide and totally unexpected
and unpredictable variation, as distinct from
the usual slight, fluctuating variations In the
continued cultivation of it other mutations
— some of which are very striking, such as the
dwarf, 0 Nanella, and the giant, 0 (hgas
were observed Some twelve mutations from
the original pure strain, 0 Lamarck tana,
have been described by DC Vries, all of them
breeding true to the type, and appearing with-
out intermediate forms In other words, dif-
ferentiation in this plant takes place by
jumps — mutations, and such mutations are
hereditary McDougall, Vail, and Shull have
shown that these mutations may be experi-
mentally produced by the injection of certain
solutions directly into the plant ovaries

By far the larger amount of this work on the
production of new types and races has been
done on plants The color form and be-
havior chances noted by Tower in his chry-
somelid beetles parallel the work of De Vries
on plants. A great mass of work, similar in
character to that of Tower, is accumulating
In addition to mutations which have been
obtained experimentally, it is now generally
recognized as being the most probable assump-
tion that the breed of hornless cattle in Para-
guay, the long-horned sheep in Brazil, the
Ancon sheep in Massachusetts, to use familiar
illustrations, arose suddenly and by mutation
De War and Finn in a recent book, The Making
of Species, devote several pages to a discussion
of mutation in animals.

The conception that the special structures
underlying instinctive responses arise by dis-
crete and sometimes large variations, as well
as that species themselves arise in this way, is
rapidly gaining ground. According to the
mutation theory, congenital adaptations are
not slowly produced by environment, but are
the accidental correlates of the particular
structures with which the mutant happens to
be endowed; and it is with these adaptations
that the new type must begin its struggle for

VOL 111 — 2 H

465

INSTINCT

INSTINCT

a suitable environment. If tlie mutant springs
forth at a lime when the environment is such
that the actions on the part of the animal
necessary for obtaining food, shelter, and the
reproduction of its kind can be called forth,
— or, put the other way around, if the mutant
is fortunate enough to hr»gin life, with a series
of responses adequate to meet environmental
demands, that type of mutant can exist and
procreate its kind, leaving adequate paleon-
tological record behind it, if not, the variant
is annihilated, without leaving marks of its
temporal y existence Natural selection, while
not being responsible for the formation of new
structures, and hence of new responses, is still
operative in eliminating the unfit variants
What boots it whether the snail is coiled to the
light or to the left; or that certain Crustacea
have one claw so much overdeveloped that
its possession must be a disadvantage, so long
as these animals possess enough favoring adap-
tations to make the necessities of life obtain-
able'1' Selection will allow the mutant many
peculiar and non-advantageous structures, it
steps in only when there is an actual deficiency
in the number and cornplexitv of functions
necessary for life and leproduclion

Human psychology is especially interested
in this theory of mutations by reason of the
fact that it does away with the necessity of
looking for adaptive value in certain emo-
tional and instinctive attitudes, as in dizziness,
trembling, nausea, and many other such icac-
tions which put the human subject at a dis-
advantage in critical situations

Important Human and Animal Instincts —
Any complete or general inventory of animal
instincts is impossible at the piesent time,
because (1) animals possess so manv instincts
that students of behavior have not had time
to study them exhaustively in any one species,
and (2) instincts differ too widely in the dif-
ferent species All animals may be said roughly
to possess many adaptive specialized congenital
modes of reacting to food, enemies, shelter,
and sex, and to possess, in addition, many other
congenital modes of response which are acci-
dental and non-adaptive Special studies in
animal psychology will give soon, it is hoped,
a clear and concise knowledge ol the order of
appearance and the number of instincts in any
given form, their fixity, variability, and
modifiability, their constant, cyclic or deferred
character, etc

The important human instincts appearing
later than the group immediately connected
with the preservation of life (such as sucking,
crying, sneezing, etc.) are in just as much need
of careful study as are the instincts of animals.
Angell in his Psychology gives the following as
the probable list Fear, anger, shyness, curi-
osity, affection, sexual love, jealousy, envy,
rivalry.; sociability, sympathy, modesty (?),
play, imitation, constructiveness, secretive-
ness, and acquisitiveness. It is easy to see

466

first that many of Ihese are questionable
instincts, as for example, modesty, imitation,
affection, secondly, that many of these are
general terms which coyer groups of instincts.
Play, for example, consists in the releasing of
many congenital responses, and the number and
character of these responses differ widely with
respect to the objects calling them forth A
kitten will play with its tail or a ball of twine,
or it will engage in a mock combat with its
fellow, or tease a helpless mouse The re-
sponses differ greatly in the several cases A
similar condition obtains in the child Thirdly,
many of them are so masked by the network
of habits which the child has formed before
the responses appear that the pure and char-
acteristic instinctive group cannot be isolated
Jealousy, envy, rivalry, sociability, and sym-
pathy are of this type In the child they
hhow really the beginnings of conscious atti-
tudes There is an instinctive Anlage, but lit-
tle more The works of Preyer, Perez, Shinn,
Major, Baldwin, and Stern deal largely with
instincts in the child, but mainly from an
observational standpoint

Psychological Bearing of Instinct — While
the mechanics of instinct per ,se interests the
student of behavior mainly, the human psy-
chologist is concerned with them first because
of the light they throw on the origin of emotion ,
emotion always appears in the human being in
conjunction with instinctive expression Sec-
ondly, by reason of the fact that all volitional
control has its origin m instinctive movement
Thirdly, by reason of their intimate beanng
on adult impulses, motives, and attitudes

Pedagogical Bearing of Instincts. — A study
of instincts is of the highest importance peda-
gogically because the changes in the interests
of the child are somewhat (Determined by
changes in the instinctive and emotional com-
plexes Instincts ripen serially and decline
serially — each one as it comes brings about an
interest in a different set of objects and a dif-
ferent focus of attention, as shown very cleaily
at the onset of puberty. James, in his Prin-
ciples of Psychology, speaks very vividly of
" striking while the iron is hot," i c. of choos-
ing the favorable moment when the child is
instinctively interested in a group of objects,
to instill proper modes of reacting to these
objects and to store up knowledge about them
While he largely overestimates the nurnber,
independence, and permanence of instincts of
this class in man and of their adaptability for
such a starnping-m process, there is such an
element of truth in what he says that no teacher
can neglect the study of human instincts.

A large group of educational psychologists,
in their adlierence to the reduplication theory
of Cope, have carried the process just described
to an unwarranted extreme. The child is sup-
posed to duplicate in ontogeny the whole
phylogcnetic process. We are taught by them
to find m the growing child a series of culture

INSTITUTE

INSTITUTES

epochs, similar to the rough-stone age, the
hunting stage, and the agricultural stage in
primitive man. The above school has based
educational theory and practice on this hy-
pothesis It remains to be said that this aspect
of the reduplication theory is based on the most
flimsy biological speculation, and that modern
experimental biology finds few data supporting
it In exceptional and isolated cases there
appear to be certain growth processes which
are apparently reduplicative m character But
nearly all such changes take place in the em-
bryonic stages or during the early period of
infancy To carry this process over to the
child of eight, ten, and twelve years of age,
and to base an educational system upon it, is
building upon a foundation of sand

J B W
References : —
BALDWIN, J. M. Mental Development. (Now York,

1906)

HOBHOTJSK, L J. Mind in Evolution (London, 1(K)1 )
JENNINGH, H. S The Behaviour of Lower Oiyani&nib

(Washington, 1904 )

LOEB, J Physiology of Bra in and Comparative Psy-
chology (Now York, 1902 )
McDouGALL, W. Social Psychology (Now York,

1908)
MORGAN, C. LLOYD Animal Brhaoiour (London,

1900 )

SHEKUINGTON, C. F> Thr Integrative Action of thf Nerv-
ous System (New York, 1906 )

VKIES, H. DE The Mutation Theory Tr by ,7 Farmer
and A D Darbishiro (London, 1909-1910 )

INSTITUTE, FRENCH (INSTITUT DE
FRANCE) — A French association comprising
a group of societies for the advancement of
literature arid science m all their branches An
association of this type had been planned by
Richelieu when the French Academy was
established m 1635 In the same century,
under the influence of Louis XIV and some
of his ministers, there sprang up the Academy
of Fine Arts (1648), the Academy of Inscnp-
tions (1063), and the Academy of Sciences
(1666) These were all abolished by the
Convention in 1793, and in their place the
Institut National des Sciences et des Arts was
established in 1795, "charged with collecting
discoveries and with perfecting the arts and
sciences " Its members were now drawn not
from Paris alone, but from all parts of France,
and foreign associates were also elected The
plan appears to have been suggested by
Talleyrand and Condoreet There were three
classes devoted to (1) physical sciences and
mathematics, (2) moral and political sciences,
and (3) literature and fine arts In 1803 the
Institute was reorganized with four classes
with a new distribution, excluding moral and
political sciences at the order of Napoleon.
In 1816 the old names of the academies were
restored, and in 1832 the Academy of Moral
and Political Sciences was revived and the
name was changed to Institut de France. The
membership consists of regular and honorary
members, foreign associates, and corresponding

members. Election is by ballot, confirmed by
the government The members receive 1500
francs a year each. The Institute is located
in the old Mazarin Palace The library,
which includes the old town library of Pans
allotted to it in 1797, contains a valuable
collection of books The Institute has tin
right to nominate professors to the College oi
France, the Museum, Schools of Rome and
Athens, School of Maps, School of Oriental
Languages, Conservatory of Arts and Handi-
crafts, the Observatory and the Ecole Poly-
technique. One of the important functions
exercised by the Institute is the award of prizes
for distinguished services to literature, science,
and arts Funds are provided by the state and
private benefactions, the general funds being
administered under the supervision of the
Minister of Public Instruction, and depart-
mental funds by each academy.
See ACADEMY!

References : —

FRANKLIN, A L' Institut de France (Pans, 1907 )
FRANQTJKVILLE, A C F DE Le premier Riecle de

VImtitut de France (Pans, 1805 )
SIMON, J The French Institute, m Report of the

Smithsonian Institution, 1895.

INSTITUTES —The teachers' institute is
a distinctly American institution As origin-
ally organized, the purpose of the institute was
to provide opportunities for the review of the
subjects taught in the common schools, to give
suggestions on methods of teaching and school
management, and to stimulate teachers to self-
improvement For a tune the institute did
the work of the normal school in the piofes-
sional training of teachers, and in parts of the
country, where normal schools do not meet the
needs of rural communities, the institute con-
tinues to provide abbreviated courses of pro-
fessional training Wheic, however, normal
schools are reasonably well organized, the in-
stitute serves the purpose of an education
gathering for the discussion of broader profes-
sional subjects The summer school, in many
parts of the United States, is taking over the
function of the teachers' institute

In some parts of the country the institutes
are under state auspices and aie generally or-
ganized by the state superintendent of public
instruction In most states the county is the
unit, and the county supeniitendcnt is the re-
sporibible director. In cities of 20,000 and more
inhabitants, separate institutes are generally
held under the direction of the city superintend-
ent of public schools In most of the states
there are special appropriations from the
school funds that meet part of the cost of the
institutes Such funds are generally sup-
plemented by membership fees on the part of
the teachers or by fees that accrue from the
licensing of teachers The duration of the
institute varies from one day to six weeks.
Some states have paid corps of institute m-

467

INSTITUTES

INSTITUTES

structors, but most states secure the services of
members of the faculties of the state normal
schools and colleges and other educational
workers to give the instruction In institutes
that are in session a week or less, the instruc-
tion is generally of a purely professional char-
acter and is given in the form of lectures
Where the sessions are of longer duration, the
teachers are organized into classes for more
definite academic instruction in the elementary
school studies

Historical Development — The first teachers'
institute was held at Hartford in the autumn
of 1839 by Henry Barnard (qv). Twenty-six
young men, some of whom had already taught
in the common schools, were organized into a
class and given instruction for six weeks In
the previous winter Barnard had asked the
state legislature to make an appropriation to
enable him to organize two such institutes,
one for male and one for women teachers As
the measure failed in the senate, he organized
a class of men at his own expense, with slight
aid from some friends of education in Hartford
He wished to show the people of Connecticut,
he baid, " the practicability of making some
provision for the better qualification of common
school teachers, by giving them the opportunity
to review and extend their knowledge of the
studies usually pursued in the district schools
and the best methods of school management,
instruction, and government, by means of
recitations and lectures conducted by ex-
perienced and well-known teachers and edu-
cators "

At this first institute held at Hartford,
Cluules Davies, (qv.), the well-known author
of mathematical textbooks, gave instruction in
arithmetic, Thomas H Gallaudet (q v ), had
the classes in composition and school govern-
ment, Mr. Barton, of the teachers' seminary
at Andover, gave lessons in reading, Mr
Brace and Mr Wright, of the Hartford schools,
had charge of the subjects of geography, spell-
ing, and writing, and Mr Barnard himself
gave lessons in principles of teaching and school
hygiene " A portion of each day/' wiites
Mr Barnard, " was devoted to oral discussions
and written essays on subjects connected
with teaching. The students also spent some
time in visiting the best schools in Haitford "

The experiment was repeated the next year
(1840), with the addition of a class for women
teachers. It was not until 1847 that the leg-
islature of Connecticut provided the funds for
the organization of institutes (two in each
county) at state expense Private initiative,
however, had made possible many such insti-
tutes in different parts of the state, at which
such well-known educators as Henry Barnard,
Thomas H Gallaudet, William A Alcott, Jesse
Olney, Charles Davies, and .1 E Lovell gave
instruction. These early gatherings in Con-
necticut were not called institutes, but teachers'
classes.

468

In 1842 J. S Denman, the superintendent
of schools in Thompkms County, New York,
conducted for two weeks a class of teachers for
the purpose of " reviewing and extending the
topics taught in the common schools." He
called his class a teachers' institute. This
was probably the first use of the term. In the
following year Mr Denman held an institute
for six weeks. He was assisted in the instruc-
tion in his institutes by James B. Thomson,
David Powell, Salem Town, and David P
Page (qq v ) By 1844, remarks Mr Fowlc in
an article published at that time, institutes
were held in most parts of the state In 1847
the legislature of New York appropriated $60
toward defraying the expenses of teachers' in-
stitutes in each county in the state.

Rhode Island was probably the first state
to organize institutes under state auspices
Henry Barnard, then at the head of the school
system, held institutes at Westerly and PKAI-
dence in 1844 During the next few yeais
institutes were held in all parts of the state1,
and such well-known educators as William H
Wells, John Kmgsbury, Charles Da\ies, Josiah
Holbrook, Samuel S Greene, Francis Way land,
and William B Fowle (qqv), were secuied as
instructors The institutes of Rhode Island had
several unique features One of these was the
teaching of " model lessons " by William G
Baker A covered wagon was fitted up, and this
conveyed Mr Baker and a dozen children about
the btate At each institute Mr Baker gave
lessons in the different elementary school sub-
jects, to show the members of the institute
" how to teach " Another feature was the
distribution of educational tracts and almanacs
at the evening sessions, which were of a geneial
nature and attended by the people of the com-
munity

An institute was held at Sandusky, Ohio,
in 1844, under the guidance of Judge Ebenezer
Lane He was assisted by Henry Barnard,
Salem Town, and A. D Lord Many similar
meetings were held during 1845 and 1846, that
were supported by private contributions, but
in 1847 the state legislature authorized the
county commissioners to appropriate certain
funds for the payment of instructors and lec-
turers at teachers' institutes

As Massachusetts had organized two state
normal schools in 1839 (Framingham and West-
field) and a third in 1840 (Bridgewater), in-
stitutes were not held in that commonwealth
until 1845 In October of that year, Horace
Mann (q v ) organized a ten-day institute at
Pittsfield, and before the end of the year in-
stitutes were held at Fitchburg and Plymouth.
Massachusetts secured from the first a corps of
strong men to give the instruction at the
teachers' institutes, including such distin-
guished educators as William Russell, John
Pierpont, Sanborn Tenney, Samuel S. Greene,
Lowell Mason, C. D. Colburn, Josiah Hol-
brook, William H. Wells, and at a later date the

INSTITUTES

INSTITUTES OF INSTRUCTION

three Swiss- Americans, Louis Agassiz, Arnold
Guyot, and Hermann Krusi, Jr (qq v ) As the
instructors were employed by the state board of
education, they were also assigned to the dif-
ferent normal schools to give courses of lec-
tures and lessons It may also be mentioned
that in Massachusetts such new subjects as
singing, physiology, and mental arithmetic
were popularized at the institutes before being
introduced into the schools

The first teachers' institute was held in Penn-
sylvania at Columbus, Warren County, in ] 848
It was conducted by Fordycc A Allen (q v )
and J C Moses. Institutes were held in
Lawrence County in 1851, Indiana County in
1852, and Lancaster County in 1853 In 1854
the legislature granted aid to teachers' insti-
tutes, and in 1867 they were made an integral
part of the Pennsylvania school system
Among those who took active part in the early
institutes held in the Quaker State were Thomas
H Burrowes, James P Wickersham, Fordyce
A Allen, John F Stoddard, and S S Halde-
rnan (qq v )

With the organization of the state school
systems, teachers' institutes in one form or
another became a part of the educational
machinery, and although they have changed
greatly in character in the more thickly popu-
lated states, thev are still a part of the school
systems of practically all the American states
Originally peripatetic normal schools, often
extending then sessions into weeks, to-day in
such populous states as Massachusetts, Rhode
Island, Connecticut, and New Jersey, they aie
rarely in session more than one day At an
earlier period the institutes were of special value
in arousing and solidifying public sentiment in
favor of state-supported schools, in disseminat-
ing useful knowledge concerning methods arid
principles of teaching, and in enriching the
common school course by popularizing new
subjects As the number ot trained teachers
has increased, the institutes have tended more
and more to become general education conven-
tions for the discussion of current educational
problems W S M

Present Status. — As at present conducted,
the teachers' institutes aim to provide general
academic instruction, professional training, dis-
cussion of immediate pioblcms, and profes-
sional inspiration They thus attempt to take
the place of training schools, teachers' associa-
tions, and social organizations As a rule insti-
tutes are held once a year and last five days,
though they vary from one day, in New England,
to five or six weeks in some of the Southern
states The most common unit is the county,
except in Colorado and Nevada (institute dis-
tricts), and New York (school commissioner
districts) In Rhode Island a state institute is
held. Counties may join to hold institutes. In
three states (Michigan, Nevada, and Nebraska),
state institutes are held Attendance is com-
pulsory in twenty-eight states, and, although

optional elsewhere, various inducements (e.g
continued salary, per diem expenses, mileage
allowances, and a percentage toward grading)
are offered. The institutes are maintained
by the state or by fees from teachers for
examinations, licenses, and registration In-
structors may be appointed by the state- 01
by the local authority from a list prepared b\
the State, in some states the instructors must
be licensed Commonly the nonnal school fac-
ulties supply instructors, although the range
and scope is, of course, much wider The insti-
tutes are in the main attended by rural school
teachers, occasionally by city school teachers,
hardly ever by high school teachers The sys-
tem of institutes has been seveioly criticized
within recent years The chief ground of ob-
jection is that it is an anachronism It had
a place when there were no facilities for the
training of teachers But since the establish-
ment of normal and summer schools it nieiely
connives at inadequately trained teachers in
attempting to do training work for about five
days in a year Fuithcr, the piograms are
as a rule haphazard, unconnected, and re-
quire no preparation, and are followed by no
discussion Frequently the lectures ha\c be-
come inspirational and entertaining in the
woist sense. The tendency at present is to
permit teachers to attend summer schools in
place of institutes, to lengthen the period of
the institute, making it almost a summer
school, to require definite preparation of
some connected educational topics, and to
conduct the meetings as classes in a school 01
college Ultimately the institute will dis-
appear, but before that time professional stand-
ards must be raised, universal training and
higher qualifications must be insisted upon, and
teachers' associations must play a more signifi-
cant part in the teacher's life than at present

References —

BARNARD, HENRY. Teachers' Institutes Historical
Development in the Different States American
Journal of Education, 1865, Vol XV, pp 387-414

DUTTON, S T , and SNEDDEN, D Admtmshation of
Education in the United State* (New York, 1910 )

FOWLE, W B Teachers' Institutes Ma^achutftts
Common School Journal, Nov 17, 1814, Vol VI,
pp 344-310

GREEN\VOUD, J M Normal Inbtitutes Education,
January, 1889, Vol IX, pp 3U5-311

MrMANis, J T Problem of the Institute Elcm
Sch Teacher, Vol IV, 1903, pp 232-239

RUEDIOER, W C Agencies for the Improvement of
Teacheri in Service U. S Bur Ed Bulletin,
No 3 (Washington )

SEERLEY, H H Practical Value of the Institute Sys-
tem Educ Rev, Vol XXXVI, 1908, pp 356-
363

SMART, J H Teachers' Institutes Circular of In-
formation, No 2, 1885, pp. 206 ff (Washington,
1885 )

TOWN, SALEM County Teachers' Institutes Ameri-
can Institute of Instruction for 1845, pp. 199-217.

INSTITUTES OF INSTRUCTION — See

AMERICAN INSTITUTE OF INSTRUCTION.

469

INSTRUCTION

INSURANCE COMPANIES

INSTRUCTION. — See

INSTRUCTION

EDUCATION AND

INSTRUCTION, COST OF, IN COLLEGE
AND UNIVERSITY. -See UNIVERSITY AND
COLLEGE, COST OF IM^THITTION IN

INSTRUCTION, HYGIENE OF — See HY-

(UENE, SCHOOL

INSTRUCTION PERIOD. -- The weekly
program of the school is made up of periods
which are assigned in varying quantity to the
several school subjects, hence we speak of the
arithmetic period or the grammar period
These class penods are further classified ac-
cording to the function, use, or value of the
activity employed Thus, if the period is
assigned for the purpose of instruction by the
teacher, it is called an instruction or recita-
tion period, if for preparation by the pupil,
a study period All periods cannot be thus
classified, as several purposes may be piesent
in one exercise H S.

See LESSONS, TYPES OF, MANAGEMENT,
SCHOOL, TEACHING, TYPES OF.

INSUBORDINATION — See SCHOOL MAN-
AC.EMENT, REWAKDS AND PUNISHMENTS

INSURANCE COMPANIES, EDUCA-
TIONAL WORK OF. — Quite recently insur-
ance companies have realized that in addition
to guarding the interests of policy holders by
1 horough medical inquiry, it may be possible
to lower the death rates generally by a system
oi education along the lines of sanitation and
hvgiene It is recognized to-day that many
diseases are preventable, and that, if the
population generally could be educated re-
garding the possibilities of prevention, the
population moitahty might be effectively
i educed It is for this reason that certain life
insurance companies are working hand in hand
with public officials in the direction of spread-
ing the gospel of education in sanitary and
hygienic matters The general subject of
prevention of disease and conservation of
human life has been fully dwelt upon m the
report of the National Conservation Commis-
sion by Professor Irving Fisher, entitled,
National Vitality, its Waste and Conservation.

The large majority of life insurance com-
panies conduct so-called " ordinary " business
The risks on which they write policies belong
to a better financial stratum of society, and
are able to take insurance in amounts of $1000
and upwards The mortality in this group,
for obvious reasons, is lower than in the general
population^ and at some ages is only one half of
the mortality in what may be termed " indus-
trial " population A number of the companies
not only write so-called ordinary insurance, but
industrial insurance as well This form of
insurance has been arranged for the working

classes, and permits them, through the payment
of small weekly premiums, to insure themselves
against death For this group, however, it
has been necessary to devise a special mortality
table based on the experience gained from a
study of the mortality m this particular group
The individuals comprising the industrial
masses are less in a position to avail themselves
of the opportunities to guard themselves against
disease, and for this reason a campaign of edu-
cation directed specifically to them may have
a tendency to bring about better results than
a campaign among the better circumstanced

Of the companies which have attempted a
campaign to improve the physical conditions
and the health of their policy holders, probably
the most noteworthy aie the Provident Savings
Life Assurance Society, recently merged with
the Postal Life Insuiance Company, the Met-
ropolitan Life Insurance Company, and the
Equitable Life Assurance Society. The first
named company, in August, 1909, organized
a so-called " Policyholders' Health Bureau,"
through which the company has issued health
bulletins to pohcyholders, keeping them in-
formed of the most recent advances of science
in the promotion of health and the prevention
of disease, and answering inquiries on matters
of health The various bulletins which have
been issued by the company tieat of the evil
results due to intemperance, and overeating,
and the contingencies from vanous poisons
In one number, the bureau discussed certain
of the so-called preventive diseases, such as
neumoma and typhoid fever Another iium-
)ei was given over to the use of narcotics arid
the dangers attending their use

Outside of the held of the life insurance com-
panies several of the accident companies have
published bulletins in reference4 to the preven-
tion of accidents llcie m particular may be
mentioned the bulletin published by tlu
Fidelity and Casualty Company of New Yoik
on The Prevention of Industrial Accidents

The campaign of education which was begin
m 1909 by the Metropolitan Life Insurance
Company of New York has been directed pri-
marily to its so-called industrial pohcyholdeis,
representing all nationalities, and in many
instances individuals who have but little edu-
cation and no opportunity of coming in contact
with modern current thought on the subjects
of health and hygiene. To meet the needs of
this large group, the company through its
agents who visit the pohcyholders weekly has
distributed pamphlets of various kinds on the
movements which have sprung up to improve
living conditions and to prevent disease. For
years the company has published a periodical.
Incidentally, it has attempted to place in the
hands of its policy holders articles written in a
popular fashion on subjects dealing with the
health of the family, and in particular with the
health of the children in the family. The
magazine in a sense is a children's magazine.

F,

470

INSURANCE COMPANIES

INTELLECT

The illustrations which it contains, and many
of the articles especially prepared for it, have
been published with the children in mind
Some of the articles which have appeared in the
last year are the following. Just Flies, calling
attention to the danger of the fly as a trans-
mitter of disease; // you have, a Baby, Place
this where you will See it Every Day,
Chinese Doctors; Daily Health Hints, Summer
Clothing for the Children; GUI Glorious Fourth;
Seven Laws of Infant Health; Physical Defects
which may be Overcome, etc

The company, as would be expected, suffers
a heavy loss from deaths due to tuberculosis.
In the year 1908 there was a total of 92,411
deaths, of which 16,585 were caused by tuber-
culosis. Of these the number of deaths of chil-
dren over one and under fourteen years of age
was 1330, or 8 01 per cent, and it is clear that the
reduction of mortality from this dread disease
is of vital importance to the company An
effort has been made to educate polieyholdcrs
regarding the causes of the disease, its cure, and
its prevention Over four and a half million
copies of a pamphlet, A War upon Consump-
tion, printed in ten languages, have boon dis-
tnbutod to pohcyholders Tins pamphlet, as
well as others which are issued by the company,
\vjis put in an attractive form so that it \\ould
IK* lead Copies havo been distributed to
school children in certain cities at tho request
of tho authorities, and in one instance tho pam-
phlet has b >en used ns tho text foi compositions
and essays written by the children Supple-
menting the above pamphlet, the company
prepared a list of the tuberculosis sanatoria,
hospitals, dispensaries, classes, and associa-
tions in the United States and Canada, which
it has distributed among its pohcyholders
suffering from the white plague, and one which
is entitled, Direction it for Living and Sleeping
in the Open Air It is hoped through this
pamphlet many policy holders who are unable
to obtain sanatorium treatment may attempt
to obtain tieatment in their own homes The
company has at piesent in preparation a
booklet on domestic hygiene mid the care of
children.

The company has also been experimenting
for the last two years in the direction of send-
ing visiting nurses to its industrial pohcyholders
suffering, not only from tubeiculosis, but fiom
any disease which may lequirc nursing. But
the actual treatment and caic given b}' the
nurse is probably the least of her activities
From the standpoint of prevention, the value
of the nurse consists in the education along
sanitary and hygienic lines which she is spread-
ing broadcast in every home which she visits.
There can be little doubt that in time, while it
may not be possible to prove the matter by
actual statistics, there should be an impiove-
inent to a greater or lesser extent in the
mortality of pohcyholders, mid in particular
their general welfare will be materially en-

471

hanced It is hoped that the nurse will be of
particular value in preaching the doctnno oi
the prevention and cuic of tuberculosis in
connection with the pamphlet, Diiectiont> foi
Living and Sleeping in tlu Open An, to policy-
holders unable to obtain sanatorium treatment
A nurse, plus the pamphlet, should in tune pro-
duce tangible and visible results Maternit}
cases have been given particular consideration
in this nursing experiment both before and
after the birth of the child

As a matter of interest, it may be mentioned
that at present the experiment is being con-
ducted in approximately 775 cities and tovuis,
in the greater number of which the seivice has
been installed but a very short time The sta-
tistics for the year 1911 show a total of ovei
675,000 visits Visits are requested in the main
for acute diseases, that is, where there is a
stronger possibility of recovery Under these
may be included pneumonia, grippe, bronchitis,
tind various children's ailments such as convul-
bions, paralysis, etc

It may be said that an insurance company
that protects the lives of the working classes
has assumed very definite responsibilities
To what extent such a company may further
enlarge or increase its activities is problematic
The activities mentioned abo\e indie-ate the
possibilities, at any rate. Much will depend
on the extent to winch it may go under the
provisions of its charter and the laws of the
several states That the extension of such
work by an insurance company, that the en-
deavor on its part to better the eiieuinstances
of its pohcyholders and in particular to increase
the length of their lives, are subjects worthy ol
the deepest consideration, is beyond doubt

L K F

INTEGRAL CALCULUS — See CALCULUS

INTEGRATION OF STUDIES. — See COR-
RELATION

INTELLECT. — Intellect is a tenn which
has been employed in a broad and in a narroxv
sense In its broadest sense it includes all
of the processes of knowledge as distinguished
from the emotions and will Thus we speak of
the exercise of the intellect on the part of any
" one who is of higher grade than the imbecile "
In the narrow sense, the term intellect has
been employed to designate the higher forms
of mental activity as distinguished from cer-
tain of the lower forms of knowledge. Thus
the mere processes of sensory experience are
not to be regarded as belonging under this
term when used in its narrower sense. This
distinction is clearly marked in the title
employed by one of the great English psy-
chologists, Bain, in his volume Senses and
Intellect Here the intellectual processes are
(hose of discrimination, comparison, memory,
judgment, reasoning, etc The processes of

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION

INTEREST

sense recognition, on the other hand, are
treated as forms of knowing which are carried
on at a lower level This distinction is very
often employed in defining the relation between
human and animal consciousness Man is
said to be distinguished from the animals by
his possession of intellect. This, of course,
does not signify that man is superior to the
animals in sensory processes. It indicates
rather that the material which is supplied by
the senses is employed in human life m higher
forms of comparison and discrimination.

C H J.

See MIND; PSYCHOLOGY; and for educational
bearings, EDUCATION, IDEAS; KNOWLEDGE

INTELLECTUAL EDUCATION. — See ED-
UCATION

INTELLIGENCE TESTS, BINET. — See

TESTS, INTELLIGENCE.

INTEMPERANCE. — See TEMPERANCE, IN-
STRUCTION IN; ALCOHOL, THE USE AND PSYCHO-
LOGICAL EFFECT OF.

INTENSITY —One of the attributes of
sensation The intensity of the sensation is
related to the amount of energy that affects
the sense organ The difficulty in dealing with
the intensity of mental states is that it is im-
possible to compare two intensities unless they
are in consciousness in close succession, and then
it is not possible to do more than say that
one intensity is greater or less than another.
Measurement in the sense that it is used in the
physical sciences is impossible. The only meas-
urements that have been made are of the
amount of physical stimulus that will just give
use to a sensation in any department and the
difference in two physical intensities that may
just be appreciated The discussion of the
first problem is given under the different senses,
of the second under Weber's Law W. B. P

References —

TITCHENBR, E B. Textbook of Psychology (New
York, 1910 )

WUNDT, W Gruiidzuge der Psychologic, Vol. I. (Leip-
zig, 1893-1903 )

INTERACTION —See BODY AND MIND;
NERVOUS SYSTEM

INTEREST — The " doctrine of interest "
m education is a sort of shorthand expression
for a number of different motives, which focus
m the recognition of the necessity of discover-
ing points of genuine and intimate contact be-
tween the subject matter of instructioivarid the
vital experience of pupils, an experience that
exists and operates independently of attempts
to master the subject matter The etymology
of the word" interest," namely, inter and ewe,
to be between, suggests, if it does not adequately
convey, the idea. Interest indicates that no

472

gulf exists between material to be learned, les-
son material, and the concrete mind of the
pupil — that the mental powers and tendencies
find themselves at home in the material of
study, that the material awakens congenial re-
sponses in the self. So regarded, an interest
in a problem, a topic, a subject, is evidence
that there is a vital union between the student
and his study. Its opposite is the feeling of
alienation and repulsion that accompanies the
presentation of matter that is foreign to the ex-
perience of the student

Psychologically, interest and attention are
closely allied events. They are frequently
regarded as the subjective and objective as-
pects of the same activity. That is to say,
the effective assimilation of new material into
the course of experience is interest when viewed
from the standpoint of the mental affection,
the emotion and personal attitude, that accom-
pany it. It is attention when viewed as the
active outgoing of mental habits in grasping
and mastering the subj ect matter Other views
regard interest as prior and as the source
of attention; or, vice versa, conceive interest
as the emotional result of a prior act of
attention. All views, however, acknowledge
the intimate connection of the two, and it is
this close connection which is the significant
matter for education Like attention (q v ),
interest as a state of mind depends upon the
proper balance of the old and the new in ex-
perience. Where the material is almost wholly
new, there is excess of stimulation; the re-
sponsive powers of mind are overwhelmed and
confused Discouragement and aversion result.
As the term " aversion " implies, there is a strong
tendency for the mind to turn away and devote
itself to some more congenial and rewarding
topic Even if this tendency is partly over-
come, it means divided, and consequently
wasted, energy as compared with the uni-
fied, whole-hearted activity where interest is
naturally and directly sustained. On the
other hand, the thoroughly familiar denotes
the mastered, the habitual It sets off
tendencies that work automatically and me-
chanically If there is also a new factor
about which habits may play, these habitual
tendencies will furnish the background for in-
tense and concentrated interest But if there
is no stimulation beyond that evoking the
established habits, the result will be ennui,
monotony, routine. The effect is that of
walking in a treadmill where nothing new is
achieved. Put in other words, a certain degree
of difficulty, a certain amount of obstacle to be
overcome, enough to set the problem of a re-
adjustment of habit, is necessary for sustained
interest If the self is to put itself whole-
heartedly into what it is doing, its powers must
be thoroughly awakened, and this is impos-
sible without a challenging difficulty.

The fact just stated throws light upon the
relation between desire (as standing for in-

INTEREST

INTEREST

tercst) and effort, and helps place the relation
of the doctrine of interest to that of discipline.
As long as children " live in the present, " they
are absorbed in their immediate concerns. All
their powers are directed at and, so to speak,
discharged upon, the immediately present stim-
ulus There are no ends, that is to say, no con-
ceived results to be reached, after an interven-
ing time, through the controlled adaptation of
conditions as means — or the end lies in such
a near future that but little thought has to be
given to the management of intermediate con-
ditions

This state of immediate interest characterizes
the " play activities " When more remote
ends are entertained as objects to be reached
by the consistent and sustained maintenance of
a series of acts that, of themselves, lack im-
mediate interest, (but that are of interest
because of their importance for the remoter
end in view), we have mediate interest Being
dependent on an idea, mediate interest involves
an intellectual interest in a way, in which the
emotional heightening accompanying direct ab-
sorption does not The interest in a more or
less prolonged scries of acts is dependent upon
the persistence of an idea — the thought of an
end and the thought of the bearing of the im-
mediately present upon the attainment of this
end The control of the activity, and the
source of interest, reside in what is conceived,
what is physically absent, not in perception or
what is physically present

The remoteness of the end in time means of
course increase in the number of difficulties to
be dealt with, there is a series of difficulties
to be dealt with one after another Conse-
quently the seriousness, the depth of the in-
terest of the self in its objective — its aim — is
continually being tested and retested If the
interest is slight and passing, the emergence of
a difficulty in an unexpected form or in an
unusually strenuous way will distract the
mind from its pursuit, and lead to taking up
something which has an immediate, non-
intellectual value On the other hand, if the
self is deeply concerned with, thoroughly com-
mitted to, its object, each successive obstacle
will deepen the sense of the importance of the
object and increase the effort expended in behalf
of its realization In many oases, perhaps the
majority of cases, there will be an oscillation
a tendency to surrender the end in behalf of
some more immediately interesting object, and
a tendency to cling to the end, to emphasize its
importance, in order to enlist further effort
in its behalf Under these conditions, while
physical effort will go to the means for reaching
the end, moral and intellectual effort will be
directed to sustaining the idea of the end in
such force as to give it motive power

We have here all the elements of a seeming
conflict of interest and effort, with immediate
attractiveness, immediate agreeableness on
the side of interest, while serious and important

values are all on the Bide of effort Hence
the situation has been, frequently completely
misinterpreted in theories of education, with
respect to both its intellectual and its moral im-
plications That is, interest has been regarded
as an inherently unworthy and objectionable
factor, operating only as a temptation away
from the objectively important; it has been
identified with the attractive and swerving
power of the immediately pleasurable over
against what thought — or reason — shows to
be really worth while. This implies that the
objectively valuable end is totally lacking in
inherent interest, so that sheer effort of the
will has to be relied upon as the sole motive
for keeping the self in its right course — for
keeping it struggling against the seductions c.f
" interest "

The previous analysis should reveal what IP
at fault in this interpretation What sustains
effort is not sheer appeal to will power, but in-
terest in the end — the interest that ib indirect
and intelligent, as distinguished from that which
is immediate, purely personal, emotional, arid
sensuous The genuine educational need is,
therefore, not to eliminate interest, but to fos-
ter the indirect interest, the interest attach-
ing to the end in view, to make it more powerful
than the immediate interests which would, if
they became motive forces, take the self away
from its end, and reduce action from the plane
of thought to that of sense The import of
immediate interest is quite different before and
after reflection and the conceiving of remote
ends have entered in When thought is not
playing an important part, or when the situa-
tion is such that there is no need that it should
play a considerable role, immediate interest is
simply an indication of hearty, wholesome out-
going activity of the self, a sign of its ability
to identify itself with its surroundings, to ex-
press itself therein and to find itself reflected
by the environment It remains a funda-
mental trait of all esthetic and artistic manifes-
tations. Moreover, in the degree in which the
interest in the end is seriously sustained and
worked out, it tends to transfer itself to in-
terest in the means of reaching the end A
new type of immediate interest is thus de-
veloped, one which is as direct, as hearty and
spontaneous, as the earlier personal and sen-
suous interest, but one which depends upon the
intervention of thought When an individual
becomes intensely and sincerely interested in
an end which reflection holds up, the sense of
separation between means and end tends to
disappear The means become saturated with
a sense of the value of the end; and the end is
so identified with the means of achieving it
that it ceases to seem remote and far away,
every one of the present means represents, em-
bodies it This mutual interpenetration of
means and end is constantly exhibited in scien-
tific pursuits as well as in endeavors to achieve
wealth and political distinction. But there is

473

INTEREST

INTEREST

often a period between the original absence
of the end dependent upon reason and the final
unification of interest in intellectual end and
existent means, when the thought of an end
pulls one way while the immediately present
conditions pull in another In this intervening
state, there is temporarily a real conflict be-
tween thought, standing for continuity of
purpose, and reason, immediate interest, stand-
ing for the agreeable, the pleasurable, the
direct urgency of desire But, as already indi-
cated, the effective way of dealing with this
critical juncture is not to attempt the hopeless
task of crushing out all interest by sheer effort
in behalf of something totally lacking in in-
terest; it is to reenforce by all possible means
the interest in the end, so that its interest may
(use* with that of means for its attainment

We are now in a position to perceive the true
and false signification of discipline in connec-
tion with interest. A disciplined mind is one
that can hold to a train of thought in spite of
the attractions and distractions of irrelevant
considerations, it means power to attend to
the conceived, and to relate the perceived
(and what the imagination incidentally pre-
sents) to the conceived A disciplinary process
*'n education is one which tends to bring about
the state of mental control. True discipline,
in short, is distinctly a matter of intellectual
attitude and method the power to keep think-
ing in dominant control of the situation when
the situation needs reflective survey and es-
timation Since this clearly involves the over-
coming of obstacles and the holding of mind
to what is directly more or less disagreeable,
the false notion of discipline arises by ignoring
the function of intelligence as the source of
concentration, order, and regular sequence,
thereby identifying discipline with sheer effort
directed to the disagreeable. Hence disci-
plining methods are supposed to be effec-
tive whenever a person is forced to occupy
himself with whatever is uninteresting and
naturally repellent Difficulties are multiplied
for the mere sake of having difficulties, tasks
are assigned as tasks to discipline will, the
power of attention to the repellent The
error is in isolating will or the power of atten-
tive application from thought as the function
of sustaining remote ends arid of bringing them
into close connection with means, or existent
conditions

This fallacious conception of discipline which
relates it to effort to the exclusion of habits
of thought is strengthened by an opposite
error One school of educators, noting the
waste that comes from trying to work against
interest, substitutes appeal to momentary
emotional agreeableness, for both appeal to will
and to the interest of the remoter end Like
the so-called disciplinary school, it fails to
denote that thought, that ideas of ends or pur-
poses, holds the key to the situation. By
interest it means various devices that tend to

474

conceal the real end from view, that lessen the
need of serious thinking, and that place the
control of action in the direct stimulation of
present conditions. Interest thus comes to
mean a sort of sugar-coating over of difficul-
ties Since this method inevitably relaxes dis-
cipline in its proper sense — that is, the power
to utilize thinking as an effective method of
guidance of action — its failure to develop
continuity of application and serious industry
evokes a reactionary appeal to the method of
securing " discipline " by the assignment of
obnoxious tasks Then as this method fails
to secure motivation and genuine regard for the
materials of instruction, it in turn calls out re-
course to the method of emotional stimulation.
The only way out of this vicious circle is the
recognition of the importance of the intellec-
tual factor, the idea of a more or less distant
end, and the necessity of reerifomng interest
in it as the controlling factor

We have noticed above that indirect
interest involves an intellectual interest. At
the outset, this intellectual interest, while
genuine and indispensable, is secondary to the
interest in achieving an end or purpose — to
a practical interest in the broad sense of "prac-
tical." The transfer of interest from ends to
means is, howevei, one of the commonest
phenomena of experience, having its traditional
illustration, on its undesirable side, in the miser's
transfer of interest in what money will do to
the money itself But the principle has also its
positively valuable side It shows itself when-
ever there is developed an inteiest in thinking
for its own sake, an interest in conducting
reflection, pursuing inquiries, with no ulterior
aim. Different minds differ immensely in their
susceptibility to this transferability, but when-
ever it occurs we have strictly intellectual in-
terests A certain amount of intellectual
interest for its own sake is necessary to a proper
degree of detachment, of generosity and im-
partiality, of comprehensive survey of the
field, even in practical matters Hence it is
an end to be cultivated in educational proce-
dure Some minds are as likely to fall into
excess upon this side, however, as otheis are
in the narrowly practical, unintellectual direc-
tion Such minds become academic and scho-
lastic, " abstract " in the bad sense of that
term; their knowledge is divorced from in-
fluence upon action, theory is separated from
practice Hence ideas remain untested and
unfertilized by application, while practice
remains hard and narrow because not enlight-
ened and inspired by breadth of intelligence
Owing to various historic circumstances, most
schooling has come to favor unduly the foster-
ing of the pale academic type, at the expense
of those individuals whose natural and persist-
ent interests are more active and objectively
constructive. (See ACTIVITY and CULTURE.)

We have approached the subject of interest
from the psychological side This implies, how-

INTEREST

INTEREST

ever, its objective side The term "interest/'
or an interest, is constantly used to denote
that in which interest is taken It is used
as synonymous with a concern, a value, a
dominant direction of thought and action, an
occupation that is persistently important
Thus we speak of business, of science, of art, of
religion, of politics as interests This objec-
tive use of the term "interest" bears out what
was originally said of interest as the point of
identification of mind with its object, or sub-
ject matter This identity may be approached
and discussed — as above — from the side of
the mind, but it may be equally well ap-
proached from the side of the subject matter
in which the self finds its powers sustained and
fulfilled The fundamental thing, educa-
tionally, is that interest has both of these
aspects As a guiding principle or norm in edu-
cation its influence should be to protect educa-
tors from two harmful abstractions On the
one hand, from viewing mind as something
which can operate and manifest its nature all
by itself in a mental, subjective region As
against this notion (and the many educational
piactices connected with it) the doctrine of
interest holds up to view the need of subject
mattei of content in art, in science, in liteiatine
and lustoiy, in technical constructive activities,
etc, in order that mind may be actne and
be fulfilled On the other hand, theie is the
fallacy which makes the mind equally indifTei-
cnt to subject mattet, which supposes that if it
only will (if it but will choose to do so), it may
apply itself to any subject matter, and that any
regai d foi the inherent choice and spontaneous
direction of mind is a concession to a weak
and enervating principle As againsl this
notion, the doctrine of mtciest is important in
maintaining the fact that subject mat to is
assimilable and capable of having educatne
influence only so far as it is caught up into and
held by certain mhcicnt active tendencies oi
the self, thereby becoming an mteiest, a vital
concern, a significant occupation of the self

J. D.

See EFFORT, FORMAL DISCIPLINE; HER-
BAUT

References —

ARNOLD, F Attention and Interest, a Study in Psy-
chology and Education (New York, 1910 )

BOUGS, L P Uber John Dcivcy\ Theome dc\ Intt-
resses urtd seiner Anwcndung ifl der PaduflogiL
(Hallo, 1901 )

DEGARMO, C Intercut and Education, the Doctnne of
Interest and its Concrete Application (Now \ork,
1902 )

DEWEY, J Interest as related to Will (Bloomington,
III, 189(>)

OSTERMANN, W Interest and Us Relation to Pedagogy
Tr by E R Shaw (Now York, 1899 )

ZILLER, T Grundlegung zur Lehre vont Erzichcnden
Unterncht (Leipzig, 1K84 )

See also the references under HERB ART.

INTEREST — In medieval Europe the ob-
jection to paying for the use of money was so

great that the borrower was supposed to l
only the amount of his debt If, however,
he delayed, he was held to pay as compen-
sation a sum representing that which was be-
tween (" id quod interest ") the creditor's
position because of the delay and that which
he would have occupied if the debt had been
promptly paid Hence our word " interest "
The taking of interest is very ancient From
the old records on the clay cylinders, it appears
that the usual rate in Babylon was a shekel
on a manch, or about 16 per cent, although it
ran even higher than this Tablets as early
as the seventh century B c. relate that in-
terest was computed either by the month or
by the year In ancient India it appears that
15 per cent a year was not uncommon, and six
different forms of interest appear, including
compound ' interest In the writings of Bhas-
kara (q v ) problems appear like the following
" If the interest of a hundred for a month and
one third be five and one fifth, sav what is the
interest of sixty-two and a half for three
months and one fifth? " In Greece the inter-
est (TOKOS) was apparently not restricted bv
laws but the rate varied from 12 per cent to 18
per cent In Rome, interest was called /c/nv.s,
or, later, itbura (generally in the plural, usvra'}
The i ate was at first unrestricted, but the 7)?/o-
dcnm Tabulae (450 B c ) limited it as between
Komans to 8$ per cent The L^r Genunn
(342 B c ) prohibited the taking of interest,
but, like the medieval law, it was probably laxly
enforced In later Roman times the Eastern
custom of monthly interest came into use, the
ordinary rate being 1 per cent, or 12 per cent
per annum In Cicero's time 48 per cent
was allowed, but by the time of Justinian this
had been reduced to 6 per cent Some idea
of percentage appears in the uswa> centesimcc,
or 1 per cent per month The " id quod in-
terest " of the Middle Ages came in the thir-
teenth century to be agreed to in advance,
and Leonardo of Pisa (see FIBONACCI) gives
problems involving 20 per cent Matthew
Paris says that in his time 10 pel cent was
exacted every two months, and that thus the
unscrupulous " circumvented the needy m their
necessities, cloaking their usury under the
show of trade " The supposed antagonism
of the canon law to all forms of interest was
seriously questioned in the fifteenth and six-
teenth centuries (as by Franciscus de Platea,
Opus dc restitutwmbus usurarum et excow-
mumcatumibus; Johannes Nieder, Tractatus de
contractibus mercatorum, and others), and as a
result the subject appears in many of the early
printed arithmetics For example, Calandn
(1491) speaks of lending money " per 3 armi a
10 per cento lanno " Some of these writers
introduce the subject under protest, as a
''diabolical" one, as in the case of Cataneo
(1546), Gemma Frisius (1540), and Pagam
(1591) From that time to the present, the
topic lias appeared in practically all arithmetics.

475

INTERFERENCE OF HABITS

INTERMEDIATE HIGH SCHOOL

Compound interest was known to the
Romans, and was not forbidden by the earlier
laws. It appeared in printed arithmetics in
the sixteenth century as interest " h capo d'
anno " (compounded from the first of each
year), and " i\ capo d' alcun tempo" (com-
pounded from the beginning of some other
hxcd penod). From the Italians the latter
passed over to the French as " mentc a chef
de ternie " (Trenchant, 1566), and to the
Dutch as " interest op interest " It was
unjustly chaiged that compound interest was
chiefly used by the Hebrews ("vsitato da gl'hc-
brei ne suoi Banchi," as Pagam writes m
1591), and it was occasionally called by their
name (" che chiamano Giudaica," as the Italian
edition of Gonnna Fnsius misspelled it in
1567, "Ken loodtsch profijt," as Vander
Schuere gave it m ] 600)

The method of reckoning simple interest
has never been settled. The year is about
365 1 days long, and hence there is practically
no such thing as exact interest For conven-
ience 360 days are taken for the year in ordi-
nary computations, and 365 days for more
accurate work Tables were caily constructed
to facilitate computation, and they appear in
many of the first printed anthmetics

As an educational topic, interest usually
appears among the early applications of per-
centage The subject has become unduly
complicated in the schools through the elab-
oration of problems requiring the finding of
the time, rate, or principal The chief empha-
sis should always be laid upon the finding of
the interest, the other cases demanding rela-
tively little attention

The growth of banking facilities has devel-
oped short-term notes to such an extent that
the subject as formerly taught is losing much
of its practical value. Interest is now com-
monly paid every thirty, sixty, or ninety days,
or else every year, and we may reasonably
expect a gradual simplification of the subject
as taught in the schools D. E. S

INTERFERENCE OF HABITS. — Mental
processes of all types are so interrelated that
no single phase of mental life can develop
without influencing all of the other types of
activity The same is true m general of the
physiological processes of body activity Thus,
if one moves a certain portion of the body,
the circulatory system responds by abstracting
blood from other parts of the body and sending
it to the exercised region If now the individ-
ual trams himself so that a certain portion of
his body, or a certain type of thought, is highly
cultivated, he may thereby interfere with an
equally high development of other phases of
his nature. Examples of interference of mental
haoits can readily be drawn from ordinary
experience The individual who is very much
interested in natural objects is not likely to
develop an equal degree of interest in literary

476

forms The individual who lias learned one
form of handwriting cannot so readily take
on another type In short, the negative side
of habit cultivation is one which deserves very
full recognition m educational discussions
Whenever a habit has been perfected, the pos-
sibilities of developing other habits are corre-
spondingly curtailed When two habits must
be cultivated side by side and mutually
interfere with each other, they require more
exercise for their perfection than would be
required for a single habit unaccompanied by
the interfering type of activity The whole
matter here under discussion relates itself to the
problem of formal discipline (q.v.). C. H. J.
See HABIT.

Reference : —

ANGELL, J R , PILLSBURY, W B , and JUDD, C H
Symposium of three articles Educ. Rev , June, 1908,
Vol XXXVI, op 1-42

INTERFERENCE TONE. — See COMBINA-
TION TONES

INTERMEDIATE GRADES — The middle
grades of the elementary school, always the
fourth and fifth, and sometimes inclusive of the
third or sixth grades H 8

See ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS, PRIMARY GRADES;
GRAMMAR GRADES, GRADING AND PROMOTION

INTERMEDIATE HIGH SCHOOL — A

term applied, in a few cities, to a school inter-
mediate between the elementary school system
and the high school proper, and including parts
of each The city of Berkeley, (1al , oilers
a good illustration of the use of the term
Here the first six years of the elementary school
system are taught by grade teachers, and along
grade lines The seventh, eighth, and ninth
years are grouped together, in separate build-
ings, termed Intermediate High Schools, and
arc taught by teachers who have had college
training, and on the departmental system
(See DEPARTMENTAL SYSTEM ) The course of
instruction during these years is materially
enriched, and certain options are offered These
schools also serve to make the transition to
the high school easier The tenth, eleventh,
and twelfth years then constitute the regular
high school. The plan serves also to relieve the
pressure for seating space in both the elemen-
tary schools and the high schools, as two or more
intermediate high schools may be provided for
in different parts of the city, and these serve
to take two grades out of each elementary
school and one out of the high school While
not saving anything in classiooms, it provides
better for the educational needs of the city.
The mam argument for the plan, however,
lies on the educational side. E. P. C.

See HIGH SCHOOLS, Six- YEAR.

Reference : —

DAVIH, C O. Reorganization of Secondary Education
Educ Rev , Vol XLII, pp 270- 301

INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES

INTERMEDIATE SCHOOLS See E MO-
MENTARY SCHOOLS; GRAMMAR GRADES, IN-
TERMEDIATE HIUH SCHOOL; GERMAN*, Fm < \-
TION IN, under Middle Schools.

INTERMISSION —See
HI ON, LENGTH OF.

RECFRSES; SES-

INTERNAL SPEECH, INNER SPEECH.—

The efforts to carry on ideational processes
are accompanied by certain incipient contrac-
tions of the vocal organs These incipient
contractions of the vocal organs can be shown
to be of the highest importance in the formation
of ideas. Whenever they are interrupted, the
individual is handicapped m memory and in
clearness of recognition.. The distinction be-
tween internal speech and ordinary speech
is not great in a child Here the tendencies
are always strong toward external, complete
expression, but as development goes forward
the individual suppresses moie and more tin4
grosser forms of activity, and cariies on Ins
mental processes with the aid of internal speech
alone C II J

References : —
HUBY, K B. Psychology and Pedagogy of Readiufj

(New York, 190S )

Mt'NHiEiiUERG, H Zeilschnfl fdr Paych und Phij^
d Eiulory, Vol 1

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS IN PE-
DOLOGY — See PARENTHOOD, EDUCATION
FOR

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESS OF HOME
EDUCATION. — See PARENTHOOD, EDUCATION
FOR

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES OF
EDUCATION — Educational congresses have
been held in connection with practically all
the international expositions (q v ) of the last
half century. There was an educational con-
ference in connection with the international
exposition held at London in lcS51, at which
representatives from Germany, France, and the
United States joined English educators in
the discussion of the educational aspects of
the exhibits and other topics of international
interest The recently organized kindergarten
(q v ) in Germany was one of the subjects dis-
oussed at the London conference Americans
who participated in this conference were Henry
Barnard, Walter R Johnson, and Mrs. Emma
Willard (qq v ) Theie were also conferences
on elementary, secondary, and higher educa-
tion at the Paris expositions of 1855 and 1867
President F. A. P Barnard (q v ) was the
official representative of the United States at
both congresses Somewhat broader in scope
and more international in character was the
conference held at the Vienna exposition of
1873. The various phases of infant education
and child welfare — the crfcche, the salle

r/V/.sm , the k mdei gurten , the care and tiain-
ins; of defective children — the blind, the deaf,
and the feeble-minded; elementary education,
school gardens, and sex in education were
among the subjects presented The United
States was represented by John Eaton, John
1) Philbrick, and Edward Seguin (qq v }

Foui international congresses of education
have been held in the United States, — Phila-
delphia, 1870, New Orleans, 1885, Chicago,
189,'*, and St Louis, 1904 At the international
conference on education held m connection
with the exposition which celebrated the iirst
anniversary of American Independence, thirteen
foreign countries and most of the states of the
American Union were represented Sir Richard
Barry of Australia presided, and Commissioner
of Education John Eaton organized the pro-
gram, which included ten topics foi discussion,
— courses of study, methods of instruction,
supervision of schools, pedagogical museums and
exhibits, technical education, training of teach-
ers, the kindergarten and elemental y schools,
university and piofessional education, and the
education ot women

The third Paris conference was held in con-
nection with the international exposition of
1878 Besides the general congresses theie
were numerous special conferences on the edu-
cation of the blind and deaf, technical and in-
dustrial education, etc The United State*
was represented by John 1) Philbrick, James
P Wickershan, and P" A P Barnard (qq r )

There was also a general conference on edu-
cation at the Brussels exposition of 1880, at
which William T Harris represented the
United States

The second American congress was held in
connection with the international cotton expo-
sition at New Orleans, February, 1885 John
Eaton, Commissioner of Education, presided
Besides the general meetings, theie were
departmental meetings devoted to elementary,
secondary, and superior instruction, school
architecture and hygiene, care arid training of
defective, dependent, and delinquent children,
national aid to education, caie of the Indians,
and educational journalism The fourth Paris
congress was held m 1889, at \\hich M Gr&ird
(q v ) presided There were three general
congresses of education — primary, secondai} ,
and superior instruction — and six special
congresses — physical education, commercial
and industrial education, psychology, mathe-
matics, and chemistry

The third American congress was held at
Chicago in 1893 in connection with the Colum-
bian exposition and under the auspices of the
National Education Association (qv). Wil-
liam T Harris presided Besides the general
sessions there were fifteen departmental con-
gresses, including higher, secondary, and ele-
mentary education, experimental (genetic)
and rational psychology, school supervision,
manual training; the kindergarten, training

477

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES

INTERPRETATION

of teachers, and educational journalism Most
of the countries of the world were represented.
The fifth and last Paris congress was held in
1900. It included practically every phase of
educational activity, and conferences (-more
than twenty) were in session for two months

The fourth American congress was held at
St. Louis, September, 1904 Its purpose was
to " bring to the consciousness of the world
the too much neglected idea of the unity of
truth " In consequence the congress was
organized into seven general divisions — nor-
mative science, historical science, physical
science, utilitarian science, mental science,
social regulation, and social culture These
divisions were again subdivided into a great
number of departmental conferences (128 in
all), in each of which the fundamental methods
and the progress of the century formed the
basis of the addresses A second international
congress of education was held at Brussels in
1910 Besides the general congress on popular
education there were numerous departmental
congresses.

In addition to these general congresses of
education, there have been a number of special
congresses, such as the International Congress
of Home Education, with meetings at Liege in
1905, Milan in 1906, and Brussels in 1910,
the International Congress of School Hygiene
at Nuremberg m 1904, London, 1907, and Pans,
1910, the International Congress of Psv-
chologv at Paris, 1889, London, 1892, Munich,
1896, Paris, 1900, Rome, 1905, and Geneva,
1909, the International Congress of Technical
Education at Bordeaux, 1886, Paris, 18S9
and 1900, London, 1897, and Brussels, 1910;
International Congress of Educators of the
Deaf at Pans, 1878 arid 1900, Milan, 1880,
Brussels, 1883, Chicago, 1893, and Edinburgh,
1907; and International Congress for the Edu-
cation of the Blind at Pans, 1900, Brussels,
1902, Naples, 1909, and Cairo, 1911

W S M

See EXPOSITIONS, INTERNATIONAL, AND EDU-
CATION

References : —

DREYFUS-BRISAC, EDMOND International Congresses
of Secondary and Superior Education held at Paris,
1889 Report of the Commissioner of Education
for 1889-1890, Vol I, pp. 143-186 (Washing-
ton, 1890 )

GEDDES, PATUICK International Association for the
Advancement of Science, Arts, and Education
(Pans, 1900 ) Report of Commissioner of Educa-
tion for 1900-1901, Vol I, pp 263-304 (Wash-
ington, 1901 )

HARRIS, WILLIAM T Belgian International Congre.ss
of Educators (Brussels, 1880 ) Education, Vol I,
pp 023-632

HOYT, JOHN, W Report on Education at the Pant*
Exhibition, 18V7 (Washington, 1870 )

International Congress of Education at Chicago, 1893
Proc N E A (Chicago, 1893 )

International Conference on Education held at Phila-
delphia July 17 and 18, 1876 (Washington, 1877 )

MONROE, WILL S International Congress at Liege

(1905 ) Proc N E A for 1906 (Wmona, 1907 )

Progress of Education in Italy (Milan, 1906.)

Report of Commissioner of Education for 1906 (Wash

ington, 1907 )

Third International Congress of Home Education
(Brussels, 1910 ) Report of Commissioner of Educa-
tion for 1910 (Washington, 1910 )

PHILBRICK, JOHN D Education at the Paris Exposition,
1878 (Washington, 1879)

Proceedings of the International Congress of Educators,
New Oilcans, 1885 (Washington, 1886)

ROGERH, HOW\HD J , od Proceedings of the Congress
of Arts and Sciences, Rt Louis, 1904* (Boston,
1905)

SEQUIN, EDWARD Report on Education, Vienna, 1873
(Milwaukee, 1880 )

WIDGERY, W H Report on the Educational Con-
gresses and Inhibitions held at Pans in 1889 Re-
port of Commissioner of Education for 1889-1890,
Vol I, pp 41-142 (Washington, 1890)

INTERNATIONAL EXCHANGE OF
TEACHERS AND PROFESSORS — See

TEACHERS AND PROFESSORS, INTERNATIONAL
EXCHANGE OF.

INTERNATIONAL

CAL SCIENCE

LAW — See POLITI-

478

INTERNATIONAL PEACE, EDUCA-
TIONAL ASPECTS OF. — Sec PEACE, EDUCA-
TIONAL ASPECTS OF

INTERNATIONALISM, FOUNDATION
FOR THE PROMOTION OF, THE HAGUE,
HOLLAND — The main purpose of this
Foundation, organized in 1910, is to promote
internationalism in movements foi intellectual
and social progress, and is part of the broader
movement for world's peace It aims to es-
tablish permanent international oigamzations
dealing with related problems and gioupecl
according to related interests Three such
bureaus already exist Buieau de la Com-
mission permanent des Oongrcs inter nalionaux
de M6dicme (1909), Bureau permanent de
la Federation international de Phaimacie
(1910), and the Bureau permanent de 1'ln-
stitut international de Statistic] ue (1912).
Other bureaus are contemplated for pure
science and letters, hygiene, and technology
The leading spirit in the movement is Dr
P H Eijkman, director of the Preliminary
Office of the Foundation and author of L'lnter-
nationahs me m6dical and L' International is me
scientifique

See SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES

Reference —

WINBLOW, C E A The Movement for Scientific Inter-
nationalism at The Hague Science, N.S., Vol.
XX XI, pp. 293-296

INTERPRETATION — Every impression
has added to it in individual experience certain
meanings, which are derived through compari-
son and memory. These added phases of
experience which enlarge the significance of a
given impression are called interpretations.
Whenever, therefore, an impression is enlarged
upon through mental activity we have an
example of interpretation. In common usage,

INTERVAL

INTOXICATION

this term is employed to cover such cases as
translation of a passage from a foreign language
where the additional factors are the elements
of the vernacular which are used to explain
the foreign terms. An example of psychological
meaning is that of a sound which in addition
to being heard is amplified by association and
understood as a word. C H J

Reference; —

STOUT, G F. Manual of Psychology , Bk II, eh n
York, 1899 )

(Now

INTERVAL. — The lapse of time between
one event and another is known as a temporal
interval, the qualitative difference between one
tone and another is known as a tonal interval,
distance in space is designated a spatial inter-
val In general, any transition from one point
to another involves the traversing of an
interval C. II J

INTERVAL. — See MUSICAL TERMS

INTOXICATION — In the broadest sense
anv kind of poisoning, usually rest-rid ed to the
mental and phvsical effects loll owing an o\ei-
poweimg dose of poison, and popularly used
to designate the mental condition following the
continued or excessive use of alcoholic liquors

Two kinds of intoxication are recognized
that of endogenous and that of exogenous
origin. Endogenous intoxication is due to the
poisons (toxins) manufactured within the bodv
by its different organs, such as those of faulty
metabolism from disease of the liver or of the
gastro-intestmal tract, and the condition is
then known as or called autotoxic The
exogenous intoxications are due to the intro-
duction into the body of substances that act
deletcnously upon the organs, and especially
upon the nervous svstcm Intermediate be-
tween these two kinds of intoxication aie the
intoxications due to toxins produced bv micio-
orgamsms In this foim of intoxication the
micro-organisms are introduced from without,
but the formation of the toxins takes place
within the body. Because of the latter Lift
these intoxications are usually classed with the
endogenous

Endogenous Intoxication. — Normally, diges-
tion is the chemical breaking up of the food
into simpler compounds that may be absoibed
and utilized for the upbuilding and the repair-
ing of the body. Abnormal conditions oeeui,
however, in which the chemical division of the
food does not stop when the food is fit for bodil v
Consumption, but continues to the elaboration
of some products that are deleterious to the
organs. With the normal working of the kid-
neys and the liver most of those products aie
taken care of, are rapidly changed into innocu-
ous compounds and excreted. In the normal
working of the body tissues are broken down
and the metabolic products are eliminated

470

through the joint action of the kidneys and
the liver It requires the normal activity of
both of these organs, and of many others, to
keep the body m a normal chemical condition,
and if these organs be diseabcd, there may be
too great a formation or a lack of elimination
of the waste products, with the result of poison-
ing all the tissues This is in an autotoxic con-
dition.

The auto-intoxication effects from diseases of
the thyroid glands are well recognized. The
congenital absence of the gland is productive
of imbecility (q v ) of the form known ah
cietmism (q v ) In exophthalmic goiter hal-
lucinations and states of anxiety and of agi-
tation are found In myxccderna, the mental
symptoms arc stupidity, apathy even to the
degree of complete dementia, attention, appre-
hension, association, and memory defects
In this connection it is worthy of note that
Kraepelm at first grouped dementia preeox
with thyrcogenous insanity, and there have
been repeated attempts to explain all the
symptoms in dementia prccox from an auto-
toxic standpoint

Exogenous Intoxication — Most drugs, when
taken in sufficient quantities, produce mental
and phvsical symptoms that may be called
intoxications Certain drugs have this prop-
erty more than others and are called intoxi-
cants, hypnotics, narcotics, and anaesthetics
(See ANESTHESIA ) Among these we find
ether, chloroform, chloial and its derivatives,
sulphonal, tnonal, paralclehyde, urethane, ve-
ronal, hedonal, ethyl and methyl alcohols, and
nitrous oxide Opium and iU denvatnes
(e g morphine), cocaine, atropine, hyoscme,
sahcylates, mercury, lead and many other
substances give similar svmptoms of intoxica-
tion Some of these produce intoxication effects
only after long-continued use, and the effects
are somewhat similar to those of chrome
poisoning Lead poisoning may result in a
condition similar to that of alcohol Halluci-
nations, agitation, anxiety, incoheience, dis-
onentation, and intellectual defects may be
present Morphine brings about hypen*\sthe-
sias, hallucinations, slow and slightly inco-
herent mental state, but usually mcnioiy is not
impaired. For the effect of alcohol see AL-
COHOL, USE AND PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECT OF

Although most of the intoxications of
exogenous origin are found in adults, it should
be remembered that children may be similarly
affected The use of soothing syrups, of cer-
tain patent medicines, and even of phvsicians'
prescriptions containing any of the drugs
mentioned above may produce intoxication
It is well known that soothing syrups contain
morphine m some form, and once the habit is
formed in a child we have a condition similar to
that of the adult morphine fiend Many
patent medicines contain alcohol, and from their
use (or abuse) there may result an alcohol
intoxication, usually of a chronic nature.

INTROSPECTION

INVENTION

Whenever a child exhibits any degree of
stupidity, of incoherence, or of agitation, and
always when hallucinations are present, a
careful examination regarding the food and
drink should be made. Special attention
should be paid to the quantity of candy and
its nature, for it is known that alcohol may be
formed hi the intestine from ingested sugar,
and it may be introduced in the form of
''brandy drops," which are not uncommonly
sold to children. Lead in toys and in drinking
water is another common intoxicant, but the
symptoms are usually chronic. S. I. F.

References : —
OBERBTEINER, H. Die Intoxications psycho sen. (Vienna,

1886.)
RODBT, P. Morphinomanie et Morphinisms. (Pans,

1897J
WHITE, W. A. Alcoholic and Drug Intoxication.

Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences, Vol

V, pp. 81-86. (New York, 1902 )
ZIEHEN, TH. Psychiatric, pp. 239-250 (Leipzig, 1902 )

INTROSPECTION. — This is the method
of psychology whereby the individual observes
his own internal mental processes For ex-
ample, one has a feeling of pleasure, and when
he notes this fact and observes its character
he is introspecting his own mind. Attention
has always been called to the difficulties of such
introspective observation. The will to turn
one's attention upon one's self interferes with
the normal flow of normal processes. Most
introspection is therefore retrospection For-
merly it was said that introspection was the
only method of psychological investigation
With the development of experimentation in
psychology it has become obvious that one can
study the mental activity of another individual
without coming into direct contact with the
inner mental processes involved. C. H. J.

See PSYCHOLOGY.

References : —

STOUT, G F. Manual of Psychology. (New York, 1899 )
WARD, J. Encyclopedia Bmtannica, s v Psychology.

INTUITION. — A name given to direct,
as distinct from mediate or logical knowledge.
In the history of thought two types of intui-
tion have been discriminated: sense perception
and rational perception. With respect to the
former, the chief problem has been whether it
is in and of itself a mode of knowledge, or
whether it is a mode of judgment, that is,
of inferential interpretation. If the former,
there is such a thing as knowledge without
thinking; in the latter case, the instantane-
ous character of a perceptual intuition ex-
presses the fact that recurring previous infer-
ences have finally formed an automatically
operative habit. The perception is then, in its
strict sense, a re-cognition, a knowing in terms
of prior knowings that involved judging. In
this controversy, the party that held that per-
ception was acquired rather than primitive

intuitive knowledge is admitted to have been
successful. However, as far as the philosophi-
cal point at issue was concerned, this conclusion
was offset by recourse to sensation as a sub-
stitute form of immediate knowledge. The
doctrine of rational intuition was first sys-
tematically developed by Plato. He felt the
need of some way of knowing which should
combine the rationality of discussive, or de-
monstrative, knowledge with the directness and
vitality of pure immediacy. So he introduced
the conception of a face-to-face perception by
pure reason of ultimate absolute essences (see
IDEA). This intuition involved a mutual in-
terpenetration of knower and known and an
assimilation of the former to the latter. This
motif was developed by the Neo-Platonists in
their conception of an ecstatic vision trans-
cending all logical categories, and by the mystic
school of Christian theologians in the idea of
the beatific vision of God

In the Platonic tradition rational intuition
was an envisagement of absolute reality, and
implied a quasi-mystic factor. After the
collapse of the doctrine of innate ideas (q.v )
the rationalistic anti-mystic school introduced
the idea of rational intuition of abstract truths,
like those of morals and mathematics. This
doctrine of an immediate certitude of first and
necessary truths became the bulwark of the
Scotch school in opposition to the skeptical
turn given empiricism by Hume. Kant em-
ployed the notion of an intuitive understanding
as an ideal of knowledge, unattainable but use-
ful in providing a limiting notion by which both
sense perception and reflective judgment could
be criticised and their pretensions to yield
more than relative knowledge exposed. In
contemporary thought Bergson has introduced
an interesting variation of the idea of rational
intuition. According to him, logical or dis-
cursive intelligence has been evolved in the
interests of action, and is accordingly quite
unadapted to the speculative task of grasping
Reality in itself. Intelligence and instinct
represent, however, diverging lines of evolu-
tion out of a common reality; while a sort of
vague penumbra of instinct still surrounds the
clear-cut outlines of intellectual knowledge.
By retracing that phase of the evolution of
reality which has taken the road of instinct,
human beings may by an extreme effort of will
bring about a fusion of intellectual results with
the residual penumbra of instinct they still di-
rectly possess, and thereby secure at least a
fleeting glimpse of the inner creative impetus
of reality itself. J. D.

See EMPIRICISM; IDEA; INNATE IDEA;
MYSTICISM; NEO-PLATONISM ; etc.

INVENTION. — A general term referring
to that type of mental activity whereby one
departs from experience which he has had and
works out a novel combination (See IMAGI-
NATION, IDEAS) In its usual form invention

INVENTIONAL GEOMETRY

IOWA

realizes itself in the construction after the
pattern of the mental recombination of some
external mechanism. Thus, the inventor of a
machine, after working out the relations be-
tween the parts of the machine in his mind,
realizes his ideas in some actual construction.

Royce has shown that the range of individual
possibility of invention seems to be limited by
certain habits of the individual's life One
cannot deliberately invent a new form without
exhibiting his natural tendency to operate
within a fairly limited range of possible forms.
That individual who is capable of the largest
number of unique combinations is said to be
most inventive His mental activities are
closely related in type to biological variations
(q v.) C. H. J.

See GENIUS; IMAGINATION; IMITATION

Reference : —

ROYCE, J. Outlines of Psychology, oh. xiii (London
and Now York, 1903.)

INVENTIONAL GEOMETRY. — A term
rather loosely used in the United States to
designate an introduction to elementary geom-
etry, the pupil being led to discover for him-
self the theorems he is to prove, and to invent
the proofs It is substantially the same as the
heuristic teaching of the beginnings of geom-
etry in the German schools The Germans
have an expression, Voischule der Geometric,
that happily represents this initial stage In
this are developed the fundamental concepts
of plane and solid geometry, and the mensura-
tion of the simplest forms This is followed
by easy propositions relating to angles and
triangles, with simple constructions by the aid
of the ruler and compasses Tins is taken up
in the spirit suggested by the name Inventional
Geometry The latter term is not a fortunate
one, since it gives the impression that it refers
to a kind of geometry different from that of the
secondary school, as is the case with the pro-
jective and descriptive geometries, when it
really refers only to a method of teaching a
part of that geometry to young pupils. For
this reason it is not liable to be used exten-
sively. The spirit suggested by the term is,
however, worthy of serious attention Up to
the present time the work in geometry in the
elementary grades has been little besides men-
suration, arid under the present school condi-
tions there is not likely to be any change in
this limitation With departmental teaching
m grades seven and eight it would be quite
possible to introduce the German plan.

Inductive geometry is, as the term indicates,
substantially synonymous with inventional
geometry as it is usually considered The first
steps in any science may properly be inductive,
leading to the discovery of probable truths.
This should be followed by the deductive stage
in which the probable becomes the veritable

D K. S.
VOL in 2 i 481

INVOLUNTARY ACTION. — That form of
behavior in which no conscious choice or de-
liberation is present.

See WILL.

INVOLUTION. — The operation of raising
a number to a power. The word comes from
the idea of rolling or involving a number into
itself by means of multiplication, and was not
common until rather recently. The earlier
arithmetics proceed at once to Evolution (the
extraction of roots) without any preliminary
work on Involution Thus in De Arte Sup-
putandi of Tonstall (1522), division (De parti-
twne) is followed by roots (De qvadrati et cvbi
latenbvs investigandis) The reason for the
presence of a chapter on Involution in arith-
metic is to be sought in the reflex influence of
algebra on the subject There is no need for
the word m elementary arithmetic, nor for any
more than a passing reference to the subject,
together with the expansion of (a -f 6)2, if
square root is to be studied, and of (a 4- 6)3,
if cube root is included It may confidently
be expected that the topic will cease to have
any separate treatment m elementary arith-
metic. D. E. S.

IOWA, STATE OF — Originally a part of
the Louisiana purchase, and organized as a
part of the Territory of Missouri m 1812,
Michigan m 1834, Wisconsin in 1836, and as
the separate Territory of Iowa in 1838 It
was admitted to the Union in 1846 as the
twenty-ninth state. It is located in the west-
ern portion of the North Central Division, and
has a land area of 55,475 square miles In
size it is one fourth larger than Pennsylvania,
and nearly as large as the six New England
states In 1910 Iowa had a population of
2,224,771 and a density of population of 40 01
persons to the square mile

Educational History. — The first school in
Iowa was taught m 1830, near the present site
of Keokuk Bv the time of the organization
of the territory in 1838 some forty schools were
in existence in different places. All of these
were private or bubscnption schools The
first school building, a combined church and
schoolhouse, was erected near Dubuque in
1833 By the time of the admission of Iowa
in 1846, there were one hundred log school-
houses 111 the state In January, 1838, five
seminaries were chartered for Iowa by the
Wisconsin Temtorial Legislature, but no
means of maintaining these schools was pro-
vided. Two colleges were also chartered at
the same time The first legislature under
the territory of Iowa enacted the first school
law in 1838. This provided for the formation
of districts, the establishing of schools, and
authorized the voters of each district to levy
taxes for schools up to a total of five mills and
$10 per person. The second legislature in
J840 enacted a law which made provision for

IOWA

IOWA

free public schools, but the law was in advance
of public sentiment, and practically remained
a dead letter The census of 1840 reported
but one academy and sixty-three common
schools in the territory In 1841 the office of
Territorial Superintendent of Public Instruc-
tion was created, but the superintendent made
but a single report, and the office was abolished
the next year Though the territorial gov-
ernors urged important action, little was ac-
complished during the territorial period.

The state constitution of 1846 made careful
provision for the establishment of a system
of state schools. A Supeiintendciit of Public
Instruction was provided for, to be elected for
three- year periods by the people, the General
Assembly was instructed to provide for a sys-
tem of common schools by which a school
should be kept up and suppoited foi three
months in each school district each year; arid
the school and university funds were enumer-
ated and declared perpetual funds, the income
only to be used At the time of admission to
the Union there were 416 school districts in the
state The law of 1847 made partial provision
for carrying out the insti uctions of the constitu-
tion The election of a Superintendent of
Public Instruction was provided foi, who was
to look after the school fund and report to the
legislature, means of organizing school dis-
tricts, electing directors, raising funds for
schoolhouses, the inspection of schools, and the
examination of teachers by the inspectors were
also provided for School fund commissioners
were to be appointed in each county to manage
the county's share of the school fund and to
report to the State Superintendent In 1848
the legislature authorized a district tax both
for schoolhouses and support, and in 1857
towns and cities were authorized to provide
a graded school system, including schools in
which languages other than English might be
taught, and to levy a tax up to five mills thero-
for. Notwithstanding these efforts, the schools
continued to be supported in large part by the
rate bill until 1858, when they were made free,
while inspection and examination of teachers
existed little more than in name In 1857
there were 3265 school districts in the state

In 1857 a new constitution was adopted
which made detailed and very advanced pro-
vision for a strong state school system The
constitutional provisions relating to education
were divided into two parts The first made
detailed provision for a State Board of Educa-
tion, to be elected by the people, and consti-
tuted it a legislative body with power to make
laws and rules and regulations for the schools,
levy taxes, make appropriations, and to appoint
a Secretary, who was to supersede the Super-
intendent of Public Instruction arid act as the
executive officer of the board This board
was charged with the duty of providing for a
svstem of common schools whereby a common
school should be kept up in each school district

at least three months each year. A final clause
gave the legislature power at any time after
the year 1863 to reorganize the board and
abolish its legislative functions, and this was
done in 1864 The second part of the article
on education made detailed provision for the
care of the school lands and school funds, pro-
vided for its increase, and for the distribution
of its income In the preceding year the
Governor of the state had been authorized to
appoint a commission to revise the school laws
of the state arid to provide an efficient school
system for Iowa Horace Mann and the
Chancellor of the State University, Amos Dean,
were the two commissioners who framed the
report. The commission submitted their icc-
ommendations in the form of a bill, December,
1856, but it was not until early in 1858 that
any action was taken The recommendations
weie then enacted into law by both the legis-
lature and the new Board of Education. The
"rate" was abolished, and the schools were
made free to all the children in the state, the
office of county superintendent was established
for the examination of teachers and the visita-
tion of schools, county institutes were to be
established and to receive aid, county high
schools were authorized, and the township
was made the unit of organization, and the
school districts were reduced to subdistricts
Later, in 1858, cities and towns were allowed to
organize into independent districts, and since
then this objectionable permission has been
extended arid extended, until now any village
of 100 residents may segregate itself and form
an independent district, and thus escape the
burden of general taxation From 334 inde-
pendent districts and 1176 school townships
in 1870, the number has increased to 3766
independent districts and 1182 school town-
ships in 1905 The new law of 1858, providing
for taxation for free schools, was enacted at a
time of great financial stringency, when the
people found it difficult to accept any new
financial burdens, and the new legislative
State Board of Education did a valuable serv-
ice, during the few years of its existence, in
steadying affairs and in upholding the new law
until the people could get used to it and accept
it In 1864 the board was abolished and the
office of State Superintendent of Public In-
struction was revived. This law marks the
establishment of the present school system, the
changes since then having been nearly all in
the nature of the expansion and development
of the system

In 1847 the State University had been
founded, and in 1868 the Agricultural College
was opened In 1849 the first permission to
form higher grades in schools had been granted;
in 1851 the first graded school had been organ-
ized; and in 1870 the County High School Law
was passed. In 1868 the standards for cer-
tificating teachers were raised, and in 1882 a
State Board of Examiners was created and

482

IOWA

IOWA

state teachers' certificates authorized. In
1876 women were made eligible to hold school
offices, and in the same year the state normal
school was established In 1896 school cor-
porations were authorized to provide free
textbooks if permitted to do so by vote of the
people In 1882 Arbor Day was instituted In
1906 a compulsory education law was enacted
In 1911 the consolidation of schools and the
transportation of pupils, free high school tuition,
and county teachers training classes were pro-
vided for.

Present School System — The school sys-
tem of Iowa, as at present organized, is as
follows At the head is a State Superintendent
of Public Instruction, elected by the people for
two-year terms. He is charged with the duty
of preparing and distributing courses of study
for the rural and high schools of the state , of
collecting and publishing certain kinds of
statistical information, of preparing questions
for the use of county teachers' examinations
and grading the papers; of rendering opinions
and determining appeals from the decisions of
the county superintendents, of calling the
county superintendents together in convention,
of designating a time and place foi holding
county institutes and approving the conductors
selected, and of making an annual report to
the Auditor of State and a biennial report to
the Governor His salary is $2200, with $300
foi traveling expenses He is also ex officio
a member of the State Educational Board of
Examiners and president of the board, of
the board of regents of the state university,
of the board of tiustees of the State College
of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts, and of
the board of trustees of the state normal
school, and president of this board

The State Educational Board of Examiners
is the nearest approach to a State Board of
Education that Iowa has had since the abolition
of that board in 1864 It was established in
1882 to hold examinations for state teachers'
certificates, and is composed of the State Super-
intendent of Public Instruction, the president
of the state university, the principal of the
state normal school, and two persons ap-
pointed by the Governor for four-year terms,
one of whom must be a woman They are
charged with the duty of holding two examina-
tions annually for state certificates and state
diplomas, they may issue special certificates
for special lines of work, and may validate
certificates from other states if these have been
issued on equivalent requirements This
board is also a board of inspection and super-
vision of schools for the training of teachers,
approving institutions, and providing rules for
the certification of graduates of the approved
institutions The board also makes out lists
of books for which the hbiary fund may be
spent by the School Directors of the state

For each county a county superintendent
is elected by the 'people for two-year terms

483

He is to serve as a means of communication
between the State Superintendent arid tho
township or district school authorities, musf
visit the schools of the county, must hold four
examinations for county teachers' certificates
each year, using questions prepared by the
State Superintendent, and transmit the answer
papers, with his opinions and impressions, to
the State Superintendent for grading, may
conduct a special examination with the per-
mission of the State Examination Board, if
there should prove to be a shortage of teachers
for the county; must conduct an annual
county teachers' institute, must see that all
school laws are enforced, and must make an
annual report to the Superintendent of Public
Instruction To qualify for the office, a
county superintendent must hold a first-grade
county teachers' certificate, a state teacheis'
certificate, or a life diploma. The salary is
$1250 a year for all counties There also
exists in each county a rudimentary type of a
county board of education, consisting of the
county superintendent, the county auditor,
and the county board of supervisors The
duty of this county board seems to be only to
submit the question of county uniformity in
school textbooks to the voters of the county,
\vhen petitioned to do so by one third of the
school directors of the county, and to adopt
uniform textbooks for the county in case the
voters decide that they want county uniformity
Aside from a certain centralized control ovei
teachers' institutes, and the examination of
teachers, Iowa may be said to represent a de-
centralized system, somewhat analogous to
that of certain New England states, as the
greatest power and authority is in the hands of
the township and district school corporations
Each congressional township was created a
school township by the law of 1858, but since
then great numbers of independent districts
have been organized While the township is
nominally the unit of organization, with sub-
districts, as a matter of fact, any city, town,
or village having 100 residents, and any rural
subdistrict may be set off as independent
school districts, having their own board of
school directors, escaping township taxes,
and managing their own affairs, subject only
to the control of the county and state superin-
tendents, as enumerated above This is the
weakest feature of the Iowa school system.
Subdistricts and townships hold annual school
meetings Women are eligible for school
offices, and may vote on all questions relating
to taxes and the voting of bonds Subdistrict
annual meetings have the power to elect a
member of the board of school directors, and
to vote extra subdistrict taxes for maintenance
or for schoolhouse purposes The township
annual meeting has power to direct a change
of textbooks; to provide for free textbooks;
to add to the branches of instruction; to sell,
lease, or let school property, to authorize the

IOWA

IOWA

construction of roads to the schoolhouses;
and to vote bonds and a schoolhouse tax up to
ten mills. Township boards are required to
take an annual school census in June, to notify
the county superintendent when the schools
are to begin; to determine the amount of the
teachers' and contingent fund necessary, and
to notify the county board of supervisors, whose
duty it is to levy it, to prescribe the course of
study for the schools, to care for the school prop-
erty, locate schoolhouses, determine what
schools pupils may attend and fix the length of
term; to carry into effect the legal instructions
of the annual school meeting , to elect teachers
and dismiss them for cause; to designate school
visitors from among their own number; and to
make an annual financial report to the annual
meeting and to the county superintendent.
Boards of directors may also contract with
other corporations to teach children if more
convenient, or may furnish transportation, if
cheaper, either within or without the township;
may establish graded union or high schools, of
their own volition, may establish kindergartens
and employ a township superintendent, may
petition the county superintendent for a vote
on county uniformity and free textbooks , may
authorize each director to furnish fuel, sup-
plies, and a teacher for his subdistnct; must
expend between five and fifteen cents pci pupil
for the school library each year, and may ex-
pend up to $25 per school per year for library
and apparatus; may appoint a truant officer,
may contract for all the textbooks used in the
schools and buy and sell them to the pupils at
cost, furnishing free books to indigents, or they
may furnish them free to all pupils and pay
the expense out of the township contingent
iund, if so directed by the annual school
meeting. The treasurer of the board of
directors receives all money due the town-
ship or district and pays the same out on
the order of the president and secretary of
the board

School Support. — At the time of its admission
into the Union, Iowa received the sixteenth
section m each township, or a total of 905,134
acres from the government, for the benefit of
common schools. The 500,000 acres of land
granted to new states, some saline lands, 5 per
cent of the sale of United States lands within
the state (after 1857), and the net proceeds
of the estates of persons dying without will or
heir have been added to the pcimanent fund.
The lands have all been sold, and a fund of
about four and three quarter millions ha& been
produced. The income on this was $214,132 30
in 1905, and remains nearly constant from year
to year. This is equal to about thirty cents
per census child, five to twenty-one years of
age, and is distributed to the counties by the
State Auditor on this basis No state school
tax is levied or appropriated. The only state
grant for education, aside from the appropria-
tions for the support of the higher educational

institutions, is a grant of $50 per county each
year for the benefit of county institutes.

In each county a county school tax of not
less than one nor more than three mills must be
levied for schools, and the proceeds of this tax
together with the income from the state school
fund and the net proceeds of all fines collected
for breaches of the penal laws, is distributed
by the county auditor to the different school
corporations of the county wholly on the basis
of the school census. Each school corporation
raises the balance of the money needed to main-
tain its schools by local taxation. When a
district or town withdraws from the township
organization and sets up an independent dis-
trict, this action renders void any tax previously
levied on the new independent district The
result of this is to effectually prevent any
equalization of school burdens, as the wealthier
subdistricts can escape all general taxation
except the county tax. The local tax for con-
tingent funds is limited to $5 per census child
and not over $75 per school, and the local tax
for teachers' salary fund is likewise limited to
$15 per census child or $175 per school Low
teachers' wages are the result of such limita-
tions.

Educational Conditions — The state is es-
sentially rural and agricultural, and the large
number of small schools which must be main-
tained is probably the cause of the low expen-
diture Of the total population about 75 per
cent live in country districts, and onlv about 16
per cent lived in the seventeen cities of over
8000 inhabitants Of the total population
99 4 per cent are white, and about 85 per cent
are native born. The foreign-born are chiefly
Germans, Scandinavians, and English. The
state consequently has no negro problem or
foreign problem to deal with The percentage
of illiterates in the total population, ton years
of age or over, was but 2.3 per cent, which, with
Nebraska, was the lowest of any state in the
Union. The compulsory attendance law re-
quires that all children between seven and
fourteen must attend school for sixteen weeks
if physically and mentally capable and if living
within two miles of a schoolhouse Private
and parochial schools must make attendance
reports. Any school corporation may appoint
a truant officer, but the means provided for
enforcing the law are not such as to ensure any
adequate enforcement.

In addition to the regular elementary school
instruction, a number of counties provide some
instruction in agriculture; about thirty cities
and towns maintain kindergartens, a rapidly
increasing number report instruction in man-
ual training; and in domestic science. School
libraries exist in all schools, and each school
corporation must devote from five to fifteen
cents per census child to the purchase of
books for the school library. The law pro-
vides that the Bible shall not be excluded from
the schools of the state, or from any state m-

484

IOWA COLLEGE

IOWA WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY

Btitution, and readings from the Bible with a,
repetition of the Lord's Prayer by the teacher
and school is authorized.

Teachers and Training. — The state main-
tains one large and well-organized normal school
for the professional training of teachers, which
has a little over 200 graduates annually In
addition to the state normal school, a number
of colleges assist the state in the preparation
of teachers, being accredited for this purpose
by the State Educational Board of Kxamincis,
which is authorized to inspect and accredit
such institutions, and to determine the condi-
tions under which the graduates of these in-
stitutions may receive teachers' certificates
Normal training classes in high schools were
authorized in 1911, and in time they will add
materially to the number of trained teachers in
the state. All teachers' certificates are issued
by the state.

Secondary and Higher Education — Graded
schools and high schools are to be found in all
the cities and larger towns, and also in manv
of the independent districts and consolidated
townships. The state is well supplied with
high schools No state or county aid is given
to them, each being maintained by local taxa-
tion Although provision exists m the law for
forming county high schools, few have been
formed, and the law has not been regarded as
successful

The University of Iowa (q v ) at Iowa Citv,
opened in 1855, and the Iowa State Agricul-
tural College (q v ) at Ames, opened in 1S6S,
form the culmination of the public school sys-
tem of the state The state also maintains
the Iowa Industrial (reformatory) School for
Boys at Eldora; the Girls' Industrial (leform-
atory) School at Mitchclvillc, the Iowa Col-
lege for the Blind at Vmton, the Iowa School
for the Deaf at Council Bluffs, and the Iowa
Institute for Feeble-Minded Children at Glen-
wood E P. C.

References : —

Biennial Reports of the State Supt of Publ Instr Iowa,
since 1804

BOWMAN, H M. The Administration of Iowa, ch n
(New York, 1903 )

BUFFUM, H S Federal and State Aid to Education in
Iowa , in Iowa Jour of Hut and Pol , October,
1906, Vol IV, pp. 554-598, January-July, 1907,
Vol V, pp 3-45, 147-192, 311-325

Constitutions of Iowa, 1846 and 1857

Iowa School Laws and Decisions, 1909, ed

PARKER, L F Higher Education in Iowa U S Bu
Educ Circ Inf U. S Bu , No. 6, 1893 (Wash-
ington, 1893 )

Reports of the State Board of Education of Iowa, 1858-
1864

IOWA COLLEGE, GRINNELL, IA. —

See GRINNELL COLLEGE, GRINNELL, IA.

IOWA STATE COLLEGE, AMES, IA. —

An agricultural and mechanical arts college for
men and women founded by act of the state
lojcislature in 1858. In the following year a

485

farm of 640 acres was purchased for the use of
the college. In 1862 the General Assembly
accepted the land grant offered by Congress
for the establishment of agricultural and me-
chanical arts colleges. By a state act of 1882
provision was made for giving a necessary
liberal education in addition to the purely
specialized courses The entrance require-
ments are fifteen units The college offers
four five-year courses in engineering and four-
teen four- year courses in engineering, the dif-
ferent branches of agriculture, veterinary
medicine, general science, and home economics,
all leading to degrees The faculty consists of
eighty-eight professors; there are eighty-four
instructors and assistants In 1911, 2307 stu-
dents were enrolled in different courses, includ-
ing short winter courses and music.

IOWA STATE UNIVERSITY, IOWA CITY,

IA — A coeducational institution forming an
integral part of the public educational system
of the state An act establishing the univer-
sity in Iowa City wan passed in 1847, but the
opening was postponed until 1855 Until
1 860 only a normal department was maintained
Subsequently the following departments, now
colleges, were added- law (1868), medicine
(1870), homoeopathic medicine (1876), den-
tistry (1882), pharmacy (1885), graduate
(1905), applied science '(1905) Since 1909
the university, together with the State Teachers'
College and the State College of Agriculture
and Mechanical Arts, is under the control of
the State Board of Education The university
plant consists of thirty buildings on a campus
of fifty aeies The income is derived from
invested funds and state appropriations The
university was among the first to organize
university extension courses in different parts
of the state, a movement which has met with
success Students are admitted on satisfying
the entrance requirements of fifteen units
The usual university degrees are granted by the
institution The total enrollment in all de-
partments in 1909-1910, including summer
session, was 2352 The faculty consists of
sixty-nine members of professorial rank and
150 instructors of other grades.

References : —

PICKARD, J L Historical Sketch of the State Univer-
sity Annals of Iowa, April, 1899

U. S Bureau of Education Circ Inf, 1893, No 0.
Higher Education in Iowa (Washington, 1893 )

IOWA WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY. MT.
PLEASANT, IA — A coeducational institu-
tion founded in 1842 as the Mt Pleasant
Collegiate Institute; the present title was
adopted in 1854 It is under the auspices
of the Methodist Episcopal Church. The
university maintains an academy, college of
liberal arts, normal, music, and commercial
departments The entrance requirements are
fifteen units. The college, on the completion

IRELAND

IRELAND

of appropriate courses, grants the degrees of
A B., B S , and Ph B. There is a faculty
of twenty-eight members.

IRELAND, EDUCATION IN. — Early His-
tory. — Under the Druids. — In the most
valuable information given by Caesar about the
druids (see DRUIDS, SCHOOLS OF THE) there is
much which may be almost certainly trans-
ferred to the earliest teachers and schools of
Ireland The Irish term for a druid was
dial, modern draoi (dhree), but its genitive is
druad, from whence no doubt the Latin druidis
The Irish druids were the learned class in early
Ireland, as they were in Gaul. They were the
lawyers, poets, astronomers, and instructors
of youth, and are intimately connected with all
early Irish history and fiction.

The invading Milesians had, according to
Irish legend, three druids with them in their
ships, one of them the poet Amergin They
continue to be frequently mentioned, down to
the times of the early Irish Saints They are
met with not only as teachers or tutors, but
also as ambassadors and spokesmen Kings
were sometimes druids; so were poets The
word, indeed, seems to have been used with
much laxity in early Ireland, and they do not
seem there to have formed a definitely estab-
lished order or caste, still less a regulai sacrificial
priesthood, as they did upon the Continent,
nor does there appear anything to connect them
in any way with human sacrifice In the
Latin lives of the Saints the word drmd is
generally translated by magus. Some of the
early saints appear to have lived on fair terms
with them

When the druid died out as a druid is doubt-
ful; the word evidently had an evil sound in the
ears of the early Christians, and, while much
of the druids' teaching and school organization
must have been quietly perpetuated, they
themselves either disappeared or else silently
adapted themselves to the changes introduced
by Christianity. The doctrine of metem-
psychosis, which was so vigorously insisted
upon m Gaul (cf Caesar de Bello Galhco, VI, 14)
was perfectly familiar to the early Irish, as
saga after saga shows us, though there is
nothing to prove that the Irish druids elevated
it into a doctrine to be taught in the schools
with the deliberate ethical purpose of making
men valiant Again the early books of the
Brehon law (and the druids appear to have
been the first brehons or judges) contain many
curious teachings about the heavenly bodies,
the colors of the various winds, and the like,
things about which, as Csesar tells us, the
Gaulish druids taught also There are many
other indications that the Gaulish and the
Irish druids had much in common, as the chief
teachers of their respective nations

Schools of the Bards and Brehons. — With
the gradual abolition of paganism in Ireland
the druidic name seems to have died out, and

486

their place to have been taken by the bards
and brehons, who were probably their direct,
gradually christianized, successors We know
that, side by side with the colleges of the early
clergy, there flourished, perhaps in a more
informal way, the purely Irish schools of the
bards and brehons, but though, thanks to the
very numerous lives of early saints, a great deal
is known about the Christian colleges, little
can be discovered with certainty about the
bardic institutions, winch represented some-
thing much moio antique than even the very
earliest schools of the Christians Unlike the
Christian schools, however, they do not seem
until the end of the sixth century to have been
centered in a fixed locality or in a cluster of
houses, but to have been peripatetic The
bardic scholars appear to have grouped them-
selves rather round personalities than localities
and to have wandered freely over the entire
country, gladly supported by the people From
what must have originally been the druidic
school we can see gradually emerging the poet,
the brehon, and the historian At first a
poet was bv virtue of his office a judge, and
there is an interesting account of how through
their predilection for technical language which
none but themselves could understand they
lost this privilege in Conor MacNessan's
tune, shortly before the Christian era (Iri^lie
Tcrtc, III, B, 1, pp 187-204) But wo lack
exact data to show how and when the historian,
the poet, and the brehon diflerentiated them-
selves fiom the more primitive druid The
brehon and hibtoiian were frequently united in
the same person, for where the lawgiver's
judgments concerned, as they so frequently
did, the holding of tribal land by virtue of
descent, it was almost necessary for him to be a
tribal historian as well as a lawgiver; and as
much of both tribal genealogy and law was
enshrined in verse, he had to know something
about this as well The poets, however,
were not necessarily historians or judges
They were a class in themselves, and they
were at one time so numerous and so insolent
that they constituted an intolerable burden
upon the country. Three separate attempts
(Heating's History, and MacFirbis's Geneal-
ogies) were made to get rid of them;' but
each time they found refuge in the northern
province of Ulster At length at the end of
the sixth century, a period when, according to
the Irish historian Keating (History, O'Ma-
hony's translation, p 446), nearly one third of
the free tribes or patrician families had em-
braced poetry as a pursuit, a determined effort
was made by King Aedh MacAinmirech to
shake off their incubus. He held a great con-
vention of all Ireland at Druim Ccat, near
Limavaddy, in the north of Ireland, to dis-
cuss several matters of importance, not the
least of which was the banishment of the poets.
It was the intervention of St. Columcille, a
poet himself, who saved the bardic institution

IRELAND

IRELAND

from extinction or banishment on this occa-
sion. The numbers, however, were cut down
to a mere tithe of what they had been The
High King, the kings of the provinces, the
chiefs of each territory, and the lords of each
subdistnct were all allowed to keep their own
Ollamh (ollav) or chief poet None, except
those specially sanctioned, were to be allowed
to pursue a bardic calling On the olhei
hand, the order was compensated for this in
another way Their unchartered freedom and
licentious wanderings were checked, but they
now became for the first time possessor of
fixed property and of local stability Distinct
public estates in land were set aside for their
maintenance, and they were obliged in letuin
to give public instruction to all comers in the
learning of the dav Rathkenrv m Meath
and Masree in Cavan are parti culailv men-
tioned as bardic colleges then founded, \\heie
anv of the youth of Ireland could acquiie a
knowledge of historv and the sciences The
High King, the provincial kings, and the sub-
kings were all obliged (MacFirbis Ms , Book
of Genealogies, Preface) by law to sot apait a
certain portion of land for the poet of the tern-
toiy to be held bv him fiee of rent, and a law
was passed making the persons and properl v
of the poets sacied At the same time the
amount of rewards which they were allowed to
leeeive foi then poems was legally settled
From this time forward, for nearly 1000 years,
the bardic colleges, as distinct from the eccle-
siastical, taught poetry, law, and history, and
educated the lawyers, judges, and poets of
Ireland

There were two kinds of poets, the file
(filla) and the bard, the first being the most
important The legal price of his poems was
much greater than that of the bard There
were seven grades of file, differently named
and of different dignitv In his first year the
file had to leain fifty Ogams, and straight
Ogams amongst them He had to learn the
grammar, called uraicept na n-eigsine, with its
preface, and that part of the book culled
renncanna, or courses, with twenty difachts
(story-lays ?), six meters, and other things
The original course of study seems to have been
taken in seven grades, but afterwards it lasted
for at least twelve years or more (O'Curry
Ms Materials, p 290). Compare with this
Caesar's statement about some of the Druids'
pupils continuing their study for twenty years
The highest poet was called an Ollamh (ollav)
and the annalists give the obituaries of the
arch-ollarnhs as if they were so many princes
When a poet had at last, after twelve or twenty
years of study, worked himself up through all
the lower degrees and had attained the rank
of an Ollamh, his knowledge, amongst other
things, included the following He knew three
hundred and fifty different kinds of versifi-
cation, he was able to recite and coordinate
two hundred and fifty Prime Stones and one

hundred Secondaiv ones The ancient and
fragrnentaiv Mss (Incite T(it(, III, Heft 1)
in which these details are preserved riot only
give the names of the meters which the poet
had to kno\\, but have actually preserved
examples of between two and three hundred of
them, taken from different ancient poems,
almost all of which have long since perished
Nearly all the textbooks used in the eaieei of
the old Irish poet during his twelve \ear.s'
course are lost, and with them have gone the
particulars of one of the most unique and inter-
esting civilizations in Europe The bards,
who were not nearly so important as theses
were divided into two great classes, the Suor
and Paor, or patrician and plebeian bards
There \vere eight grades in each class, each
having a title and honor of his own Each
of these sixteen classes had his own peculiar
meters, and the lower bard was not allowed
to encroach upon the meters sacred to the bard
next in rank The elaborateness of the system
they evolved, the prodigious complexity of the
rules, the subtlety and intricacy of then poetical
code are astounding, as was also the number
of people who followed the profession of poet

It was not until the Northmen (who first
invaded the peaceful shores of Ireland at the
close of the eighth century) had laid waste
the country and thrown everything into the
wildest confusion, that the distinction between
the bard and \\\? file was lost,

The Great Christian Schools — St Patrick
(died 493?) and the early Christians of the
fifth century spent most of their labor upon the
conversion of pagans and the building of
churches Columcille (5121-597) and the lead-
ing churchmen of the sixth century had leisure
to give themselves up to the foundation of
monastic institutions and the conduct of
schools By the middle of this century Ire-
land found itself dotted all ovei uith schools,
monasteries, colleges, and other foundations
belonging to the Christian community, and
books had already multiplied to a manelous
extent The three patron Saints of Ireland,
Patrick, Budget, and Columcillc had estab-
lished their schools at Armagh, Kildare, and
lona After them St Edna, whom J)r Hcaley
(Ireland's Ancient Schools and Sdiolais, p
164) calls one of the fathers of monastic life in
Ireland, settled down finally ahout the year 483
on the rocky and nearly inaccessible Island of
Aron Mxft, and he was the first oi the holy men
who won for it the appellation of Aran of the
Saints Here he was visited by many other
celebrated men, among them by Brendan the
Vovager, whose wanderings, under the title of
Navigatio Brendam, became so celebrated later
on throughout medieval Europe To him
came St. Firinian, of Clonard, known later as
the " Tutor of the Saints of Erin," Finnian of
Moville, Ciaraii of Clonmacnois, Jarlath of
Tuam, and Carthach of Lismore It is said
that even St Columcille himself in his youth

487

IRELAND

IRELAND

sought Aran to hold converse with him
St Finnian's school at Clonard, hard by tho
river Boyne, was founded about the year 520,
and even during his own lifetime became a
great institution, and three thousand students
are said to have gathered round it It con-
tinued to grow in wealth and dignity until the
ninth century, but after that time Ireland was
in the throes of the Norse invasion, and it was
plundered and destroyed twelve tunes, and
burnt down wholly or in part no less than
fourteen times Clonfort on the Shannon was
another great college, founded by Brendan the
Navigator, and it is said to have produced three
thousand monks Fursa, whoso visions were
known all over Ireland, Britain, and France,
and no doubt (through Bode's History) to
Dante, was a grand nephew and pupil of
Brendan. Even a greater school than Clon-
fert was that founded by St Ciaran, the car-
penter's son, about the year 544 at Clonmacnois,
at a curve in the Shannon near Athlono This
college was resorted to impartially by all the
various tribes of Ireland, and the most dher-
gent races both from the North and South gave
it assistance and buried their dead m its shade,
so that it became the greatest university in
Ireland, and produced some of the most dis-
tinguished scholars But, like every other home
of Irish civilization, it fell a prey to the bar-
barians The Northmen plundered it or burnt
it, or both, on ten separate occasions Bangor
on Belfast Lough founded by Comgall, the
friend of Columcille, between 550 and 560, was,
after Armagh, the greatest school in the noi-
thern province, " a noble institution/' said
St Bernard (Life of St Malactu/) Colum-
banus, who evangelized large portions of Bui-
gundy and Lombardy, St Gall, the evangelizer
of Switzerland, and Dungal, the astronomer,
were all disciples of this college St Bernard
says that the northern pirates slew as many as
nine hundred of the inhabitants of Bangor
Other great institutions were Movillc at the
head of Strangford Lough in the County Down,
founded by St Fmnian, who was born some
time before A D 500, Clonenagh in Queen's
County, founded by St. Fintari, Glendalough,
founded by St Kevin, Lismore, the great
college of southeast Ireland, founded by
St Carthach, Cork College, founded by St
Finnbar, the school of Ross in Southwest
Munster, founded by St. Fachtna, Innisf alien,
founded upon an exquisite site on the lower
lake of Killarney by St Fman, and Imscaltra,
on an island in Lough Derg, founded by Co-
lumba of Terryglass, who died in 552 In addi-
tion to these, a great number of lesser schools
existed, and they were crowded with students
not only from Ireland, but from foreign lands
Bede tells us of the crowds of Anglo-Saxons
who flocked over into Ireland during the plague
about the year 664, and how they were all
warmly welcomed by the Irish, who took care
that they should be provided with food every

*

day without payment on their part, that thev
should have books to read, and that they should
receive gratuitous instruction from Irish mas-
ters Aldhelm, abbot of Malmesbury (a cor-
ruption of Mael-dubh's-bury, Maeldubh, its
founder, having been an Irishman), tells us
that, while the great school at Canterbury was
by no means overcrowded, the English swarmed
to the Irish schools like bees. The office of
St Cathaldus states that the school of Lismore
was visited by Gauls, Angles, Scotti, Teutons,
and scholars from other neighboring nations.
The same was true of Clonmacnois and other
foundations

The original design of the founders of these
schools may have been the propagation of the
Christian religion, but it is certain that almost
from the very first they taught the heathen
classics and the Irish language side by side
with scriptural and theological studies. All the
knowledge of the time appears to have been
taught through the medium of the Irish lan-
guage, not merely theology but arithmetic,
rhetoric, poetry, hagiography, natural science
as then understood, grammar, chronology,
astronomy, Greek, and even Hebrew "In
Ireland," sums up M Darmesteter (English
Studies), " the Classic tradition to all appear-
ances dead in Europe burst into full flower "
" The Renaissance began in Ireland seven
hundred years before it was known in Italv",
and again " at one time Armagh, the religious
capital of Christian Ireland, was the metrop-
olis of civilization " " In the next (sixth)
century," savs Babington (Fallacies of Hace
Theories, p 122), the old culture lands had to
turn for some little light and teaching to that
remote and lately baibarous land (of Ireland) "

The Greek language, all knowledge of which
may be said to have died out on the Continent
(" had elsewhere absolutely vanished " says
M Damesteter), was widely studied in Ire-
land There is a Greek Ms of the Psalter,
written m Sedulius's, own hand (he was Abbot
of Kildare about 820), now preserved m Pans,
and at least a dozen other Greek texts written
by Irish monks are preserved elsewhere in
Europe The knowledge of Greek, says Pro-
fessor Sandys, in his History of Classical
Scholarship, " which had almost vanished in the
West was so widely dispersed in the schools of
Ireland that if any one knew Greek, it was
assumed that he must have come from that
country "

Irish Teachers on the Continent — From
about 600 to 850 A D. was the most barbarous
and the darkest period of the Middle Ages
upon the Continent, a period when all study,
both classical and ecclesiastical, was at its very
lowest ebb It was at this period, especially
toward its close, that the Irish nation, by
general acclamation the most cultured in
Europe, sent forth the swarms of scholars to the
Continent to teach and preach and found
monasteries and preside over schools. About

IRELAND

IRELAND

the year 800 Cambrai was a celebrated rally-
ing place of theirs " Not only Cambrai,"
says M. Dom Louis Gougaud (Les Chretiennes
celtiques, p. 289), "but also Rheims, Soissons,
Laon, and Liege, had at one and the same
period colonies of Irishmen " At Laon, in-
deed, thanks to the efforts of the erudite
Hibernians, it became for a while the fashion to
dabble in Greek " Bishop Hincmar tried it,
and more, he who did not know his own lan-
guage — according to his uncle Hincmar of
Rheims — prided himself upon learning to
speak m Irish " ( Hincmar opusculum LV Capi-
tulorwn, quoted by Gougaud) " If," says
M Gougaud, " we consult the evidence given
by their contemporaries concerning the learned
men that had come amongst them out of Ire-
land, we must acknowledge that they all show
that they are conscious of being greatly in their
debt for the progress realized in their studies.
Irish knowledge is in their eyes something apart
from all else, and worthy of their most pom-
pous encomiums " (p 293)

But with the evil days of the Vikings came
change The ancient monasteries, shrines,
schools, arid colleges, and all settled institu-
tions of society offered to the fierce Norsemen
the first objects of onslaught, and the shrines
of the churches, above all, promised them
plunder For two centuries they made, to
quote the words of the almost contemporary
Irish historian, " spoil-land and sword-land
and conquered land of her, ravaged her chief-
tainrie& and her privileged Churches and her
sanctuaries, and they rent her shrines and her
reliquaries and her books, and demolished
her beautiful ornamented temples — in a word,
although there were an hundred sharp, ready,
cool, and never-rusting brazen tongues in each
head and an hundred garrulous loud unceasing
voices from each tongue, they could never
relate or enumerate all the Gael .suffered in
common, both men and women, laity and
clergy, noble and ignoble, from these valiant
wrathful purely-pagan people" (Wars of the
Gael and Gall, p 51) One aim of the Norse-
men was to destroy all learning " It was not
allowed," writes Keating, " to give instruction
m letters . . . No scholars, no clerics, no books,
no holy relics were left in Church or monastery,
through dread of them Neither bard nor
philosopher nor musician pursued his wonted
profession in the land " (Keating's History)

On the afternoon of Good Friday, Apr 13,
in the year of our Lord 1014, the dream of a
Scandinavian kingdom in Ireland was shat-
tered forever by the crushing defeat of Clontarf,
where, however, fell the King of Ireland, his
son and heir, and his son's son and heir, leav-
ing the monarchy greatly imperiled and the
High-Kingship thrown open, as it were, to
competition — to any one who was powerful
enough to wrest it to himself Nevertheless
the succeeding century and a half witnessed a
great revival of art and learning, of schools

and scholarships. The books " drowned " by
the Northmen were rewritten m the language
of the period, the churches and monaster-
ies rebuilt, the schools repeopled, the bards
and brehons reinstated, and some of the old
civilized polity brought back Even before
the battle of Clontarf, King Brian had sent
emissaries " to buy books beyond the sea and
the great ocean," because, says the history,
" their writings and their books in every church
and m every sanctuary where they were had
been burnt and thrown into watei by the
plunderers" (Wars of the Gael and Gall). It
is from the brief period of comparative rest
succeeding the battle of Clontarf that the
most important relics of Celtic literature now
in the world date.

The Irish still continued, however, to travel
and preach In 1076 they founded the great
monastery of Ratisbon That of St James
they completed in 1111. They are now to be
found as far afield as Bulgaria and Poland.
They founded the Monastery of Wurzburg in
1134, Nuremberg in 1140, Constanz m 1142,
St George in Vienna, in 1 155, Eichstadt in 1 183,
St Maria in Vienna in 1200, and scores of others.

The Norman Invasion and Irish Lcairnng.
— One hundred and fifty-five years after the
battle of Clontarf , that is to say, m May, 1159,
appeared the first Norman invaders , and these
repeated, though perhaps in a milder form,
the havoc and plunder of the Northmen Bv
the close of the century they had established
themselves over Ireland. Then commenced
that permanent warfare between the English
and the Irish which rendered all literary scho-
lastic and artistic advancement practically
impossible Ireland became, to use a graphic
expression of the Four Masters, a " trembling
sod." " Since the Norman invasion," wrote
the late Miss Stokes, the highest authority upon
tins subject, " the native character of Ireland
has best found expression in her music. No
work of purely Celtic Art, whether in illumina-
tion of the sacred writings or in gold or bronze
or stone was wrought by Irish hands after that
century "

The exact position of learning and of educa-
tion during the four centuries which follow are
very obscure. The Normans almost invariably
attacked church and monastic property, as
being generally the least vigorously defended.
They deliberately quenched the holy fire
which had burned unceasingly in the shrine
of St Bridget from the fifth century onward,

"The 1 imp uhich onco shone in Kildare's holy fane
Ar.d burnt through long ages of darkness and storm,"

and generally set themselves from the first
against native Irish institutions, monasteries,
schools, and colleges, both in church and state.
They established churches and sanctuaries of
their own, and to these institutions no native
Irishman was to be admitted Gradually,
however, the bulk of the Normans became

489

IRELAND

IRELAND

largely assimilated with the Irish. They soon
gave up talking Norman- French, and spoke and
wrote only in Irish The schools of the bards
and brehons which existed throughout the
island supplied them, as they did the Gaels, with
their family poets, and as most of them ad-
hered to the Brehon law as proper and more
suitable to their sun ouridings than the Eng-
lish, they no doubt were dependent largely
upon the Irish schools for their judges and his-
torians also In most or all of these schools,
Latin was spoken as a second language
Every one of any education at all in Ireland
spoke it fluently, and thiough it the Irish,
cut off from England by the perennial war
between the two nations, kept in the closest
touch with the Continent " They speake
Latinc like a vulgar language learned in their
schoolcs of Leachciaft and Law whereat they
begin children arid holclc on sixteene or twcntie
yeares," wrote Campion in 1574 " I have no
doubt/' writes the Right Hon Mr Justice
Madden in his book on the Classical Learning
in Ireland (Dublin, 1908, p. 43), " that the use of
Latin as a written and spoken language out-
side the Pale is a survival from the centuries
during which Ireland was the University of
Western Europe"

Irish Schools under Elizabeth and her Sue-
cr.s.s'o/.s — Elizabeth's wais did much to break
up the power of the native Irish and with them
then schools and institutions Their mon-
asteries had, whenever the English could get
at them, been already secularised by her
father, Henry VIII, and the collegiate estab-
lishments connected with them broken up

It was the deliberate policy of the English
to dehtioy all the schools and institutions of
the native Irish and to kill or banish their
learned men, especially the poets In the Pale,
however, and in those parts of Ireland where
the English plantation held there were some
good grammar schools conducted on English
lines which were not interfered with, and some
of then best scholars went on to Oxford or
Cambridge, generally Oxford. At one time
great numbers of native Irish went there, too,
but they were soon prohibited by law from
availing themselves of this means of education,
as Mrs Green has shown in her Making of
Ireland and its Undoing The most ferocious
laws of all were passed against the unfortunate
poets, and many of them were hanged James I
followed the same policy Under him the
native schools seem to have been ruthlessly
closed by Ussher, who became, later on, the
Protestant Primate, on the convenient ground
that the teachers did not conform to the
established religion. Yet some of the bardic
schools and of those of the brehons continued
surreptitiously to exist, though in ever decreas-
ing numbers and with diminishing prestige,
until the first quarter of the seventeenth cen-
tury When the Confederate Irish rose to
arms in 1642, they strove to reestablish then

native schools, and we find Rory O'Mpre, the
close friend of Owen Roe O'Neill, writing to
Brussels and urging that the " learned and
religious fathers " at Lou vain should hasten
over to Ireland with their Irish printing presses
so as to open an Irish school " before Flan
MacEgan dies " This MacEgan was -an emi-
nent brehon and head of a celebrated school
of law and history in Lower Orinond at the
time. The sword of Cromwell, however, put
an end to this dream

The bardic school, to follow the description
of them given in the Memoirs of Clannckard,
printed in London, 1722, was usually a group
of low whitewashed buildings lying in the
hollow of a secluded valley or shut in by a
thick, sheltering wood, far removed from human
traffic and the noise and bustle of the groat
world It had few apertures Each student
as lie arrived was assigned a windowless room
to himself with no othei furniture than a couple
of chairs, a clothes rail, and a bed Those
students who did not know all about the in-
tricacies of the Irish metrical system, its
syllabification, quartans, concord, correspond-
ence, termination, union, laws of nudation, etc ,
were turned over to the inferior professors
After breakfast the students, having been
allotted a theme, returned each to his warm but
perfectly dark compartment to throw them-
selves each upon his bed, to think or compose
until supper hour, when a servant came round
wrth candles for each to write down what he
had composed They were then called to-
gether into the great hall and handed then
written compositions to the professors, and
chatted and amused themselves till bedtime
The schools always broke up on the 25th
of Match, and the holidays lasted for six
months Only members of bardic families as
a rule were admitted to the bardic schools, and
poetry as a profession ran \ery largely in special
clans, thus tending from the fourteenth to the
seventeenth century to become in away heredi-
tary The O'Dalvs were perhaps the principal
poetic family of Ireland, but there were ovei a
score of other families who followed poetry as a
profession or from hereditary instinct, as the
O'Clearys, OToffeys, O'Higgms, Wards, etc

Elizabeth having extirpated, so far as her
power extended, both bards and brehons, and
broken up the native Irish schools, set about
giving the Anglo-Irish, the planters, and Prot-
estants a university of their own in Dublin
To do this, she founded Trinity College, which
has now flourished as a great seat of learning
for over three hundred years, supported, how-
ever, largely by the lands plundered by the
Queen from native Irish institutions (See
DUBLIN UNIVERSITY ) James I and his suc-
cessor followed this up by founding a number
of " Royal Schools," evidently intended as
feeders to the new college, — Portora, Enms-
killcn in 1618, Armagh and Dungannon in
1627, arid others Peter Lombard, the Catho-

490

IRELAND

IRELAND

he Archbishop of Armagh, who died in 1625,
describes in his Commentary on the Kingdom
of Ireland, published on the Continent, in Latin,
how it had been the steady policy of the Eng-
lish government to cut off all education from
the native Irish, even before the difTerence in
religion brought about by the Reformation
gave them an additional excuse for doing so.
And when the University, so long and so anx-
iously sought for by the natives, was at last
founded sumptibus indigenarum, at the expense
or the native inhabitants, " most capacious,
most splendid." in the shape of Trinity College,
Dublin, and tney saw themselves excluded from
it nominally on religious grounds, their indigna-
tion knew no bounds. But indignation availed
them little. When they backed it with their
swords, Cromwell beat them, and their last state
was rendered worse than their former one

The Restoration and the short-lived rule of
James II did not avail very much to reinstate
Irish learning or Irish schools The period
was too short and the times too troublous.
Then came the defeats at the Boyne and Augh-
rim and the treaty of Limerick in 1091 After
this, all hopes were shattered. The era of the
Penal Laws against Catholics commenced, and
as almost all the native Irish weie Catholics,
they were practically deprived of all education.
Henceforth, so far as the education of the
native Irish, who wore the vast bulk of the Irish
population, is concerned, it is as an organized
thing nonexistent, picked up furtively at home
or illegally acquired abroad Stories are told
of children deprived of books learning their
letters on their fathers' tombstones. The
possession of an Irish Ms might easily involve
the owner in serious trouble or send him to
prison Many valuable books were buried or
built up in walls It was in a wall that the
great valuable old Irish Ms , the Book of Lis-
morc, was found during the last century There
were no native schools any longer existing ex-
cept those of the kind later known as Hedge-
schools (qv.), where in fine weather the chil-
dren assembled under the hedges Still, despite
indescribable educational hardships and priva-
tions, the classical tradition did not wholly die
out Crofton Croker (Researches in the South
of Ireland} at the beginning of the last century
mentions that " among the peasantry classical
learning is not uncommon, and a tattered Ovid
or Vergil may be found even m the hands of
common labourers " For an account of these
hedge-schools in later times, Crofton Croker and
Carleton may be consulted But, to sum up
briefly, from the period of the battle of the
Boyne down to about the year 1790, when
Catholics were at last admitted to matriculate
in Trinity College, though allowed none of its
honors or emoluments, the words " educa-
tion" and "Ireland," with regard to schools,
colleges, or institutions, have no connection,
except in so far as they concern the Anglo-
Irish and the Protestant population D. H

Modern Period — Primary Education —
The cradle of Irish, and in a sense of English
and Scotch, primary education, in the modern
acceptance of the term, is to be found in a
large school founded in Dublin in 1786 (For
this school were built, in 1798, the premises
used to this day by the West Dublin Model
Schools ) Here was devised a monitorial
system, similar to that afterwards connected
with the names of Bell and Lancaster, and here
took ongm the principle of educating the pooi
without religious interference

A quarter of a century later, in 1811, the
success which had attended the experiment
encouraged the formation, on a national scale,
of the tl Society for the Education of the Pooi,"
better known as the " Kildare Place Society "
They proposed to cover Ireland with schools,
open to all, and interfering with the religion of
none Their fundamental principle was that
the Bible, as common to all sections of Chris-
tians, should be read daily, but without note or
comment A commission on education ap-
pointed in 1806, in its final report published
in 1812, indorsed the principles of the society,
and, in 1815, Mr, afterwards Sir Robert,
Peel, then Chief Socrotai\, consnlued that the
recommendations of the commissioners could
best be carried into operation by parliamentary
grants to the Kildare Place Society The work
of these pioneers, affecting as it has done, in a
marked degree, England and Scotland, and to
some extent each of the colonies, deserves
fuller recognition than it has yet received
Here only the barest outlines aie possible
The whole machinery of education had to be
called into existence ab imtio As has alwavs
been the case in Ireland, the demand for knowl-
edge was keen, but the means for satisfying it
were crude. It is computed that perhaps
five thousand schools of all kinds existed,
but so wretched were they commonly that
the term "hedge-school" (q v ) was imented to
describe them. For the application of the
remedy, the society went vigorously to \\ork
At Kildare Place they founded a model school
for the training of teachers, which won the
admiration of all — (see MODEL SCHOOLS) , they
published a senes of schoolbooks \\hich was
largely used not only in Ireland, but in Eng-
land and Scotland, holding that \\ithout a
library no school was complete, they issued
at cheap rates a collection of works, instructive
and entertaining, which had no rnal at the
time, and m consequence went all over the
world; with the help ot the sums voted l>y Par-
liament, which rose to upwards of £30,000 a
year, building grants were made to encourage
and supplement the exertions of the localities,
with the result that substantial schoolhouses,
built commonly m accordance with plans fur-
nished by the society, sprang up everywhere
Finally, a careful system 01 inspection was
planned, the prototype, in many of its features,
of every subsequent system, and a staff of

491

IRELAND

IRELAND

inspectors trained for the purpose visited the
schools all over Ireland.

The success which rewarded the society was
signal: 150 masters and 60 mistresses left the
Training School each year; the annual output
of the ir Cheap Publications " was 60,000, the
society's schools, which numbered 8 m 1816,
had risen to 1621 in 1831, pupils to the num-
ber of 137,639 were in attendance, the average
per school being between 84 and 85. It is
not surprising that, with such a record in view,
distinguished visitors from other countries,
expressed their admiration and approval in
the strongest terms. Professor Pillans (q v ),
prominent for his work on behalf of Scotch
education, was of opinion that the Kildare
Place Schools were a hundred years ahead of
those in Scotland The Count de Lasteyrie,
in a letter still extant, pronounced the model
school the best m the world.

In 1831 the Kildare Place Society wa.s suc-
ceeded by the National Board The fall was
the result of the strictness with which they en-
forced the rule which enjoined the reading of
the Bible without note or comment. The rule
was never popular, churchmen objected to the
prohibition of definite catechetical teaching,
Roman Catholics received with suspicion any-
thing of the nature of joint religious instruc-
tion, m 1827 the Commission of Educational
Inquiry reported against the rule, and in 1829
a belect committee of the House of Commons
recommended that Irish primary education
should be intrusted to a board responsible to
Parliament, whose principle should be combined
literary and separate religious instruction
The National Board, whose constitution was
framed m accordance with this recommenda-
tion, met with violent and protracted opposi-
tion The Presbyterians were the first to
move ; quite satisfied themselves with the Kil-
dare Place Society, they resented what they
considered a slight to the Bible, and in partic-
ular they found fault with certain regulations
for promoting combined instruction, which
would force them into joint action with Roman
Catholics Churchmen were not long in fol-
lowing The absence of distinctive teaching
had seemed to them a blemish in the Kildare
Place Society, the Society, however, had in-
sisted on the reading of the Bible, but the
National Board not only made no such demand,
but was even disposed to exclude from " school
hours" any time which might be devoted to
its study. The result was an educational
schism which lasted more than fifty years, and
at times threatened the very existence of the
Board. For the prosecution' of the attack the
Church Education Society was founded in
1839. By adding definite denominational
teaching to the Bible reading of the Kildare
Place Society, a new warmth of interest was
evoked, and the income from voluntary sources
rose as high as £45,000, —more than Kildare
Place had enjoyed at the height of its pros-

perity. So numerous were their schools that, as
late as the date of the Powis Commission in
1870, they were held to constitute a dangerous
menace to the Board. The last to oppose were
the Roman Catholics, satisfaction at the over-
throw of Kildare Place made them disposed to
welcome the National Board, for a time even
the Christian Brothers placed their schools m
connection. Roman Catholics, however, were
not more favorable towards combined in-
struction than the other opponents, and when
the Board early changed " combined literary "
into " combined moral and literary " by in-
troducing for all a book of Scripture Extracts,
their suspicions were aroused, and they lost no
opportunity of giving publicity to their ob-
jections; in particular, the Synod of Thurles in
1852 openly denounced the system of the
Board

As the result of these attacks, many modifi-
cations were introduced into the original con-
stitution. Two call for mention here (1)
Non-vested Schools, as distinct from Schools
Vested in the Board, were permitted, — a con-
cession by which the principle of combined in-
struction was virtually abandoned, because, in
a non-vested school, religious instruction can-
not be given, as of right, except by the denomi-
nation with which it is connected (2) A
compulsory conscience clause was introduced
whereby the teacher must send away during
religious instruction pupils of differing beliefs
In consequence of these and other concessions,
the Board, which began with an undenomma-
tionahsm more marked than that of Kildare
Place, became transformed into a denomina-
tional system with a conscience clause, and
as such it has completely solved the religious
problem m connection with primary education
in Ireland.

The education given in national schools
began on Kildare Place lines, and the books of
the society were largely used Gradually the
Board prepared books of their own, and until
lately no others were permitted. The teachers
were paid by local contributions, by school
fees, and by fixed salaries depending on their
classification. In 1870 a modified system of
payment by results was superadded. It had
the usual effect of emphasizing the subjects or
portions of subjects which brought fees, to the
detriment of the rest In 1900 the resulting
system was abandoned, and a new method of
paying the teachers was introduced. At this
date the amounts contributed by the localities
were insignificant, and school fees had been
abolished by the act of 1892. For purposes
of salary, three grades were introduced.
Teachers, who formerly rose by examination,
are now promoted from the lowest to the high-
est grade by seniority and merit; they are also
awarded triennial increments for good service,
and receive a pension which is arranged on a con-
tributory basis, on retirement. The average in-
comes from state sources are as follows: —

492

IRELAND

IRELAND

PRINCIPALS

ASSISTANTS

Men

Women

Men

Women

£112

£90

£81

£68

In addition to the more ordinary branches,
the curriculum includes singing, drawing,
object lessons, physical drill, hand and eye
training including kindergarten, elementary
science, cookery, and laundry Instruction
in these subjects has been much developed
since 1900, and the same is true of Irish, which
is now taught in 3066 schools to 180,000 chil-
dren, as compared with 105 schools and 1825
children in 1899. On the 31st of December,
1909, there were 8401 schools in operation in
connection with the National Board In the
following table the progress of primary educa-
tion is shown from the Census Reports: —

PROPORTION PER CENT

1861

1871

1881

1891

1901

Read and Write .

41

49

59

71

79

Head only
Neither Head nor

20

17

lb

11

7

Write

39

33

25

18

14

Higher Grade Schools — The board, owing
to the inadequacy of the grants, has hitherto
t>een unable to make satisfactory provision for
the higher education of promising pupils. For
the Roman Catholics, the Christian Brothers
have done much to remedy this deficiency, for
the Church of Ireland the scholarships of the
Incorporated Society have discharged a similar
office

The Tiaining of 7'eacfiers — As was seen
above, the training of teachers in Ireland had
attained to European celebrity under the Kil-
dare Place Society. The National Board
founded its college m Marlborough Street in
1833 Till 1883 it remained the only govern-
ment college, being undenominational, it met
with httlo support from churchmen or Roman
Catholics In 1883 the English system of
denominational colleges was extended to
Ireland, and specially favorable terms were
granted in 1890 in order to place the new col-
lege on a level with Marlborough Street. There
are now seven colleges, one of them being the
old foundation of the Kildare Place Society,
which, as the Church of Ireland Training Col-
lege, became a government denominational
college in 1884

Secondary or Intermediate Education. — The
position of secondary, or, as it is generally
termed, Intermediate, Education, during the
century previous to the Commission of 1885,
may be estimated by means of a passage from
the commissioner's Third Report. After draw-

ing attention to the inadequacy of existing
endowments, they say " the subsequent course
of our enquiries has confirmed our belief that
the provision for intermediate education m
Ireland is wholly inadequate, and bears no just
proportion to the provision for university
and primary education " Unsatisfactory as
the results were found to be where the resources
were so slender, the common mismanagement of
the endowments made matters still worse In
striving to account for the failure of the Royal
Schools, whose endowments were the largest
in Ireland, the commissioners were of opinion
that a prime cause was to be found m the
constitution of the supreme authority In
1813, as the result of the Commission of
1788, the royal and other endowed schools,
were placed under a newly formed board, en-
titled the Commissioners of Education in
Ireland. The constitution of the board was
such that the commissioners were not brought
into contact with the schools, nor had they
direct interest in or control over them. But
whatever the contributory causes may have
been, the deficiencies of the intermediate schools
as a whole were marked During the last
twenty-five years, however, a decided change
has taken place, the credit for which is largely
due to the Educational Endowments Com-
mission, 1885-1894, and to the Intermediate
Education Board The Royal Commissions
reorganized the Commissioners of Education,
and perfected schemes for the management of
upwards of 200 endowments In all they did
they emphasized the importance of giving the
localities a definite share in the control of the
schools, and made provision for dealing with
neglect or inefficiency. The Intermediate
Board represents an attempt of government
to subsidize secondary education Founded
in 1878, and endowed with £1,000,000 out of
the Irish Church Surplus, its funds were in-
creased by the local taxation (customs and
excise) act of 1890, — a variable source of income
against whose fluctuations they have recently
been guaranteed by fixed sums included in the
estimates. As originally constituted, the sole
duty of the board was to hold examinations in
centers all over Ireland, and to distribute its
funds upon the results, the schools receiving
fees for each pupil who passed, and the pupils
being rewarded with exhibitions and prizes.
In 1900, in accordance with the recommenda-
tions of a royal commission, this cast-iron
system was modified, and extended powers
were granted; in particular, provision was
made (a) for introducing inspection, (6) for
arranging with the newly formed Department
of Agriculture for practical examinations in
science, and (c) for the encouragement of spe-
cialization While few defend the methods
of examination, and the payment on individual
results which are indorsed by the acts under
which the board works, and while none can
excuse the sluggishness with which the required

493

IRELAND

IRELAND

funds are supplied by Parliament, there can be
no question as to the quickening power which
the board has exercised. As an illustration, it
may be mentioned that though inspection was

and field demonstrators have gone everywhere.
With such kindred institutions as the Albert
Agricultural College, Glasnevin, and the Mun-
ster Institute, the department has willingly

I>V UAlVSU.g.L.1 iAAk3^/V>V^ VAVTli YY «*U K>\>\si, JL AiO Vi V U. l/t>. UXlV/ VAC L» Oil V HIGH l( I1U/D WllllllHLlY

approved in 1900, the appointment of inspectors cooperated, it has made full use of the machinery
11 1909 through lack of of the county councils, and has employed the

had to be delayed till

the necessary funds. The intermediate schools
of Ireland fall under three main divisions:
the old endowed schools which, for the most
part, are in Protestant hands; schools founded
and managed by the different Roman Catholic
orders; and schools which arc the result of
private enterprise. In 1850 the income of
fifty-four of the largest endowed schools
was under £15,000, and in ninety towns with
population of 2000 and upwards, there was no
provision of any kind for secondary teaching.
Since the establishment of the Intermediate
Board, a sum which has averaged £50,000 has
been distributed annually among the schools,
in addition to the prizes and exhibitions
whereby deserving pupils have been helped.
How the work has grown, the following table
will show : —

NUMBER OF STUDENTS WHO PRESENTED THEM-
SELVES FOR EXAMINATION

BOYS

GIRLS

TOTAL

1879

2163

521

2684

1899

5726

2042

7768

1910

7967

3933

11900

The examinations in 1910 were held at 988
centers, in 127 different localities.

Technical and Commercial Education. — As
early as 1841 the demand for education with a
definite practical end took shape in the estab-
lishment of an engineering school in connection
with Trinity College, Dublin, — a step in
which the Irish university gave the lead to both
Oxford and Cambridge In 1867 the Royal
College of Science was founded with the specific
object of giving instruction in science as ap-
plied to the industrial arts, especially mining,
engineering, and agriculture In 1900 a stop
of much importance and fruitful in results was
taken in the establishment of the depart-
ment of agriculture and of technical instruc-
tion. With the help of parliamentary grants
of upwards of £180,000 annually the depart-
ment has been able to make progress in many
directions, and has taken a prominent part in
the industrial revival of the twentieth century.
In many parts of Ireland special industries
have been promoted and helped, much atten-
tion has been bestowed upon the improyment
of live stock, and, in particular, admirable
work has been done in connection with agricul-
ture The aim has been to place within general
reach good technical knowledge of ail subjects
relating to agriculture. Local schools have
been set up, and ^ classes conducted in the
most remote districts; itinerant instructors

494

College of Science in many practical ways
The college is now under the management of
the department, and its splendid new build-
ings opened in July, 1911, are rich with promise
Specially worthy of notice is the educational
work done in promoting practical instruction
in experimental science, drawing, manual work,
and domestic economy in secondary schools
Unlike the Intermediate Board, the depart-
ment enjovs freedom of action, and has been
able to plan its educational activities upon
modern lines, with the most satisfactory re-
sults

Higher Education — Trinity College, Dub-
lin (see DUBLIN UNIVERSITY), and Maynooth
were the universities of Ireland in 1800 Since
1794 Trinity had received students of all creeds,
but Roman Catholics were debarred from its
fellowships and scholarships. Maynooth had
been founded by the Irish Parliament in 1795,
with an endowment of £8000 a year, to prepare
students for the Irish priesthood From 1800
onwards the university question has passed
through many phases, in all of which two sets
of influences have been at work. The Roman
Catholics, with fixed purpose, have been
struggling to obtain for themselves a univer-
sity which would combine unquestioned effi-
ciency and due recognition of ecclesiastical
authority. Trinity College, eager for tho
maintenance of its supremacy and independ-
ence, has either sought or accepted reform after
reform, thereby demonstrating its liberality
and enhancing its influence

The steps taken toward satisfying the
requirements of the Roman Catholics have
been many. At the Union the endowment of
Maynooth was continued In 1813 it was
raised to £8928 In 1816 the Maynooth Act
gave a permanent subsidy of £26,000 a year,
which was commuted in 1869 for a capital sum
of £372,000 out of the Irish Church Surplus.
Sir Robert Peel, who had shown a similar
spirit in his recognition of the Kildare Place
Society, was the first to take definite stops to
meet the desire for a university which would
be available for and acceptable to all His
plan was to found a group of federated non-
sectarian colleges, affiliated for examinations
and degrees with a central university. The
Queen's Colleges, as they were called, were
established and endowed in 1849 in Belfast,
Cork, and Gal way; they were given faculties
in law, medicine, arts, and engineering. The
establishment of the Queen's University in
1850 completed the scheme. From the first,
anything of the nature of permanent success
was hopeless. Before the plan was tried, its
wholly secular character incurred the con-

IRELAND

IRELAND

damnation of the Pope, and in the year of its
foundation the university was denounced by
the Synod of Thurles Furthermore, the same
year saw the Roman Catholics preparing to
open a university for themselves The result
was the Catholic University of Dublin, which
was founded in 1854, with Doctor, afterwards
Cardinal, Newman, as its first rector Per-
haps the chief purpose served by this univer-
sity was to emphasize the demand of the
Roman Catholics for equality of treatment
with reference to higher education Refused
a charter by the government, and therefore
unable to grant degrees, depending wholly on
private support, and for this reason compelled
to work in a restricted area, the university
could never satisfy the requirements Very
effectually, however, it drew the attention of
statesmen alike to the earnestness and the
determination of the Roman Catholic party,
both clerical and lay, with the result that,
for the rest of the century, and up to 1 90S, the
question of a Catholic university was always
prominent After several previous attempts
by other statesmen, Mr Gladstone (q v } in-
troduced his bill in 1873 His plan was to
have one great university, which would include
different colleges, such as Trinity College, the
Catholic University, and any other propeily
qualified The project met with little favoi,
as provision was not made for endowing the
Catholic College, the Roman Catholics were
only lukewarm in their support, Trimtv Col-
lege, considering that anything which ml of-
fered with independence must be injurious,
offered the most strenuous resistance The
bill was thrown out, and the ministry fell
Lord Beaconsfieltl was more successful when,
in 1879, he abolished the Queen's Univeisity,
and replaced it by the Royal University of
Ireland With the exception of its medical
faculties, which required courses of lectuies at
certain recognized institutions, the now uni-
versity was wholly an examining body which
had power to bestow prizes, and confer de-
grees, on all who presented themselves, irre-
spective of their colleges This alone was suffi-
cient to include Roman Catholic colleges in
university benefits, and the Catholic Univer-
sity of Dublin enjoyed some special advantages
through being able to appoint on its staff
fellows belonging to and paid bv the Royal
University The effect was seen immediately
in the reorganizing of the Catholic University
As a set-off to the Quecn'b Colleges, which
\yould be credited as a whole with the distinc-
tions of their students, six Roman Catholic
colleges, viz. Maynooth, the Catholic Univer-
sity of Dublin, henceforth known as University
College, University College, Blackrook, St
Patrick's College, Carlow, Holy Crosh College,
Clonliffe, and the Catholic University School
of Medicine, were federated to form the Cath-
olic University. The Royal University met
with some favor, on account of its recognition

of the Roman Catholic colleges, there was,
however, a feeling that the students of these
colleges were at a disadvantage, as compared
with those from the state endowed and equipped
Queen's colleges, and it was strongly held that
the whole scheme kept the Roman Catholic
colleges in " tangible and humiliating inferior-
ity to Trinity College, Dublin " In conse-
quence, the agitation for equality of treatment
continued. An attempt made by Mr. Bryce
in 1906 failed, as Mr Gladstone had failed,
because it proposed to interfere with the privi-
leged independence of Trinity College It
remained for Mr Birrell to find what may
perhaps prove a satisfactory solution of the
difficulties in his Act of 1908 By this act two
new universities were founded and endowed,
viz the National University, and Queens'
University, Belfast The Royal University
was dissolved, and University College, Dublin,
Queen's College, Cork, and Queen's College,
Gal way, became constituent colleges of the
new National Univeisity. Though the Na-
tional University is undenominational, and
fiee from tests, in awarding its honors and
making its appointments, it encourages the
teaching of religion, provided the experibes are
not paid out of state funds, and its governing
body is so constituted as to command the
confidence of Roman Catholics By way of
endowment the National University received
€170,000 for such expenses as buildings and
equipment, together with an annual grant of
£ti4,000 Queen's University, Belfast, received
for building and equipment £60,000, with an
annual grant of £18,000.

The Presbyterian Church has two colleges
empowered to grant degrees in divinity, one
in Belfast, the other in Londonderry.

The higher education of women has been
promoted in particular by Alexander College,
Dublin, the Queen's Institute, and the Ladies'
College, Belfast The Royal University stimu-
lated the movement by being the first university
in the United Kingdom to open its degrees to
women. H. K M

References : —

Historical —

Annal* of the Four Masters (Dublin, 1850 )
BONN, M J Die Knyhsche Kolonwation in Ireland

(Stuttgart, 1906 )
CROKEK T C Rewanh&> in the South of Ireland

(London, 18J4 )

IV ALTON, E A Htxtory of Ireland (London, 1906 )
PARMEHTLTLR, J English Studutt (London, 1896 )
FROUDE, J A English in Ireland (London, 1895 )
(iiiEKN, A S Mnktng of Ireland and itt* Undoing,

13QO-1MK) (London, 1908)
HE\LY .T Inland^ Anntnt Sthook and Scholars

(Dublin, 1896 )

HOGAN, E Ireland in ir><)8 (Dublin, 1878)
HULL E A Textbook in Irish Literature. Bibli-

ography (Dublin, 1906- 1908 )
HYDK, D Literary History of Ireland (London,

Story of Early Oaehe Literature (London, 1895 )
Catholic Encyclopedia^* v Irish Literature Contains

fuller bibliography on the general field of Irish

culture

495

IRELAND

IRNERIUS

JOYCE, P W Social History of Ancient Ireland. (Lon-
don, 1903 )

KEATING, J History of Ireland (Dublin, 1859.)

LECKY, W E H History of Ireland in the Eighteenth
Century (London, 1902.)

MADDEN, JUSTICE Classical Learning in Ireland.
(Dublin, 1908 )

MAINE, SIR H S Early History of Institutions. (Lon-
don, 1888 )

O' CURRY, E Lectures on the Ms. Materials of Ancient

Irish History (Dublin, 1878.)

Manners and Customs of the Ancient Irish (Dublin,
1873)

QUIQGIN, E. C. Encyclopedia Bntannica, B v. Celtic
Literature Contains full bibliography.

STOKES, M M Early Christian Art in Ireland (Lon-
don, 1887 )

STOKES, W. Lives of the Saints from the Book of Lis-
more (London, 1890 )

STOKES, W , and STRACHAN, J Thesaurus Pal&ohi-
bernicus (Cambridge, 1900-1903 )

STOKER W, and WINDISCH, E Insche Texte (Leipzig,
1880-1909 )

TODD, J Hisiyry of Ireland (Dublin, 1859 )

ZIMMER, H Uber die Bedeutung des inschen Elements
fdr die mittelalterhsche Cultur, in Preussische Jahr-
bucher, January, 1887

Educational —

BALFOUR, GRAHAM Educational Systems of Great
Britain and Ireland (Oxford, 1903 )

DALE, F H Report upon Primary Education in Ire-
land (Dublin, 1904 )

DALE, F H , and STEPHENS, T A Report on Inter-
mediate Education in Ireland. (Dublin, 1904 )

DLLANY, REV WILLIAM Irish University Education.
(London, 1904 )

DIXON, W M Trinity College, Dublin (London,
1902)

England, Board of Education, Special Reports, Vol I, pp.
211-257

GODKIN, JAMEH Education in Ireland (London and
Dublin, 1862 )

HUUHKH, J L , and KLEMM, L R Progress of Educa-
tion in the Century (Toronto, Philadelphia,
London, and Edinburgh, 1907 )

KANDEL, I L The Irish Intermediate System Jour-
nal of Education, Vol XXIX, 1907, pp 397-399

LENNOX, P J The National University of Ireland
(Washington, D (1 , 1910 )

MOORK, H K An Unwritte?i Chapter in the History
of Education (London, 1904 )

National University of Iieland Progress and Prospects.
Times (London) Educational Supplement May 7, 1912*

Rtport* of Royal Commissioners, 1788-1791 , 1H06-1814 ,
1824-1827, 1855-1858, 1868-1870, 1888-1894,
1897-1898, 1906-1907

R( ports of the Commissioners of National Education in
Ireland, 1832 to date

Reports of the Intermediate Education Board for Ireland

Reports of the Society for the Education of the Poor in
Ireland, 1811-1K31

STAKKIE, W J M History of Iruh Primary and Secon-
dary Education during th( Last Decade (Dublin,
1911 )

Recent Inform* in Irish Education, Primary and Secon-
dary (Dublin, 1902 )

Tht Book of Trinity College, Dublin, 1591-1891 (Bel-
fast, 1892 )

WALHH, Most Rev W J , Archbishop of Dublin The
Irish University Question (Dublin, 1897 )

IRELAND, NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

OF. — See IRELAND, EDUCATION IN.

IRENJEUS (r 130-202) —Church Father,
a pupil of Polycarp, who in his turn was a
disciple of St. John, and is therefore a most
important witness as to the life and faith of the
Christian Church in the first two centuries of
its history In early life he removed from

496

Asia Minor to Rome, where he became influ-
ential as a teacher In 177 he was made
Bishop of Lyons, and for the next twenty-five
years figured prominently as a peacemaker in
the controversies of that period. He took
great pains to ascertain and transmit the
apostolic tradition as to Christian doctrine and
practice, and did good service in establishing the
unity of the Old and New Testaments He was
the first writer to treat the Bible as an inspired
whole, and took a prominent part in the for-
mation of the New Testament Canon His
chief significance as a theologian consists in his
doctrine concerning the Person and Work of
Christ. He was the first doctor of the Church
who worked out with any thoroughness the
great doctrines of the incarnation and redemp-
tion, and his treatment of these subjects was
by far the deepest and soundest which thev
received m the ante-Nicene age His method
was to oppose a true Christian griosis to the
heretical gnosis which disturbed the early
church It was by this conflict with Gnos-
ticism (q v ) that Christian theology was devel-
oped and vitalized, and Irenieus was its earliest
champion His acute and striking polemic
subserved the interests of philosophy as
well as those of religion He was a writer
of painstaking accuracy, and his wntmgs are
of the highest value as sources of ecclesiastical
history. None of them have survived in the
original Greek, but there are very ancient Latin
versions of two of them His Refutation of
Knowledge Falsely so Called, commonly known
as AdverxuH T/orre.se.s, in five books, is our chief
source of information as to gnosticism ((/ r )
and other heresies It is one of the most pre-
cious remains of early Christian literature
and is an inexhaustible storehouse of apologetic
materials His Proof of Apostoln Teaching,
a later work, is of a more positive charactei
and was written, not to confute heretics, but
to confirm the faithful by a defense and
exposition of the Christian Faith. W K

See CHRISTIAN CHURCH, EDUCATION IN THE
EARLY, GNOSTICISM, SCHOLASTICISM

References : —

Antc-Niccnc Fathnt>, Vol I, Woikt> of /rrmrws (New

York, 1890 )

Catholic Encyclopedia, 8 v Irt naeiix

SMITH AND WATE, Dutionary of Christian Bioviapky,
an exhaustive article on Irenceus by LipsiUh

IRNERIUS (r 1050-1130). — Italian jurist,
probably born at Bologna He was a mast PI
of liberal arts and taught rhetoric at Bologna
while still comparatively young Extrava-
gant claims have been made for him as the
founder of the study of law at Bologna, and the
introducer of glosses. That he was neither has
been shown by Rashdall, but his importance
m the development of legal study cannot be
denied Previous to the time of Irnorius, the
chief center for the study of law was Ravenna
Several circumstances combined to bring about

IRRADIATION

ISELIN

the decline of Ravenna and put Bolgna in the
position of importance. Irnerius undoubtedly
contributed to this by introducing and lectur-
ing on the new parts of the Digest, hitherto
unknown in Bologna, as well as the old, and
he was possibly the first glossator of it, the
old philosophic study of legal principles was
replaced by a closer and more professional
st'idy of texts; at tliis tirnc the whole Corpus
Juris Civilis began to form the curriculum for
students of civil law, the specialization DOW
demanded led to a law faculty as distinguished
from liberal arts, and law became a professional
study with more mature students These
facts tended to give the law students and law
doctors a position of great influence not only
in Bologna, but throughout Italy, and to this
influence Rashdall traces the rise of the student-
university characteristics of Bologna

Irnerius was the author of a legal formulary
(formulanum tdbellionum, see DICTAMEN), and
of many other works, the chief being the Summa
Codicix, the earliest medieval system of juris-
prudence He held an important position as
an imperial jurist, and his name appears fre-
quently in royal documents from 1113 to 1125.
On the question of papal election he supported
the claims of the Emperor Henry V

References : —

FITTING, H Die Anfange der Rechtsschule zu Bologna.

(Berlin, 1888 )
Sumrna Cudicis des I menus, nnt einer Emleitung

(Berlin, 1894)
RAHIIDALL, H Universities of Europe in the Middle

Age*, Vol I (Oxford, 1895 )
SAVIONY, F K von Geschichtr des rtfmischen Rechts

im MiUdalter (Heidelbeig, 1834-1851 )

IRRADIATION. — Whenever a portion of
the retina is stimulated by a beam of light,
there is a tendency for the stimulation to spread
over neighboring portions of the retina The
result is a sensation which is not limited to the
direct source of the stimulation Illusions
sometimes arise from the spreading of the stimu-
lation Like phenomena of spreading of irrita-
tion have been observed in other parts of the
nervous system

Reference : —

HERRICK, f\ L Journal of Corporative Neurology, March,
1895

IRRATIONAL NUMBERS. — A number
that cannot be expressed as the ratio of two
integers is called an irrational number. It
is not necessary that such a number should be
expressible as a terminating decimal. For
example, J = 0.777 . , and >/2 =1.4142
. . . , but the former is rational while the
latter is irrational. There are irrational num-
bers that cannot be expressed in such a surd
form as V2, as, for example, ir and e. (See
TRANSCENDENTAL NUMBERS ) The modern
theory of irrational numbers is due largely to
Weierstrass, Dedekind, and G. Cantor. 'For

VOL. in — 2 K

this theory the reader may consult Dedekind 's
Essays on Number (translated by Beman),
Chicago, 1901 The theory is not simple
enough for the secondary school, so that there
the work must be confined to the recognition
of the common laws of operation with these
numbers The tendency at present is to elim-
inate from the secondary school all work with
irrationals of a complicated nature, reserving
this until the theory can be studied more fully
in college In particular, the extracting of the
square root of a binomial surd, a subject of
practical value before the invention of the
decimal fraction, is now commonly omitted in
this type of school, at least beyond the most
elementary case D. E. S.

See also ROOTS; INCOMMENSURABLE QUAN-
TITIES.

IRRITABILITY. — The disposition of or-
ganic substance to undergo certain marked
physiological changes under the influence of
incident forces which act as stimuli All living
substance is irritable in that it is capable of
reacting, in some way, to stimuli The term
is primarily a physiological one, and it has no
psychological implications In other words,
irritability may, for all that is known, exist in
the absence of sensibility. Nerve and muscle
cells are commonly said to be highly irritable
because upon the application of certain forms
of energy they undergo pronounced changes.
The nerve cell, when acted upon, may give rise
to a nervous impulse, the muscle cell may
entirely change its form These two kinds of
cells are first thought of as possessing irritabil-
ity, because their expressions of this property
are more striking than those of most types of
cell R.M Y.

References : —

HOWELL, W H Textbook of Physiology (Phila-
delphia, 1905 )
VKRWORN, M General Physiology. (New York, 1H99 )

ISELIN, ISAAK (1728-1782) — Swiss author
and philanthropist Born at Basel, he studied
law at Gottingen, and after traveling for some
years obtained an appointment at Basel as
Secretary to the Council He devoted himself
almost immediately to public and political
questions His chief philosophical works were
Geschichte der Mennchheit (History of Mankind,
1764), and Traume ernes Menschenfreundes
(Dreams of a Philanthropist, 1776), in which
from a viewpoint opposed to that of Rousseau
the progress of man is the upward progress of
reason to happiness and perfection. Iselm's
main interests, however, seem, as with so many
other Swiss leaders at this period, to have lam
in education for the improvement of the nation
and humanity. In 1760 he played an impor-
tant part in organizing the Helvetische Gesell-
schaft, and in 1777 the Gesellschaft der Guten
und Gemeinnutzigen (Society for the Public
Welfare), which has continued to the present

497

ISODORE OF SEVILLE

ISOCRATES

In 1700 lu» was appointed on it commission to
i' maider measures for the improvement of the
Basel gymnasium He had already offered sug-
gestions in 1757 for the improvement of the
university in Unvoigreiflichen Gedanken uber
die Verbesserung des Baselschen hohen Schulen
(Humble Thoughts on the Improvement of the
Basel} High Schools.) In 1768 he wrote a col-
lection of stories for children (Sammlung den
Nidzen und Vergntigen dcr Jugend gewidmet)
In the same year appeared Uber Erziehung (On
Education], in which there is a demand for an
education to tram men to the highest, noblest,
and best, not through abstract ideas, but by
pleasurable, interesting, and concrete methods.
Such work was for the philosopher who thor-
oughly understands children. At this time
Basedow 's Vorstellungen came into his hands,
and thenceforth Basedow had no warmer friend
and supporter. Isehn secured subscriptions,
brought the Appeal to the notice of the Hel-
vetische Gesellschaft, and hoped that such a
school would be established in Switzerland.
In Ubei die Erziehungsanstalten (On Educa-
tional Institutions) the author makes a proposal
for institutions in which different classes of
societv could be educated for life's work side
by side for their mutual welfare. The educa-
tion of girls is also insisted upon Above all,
Isehn seems to have welcomed the possibility
of training teachers opened up by Basedow,
and he assisted four Swiss students to proceed
to Dessau for training He continually kept
the merits of the Philarithropmum and the
movement connected with it before the public
in Ephemeriden der Menxchheit oder Bibliothek
der Sittcnlehre und der Pohhk (1776-1782)

How great was Isehn 's service to Pestalozzi,
it is impossible to estimate After meeting
with repeated failure in his attempt to secure
the publication of Leonard and Gertrude, Pes-
talozzi turned to Iselin, who read through
and corrected the MB., secured a publisher
m Berlin, and arranged for a reasonable re-
muneration for the work

The Gesellxchaft der Guten und Genieinnut-
zigen, of which Iselm was the moving spirit,
devoted a great part of its labors to education;
it offered prizes for attendance and drawing;
distributed readers, taught special subjects
such as singing, geometry, and needlework;
encouraged gymnastics and opened a girls'
school in 1812, founded libraries for children
and adults, museums, a civic newspaper; con-
ducted children's festivals; and apprenticed
boys on leaving school.

References : —

GORING, H Isaak laelm'* Padogogische Schriften,
with an introduction by E Meyer, in Bibliothek
p&doQogiBcher Klassikrr (Langensalze, 1882 )

ZINCK, P. Isaak Isehn als Pfldagog, ein Beitrag zur
Qetchichte der P&dagogik des achtzehnten Jahr-
hunderU (Leipzig, 1900.)

ISIDORE OF SEVILLE, or ISIDORUS
HISPALENSIS — A Spanish bishop who flour-

ished in the late sixth and early seventh cen-
tury. He was noted for his learning, eloquence,
and ability, and was the author of numerous
treatises. His importance educationally, how-
ever, depends upon his one work, the Etymolo-
giarum Libri XX or Ongines. This was an en-
cyclopedic work covering all branches of knowl-
edge which served throughout the Middle Ages
as a textbook of higher learning and a source of
general information. For his sources the author
depended quite generally upon second-hand in-
formation, and was not very particular as to its
character Yet it was convenient and an au-
thoritative church summary arid as such ex-
erted wide influence. The titles to the various
books are as follows: (1) Grammar; (2) Rhet-
oric and Dialectic, (3) Arithmetic, Geometry,
Music, and Astronomy; (4) Medicine, (5) Law
and Chronology (history); (6) Ecclesiastical
books and offices; (7) God, angels, and the
orders of the faithful, (8) Church and the sect,
(9) language); (10) Society and relationship;
(11) Man and habits; (12) Animals; (13) The
world and its parts; (14) The earth and its
parts; (15) Buildings, fields, and their meas-
ures; (16) Stones and metals; (17) Agriculture,
(18) War and games; (19) Ships, buildings, and
garments; (20) Provisions, domestic and rustic
instruments F. W.

Sec ENCYCLOPEDIAS, LIBERAL ARTS, SEVEN,
MIDDLE AGES, EDUCATION IN

References : —

ABHLSON, P Seven Liberal Arts. (Now York, 190(5 )
EBKHT, A Allgemeine Qeschichte der Literatur den

Mittelalters im Abendlande bis turn Beginne des

XI Jahrhunderts, Vol I, pp 588-602 (Leipzig

1889)
LINDSAY, W M Isidori Etymologiarum Libri XX

(Oxford, 1912 )
MIGNE, P Patrologwe Cursus Completes, Vols

LXXXI and LXXXII (Pans, 1863 )
WEST, A F Alcuin and the Rise of Christian Schools

(New York, 1892 )

ISOCRATES (436-338 B c ). — The Athen-
ian orator and rhetorician played an important
part in the educational history of the fourth
century. Educated under the leading sophists,
Prodicus, Protagoras, and Gorgias, he became
a professional logographer or advocate, i e he
wrote speeches for clients engaged in lawsuits
About 390 B c. he opened a rhetoric school at
his home near the Lukeion In his speech,
Against the Soph iVrf*, written c 390 B c , he
attacks those who attract pupils by low fees
and big promises of imparting absolute and
universal knowledge and eloquence without
regard to the natural ability of the pupil. He
aimed to prepare for an active public life, and
this preparation consisted in a study of philos-
ophy or a training in the formation of correct
judgments by practice in deliberation and
debating. He took pupils from the ages of
about fifteen to twenty-one and charged ten
min» (about $200) for the course of three or
four years. Students from all parts of the

498

ISOLATION

ITALY

Greek-speaking world flocked to him. He
expected a previous knowledge of mathematics
and sciences, and his own course consisted of
essay writing and speeches on all manner of
topics, practical, political, theological. Em-
phasis was laid on style, diction, and matter.
Speeches written by himself or others, includ-
ing those of pupils, were studied, and sub-
jected to criticism and revision. By a wise
selection of themes and by inculcating high
standards, Isocrates claimed that his course
in itself was an excellent training of character,
for he did not hold that virtue was teachable.
The success of his school was evidenced not only
bv his own great wealth, but by the number of
his students who attained eminence in all walks
of life, as rulers, statesmen, orators, lawyers,
and historians The truly educated man is
distinguished by good taste, sound judgment,
correct behavior, self-control, and modesty.
Culture and polish were the ends of education,
for, as ho says, " Those whose soul is well trained
to play its part in all these ways, those I call
wise and perfect men, and declare to possess
all the virtues; those I regard as truly edu-
cated " This ideal in almost identical terms
is, of course, also characteristic of the Renais-
sance Towards the close of his career (354
B c ) his great wealth drew on him an attack
from one of his many rivals whom he had wo
often criticized In his defense, Antidoam, or
On the Exchange of Estates, he sums up his
career as a teacher and defends himself and
rhetorical training For the use of selected
Orations of Isocrates in modern schools, see
(}REEK, STUDY OF

See RHETORIC, HISTORY OF THE TEACHING
OF, RHETORIC SCHOOLS.

References : —

FREEMAN, K. School* of Hellas. (London, 1907 )
MONROE, P Source Book of the History of Education

for the Greek and Roman Period (New York,

1902 )
WALDEN, J W H Universities of Ancient Greece.

(Now York, 1909 )

ISOLATION —A term used to express the
opposite of correlation (q.v ), in instruction, or
the method of teaching subjects as separated
from one another It is claimed that only by
recognizing arithmetic, geography, history, etc.,
as independent studies, adequate arid complete
in themselves, can each subject attain its own
due rights and realize its own appropriate
end The logical idea underlying this con-
tention is that the various subjects represent
something beside convenient distinctions
carved out within a comprehensive unity; it as-
sumes that there are just so many objectively im-
portant phases of reality, and that each subject
(or group of subjects) stands for just one of
these phases. Accordingly by isolation of each
subject and then by coordination of the various
independent subjects, the subject matter of
instruction will be rendered both definite and
harmoniously complete.

It may be replied that, philosophically speak-
ing, both isolation and correlation represent
stages in growth from the more direct and vital
forms of experience to its logical formulation,
that is, its organization for purposes of better
intellectual control. Experience does not be-
gin with a number of sharply marked off fields,
or topics, either requiring to be made more
distinct arid definite in their separations, or
else needing to be bound up together by
various correlating devices It begins with a
vague, somewhat confused and fluctuating
unity, whose parts flow readily into one another,
these parts being marked off by various in-
terests and purposes, rather than by objective
or logical differences. Growth takes place by
a movement toward differentiation, on one
hand, and toward interrelation of discrim-
inated parts on the other. Isolation thus rep-
resents a goal toward which instruction and
learning are moving, not original divisions.
The distinctive character of mathematics, as a
subject on its own account having its own
unique material and special method, follows
after a term of study marking the attainment
of a logical comprehension Even then it is
undesirable that differentiation should be
carried to the point of isolation in its hteial
sense For the purposes of all education save
that of the specialist it is needful that the intei-
dependence of each study with the other studies
— their mutual applications to one another and
to life — should be borne in mind This re-
quirement is met only when correlation and
differentiation are used to supplement each
other, instead of being treated as rivals. J. D.

See CORRELATION.

ISRAELITES. — See JEWISH EDUCATION.

ITALIAN, STUDY OF. — See MODERN LAN-
GUAGES.

ITALY, EDUCATION IN — Italy is a pn.-
liamentary monarchy. Its area is 286, 682 square
kilometers, Ha population 34,688,653 (1911).
The territory is divided into 69 province and
over 8000 comuni (towns and villages) The
affairs of a province are administered by a
Consiglio provinciate (provincial council),
elected by the people, and a Deputazwne pro-
vinciate elected by the Consiglio from among
its members. The affairs of a comune are like-
wise administered by a Consiglio comunalc,
elected by the people, a Sindapo (mayor), and
a Giunta comunale (communal committee),
elected by the Consiglio from among its mem-
bers. A government officer, the Prefetto,
supervises all local bodies. Provinces are for
administrative purposes subdivided into ar-
condari (circuits) or distretti (districts). The
town in which the Prefetto resides and the
Consigho provinciate meets is called Capoluogo
di provincia, and gives the name, as a rule, to
the province. Likewise, the administrative
499

ITALY

ITALY

center of a circondano, or distretto, is called Car
poluogo (chief town) di circondario, or distretto.
HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT. — Italian
education, as a part of Italian culture, is a
direct outgrowth of Roman society and has its
origin even in pre-Roman times. The consider-
ation of these historical foundations of modern
conditions is given under Roman Education.
The Roman schools continued until well into
the Middle Ages, and the discussions of educa-
tion during the Middle Ages (q v.) applies par-
ticularly to Italy'* So, too, the discussion of
Monasticism and Education and the minor
topics such as Abbey Schools, Bishops' Schools,
etc , relate particularly to Italy. Universities
took their rise in Italy, and the discussion of
origins under this topic has special reference to
Italy Again, with the period of the Renais-
sance, the educational and cultural influences
had their origin in Italy, and the survey of
education during the Renaissance (q v.) forms
but a chapter in the history of Italian educa-
tion The Teaching Orders (see JESUITS, etc )
furnished many schools after the Reformation.
After the Council of Trent (1545) seminaries
were established in many places, and, though
primarily intended for the training of the clergy,
laymen were also often instructed in them
The academies and private schools of both
secondary and elementary type furnished a
well-developed system of schools for Italy
during the early centuries of the modern period
These were established by princes, by teachers,
by cities, or by private endowment, or by" ec-
clesiastical authority of various types Some
of these schools were very noted In some
instances there was an approach to a local
system of schools Venice, for instance, had
public schools very early, and in 1551 it was
ordered that each section of the city should
maintain a grammar school However numer-
ous, these schools cannot be regarded as con-
stituting a system of education, though pro-
visions were made by some of the states to regu-
late the whole matter One of the earliest is
perhaps that of Victor Amedeus II, of Sar-
dinia a 729). Education in the first half of the
eighteenth century fell to a very low plane;
in the second half there is the beginning of a
revival. In Lombardy, then under the Austrian
crown, were introduced the reforms of Maria
Theresa and her successors. (See AUSTRIA )
After the invasion of the French at the end of
the eighteenth century and at the beginning
of the nineteenth, Italy passed under the rule
of France, either directly, as Piedmont, Genoa,
Rome; or indirectly, as the kingdoms of Naples
and Italy, and laws were enacted following the
French model. The fall of Napoleon brought
back the old regime, and very little, if anything,
was done to promote public education, though
universities and many schools were state or
municipal institutions more or less controlled
by the clergy. The kingdom of Sardinia had
a general statute pertaining to education

500

(1824); Lombardy and Venetia, under Austria,
followed Austrian laws; other states had no
general statutes

THE PRESENT SYSTEM OF EDUCA-
TION.—The fundamental law that regulates
public instruction in Italy is the Casati act of
Nov. 13, 1859. When promulgated, it applied
only to the kingdom of Sardinia ; that is, Sardinia,
Piedmont, Liguria, and Savoy, and Lombardy;
it has since been extended, with some changes, to
other parts of the kingdom of Italy. The lack
of another general act, however, has caused
many parts of it to be applied more or less
legally to the whole kingdom, and it has been
the basis of most of the acts dealing with par-
ticular phases of education.

Central Administration. — At the head of
the national system is the Minister of Public
Instruction. He is a member of the cabinet
and either a deputy or a senator. His control
extends to all orders of public instruction,
military and naval schools excepted, and to all
officers charged with the inspection of public
schools and higher institutions The Minister
decides upon all disputed questions, revises the
decisions of his subordinates, and, by means of
his officers or other persons designated by him
for the purpose, supervises private schools and
institutions of instruction and education In
the case of refusal to conform to the laws, he
may order the schools to be closed, after con-
sulting the Higher Council. Next in impor-
tance to the Minister is the Undersecretary of
State for Public instruction, who takes charge
of the affairs intrusted to him by the Minister,
substitutes for him during his absence, and may
represent him in the Chamber of Deputies and
the Senate.

The highest body dealing with public in-
struction is the Higher Council (Consigho
Supenore) According to Act 496, of 1909,
this Council consists of thirty-six members,
chosen as follows: six senators elected by the
Senate, six deputies elected by the Chamber
(senators and deputies so elected must .not be
university professors), twelve members nomi-
nated by the Minister, and twelve designated
by ordinary and extraordinary university
professors* Members are selected or appointed
ifor four years and cannot be reflected within
two years from the close of their terms of serv-
ice; half of the Council is renewed every two
years. Before the passing of this act, there
were only thirty-two members, none of whom
were elected by Senate or Chamber. The
change was bitterly opposed by many profes-
sors, who feared that senators and deputies
would bring politics into the Council. The
Minister is the chairman of the Council. A
Vice-President is appointed by the King for
two years. The Council meets regularly twice
a year, in spring and fall, but the Minister may
call an extra session at any time. The Council
in committee of the whole at the request of the
Minister prepares and examines all bills, by-

ITALY

ITALY

laws, and general provisions relating to the or-
ganization of schools, appointment of profes-
sors, etc. The Minister cannot dismiss or sus-
pend a professor unless the Council concurs.

Within the Council there is a committee
(Giunta) of fifteen members appointed by the
Minister from the councilors To this com-
mittee, which meets once a month and may
be called together by the Minister or Vice-
President at any time, all affairs pertaining to
higher education not coming before the full
council are referred Affairs of special mo-
ment are first considered by a section of at least
five members of the committee who submit
their report to the full committee for a final
discussion. A special section of the committee,
created by an act of 1906, deals with matters
pertaining to secondary education This sec-
tion is composed of four councilors, members of
the committee (one being chairman of the r-orn-
mittee of the section), appointed by the Minis-
ter; one director and two teachers of govern-
ment secondary schools, who must have taught
seven years, and one director or teacher of
schools, recognized as equivalent to government
schools, elected by the directors and teachers
of those schools. Another special section of the
committee, created by the act of June 4, 1911,
deals with matters pertaining to primary edu-
cation. This is composed of three members
of the Higher Council appointed by the Minis-
ter, the director general of elementary educa-
tion, a head master and a teacher of normal
schools elected by all head masters and teachers,
an inspector selected by the Minister, a director
of primary education and two elementary
teachers selected by all directors and teachers,
and another member with a knowledge of educa-
tion appointed by the Minister.

The Ministry of Public Instruction is also
assisted by permanent committees which ad-
vise on particular, subjects Among these are
a central committee for diffusion of education
m southern Italy fcnd Sardinia and Sicily
(Commissions centrals per la diffusione delV
istruzione elementary nel mezzogiorno e nelle
isole) and a committee to pass on all contro-
versies relating to primary education (Com-
misswne consultiva per le controversie relative all'
istruzione pnmana).

The Ministry vof Public Instruction is di-
vided into four bureaus (Direzioni generah), —
elementary and normal education, secondary
education, higher education, and fine arts re-
spectively; and two independent divisions (Di-
visioni) with a total t>f 191 employees of higher
grade, including 26 inspectors, 62 accountants,
128 minor clerks. All employees Are subject to
the geiferal vact 290 of June 25, 190,8. They
are appointed by competitive examination, and
vacancies are filled by promotion, those of
higher grades by examination The chiefs
of bureaus ate chosen by the council of Min-
ister^ they may also be persons not belonging
to the aihninistration.

The salary of the Minister is 25,000 lire, of
the undersecretary 12,000, of chiefs of bureaus
(Diretton generah] 10,000 lire That of higher
grade clerks and accountants varies from 2000
to 8000 lire, that of minor clerks from 1500
to 4000 lire (1 lire = 18 cents.)

Local administration — In each province
there are: (a) A Provveditore who has charge of
everything relating to public instruction m the
province. The sixty-nine Provvediton have
salaries-varying from 6000 to 8000 lire (6) A
Consigho provinciate scolastico (Provincial edu-
cation council) of fifteen members including
the Provveditore, who is the chairman, repre-
sentatives of the Consigho provinciate, of the
Consigh comunah, of teachers, etc. The Con~
sigho has the general supervision of elementary
schools and the direct administrations of schools
for most of the comuni (see below) (c) A De-
putazione scolastica (Education committee) of
seven members including the Provveditore, who
is the chairman It prepares the budget and
all affairs to be submitted to the Consigho
(d) A Delegazione governativa (Governmental
committee) which revises the accounts of the
Consigho. (e) A Giunta provincmle ver lescuole
tnedie (Provincial council for middle schools)
which has the general supervision of secondary
schools of the province *

Ititituti tecnici and nautici, and schools under
the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry and Com-
merce are not under the Giunta, but each of
them has a special supervisory committee, that
of the former called Giunta di vigilanza Uni-
versities and schools of university rank arc
independent of local authorities

Primary Schools. — Under the Casati act all
comuni had the direct administration of their
schools, the state contributing to the expenses
and having the general supervision. In this
respect the act of June 4, 1911, has made radical
changes Comuni capoluogo di provincia and of
a circondario or distretto, the last, if they have a
population of more than 10,000, will retain the
administration of their schools. The capoluoghi
di circondario or distretto may within three
years from the promulgation of the act waive
the right to administer their schools Comum
which by the census of 1911 have less than
25 per cent of illiterates, provided they have
fulfilled all requirements of the laws relating
to elementary education for the last five years,
may retain the administration of their schools,
but are not obliged to do so. Schools of other
comuni will be administered by the Consigho
provincmle scolastico

The Casati act provided for a full system of
elementary education, though not compulsory
According to it elementary schools were divided
into two grades, each completed in a term of
two years, the child entering the first class at

1 The Deputoeume, Delegazione, and Giunta were created
by the act of June 4. 1911 Formerly the Conngho provmciale,
differently composed, had supervision of primary and secondary
education

501

ITALY

ITALY

the age of six or seven. The course of study of
the lower grade covered religious instruction,
reading, writing, elements of arithmetic, Italian
language, and elements of the metric system.
That of the higher grade included, besides the
subjects of the lower grade: composition, pen-
manship, accounting, elements of geography,
the most important events of national history,
the elements of physical and natural sciences,
chiefly in their application to everyday life;
also in the higher grade schools for boys the
elements of geometry and geometrical draw-
ing; in those for girls, needlework

Compulsory education was established by
the act of July 15, 1877, known as the Coppino
act, which required all children to attend school
from six to nine, or ten, if they did not pass the
prescribed examination By this act the sub-
jects of instruction for the three compulsory
years were elements of civics, reading, pen-
manship, the rudiments of the Italian language,
arithmetic and the metric system The omis-
sion of religious instruction excited much
opposition, but without effect. The obligation
placed by the earlier act upon comuni, having
a population of over 4000 or possessing a
secondary school, to maintain elementary
schools of the higher grade, was not changed
by the Coppino act.

At the time of the passage of the act of 1904
(Orlando act) there were: (a) comuni which had
established the whole course of five classes
either because obliged to do so, or voluntarily,
(6) comuni which had established schools with
four classes though not obliged to establish
the fourth, (c) all other comuni having only
the three classes of the lower grade The act
of 1904 changed nothing as to the comuni of
division (c), but it required those of division
(a) to establish within three years a sixth class,
reducing the teaching hours to three daily in
the fifth and sixth classes, and assigning both
of them to one teacher. In these comuni the
age limit was extended to the twelfth year
unless the Minister recognized that the expense
involved was too great The act forbade comuni
of division (6) to close any of the schools vol-
untarily opened; here compulsory education
has been extended to all existing school classes.
Comuni of divisions (a) and (6), which had
voluntarily opened classes of the higher grade
and charged a fee, have been authorized to
maintain the fee, though attendance has been
made compulsory.

The syllabus for the fifth and sixth classes
covers: Italian language, Italian history of the
nineteenth century, civics, geography, arith-
metic, geometry, accounting, domestic economy,
natural sciences and hygiene, penmanship
and drawing, and, in schools for girls, needle-
work. Singing, manual training, agriculture,
and other subjects may be added by the comuni.
Pupils intending to enter secondary schools
leave the elementary schools at the end of the
fourth year, when they take a special examina-

502

tion called maiurita examination at ten years of
age, for which a fee of fifteen lire is charged;
pupils who have followed the whole course of
six classes may be admitted, under certain con-
ditions, to the second class (year) of the Scuola
tecnica.

The act of 1904 made more stringent provi-
sions for enforcing compulsory school attend-
ance and provided for the establishment of
3000 evening and Sunday schools for illiterate
adults in those districts where the number of
illiterates is highest. Special provisions for
the diffusion of elementary education in the
southern and central provinces were made by
a later act of 1906.

The act of June 4, 1911, has gone much
farther toward improving the conditions of
elementary education; under its provisions
the state assumes a larger part of the expenses
In each comune a patronato scolastico is es-
tablished in order to further encourage attend-
ance and efficiency by the distribution of free
meals, clothes, establishments of libraries, etc.
Teachers — Teachers in comuni, which re-
tain the administration of their schools, are
appointed by the Consigho comunale with the
approval of the Consigho provinciale scolastico
Those of other comuni are appointed by the
Consioho provinciale scolastico Salaries in
force from Jan 1, 1912, have been fixed by the
act of June 4, 1911, and range from 1200 to
1700 lire for teachers in graded schools, i e in
larger comuni, for boys or boys and girls, and
from 1050 to 1500 for teachers in graded schools
for girls. For schools not graded, namely, in
very small villages, salaries are 500 and 800
lire. Teachers in charge of two classes have an
extra compensation of 300 lire All teachers
have four increases, equal to one tenth of their
salary, once every six years Some of the
comuni pay considerably higher salaries
Rome pays from 1800 to 3100 lire, Milan
from 1850 to 2900 for men and 2600 for women,
Venice from 1700 to 2200 for men and 1400 to
1800 for women. Legally no one can be ap-
pointed as a teacher unless he has secured a
diploma; but the appointment can and often
does go temporarily to any one who, in the
estimation of the Provveditore, is able to take
charge of the class The teacher is first ap-
pointed for a term of three years, if reappomted,
he can be dismissed only for cause No man
can be appointed teacher under eighteen years
of age, and no woman under seventeen years
of age All teachers receive a pension upon
retirement, either from a special pension fund
established for that purpose or from the comuni,
if the comuni had provided a system of pen-
sions before the pension fund was created.
Comuni contribute to this fund five per cent
of the salaries paid to their teachers. The
teachers pay four per cent. The state also
contributes.

To supervise elementary schools there are
diretton didattici (school directors in thecowuw,

ITALY

ITALY

who have the administration of their schools;
sub-inspectors (1000 in the whole country
newly established by the act of June 4, 1911,
at salaries from 2000 to 2400 lire, part of them
replacing diretton didattici of smaller comuni) ,
and over them inspectors (400 in number at
salaries from 2500 to 4500). There are also
ten central inspectors connected with the Min-
istry with salaries of 6000 and 7000 lire

Cost of Education — The expenses for ele-
mentary schools are borne by the cornmu with
contributions from the State In 1899 the
State paid nearly 4,000,000 lire, the prov-
inces less than 400,000, and the comuni 64,000,-
000, making a total of 68,400,000 lire This
is less than three lire per capita while at
the same time the expenses of Great Britain
and the United States were nearly twelve lire
and those of Germany over nine per capita
Under the Education Acts of 1886 and 1900,
and more especially those of 1904 and 1906,
the State has increased its share of the expendi-
ture It amounted to nearly fourteen million
lire for the fiscal year 1906-1907, to nearly
eighteen for 1907-1908, to twenty in 1908-
1909, and to nearly twenty-four million in
1909-1910 The act of 1906, applying to
southern and central Italy, Sicily, and Sardinia,
provided for more than 18,000 new schools
at an expenditure of more than 18,000,000
lire, of which above 11,000,000 will be contrib-
uted by the state and 7,000,000 by the comuni
Five years were allowed for carrying out the
provisions of this act The act of June 4, 191 1,
has further provided that within three years
all rural schools shall be reorganized The
higher expenses caused by the increase of
salary of teachers, and the establishment of
new schools will fall upon the State The
Bank of Deposit and Loans will lend to the
co mum 20,000,000 lire a year for twelve years
and the State will pay the interest on this sum
It is estimated that the total expense of the
State will rise from nearly 34,000,000 lire for
the fiscal year 1910-1911 to nearly 74,000,000
lire for the fiscal year 1920-1921. The share of
the expenses for the comuni whose schools will
be administered by the Consigho will be fixed at
the highest figure of their expenses for schools
for tho years 1909 or 1910 and turned over to
the Consigho.

Statistics —Recent statistics cover only
government schools and those recognized as
equivalent to them. General statistics arc not
issued oftener than five-year periods The last
statistics covering all kinds of schools relate to
the school year 1901-1902 for normal and
compkmentari schools and special schools for
girls ; those for all other schools arc much older.
The most recent general statistics available are
for 1907-1908.

Additional schools needed above number
for 1907-1908, 27,000. State of schoolrooms
(1907-1908): good, 21,028; poor, 20,233;
unsatisfactory, 18,806; total, 60,067.

STATISTICS OF PUBLIC ELEMENTARY SCHOOLS

SCHOOL YEAR

SCHOOLS
(i e grades)

TEACHERS

PUPILS

1871-1872

33,556

34,309

1,545,790

1877-1878

39,702

39,702

1,830,749

18H2-1883 .

42,390

43,659

1,873,723

1887-1888

42,247

47,998

2,126,207

1892-1893

49,722

51,385

2,291,966

1901-1902

53,259

56,433

2,548,583

1907-1908

63,618

60,323

3,002,168

Pupils. — The total number of children
from six to twelve years of age was 4,500,000
(estimated); obliged to attend school 3,949,141
(1907-1908); enrolled in public schools,
3,002,168, or 93 per cent of population.

SCHOOL YEAR 1907-1908

GRADES

PUPILS
ENROLLED

PUPILB WHO PASSED THE
FINAL EXAMINATION

1st
2d
3d
4th
5th
6th

1,260,317
856,587
607,317
181,323

77,875
18,749

633,378
479,792
310,846
106,656
52,751
13,052

Total . .

3,002,168

1,596,475 or 5890 per
rent of pupils enrolled

EXPENDITURE (LIRE)

COMUNI

Per

cent of

Per

Fiscal Year

State

total

cap-

Calen-
dar

Total

expen-
diture

ita

year

1903-1904

5,756,171 1899

66,350,966

14 18

207

1910-1911

26,791,116

1909

136,023,760

1552

400

EVENING AND SUNDAY SCHOOLS FOR ADULTS

Established under Arts of 1901 and 1006, 47H3 (1907-
1908 )

ENROLLED

WHO TOOK THfe.

EXAMINATION

WHO l'A88LD H

Men 148,233
Women 34,140

78,314
19,689

61,543
16,174

Total 182,373

98,003

77,717

Private Schools (1907-1908)- schools, 3504;
Grades, 11,904, schoolrooms, 6534; pupils,
148,081; principals, 2063; teachers, men, 1318-
women, 4749; total, 6067

503

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The number of private schools is about the
same as reported for 1901-1903, the number of
teachers has decreased Kindergartens for
1907-1908 l numbered 4967, teachers were
7393; pupils were 378,563

Secondary Education — General Regula-
tions. — The secondary schools are regulated
by the Casati act, but the full provisions of
that measure, as regards the number, location,
and support of the several classes of secondary
schools, have never been realized. As a rule
the buildings and equipments for the secondary
schools are provided by the local authorities
and the current expenditures by the state and
local authorities, the proportion borne by the
latter having been fixed by an act of 1904
and amending act of 1907, for the schools taken
over by the state hereaftei.

In the normal and cornplementart schools the
salaries of teachers, the expenses for scientific
and teaching material for the laboratories and
for the library are paid by the state, the sala-
ries of teachers in the elementary schools, the
cost of the building, its care and janitors'
salaries are paid by the cotnuni Anyone hav-
ing the moral qualification may open a second-
ary school provided he gives notice to the
Provveditoie or the chief of the Giunta (Com-
mittee) of the Istituto tecnico of the province,
if he wishes to open such a school, or to the
Minister, if there is no Istituto tecnico in the
province Teachers must have diplomas The
students of private secondary schools must
pass the government examinations to secure
the lecogmtion of their studies Cornuni prov-
inces and other public corporations may estab-
lish secondary schools; such schools may under
certain conditions be recognized as equivalent
to government schools

Type* of schools. — The secondary schools
are classified as follows —

(I) Classical schools and modern schools
with Latin (a) Ginnasio — five years' course,
(b) Liceo — three years

(II) Modern schools without Latin, and
technical schools: (a) Scuola tecnica and
Scuola complementare — three years, (6) Isti-
tuto tecnico — four years, and Istituto nautico
— three years.

(III) Normal schools, (a) as II; (b) Scuola
nor male — three years, or (a) as I, (b) Cor so
magistrate — two years

Ginnasio, scuola tecnica, and scuola comple-
mentare are schools of the first grade, Liceo,
istituto tecnico, istituto nautico, and scuola nor-
male, of the second grade In cities having
ginnasio and liceo the two institutes are com-
bined in one hceo-ginnasio. Candidates for
admission to a secondary school must pass the
maturita examination

The full classical course, it will be seen from

1 Kindergartens are regarded as charitable institutions, and
therefore are under the supervision of the Minister of the Inte-
rior , the State grants them subsidies from a special appropria-
tion for that purpose

r>04

the above outline, covers eight years; the full
modern course, seven years. Girls are ad-
mitted to all secondary schools on the same
terms as boys, but the scuola complementare is
exclusively for girls The plan of studies for
the ginnasi includes Italian, Latin, Greek,
French, history, geography, mathematics, nat-
ural history; that of hcei, philosophy, physics
and chemistry and the subjects taught in the
ginnasi with the exception of French The
plan of studies of the " modern " ginnasi es-
tablished by act No 860 of July 21, 1911, in-
cludes Italian, Latin, French, German or
English, geography arid history, mathematics,
natural history, drawing, and physical culture,
that of the licci includes in addition political
economy, philosophy, elements of civics, phys-
ics, chemistry, astronomy, and physical geog-
raphy. These new schools will be established
m those cities having more than one liceo-
gmnasiOj and only the fourth class of the gin-
nasio will be established for the school yeai
1911-1912, the fourth and fifth in 1912-1913
and so on. The studies of the scuola tecnica
are Italian, history, the elements of civics,
geography, French, mathematics, the elements
of natural sciences, drawing, penmanship A
few schools have special courses comprising
besides the above with slight changes, (a) ag-
riculture, (6) accounts and English or German,
(c) the elements of mechanics and technology
These new plans have been established re-
cently (1899) and in a few schools only The
studies of the scuola complementare include
Italian, geography, Italian history, the ele-
ments of mathematics and accounting, the
elements of natural and physical science and
hygiene, French, drawing, needlework, gym-
nastics There are also numerous special
schools for girls, mostly boarding schools, with
plan of studies similar to those of scuole com-
plementan

Technical schools (istituti tecmci) are divided
into sections (sezioni) The three most impor-
tant are: (a) physico-mathematical section (sez-
lone fisico-rnatematica) , (b) surveying, building
and agricultural section (sezwne di agnmensura),
(c) accounting and commerce section (sezwne di
commercio e ragwnena) A few istituti have
also (d) agricultural section (sezwne di agro-
no rnia), (e) industrial section (sezwne indus-
trial?). The plan of studies for all sections in-
cludes Italian, history, geography, French,
drawing, logic and ethics, natural history,
physics and chemistry, and mathematics; the
various subjects, however, do not cover the
same ground for all sections Additional
subjects are, for section (a) higher branches of
mathematics, and German or English; (6) agri-
culture, building arid drawing, real estate and
building law, surveying and drawing and descrip-
tive geometry, (c) accounting; commercial,
administrative, and civil law; political economy;
finance and statistics, English or German. Sec-
tions (d) and (e) have special programs.

ITALY

ITALY

The Nautical Institutes are divided into
three sections (a) engineering section, (/>)
nautical section, (c) shipbuilding section (for
small crafts only) The plan of studies for all
sections includes, though in different measure,
Italian, history, mathematics, physics, mechan-
ics, English Also for section (a) applied
mechanics, steam engines, drawing, materials of
construction and fuels, engineers' duties, and ship
practice; for section (6) navigation, seaman-
ship, astronomical geography arid nautical
astronomy, steam engines, meteorology, com-
mercial geography, maritime law and account-
ing, for section (c) applied mechanics, steam
engines, naval construction and drawing,
material of construction, theory of the ship,
law

Connected with the technical and nautical
schools there are evening courses, and with
the nautical schools also preparatory schools,
and special courses at one of them (Piano di
Sorrento) for foremen in shipyards

The plan of studies for the normal school for
boys includes pedagogy, ethics, Italian, history,
geography, the elements of mathematics, ac-
counting, physics, chemistry, natural history,
and hygiene, drawing, penmanship, singing,
agriculture, gymnastics, practice in elementary
schools, and manual training The normal
schools for girls include all above subjects,
except manual training and needlework,
domestic economy, and practice in the kinder-
garten Owing to the scarcity of men teachers
special two years normal courses (cor.s? magis-
tral)) have been established m towns having
gitmasi only, by act of July 21, 1911 Boys
and girls will be admitted if they have passed
the hcenza examination of the ginnasio Not
more than fifteen of such courses may be
opened during 1911-1912, 1912-1913.

Examinations — Under the examination by-
laws of 1904 all pupils as a rule undergo three
examinations, written and oral or only oral,
during the school year, in December, March,
and June. Marks arc given to each pupil by
the teacher of each subject on general effi-
ciency during the three months preceding each
examination, and on all examination papers by
the teacher of the subject and another teacher.
The highest mark is ten and the pupil who
averages six in the above examinations and
seven for good behavior in all subjects is ad-
mitted to the next class (i e. year of study); if
he does not average six, he must present him-
self for examination in October. If he fails to
pass, he must repeat the year of study and he
must also do so, if he gets less than five marks
for good behavior in more than one half of the
number of subjects.

At the end of each school course the pupil
must pass a special examination called licenza
examination, unless he has obtained eight marks
in the examinations during the last year. The
licenza from the ginnasio is required to enter
the liceo, that of the scuola complementare or

505

scuola lecnica to enter the istituto tecnico or
naulico or the scuola norrnale. Admission to
the Istituto tecmco is obtained also through
special examination A licenza certificate
from a government or equivalent school is neces-
sary to take the civil service examinations or
to enter the universities or higher schools.

Pupils studying at private schools may take
an examination to enter any class of the schools,
except normal schools, or the hcenza. If they
wish to enter the second class of a school of
the first grade, they must have passed the
w at until examination at least one year before,
if the third class, at least two years before, etc
If they wish to enter the second class of a school
of the second grade, they must have passed
the licenza examination of the corresponding
school of the first grade one year before; if the
third class, two years before, etc. Admission
to the second or third year of the normal school
cannot be obtained by any but regular pupils
of a government school.

Fees — The fees to be paid by pupils of
government, or equivalent schools, for the
whole course including examination fees (part
of which is reserved to the teachers), vary
from 106 to 409 lire Clever pupils, if in needy
circumstances, are exempted from payment.
Pupils who have studied privately pay higher
examination fees.

Teachers. — No one can be appointed teacher
in any government or equivalent schools or
teach in any private school unless he has a
degree granted from a university or school of
the same standing, or a special diploma, which
can be granted only after examination arid for
such subjects as are not taught m universities.
These are modern languages (though there are
some courses at a few universities), drawing,
accounting, penmanship, and stenography.
The status and compensation of teachers in
government and equivalent schools are regulated
by the two acts of April 8, 1906, nos. 142 and
144, which fixed the rules to be followed in
appointing, dismissing, transferring from one
place to another, censuring, etc., any teacher.
The first appointment is for three years, after
which it is made permanent, if the inspectors
report favorably, if not, the appointment is
extended for another year, when the teacher is
definitely appointed or dismissed. During this
probationary period the teacher (professore)
is called extraordinary (straordinario) , after
the definite appointment, ordinary (ordinano).
Not all places, however, are filled by teachers
so appointed. In certain cases, when a teacher
would have only a few hours a week, a tem-
porary appointment is made. Such appoint-
ments are also made if a regular appointee
cannot be found for the place, and in schools
with a large number of pupils, when it is neces-
sary to divide classes and the regular teacher
cannot take charge of all. As a rule, a teacher
is appointed for a single study or for two re-
lated subjects.

ITALY

ITALY

Salaries. — The scale of salaries paid to
teachers in secondary schools varies consider-
ably with the subject taught Here only the
salaries paid to teachers of subjects which are
definitely secondary are given (a) All teachers
of secondary schools of the first grade, with the
exception of teachers of the fourth and fifth
class (year) of the ginnasi, and teachers of
drawing and penmanship in the normal schools
for boys, and of drawing in the normal schools
for girls, have salaries of 1800 lire if extraor-
dinary, and from 2000 to 4800 if ordinary
(6) All other teachers of secondary schools of
the second grade and those of the fourth and
fifth class of the ginnasi have salaries of 2200
lire if extraordinary, and from 2500 to 5400
if ordinary

All ordinary teachers have four increases in
salary of 500 lire each, every five years Then
two increases, one tenth of the salary thus
reached, each at six years interval In this
way they pass from the minimum to the maxi-
mum salaries, as given above. The four fixed
increases, but not two consecutive ones, can
be anticipated one year in case of exceptionally
able teachers.

Teachers, like all the government employees,
receive pensions on their retirement from serv-
ice.

Teachers of class (a) have to teach from fif-
teen to eighteen hours, of class (6) from thirteen
to fifteen hours, of the other classes a number
of hours which varies from four to fifteen, ac-
cording to the subjects If they teach more,
they receive extra pay. Extra pay, varying
from sixty to one hundred and fifty lire a year,
is also granted to those teachers who have
charge of laboratories or have to correct exer-
cises at home, etc. All receive part of the
examination fees paid by the pupils

Headmasters are appointed from teachers
who have taught for thirteen years and from a
list compiled by the Giunta del Consigho Su-
periore, sezione scuole medie, in accordance with
results of the inspections. They are appointed
for a first period of five years during which they
teach and receive extra compensation varying
from 750 to 1000 lire a year. After the pro-
bationary period, they are permanently ap-
pointed and receive salaries not higher than
5750 lire for schools of the first grade, arid 6500
for schools of the second grade, and they may
be relieved from teaching.

Schools equivalent to government schools
must pay the same salaries.

Inspection — A new body of inspectors for
secondary schools was formed by Act 414 of
June 27, 1909 For the purpose of this act the
whole of the kingdom is divided into twenty-
one districts. In September each year by order
of the Minister, inspectors are assigned to each
district; for certain subjects one inspector may
be assigned to more than one district. The
appointments are for a year and may be re-
newed for two following years, after which one

year must elapse before the appointment can
be renewed.

Inspectors are chosen from among (a) Pro-
fessors of universities and schools of the same
rank, (6) Provvediton, (c) Heads of secondary
schools situated in another district, (d) Ordinary
teachers of the second grade of secondary
schools having taught at least ten years and
teaching in schools outside of the district for
which they are appointed inspectors a and b
inspect second-grade secondary schools, and
c and d first Inspections are made according
to need, but there is a regular inspection in
each school for each subject once in five years
The purpose of the inspection is to ascertain
whether the course of study has been followed
and to report on textbooks and to superintend
the discipline and the method of teaching; to
make, according to the results of the inspec-
tion, the needed recommendations for the final
appointment or dismissal, approval or censure
of teachers, to give any information required
by the Ministry concerning any teacher
At the end of each school year the inspectors
of each district meet and compile a collective
report in which are stated the conditions and
needs of the schools

At the Ministry there are ten inspectors for
secondary schools; six are permanent and are
appointed from among officers of classes (a),
(6), and (c) Four are appointed yearly and
reappomted for not more than five years The
central inspectors, besides special duties that
may be assigned to them from time to time,
compile the general program of inspections to
be submitted to the Minister, coordinate the
results of inspections; recommend to the Minis-
ter the needed changes on the basis of those
results, propose to the Minister extraordinary
inspections, general and particular inquiries and,
if needed, carry them out; promote investiga-
tions relating to course of study and method of
instruction; present to the Minister yearly a
general report on secondary schools.

Fine Arts and Music Schools. — Govern-
ment fine arts and music schools are under the
direction of the Minister of Public Instruction
They have not a uniform organization and vary
in importance in every respect The number
of fine arts government schools was thirteen in
1901-1902 with 2433 pupils (2137 boys arid
296 girls) The non-government schools were
thirteen with 1625 pupils (1363 boys and 262
girls) The former had 167 teachers, the latter
65,

The government music schools were five in
number with 952 pupils (353 boys and 419
girls), the non-government 61, with 4431
pupils (3408 boys and 1023 girls). The num-
ber of teachers in the former was 146, in the
latter 395.

Agricultural, Industrial, and Commercial
Schools. — Notwithstanding article 1 of the
Casati Act. which says all schools are under the
Ministry ot Public Instruction a great number of

506

ITALY

ITALY

schools have been established under the super-
vision of the Ministry of Agriculture, Industry,
and Commerce They are practical schools of
agriculture, commerce etc

The schools of agriculture are regulated
under the act of June 6, 1885, No. 3141. They
are established at the suggestion of local au-
thority (comuni, province, etc.) which pay two
fifths of the expenses besides providing an
experimental farm, while the state pays three
fifths. Each school is managed by a committee
whose members are appointed partly by the
government arid partly by the local bodies
sharing in the expenses. They are classified
as either practical or special schools. The
course of study of the practical schools covers
three years, and includes Italian, history,
geography, arithmetic, geometry, surveying,
drawing, accounting, bookkeeping, penman-
ship, natural and physical sciences, agriculture
and related industries Some have a fourth
year of practical studies.

To be admitted, boys must have passed the
examination for admission to the fourth class
(veai) of the elementary schools, but though
that examination is usually passed at the age
of nine to ten, boys are not admitted to the
agricultural schools until they are at least four-
teen and not after they are seventeen. The
boys may board on the school farm The staff
of each school includes, as a rule, a director, a
vice-director, an elementary school teacher and
an assistant, besides extraordinary teachers for
special subjects

Special schools of agriculture are of two
grades Those of the first grade are organized
like the practical schools with this difference,
that instead of agriculture in general, particular
branches are offered, i e dairying at Reggio,
horticulture at Florence, vine raising and wine
making at four schools The four of the
second grade, all for vine raising and wine
making^ are in their plan of studies similar to
sections of istituti tecnici. Boys are admitted
if they have passed the final examination of a
practical school or a special school of the first
grade or of a scuola tecnica

Commercial and industrial schools are gov-
erned by the by-laws of June 1, 1908, No. 187.
They are established on the suggestion of local
bodies (comum, province, chambers of com-
merce, etc ), which share the expense, the Min-
ister of Agriculture contributing within the
limits of the total appropriation for that pur-
pose These schools are divided into, (a) in-
dustrial schools, ie. manual training schools;
(b) artistic-industrial schools; (c) commercial
schools; (d) schools for girls.

There are two grades of each class corre-
sponding to the first and second grade of the
secondary schools. Their plan of studies varies
greatly, ranging from schools of drawing with
one teacher to a school fully equipped like the
scuola industrial of Vicenza or like the acuok
medie di commercio, which correspond in all

respects to a section of istUuto tecnico. In the
majority of these schools the teaching takes
place on evenings and Sundays. The total
number of these schools, which receive grants
from the government, was 310, with more than
47,000 pupils in 1903-1904. The total expense
for that year was more than 3,000,000 lire,
of which about 700,000 was paid by the state
and more than 800,000 by the comuni. The
number of teachers was over 2000. There
were 427 schools, which did not receive any
grant from the government.

All these agricultural, commercial, and in-
dustrial schools are under the supervision of a
special committee, the Consigho superior? delV
insegnamento, agrariu, industrial* e commer-
ciale which was established m 1907 by the amal-
gamation of two previously existing, one for
agricultural and the other for commercial and
industrial schools. There is also a body of
inspectors, and the Minister may appoint other
persons, whom he thinks suitable, for special
inspections

There are also three mining schools which
rank as secondary schools of the second grade

Boarding Schools — The schools referred to
above are day schools. Boarding schools are
for the most part private institutions There
are a few government institutions (those for
boys called convitti nazionali), where pupils may
board and follow the courses at the public
secondary schools or the elementary schools

Reform. — Ever since the promulgation of
the Casati act the reform of the secondary
schools has caused much discussion Since
then some changes have been introduced in the
plan of studies by one Minister and changes in
the opposite direction by another. Many bills
have been introduced into Parliament for a
general reform, but none has become a la\v

In 1906 a Royal Commission was appointed
to investigate the whole subject of secondary
education. They have issued a report includ-
ing a proposal for a new organization The
idea of a single secondary school for the first
grade, which not long ago obtained, has been
abandoned, and they propose for the first grade
(a) A three years' ginnasio for those who intend
to pass to the liceo arid then to the univeisities,
the plan of studies including Italian, French,
history, geography, psychological education,
elements of mathematics arid natural sciences,
drawing Boys and girls will be admitted if
they are ten years old and have passed the
matunta examination, (b) A scuola tecnica
preparing for the professional school of the
second grade Boys and girls will be admitted
if they have passed the mat unto: examination,
(c) A scuola complementare for those who do
not intend to pass to schools of the second order.
Admission to be gained after the sixth year of
study in the elementary schools

For the second grade they propose: (a) A
liceo with a five-year course for those who in-
tend to pass to the university. They propose

607

ITALY

ITALY

three different kinds of liceo: (1) classical
hceo with Latin, Greek, and French; (2) mod-
ern hceo with Latirij French, and English or
German; (3) scientific hceo without Latin,
which would take the place of the physico-
mathematical section of the istituto tecmco
(b) Professional schools taking the place of the
professional sections of the istituto tecnico and
of the special schools of the second grade now
under the Ministry of Agriculture.

Higher Education. — Higher education is
given at the universities (umverdta) and at
other institutions the majority of which are
designated as schools (scuole) or institutes
(istituti). Some of these institutions are con-
nected with universities, others are entirely
independent If under the control of the gov-
ernment, the universities are called regie;
if under local bodies, libere All universities
are governed by the same laws and by-laws,
the other institutions by special laws and by-
laws.

The faculties, all of which are found in the
largest universities, are: (1) law, (2) medicine
and surgery, (3) mathematical, physical, and
natural sciences, (4) belles-lettres and philos-
ophy. In addition, there are schools in the
following subjects: pharmacy, engineering,
veterinary science, agriculture, commerce and
social sciences, oriental languages, midwifery;
and courses for notaries and attorneys, for
secondary and elementary school teachers,
and schools for women All commercial
schools, the agricultural schools at Milan,
Portici, and Perugia, and the forestry school at
Vallombrosa are under the Ministry of Agricul-
ture, Industry, and Commerce; all other in-
stitutions are under the Ministry of Public
Instruction.

The following is a list of institutions with
the date of foundation, faculties, and number
of students m 1910-1911.

Maintenance — The expenses in the various
institutions are borne by the State, local bodies
contributing in different ways By act of 1862
the universities of Genoa, Parma, Modena,
Siena, Macerata, Cagliari, Sassari, Messina, and
Catania were made universities of the second
rank. To have them raised to first rank local
bodies agreed to pay to the State the difference
involved in the salaries of teachers, and in a
few cases to have the faculties completed.
Local bodies of other cities contribute funds to
establish schools either in connection with
universities or as independent institutions.
These contributions are of a permanent char-
acter Other extraordinary payments have
been made for new buildings or other extraor-
dinary expenses. Free universities are sup-
ported entirely by local bodies, except Urbino,
which receives a small subsidy from the State
The Institute of Social Sciences of Florence
and the Commercial University of Milan are
supported by private gifts.

To all other commercial schools, to the Poly-

technic School at Turin, the School of Naval
Engineering at Genoa, the Higher Institute of
Florence, and the Clinical Institute at Milan,
the State contributes a fixed sum. All these
institutions are administered by special boards
in which local bodies are represented, but pro-
fessors are appointed by royal decree or min-
isterial selection The School for Oriental
Languages at Naples has a patrimony of its
own administered by the Minister of Public
Instruction; also the Institute of Agriculture
of Perugia.

The general by-laws regulating the univer-
sities and some of the other institutions are
those of Aug 21, 1905, No 638.

Administration — For each university there
are the following: (a) a principal (Rettore) ;

(b) an academic council ( Consigho accademico) ;

(c) a general assembly of professors (Assem-
blea generate del professon). For each faculty:

(a) a dean (Preside); (b) a council of pro-
fessors (Consigho di facolta) Special schools
have, as a rule, an organization like the facul-
ties; the head, however, is usually called
director (Direttore)

Rector. — The Rettore is chosen by the king
from three ordinary professors nominated by
the general assembly of professors; he is ap-
pointed annually and may be reappointed
In Naples he is elected by the professors from
three ordinary professors selected from the
various faculties in turn; the election has to
be approved by the Minister. The Rettore is
appointed for two years He is the chairman
of the academic council and the assembly of
professors; represents the university on all oc-
casions, confers degrees in the name of the
king ; communicates his decisions, those of
the academic council, the faculties councils, the
general assembly of professors and the Minister
to all concerned; sees that all by-laws are ad-
hered to, looks after the administration by
means of the secretary of the university and
other employees; inspects the university
library and all institutions belonging to the
university; regulates the discipline of pro-
fessors, students, and employees; and compiles
a yearly report to the Minister, and grants
leave of absence

Councils. — The academic council is com-
posed of the following: (a) the Rettore in office,

(b) the retiring Rettore; (c) the deans of the
faculties; (d) the retiring deans; (e) the di-
rector of the schools connected with the uni-
versity. Among other functions the council
(a) grants scholarships and makes proposals
for state scholarships; (b) gives its advice on
changes relating to the university regulations
or any subjects submitted by the Rettore or the
Minister, (c) fixes the time schedule for classes;

(d) grants dispensation from payment of fees;

(e) decides upon the disposal of funds.

The general assembly of professors, both
ordinary and extraordinary, gives its advice on
reforms in universities, and nominates the three

508

ITALY

ITALY

TOWN

DATE

INSTITUTION

FACULTIES

ENROLLMENT

A uila

1806

University School

courses for notaries, pharmacy

39

quia

and midwifery

1806

(a) University School

as Aquila

85

Bologna (q v ) ...

1880
1088

(6) Higher Commercial School
R University

all , and schools of agricul-
ture, and veterinary sur-

130 (1906-1907)
1520

gery

Caghari (q v ) . . . .

1877
1626

1727

Engineering School
H University

Free University

aw, medicine, sciences,1
school of pharmacy
aw, medicine,1 schools of

166
243

40G

pharmacy and veterinary

surgery

Catania ....
Catanzaro . . .
Ferrara (q v ) ....

1434

1806
1391

H University
University School
Free University

all , school of pharmacy
as Aquila
aw, medicine,1 sciences,*
school of pharmacy

1048
21
490

Florence (q v )

1349

R Higher Institute

medicine, letters, and philos-
ophy, sciences,1 school of

482

pharmacy

Genoa ....

1882
1875
1243

Higher Institute for Women
R Institute for Social Sciences
R University

all , schools of pharmacy ,
and engineering l

135
105 (1909-1910)
1024

1870

R School of Naval Engineer-

130

1884

ing
Higher School of Commerce

119 (1905-1906)
A*ir

Macorata . .
Messina . .

1290
1549

R University
R University

law
law only since earthquake

4«5O

229

Milan

1859

R School of Engineering

875

R FaculU of Letters and

86

Philosoph\

R School of Veterinary Sur-

50

1870
1902

gery
R School of Agriculture
University of Commerce

91 (1908-1909)
99 (1908-1909)

1905

Clinical Institutes

Modena ....

1678

R University

law, medicine, sciences , l
schools of pharmacy, and

522

veterinary surgery

Naples (q v ) . . .

1224
1810
1856

R University
R Engineering School
R School of Veterinary Sur-

all , school of pharmacy

5340
209
131

1727

gerj
R Institute of Oriental Lan-

220

Padua (q v ) . . . .

1222

guages
R University

all; schools of pharmaej ,
and engineering

1333

Palermo

1805

R University

all, schools of pharmacy,
and engineering

1265

Parma . . •
Pavia

1512
1300

R I Tniversity
R University

as Modena
all, schools of pharmacy,
and engineering '

435
1137

Perugia

1276

Free University

law, medicine , l schools of
pharmacy and veterinary

350

1896
1328

R Institute of Agriculture
R University

surgery
all, schools of pharmacy,

73 (1908-1909)
956

agriculture, and engineer-

1810
1873

R Higher Normal School
R Higher School of Agricul-

ing1

(included in abo^
126 (1905-1906)

1303

ture
R University

all , school of pharmacy

2847
308

1817
1906

R School of Engineering
R Institute of Commerce

248 (1907-1908)

1882
1677

Higher Institute for Women
R University

law, medicine , school of

285
176

pharmacy

1246

R University

as Sassari

244

1898

1404

R University

all , school of pharmacy

1236

1906
179b

R Engineering School
R School of Veterinary Sur-

59

1906

R School of Commerce

57 (1906-1907)
1st year

1671

Free University

312
31 (1908)

Yallombrosa . . . .
Venice . .

1869
1868

R Institute of Forestry
R School of Commerce

173 (1905-1906)

The totals do not include students following the special course for elementary school teachers

l Incomplete.

509

ITALY

ITALY

professors whose names are to be submitted to
the king for the appointment of the Rettoic
For this latter purpose representatives of pri-
vate professors take part, two for each faculty
or school.

The dean represents the faculty on all
occasions and is the chairman of its councils,
nets as intermediary between the faculties and
the rector; submits a yearly report from the
faculty to the Rcttore concerning the work and
examinations, with his remarks The dean
is appointed for three years and may be re-
appointed

The council of ordinary and extraordinary
professors of the faculty suggests to the stu-
dents the order of studies to be pursued,
co-ordinates the syllabi submitted by the
professors, compiles the schedules for classes
proposes new courses, designates the persons
fitted to give such courses and those who may
temporarily fill vacant chairs, and proposes
the means of permanently filling such vacan-
cies The council submits to the academic
council proposals for changes in the regulations,
and submits the names of three professors
from whom the king will appoint the dean
The council meets once every two months and
may meet extraordinarily when five professors
demand it

Professor* — Professors are ordinary (or-
dinan), extraordinary with a permanent ap-
pointment (straonhnari stabih), extraordinary
(straordinau), incaricati, and private professors
(hbejt doccnti) The appointments and trans-
fers of ordinal y and extraordinary professors
are regulated by the acts of 1904 and 1907
The provisions of these acts apply to all Royal
universities and to some of the schools, and
are also followed in the main for the others,
although their pro visions do not appl} to
them

The Minister has the right, according to the
Casati act, to submit to the king the names of
men of exceptional merits for appointment as
ordinary professors This, however, very seldom
happens, and both ordinary and extraordinary
professors are, as a rule, appointed by selection
from applicants according to their qualifica-
tions, which are passed upon by a committee
of professors Ordinary professors are ap-
pointed by royal decree. An extraordinary
professor is appointed for the first time by the
Minister for one year, after which he is ap-
pointed for a second year arid then for a third
in consultation with the faculty When he
has been reappomted twice and has taught
three successive years, he is made, by royal
decree, a permanent extraordinary professor
(straordinario stabile) after the advice of the
higher council has been heard. In engineering
schools extraordinary professors may be ap-
pointed by the Minister, regardless of the usual
formalities. An extraordinary professor having
a permanent position may be promoted to or-
dinary upon the favorable report of a com-

510

mittee appointed in the same way as those who
pass upon the applicants for new positions.
Incaricati are appointed by the Minister
on the suggestion of the faculty in the case
of obligatory courses 'For complementary
courses the advice of the higher council is also
taken. Ordinary and extraordinary profes-
sors, those who have been recognized fit to hold
chairs as such, those who have occupied chairs,
and private professors, may have a temporary
appointment as Incancato Such an appoint-
ment lasts not more than one year, but may be
renewed.

Besides official professors there are private
teachers To be permitted to teach, one must
file an application with the Minister, stating
what subjects and at what institutions he
wishes to teach. He has to pass a special ex-
amination which consists of (a) a written dis-
sertation on a subject chosen by the examining
committee; (ft) an oral examination upon that
subject and on the science which he intends
to teach; (c) a lesson Applicants, howevei,
who have given proofs of a thorough knowl-
edge of the subject may be excused from the
examination or from parts (a) and (/>) Such
applicants must have published at least one
memoir on the subject they desire to teach

The universities of Turin, Genoa, Sassan,
and Cagliari have also Dottori aggrcgati, which
correspond to the French agrcgc.

Salaries — By an act of 1 909 the salary of or-
dinary professors has been raised from a minimum
of 5000 to a minimum of 7000 lire, with periodic
increases of 750 lire every five years up to 10,000
lire, and that of extraordinary professors from
a minimum of 3000 to 4500 lire with periodic
increases for the stabih of 450 lire up to 7000
Incaricati receive a fee of 30 lire per lesson, if
they are ordinary or extraordinary professors,
they receive 2000 lire a year, if they are not
official professors. This increase applies to all
Royal universities and other institutions with
the exceptions noted below. The same act
fixed the salaries of professors of higher insti-
tutes for women at 5000 lire, if ordinary, with
increases of 500 lire every five years up to 7000
lire, and at 3500, if extraordinary, with increases
of 350 every five years up to 5000 lire Sal-
aries of professors at the university schools are
lower.

The salaries of the professors of the Higher
Schools of Commerce, of the School for Oriental
Languages, and of the Institute of Forestry
have not been changed and are as a rule 5000
lire, with periodical increases of 500 for ordi-
nary, 3000 for extraordinary, and 1200 for in-
cancati.

The Casati act fixed the number of ordinary
and extraordinary professors in each Faculty
or school, but the act of 1909 has done away
with such provision and fixed the total number
of professors at Royal universities and other
government institutions under the Ministry of
Public Instruction, except institutes for women,

ITALY

ITALY

oriental institutes, and university schools, at
861 ordinary professors and 215 ordinary pro-
fessors of fundamental subjects and thirty-
eight ordinary and twenty-seven extraordinary
professors of complementary subjects New
chairs can be established m these institutions
only by law, with the exception that those
institutions which have a special administra-
tion to which the State contributes a fixed sum
may change the number of ordinary and ex-
traordinary professors provided no higher
charge will result to the State The number
of ordinary and extraordinary professors at
the other institutions is separately fixed at
each of them. For the incancati compensa-
tion a lump sum is appropriated

A certain number of assistants are attached
to universities and schools The total attached
to Royal universities and other government in-
stitutions under the Ministry of Public Instruc-
tion, except institutes for women, oriental
institutes, and university schools, is 1054, and
the salaries vary from 1500 to 2400 lire a year.
To Royal observatories also are attached
assistants, thirty in all, including the observa-
tories of Milan, Naples, and Rome not attached
to universities, their salaries varying from
2000 to 5700 lire

Fees — Fees were considerably raised by
an act of 1903 For the whole course they
amount to 1275 lire for the faculty of medicine,
1185 for the faculty of law, 1150 for the en-
gineering jchools, 805 for the faculties of
sciences and letters, from 950 to 310 for the
school of pharmacy, 705 for the courses for
notaries and attorneys, 500 for the schools of
agriculture, and 510 for the school of vetcrmaiy
surgery, 110 for the courses for secondary
teachers (above faculty fees) Examination
fees are included in the above totals and go
to the examiners. The increase of revenue,
due to the raising of the fees, is applied partly
by the State, partly by the universities and
schools to increase salaries of assistants, to
establish scholarships, to grants for laboratories
and libraries

Those who wish to be authorized to teach
privately at universities must pay a fee of 250
lire, and if they wish to transfer from one uni-
versity to another, they must pay a fee of 1 00
lire.

Numerous scholarships are granted by the
comuni, province, state and endowed institu-
tions. Among others the State grants every
year nine scholarships to be held abroad

Students. — In order to matriculate as a
regular student in a university it is necessary
to have the diploma granted to those who have
passed the final examination of a liceo (or have
been excused from it) or, for the faculty of
sciences and the schools, that of the physico-
mathematical section of a technical institute,
The diplomas of all sections of the technical
institute admit to the schools of pharmacy,
veterinary science, and agriculture. The diplo-

mas of special (secondary) agricultural schools
admit to the latter, those of the (secondary)
professional schools of the second grade admit
to the corresponding schools of university
standing.

Besides regular students, there are uditon
(auditors) who pursue certain courses but can-
not become candidates for a degree No con-
dition is required to matriculate as uditon
All courses are open to the public

No colleges m the English sense exist at any
of the universities There are, however, the
Collegia Gh ishen at Pa via, where those students
belonging to the Lombard provinces who gain
scholarships board, and a boarding college
annexed to the Scuola normale superiore of
Pisa

The school year begins in the middle of
October and ends in July Work begins early
m November and ends about the 20th of June

Degrees — The faculties of science and let-
ters and the school of pharmacy under the 1906
regulations granted a preliminary degree called
hcenza after two years of study, which was re-
quired m order to enter the third year of study,
but a recent decree has removed such require-
ment After he has passed all special examina-
tions, the student is admitted at the end of tho
course of study or at any time afterwards to
take the examination for the doctor's degree
Such examination consists of (a) a written dis-
sertation on a subject chosen by the student,
(b) an 01 al discussion of the dissertation and of
two out of three subjects chosen by him. A
doctor's degree is required not only for the
professions (physician, lawyer, teacher in sec-
ondary school, etc.) but also to enter the high-
est grade cleikships in the government service
in all branches.

The length of the courses in tho various facul-
ties is as follows —

Law four years' course leading to the doctor's degree
(dottore in giunaprudenza) , also two special courses of
two years each for notaries and attorneys

Medicine six years' course leading to the degree of
doctor of medicine and surgery A two years' course
for midwives is given at all faculties of medicine

Sciences four years' courses leading to the degrees
of doctor of pure mathematics, physics, chemistry, and
natural sciences The first two years are prerequisite
for schools of engineering Courses for secondary school
teachers

Bdles-Lettres and Philosophy four years course
leading to the doctor of bellea-lettres, and doctor of
philosophy (for which courses in the sciences and ex-
perimental psychology are obligatory) Special two
years' course for elementary school teachers

Pharmacy • four years' course leading to a diploma
of pharmacy, five years' course leading to the degree of
doctor of chemistry and pharmacy.

Veterinary Science four years' course leading to the
doctor's degree (dottore in zoowUna)

Agriculture ' four years' course leading to the degree
of doctor of agricultural sciences Special teachers'
diplomas are given to holders of this degree, on com-
pleting additional courses at Milan and Portici

Commerce • three or four years' courses leading to the
doctor's degree in sciences applied to commerce. Courses
for secondary school teachers

Engineering three years beyond the two preparatory
years in the faculty of sciences, or at the special school

511

ITALY

JACKMAN

The total number of students has grown from
22,515 in 1893-1894 to 27,302 in 1905-1906 or
from about 72 per 100,000 inhabitants to over
81. In 1910-1911 the total number of regular
students at all universities (Royal and Free)
and all schools under the Ministry of Public
Instruction (the institute for oriental languages
excepted) was 26,372, that of students following
only some courses 212 In 1909-1910 these in-
stitutions granted 2903 doctor's degrees, 485
engineering diplomas, 494 pharmacist diplomas,
and 702 other minor diplomas.

Higher Institutes for Women — These in-
stitutions offer to those who have completed
the course in normal schools special four years'
courses at the end of which the students are
granted diplomas authorizing them to teach
Italian or history and geography or pedagogy
and ethics or foreign languages in an second-
ary schools for girls. The first two years are
common to all and include- algebra and geom-
etry, physics, chemistry natural history and
hygiene, history of Italian literature, geog-
raphy, political history, psychology, logic,
and ethics, French language and literature,
English or German language and literature,
drawing For the third and fourth year all
pupils follow courses of history of Italian litera-
ture; political history, French language and
literature; German or English language and
literature; civics and political economy, his-
tory of art; drawing, and other special courses,
according to the diploma they wish to take
and practice in the subjects of the diplomas

Besides the two government institutes at
Rome and Florence there is a private one in
Naples whose diplomas are recognized as equiva-
lent to those of the former.

Special Schools — The old Chinese college
established in 1727 was reorganized in 1888 into
a School for Oriental Languages A general
course is now offered in the geography, religion,
legislation, and commerce of oriental countries,
and special courses in Turkish, Arabic, Chinese,
Japanese, Persian, Amharic, Modern Greek,
Albanese, English, Russian

As will be seen, there is no provision for uni-
versity teaching of theology, fine arts, and
music For the last two some courses at the
secondary schools arc of a higher grade, and the
State offers some scholarships every year to be
held at Rome for music, fine arts, and historv
of ancient and medieval art At three en-
gineering schools there are courses for archi-
tects, but with very few pupils and studies
more scientific than artistic Bills introduced
for the establishment of schools of architecture
have failed The faculties of Catholic theology
were suppressed by act of 1873. Such teach-
ing is now carried on at the seminaries, and, in
Rome, at some other institutions. For Prot-
estant theology there is a Waldensian school
at Florence.

Other Educational Institutions — Not
treated in the foregoing account are: (a)

universM popolon (as they do not offer regulai
courses of study, but only university extension
lectures) ; (6) military schools, under the Min-
istry of War (see MILITARY EDUCATION);
(c) naval schools, under the Ministry of the
Navy (see NAVAL EDUCATION); (d) school
for officers in the customs service, under the
Ministry of Finance, (e) postal-telegraph in-
stitute under the Ministry of Post and Tele-
graph; (/) school for medal artists (scuola
deW arte delta medaglia), connected with the
Mint; (g) reform schools (nformatori) , under
the Ministry of the Interior; (h) Italian schools
road, under the Ministry of Foreign Affairs;
(?) courses on agriculture (cattedre ambulanti
d'agncoltura) and other courses connected with
agricultural experiment stations under the
Ministry of Agriculture, Industry, and Com-
merce; (j) the school for forest guards at Cit-
t&ducale; (k) courses on paleography and
diplomatics at state archives, under the Min-
istry of the Interior

Reform — Many bills dealing with uni-
versity reform have been introduced in Parlia-
ment, but as for secondary education none
has passed Only those dealing with appoint-
ment, transfer, and salarv of professors have
become acts In 1912 two bills were presented
to Parliament reorganizing the higher schools of
commerce, professional schools under the Ministry
of Agriculture, etc , and transferring the school of
forestry at Vallombrosa, and amalgamating it with
the Higher Institute at Florence A F

References : —

AMANTE, B Nuowt Codicc scolastico vigentc, Lcggi,

decreti, regolamcnti, circolan e programme di 18$!)

al 1909 (Rome, 1009 )
Annuano Statistico
Bollettino dellc pubbltcazzonc itahane Issued monthly

by the National Library of Florence
OOUKADINI, Conim L'latruzwnc pnmana r popolarc

in Italia con special? nguardo air anno ftcolatsti«t,

1907-1908 Four volumes, also published,

abridged, in one volume

FERRARIS, C F In Riforma t>oc-uile (Annual )
FONTANA, T La Jegixlazione delhi istruziont clemen-

tarc c normalf (Turin, 1905 )

GABKLLI, A L'latruzione in Italia (Bologna, 1903 )
INVERARDI, R Bibhografia delV educazionc e dell

istruzione (1880-1890)
Ministry of Public liibtruetion Bollettino del Minmtero

delta pubbhca i&truzione, Annuano
Ministry of Agriculture, Commerce, and Industry,

Annah </' afjncoltura, Bollettwto, Notizic M///'

tstruzione industrial? e commercial?

IVES, ELI (1770-1861) —Author of text-
books and medical writer, was graduated at
Yale College in 1799 He was principal of the
Hopkins Grammar School (q.v ) at New Haven,
one of the organizers of the medical depart-
ment of Yale College; professor at Yale (1813-
1861), and the author of several textbooks
and numerous papers on medical subjects

W. 8. M.

See YALE UNIVERSITY.

512

JACKMAN, WILBUR SAMUEL (1855-
1 907) — Leader in the nature study move-

JACKSON, ABNER

JACOBI

ment (q.v ) and educational writer, was born at
Mecbanicstown, 0. He graduated at the
California (Pa.) State Normal School in 1877:
studied two years at Alleghany College, and
graduated at Harvard University in 1884 He
was instructor of science in the Pittsburgh High
School from 1884 to 1889, when he was engaged
by Francis W. Parker (q v ) to take charge of
the science work in the Cook County (now
Chicago) Normal School Here he developed
the lines of nature study teaching which became
the general practice in elementary schools In
1899, when the Chicago Institute was organ-
ized, he accepted the post of head of the science
department, and when this was lalei merged
into the School of Education of the University
of Chicago, he became the professor of natural
science He was dean of the College of Edu-
cation from 1901 to 1904, and principal of the
University Elementary School from the latter
date until his death. His published works
include Nature Study for Common Schools
(1891), Number Work in Nature Study (1893),
Nature Study Record (1895), Nature Study for
Grammar Grades (1898), and numerous papers
on the place of nature study in education lie
was also editor of the Elementary School
Teacher W. S. M.

See NATURE STUDY, PARKER, FRANCIS W.

References : —

BRIGHT, ORVILLE T , et al Wilbur S Jackman,
Elementary School Teacher, April, 1907, Vol. VII,
pp 433-446

MONROE, WILL S Wilbur S Jackman an Apprecia-
tion Journal of Education, Jan 31, 1907

JACKSON, ABNER (1811-1874) —Fourth
president of Hobart College, was graduated
from Trinity (then Washington) College in
18.37 He was tutor and professor at Trinity
(1838-1858) and was president of Hobart Col-
lege (1858-1867) Author of several papers
on education W. S. M.

JACKSON COLLEGE FOR WOMEN —

See TUFTS COLLEGE

JACKSON, CYRIL (1746-1819) —Dean
of Christ Church, Oxford, born in Yorkshire
and educated at the Manchester Grammar
School and at Westminster School under Dr
Markham (q.v.). He entered Christ Church,
Oxford, in 1764, graduated B A. in 1768
After acting as sub-preceptor to the sons of
George III under Dr Markham, he took holy
orders. He became Canon of Christ Church
in 1779 and Dean in 1783, in which position
he attained great popularity with the students
in spite of the strict enforcement of discipline
He attached importance to the college examina-
tions and encouraged his students to compete
for prizes arid exhibitions He assisted in fram-
ing the Public Examination Statute at Oxford
which was put into practice in 1802, many
Christ, Church students took high rank in the

Oxford examinations He resigned in 1809
Jackson was a man of great intellectual ability,
was considered a good classical scholar, had a
knowledge of mathematics, botany, and ar-
chitecture, and became a Fellow of the Royal
Society Many of his students attained posi-
tions of eminence in politics, the chief among
them being Sir Robert Peel.

References : —

Dictionary of National Biography

THOMPSON, H L Chnst Church. University of Oxford
College Histories (London, 1900 )

JACKSON, EDWARD PAYSON (1840-
1905). — Author and teacher, born at Erzerum,
Turkey; educated at Amherst College; master in
the Boston Latin School (1877-1905), and author
of several geographical works and numerous
scientific articles and monographs. W. S. M.

JACKSON, HERMAN MERILL (1815-
1 868) — College president and educational
author, was graduated from Wesleyan Univer-
sity in 1839 He was professor at St. Charles,
Mo, College (1839-1842), Augusta College,
Ky (1842-1844), Ohio Wesleyan University
(1844-1850), Dickinson College (1850-1860),
and president of Dickinson College (1860-
1868) He was author of Latin textbooks and
essays on education. W. S. M.

JACKSON, SHELDON (1834-1909) —
Missionary educator and organizer of schools
in Alaska (q v ), graduated at Union College in
1855 and at the Princeton Theological Semi-
nary in 1858. He engaged in missionary work
among the American Indians (1858-1864);
served as principal of the Rochester Female
Institute (1864-1869) , was special agent of the
government to select Indian children for the
schools at Carlisle and Hampton (q v ), and
organized mission schools in the Northwest
(1869-1877), organized the educational work
of Alaska in 1877, and was superintendent of
schools and general agent of education in Alaska
(1877-1900) He published the North Star at
Sitka (1887-1893); organized the Alaskan
Society of Natural History and Ethnology
(1887), and published numerous reports on edu-
cation in Alaska He inaugurated the rein-
deer service in Alaska in 1892. W. S. M.

See ALASKA, EDUCATION IN

JACOBI, MARY PUTNAM (1842-1906).
— Educational writer and physician, received
her professional education in the Philadelphia
Woman's Medical College and the Ecole de
Medicine of Paris She was professor in
the Woman's Medical College of New York
and the New York Post-Graduate Medi-
cal School She wrote Studies in Primary
Education, Adolescent Girls, and numerous
papers on educational and medical subjects

W S M

VOL. Ill 2 L

513

JACOTOT

JAHN

JACOTOT, JEAN JOSEPH (1770-1840).
— A French mathematician and teacher, who
originated a famous " universal " method in
education. In his diversified career he was
professor of Latin and Greek literature, sub-
sequently of mathematics, and Roman law,
entered the army, eventually rising to rank of
captain of artillery; was a member of the
Chamber of Deputies, later became lecturer
on French language and literature at the Uni-
versity of Louvain, and director of the military
school of Belgium The extremely diversified
character of his life and interests undoubtedly
led to one of his educational fallacies that " all
human beings are equally capable of learning."
If this be sound, it forces one to the conclusion
that everybody can be proficient in anything to
which he turns his attention, in which case there
is really little justification for believing in the
selective function of the school Jacotot/s edu-
cational principles are set forth in paradoxical
fashion in his Enwignemejit muverset (Louvain,
1822). " Every man can teach, and even
teach what he himself does not know " Jaco-
tot's own success in teaching French to Flemish
students at the University of Louvain, while
he himself did not know a word of the language
of his pupils, gave some color to his assertion
He did this by means of books printed m French
and Flemish in parallel columns The fact that
his students learned though he did not teach
them apparently supported another one of Ins
contentions '' One can instruct himself all
alone " Tout cst dans tout (All is in all) is
probably the most familiar of all his paradoxes
The corollary, " Know one thing thoroughly
and relate everything else to that," throws
considerable light upon the earlier axiom Tn
other words, no bit of learning exists by itself,
but bears a direct relation to a large number of
related knowledge fields In practical applica-
tion of this axiom, Jacotot took Fe*nelon's
T&imaque as a point of departure, requiring
that six books of that classic be committed to
memory by the pupil Not only did this, with
all the commentaries, immensely broaden the
field of the pupil's knowledge, but furthermore
the method of work necessary to assimilate
this carried over very materially in attacking
other problems His universal method con-
sisted of four steps: (1) learn something as
closely related as possible to the subject in
hand, but learn it so thoroughly that it will be
constantly ready for use, (2) repeat that
something unceasingly; (3) reflect upon that
work done until it no longer rests upon the sur-
face of the memory mass, so to speak, but until
it has sunk down deep and has become a real
part of the individual's mental stuff; (4)
verify or test other facts, rules, generalizations,
etc , and measure them all in terms of what
vou already know Concrete applications of
this method will be found in each of the au-
t honties cited below In spite of the vagarious
character of his paradoxes, Jacotot's generaliza-

514

tions did contain some germs of truth, but
stated in the sweeping form in which he ex-
pressed them, they had little practical value
This is particularly true of his notion that
whatever became really assimilated was that
which the individual had worked out for him-
self, and not what somebody had told him; and
the very broad suggestion of the principle of
correlation which is found in his " all in all "
axiom. Nevertheless, Jacotot enjoys a far
greater reputation in Germany than in his
native country, and one which unquestionably
overestimates his positive influence upon edu-
cational thought and educational practice
His chief works were' Emeignement universe! ,
Langue matcrnelle (Louvain, 1822), Musique,
Dessin et Pemture (Louvain, 1824); Math6-
matiques (Louvain, 1827); Langues Mrang&rcK
(Louvain, 1828); Droit et Philosophic pani-
cashques (Pans, 1837). See also the Journal dc
V Emancipation intellectuel, published by his
two sons F. E. F.

References : —

GORINU, H Josef Jacotot, Universal — Unterncht.
(Vienna, 1888 )

GKEKN, G W On Jacotot' s Method of Instruction;
in American Institute of Instruction Lectures
(Boston, 1834 )

PAYNE, .1 Lectures on the History of Education (Lon-
don, 1892 )

PEREZ, B Joseph Jacotot et sa Mithode d Emancipa-
tion ajnntudle (Pans, 1883 )

QUICK, R H Educational Reformers (New York,
1907)

JACQUES, JABEZ ROBERT (1828-1892)

— College president, was graduated from Gene-
see College in 1854; instructor in academies in
New York, 1854-1858; professor in Rochester
Collegiate Institute, 1862-1865, and Illinois
Wesleyan University, 1865-1875, president of
Albert College, Canada, 1875-1885, and of
Heddmg College, Illinois, 1886-1892. Author
of Study of Classical Languages arid sermoiib
on education W. S. M.

JAHN, FRIEDRICH LUDWIG (1778-
1852) — Tho father of German gymnastics,
familiarly known to German gymnasts as
Turnvatcr Jahn. He was born in Lanz,
Prussia, the son of a country pastor. The
first thirteen years of his life were spent at home,
where he learned to read the Bible and studied
history, geography, and the German language
under the direction of his parents He early
manifested keen interest in outdoor life and all
sorts of physical activities; he learned to ride
and swim and was very fond of walking, climb-
ing, jumping, and running. In 1791 Jahn
entered the Gymnasium at Salzwedel, and in
1894 left to enter the Gymnasium sum Grauen
Kloster in Berlin. His independent and rest-
less spirit led him into frequent conflicts with
teachers and fellow pupils. His university
career was varied and stormy. He spent five
years in Halle, one year at Greifswald, and brief

JAHN

JAMAICA

periods at Gflttingen and Jena. In each of
these universities he carried on strenuous cam-
paigns of opposition against the student clubs
or Lansmannschaften In 1806 he joined the
army and wandered through various German
states until July, 1807, when the Treaty of
Tilsit was signed.

The next two years were spent in literary
work at Jena, and in 1809, Jahn went to Berlin
where he taught history, German, and mathe-
matics in the Gymnasium zum Grauen Kloster,
the same school from which he had run away
fifteen years before. He took the boys to the
Hasenheidc, on Wednesday and Saturday
afternoons, and taught them games, running,
jumping, and wrestling. The exercises were so
popular with the boys that Jahn continued to
teach them indoors during the winter months.

In the spring of 1811 Jahn established the
first regular Turnplatz at the Hasenheide, and
from this time on the terms Turnkunst, turnen,
Turnhalle became familiar This was the real
beginning of his life's work, the founding of the
great movement for popular gymnastics in
Germany. An important feature of the ac-
tivities was the singing of patriotic songs

In 1813 Jahn responded to the first call for
soldiers in the War of Liberation. He returned
to Berlin after the war, and in 1817 received the
honorary degree of Doctor of Philosophy from
the universities of Jena and Kiel, in recognition
of his services to the fatherland in time of need,
his stimulating influence on the young, his
power as a public speaker, and his efforts in
behalf of the German language As the result
of his agitation in favor of German nationality,
he was arrested in July, 1819, on suspicion of
" secret and most treasonable association."
From this time until 1840 Jahn was forbidden
to live " in Berlin or within a radius of ten
miles from the capital, or in any city contain-
ing a university or higher school for boys "
This restriction was removed when Frederick
William IV ascended to the throne, and Jahn
was decorated with the Iron Cross In his
last address delivered about 1848, he closed
with these words: " Germany united was the
dream of my childhood, the morning glow of
my youth, the sunshine of middle life, and it is
now the evening star which beckons me to
everlasting rest.*' His declining years were
spent in poverty and obscurity, and he died at
Freyburg, after a brief illness, Oct. 15, 1852

Turnvater Jahn is still held in loyal and grate-
ful remembrance, as the apostle of German
unity and the man who gave to the German
people a love for gymnastics. Monuments
have been erected to him in Berlin, Lanz, Frey-
burg, and other places. Jahn's most important
writings are the following- —

Uber die Befdrderung des Patnotwmus im
Preussischen Reiche (Halle, 1800); Be-
reicherung des Hochdeutschen Sprachschatzen ver-
sucht im Gebiete dcr Sinnverwandschaft, ein
Nachtrag zu Adelung's und eine Nachlese zn

Eberhard's Worterbuch (Leipzig, 1806), Deut-
sches Volksthum (Ltibeck, 1810), Die Deut-
sche Turkumt zur Einrichtung der Turnpldtze,
dargestellt von Friederich Ludwig Jahn und
Ernst Eiselen. (Berlin, 1816.) G L. M.

References : —

EULER, C Fnedrich Ludwig Jahn's Werke Neu
herauagegeben, mil einer Einleitung und mil er-
klarenden Ammerkungcn versehm (Hof 1884-
1887)

Fnedrich Ludwig Jahn Sein Leben und Wirken
(Stuttgart, 1881 )

LEONARD, F. E Fnednch Ludwig Jahn and the De-
velopment of Popular Gymnastics in Germany
Am Phya Educ Rev, Vol V, pp 1- 18, and Vol
X, pp 1-19

SCHULTHEISB, F G Fricdrich Ludwig Jahn Sein
Leben und seine Bedentung (Berlin, 1894 )

JAMAICA, EDUCATION IN. — Jamaica
was seized by the P^nghsh in 1655, and their
possession of the island and the attached Turks
and Caicos islands was confirmed by the treaty
of Madrid in 1670 The administration is
committed to a resident governor appointed by
the crown, and a legislative council which is
partly formed by election. The population
is estimated at 862,000, of whom the blacks
constitute 56 per cent and mixed races 18 per
cent The moral and intellectual condition of
the people early excited missionary interest, it
was not, however, until the nineteenth century
that systematic efforts were made for their
improvement by religious societies and phil-
anthropists. Between 1820 and 1834 forty
schools were established for the instruction of
slaves and seven for free people In the latter
year slavery was abolished in the island, and
in the following year (1835) Government al-
lowed £50,000 to be used in building school-
houses. Soon after, the Mico bequest of £1000
which was made 100 years before and had in-
creased in the inteiim to £110,000, became
available for the education of the former slaves
Under the double stimulus of government and
private funds, schools for the people multiplied
for a time, but the interest declined and for
thirty years little progress was made In
1865 the cause was revived and several measures
were adopted by the Legislature, looking to
the improvement of the schools. Competitive
examinations were ordered for schoolmasters,
and in 1867 the grant-m-aid svstem was in-
troduced after the English plan, and thus the
existing elementary schools were bi ought under
a measure of government supervision Several
endowed schools, following the model of the
English endowed or grammar school, had also
been established for the children of the privi-
leged or ruling class in Jamaica, and in 1879 a
special commission was appointed to inquire into
the condition of this class of school and to make
recommendations for their further conduct
A few years later, 1885, a commission of iiir
quiry was appointed for the entire system of
elementary education and as a result, chiefly,

515

JAMAICA

JAMES, WILLIAM

of the investigations of that body, a new or-
ganization of the work was effected.

In accordance with the recommendations
of the commission, the legislative council in
1892 created a central board advisory to the
Education Department in respect to element-
ary education, authorized the levy of a local
school tax, and provided for a special grant in
lieu of fees for schools remitting the same
The legal age for school attendance was fixed
at six to fourteen years of age, and the governor
was authorized to enact compulsory attendance
laws at his discretion A second commission
appointed in 1898 made a very thorough in-
vestigation of the entire educational system,
and their recommendations as regards element-
ary schools, as far as practicable, were embodied
in "the code of regulations issued by the Edu-
cation Department in 1900

The schools are either public, i e supported
and managed by the government, or voluntary
(chiefly under denominational management)
Both classes of schools share on the same terms
in the grant which is distributed on the basis
of the results of the annual examinations and
the inspector's report as to the general con-
dition of the school, together with the number
and qualifications of the teachers There is
no color line m the public schools, but separate
schools are allowed where required White
children are generally sent to private schools
or are instructed at home by tutors

For the latest year reported (1909-1910) the
number of elementary schools was 693, with an
enrollment of 89,902 pupils and an average
attendance of 57,849, or 64 per cent of the en-
rollment. The government grant for the
schools amounted to £47,399 ($228,359) equiv-
alent to S3. 94 per capita of average attend-
ance The obligatory program for the ele-
mentary schools includes besides the three
elementary branches, elementary science as
related to agriculture and handicraft Op-
tional branches for which grants are allowed
are Scripture lessons, geography and history,
English language, geometric drawing, and sing-
ing Special grants are allowed for drawing
and needlework The government bears part
of the expenditure for five industrial schools
in which provision is made for orphan or aban-
doned children. The three training colleges for
women were attended by sixty-one students
and the single training college for men, by
sixty-eight students.

For secondary education there are two
schools aided by the government, enrolling in
1910 a total of 133 pupils, and several unas-
sisted, endowed schools. These schools all
prepare students for the Cambridge Local
Examinations, Senior, Junior, and Prelimin-
ary, which are held at seven centers in the
Island. University College, founded in 1888
as an extension of the Jamaica High School,
prepares students for the London University
examinations. A Rhodes scholarship of the

value of $1500, tenable for three years, is as-
signed to Jamaica.

Two noteworthy evidences of progress are
dwelt upon in the recent official reports; viz.
the multiplication of school gardens, and the
excellent condition of the schools in Kingston,
the capital city. The number of schools to
which school gardens are attached is 361, with
an attendance of 24,000 children of an age to
benefit by the practical training thus afforded
The sum of $2500 was appropriated in aid of
this work in 1910, and four prizes ranging in
value from $5 to $20 offered for competition in
each of the schools A special course in agri-
culture is given at Kingston for the benefit of
teachers Provision has been made at seven
centers for advanced manual training, and it
is proposed to establish at Kingston a school of
technology The system of elementary edu-
cation with its special extensions is under
the general supervision of the Superintending
Inspector, who is assisted by a corps of inspec-
tors, one for each of the seven school districts
The majority of these officials are graduates of
English universities. The most urgent need
of the system is provision for adequate salaries
and a more certain tenure for the teachers.

A. T. S.

References : —

England, Board of Education; Special Reports on
Educational Subjects, Vol IV The System of
Education in Jamaica (London, 1901 )

Jamaica Report of the Commission of Education in

Jamaica, 1898

Annual Reports of the Education Department and the
Board of Education

JAMES, WILLIAM ( 184271 9 10. ) — Prob-
ably the most eminent American philosopher
and psychologist, was the son of a theologian.
The account of his training and of the develop-
ment of his career and influence as teacher and
author, as psychologist and philosopher, is one
of the most romantic known to biography.
Owing in part to the foreign residence of his
father, and in part to his own varied interests,
his higher education extended over a period of
ten years. It included a year at the University
of Geneva, one year as a student of art under
Hunt at Newport, two years in the Lawrence
Scientific School, devoted mostly to anatomy
and chemistry, two years in the Medical School
of Harvard University, a year in Brazil with
Agassiz, the naturalist, one year in Berlin, pur-
suing physiology, and finally a return to Har-
vard, for further work in zoology, where he
received the M.D. degree in 1869.

During thirty-five years he was a teacher in
this university. After giving instruction in
physiology and anatomy seven years, he
transferred his work to philosophy for nine
years, followed by a nearly equal period as a
teacher of psychology. The last decade of
active teaching found him again a professor
of philosophy. He was brilliant, influential,
ever ready to help young minds " find theni-

516

Hi njainin Jowett (1M7-181M) SIM i> 570

William K Harper (1856-1!K)G;. See p 218

WilliiiniJuiiu'8(lS-4J-1910) Seep 516 Simon S Laurie (1829- 1900) See p. 653

A GHOUP OF MODEHN UNIVERSITY EDUCAIOKS.

JAMES, WILLIAM

JAMESTOWN COLLEGE

selves. " He was also a lecturer at Columbia
and Oxford Universities. He was one of the
founders of the Psychological Review, and of
the American Psychological Association, of
which he was twice president.

A gifted and prolific writer in the fields of
psychology, philosophy, and education, he
frequently contributed to periodicals and pub-
lished half a score of books. Among these are:
The Varieties of Religious Experience, The
Will to Believe, Pragmatism, A Pluralistic Uni-
verse, and The Nature of Truth His greatest
and most influential work, The Principles of
Psychology, appeared in 1890, and soon be-
came a classic in an unusually literal sense of
the word With the repeated reprmtings, and
the translations of several of his books into
foreign languages, as French, German, Italian,
Japanese, Spanish, or Russian, and the exten-
sion of his fame, he was signally honored with
degrees by seven foreign and American uni-
versities, and with membership in the national
academies of science in America, Denmark,
England, Germany, Italy, and Russia As a
personality, his was a gentle and universal
character, marked no less by its modesty and
simplicity.

The chief work of James consisted in a re-
construction of psychology by resetting its
problems and by exploring old as well as new
fields in search of data for their solution By
his rare mastery of English and his keen sense
of the concrete in experience he turned the
abstract difficulties in the human subjects into
vital interests for the public as well as for stu-
dents in general He elaborated no closed sys-
tem of psychology, and organized no school of
psychologists. Working with the new and
strong tide of the theory of evolution, he re-
spected past achievements as well, bringing
together and rendering mutually helpful varied
materials from the associational, experimental,
pathological, and physiological developments
in the science His characteristic contribu-
tions consisted in showing consciousness to be
a process, this use of the cerebralistic hypo-
thesis, his explanation of habit, his appeal to
instinct, a new theory of emotion (shared
with Lange), and the typical analysis of special
processes, such as the feeling of relation, self,
reasoning, and will.

In his philosophy James made his approach
to problems through his psychology, the former
being in many respects a direct application of
the latter His devotion to truth in all its
apparent forms and his abhorrence of the ab-
stractions of the past led him into anti-intel-
lectualism and empiricism. He stimulated new
interest in speculation in terms of behavior
and expediency, and actively fostered current
pragmatism. " We are acquainted with a
thing as soon as we have learned how to behave
toward it." His philosophical efforts centered
on the nature of man's mind, the knowledge
which it fashions, and the basis of religious ex-

perience, and encouraged an optimistic attitude
toward the experience and the world which
man is creating

Educational theory and practice, particu-
larly in America, are greatly indebted to James
The rising Herbartian movement was met by
his contributions derived from a more enliven-
ing, yet less systematic, psychology. What is
being done with children in schools to-day, by
way of letting the order of subjects and the
methods of teaching follow the lead of the
native activities and interests, is in part an
outcome of his influence His conception of
education and his views of the work of the
teacher appeared in the widely read Talks to
Teachers on Psychology and to Students on
Life's Ideals. " Education is the organization
of acquired habits of conduct and tendencies
to behavior " " The great thing in all educa-
tion is to make the nervous system our ally
instead of our enemy " " No amount of cul-
ture would seem capable of modifying a man's
general retentiveness." By directing attention
to the value of instincts as the equipment for
education, by emphasizing the importance of
the formation of habits, and by the serious
doubt he threw around the doctrine of formal
discipline, he fostered a descriptive study of the
data of teaching and hastened the coming of
experimental pedagogy. E. F. B

References —

Anonymous A List of the Published Writings of Wil-
liam James Psych Rev, Vol XVIII, 1911, pp
157-165

BALDWIN, B J William James's Contributions to
Education Journal of Educational Psychology,
Vol. II, 1911, pp 369-382

BOUTROTJX, E William James (Pans, 1911 )

PERRY R B The Philosophy of William James
Philos Rev, Vol XX, 1911, pp 1-29

JAMES-LANGE THEORY —See EMO-
TIONS.

JAMES MILLIKIN UNIVERSITY, DE-
CATUR, ILL — Founded in 1901 by the
amalgamation of Lincoln College, Lincoln,
and the Decatur College and Industrial School
The institution which is coeducational is under
the supervision of the Synods of Indiana,
Illinois, and Iowa of the Presbyterian Church
The University includes a preparatory school
and the college, which gives courses in liberal
arts, engineering, fine arts, domestic economy
music, commerce and finance, pedagogy, and
library science The entrance requirements are
fifteen units. The degrees of A B and B S an
conferred The faculty consists of sixty-four
members

JAMESTOWN COLLEGE, JAMESTOWN,
NORTH DAKOTA. — A coeducational institu-
tion which was organized in 1883, and gave in-
struction until the spring of 1893, when in-
struction was suspended. In 1909 the college
was reopened with an enrollment of 102 students

517

JANES

JAPAN

The enrollment in 1912 was 190 Tho college
is under the auspices of the Presbyterian Church.
The plant consists of five buildings, and a
campus of 107 acres There is a permanent
endowment of $200,000. It is the only college
now operating in the state west of Fargo and
Grand Forks, a territory of 140,000 square miles
Courses are offered leading to the degrees of
A B. and B S , courses in music, in expiession,
in domestic science, in commercial subjects, and
in secondary subjects, as well as regular cc/llege
courses Fifteen units in high school are required
to enter the college There is a faculty of six-
teen members

JANES, LEWIS GEORGE (1844-1901)
— Educational writer and lecturer, received
his school training at the Providence High
School and Brown University. He was instruc-
tor in Adelphi Academy, president of the
Brooklyn Ethical Association, and directoi of
the Greenacre, Me , Summer School of Com-
parative Religion Author of Evolution of
Morals, (1889) Scope and Principles of Evo-
lution Philosophy (1890), Life as a Fine Art
(1891), Commie Philosophy as Related to Ethics
(1895), Soaal Ideals and Social Progress (1899),
and of numerous papers on educational, social,
and religious subjects W. S M

JANITOR, SCHOOL — An official who
takes care of a school building, e g sweeps and
cleans it, looks after the heating of the build-
ing, makes minor repairs, and renders such mis-
cellaneous service to the principal and teachers
as may be required The position is one of
importance, and it is capable of becoming much
more so than it is as yet, except in a few favored
places Too often the position of janitor in
our city schools is filled by le warding political
service, and not infrequently a relatively poor
janitor is safe from dismissal, because he is
supported by those whom the superintendent
of schools does not think it wise to antagonize
It not infrequently happens, too, as a result
of this political basis of selection, that the
janitor of a school building receives a larger
yearly salary than the teachers who teach in it.
With some form of civil service tests, and with
appointment and dismissal by the business
manager for the Board of Education instead
of by the Board itself, the position can be made
one of much importance in the management
of a school system E. P C

Sec ARCHITECTURE, SCHOOL; BUSINESS MAN-
AGER; CITY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION; CLEAN-
LINESS OF SCHOOLROOM, ETC.

JANSEN, CORNELIUS — See PORT ROY-
ALISTS.

JANSENISM AND EDUCATION. — See

PORT ROYALISTS.

JANUA LINGUARUM. — " The gates of

518

languages " — a popular name for an intro-
ductory text in the classical languages espe-
cially during the seventeenth century when
Comenius' text by that title became famous.
The title had been used previous to Comenius
by Habreoht, Bataeus, and possibly by others
See COMENIUS, JOHN AMOS.

JAPAN, EDUCATION IN. — Historical —

The present educational system of Japan dates
from 1872, when the first education code under
the new regime was published In 1868 took
place the great event called The Restoration of
Meiji, Meiji being the name of the new era
then inaugurated Up to that time, for some
seven hundred years, the whole administrative
power of the empire had been in the hands of
the military class, the head of which under the
title of Sei-I-Tai-Shogun (generalissimo for
subjugation of barbarians) was de facto ruler of
the country, under him, there were military
lords, each having an almost autonomous
power in his own territory In 1868 the
Shfigun gave up his power into the hands of the
Emperor, and in 1871, the feudal system wah
finally abolished. The military class lost its
monopoly of civil and military services and all
classes were made equal before the law. Tho
first education code of 1872 established equality
of all classes in educational matters and the
principle of compulsory education The pre-
amble to the code says- " It is intended that
henceforth universally without any distinction
of class or sex, in a village there shall be no
house without learning (education), and in a
house no individual without learning. Fathers
and elder brothers must take note of this in-
tention, and, bringing up their children or
younger brothers (or sisters) with warm feeling
of love, must not fail to let them acquire learn-
ing. As for higher learning, that depends upon
the capacity of individuals, but it shall be re-
garded as a neglect of duty on the part of fathers
or elder brothers, should they fail to send
young children to primary schools at least
without distinction 01 sex," But before enter-
ing upon the description of the present system
initiated by the new code, it will not be without
interest to touch briefly upon the education in
the old feudal days before the new era, for it
was chiefly men educated under the old regime,
who have been leaders in the evolution of
modern Japan.

With the introduction of the Chinese civili-
zation in the seventh and eighth centuries,
learning began to be cultivated, and in ac-
cordance with provisions of the education sec-
tion of the famous Taiko code issued in 701 A.D.
a university was established in the capital for
study of classics (or philosophy and history),
law, literature, music, calligraphy, and raathe-
matics, all except law being exclusively Chinese;
a school was also established in every province :
only the children of higher officials were, how-
ever, admitted either into the university or to

JAPAN

JAPAN

provincial schools. With the rise of the mili-
tary class and the establishment of feudalism,
those fell into decay, and for centurion the only
places where people could obtain any teaching
were Buddhist temples, even sons of great
military chiefs receiving their education there,
if at all. It was only towards the end of the
seventeenth century, when the country began
to enjoy continued order and tranquillity under
the Shdgunate of the Tokugawa family, that any
regular provisions were made for education
Even then it was chiefly confined to sons of
samurai or military men, and it was not till
some hundred years later that schools began to
be established in any number for common
people In fact, higher learning was limited to
the samurai class, while of the others, including
farmers, artisans, and merchants (to name them
in the order of the social scale of the time), the
large mass was entirely without any education
or with only the elements of reading, writing, and
arithmetic ; while the number of those who
acquired any literary culture was small indeed
The education of samurai in those days con-
sisted in the study of Chinese classics and of
training in military arts, they were taught in
schools established by each feudal lord for his
retainers, while those who showed any special
ability, either in literary studies or military
arts, were allowed or sometimes ordered to
proceed to study further with noted masters
throughout the country There was an acad-
emy m Vedo (now Tokyo), the seat of the
Sh6gun's government, where noted professors
gave lectures on Chinese classics, there weie
also private academies kept by masters, t->
which scholars flocked, attracted by their fame
Other studies were also cultivated to a certain
extent such as Japanese literature (in con-
tradistinction to the Chinese), mathematics,
medicine, etc., and, notably towards the latter
part of this period, the Occidental learning
through the study of the Dutch language. It is
a mistake to suppose that we began to study
Western arts and sciences only within the last
fifty years, — after the coming of Commodore
Perry*, there were earnest students, though few,
who under great difficulties read such foicign
books as were brought into Japan by the Dutch
and in several cases translated them into Japanese
or sometimes Chinese, which was the language
of the learned at the time.

Under the new regime, which began in 1868,
education was encouraged from the very begin-
ning. The academy of foreign languages,
which had been in existence before, was re-
opened and enlarged, developing in the course
of some ten years into the University of Tokyo,
while many new schools were opened Students
were sent abroad; foreign teachers were
engaged, among others being an American
normal school teacher, who was placed m
charge of the newly opened normal school
and taught the method of class teaching in
primary schools; under his direction were

compiled school books and wall charts entirely
after the American model This school was
opened in June, 1S72, and in September of the
same year the new education code was promul-
gated, which introduced an entirely new system
of education after the Occidental model The
provisions of the new code were too ambitious
to be carried out completely at the time
Moreover, they had been copied too closelv
after a foreign model and some of them were
found to be unsuitable for the country During
the forty years which have elapsed since that
time, many and gieat changes have been made;
but the fundamental principle enunciated, that
everybody without distinction of class or sex
•shall receive primary education at least and
that equal opportunities shall be given to all
to receive higher education according to their
ability, has always been maintained

Present System — General Outline — Edu-
cation is regarded as one of the most important
functions of the state and is placed ontnely
under the state control, there is a Minister of
Education who is a member of the cabinet and
is in charge of all administrative matters con-
nected with education It is to be observed
that the educational system of Japan is not
determined by laws which have to pass through
the two houses of the Imperial Diet and to be
sanctioned by the Emperor, but more impor-
tant matters connected with the educational
system are regulated by imperial ordinances,
which are issued by the Emperor on the rec-
ommendation of the cabinet after being sub-
mitted to the Privy Council Those are also
submitted by the minister previous to their
proposal by him in the cabinet to the High
Educational Council, an advisory body com-
posed of presidents of imperial universities, of
heads of different colleges and schools, of cer-
tain coopted members, of members represent-
ing the Departments of the Interior, of Agri-
culture and Commerce, of Army, and of Navy,
arid of members specially appointed for^ then
educational experience and knowledge Theie
are imperial ordinances relating to primary
(or elementary) schools, middle schools, girls'
high schools, normal schools, higher schools,
special colleges, technical schools, imperial
universities, private schools, etc

General — Let us begin with a brief out-
line of the whole educational system as de-
termined by those ordinances At the base
of the whole system is the primary school
Below this, there is the kindergarten, which,
however, can scarcely be said to form a part of
the national educational system The primary
course is divided into ordinary and higher
The ordinary primary course extends over six
years and is compulsory for all children who
have completed their sixth year After fin-
ishing the ordinary primary course, a child may
go on to the higher primary school with a
course extending over two or three years
Supplementary courses may be provided for

519

JAPAN

JAPAN

children who at any stage after the completion
of six years* compulsory education cannot
proceed further with regular education In
primary schools, boys and girls are usually
taught together in the same schools and often
in the same classes, especially in the ordinary
primary, there being but little difference either
in the matter or manner of teaching. But
beyond the primary, the education of boys and
girls becomes distinct both as regards schools
and subjects After six years of the ordinary
primary course, a boy who proposes to pursue
higher education will, instead of going on to
the higher primary, enter a middle school A
middle school has a course of five years to
which may be appended a supplementary
course of one year. After passing through the
middle school, a boy intending to pursue the
university course enters a higher school, having
a course or rather courses of three years, pre-
paratory to different colleges or faculties of
the imperial universities. This would cor-
respond approximately to the first two years
of the college course of American universities
After finishing three years of the higher school
course when he is between twenty and twenty-
one years of age, supposing him to have
passed through all the stages without any
interruption, he enters one of the colleges or
faculties of the imperial universities, having an
undergraduate course of three or four years,
after which he may pursue further study as a
postgraduate student Instead, however, of
proceeding to the imperial universities, a boy
may, after he has finished the middle school,
enter at once a special college or a technical
special college This college must be distin-
guished from the college of an imperial univer-
sity and is more like an American college in its
standard and scope.

It should be mentioned that in all cases the
graduation from one school or college is a
qualification for entrance into the next higher
stage, but in recent years the demand for higher
education has increased at such a rate that,
notwithstanding the very great and rapid ex-
pansion of educational resources (see tables at
the end), at almost every stage a competitive
examination has to be held for admission, the
number of candidates for admission being from
twice, thrice, to even in some cases as large
as ten times the number of those that can be
admitted After leaving a middle school, a
boy may also enter a higher normal school for
the training of secondary school teachers, or
one of the military and naval schools or the
navigation school for training of officers of
the merchant marine, etc After two years of
higher primary school (or after two years of
middle school) a boy may enter a technical
school, i.e a school for the teaching of indus-
trial arts (manufactures, engineering, technical
arts), agriculture, commerce, navigation, etc
The length of a course in these schools is gen-
erally three years, so that a boy will finish his

520

education on this line at about the same age
as the boy who has taken a middle school
course will have finished his There are tech-
nical schools of even lower grade than this, to
which boys are admitted after finishing the
ordinary primary school There are also tech-
nical supplementary schools for those who have
finished the ordinary or higher primary course.

A girPs education runs on a similar line as far
as it goes. Thus after finishing the ordinary
primary school, instead of going on to the
higher primary, she may enter a girls' high
school The usual length of the course in a
girls' high school is four years but may be five
years; a supplementary course of two years
may be added In the girls' high school at-
tached to the female higher normal school in
Tokyo, the course is five years, with a supple-
mentary " special " course of three years
There is no provision made either by the central
or local government for girls desiring to receive
a higher education than the supplementary
courses of girls' high schools, except female
higher normal schools for the training of
female secondary school-teachers; but several
colleges have been established by private in-
dividuals Besides high schools, there are also
technical schools of various grades, just as foi
boys

Normal schools for the training of both male
and female teachers of primary schools form a
separate class by themselves Their graduates
are eligible for admission into the higher normal
schools already mentioned equally with the
graduates of middle schools and girls' high
schools

There are thus several grades of schools and
colleges; first, primary schools with kinder-
gartens and some other schools of the same
grade, including some technical schools; next,
secondary schools, including middle schools,
girls' high schools, technical schools, and normal
schools; above them are special colleges for
law, medicine, science, literature, fine arts,
etc , and technical special colleges for tech-
nology, engineering, agriculture and forestry,
commerce, etc , besides higher normal schools
and higher schools preparatory to the imperial
universities; and lastly come the imperial uni-
versities with their colleges of law, medicine,
science, literature, engineering, and agriculture

Moral Instruction — The object of the pri-
mary education is defined in the first article of
the Imperial Ordinance on Primary Schools as
follows '" Primary schools are designed to
give children the rudiments of moral education
and of civic education, together with such gen-
eral knowledge and skill as are necessary for
life, while due attention is paid to their bodily
development " From which it will be seen
that great stress is laid on moral instruction;
and this is the case, not only in primary schools,
but in schools and colleges of all grades and
kinds. It is a national tradition that the
primary object of education is moral training.

University of Tokyo

Handwoik

Class Room Reritation

G>m nasties.

Training in Etiquette (Ten Ceremony.)

JAPANESE EDUCATION.

JAPAN

JAPAN

Thus in the old feudal days Chinese classics
and philosophy were studied by young samu-
rai, not so much for literary purposes as for
moral training and intellectual culture They
were thereby taught their responsibility as
members of the ruling class, and how to dis-
charge this responsibility; there they read of
deeds of great and wise men; by such means,
through precepts and examples, a spirit of
loyalty to their lords and filial piety to their
parents, of reverence for the Imperial House
and veneration for their ancestors was incul-
cated For the lower classes of people condi-
tions were similar, only in a lesser degree,
textbooks for popular instruction in reading and
writing were chiefly moral lessons Thus, there
was no necessity for special moral instruction
in those days; but under the new system with
the introduction of so many different subjects,
it was found necessary to devote a certain
number of hours specially to moral instruction
But here arose a difficulty as to what should
be made the basis of the moral teaching It
seemed impossible to return to the old Chinese
philosophical teaching, Buddhism (</;>) had
been discarded as the national religion, some,
while not themselves believing in Christianity,
nevertheless thought it might be adopted as
the basis of our ethical teaching, there was
even some wild talk of a new religion, we
seemed to have cut loose from our old moorings
and to be drifting, no one could say whither.
People seemed to have forgotten that in our
old tradition of devotion to the Imperial House
and reverence for ancestors, of loyalty and
filial piety, we had a most valuable inheritance
vv hich has always explicitly or implicitly formed
the basis of our moral teaching, even in the
days of ascendency of the Chinese influence
But this was now formulated in the memorable
Imperial Rescript issued in 1890 by the Em-
peror. It runs as follows —

IMPERIAL RESCRIPT ON EDUCATION

Know ye, Our subjects

Our Imperial Ancestors have founded Our Empire
on a basis broad and everlasting, and have deeply
and hrmly implanted viitue, Our subjects ever united
in lovalty and filial piet\ have from generation to
generation illustrated the beautv thereof This is the
gloiv of the fundamental character of Our Empire,
and heiein also lies the souice of Our Education Ye,
Oui Subjects, be filial to jour parents, affectionate to
vour brotheis and sisters, as husbands and wives be
harmonious, as fnonds true , bear vourselves in modesty
and moderation , extend your benevolence to all ,
pursue learning and cultivate arts, and thereby develop
intellectual faculties and perfect moral powers, further-
more, advance public good and promote common inter-
ests , always respect the Constitution and observe the
laws , should emergency arise, offer yourself coura-
geously to the State , and thus guard and maintain the
prosperity of Our Imperial Throne coeval with heaven
and earth. So shall ye not only be Our good and faith-
ful subjects, but render illustrious the best traditions
of your forefathers,

The Way here set forth is indeed the teaching be-
queathed by Our Imperial Ancestors, to be observed
alike by Their Descendants and the subjects, infallible
for all ages and 'true in all places It is Our wish to lay

it to heart in all reverence, in common with you, Our
subjects, that we may all attain to the same virtue

The 30th day of the 10th month of the 23rd year of
Meiji (October 30th, 1890)

Imperial Sign Manual. Imperial Seal

Such is the Rescript that now forms the basis
of our moral education; it will be observed that
the two cardinal virtues are lovalty, which
with us is identical with patriotism, and filial
piety, meaning thereby, not filial piety to our
immediate parents only, but to our ancestors
for generations The precepts given are noth-
ing new but " teaching bequeathed by the
Imperial Ancestors," and the Emperor calls
upon us to join with him in observing those
precepts by appealing to our loyalty and filial
piety The message that the Rescript conveys
to us cannot be properly understood without
the knowledge of the peculiar relation between
the Imperial House and the people, and of the
spirit of reverence for ancestors, in fact it may
be said that the most important object of oui
moral education consists in so imbuing our
children with the spirit of the Rescript that it
forms a part of our national life

A copy of the Rescript is distributed fioni
the Department of Education to every school
in the Empire, those under government control
being actually signed by the Emperoi To
foster the spirit of loyalty, portraits of the Em-
peror and the Empress are distributed from
the imperial household to every government
and public schools above the grade of higher
primary inclusive, and to some private schools
These are brought out on all public occasions
and school functions, at which also the reading
of the Rescript always plays an important part

Two hours a week are given in primary
schools to lessons in morals The following
directions as to these lessons are given in the
regulations —

The teaching of morals must be based on the Im-
perial Rescript on education, and its aim should be to
cultivate the moral nature of children and to guide them
in practice of virtues

In the ordinary pnmar> course, easy precepts appro-
priate for practice concerning Hiich virtues a.s filial piety
and obedience to eldeis, affection and friendship, fru-
gality and industry, modesty, courage, etc, should be
given, and then some of the duties towaids the State
and societv, with a view to elevate their moral charactei,
strengthen their will, increase their spint of enterprise,
make them value public virtues and foster the spirit
of loyalty and patriotism

In the higher primary course, the above must be
further extended and training given made still more solid
In the teaching of girls, special stress must be laid
on the virtues of chastity and modesty

Encouragement and admonition should be given by •
means of wise sayings and proverbs and by tales of
good deeds, so that children may lay them to heart.

At present textbooks compiled on these lines
by a special commission, appointed in the De-
partment of Education for the purpose, are
m use in all the schools

Similarly for moral lessons in middle schools,
to which an hour a week must be given, the
following directions are given: —

521

JAPAN

JAPAN

The teaching of morals must be based on the pre-
eepts of the Imperial Rescript Its object is to foster
the growth of moral ideas and sentiments, and to give
boys the cultuie and character necessary for men of
middle and higher social standing, and to encourage
and promote the piaetiee of virtues The teaching
should begin with an explanation of the essential points
of morals in connection with daily life by means of
good words or iimxmib and examples of good deeds, to
be followed by a little more systematic exposition of
the duties to self, to famil>, to society, and to the State
Elements of Ethi< *> may also be taught

For girls' high schools, where two hours a
week are devoted to moral lehsons, almost- the
same directions are given, but here in addition
lessons must be given in manners, under which
are included, not only personal conduct, but
vaiious social observances In other schools,
at least an hour a week is given to moral
lessons, always based on the Imperial Rescript
and on similar lines, but adapted to the age
and future position arid occupation of pupils;
thus, for instance, in commercial schools great
stress is laid on various phases of commercial
morality

Physical Education and School Hygiene. —
As seen in the article above quoted, defining
the object of the primary education, a great
deal of attention is paid to the physical de-
velopment of children In the old feudal days,
sons of samurais spent a large portion of their
time in practising military arts, such as fencing,
archery, riding, use of spears, jujutsu, etc , which
of course was an excellent physical training, as
for children of other classes, their plays and
games and even work in open air with but
little school teaching kept them healthy and
strong, while it was deemed unwomanly for
girls, especially in the middle and higher
classes, to take any kind of active exercises
Hence when the new education was first intro-
duced, no need of physical education as such
was considered, and while boys and girls,
young men and women were subjected to much
harder mental work than before, they had
scarcely any physical exercise The conse-
quences soon made themselves apparent on
the physique of educated youths, and weak
sight and pale consumptive features came to be
regarded as characteristic of students Such a
state of things could not be allowed to go on;
a teacher of gymnastics was engaged from
America, who trained teachers of gymnastics,
and by this means a system of gymnastics
after the German model was introduced into
all the schools, Various modifications have
since been made in the method of teaching
very young children in primary schools aie
now taught plays and games, while older boys
in primary and all higher schools practice mili-
tary gymnastics and drill in addition to com-
mon gymnastics In girls' schools, square
dances are taught as exercises, and the Swedish
system of gymnastics has been introduced to
some extent. Besides systematic teaching in
gymnastics, foreign games and sports have been
introduced: baseball is now a very popular

game, and there are lawn tennis courts in
almost every school, while boating and athletic
sports have their votaries. At the same time
old military arts have been revived as phys-
ical exercise, especially fencing and jujutsu,
which in some schools are made almost com-
pulsory, and, in a less degree, archery. Schools
of every grade have their annual or semi-
annual school excursions (q v ), which, while
undertaken primarily for the purpose of in-
struction in geography, history and science,
afford a great deal of training in long-distance
walking and marching, hill climbing, etc

Medical examination of school children is made
by medical officers in April of every year under
the following heads. (1) height, (2) weight,
(3) circumference round the chest, (4) the spine
(scohosis and kyphosis, q.v.) , (5) general consti-
tution, whether strong, medium, or weak,
(6) eyesight; (7) diseases of the eye, (8) hear-
ing, (9) diseases of the ear, (10) teeth, (11) dis-
eases in general, especially scrofula, insufficient
nourishment, amcmia, kakke or ben-ben, con-
sumption, megrim, epistaxis, neurasthenia, and
chronic diseases The results of the examina-
tion of over one million school children are
sent to the Department of Education, where
they are collated and examined It is too
early to draw any definite conclusions from
these statistics, but there seems to be no doubt
that there has been a very remarkable improve-
ment in the physique of our young men and
women

Primary Schools — Parents and guardians
are under obligation to send children to school,
from the beginning of the first school year
(April 1) after they have completed their sixth
year until they have finished the ordinary pri-
mary course, unless they arc specially exempted
by the mayor or headman of the district on
account of mental or bodily infirmities or extreme
poverty or for some other valid reason. Hence,
an obligation is also laid on the community to
establish and maintain a sufficient number of
primary schools to accommodate children within
its jurisdiction, tuition being, of course, free, the
community may be a city, a town, a village, or a
union or a division of the same, as the case may
be. Special permission must be obtained from
the mayor or headman to pursue education at
home or at any other school than that estab-
lished by the community, as a matter of fact,
this happens very seldom except in Tokyo, so
that practically all children in Japan receive
their primary education in common schools
without any social distinction In Tokyo the
upper classes are beginning to complain that by
sending their children to the same schools as
those of the lower classes they suffer in their
manners and speech, and also in their intellectual
progress, and a few private schools for children
of the rich have been started within recent

years

522

Curriculum. — The subjects taught in primary
schools are, besides morals and gymnastics al-

JAPAN

JAPAN

ready mentioned, language (reading, writing,
and composition), arithmetic, geography, and
Japanese history, science (or nature study),
drawing, singing, sewing (for girls only), and
manual work, making all together from twenty-
one to thirty hours a week. It should, however,
he mentioned that an hour means usually a forty-
five minutes' lesson (or even less), followed by
fifteen minutes' play In higher primary schools
the subjects are mostly a continuation of the
same; except that elements of agriculture or com-
mercial knowledge and the English language are
usually added As to language, Japanese child-
ren are very much handicapped by the fart that
they have to learn a large number, tsome 1 500, of
Chinese characters in common use in Japan
In arithmetic, almost all our weights and meas-
ures being in decimal system, it is not neces-
sary to introduce fractions very early, in fact
not until the last, or sixth year, of the ordinary
primary Sewing forms a vcrv important sub-
ject for girls, not only in primary schools, but
throughout their school course

Teachers — Primary school teachers must
have certificates or licenses, which are granted
to graduates of normal schools and of certain
other prescribed schools and to those who have
passed the examination held annually in each
prefecture, the standard of which is the same
as for graduation from normal schools The
normal schools are maintained by the pie-
fectures for the training of primary school
teachers and have a four years' course, and, in
some cases, a prcparaton course of one yeai
The qualifications foi entrance into the prepaia-
tory course are that candidates shall be of good
moial character and sound constitution and
shall have finished two years of the higher
primary course The last, or fourth yeai, of the
normal school course is largely devoted to prac-
tice in teaching in the primary school attached
to every normal school A giaduate of a
middle school or a girls' high school may enter
a normal school for one year, dining which he
or she studies the theory and practice of peda-
gogy, and becomes qualified as a primary school
teacher It will be seen from the above that
the qualifications for primary school teachers
are not very high; yet so great has been the
educational expansion that the supply of
teachers has not kept pace with the demand,
and many not properly qualified teachers have
to be employed It may be remarked that this
is the case not only in primary education, but
in every grade and kind of education in Japan.
The salaries of teachers, from university pro-
fessors to primary school teachers, are very in-
adequate; this, no doubt, is one of the reasons
why the supply of teachers is not sufficient to
meet the demand More than half of the
primary school teachers have salaries ranging
between 15 and 24 yen ($7.50 to $12) a month,
which, even allowing for the low rate of living
in Japan, is very inadequate; the highest salary
for a university professor is about 4000 yen

($2000). All teachers in government or public
schools and colleges are entitled to a pension
equal to one fourth the amount of their salary
at the time of retirement, if they retire after
fifteen years of service, and to " additional
?fa th the amount of their salary for every year
exceeding fifteen "

Middle and Higher Schools. — Curriculum
— The subjects taught in middle schools are
morals, the (Japanese) language, and Chinese
literature, a foreign language (one of the three,
English, French, and German), history, geog-
raphy, mathematics, natural sciences, phys-ies
and chemistry, law and economics, drawing,
singing, and gymnastics, of which law and
economics and singing may be omitted None
of those call for special remark, except lt the
language and Chinese literature " One who is
not acquainted with our language may well
wonder why Japanese language and Chinese
literature should be coupled as one subject in
this way, but the fact is that with the intro-
duction of Chinese civilization we not only
adopted Chinese literature almost as our own
and introduced very many Chinese words into
our own language, but even adopted Chinese
characters into our writing, so that at present
ordinary Japanese hteiature is wnttcn or
printed with Chinese characters, amongst which
our own are interspersed It would take too
long to explain this anomalous btate so as to be
intelligible to a foreign public, but it is a very
great handicap indeed, not only for our bovs
and girls, who have to learn three or four
thousand Chinese characters, but also for the
general public, for it prevents the use of type-
writers, linotypes, and similar instruments
based on the use of a limited number of char-
acters.

Teachers — Teachers in secondary schools
are required to have a certificate, granted by
the Department of Education to the giaduates
of higher normal schools and of certain other
institutions, as for instance colleges of science
and of literature of the Imperial universities,
and to those who have passed examinations
held annually by the department for the pur-
pose As already stated, however, a large
number of teachers without certificates have to
be employed for 'want of certificated teachers
The tables appended below will show that theje
has been a steady improvement in this respect

Higher Schools - — The question of secondary
schools is a very difficult problem in every
country, even in (iermany, which may be said
to be a leading authority in every educational
question, this problem seems to be still a matter
of discussion In Japan the problem presents
serious difficulties The present middle school
course is not sufficient as a preparation for Im-
perial universities, not only because the stand-
ard in the universities is high, but also because
to pursue higher studies of this standard m
Japan at present requires a knowledge of two
or at least one of the occidental languages, so

523

JAPAN

JAPAN

entirely different in their structure and nature
from the Japanese language, and presenting
corresponding difficulties to Japanese students,
far greater than French or German to an
American. This chasm between middle schools
and universities is bridged over at present by
" higher " schools, having three different
courses of three years preparatory to different
colleges of the universities Thus the normal
age of a student when he is ready to enter an
Imperial university is above twenty, it will
be seen that the higher school courses corre-
spond both in their standard and the normal
age of students somewhat to the first two
years of the college course of American uni-
versities There are at present eight higher
schools, capable of admitting about 2000 new
pupils annually, and as there are between 7000
and 8000 applicants for admission (graduates
of middle schools and thereby duly qualified),
higher schools and consequently universities
obtain a number of tolerably select students.
At the same time, however, the voice of dis-
content of the nonadmitted is loud, and, in-
deed, it is a great problem what to do with
them, many of them enter private, so-called
universities, of which mention will be made
later

At a session of the High Educational Council,
held in the spring of 1910, it was decided that
higher schools should be replaced by higher
middle schools having two courses of two years
and a term, not simply preparatory to the
universities, but giving a higher general liberal
education, one of the courses being literary and
the other scientific, it is thought that the
graduates will be qualified to enter Imperial
universities at the same time that they receive
general liberal culture. Permission will be
given to prefectures and private individuals to
open higher middle schools, and several will no
doubt be established within a few years, so
that the present state of congestion at the
entrance of higher schools will be avoided
This decision in a modified form was approved by
the late minister of education; the only ques-
tion is whether in two years and a term, instead
of three years, as heretofore, students will be
so prepared as to satisfy university authorities

Imperial Universities — These institutions
are established and maintained by the central
government There are at present four, one in
Tokyo (f 1868) and one in Kyoto (f. 1897),
one in the Northwest and one in Kyushu in
course of organization Each university con-
sists of several colleges or faculties, six in Tokyo,
viz. colleges of law, medicine, engineering, litera-
ture, science, and agriculture, and four in Kyoto,
viz. colleges of law, medicine, literature, and
science and engineering; the Northwestern Uni-
versity has at present colleges of science and of
agriculture; and the Kyushfl University those of
medicine and engineering Those colleges are
like professional schools of American univer-
sities, except those of science and literature,

524

which would correspond approximately to the
last two years of the American college course
and a little more. In each college, there are
prescribed courses, which may he taken up by
students in Tokyo, in the college of law, there
are courses of four years in law proper, politics,
political economy, and commerce; in the col-
lege of medicine, besides a course of four years
in medicine, there is a course of three years in
pharmacy; in the college of engineering, there
are courses of three years in civil engineering,
mechanical engineering, naval architecture,
technology of arms, electrical engineering,
architecture, applied chemistry, technology of
explosives, mining, and metallurgy, in the
college of literature, courses of three years in
philosophy, history, and literature, each of
them being subdivided into several branches,
such for instance as Japanese, Chinese, English,
French, and German literatures at the last, in
the college of science, courses of three years
in mathematics, astronomy, theoretical and ex-
perimental physics, chemistry, zoology, botany,
geology, and mineralogy; in the college of
agriculture, courses also of three years in agri-
culture, agricultural chemistry, forestry, and
veterinary medicine. In Kyoto there are simi-
lar courses A hospital is attached to the
college of medicine for the purpose of clinical
instruction After graduation, students may
remain in the university as postgraduate stu-
dents. Tuition fees, inclusive of everything,
amount to 50 yen ($25). The enrollment at
Tokyo in 1909-1910 was 5649, at Kyoto 1424
Special Colleges. — Under the nomenclature
of special colleges are classed institutions for the
instruction of special subjects, other than the
Imperial universities, whose entrance qualifi-
cation is graduation from middle schools or
girls' high schools, or higher. There are special
colleges for law, medicine, literature, languages,
sciences, arts, music, etc. There are five col-
leges of medicine maintained by the central
government and several established by the local
government or private individuals; these medi-
cal colleges all have a course of four years, but
their standard is necessarily lower than that
of the Imperial universities, students not being
so well prepared, especially in foreign languages
Many of the private institutions teaching law,
literature, and theology (Buddhist or Christian),
and styling themselves universities, are officially
classed under this head, among these, the
most noted are the Kei-0-Gijuku founded by
the famous educationalist Fukuzawa, and
Waseda Daigaku founded by Count Okuma,
with faculties of law and literature, and the
Joshi Daigaku (Women's University). Some
of them have a large number of students, but
most of them are suffering from want of funds;
for, with very few exceptions, they have scarcely
any endowment, nor can they charge high
tuition fees. Among other special colleges may
be mentioned Foreign Languages School,
Academy of Fine Arts, and Academy of

JAPAN

JAPAN

Music, all in Tokyo and maintained by the
central government There are, besides those,
technical special colleges, of which, however, I
shall speak under the next head The College
of Navigation, for the training of officers of
merchant marine under the Department of
Communications, and the College of Fisheries
and Marine Products, under the Department
of Agriculture and Commerce, also fall under
this category

Technical Schools — A great deal of atten-
tion has been paid to technical education, more
especially within the last fifteen years, and a
large number of new technical schools has been
recently brought into existence, and old ones
have been enlarged both in scope and accom-
modation By technical education is meant
education in engineering and technology, in-
dustrial arts; agiiculture in all its blanches,
including sericulture and veterinary medicine,
forestry, fisheries and maime products, navi-
gation, and commeice There are several
grades of schools, k'a\ing out the engineering
and agncultuial colleges of the Impoiial uni-
\ersities, there are immediately below them
technical special colleges, admitting graduate*
of middle schools and having a course of three
or four years, below these are technical schools
of two classes, .1 and B Schools of class A
are of about the same standing as middle
schools, admitting bovs or girls who h*i\e
finished two yeans of the higher primary, or
under certain conditions two years of a middle
school or a girls' high school, they ha\e
generally a course* of three years, hornetirneh
lour, and their graduates air under ccitain
conditions admitted to technical special col-
leges Schools of class B admit bovs or girls
\\ho have finished the ordinary prrrnarv, and
usually have a course of three years In
addition to these there are technical supple-
mentary schools for giving general and ele-
mentary technical knowledge to those who
cannot enter regular schools, they are mostly
night schools

Technical special colleges are mostly gov-
ernment institutions, among which are the
engineering or technological colleges of Tokyo,
Osaka, Kyoto, Nagova, Kumarnoto, Sendai,
Yamagata and Akita, the commercial colleges
of Tokyo, Kobe, and Yamaguchi, Nagasaki and
Otaru, and the agricultural college of Moiioka
There aie several institutions attached to these,
to train teachers for technical schools of class
A, want of good teachers being a great hin-
drance to their establishment, which is greatly
encouraged by the government A sum of
350,000 yen ($175,000) was voted bv the Diet
as subsidy for the encouragement of technical
education for the year 1908, this sum being
distributed to the schools and colleges estab-
lished by the local governments

Female Education. — In the old feudal days
a gill's education generally stopped at an
elementary stage, even for daughters of samu-

rai They were taught to read and write,
and to sew, while those of richer classes were
also taught many accomplishments, such as
music and dancing, chanoyu (tea ceremony),
flower arrangement, etc There were some,
especially among the samuari class, who re-
ceived much higher literary culture, but they
were only a small minority Under the new
regime, female education received great en-
couragement. The preamble to the first edu-
cation code already quoted is emphatic on the
point that no distinction shall be made as to
sex at least in primary education. A girls'
school was opened m 1871 with an American
teacher to teach English, in the following year
a female normal school was opened bv the
Empress herself, an event without precedent in
the history of Japan But notwithstanding
the encouragement given to the female edu-
cation by the government, it is only quite
recently that people in general have begun to
recognize its importance In 1873, a year jifter
the promulgation of the code, out of a total
of 1,145,800 attending primary schools, 77
per cent were boys and only 23 per cent girls,
in 1883 the total had increased to 3,238.000,
but the ratio of boys to girls was 68 to 32,
statistics for 1893 show no great advance
either in the total number (3,338,000) or in
the ratio of boys to gnls (66 to 34), but in 1908
the total had increased to 5,99(1,000, showing
an enormous stride made in primary education
since the China War of 1893-1894, and the
ratio of boys to girls shows the same satisfac-
tory progress, being 57 to 4-3 In secondary
education, the same thing is to be observed,
in 1883 there were only 7 girls' hrgh schools
with 350 pupils, besides a lew schools of about
the same standing but not quite satisfying the
requirements of a high school, in 1893 the
number had increased to 28 with 3020 pupils
The ofhcial report for 1908 gives 159 schools
with 46,580 pupils, and the number seems to
be increasing at the rate of more than 20 a
year

The course in a girls' high school is mosth
four years, the subjects taught are morals,
the (Japanese) language, a foreign language,
history, geography, mathematics, science1, draw-
ing, household matters, sewing, music, and
gymnastics The standard is not quite as high
as- in middle schools The foreign language
may be either French or English, actually
there is no school, except, the " Peeresses
School," wheie French is taught A general
supplementary course of two or three years
may be added for those who, having finished
the regular course, desire to receive a further
education, these correspond somewhat to the
college courses, but they are not very largely
attended, girls staying at home to learn sewing
and housekeeping with their mothers, or receiv-
ing private lessons in music, chanoyu, and other
accomplishments

A girl who has finished the girls' high school

525

JAPAN

JAPAN

may enter a female normal school for two
years and become qualified as a primary
teacher, or she may enter one of the two higher
female normal schools and pass a four years'
course, when she becomes qualified as a
secondary teacher. There are also a few
private colleges where girls may receive edu-
cation in literature, languages, etc. There is
at present no means by which a girl may enter
one of the Imperial universities. There are
also technical schools for girls of different
grades as for boys, although not so many;
subjects taught in them are sewing, household
matters, embroidery, artificial flower making,
sericulture, filature, etc.

Statistics — The statistics which are ap-
pended here to give some idea of the extent and
progress of education in Japan are compiled
from materials given in the Reports of the
Department of Education, mostly from that for
the year 1908-1909.

GENERAL VIEW OF SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES

GIRLS' HIGH SCHOOLS

No OF
SCHOOLS

No OF
TEACHER*

No OF
PUPILS

Primary schools . . .

26,386

134,337

5,996,139

Blind and deaf-mute schools

40

221

1,802

Normal schools . .

75

1,307

21,618

Higher normal schools

2

120

980

Female higher normal

schools

1

45

365

Temporary training school

(for secondary school

teachers)

2

18

56

Middle schools . .

296

5,719

115,038

Girls' high schools . .

159

2,395

46,582

Higher schools

8

303

5,435

Imperial universities .

3

553

7,517

Special colleges

54

1,765

37,432

Technical special colleges

13

475

6,114

Technical schools of

classes A and B

403

3,627

56,573

Technical supplementary

schools

4,751

2,049

192,331

Technical school teachers'

training schools

3

151

Schools not classed

2,180

7,944

148,971

Total

34,376

160,878

6,627,104

PERCENTAGE OF SCHOOL ATTENDANCE

1893

1900

1902

1904

1906

1908

Boys

74 8

906

958

97 2

98 2

98 7

Girls

40 6

71 9

87 0

91 5

94 8

96 9

Average . . .

587

81 7

91 6

944

963

978

MIDDLE SCHOOLS

NUMBER OF

1896

1900

1904

1908

Schools

99

193

253

288

Teachers with certi-

ficates . . .
Teachers without certi-

1,005

2,137

2,934

4,222

ficates . .
Foreign teachers . .

692
12

1,568
21

1,830
53

1,385
67

Pupils . . .

40,577
1 798

77,994

7747

100,853
14 216

114,395
14 950

NUMBER OF

1896 "

1900

1904

1908

Schools ...

18

51

94

158

Teachers with certifi-

cates, men

42

76

279

704

Teachers with certifi-

cates, women

68

178

521

857

Teachers without cer-

tificates, men

68

144

235

260

Teachers without cer-

tificates, women .

40

241

403

545

Foreign teachers, men .

1

1

Foreign teachers,

women ....

3

5

Pupils . .

3,798

11,678

28,191

46,229

Graduates . . .

417

2,469

6,825

10,191

TECHNICAL SCHOOLS

NUMBER OF

SCHOOLS

PUPILS

SSE

Technological schools of class A

32

4,577

1,056

Apprentices school (class B)

81

6,799

1 ,709

Agricultural schools of class A

77

12,595

3,459

Agricultural schools of class B

103

8,257

2,143

Fisheries und marine products

schools

14

1,084

215

Commercial schools of class A .

60

18,247

2,648

Commercial srhools of class B

18

2.K10

774

Navigation schools of class A

12

2,027

202

Supplementary schools

Technological . .

251

14,395

4,083

Agricultural

4,185

159,092

33,32")

Fisheries and manno products
Commercial

97
215

3,757
14,582

872
3,712

Navigation

2

47

8

Grand total for 1908

5,147

24X.269

54,2()()

Grand total for 1904 . .

1,942

110,609

20,523

Grand total for 1900

285

25,72,-)

4,6 r>5

Grand total for 1896

59

7,604

1.16S

626

N B Slight discrepancies in the above tables arc due to
various facts , as, for example, in one table a brunch school in
counted independently and in the other not, and so on , tho\
are not such as arc significant D K

Korea, Education in. — Korea (Morning
Splendor), since 1910 part of the Empire of
Japan, is a peninsula covering with its archi-
pelago 85,000 square miles, with a population
of 12,934,282, m 11 provinces, 317 dibtnrts
and 4362 villages Roughly speaking, it con-
sists of an eastern mountain ridge fronting pre-
cipitously the nearly fadeless sea of Japan, and
a long western slope which faces China and a
sea containing many islands and with tides
rising over thirty feet. Thus, in history and
geography, Korea has had her back to Japan
and her face to China, the former being in
her traditions the land of savages and pirates,
the latter the sun and sum of all power and
culture. In popular legend- the founder of
Korean civilization is Kija (Ki-tsze), ancestor
of Confucius, who in 1122 B.C , with five thou-
sand followers settled east of the Yalu river.
Critical scholarship, however, knows nothing
of Kija's presence within the limits of modern
Korea. As with the Japanese, the Korean
historiographers, when, nearly two thousand
years later, first practicing their art, followed
m imitation and rivalry their only model, the
Chinese, carrying back antiquity as far as
possible and ascribing their national beginnings
to a great name and looming personality. The
foundations of all early Korean historiography,

JAPAN

JAPAN

like the Japanese, lie in the annals of China,
whence writing was derived Among the tribes
of the peninsula, three states (A D 9-960) arose,
in the north, east, and west, into which Chinese
letters and culture filtered, but it was the en-
trance of Buddhism, 384 A D , which, destined
to a thousand years of activity, opened the
literary, artistic, educational, and intellectual
history of Korea The state predominant- in
the Middle Ages was Silla (Shinra), whence
students traveled to China in ships guided by
the manner's compass, and retaining greatly
extended the knowledge of Chinese ethics,
letters, and philosophy From A D 1)60 to
1392, under the name of Korai (whence Korea),
the peninsular peoples were united and became
for the first time a nation, uniform in language,
law, religion, and social customs Aftei sev-
eral centuries of clash and rivalry between the
two systems, Confucianism won the day over
Buddhism, at the fall of the old Korai dynasty
and the establishment of that ruling from 1392
to 1910, since which time the Chinese system
has been the monopoly of the privileged classes,
scholars, and office holders Korean Bud-
dhism, exiled, in its outward manifestations at
least, to the mountain monasteries, and held to
mainly by the women of the common people,
had not those doctrinal developments so note-
worthy in Japan The basis of all education
was the Chinese classics

The method was for the schoolmaster to
have, squatting before him, a dozen or more
boy pupils, who first committed to momoiv,
through the eye and ear --usually bawling
out the sounds at the top of then voices --
the characters in ordei of their composition in
the text, and then to u back the book " and
recite Then, by analysis and syntax, leading
was made thorough Aftei that came com-
ment and explanation The brush-pen was in
constant use foi both ordinary and rapid wnt-
mg, and calligraphy was greatly prized Ex-
cept some slight knowledge of (Chinese) his-
tory and arithmetic, this curriculum com-
prised the average educated man's training,
though a minority went on farthci, in reading
and mastery of the world of Chinese lore —
poetry, philosophy, commentary, and discus-
sion,— or excelled in mastery of the brush-pen
in calligraphy Thousands of Koreans can
write arid decipher numerous ideographs, who
cannot read books In the native newspapers
of to-day, read by many of the common people
and women, the Chinese logograms aie plenti-
fully used, but require no knowledge of Chin-
ese syntax, the mixed script, native and Chinese,
being read in the same way as we read our
Arabic numerals, terms in Latin letters, and
words of Greek origin, as familiar parts of
speech. Korea's greatest scholar, Chul-chong
in the Silla era, or eighth century, invented or
adapted from selected Chinese characters the
Nido, or syllabary, which admirably expresses
vernacular sounds. Later on, a true phonetic

alphabet, based on the organs of speech and one
of the finest of the world, of eleven vowels and
fourteen consonants, made of straight lines and
circles, called En-mun, was invented bv a
Korean statesman The two systems exist
side by side The letters, being associated in
all their possible combinations into syllables,
199 in all, are learned, without analysis 01
separation, by children by rote In this popu-
lar script personal letters are written, and the
novels read by women and young people are
printed Being so very easy to learn, and be-
cause made the vehicle of the vulgar fiction,
the En-muii was despised by scholars Foi cen-
turies it lay virtually unused by the learned,
until the advent of the missionaries, who to
their delight found ready to hand the apparatus
of education and evangelism, of which they at
once made liberal use Thiee or four styles
of language still prevail, as in Japan (1) pure
Chinese, (2) Chinese vocabulary set in native
syntax, (3) popular book style, vernacular
but refined , (4) epistolary style

The end and aim of all formal education in
old Korea was political office Society had
but two classes, the yang-ban (civil arid mili-
tary), office seekers and holders, and the masses
or commoners, given up to ignorance and supei-
stitiori, there being virtually no middle class
The whole outlook on the umveise and the
world of aims and ideas were changed with the
coming of the missionaries in 1885, the first
being Horace N Allen, who, in 1885, founded a
hospital under royal pationage He was soon
followed by other physicians, and the natives
were given valuable training in the Jaws of
cause and effect The fast teacher and edu-
cator was Henry (J Appenzeller, who in 1885
opened a school and began the teaching of the
English language and sciences His school in
1886 was noticed bv the king himself, who gave
it the name of Hall for the Keaimg of Useful
Men. About the same time Mrs W B
Scianton opened a school for Korean girls, both
being soon housed in brick buildings A gov-
ernment medical school was started by Di.
Horace G Underwood, Dr J W. Heron, and
Di II N Allen, and two Amencan lady phy-
sicians served the Queen Three American
teachers, requested by the Koi can government,
Messrs Gilrnoie, Bunker, arid Hulbert, anived
in July, 1886, and opened an English language
school From this time forwaid the native
language was seriouslv studied by foreign
scholars, and many writers visited the country
and by then wiitmgs made Korea better known
Schools for the study of German and French,
and other English language schools were estab-
lished by Europeans The results of the Chino-
Japancse war of 1904-1905 completely altered
the intellectual attitude of the Koreans toward
China, and they turned to the missionaries for
light As early as 1906, under the energetic
administration of Prince Ito, the Japanese them-
selves, having had already over a generation

527

JAPAN

JAPAN

of experience, established modern common
schools and reorganized the normal, high, and
foreign language schools in Seoul So far the
system is a model, rather than an advanced de-
velopment As a rule, the number of native
teachers compared with Japanese is as t\\o to
one To encourage female education, a girls'
high school was established in 1908 to servo as
a model, wlulo girls in separate classes were
admitted to the public schools In 1909 the
regulations for establishing industnal schools
and increasing the curriculum of agriculture,
commerce, and industry in the higher schools
already in opeiation, were issued In De-
comber, 1909, 512 Korean, 103 Japanese, and
four foreign teachcis (679) wore serving in 134
schools maintained or appointed by the gov-
ernment, in which were 811 female and 15,445
male students, the usual number in a class being
sixty Only the limitations of finance and the
lack of skilled teachers prevent rapid growth
In now places tho school established is meant
to sei vo as a model, $82,700 for all schools were
estimated in tho budget for 1909 In the normal
schools manual training was made compulsory,
tho classes to number fifty each Increase of
public interest is shown in tho 2250 applica-
tions made to enter tho Seoul Normal School,
194 passing tho examination successfully, the
number of students in 1908 being 140, and
212 in 1909 For high schools the regulations
of 1909 shorten the period of study fioin four to
tin oo years, according to local conditions The
number of applicants far exceeds those who
pass the entrance examinations In 1909 25
toachois taught 269 students, and there wore 35
graduates In the girls' high school, in which
7 teachers taught 151 girls, sowing is compul-
sory and artificial flower making, optional.
In the foreign language school in December,
1909, Japanese, English, French, German, and
Chinese wore taught Of 1130 applicants, 307
passed, 38 teachers taught 443 pupils, and the
graduates numbered 106 To the old Chinese
Classical School modern historical and scien-
tific subjects were added In the Law School 19
instructors had 138 students under them. In
1909 the seven industrial schools, classified as
agricultural, commercial, technical, and supple-
mentary industrial, in which most of the practi-
cal branches of learning are taught — the
foundries, farms, experimental stations, foiestiy
schools being equipped according to tho best
science — had 42 teachers and 306 pupils Of
private, which include missionary, schools,
by December, 1909, 2180 had received govern-
ment recognition, and of those duly inspected
or instructed, there are two high, two industrial,
1353 miscellaneous, and 829 missionary schools.
or 2187 in all Textbooks must be supervised
or approved by the government, and are lent
to the pupils, to be gradually paid for. In 1909
202,936 books were sold and 159,314 lent, the
number being nearly six times that of 1908
by competitive examination, fifty-two students

528

were selected and sent to Japan for higher
study.

Translation of the Bible into Korean printed
with mixed script or En-mun, and its rapid
distribution by energetic Bible societies, follow-

ing upon widespread propaganda and revivals
(which have resulted in a total Christian popu-
lation of 250,000), marked not only with fervor,
but with habitual study of the Scriptures, com-
pelled many to learn the alphabet to master a
sacred library so rich in substance and novelty,
have constituted a national school of intelli-
gence and culture This is especially notice-
able in Seoul and Ping Yang

In spite of the handicap to education which
the hereditary hatred of Koreans to their con-
querors, the survival of sedition, tho prevalence
of oarly marriages the brides being usually
older than tho grooms — the ago — old prejudice
against manual labor by the intellectual classes,
education promises to be universally ap-
preciated the Koreans having an innate love of
letters and respect for scholarship. W E. G.

References : —

Japan
BAIN, H F The Imperial Universities of Japan

Set Mo Vol LXXX, 1912, pp 246-250
BOLLJAHN, J Japanisches Srhulwesen, seine Ent-

wukduno und scin gegenwartigcr Stand (Berlin,

Pop

(iooDE J V Fundamental Principles of Japanese
Education School Rev Vol XVIII, pp 634 636
HORI, T Modern Education in Japan School 7fcr

Vol XVII. pp 5f>8-563

Japan, Department of Education Educatwn in Japan
Prepared foi the Louisiana Puichat>c Exposition
at St Lorn*, 1904 (N p , 1904 )
Japan es< Code of Education Promulgated the 2Mh
of the ,9th month of the 12th year of Meiji (1S79)
(Tokyo, 1879 )

Outline Hivloty of Japanese Education, Prepared for
the Philadelphia International Exhibition, 1*76
(New York, 1876)
Outlines of Modern Educatwn in Japan (Tokyo,

1888, 1893 )
Shmt History of the Department of Education (To-

kyo, 1891 )
Japan Imperial Education Society Aperqu general de

Education au Japan (Tokyo, 1905 )
KANDA N Education in Japan Ann Am Acad

Vol XXXVI, Sup 9-16 July, 1910
KIKUCHI DAIROKU, BARON Japanese Education.
Lectures delivered in the University of London.
(London, 1909 )
LEWIS R F Educational Conquest of the Far East

(New York, 1903 )
NISHIYAMA, S Japanese Elementary Schools Edu-

cation, Vol XXX, pp 364-367.
Japanese Secondary Education Educatwn, Vol

XXXI, pp 99-102
OKUMA, S Modern Education in Japan. Overland, n s

Vol LV, pp 53-64
IlKiNHrH, P S Intellectual Life in Japan. Atlan ,

Vol OVI, pp 508-516
SHARP, W H Educational System of Jajxin. (Bom-

hay, 1906 )
THWINO, C. F Educatwn in the Far East. (Boston,

1909 )
United States Bureau of Education. Circular of Infor-

mation, No 4 (Washington, 1885.) ,

VAT DE VAYA ET DE LUBKOD (LE CONTE). L Evolu-
tion de 1'Edueatioii au Japon Rev. dc deux Monde* .
Vol XLIV, pp 191-216 , Vol XLV, pp 676-708
YOBHIDA, K tfber japanwche Erziehung und Moral-
untemtht in den Schnlen Japans (Minden, 1906.)

JASSY

JEBB

Korea :
BISHOP, I L Korea and her Neighbour* (London,

1897.)

CULIN, 8. Korean Games (Philadelphia, 1895 )
GALE, J. S Korean Sketches (New York, 1898 )
GRIFFIB, W. E The Hermit Nation (Now York,

1911.)
A Modern Pioneer in Korea; the, Life Story of Henry

Q AppenzeMvr (New York, 1912 )
HtTLBKRT, H. A The Passing of Korea (New York,

1905.)
LONGFORD, J II The titory of Korea (Ne\\ York,

1911.)
Ross .). Korea; its Hwtory, Manners, Customs

(Piudry, 1880)

JASSY, UNIVERSITY OF. — See ROUMANIA,
EDUCATION IN.

JAVA, EDUCATION IN. — See NETHER-
LANDS, COLONIES OF, EDUCATION IN THE.

JEALOUSY — A complex emotion which
always involves some feeling of self-conscious-
ness on the part of the jealous individual
The rights or desires of the jealous individual
are in some way felt to be invaded, whereupon
the individual is aroused to anger and the
tendency to assert his own rights, cither ical
or fancied McDougall (Social Psychology, p
138) reduces the emotion of jealousy to the
fundamental instinct of possession or owner-
ship, and holds that the earlier forms of
jealousy which appear in animals and young
children are piimanly forms of anger or fear
The emotion has also been described by Ribot
( Psychology of Emotions), who quoted with
approval Descartes' definition " Jealousy is a
kind of fear related to the desire we have of
keeping some possession "

Whatever may be said of the psychological
character of this emotion, it is a matter of
common experience that it is one of the earliest
forms of social experience Certainly the con-
sciousness which is involved need not be of
any very elaborate type The child becomes
aware of his own desires and possessions by 1 lie
fact that some one else arouses in him the
anger which follows upon the invasion of his
rights and possessions Jealousy may, there-
fore, be regarded as the first emotional expres-
sion of the growing feeling of self-importance

As 111 the case of the othei emotions, so in
the experience of jealousy, there is no veiy
clear intellectual apprehension of the relations
that are involved As soon as one comes to
recognize clearly his rights and those of others,
the tendency is for the emotion to give away,
and for a fuller form of intellectual experience
to arise. C. H. J.

References : —

McDouGALL, W Social Psychology (London, 1911 )
RIBOT, TH Psychology of the Emotions (London,
1897)

JEANES, ANNA T, FOUNDATION.—

An organization consisting of a board of trus-
tees formed in 1908 for the purpose of admin-

VOL. in — 2M 529

btering the sum of $1,000,000 left by Miss Anna
T. Jeanes of Philadelphia for impioving negro
rural education The aim of the board is to
encourage and cooperate with established edu-
cational authorities without attempting to
relieve them of the burden of responsibility.
Thus the foundation steps in to point the way
At present its work lies in thiee directions (1)
the appointment of teacheis to mtioduce and
supervise industrial education (Hemico plan),
(2) the appointment of teachers to do extension
woik among a number of schools and to act as
supervisor, (3) the appointment of a county
agent to improve the homes and the schools
and to create a public sentiment for better
schools, he also acts as a supervisor of schools
President Dr James H Dillard of Tulaiie
University is general agent of the Foundation

References —

AYHES, L P Seven Great Foundations. (New York,

1911 )
IT S Bureau of Education, Rep Com Ed , 1910, pp

155, 156 (Washington, 1910)

JEBB, JOHN (1736-1786). — Theologian,
doctor, and university reformer, born at
Cashel, Ireland; studied at Trinity College,
Dublin, and Peterhousc, Cambridge, wheie he
graduated B A in 1757, being second
wrangler He took holy ordeis in 1762, and
continued at Cambridge as lecturer in mathe-
matics and Greek Testament In the history
of Cambridge University (</ v ) he played a
noteworthy part as the originator of a plan
for examinations In 1773 he brought forward
a scheme for an annual examination in May ol
all undergraduates, including noblemen and
fellow commoners The subjects of examina-
tion were to be " the law of nature and of
nations, chronology, history, classics, mathe-
matics, metaphysics, and philosophy, natural
and moral " These examinations were to be
" preparatory to the more important Examina-
tion for the Bachelor's Degree " (See his Ke-
marks upon the present Mode of Education in
the University of Cambridge . a Proposal
for its Improvement ) The scheme was rejected
and a syndicate appointed to consider the
scheme reported unfavorably In 1774, how-
ever, he secured the appointment of a com-
mittee, "to draw up a plan for the improve-
ment of the academic course of the university "
A scheme for examinations was proposed by
the committee, approved by the Caput, but
lost by one vote in the Senate The question
called forth several pamphlets against Jebb,
to which his wife Ann, who wrote frequently
under the name of " Priscilla," replied In
1771 he had taken an active part in promoting
the petition to abrogate the rule requiring sub-
scription of the Thirty-nine Articles on admis-
sion to the B. A. degree In 1775 he resigned
his clerical functions on conscientious grounds,
and in 1776 he left Cambridge and took up
medicine which he practiced m London In

JEFFERSON

JEFFERSON

1779 he was elected a Follow of the Royal
Society He was a friend of Priestley (q.v ),
who dedicated to him his Doctrine of Philo-
sophic Necessity (1777) In politics he sup-
ported the movement for Parliamentary reform
and universal suffrage

References : —

BARNARD American Journal of Education, Vol XXVIII,

p 610

Dictionary of National Biogiapky
MULLINQER, J B A History of the University of

Cambridge (London, 1SSS )

JEFFERSON, THOMAS (1743-1826) —
Third President of the United States, " author
of the Declaration of Independence, of the
statute of religious freedom, arid father of
the University of Virginia," according to the
inscription on his tomb at Monticello, which
he prepared before his death He was gradu-
ated from the College of William and Mary
in 1762, studied law, and was admitted to the
bar in 1767 Two years later he became a
member of the Vngima House of Burgesses
He took an active interest in scientific agricul-
ture, and after numerous experiments he suc-
ceeded in domesticating many European shrubs
and trees in Virginia. As a member of the
Virginia legislature he secured the passage in
J776 of the statute of religious freedom,
which abolished the connection between Church
and State

In 1779 he introduced into the assembly of
Vngmia a measure that contemplated the
establishment of a state school system that
should meet the needs of all the children
His measure provided for the division of each
county of Virginia into hundreds, and the
erection of suitable schoolhouses and the
maintenance of schools by the hundred settlers
His measure was demociatic in that it pro-
vided free schools for all classes, and it was in
advance of the time in making the same pro-
vision for the education of girls that was made
for the boys Secondary schools were also
contemplated in his scheme, in the organiza-
tion of which three or more counties were to
cooperate; and at the head of the entire
system was to be the college Thus the thiee
great branches of education were to be unified,
and through an ingenious system based upon
the survival of th? fittest, the brightest pupils
in the elementary schools of the hundreds
would pass on to the county secondary schools,
and the brightest pupils in the secondary
schools would ultimately reach the college
The college, which represented the choicest
products of democracy, was to furnish the
state with its leaders Talent, he maintained,
was always latent in the common people, and
the scheme that he proposed aimed to bring
the highest education within the reach of the
poorest boy in Virginia The measure did not
become a law, but Jefferson never ceased to
believe in its reasonableness.

530

He was subsequently sen! to France to join
Franklin and Adams in negotiating commer-
cial treaties, and during his five years' Euro-
pean residence he studied with care the edu-
cational systems of the Old World, and by
means of correspondence kept the American
colleges advised with reference to educational
movements, appliances, and publications
He wrote to President Washington from
Geneva concerning the feasibility of removing
bodily to Virginia the entire teaching staff of
the Swiss university

After nearly forty-five years of public life,
Jefferson retired from the presidency of the
United States in 1809 and devoted the remain-
ing fifteen years of his life to education The
public school system, which he had advocated
as a member of the Virginia assembly nearly
a half century before, was taken up with fresh
vigor, and the correspondence on the subject
with Joseph C Cabell, a member of the state
legislature interested in educational matters,
covers 528 pages In one of these letters he
says " A system of general instruction which
shall reach every description of our citizens,
from the richest to the poorest, as it was the
earliest, so will it be the latest, of all the public
concerns in which I shall permit myself to
take an interest "

For nine years he labored earnestly with the
legislature to secure the enactment of meas-
ures that would bring about a system of state
education, such as he had proposed during
the American Revolution, but the bills intro-
duced by Cabell and other friends were suc-
cessively defeated by one or the other branches
of the Virginia legislature Finally, in 1818,
a bill was passed making an annual appropria-
tion of $15,000 for the maintenance of a uni-
versity " wherein all the branches of useful
sciences were to be taught," with a special
grant for the purchase of a site and the con-
struction of buildings Commissioners — in-
cluding Jefferson, James Madison, and Joseph
( ' Cabell — were appointed by the governor,
in 1819, to carry out the provisions of the law
Jefferson was selected rector, and " henceforth
until his death in 1826," remarks the late Pro-
fessor Herbert B Adams, " he was the direct-
ing and shaping power in the upbuilding of the
University of Virginia. From his original and
sovereign interest in university education, and
from his residence in immediate proximity to
the university, the other visitors were well
content to leave to him practically the entire
management of affairs Not only did he
evolve the entire system of education there
introduced, but he actually devised every
feature of construction and administration
He drew plans, made estimates and contracts,
busied himself about bricks and mortar, and
superintended the whole process of building "
(See VIRGINIA, UNIVERSITY OF; COLLEGE,
AMERICAN.)

Jefferson's views on university organization

JENA

JENA

included: (1) the abolition of a prescribed cur-
riculum and the adoption of an elective system,
and (2) the reduction of discipline to a mini-
mum, " avoiding too much government, by
requiring no useless observances, none which
shall merely multiply occasions for dissatisfac-
tion, disobedience, and revolt " The purpose
of a state university, as he saw it, was (1) to
form the statesmen, legislators, and judges, on
whom public prosperity and individual happi-
ness depend; (2) to expound the principles arid
structure of government, the laws which regu-
late the intercourse of nations, those formed
municipally for our own government, and a
sound spirit of legislation, (3) to harmonize
and promote the interests of agriculture, manu-
factures, and commerce, and by well-informed
views of political economy to give a free scope
to the public industry, (4) to develop the
reasoning faculties of our youth, enlarge their
minds, cultivate their morals, and instill in them
the precepts of virtue and order, and (5) to
enlighten them with mathematical and physical
sciences, which advance the arts, and adminis-
ter to the health, the subsistence, and comforts
of human life W. S M

See FRENCH INFLUENCE IN AMERICAN EDU-
CATION

References : —

ADAMS, H B Thomas Jefferson and the University
of Virginia (Washington, 1H8S )

Early History of the University of Viigima, as con-
tained in the Letters of Thomas Jefferson and Joseph
C Cabell (Richmond, 1*56 )

Historical Sketches of Virginia — Literary Institutions
of the State University of Virginia Old Domin-
ion Magazine, Maroh 15, 1870, to June 15, 1871,
Vols IV and V.

JENA, UNIVERSITY OF —This univer-
sity, which is under the joint control of the
Grand Duchy of Saxe- Weimar, Eisenach, and
the three Saxon duchies, owes its origin to a
Gymnasium founded as a Lutheran seat of
learning by the Elector John Frederick the
Magnanimous in 1548 The institution was
raised to the rank of a university by an imperial
decree dated August 15, 1577, but the new
university did not open its doors until Feb-
ruary 2 of the following year The domi-
nant faculty for two centuries was that of
theology, which at first i effected pt enounced
orthodox tendencies in contradistinction to the
more liberal tendencies that flourished at the
University of Wittenberg, but later became a
center of rationalism The halcyon days of
the university fell between 1620 and 1720,
when large numbers of students were attracted
to its halls Toward the close of the eighteenth
century, Jena began to play a distinguished
r61e in the field of philosophy, becoming a
center for the dissemination of the theories of
Kant, among its prominent teachers at this
time being Fichte, Schelhng, and Hegel These
were the days — the closing years of the eight-
eenth and the opening years of the nineteenth

century — when the Duke Karl August reigned
in Saxe- Weimar Goethe came to his court
in 1775 and Schiller some years later, and the
former took an active interest in the affairs of
the university, while the latter taught history
there for a brief space, ill health compelling
him to resign his chair. The activity dis-
played by Jena in the field of philosophy has
been continued to the present day, Rudolf
Euckcn being at present head of the depart-
ment Jena is one of the few German uni-
versities at which emphasis has been placed
upon the study of pedagogy, and the institu-
tion enjoys a well-deserved reputation in this
field, the pedagogical seminar, in connection
with which a practice school is maintained,
being the first to have been established at a
German university (1843) (See EDUCATION,
ACADEMIC STUDY OF.) The political economy
seminar, founded about the middle of the last
century, was also the first of its kind Among
well-known former professors of the university
may be mentioned H Hettner in Germanic,
Georg Ebers in Oriental, and August Schleichei
in Indo-Gerrnanic philology, J G Droysen in
history, and Bruno Hildebrand in political
economy. More recently Jena has come into
prominence largely through the teachings of
Ernst Haeckel, who has filled the chair of
zoology since 1865 Another field in which the
university has won, and is still winning, much
renown is that of physics and mechanics, more
especially optics, a considerable fund for equip-
ment and research in this and related lines
having become available through the generous
gifts of Carl Zeiss, the optical manufacturer of
Jena The theory of the microscope was first
developed in the mechanical laboratory of the
University of Jeria by Professor Abbe, and the
optical laboratory of the institution is to-day
the leading one of its kind in existence The
university also maintains an agricultural school,
in contradistinction to the custom prevailing
in Germany of making provision for this subject
in separate seats of learning, the Jena school
being the continuation of a private agricul-
tural institute founded in 1826 by F G
Schulze as the first agricultural academy The
university possesses a Germanic museum, a
valuable collection of Oriental coins, as well as
excellent geological, mineralogical, and zoologi-
cal collections Among the medical institutes
may be mentioned one for hygiene and one
for psychiatry The nucleus of the library is
the collection transferred from Wittenberg to
Jena after the surrender of the former town
in 1548 and presented to the university at the
tune of its foundation ten years later. It con-
tains almost 1000 Mss , about 100,000 disser-
tations, and over 200,000 volumes. A group
of new and up-to-date buildings was erected
between 1905 and 1908 The annual ex-
penditures of the institution amount to ap-
proximately $160,000 In addition to the
endowment provided by Carl Zeiss, which r,

531

JEROME

JERSEY

available for various purposes in addition to
those mentioned above, other funds have been
supplied by private individuals — until quite
recentlv a rather rare phenomenon in German
higher education, among which may be men-
tioned the fund donated by Paul von Ritter
for research in the field of phylogenetic zoology
In 1815 there was established at Jena the
first of a series of democratic student societies
known as the Burschcnschaften (qv ), which
later played an important part in the political
affairs of the nation, Prussians being forbidden
to attend the university from 1819 to 1825
(See Die Grundung der deutschen Burxchen-
schaft in Jena Jena, 1883 ) In point of
winter attendance Jena ranks fourteenth among
the German universities, although at one time
it was one of the most frequented In the
winter semester of 1911-1912 it attracted 1831
students, of whom 93 were auditors As at so
many other German universities, more than
half of the matriculated students were registered
in the faculty of philosophy (1010), medicine
enrolling 356, law 302, and theology (Protestant)
70 A well-attended summer school, which
attracts students from all parts of the world, is
also conducted. The teaching staff consisted of
101 professors and 20 docents R T JR

References : —

Die neue UmversifAt zu Jena, crbaut von Theodor Fischer

With an mtiocl action bv Max Onborn
LEXIS W Dat> Untcmihtbwiwn mi deutschen Reich

Vol I, pp 575-590 (Berlin, 1904)
STIEH, ADOLF Jena In Die deutschen Hochschulen,

JlLustnerte Monographien, Vol II, ed by Th

Kappstem (Berlin, 1908.)

JEROME, SAINT (HIERONYMUS) —

Early Latin Father, born at Stndon in Paimoma,
about 340, died at Bethlehem, 420 About the
year 360 he went to Rome, where he was bap-
tized Thence he went to the famous school
of Trier, where he made his theological studies
After spending some time at Aquileia, he went
in 373 to Antioch, and there he was ordained
priest. In 381 he was at Constantinople, and
in 382 he returned to Rome There for three
years he enjoyed the friendship and patronage
of Pope Damasus After the death of the
pope in 384, he set out for Antioch, Alexandria,
and Bethlehem. He reached the last named
place in 386 and there he remained until his
death in 420. His Letter to Lceta, on the
education of her daughter Paula is an im-
portant document in the history of early
Christian education Jerome advises that a
teacher be selected who is of approved mariner
of life, of discreet age, and equipped with
learning. The pupil, he says, should be given
wooden or ivory letters and be taught their
names. She should be encouraged both by
healthy emulation and by games and amuse-*
ments. She should not neglect the study of
Holy Writ, but, beginning with the Psalter,
should read the Proverbs, the Book of Job,

532

and the Gospels As to dress and manners,
she should never lose sight of the fact that she
is consecrated to God. Her religious education
is all important, and the mother is charged in
conscience with the duty of supervising the
child's education from day to day. Similar
advice is given in the Letter to Gaudentms
on the education of Pacatula It should be
remembered that the severity of life prescribed
by Jerome is justified in his estimation by the
wickedness of the pagan world from the con-
tamination of which he strives to save the
young Christian maiden. W. T.

See MONASTICISM AND EDUCATION.

References : —

Epistola ad Gaudentium, Pair Lai , XX, 1095 ff
Epistola ad Lwtam, Patr Lat , XXII, 867 ff , tr into
Gorman, Krnesti, in Sammlung der bedeutendsten
pddagogiechen Schmftcn, Vol III (Padeiborn,
1889)

JERSEY, EDUCATION IN THE ISLE

OF — The first grammar schools date from
the year 1496, when King Henry VII, by
letters patent dated Nov. 15 confirmed the
establishment and endowment of the free
grammar schools of St Magloire (now St
Maunehcr) in the parish of St Saviour's, and
St Anastace in the parish of St Peter's for
the teaching of grammar and the * other lesser
liberal sciences ' The appointment was in
the hands of the dean and clergy of the island,
and this was confirmed by a decision of the
Privy Council in 1093, when the right of appoint-
ment was claimed by Charles de Carteret,
Seigneur of Trinity Scholars from this school
passed to the University of Saumur, and this
practice led to the separation of the Church
m Jersey from the Church in England Despite
the fact that in 1499 the Channel Islands were
transferred by Pope Alexander VI to the
diocese of Winchester, the Bishop of Cou-
tances exercised ecclesiastical jurisdiction as
late as 1550 By that date the Reformation
had taken its effect in Jersey, but the connection
with Saumur made it follow the line of the
French and Scottish Calvinists, with the result
that the Presbyterian organization was in-
troduced and a synod held on June 28, 1554.
In 1619, however, the episcopal order was re-
stored, and a code of canons for the Channel
Islands received the royal assent on June 30,
1623 Canons forty and forty-one provided
that there should be a schoolmaster in every
paiish to teach the children " & lire, escrire,
prier Dieu, rcspondre au Catechisme; les
duiront aux bonnes Moeurs, les coiiduiront
au Presche, et Prieres Publiques, les y faisant
comporter comme iis appartient." These
schools had long existed ; and were officially
recognized by these canons In the mean-
time efforts had been made to bring Jersey
into connection with Oxford and Cambridge,
and Laurens Bandains founded scholarships
for the purpose, having failed in Queen Eliza-

JESUITS

JESUITS

Deth's reign to found a. university college
in Jersey. In 1637 the Archbishop of Canter-
bury founded at Oxford three fellowships ior
the Channel Islands, and a little later the Bishop
of Winchester (Morlcy) founded five scholar-
ships for the islands at Pembroke College,
Oxford. Thus Saumur was abandoned, arid
the last English link with Fiance broken.
The Jersey elementary schools were in the
eighteenth century better than those in Eng-
land, and most people in the island eould icad
and write. In 1836 the National Society be-
gan to make grants to Jersey schools, and ele-
mentary education followed the normal Eng-
lish lines By a Rfylement oi Aug 9, 1872,
when the Pnvy Council giants ceased, a sys-
tem of education similar to that established
in England by the Act of 1870 came into force

J E G de M
Reference : —

MONTMORENCY J E G DE State Interv< ntion in
English Education (Cambridge, 191)2 )

JESUITS, EDUCATIONAL WORK OF:
OR EDUCATIONAL WORK OF THE
SOCIETY OF JESUS —The Society, 01
Company, of Jesus, wa« founded by the Spanish
nobleman Ignatius of Loyola The name
" Jesuits " was given the membeis of the Society
of Jesus by the opponents of the order, and
occurs as early as 1544 According to an English
educationist, " since the Revival of Learning no
body of men has displayed so important a part,
in education as the Jesuits " (Quick).

Ignatius of Loyola — Ignatius, or, as he was
originally called, Imgo (after a Spanish saint
Eneco), was born at the castle of Loyola, ip.
Guipuscoa, one of the Basque punmcos of
Spain The year of his birth is most probably
1491 Brought up in the house of a high offi-
cial of Ferdinand and Isabella, the ambitious
youth took service in the aimy, and in 1521,
while among the defenders of Pampeluna
against the French, was seriously wounded by a
cannon ball During the slow lecovery the
reading of the lives of Chust and the saints
wrought a great change in the hitherto extrava-
gant officer Determined to abandon his
worldly life, he ictirod to Manresa, where he
spent sqme time in the practice of ascetical
austerities, solitary prayer, and meditation on
religious things The inner experiences of
this period of spiritual formation giew into the
Book of Exercises Through this little manual
of practical asceticism Ignatius becomes one of
the foremost religious educators of modern
times, and in our own days continues to in-
fluence the spiritual training of hundreds of
thousands of Catholics annually, in the so-
called " retreats " and " missions '; The
" Spiritual Exercises " contained the germ of
the future) Society of Jesus In 1523 Ignatius
went to the Holy Land to devote himself there
to a life of piety and labors for the conver-
sion of the Moslems. Obliged to depart from

Jerusalem, he recognized the necessity of further
studies, in order to be of greater help to otheis
At Barcelona he learned Latin among little boys,
then went to the universities of Alcala and
Salamanca, 1526-1527, and finally to Pans,
then the greatest center of learning in Christen-
dom, where he studied philosophy and theology,
1528-1535 Although he took a creditable
degree (M A ), his distinction was less that of
the scholar than of the guide and luler of men
and of the skillful oiganizei A band of able
and devoted students had gathered around Ig-
natius at Paris (Faber, Xavier, Laynez, Sal-
meron, Bobadilla, Rodriguez), and in 1534 at
Montmartre, Pans, they took vows of povei ty
arid chastity, besides the vow of going to the
Holy Land and there leading a life in close imi-
tation of the life of Christ When they later
found it impossible to ernbaik for Palestine,
they offered their services to the Pope In
1539 they determined to form a compact re-
ligious order, and the outline of a constitution
was approved by Pope Paul III in the follow-
ing year Ignatius was elected the first (len-
eral of the order, and governed it till his death
in 1556 He was canonized in 1622 The stoiy
of the life of St Ignatius, especially the patience
with which, in advanced age, he devoted eleven
yeais to study, the careful deliberations and
frequent consultations with others on impor-
tant matters, are sufficient proof that he was
not a mere " religious enthusiast," or a " vision-
ary " (Macaulay) His work shows that he
was a genius m the practical order, a man of
" powerful gifts of intellect and an unusual
practical foresight " (Littledule) But the
most prominent characteristic of Ignatius was
a burning zeal for the spread of Christianity
and the religious and moral betterment of his
fellow-men Toward this end he dnected his
foundation, the Society of Jrsus

The Society of Jesus — The official title of
the order is " Society of Jesus ", but the name
" Jesuits " was gradually adopted by its members
and friends Ignatius himself had used the
Spanish word " Compafiia," which might be
translated "Regiment of Jesus" Tins term
suggests the former military life and spirit of the
iounder and the active pait which the order was
to play in the service of the Church militant
It is, howe\er, an erroneous opinion, held by
many Protestants and some Catholics, that the
Society was founded with the avowed intention
of opposing Protestantism Neither the papal
letters of approbation nor the Constitutions
of the order mention this as the object of the
new foundation In fact, when Ignatius began
to think of devoting himself to the seivice of
the Church, he had probably not as much as
heard the names of the Protestant Reformers.
His early plan was rather the conversion of Mo-
hammedans, an idea which, a few decades after
the final triumph of the Christians over the
Moors m Spain, must have strongly appealed
to the ardent and chivalrous Spaniard It is a

533

JESUITS

JESUITS

remarkable coincidence that the name Societas
J&tu had been borne by a military order ap-
proved and recommended by Pius II in 1459,
the purpose of which was to fight against the
Turks and aid in spreading the Christian faith.
The early Jesuits were sent by Ignatius first to
pagan lands or to Catholic countries, to Prot-
estant countries only at the special request of
the Pope, and to Germany, the cradle land
of the Reformation, at the urgent solicitation
of the imperial ambassador From the very
beginning of the order, the missionary labors of
Jesuits among the pagans of India, Japan,
China, Canada, Central and South America,
were at least as important as their activity in
Christian countries As the object of the
Society was the propagation and strengthening
of the Catholic faith, it is evident that the
Jesuits endeavored to counteract the spread of
Protestantism They became the main in-
struments of the Counte r- Reformation, which
may rightly be styled the Catholic Reforma-
tion; the rcconquest of southern and western
Germany and Austria for the Church, and the
preservation of the Catholic faith in France
and other countries were chiefly due to their
exertions

Organization of the Society — The object
and spmt of the Society of Jesus are to be
sought in the " Spiritual Exercises, " which are
the training school of the religious life of the
Jesuits, and the Constitutions, which contain
the laws of the order. The so-called Manila
tier? eta, 01 Secret I nstructions, are spurious, arid
a libel on the order, composed by one Zahorow-
ski, who had been dismissed from the order;
this work has been styled a lampoon, an in-
genious forgery, etc , by writers not friendly
to the Society, as Dollmger, Reusch, Huber,
Harnack, Littledalc, and others. The Society
has no secret doctrines, nor any teaching which
is different from that held by the Catholic
Church in general. The order is divided \nto
provinces, which comprise the colleges and
other houses within certain countries or dis-
tricts Several provinces form an assistancy,
arranged according to nationalities, or geo-
graphical proximity, there are, at present, five
assistances Italy (with five provinces),
Germany (provinces Germany, Austria,
Hungary, Gahcia, Belgium, Netherlands),
France (with four Provinces), Spain (prov-
inces: Aragon, Castile, Toledo, Portugal,
Mexico), England (provinces. England, Ire-
land, Maryland-New-York, Missouri, New
Orleans, California, Canada). The superior of
a province is called provincial, the head of a
college rector, both provincials and rectors
are appointed, for a number of years, by the
head of the whole Society, the General. The
General is elected for life by the General Con-
gregation, which is the legislative assembly of
the order, and alone can add to the Constitu-
tions, change or abrogate them. This Gen-
eral Congregation consists of the General (or

after his death his Vicar), the Assistants
(chosen by the previous Congregation, one from
each assistancy), the provincials, and two
special deputies, elected by each Province
The Congregation may even depose a General,
for grave reasons, although such a step was
never necessitated in the history of the order.
Although the General possesses full adminis-
trative power, he is not an absolute ruler, the
Assistants form his council, and the monarchical
character of the government is tempered by
various constitutional restrictions The mem-
bers of the order are divided into different
classes or grades the Professed Fathers, who,
besides the thicc vows of religion, have made a
fourth, of special obedience to the Pope in
regard to undertaking foreign missions, the
Formed Coadjutors, eithei spiritual, i c
priests who have taken the final three vows of
religion, or temporal coadjutors, ? c lav brothers,
engaged in domestic duties, the Scholastics, who
after their first religious vows are engaged in
studying or teaching, lastly, the novices, who
devote themselves for two years chiefly to ex-
ercises of religion before taking their first vows
The Jesuit priests are admitted to the last
vows only aftei a long course of studies and
religious tests, the profession is granted onlv
after from seventeen to twenty years of life
in the Society Before the suppression of the
Society in 1773, the number of Jesuits had ex-
ceeded 22,000, in 1910 there were 16,293,
of these 7848 were priests, 4385 scholastics,
4060 lay brothers There is no class of lav
affiliates, neither male nor female The Jes-
uits are not monks, like the Benedictines, nor
friars, like the Franciscans and Dominicans,
but " Regular Clerics," or " Clerks Regular "
St Ignatius introduced several innovations,
deviations from the life of the older religious
orders Thus there was no common choir, no
distinctive religious habit, no prescribed aus-
terities; a special vow was taken not to accept
any ecclesiastical dignities, except at the per-
emptory bidding of the Pope All these fea-
tures were intended to free the Society from
whatever might be an obstacle in the way of
active work

Object and Special Work of the Order —
The object for which the Society was instituted
is expressed in the first papal approbation of
the Institute in these words " The progress
of souls in good life and knowledge of religion ;
the propagation of faith by public preaching, the
Spiritual Exercises and works of charity, and
particularly the instruction of youth and ig-
norant persons in the Christian religion/'
This object is expressed in the Motto of the
Society Omnia ad Majorem Dei Glonam
(abbreviated O.A M.D.G ), ie " All for the
greater glory of God." Jesuit writers fre-
quently designate the work of the Society as
" apostolic," and this briefly expresses its char-
acter In the occupations of the Society there
is groat variety, in fact, a universality, which

534

JESUITS

JESUITS

embraces all activities which can further the
glory of God and the betterment of men
The Ratio Studiorum — From the beginning
education occupied a very prominent place
among the activities of the order. Fiequerit
mention is made in official documents of "teach-
ing catechism to children and the ignorant,
lecturing on philosophy and theology in the
universities, and instructing youth in the
grammar schools and collegers " In fact,
education so largely prevails in the activity of
the Society that it can be called in a special
sense a teaching, or school, ordei Of the ten
parts of the Constitutions the fourth treats of
studies, it IH the longest of all, and its clear
and practical arrangement is worthy of ad-
miration. Successive General Congregations
emphasized the importance of educational
work, calling it a " special arid charactenstic
woik of the Society/7 " one of the most desn-
able and beneficial occupations " In the final
vows the Jesuit promises to have " a particulai
concern for the education of boys " Dining
the lifetime of St Ignatius, colleges were
founded in Italy (Messina, Palermo, Naples,
the Roman and German Collges), Spam (Gan-
dia, Salamanca, Alcala, Valladohd), Portugal
(Lisbon), France (Billorn), and the Gennan
Empire (Vienna, Ingolstadt) Other s weic
established soon after the death of St Igna-
tius, as Cologne, Munich, Prague, Innsbiuck,
Douay, Bruges, Li^ge, Antwerp, etc With the
increase of the number of colleges the want oi a
uniform and detailed system of education was
felt more and more. Plans of study wer e dr awn
up in different places, but they 'were merely
private works During the gencralate of
Claudius Aquaviva (1581-1015), the educa-
tional methods of the Society received a definite
shape In order to ensuie a certain universality
and uniformity (which were needed because
men were often sent fioni one country to an-
other), and at the same time to profit by the
educational experiences of different countiies,
six able schoolmen were selected fiom different
provinces and nationalities (France, Spam,
Portugal, Austria, Germany, and Italy) and
called to Rome, 1584 For a year these men
studied pedagogical works, examined legula-
tions of the most famous colleges and timvei-
sities, and considered the suggestions sub-
mitted by prominent Jesuit educators In
1580 the report drawn up by this committee
was sent to the provinces to be examined by at
least five experienced men in every piovmce
The observations and criticisms obtained in
tins manner were utilized in the drawing up of a
second plan, which, after careful revision, was
printed in 1591 For some years the practical
working of this plan was watched, arid in 1599
appeared the Ratio atquc Institutw Studiorum
Societal is Jesu, usually quoted as Ratio Studi-
oruw It was the result of careful and most
painstaking laboi , horn the mannei in \vhich it
wasdiiiwn up it is evident that it \vas the \voi k

535

of the whole Society rather than of ariv 11 -
dividual

Sources of the Ratio Studiorum. — The state-
ment frequently made that the Ratio was mod-
eled on the educational theories of the Spanish
humanist Vives (qv), and the plan of studies oi
Johannes Sturm (q ?> ), of Strassburg, needs con-
siderable modification Educational treatises
and regulations were extensively consulted b}
the men who drew up the Ratio, Stud union, and
among the numerous documents examined was
also Sturm's famous plan of studies But
Sturm acknowledges his indebtedness to the
humanistic schools of the Netherlands, espe-
cially the celebrated school of the Brethren of
the Common Life (q /> ) at Liege, of which he
had been a pupil Some of the ablest early
Jesuits were natives of the Netherlands, 01 had
studied in the schools of that country, which
were among the best in Europe at that time
It is natural to think that these schools were
the chief model for the literary course of the
Ratio as well as of other systems and plans
In fact, several features common to the Ratio
and Protestant schools were found in Liege
and other humanistic schools, of the Nether-
lands The method of teaching philosophy,
the sciences, and theology was essentially an
adaptation of the system prevailing in the
University of Paris, where Ignatius and his
first companions had studied Still, as is clear
from the description of the origin of the Ratio,
the chief source was the collective experience
of Jesuit teachers in various colleges and coun-
tries

Later Modifications — Until the time of the
suppression of the Society (1773), the Ratio
Studiorum remained, in all its essential features,
the authoritative plan of studies in the schools
of the Society This docs not mean that there
was absolute uniformity in all colleges The
Constitutions and the Ratio repeatedly declare
that, according to special needs and circum-
stances, changes may be introduced In some
countries the teaching of the veiriacular lan-
guage and the systematic study of history and
geography were added to the original classical
curriculum Certain kinds of punishment,
competition, and reward, popular in southern
countries, were allowed to be abandoned in
northern countries The need of a more thor-
ough reform was felt after the restoration of
the Society (in 1814), as it was evident that
the changed conditions of intellectual life
demanded more radical modifications of the
curriculum Under the General Father Root-
liaan, the revised Ratio Studiorum was pub-
lished in 1832 Nothing was changed in the
fundamental principles, nor in the general
mode of teaching, but innovations were made
chiefly in regard to branches of study. Latin
and Greek remained the principal subjects,
but henceforth more time and care were to be
devoted to the mother tongue and its litera-
tuie, to history, mathematics, and the natural

JESUITS

JESUITS

sciences. For the teaching of physics and
chemistry separate regulations were made,
which are indicative of the broad and progres-
sive attitude of the revision " The theoretical
treatment is to be supplemented by experi-
ments, and as these sciences make daily prog-
ress, it is the duty of the professor* to acquaint
themselves with the latest discovenes, and to
advance in their lectures as the sciences pro-
gress/' Since 1832 the non-classical blanches
nave been emphasized more and more, non-
classical schools have been declaied to be in
accord with the work of the Society as well as
classical institutions In modern Jesuit col-
leges physics, chemistry, astronomy, geology,
biology, physiology, and other branches are
taught according to the established principles
and methods of modern science In the words
of the present General of the Society (F. X.
Werriz), "As the early Jesuits did not invent
new methods of teaching, but adopted the
best methods of their age, so will the Jesuits
now employ the best methods of our own
time " Undoubtedly, the Jesuits wore always
conservative and did not immediately adopt
every educational experiment; nor wore the
changes which seemed necossaiy intioducod
with the same readiness and celerity every-
where In somo countries (as in Austria), the
Jesuits adopted the system pi o vailing in tho
state institutions, nearly everywhere tho Jesuit
colleges adapted themselves, in a considerable
degree, to the national schools and the pre-
vailing educational currents The last (ion-
oral Congregation of the Society (1906) gave
official recognition to this tendency by the fol-
lowing important decree " Under the present
conditions a new revision of the Ratio Studio-
rum is not to bo attempted. Not even tho
Ratio of Father Roothaan can bo satisfactory
carried out, on account of the special needs of
different countries For this reason tho pro-
vincial superiors, after consultation with their
advisers and the most approved teachers,
should devise plans of studies for their prov-
inces, and for the various districts in which tho
same conditions prevail " There is, accord-
ingly, no longer a uniform Ratio Ktudwrurn in
force, as far as subject matter and arrangement
of studies are concerned

Contents of the Ratio Studiorum — Thoo-
rotical discussions on the educational value of
different branches and similar topics wero con-
tamed in the trial Ratio of 1586, but woio ab-
sent from the final Ratio of 1599 The lattor
document was rather a code of laws, a body of
practical rules drawn up by practical teachers,
a collection of regulations for the officials and
teachers I. Rules for the provincial su-
perior; for the rector (president) in whose
hands is the government of the whole college;
for the prefect of studies, the chief assistant
of the rector, entrusted with tho direct
supervision oi the classes and everything
connected with instruction; another assistant

of the rector, the prefect of discipline, re-
sponsible for all that concerns order and dis-
cipline. II Rules for the professors of
theology Scripture, Hebrew, dogmatics, moral
theology, ecclesiastical history, Canon Law.
Ill Rules for the professors of philosophy,
mathematics, physics, and other natural
sciences. IV. Rules for the teachers of the
Studia Infenora, the lower department, de-
voted chiefly to literary studies Originally
there wore five classes in this department, later
frequently six: tho three (or four) " Grammar
C -lasses," corresponding with a classical High
School, then the class of Humanities (Fresh-
man) and the class of Rhetoric (Sophomore).
Latin and Greek were the main branches in
this department; other subjects, as history,
geography, antiquities, were taught, under the
name of " accessories/' in connection with the
classics In the course of the seventeenth and
eighteenth centuries history and geography
began to bo taught as separate branches in
many provinces, and graded textbooks —
usually six small volumes — were used exten-
sively in Franco and Germany Treatises on
tho method of teaching history and geography
wore in the hands of teachers in the beginning
of the eighteenth century Foreign languages
were taught early in various places, e g French
and Italian at Dillmgon since 1655 Mathe-
matics and natural sciences were considered as
belonging to the department of " Arts," and
were taught in the course of philosophy, since
the revision of the Ratio in 1832, also in the
lower department In 1843 the curriculum of
the college of Fnbourg in Switzerland, one of
tho model colleges of the Society, contained the
following subjects in tho lower department
(high school)- Religion, Latin, Greek; French,
Gorman (one obligatory), history and geog-
raphy (in all classes), arithmetic, algebra,
geometry; in tho higher (college) department,
besides philosophy physics, chemistry, as-
tronomy, botany, zo6logy, mineralogy; plane
and spherical trigonometry, higher algebra,
analytical geometry, differential and integral
calculus, philosophy of history, and an ad-
vanced course m literature In addition to
those obligatory courses, Hebrew, Italian,
English, and Spanish were offered as electives
This is an instructive example of local adapta-
tion and modification, which shows how mis-
leading it would bo to take tho text of the Ratio
as an absolute indication of what was actually
taught

Philosophy was regarded as the desirable
crowning of general training for all, and an
important preparation for strictlv professional
studies. The system followed in philosophy
and theology was the scholastic, or rather
" neo-scholastic," i e. scholasticism as devel-
oped by the Post- Reformation Catholic
teachers, particularly the great representatives
of the Society Suarez, Vasquez, Molina, etc.
The old Ratio had prescribed Aristotle as the

536

JESUITS

JESUITS

chief guide and .standard author in philosophy,
" except whore his teaching is eontrary to the
Christian faith, or the commonly ac«epted
doctrine of the [Catholic] Schools " The
revised Ratio no longer mentions Aristotle as
guide, although his philosophy continued to be
followed largely in logic and metaphysics In
theology St Thomas Aquinas (qv), was " the
proper Master, but not so as if no deviation
from his teaching were permitted on any
point," particularly in regard to questions
treated more fully by later authors

The Ratio does not contain any provisions
for elementary education The cause of tins
omission is not, as has been imagined, contempt
for this branch of educational activity, much
Jess opposition to popular instruction, but the
practical impossibility of entering that- vast
held The Constitutions and General Congre-
gations declare elementary education to be
" a laudable work of charity, which the Society
might undertake if it had a sufficient number
of men " As there was often a dearth of men
even for college work, and as the whole training
of the Jesuits fitted them better for higher edu-
cation, it would be unreasonable to blame them
for thus limiting their work In places, how-
ever, where elementary education was much
neglected, especially in mission fields, the
Jesuits frequently devoted themselves to this
work, employing chiefly able lay brothers as
teachers

Character of Jesuit Education — The fol-
lowing features may be mentioned as most
characteristic of Jesuit education Fust, it
was a system, well thought out and well woiked
out, and that at a time when in most schools
there was little system, although the Jesuits
had largely borrowed from other men and in-
stitutions, they had done so intelligently, above
all, they had unified and systematized educa-
tional principles and methods in a manner never
done before The many practical rules laid
down for the different classes and teachers,
the careful supervision, the close unity and
centralization, could ensure efficiency even in
the case of teachers of moderate talent, while
to teachers of more than ordinary ability suffi-
cient scope was left for the display of their
special aptitudes Provisions were made for
systematic professional training of the teachers,
as early as 1565 the second General Congre-
gation urged the establishment of a special
pedagogical " seminary " in every province
Literary, philosophical, and scientific training,
although given not simultaneously, but suc-
cessively, formed a fair combination, which
avoided the one-sidedness of pure scholasti-
cism, and the still greater one-sidednoss of hu-
manism, or of later purely scientific education
At a time when barbarous punishments were
common in schools, the discipline of the Jesuit
colleges was comparatively mild; corporal
punishment was inflicted rarely and only under
rigid precautions. Playing was encouraged,

and general attention paid to the phyMcal wel-
fare of the students The teachers were urged
to take an interest in all the concerns of the
individual student, and much was expected
from personal contact between teacher and
pupil All teaching was to be gratuitous, fees
were not admitted until, in later times, the
spoliations of Jesuit property and the absence
of sufficient endowments necessitated the ac-
ceptance of tuition money From its begin-
ning the Society took a warm interest in needy
talented students, and in many places founded
and supported boarding houses (conwctus) for
them The most important aim of education,
the one emphasized for all grades, and in the
rules for all superiors and teachers, is the moral
and religious training To this end were
directed the teaching of catechism, the practice
of receiving the Sacraments of Penance arid
Communion, the pious associations of students,
called <4 Sodalities ", even the classics were
to become u Heralds of Christ/' by being in-
terpreted in the light of Christian revelation
The determination to safeguard Christian
faith and morality explains the rigid exclusion
of books inimical to revealed truth, and the
careful expurgation of all obscene and vulgar
passages from the pagan writers used as text-
books In this there was a radical arid inten-
tional reaction against the paganizing tend-
encies found in such humanists as Valla,
Poggio, Beccadelli, etc , arid in many Renais-
sance schools The educational ideal of the
Jesuits was like that of the Biethren of the
Common Life (q v ) , namely, piety adorned with
learning, 01 culture on the basis of religion
(pi etas hteratn)

Intellectual Scope and Methods of Teaching —
The intellectual aim of the literary course was
that common Co all humanistic schools, it
has been well expressed in the two words " learn-
ing " (classical) and "eloquence" (xapieiitta et
cloquentia) This meant the acquaintance with
the thoughts of the classics, mastery of the
Latin language, and the acquisition of a good
Latin style During the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries Latin remained to a great ex-
tent the medium of political and scholarly
intercourse, hence it was of considerable
practical use, and Piotestant and Catholic
schools alike aimed at imparting the mastery
of it This practical use, however, was not the
only object sought in teaching the classics
In 1669 a French Jesuit educator wrote " Be-
sides literary accomplishments gained from
the study of the classical languages, there are
other advantages, especially an exquisite power
and facility of reasoning " Here we have an
early expression of what now is called the
theory of mental training, or formal discipline
This aspect of classical teaching was, naturally,
more emphasized by Jesuits and other edu-
cators after the directly practical use of Latin
could no longer be urged.

The means of acquiring a knowledge of the

537

JESUITS

JESUITS

classical languages was a cai efully planned sys-
tem of coordinate exercises the " prelection,"
memory lessons, repetitions (daily, weekly,
monthly, annual), compositions, disputations,
contests, and examinations The typical form
of Jesuit teaching, the " prelection/' is minutely
described in the Ratio It means " leetunng "
in the higher faculties, its equivalent, Voi-
lesinig, is at present used in German foi the
lectures in universities In the lower grades
it means " explanation," and is applied to the
translation and interpretation of authors as
well as to the explanation of the precepts of
grammai , poetry, rhetoric, and style One part
of the prelection is called " erudition," which
means the explanation of various details con-
tained in the text historical, geographical,
archaeological, biographical, political, ethical,
and religious In the philosophical course the
frequent disputations constitute the most im-
portant exercise An inheritance of the me-
dieval universities, they were retained for a
long time also in Protestant institutions In
fact, the intellectual aims and practical methods
were nearly the same in Protestant and Jesuit
schools, the chief difference is found in the
greater svstematization and centralization of
the .Jesuit system In both Protestant and
Catholic colleges of former centuries the school
drama was an important feature, in Jesuit
colleges it was cultivated to a remarkable
degree foi the purpose of training in speaking
and acting, and even more for religious edifica-
tion and moral elevation Not a few of the nu-
meious Jesuit productions possessed more than
ordinary dramatic value.

Criticism — Few systems of education have
been the subject of such conflicting valuation
as that of the Jesuits Many have praised it
enthusiastically — some even extravagantly;
— others, especially in recent times, have
severely censuied it That extremes in this, as
in other matters, are to be avoided is evident
The Society itself did not consider its educa-
tional system absolutely perfect, as is clear
from the frequent inquiries about its working,
from repeated lequests for suggestions concern-
ing improvements, and most of all, from the
various icusions and gradual transformation
of the system Leading historians of the order
(e g Duhr, (rcsclnrhtc der Jesuiten, I, p 259), ad-
mit that, especially in the old Ratio, there were
defects, as the relative neglect of history, geog-
raphy, and other branches, which were taught
only as " accessories " to the classics. How
this defect, common to all schools of former
centuries, was gradually remedied has been
mentioned before Again, the old curriculum
was, undoubtedly, too purely literary, too
prominently classical, and neglected subjects
which were rightly insisted on by the later
" realistic " educators Nor can it be denied
that the humanistic conception of the impor-
tance of " eloquence and style " was exagger-
ated and one-sided, and was open to the charge

538

of excessive " formalism " Much, however, of
current criticism of Jesuit education is due to
misunderstandings The very terminology of
the Ratio Studiorum has led some into serious
errors. Certain regulations, meant for the
" Scholastics," ? c members of the Society
engaged in studies, have been interpreted as
applying to other students. Many critics
forget »that educational principles and prac-
tices, established in the sixteenth and seven-
teenth centuries, should not be judged accord-
ing to twentieth-century standards There
would be much force in such criticism, if all
the older practices had been retained in the
Jesuit colleges of our own days Such seems,
indeed, to be the conviction of some critics, as
when it is asserted that " the Ratio Studiorum
devised by Aquaviva is still obligatory in the
colleges of the Society " (Encyclopedia Bntanmca,
llthed,Vol XV, p 342) How little this ac-
cords with actual conditions is clear from what
has been said on the modifications of the educa-
tional system of the Jesuits Many sccondaiv
features of the Ratio, as the colloquiahise of Latin,
certain means of fostering emulation, the em-
ployment of boy monitors, have long ago been
abolished in most places A great deal might
be said in defense of certain much censured
features, e g emulation " An excess was,
perhaps, not always avoided; but it should be
remembered that some emulation is indispens-
able in the schools " (Paulsen, Cenchichtc de*
gel U?iterrichts, Vol 1, p 341)

In more recent years the Jesuit system has
been censured for maintaining prescribed
courses instead of a broad electivism, for re-
taining the classics and upholding the theory
of mental discipline These charges need not
be discussed here, as they do not concern
Jesuit colleges alone, the controversies on these
points are not yet closed, but in the case of
some, notably the question of electivism, there
is a reaction toward the view defended by the
Jesuits Dr. Elmer E. Brown has well observed
that in many of these controversies " the Jesuit
side is the side of many who are not Jesuits "
(Educational Review, December, 1904) The
most common and most serious charge against
Jesuit education is that it suppresses " origi-
nality and independence of mind." In reply,
the Jesuits can point to the variety of scholar-
ship found in their own midst, as well as to the
great number of pupils who achieved distinc-
tion in most varied spheres of life: poets like
Calderon, Torquato Tasso, Moliere, Goldoni ,
orators like Bossuet, jurists like Pothier, the
greatest French jurist before the Revolution,
scientists and historians like Galileo, Cassim,
Reaumur, Buffon, Lalande, Descartes, Mura-
tori, Ducange. Father Pore*e, Voltaire's
teacher, saw many of his pupils — it is said nine-
teen — elected members of the French Acad-
emy. It would be absurd to claim all the
greatness of these men for the system under
which they were brought up. Some Jesuit

JESUITS

JESUITS

pupils, as Voltaire and Lamarck, became fa-
mous for opinions which they had not been
taught by their Jesuit masters But this last
fact seems to prove all the more conclusively
that their originality was not crushed by the
system. If, however, by " independence of
mind " is understood unrestrained liberty of
thought in religious matters, it must be ad-
mitted that the Ratio Studiorum and the whole
Institute of the Society are uncompromisingly
opposed to it, and that the Jevsuits always
endeavored to suppress it For they are bound
by their profession and fully determined to
uphold, defend, and propagate revealed re-
ligion, as taught and interpreted by the Catho-
lic Church In this they do not differ from
other religious orders, nor from any consistent
Catholics

Jesuit Schools before the Suppression —
For some time the Jesuits possessed almost the
monopoly of higher education in various Cath-
olic countries On the eve of the suppression
the Society had 669 colleges and a number of
other institutions of higher learning, or, in
round numbers, about 700 higher schools
Some of the colleges had more than 2000
students each, it is impossible to give an exact
average, but 300 seems to be very low Ac-
cordingly the 700 institutions would have
numbered over 200,000 students, from winch
it follows that the educational influence of the
Jesuits in those days was extraordinary In
Latin America alone there were 90 colleges,
m the north was the flourishing college of
Quebec (since 1635) , and a report of 1711 states
that there " grammar, the humanities, rhetoric,
mathematics, philosophy, and theology are
taught, perhaps with greater regularity, exact-
ness, and fruit than in many colleger in Fiance "
Owing to the Penal Laws, which woio especially
severe and explicit in regard to the Jesuits, it
was impossible for them to have schools with a
full college curriculum in the English colonies
Still, they attempted to open higher schools
when and where opportunity offered Thus
they had a classical school in New York for
some time under the Catholic Governor Don-
Kan, about 1684 In Maryland a school under
their direction is mentioned at Newtown about
1640, and in 1677 a " school of humanities "
was established, a Latin school of a prepaiatory
character. In the midst of government op-
position, legal penalties, arid the hostility of
part of the Protestant population, the Jesuits
continued their educational activity in that
colony for a long time Before the middle of
the eighteenth century their school was at
Bohemia, Md. Georgetown (DC), which
was opened after the War of the Revolution,
may be regarded as a successor to Bohemia.
Elementary schools were maintained in the
Jesuit missions of South and North America.
In the mission schools of Lower California,
and especially of Paraguay, besides reading and
writing, also music was taught and manual

training given In Canada the Jesuits bad
established " Seminaries," i e elementary
schools for European and Indian children,
and they called religious women from France
for the education of girls After 1740 ele-
mentary schools were opened in various Catholic
settlements, chiefly German, in Pennsylvania,
of which the Jesuits had charge " Tracing
things to their commencement and their cause,
we must attribute to the Jesuits, more than to
any other single influence, the establishment
of the Catholic school system, such as it exists
to-day . It is principally to the Jesuit
schools in Maryland and Pennsylvania that
we owe the development of the Catholic paro-
chial school system in the United States "
(Burns, The Catholic School System in the
United States pp 89, 164)

Jesuit Schools in Modern Times — The
expulsion of the Jesuits from France, Portugal,
and Spain through the absolutist Bourbon
courts, and the suppression of the order by
('lenient XIV (1773) at one stroke annihilated
the vast educational organization of the Jesuits
in all parts of the world, with the exception of
Prussia and Russia, where their schools were
maintained by the express orders of two free-
tlimkmg rulers, Frederick the Great and Cath-
erine II, because, as these sovereigns declaied,
the Jesuits were the best teachers available
for their Catholic subjects The suppression
meant to the Jesuits the total loss of then-
colleges, libraries, observatories, and all prop-
erty After the restoration (1814) the order
struggled into existence under very unfavor-
able conditions There was hardly a year
during the nineteenth century that the Jesuits
were not harassed in one country or other, or
even driven into exile It is evident that such
persecutions were most detrimental to educa-
tional activity, and they were the principal
cause which prevented the Jesuits from ob-
taining results similar to those of former cen-
turies Still, the numbei of colleges has in-
creased considerably, especially in English-
speaking countries At present the Jesuit
colleges all over the world number about 225
In North America there are in Canada the
colleges of Montreal (two) and St Boniface
(Manitoba), in the United States forty-one
colleges, with over 16,000 students Recently
several American colleges have expanded into
universities, with medical and law faculties, as
Georgetown (DC), Fordham (NY), St
Louis, and Omaha In foreign countries the
most prominent Jesuit schools are the Gregorian
University in Rome (successor to the old Roman
College, which, with its observatory, precious
library, and Museo Kirchcriano,was secularized
by the Italian government) , Stonyhurst (q v ),
Beaumont, Liverpool, Mount St Mary's, Stam-
ford Hill, Wimbledon (England); Clongowes,
Dublin (2), Mungret, Limerick (Ireland) , Sydney
(2), Melbourne (2), (Australia); Grahamstown
(South Africa), several institutions in Belgium;

539

JESUITS

JESUITS

Innsbruck (university), Fcldkirch, Kalksburg
(Austria), Kalocsa (Hungary); the university
in Beyrut (Syria); Bombay, Calcutta, Trichino-
poh (India); Manila (Philippines), Zi-ka-wei

(China). In mission countries numerous ele-
mentary schools are under the direction of the
Jesuits.

The following is a list of Jesuit colleges and
schools in the United States . —

New York

St Franois Xnvirr New York City 1847

Fordham University . New York City 1841

Loyola School . . . New York City 1000

Brooklyn Col logo . Brooklyn 1909

Camsius College Buffalo ^ 1870

Novitiate of St Andrew . Poughkeepsie 1903

Massachusetts

Boston College .... Boston 1864

Holy Cross College . . . Worcester 1843

New Jersey

St Peter's College . . . Jersey City 1878

Pennsylvania

St Joseph's College . . Philadelphia 18,31

Maryland

Loyola College .... Baltimore 1852

Woodstock College . . . Woodstock 1869

District of Columbia

Georgetown University . . Washington 1780

Gonzaga College .... Washington 1821

Missouri

St Louis University . . St Louis 1818

St Stanislaus Seminary . Florissant 1823

Ohio

St Xavier College Cincinnati 1831

St Ignatius' College . Cleveland 1886

St Jolm'b College . . Toledo 1898

Michigan

University of Detroit . . Detroit 1877

Illinois

Lo\ola University . . . Chicago 1870

Wisconsin

Marquotte University . . Milwaukee 1864

Sacred Heart College . . Prairie du Chien 1880

Nebraska

Cmghton University . . Omaha 1879

Kansas

St Mary's College . . St Mary's 1848

California

St Ignatius' College . . Sari Francisco 1855

Santa Clara College . . Santa Clara 1851

Los Angeles College Los Angeles 1911
Sacred Heart Novitiate . Los Gatos

Washington

Gonzaga College . . . Spokane 1887

Seattle College . . . Seattle 1892

Louisiana

College of the Immaculate

Conception .... New Orleans 1847

Loyola College . . . New Orleans 1910

St Charles College . . Grand Coteau 1838
St John's College . . . Shreveport

Alabama

Spring Hill College . . . Spring Hill 1830

Florida

College of the Sacred Heart Tampa 1899

Georgia

Sacred Heart College . . Augusta 1900

St Stanislaus College Macon 1887

(formerly Pio Nono College) 1871

Texas

St. Mary's University . . Galveston 1854

Colorado

College of the Sacred Heart Denver 1876

Literary and Scientific Activity. — In con-
nectjon with the educational work of the Jesuits
brief mention must be made of their literary

arid scientific work, because it was largely done
by college professors and is an indication of

their scholarly interests and attainments
The BibhothhjMc <lc la Cowpagwe de J6sus,
published by Spmmervogel (1890-1909), con-
tains in ten folio volumes the names of over
15,000 Jesuit writers and several times as many
titles of works composed by them Many
of these treat of ascetical and theological sub-
jects, and may here be left out of consideration,
except the catechetical works of about 400
Jesuits, which, in numerous languages and
editions, were a powerful means of religious
instruction of youth In particular, the cate-
chisms of Peter Carnsius and Bellarrnin, were
for centuries in almost universal use throughout
the Catholic world; in recent times the cate-
chisms of Father Deharbe obtained an im-
mense circulation, not only in Europe, but also
in America A great number of the works
composed by Jesuits deal with literary and
scientific subjects It is but natural to assume
that in so vast a number there are many produc-
tions of not moie than ordinal y quality , but a
respectable portion are of more than common,
even of exceptional value Not a few Jesuit
writers have gained gioat distinction in various
fields of scholarly activity, as some of thoii
bitterest enemies are compelled to acknowl-
edge " In mathematics and natural sciences
there are among the Jesuits wiitcrs who stand
in the first rank " (Huber, Der Jesmtenoiden,
p 418) And long before D'Alembert had
written in a violent attack on the ordei " Let
us add — for we must be just — that the
Jesuits have successfully cultivated eloquence,
history, archseologv, geometry, and litoiature
There is scarcely a class of writers in which
they have no representatives of the first rank "
Only a few names can be mentioned hero
Beschi, Ricci, Preinare, CJaubil (oriental phil-
ology), Hervas (comparative philology), Tira-
boschi (literary history), Petavius (chronology),
Hardoum (history), the Hollandists (history
and criticism), Kircher (various branches of
learning), Clavius (mathematics and calcndai
reform), Sacchen (non-Euclidean goometry),
Riccioh, Schemer, Gnmaldi, Boscovich (mathe-
matics, astronomy, optics, physics), Secchi
(physical astronomy and meteorology) Some
of these men made important discoveries and
through their researches have contributed to
the advancement of science With a consid-
erable number of Jesuit colleges observatories
were connected According to Montucla, at
the time of the dispersion of the Jesuits, 130
observatories existed all over the world Of
these thirty-two, ie one fourth, were directed
by the Jesuits At the present day, more
than twenty Jesuit colleges possess observa-
tories, astronomical, magnetic, meteorological,
or seismological Great services have been
rendered to science and navigation especially
by the meteorological observatories of Helen
(Havana) and Manila

Summary — Jesuit colleges and Jesuit edu-
cation stand for a groat deal more than mere

640

JESUITS

JKWKLL

classical culture Thero is reason to think
that opposition to the religious principles of the
Jesuits has prevented many critics from form-
ing a correct appreciation of the educational
work of the order It should certainly be
possible to separate clearly considerations of
religious tenets from questions of educational
methods and efficiency This has been done
by men like Bacon, Grotius, Ranke, and others,
who spoke with admiration of the zeal arid
success of Jesuit educators Of recent writers,
who had judged with independence and fairness,
it will suffice to mention Professor Paulson, one
of the greatest historians of education " No
one can doubt/' he writes in his classic work on
higher education, il that the Ratio tftudwruw
was worked out with extraordinary care and
with much intelligence Nor do I doubt

that the order through its schools has effectu-
ally furthered the spread of intellectual cul-
ture, especially classical learning, in Catholic
lands The Jesuits were certainly the most
learned and most zealous teachers that could
then be had in Catholic countries And that
they were not unskilled teachers has been
proved by their success " ((tench den gel Unt
Vol I, p 423) In his last work the same
writer adds " The success of the order was
brilliant, almost overwhelming, in two gen-
erations it had become ' the order of piofessors '
m the Catholic world One must, undoubtedly,
assume that this success was, on the whole,
gained through positive achievements " (Das
deutsche Bikiungswcsen, 1906, p 52) A
system which produced such lesults must,
from the beginning, have contained featuies
of unquestionable merit It embodied, savs
another writer, " much educational wisdom
and experience, practical skill, and a pedagogi-
cal insight which nevei swerves from the mam
purpose " (Fleischmann) It contained much
that is of permanent value in education

References —

Bibliographies —

HEiMBurHEU, Die Orden und Kongregationen dcr
kathohschen Kirthe, Vol 111, pp 2-258 (the mo*t
complete bibliography available) (Paderborn,
1907 )

PILATUW Dcr JcamlwrnuA On pp 351-509 the
Protestant author, Dr Vietor Naumaun, makes an
mstruetive analysis of anti-Jpsuitir.il literature
(ReigensburK, 1905 )

Sources —

Bibliothck dcr katholnchcn Padagogik, Vols X and XI
Contains important commentaries on the Ratio
Sludwrum by the Jesuits Saeehim, Jouvaney,
Kropf, Perpifta, Bomfaeius, and Possevm, trans-
lated into German and annotated by Stier,
Rchwickerath, Zorell, Scheid, and Pell (Frei-
burg, 18S9 and 1901)

Monuments Historic*, Societal™ Jcsu (m course of pub-
lication, Madrid, 1H94 ff ) For the first time fully
utilized, together with much other manuscript
material in the new histories of the Society
ABTRAIN, Historw de la Compaflia de Jesus en la Asw-
tcncw de Espafia (Madrid, 1905 ff ) ; DUHR, Ge-
schichtcderJeruiten in den iMndem deutacher Zunge

(Freiburg, 1907) , Foi'Qi'MtAl Ili^nn d< la Com-
jKigmc de .//s^/s in f'fvjwr (I'an*, 1910), HIH.HKS,
Ifmloiy of flu Saint i/ of ,/<,st/rt in No) tit A man a
(London. 1907 If), T\( rni-A7KNTuru, Stona ddla
ComiHimti cli (r<su in Itaha (Rome, 1910)
PACHTLKR, CJ M Ratio Studiorutn ct 1 nt>titutionf*
Scholasiutt tiotutfiti* ./(t>u po Germanium ohm
mO(nti*i Volb II, V, IX, and XVI of the Monu-
menta Girniania1 Pwdagogica, the standard source-
book on Jesuit education (Berlin, 18S7 ff )

Select List of Wttrk^ on Je^int Education

DANIEL, Les Jisuitix I nutituteurs de la Jcumt>^< fian-

<<aL*e aa XVII et an XVIII Nihli (P.irjh, 1SSO )
DUHR, B Die fttudunoidnuny dcr (itwlMiuft /an

(Fieiburg, 189() )
Huc»HEH, T Loyola find the Kducatioual tiijbtitii of th(

Jtmnk (New York, 1892 )
JANHSEN, J Histoiy of the German People, Volb VII,

IX, and XIV (London and St Louis, 1905

ff )
MAYNARD, AUBE The Studies and Teaching of the

Society of Ji'bUb at thf Time of its Suppression

(Baltimore, 1855)
MKRTZ, C Du I'udaaoQik dcr Jcwitcn (Heidelberg,

1889)
P\ULHLN, V GcHthithlt det> gelehtttn Unterrtthts an

den dintftchcn Sthulen und Umvcrsntatcn vom Aus-

gang dttt Mittelatterx bis zur Ncuznt (Leipzig,

1890-1897)
DE Rcx'ULMONTEix, P Vn Collcuc dct, Ji*uit(* aujc

XVII it XVIII Siede* (Le Mans, 1SS9 )
SCIIMID, K \ Geuchichtt'der Erziehuno vom Anfanahi^

auf unsejc Zeit, Vol« III, IV, and V (Stuttgart,

1881 if )
SrHWK KKRATII, R J esuit Education, its History and

Principles, mewed in the Light of Mod(rn Educa-
tional Problem* (St Louis, 1904 )

Articles on Imjwifanf Phai><\ —

BRADER Die Kntwickelung des P»es< hichtsuntenichts
an den Jehuiteiibehulen Deutschlandh und Oester-
rei<hs, in HitttoriMhit> Jahrbuth (Munich, 1910)

DANIEL La (i^ograplne daiih les Polleges des Jemnteo
aux XVII et X\ III Socles, in Etudi* (Pan.s,
1879 )

HERMAN L Kxpluation des Auteurs d'apr6s les Pro-
grammes des Jesuites aux XVI Siecle, in Bulletin
hibliographiquc ft Pedanoguju< du Mustc Belyi
(Lou vain, 1910 )

S( HREIBEK-RKJOE Jesuit Astronomy, m Populat As-
tronomy, Januan and Febiuarv, 1904

SCHWICKER\TH, R Jesuit Education in (Latin) Am-
erica, in Catholic Educational Revuw (Washing-
ton, January, 1911 )

STOECKIUH Die Pfleg(^ doi Muttersprac he in der Gesoll-
schaft Jesu, in Monatbchnft fui hohert tirhulen
(Berlin, Februan 1911 )

RUIN, W EmykloflidisclHS Handbmh dci Padagogik
av Ji'buiti'tt-Padagoflih und Jasuiten-tichiiUn

JESUS AS A TEACHER — Soo NEW TES-
TAMENT, PEDAUOCn OF THE

JEWELL, FREDERICK SCHWARTZ (1821-
1903) — Kducutional writer and institute lec-
turer, studied at Yale College and was gradu-
ated liom the Auburn Theological Seminary in
1849 He was principal of secondary schools
in New York and Pennsylvania (1849-1854),
instructor m the State Normal School at
Albany (1854-1808), institute instructor foi
the department of public instruction m New
York state (1869-1878), and professor in
Hacme College (1884-1889). He was authoi
of textbooks on grammar and civics and of
numerous essays on education. W. S M.

541

JEWETT

JEWISH EDUCATION

JEWETT, MILO P. (1808-1882). — First
president of Vassar College, was graduated
from Dartmouth College in 1828 and the An-
dover Theological Seminary in 1833. He was
professor in Marietta College (1834-1838);
principal of the Judson Female Institute at
Marion, Ala (1838-1855); principal of the
College Hill Seminary at Poughkeepsie (1855-
1862), and pmsident 'of Vassar College (1862-
1864) His publications include Education in
Euwpe (1863) and Academies (1875)

W. S M

See VASSAR COLLEGE

JEWISH EDUCATION --Ancient Period

— The Jews, long before any other nation of
antiquity, formulated an educational ideal and
expressed the aim of education in terms of
character formation, based on religious and
ethical principles The product of a sound
education was to be a God-fearing man (Deut.
x, 12; Prov i, 7), for a the fear of the Lord
is the beginning of wisdom " The Jews did
not, as the Greeks, create God in the shape and
with the qualities of man, but man was created
in the image of God, and his ideal was to be
found in God. Unlike their neighbors, even
the most civilized, the Jews did not practice the
exposure of children, for none was so unfit that
it could not learn God. Indeed, the reward
for true observance of faith was increase of
progeny, " happy is the man that hath his
quiver full of them " (Ps cxxvn, 5)
Schools as such were unknown m Biblical
times, because it was felt that the education
of children was the business of the family It
was the duty of the parents to act as inter-
preters to their children of the annual festivals
and the religious rites and ceremonials, all of
which served as object lessons in the history
of their ancestors and as practical religious
arid moral training (See, especially, Exod
xn, 26, 27; xiii, 8, 14; Deut. iv, 9, 10, xxxn,
46, etc ) More particularly was it the duty
of fathers to hand down the national tradi-
tions (Deut. iv, 19, vi, 6; Ps. xliv, 1; Ixxvm,
3-6), and to explain local landmarks (Josh iv,
6, 21). But it is clear that the mother also
had an important educational function (Prov.
i, 8, vi, 20) That the welfare of the State
depends on the well-being of the family was
also recognized (Fifth Commandment). Read-
ing and writing (Deut. vi, 9; xxvii, 8,
Josh xviii, 9, Judges viii, 14; Job xxxi,
35, etc), and sufficient arithmetic to calculate
dates of festivals and everyday needs were
included in the curriculum. History and songs
formed part of the life of the nation. With the
Jews, as with the Greeks, life was education,
though the content was different How
strongly rooted the religious ideal of education
was among the Jews may be gathered from the
fact that, in spite of the material greatness
arid wide intercourse with the world, a worldly
culture did not arise. Typical of the literature

of this period (c. 1000 B c ) is the Book of Prov-
erbs, the whole of which may be read as the
expression of the educational ideals of the time,
with its emphasis on the importance of both
the father and the mother in the education of
the child, with its stress on habit (" Train up
a child," etc. xxii, 6); on the value of re-
proof as a mode of guidance (x, 17, xii, 1),
on the importance of discipline and the rod of
correction (xxii, 15, xxm, 14; xxix, 15, etc);
and with its description of the virtuous woman
(xxxi). The so-called "schools of the proph-
ets/' reputed to have been established by
Samuel, were probably nothing more than
associations of Jkindrcd spirits interested in the
same work

Under the influence of Ezra and Nehemiah
the sacred writings acquired a new value and
became an object of definite study. From
this time on the Jews were the people of the
Book " The sacred writings became the
spelling book, the community a school, religion
an affair of teaching and learning " (Wel-
hausen) A new class of instructors (Kopheiim
or Scribes) arose, as opposed to the Levitos or
official interpreters The synagogues at a later
date became places of instruction and dis-
cussion (cf Philo, and Matth xxi, 23,
Luke n, 46, etc ) Ezia is credited, but on
little authority, with the establishment of a
school system In the second century B c
Hellenistic influence made itself strongly felt
among the Jews Greek customs and a gym-
nasium were introduced into Jerusalem (1
Mace i, 14, 2 Mace iv, 9, 12). This,
indeed, is the first reference to physical exer-
cise, although young men over twenty were
expected to bear arms (Numbers i, 3, xxvi,
2; and later 2 Chron xxv, 5) The sages
recommended the study of Greek and even the
translation of the Torah into that language,
because " only by Greek can it be adequately
rendered " Furthermore, Greek was taught
to girls as an accomplishment, although as a
rule girls were only tiained in household woik
and the duties of motherhood It is not nec-
essary here to do moie than refor to the intel-
lectual influence of the Helleriized Jews, for
example, in Antioch and Alexandria, where
Greek was more familiar than Hebrew, or to the
merging of Greek and Hebrew philosophy and
early Christian doctrine into the school of Neo-
platonism. Nor was this contact with the
world around a verv late development, Theo-
phrastus speaks of the Jews as a race of phil-
osophers (<£(Aocro<£ot TO yci/os OVTCS).

That the education of children was almost
wholly domestic has already been mentioned
But the problem of the education of orphans
had to be faced, and about 70 B.C. an educational
system was established by Simon ben Shetach
in Jerusalem, with compulsory attendance
The details of this law cannot be traced, but
it seems highly probable that the education of
orphan children of sixteen years of age was

JEWISH EDUCATION

JEWISH EDUCATION

intended A century later, howevei, tlie High
Priest, Joshua ben Gamla, passed a law provid-
ing for the establishment of elementary schools,
with compulsory attendance from the age of six
Attendance before that age was strongly dis-
couraged. Children would come to school
equipped with a knowledge of reading, of SOUK

ordained students to the unordamcd disnplca
or candidates (haberim), with the power to
sum up reserved to the president In tins way
was accumulated the lore which foi many gen-
erations was handed down orally Since hardly
any limits were set to the discussions, almost
every field of knowledge was touched upon,

extracts from the Pentateuch, and the ccrc-s xjncluding theology, philosophy, mathematics,

rnonials learned from the father By this law
each community had to provide a teacher for
every twenty-five children, with an assistant
if the number rose to forty, and another teacher
if the number reached fifty The curriculum

astronomy, astrologv, medicine, geogiaphy,
history, architecture, botany, and animal anat-
omy, etiquette and manners wore also discussed
By 219 these traditions wore collected by Rabbi
Jehuda Hanasi (the Prince), head of the acad-

was religious, consisting of the Scriptures and I cmy at Sepphoris, and formed tho Mishnah, a
anything arising out of this in tho way of anth^ word literally meaning " teaching, " and applied

metic, history, geography, and general knowl-j
edge Josephus (Contra Apion, I, 12) savs
" Our chief care of all is to educate oui chil-
dren," and elsewhere (ibid II, 18) " from their
earliest consciousness they had loainod the
laws so as to have them, as it wero, engraven
on their souls " The last statement is corrob-
orated in almost similar terms by Plnlo (Legal
ad Gaium, sec 31) How successful the system
of education was may be shown by the testi-
mony of Josephus ( Vita, 2), who declares that
at fourteen he could expound the most abstruse
questions of law, a fact which may bo confirmed
by reference to the story of the Christ Child
in the Temple (Luke n, 46, 47)

Academies — One of the most interesting
illustrations of the influence of education on
the survival of a nation is that presented by the
Hebrew academies (Beth hamidra^h) The
synagogues had already been centers of study,
probably from the time of Ezra, ior in addition
to the prayers, passages from the Holy Writ
were read and explained to the people Alter
the destruction of the Temple Johanan ben
Zakkai obtained permission fiom Vespasian
to establish an academy at Jamnia or Jabnoh,
which became the new center for Jewish life
Here the traditional literature and laws of the
nation were discussed, legal and ritual ques-
tions were decided, contradictions in the law
were settled; theoretical and hypothetical
questions were considered at length, and the
foundation for future development was laid

Under Gamaliel II the academy at Jabneh
acquired great influence Young men flocked
here for training and ordination as rabbis, with
pow^r to teach, judge, and, with limitations, to
decide on questions of ritual. Other academies
sprang up at Lydda, Bekiin, Usha, Sopphons,
Cffisarea, and Tiberias With changing po-
litical conditions and the eminence of the
teachers, the influence moved from one place to
another. The right of ordination was at first
vested in the patriarch, whose office was heredi-
tary in the house of Hillel, but later was exer-
cised by the patriarch and council A formal
order and routine gradually sprang up accord-
ing to which the privilege of speech was regu-
lated and ranged from the president of the
academy (Rosh Yethibah) through the sages and

to the laws and regulations At Tiberias the
foundations were laid by Johanan ben Nappaha
(AD 189-279), the founder of the academy,
for the work which was finally compiled in the
fifth century as the Jerusalem Gemara, or sup-
plement of the Mishnah, consisting of supple-
ments, discussions, and elaborations of that
work Tho academy at Tiberias flourished
with brief intervals to the tune of Saachah.
The teachers at the academies bore different
names at different periods, up to the compila-
tion of the Mishnah they wero known as Tanaim
(teachers), during tho development of the
Gemara they wore called Amoraim (speakers),
later the name was Saburaim (examiners or
investigators)

At the same time a parallel development was
going on among the Babylonian Jews, where
the academies became important about 219 A D
Sora and Nehardoa were the chief centers at
first, but the place of the latter, on its destruc-
tion, was taken by Pumbeditha At Sora
originated the Babylonian Gemara under
Ashi (d 427) This work during its compila-
tion was submitted tieatise by treatise to the
assemblies for discussion and criticism, until
it was completed in the sixth centuiy bv
the Saburaim The Babylonian academy was
called Mctibta (meeting or session), or Ycdubah,
the one being tho Aramaic, the other the He-
brew name, and tho head was called Rexh
metibta or ftosh ycshibah At first the title of
Gaon (Excellency) was given to the head of the
academy -at Sora, but was later bestowed on
other eminent scholars. Sora was surpassed
in importance in the eighth century by Pum-
beditha, which continued successfully until it
was brought to a close on the death of Hai
Gaon (1038) An interesting institution con-
nected with the Babylonian academies was the
Kallah, a general assembly meeting twice each
year, at the end of summer and winter, and not
unlike the modern institutes or Chautauquas
A treatise, previously announced, was pre-
pared by the disciples and discussed at the
Kallah, the assembly being seated according
to rank and a definite procedure being followed
All present were questioned individually by
the president. In addition to the prescribed
work, questions from all parts were discussed,

543

JEWISH EDUCATION

JEWISH EDUCATION

and the answers were formulated by the presi-
dent. And these questions came from wher-
ever Jews had settled, for the Babylonian
academies had during the Gaonic period (from
the seventh century on) surpassed and taken
the place of those in Palestine, and it was not
until the tenth century, when Moses ben
Chanoch, himself a student of Sora, founded an
academy at Cordova, that the Western Jews
became independent of the Kast

The two compilations, the Mishnah and
Gemnra, dealing with the laws and regulations
and the exegetical discussion that had grown
up around them, were known as the Talmud,
which for many centuries remained the store-
house of Jewish learning and the center of
Jewish intellectual activity

Educational Theories in the Talmud — The
theory of education in the nine centuries fol-
lowing the Old Testament period are to be
found scattered in the Talmud Education,
meaning, as always, religious education, was
regarded as the business of life The igno-
rant man, the Am haarez, was to suffer civil
disfranchisement and social ostracism, for the
ignorant man cannot be religious, while " whoso
knows the Bible, Mishnah, and morals will not
sin easily " Hence the school was as much a
requisite in every community as a synagogue,
arid to live where there was no school was
forbidden " The world exists by the breath
of the children in the school " The importance
thus attached to education explains also the
reason why teachers were regarded as "the
protectors " of a town But the maintenance
of schools was not a matter of importance to
the individual alone, but also to the nation ; and
on these grounds the Patriarch in the fourth
century sent two inspectors of schools up and
down the county The first and last duties
of the father were to care for the education of
his children, duties in which the mother also
participated to some extent, and it was in the
home that children first learned the meaning of
the religious ceremonies and rites The educa-
tion of the child by the father began as soon as he
could talk Tn some communities infant schools
(Makn Dardeki] were maintained, and received
children at the age of five Here the alphabet
was taught, mainly through play and fanciful
stories attached to each letter. But generally
it was not considered wise for their future de-
velopment to send children to school before
the age of six, when they were admitted to the
public schools, which were under the care of a
publicly paid Melamed Tinokoth (teacher of
children) But how intimate the relation be-
tween the home and the school was is evidenced
by the fact that it was always the father, and
not a slave, who took the child to school; while
it was not unusual to supervise the work done
at home. Great care was to be exercised in
the selection of a teacher The first qualifica-
tion was an acquaintance with the whole store
of learning. The teacher was to be married,

644

not young, patient and wholly dovolod to the
needs of his pupils, for a dishonest teacher was
regarded as "of those of whom it is said,
' Cursed be he who doeth the work of the Lord
deceitfully ' " Teachers were exempt from
taxation, and, although those in the lower
grades were paid a salary, it was very general
for the teachers of the Talmud to follow some
vocation; so Rabbi Johanan was a shoemaker,
Rabbi Simon a weaver, Rabbi Joseph a cai-
penter. The reverence with which teachers
were regarded is reflected in their titles, " Lights
of Israel," " Princes of the people/' " Pillars
of Israel ", and more respect and service were
due to a teacher than even to a father, for " the
father gives the son only temporal life, but the
teacher helps him to obtain eternal bliss "
Women could in no case be employed as
teachers Their sphere was the home The
pupils attended school morning and evening
for five hours each day. The Sabbath and
festivals were employed for review and ex-
aminations Vacations were, accordingly, un-
known, the only concession being a reduction
of one hour a day during the heat of summer
A well-defined school procedure came to be
recognized, and a traditional curriculum was
early established. The school age (five or six to
fifteen) was divided into three periods — one de-
voted to the Scriptures, one to Mishnah, and
one to Grmara At thirteen boys were con-
firmed and attained their religious majority
The subjects mentioned formed but the core
of the studies, the extent and scope has been
described above in dealing with the develop-
ment of the Talmud The method, as usual
with oriental peoples, and as is to be expected
from the lack of written material, was wholly
oral The teachers, however, frequently wrote
out sections for their pupils to read. The
pupils sat on the ground or on benches around
the teacher, and repeated their tasks aloud and
articulately, for " to speak aloud the sentence
which is being learned fixes it in the memory "
Since so much of the work was a matter of
memorization, numerous mnemonic devices were
introduced. Among these may be mentioned
acrostics, the arrangement of sentences in al-
phabetical order; the alphabet itself was
learned in different arrangements forward,
backward, grouping by twos taken from each
end (a system borrowed from the Greek, e g
aw, /ty); numerical symbols were also used
But above all stress was laid on repetition, and
teachers were recommended to repeat with
their pupils until they mastered a subject
thoroughly. Wholesale reviews and revisions
were frequent in order to fixate the larger
topics. At the same time it was not desired
so much that the amount of information im-
parted should be great, as that a pupil should
become the master of what he knew, and if a
pupil failed to comprehend, the charge was laid
to the teacher. But diligence and industry
were expected from the pupils, and he who

JEWISH EDUCATION

JEWISH EDUCATION

said, " I have taken pains and acquired no-
thing/' was not to be believed The pupil was
expected to ask questions, for " whoso is
ashamed to question, learns nothing," arid
again " one who is bashful cannot be learned "
Of classroom devices to stimulate the pupil
there was no lack, emulation and rival rv being
the chief of these Sweetmeats and cakes, on
which were inscribed woids or whole sentences,
were given to the younger pupils for good prog-
ress, while coiporal punishment with a strap
was inflicted for misbehavior or laziness Older
pupils were reprimanded or rebuked foi
breaches of discipline On the whole, while
teachers were expected to be stern, a certain
degree of respectful intimacy between them and
their pupils was recommended The honor
of a pupil was to be as dear to a teacher as his
own Mutual instruction and the insti uction
of backward children by an older boy, usually
the head of his class (Resh Duchna), was a well
recognized principle In this way the teachers
were relieved where classes were large, and a
new stimulus was added, for " as a small chip
of wood sets fire to a large one, so the younger
pupils sharpen the older, or just as steel whets
steel, so is one scholar sharpened by another,"
a principle which was rediscovered by the
Jesuits Fuither, intercom se with the learned
was enjoined, since " even the ordinary con-
versation of the wise is instructive," or, as
Rabelais puts it, " haunt the company of
learned men "

The Talmud divides students into four cate-
gories, which " correspond respectively to a
sponge, a funnel, a strainer, and a sieve, " and
develops the analogies In another passage,
which deserves quotation, it is stated that
" four characteristics are found among the
disciples The first quickly comprehends and
quickly forgets, euch an one loses more than
he gains The second with difficulty compre-
hends, but does not readily forget, he gams
more than he loses He who comprehends
quickly, but does not easily forget, has a goodly
portion He who slowly cornpiehends and
forgets quickly has an evil portion " How the
psychology of memory was developed has
already been described. The connection be-
tween knowledge and conduct was emphasized,
and the value of the impressions gained was
measured by the expression in behavioi
" Great is the study of the law, for it leads to
action," and again " Not theory but practice
is the important thing " And if the value of
knowledge lay in its use, not the least service
of the learned man was to teach others

Intellectual training did not complete the
education of children. Vocational preparation
was not neglected, and this duty was enjoined
on the father as much in the interest of society
as of the individual, for " whosoever does not
teach his son a handicraft, teaches him to be
a thief," and again " learning, no matter of
what kind, if unaccompanied by a trade, ends

VOL. in — 2w o45

in nothing and leads to sin " That " labor
honors the laborer " has been shown by re-
ference to the many scholars who were humble
artisans Fathers were also charged with the
duty of the physical training of their children
in so far as they were advised to teach them
swimming

Such was the educational tradition established
by the Talmud Modifications were made, but
the spirit remained unchanged up to the present
day. While there is some dangei in attempting
to read into the system what is not to be found
therein, there is as little justification for dismis-
sing, as some German writers have done, the
educational theory of the Talmud as entirely
valueless, because it did not have any historical
influence The reason for this, however, does
not he with the system, but in the fact that no
trouble was ever taken to learn from a people
which was regarded with contempt

Middle Ages — Spam. — Few nations have re-
sponded so readily to external conditions as have
the Jews, so in cosmopolitan Spam of the early
Middle Ages their intellectual interests were as
broad as the field of knowledge, and resulted in
a profound influence on European thought, in
Italy they showed the same hght-heartedriess,
the same worldly spirit as their neighbors,
while in Germany there is noticeable that
strong moral and religious atmosphere, mystical
in tendency, which marked the Teutonic people

For three centuries (sixth to ninth) there had
been intellectual stagnation until the admission
of Arabic influences gave riscjto a new develop-
ment, and a revived attention to the Talmud
from a new point of view Philosophy was
called in to the support of the national religion
There arose an army of scholars, grammarians,
astronomers, historians, philosophers, arid
poets, and with the new studies came a re-
newed interest in the education of childien,
and the formulation of educational theory to
meet the new requirements The educational
ideals of the time (from the tenth to the thir-
teenth centuries) are indicated in letters, wills,
and monographs The best illustration of
these is the will of Jehuda ibn Tibbon (1120-
1190), a doctor and translator of philosophical
and grammatical works He had provided
his son with a well-stocked library, with several
editions of each book, and had engaged a
teacher for him in secular subjects, the son is
advised to study Arabic and Hebrew, oithog-
raphy, grammar, and style, lehgion and
medicine, he is to learn by teaching, to take
pude in his library and be ready to spread
knowledge by lending books willingly (the last
recommendation is repeated frequently in
other works of a similar nature as an act of
piety) The highest point in the develop-
ment of Hebrew-Arabic culture was reached in
the time of Maimomdes (q v ), who attempted
to reconcile Platonic philosophy with the
Hebrew religion in the Moreh Nebuknn (Guide
of the Perplexed), which with his Codex of tho

JEWISH EDUCATION

JEWISH EDUCATION

Talmud exercised a great influence on Hebrew
study. Works on method of instruction and
programs of study are now frequently met
with, either original or based on Arabic sources
So Jehuda Charisi in the Moral Sayings of the
Philosophers recommends ten subjects for a ten-
year course writing, grammar, and prosody,
law or religion, arithmetic, mathematics, as-
tronomy, medicine, music, logic, philosophy
These studies, however, always presupposed
the Talmud and the Bible, which indeed
formed a foundation The best exposition of
the ideas of the time is found in the Healing of
the Souls by R Joseph b Jehuda Aknm of
Barcelona (end of twelfth century) It is clear
from this work that, as in Europe generally,
so among the Jews, the influence of Aristotle
led to an encyclopedic study Numerous
encyclopedias were written or tianslated in the
twelfth and thirteenth centuries Aknm's
curriculum included reading and writing, the
Pentateuch and Mishnah, grammar and poetry
(carefully selected for its influence on char-
acter), Talmud, which must be memorized and
thoroughly understood before proceeding to
philosophy, including mathematics, imtuial
science, and metaphysics Philosophy is to be
studied as a defense against heresy and for
the prevention of enoi Logic, dialectic,
rhetoric, and poetics hnd a place, arid Aristotle
is the textbook. Mathematics includes geom-
etry, astronomy, optics, music, and mechanics
Under natural science come medicine and the
eight divisions given in Aristotle's Physics
Each study is justified on Biblical authoiity
No better description of the qualities of a
teacher can be found than those given by
Aknm He must have full knowledge of his
subject and critical ability, and knowledge
must be the mainspring of conduct, he must
treat his pupils as his sons arid thiough knowl-
edge lead them to right conduct, he must
teach stop by step according to the ability of
his pupils, and teach them that learning is its
own reward The pupil must respect his
teacher more than his parents, he must be
ready to ask questions, he must let nothing
distract him from his studies, beginning with
the first principles, he must leave no point in
his course unsolved, and he must leave Ins
home to find the best teachers arid the soundest
learning It is not necessary here to point out
the analogies between the attitude toward
philosophy and the curriculum here described,
and the seven liberal arts and the aim of phil-
osophical study in the scholastic period

The change in political conditions, the ex-
pulsion of the Arabs, and the persecutions
under Christian rule, combined with internal
disputes, led to a decline in Jewish studies In
many places the rabbis forbade the study of
philosophy at about the same time as the works
of Aristotle wore burned at Pans Mysticism
1)11 one side or rationalism on the other, with
a c )ii*ioquent contempt for religious proscrip-

tions, took the place of a study of philosophical
foundations It even became a matter of
pride to admit ignorance of the sciences. At-
tempts were made here and there to revive
secular learning, as by R Jehuda b Samuel b.
Abbas (Jair Natib, or Light of the Way, c.
1250), by Schemtob b Joseph Falaquera
(c 1290), by Abraham ibn Chasdai (r 1250),
but with little avail The reaction was com-
plete in non- Arabic Spain and the Provence
While the study of philosophy was forbidden
because it led to contempt for rohgion, justi-
fication for it was sought, as by Joseph Kaspi
of Argentieres (r 1322), by claiming Hebrew
origin for Aristotle's works and reading into
them commands to lulfill the words of the
Hebrew teacheis and prophets As with
scholasticism, so with Hebrew studies, ig-
norance began to cover its defects by dispu-
tations, by quibbling, and by strawsplittmg,
the spirit of the law was forgotten in a mass
of petty details, mrvcls, and commentaries
By 1350 Profiat Duran of Catalonia, although
he himself had enjoyed a broad education, felt
that the only way out of the confusion which
had been wrought was a return to the tradi-
tional Hebrew curriculum Hence his gram-
mar (Maase Efod], which contains a number of
pedagogic principles, omits all mention of
secular studies

As a general rule children received their
education from private tutors, although every
community maintained one or two public
teachers The practice of receiving payment
for teaching became common in the twelfth
century, as it was more and more impossible
to combine a trade with the professional work
Maimomdes rebukes teachers for receiving
pay and scholars for accepting stipends and
board The teachers were always exempt
from taxation. Instruction began at three or
four, the child being introduced to his studies
with ceremonials Discipline as a rule was
mild, rebukes being prefeired to corporal pun-
ishment, fruit, clothing, and toys were used to
stimulate the future scholar While girls
were excluded from schools, they learned the
Hebrew language and prayers Higher studies
were pursued in the academies or public school-
houses of the rabbis, the synagogues being also
used It became a matter of distinction for
wealthy men to maintain academies at their
expense, as it was also to possess a libraiy and
to be willing to lend books The young men
wandered from academy to academy in search
of knowledge, many going as fai east as Pales-
tine and Babylon

Northern Europe. — The Jews were long
settled in the north of France and in the
Rhine districts, their settlement having been
encouraged by Charlemagne, who himself em-
ployed Jewish physicians and ambassadors.
For several centuries they were allowed to live
undisturbed and maintained friewllv relations
with their neighbors, as may be mdiojitcd in

540

JEWISH EDUCATION

JEWISH EDUCATION

France by the numerous fables (Conies et
Fabliaux), both original and translations from
the French, and in Germany by the use of
the vernacular and the many popular transla-
tions or transcriptions into Jewish Geiman
dialect, while the troubadour, Susskmd von
Tnmbcrg, could hardly have been an isolated
instance of the part played by Jews in the
literature of the homes of then adoption The
Crusaders, ecclesiastical decrees (c g that of
Archbishop Odo of Paris, 111)7), and the Black
Death tended to destroy these relations, and
the persecutions and intolerance 'broke up the
Jewish homes and drove them to other settle-
ments Removed as they were fiom the Arabic
influences, the northern Jews tended to remain
largely in the traditional groove of intellectual
activity, — collecting, editing, and commenting
on the Bible, the Talmud, and other cxegetical
woiks Epoch-marking was the work of R
Solomon b Isaac, better known as Rasln of
Troyes (1039-1105), whose Minimal y, written
in a simple, natural style, served as a useful
school textbook to introduce students to the
commentaries This work was also used by
Christians, so by Nicholas de Lyra, called the
ape of Rashi, and by Luther

The aim of Hebrew study at this time was to
i elate the Talmud to the changed conditions
of life, and so new decisions and ordinances
( Tu^safot and Tckanot) were issued While
there is little on educational theory at this time,
practice hardly differed from that among Jews
elsewhere The child was entered at school or
with a teacher at Pentecost with a ceremony in
the synagogue, and the teacher at once gave
him his first lesson on the alphabet from a
tablet smeared over with honey to denote the
sweetness of learning, a cake, inscribed with
several Biblical verses, was given to the young
scholar, there were also other symbolical
ceremonies The curriculum differed but little
from the traditional Bible, Mishnah, and Tal-
mud, and Rashi When the pupil had gone
through these studies, it was usual to wander
round to other teachers to learn the latest and
most authoritative decisions and supplements
( Toasafot) , and many communities established
houses of learning or academics (Beth haitu-
drash), and often provided board and lodging
for wandering students

It was in the north, and especially Germany,
that the wandering spirit attained its greatest
development among Jewish as well as Gentile
students The former (the Talmud-bahur) was
more fortunate than his brother, for regulai
provision was made either in the Yeshibah, or
academies, or in private houses for their re-
ception and entertainment. But they suffered
much privation and want in spite of this. The
chief desire which inspired the wanderers was
to hear some new explanation, some new
decision These scholars performed a service
by making copies of, or in some cases stealing,
works and thus circulating them, and by

spreading the new decisions and thus subjecting
them to thorough criticism It is not surpris-
ing that in time the value attached to " iio\ els "
led to hairsplitting disputations for their own
sake and neglect and ignoiance of the Bible
and Talmud, features for which analogies can
easily be found in later scholasticism

An extremely interesting type of educational
literature was produced by the northern rabbis
which finds its analogy -in the contemporary
Books of Virtue, of Manners, and of Etiquette
But the distinguishing mark of the Jewish
works is that they were addressed to the masses,
while the chivalnc books were intended for
the gentry and noble At a time when the
canons of chivalry make almost no mention of
learning, the Conduct of Life, contained in the
will of R Elieser of Worms (c 1050) addressed
to his son, emphasizes the importance of knowl-
edge and piety > respect for learning and rev-
erence for the teacher, intercourse with the
wise, upright dealings with his neighbors of
all religions; kindness to those in trouble and
chanty to the poor, and does not omit to give
practical hints on hygiene and diet Similarly
R Elasar of Worms (d 1298) urges piety and
humility, observance and knowledge of the Law,
uprightness and love of neighbors, self-denial
and kindness to the needy, constant study, and
care for the education of children The most
complete work of this type is the Book of the
Pious, attributed to R Jehuda Chassid, a
mystic of the thirteenth century Here are
emphasized neighborly love, upright dealings;
kindly treatment of inferiors and animals,
true piety and charity, education of children,
boys by teachers and girls by their parents,
separation of good and bad children, of bright
and weak pupils, readiness to lend books and
manuscripts, reverence for and care of sacred
books How the tradition was maintained is
indicated in the Book of the Pwut> (called the
" short " to distinguish it from the earlier
work) of R Moses Kohen b. Elasar of Coblenz
(c 1473), and in the anonymous Book of Mo? ah
(r 1400), which was translated into the Jargon
in 1542 While both works repeat the em-
phasis on the qualities already mentioned,
there are additions on table manneis and
etiquette in daily intercourse Works of a
similar character are found frequently through-
out the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
adequate testimony to the perennial interest
in education

Hebrew Influence in Middle Ages — In
the early part of the peiiod under considera-
tion, that is, about the ninth and tenth cen-
turies, Jew and Christian lived amieablj' side
by side Synagogal and church melodies were
exchanged, and many Christian scholars used
Hebrew words an commentaries There was
an interchange of thought on religious ques-
tions, arid disputations appear to have been
frequently engaged in Alcuin refers to a dis-
putation at Pavia about SOO between a Jew,

547

JEWISH EDUCATION

JEWISH EDUCATION

Julias, and Peter of Pisa In the tenth century
Ratherms, Bishop of Verona, defends his anti-
Jewish attitude on the ground that the Jews
were too outspoken in disputing with Christian
theologians The traditional training of the
Jews afforded them a preparation for dispu-
tative argument which frequently led them to
victory. Indeed, such was the confidence in
their 'powers, that they were often the chal-
lengeis It is not surprising, then, to find that
toward the end of the twelfth century the
Chuich began bv forbidding laymen to enter
into theological discussion with Jews, and soon
forbade such intercourse even to the somewhat
better educated clergy. On their side, the
Jewish uibbis used their influence to prevent
such disputations when the era of persecution
began (Cf Book of the Pious ) The friendly
relations which existed between Jews and Chris-
tians not onlv led to disputations, but many of
the clergy seized the opportunity to learn
Hebrew from their Jewish friends, and there
appears to have been an interchange of church
and synagogal melodies But the Church put
an end to such tendencies to tolerance, holding
quoi urn dispar est cultus, nullus debet esse ani-
morum consensus

^ In two fields of study — medicine and as-
tronomy — the Jews of the Middle Ages were
preeminent, and their influence is strongly
marked The profession of medicine was al-
most wholly in their hands from the ninth to the
thirteenth centuries At Salerno there were
in the early beginnings many Jewish teachers,
arid Hebrew was one of the languages in which
lectures were delivered The first medical
encyclopedia (Compendium Sakrnitanum) was
compobcd by Copho, who is thought to have
been a Jew From Salerno the Jewish doctors
spread throughout Italy and held many impor-
tant positions in ecclesiastical and secular courts,
e g Farragut and Charlemagne, Zedekia and
Charles the Bold The Canon of Avicenna
was first made accessible by a translation into
Hebrew, and a commentary on Hippocrates
was written in the thirteenth century by Abra-
ham Cabnt **At Montpelher a Jewish medi-
cal school, the forerunner of the later university,
was opened about 1025; and later, many Jews
were connected with the medical faculty as
teachers and as deans, until a ban went out in
the thirteenth century against Jewish doctors
In astronomy the Jews were active practically
and theoretically They made several astro-
nomical tables, e g. the Toledo tables in 1080,
and the Alfonsine tables under the supenn-
tendence of Isaac ben Sid. Levi Gerson (Leo
de Bagnolas) invented an astronomical instru-
ment, and his work upon this was translated
into Latin by order of Clement VI, and was
highly appreciated by Kepler As translators
of Arabic astronomical works the Jews made
accessible the most valuable studies in the field
Jbn Ezra (</ v ) translated the Canons of the
Khowarezmi Tables of Al-Mattani, Moses ibn

Tibbon the work on the Ptolemaic system by
Jahir ben Aflah; Jacob Anatoli translated
Ptolemy's Almagest and AyerroeV compendium
on this work. Profiat Tibbon was professor
of astronomy at Montpellier. AIn the field
which was then so nearly allied to astronomy
— astrology — the interpretations of the Jews
were much sought after, until they were for-
bidden by the rabbis as likely to lead to trouble.
In philosophy the Jews exercised an in-
fluence for which they have only received scant
credit. Interested as they were mainly in
reconciling Hebrew theology with philosoph-
ical speculation, their work fell directly into
line with the aims of the early scholastics, and
few of the leading medieval theologians failed
to show a knowledge of Hebrew philosophical
writings While it is true that the Jews served
mainly as intermediaries between Greek and
Arabic philosophy on the one side and Chris-
tian theology on the other, without this medi-
ation the development of scholasticism would
have been retarded for many years until a
direct knowledge of Aristotle would have been
possible. The first Hebrew philosopher to
exercise a marked influence on Christian phi-
losophy was the Neoplatomst, Ibn Gabirol
or Avicebron (1021-1058), possibly because
he was not known for several centuncs as
a Jew Ibn Gabirol's Fons Vitcc, translated
into Latin at Toledo, c 1150, served as a text-
book of Neoplatomsm, arid was known by Duns
Scotus, Albertus Magnus, Aquinas, William of
Auvergne, and Alexander of Hales The work
was a "matter in dispute between the Francis-
cans as represented by Duns Scotus and the
Dominicans, represented by Albertus Magnus
and Aquinas Duns Scotus was a stanch
upholder of Avicebron, and accepted his theory
of the universality of matter, and the emana-
tion of the divine will The latter view was
also accepted by Albertus Magnus, who de-
votes some space in the De Causis et Process
Universitatis to a consideration of Aviccbron's
views But the most permanent and broadest
influence was exercised by Maimomdes (Moses
ben Maimon, d 1204) (q v ) through the Aris-
totelian Moreh Nebukim (Guide ^ of the Per-
plexed), translated into Latin within fifty years
of his death He is quoted freely by Albertus
Magnus as Moyses ^Egyptus, and his work as
Dux Neutrorum The Moreh Nebukim is an
attempt to reconcile revealed religion arid ra-
tionalism or Aristotelianism Albertus accepts
Maimonides' theory of the creation, and, as
against Aristotle, his arguments against the
eternity of the world Albert's DC Divina-
tione is largely based on Maimomdes, especially
the distinction between visions, dreams, and
prophecy. Where Albert differs from his
authority, it is purely on doctrinal grounds.
Thomas Aquinas is even more indebted to
Mairnonides, whose views he reproduces almost
verbatim He accepts the proofs of God's
existence, the theory of the creation, and

548

JEWISH EDUCATION

JEWISH EDUCATION

the views on the eternity of the world, on God's
omniscience, and on angels as intelligences or
emanations of God These instances will
perhaps suffice in a brief account, but many
others could be cited, — Isaac Israeli, for ex-
ample, whom Albertus Magnus regarded as
the greatest philosopher after Maimonides,
David (possibly the same as Ibn Daud or Jo-
hannes Hispalensis), whose DC Camix he quotes,
Andrea (or Anatoli), who assisted Michael Scot,
according to Roger Bacon, Levi ben Gerson,
the astronomer and commentator on Averroes'
Aristotelian commentaries, who exercised some
influence on Pico del Mirandola Many other
Hebrew writers could probably be discovered
on investigation, for it was a custom of medie-
val writers to quote without citing authorities
The greatest contribution of the Jews to the
development of medieval civilization was made
by their activity as translators The Jews bv
the conditions imposed on them were neces-
sarily polyglot They readily adopted the
vernacular "of the countries which afforded
them a home How catholic were their in-
terests may be seen by a glance at Stcmschnei-
der's Hcbraiscke Ubeisetzungen dcs Mittclaltcrs
They entered every field of human knowledge
which was accessible to them Their trans-
lations into Hebrew were made from Latin,
Arabic, Spanish, and other languages With
many the impulse was purely intellectual,
others were professional translators in the pav
of patrons, of whom Alfonso X, Fiedenck II,
Charles of Anjou, Robert of Anjou, and Don
Pedro are the most notable There were two
methods by which otherwise inaccessible works
found their way into the hands of Christian
scholars, — most usually the Jewish secretaries
translated into the vernacular, and this was in
turn translated into Latin, or else they them-
selves translated directly into Latin One of
the most famous centers for translation, es-
pecially from Arabic, was established bv Ray-
mond/Archbishop of Toledo (1130-1150), who
was assisted by Gundisalvi The chief trans-
lator was Johannes Hispalensis, or Avendeath
(IB Ibn Daud), a Jewish convert, who trans-
lated mainly Arabic astrological and astro-
nomical works and some philosophy He
compiled an Epitome Totius Astrolooicr, prob-
ably from Arabic. Among other works
translated under Gundisalvi with the same
assistance were Avicenna's Physics, in which
another Jew, Solomon, collaborated, De
Anirna, Metaphysics, De Ccelo ct Mundo,
De Ortu Scientiarum; the Khowarezmi of Mo-
hammed ben Musa; some works of Maschallah,
an astronomer Other interpreters were
Abraham bar Chijja, the astronomer, who
probably assisted Plato of Tivoli in the trans-
lation of his Liber Embadorum, a work on
geometry, and possibly in translations of his
astrological aphorisms, taken from the Arabic
Chajjim (c. 1250) translated astrological works
of Ibn Ezra into French, and assisted Hen-

ricus Bates and several otheih vuth Latin
translations In the service of Alfonso X,
were Isaac ibn Sid (Rabbi Zag), who translated
into Spanish several Arabic works on astronom-
ical instruments and assisted in drawing up
the Alfonsine Tables, Abraham Alfagum, who
translated part of the Koran; Judah b Astruc
compiled a Book of Sentences in Cataloman
dialect from Arabic, Hebrew, Greek, and Latin,
a work intended for the education of the nobles,
Judah b Moses translated Arabic astronomical
works into Spanish, e g Costa b. Luka's Globe,
and also a Lapidanwn of Abolays. Charles of
Anjou employed Moses Farachi or Faradj,
translator of the medical work Continent of
Razi, Pseudo-Galen, DC Medicinis expertis from
the Arabic of Hunam, and a medical dictionary
of Abu Ah ibn Djazla (Tacuynum cegntudinum
et morboruin corpora), Moses of Palermo was
taught Latin at the request of Charles for pur-
poses of translation, arid translated from Arabic
Pseudo-Hippocrates' Lib de Curatwmbus In-
jirnntatnm E quorum Kalonymus b Kalony-
mus translated for Robert of Anjou, among
other works mathematical and medical, many
oi Averroes' Aristotelian commentaries, e g
Topics, Sophisms, Analytics, Plants. It would
be impossible here to enumerate the number
of independent translators and interpreters or
to do more than indicate those who made
Arabic works accessible through translations
into Hebrew. Of these the most famous were
the members of the family of Ibn Tibbon, who
settled in the south of France about the middle
of the twelfth century, Judah ibn Tibbon,
the father of translators (1120-1190), Samuel
(1150-1230), the translator of Maimonides,
Moses (fl 1240-1280), the translate of Aver-
roes, Euclid, and Avicenna; Jacob b. Machir
(Profatius Judseus, 1236-1304), the translator
of Euclid, Averroes, Kosta ben Luka, and the
Almagest Jacob b Abba Mari (Anatoli), a
son-in-law of Samuel ibn Tibbon, was retained
as translator by Emperor Frederick II, and
collaborated with Michael Scot. Direct trans-
lations into Latin by Jewish scholars do not
appear in any number until the fifteenth cen-
tury, and among these may be mentioned the
works of Elias Del Medigo (whose patron was
Pico del Mirandola), Abraham de Balmes,
Kalonymus ben Judah, Jacob Mantmo, and
Moses Alatino From the end of this century
on, the knowledge of Hebrew was sufficiently
widespread for independent translations by
Christian scholars

End of Medieval and Beginning of Modern
Period — In France the period of Jewish
development came to a close with the perse-
cutions which ushered in the thirteenth cen-
tury A decline had already begun to set in as
a result of the disputes centering round Mai-
monides' philosophy and this was completed
when the Talmud was burned at Paris in 1242,
and the Jewish academies were closely watched.
That some attempt was made to stem the de-

549

JEWISH EDUCATION

JEWISH EDUCATION

dine is indicated in a remarkable school statute
of the thirteenth century, of which three dif-
ferent versions exist A school organization is
projected from top to bottom. A u petty
school " was to be established under a superin-
tendent of studies and teachers who were to
have only ten pupils of selected ability under
their charge Books were to be used instead
of the oral method, and translation into the
vernacular was to be employed Pupils should
be encouraged to hear each other every night
for mutual improvement Weekly, monthly,
and half yearly reviews were to be conducted
by the teachers In the capitals an academy
or " great school " was to be maintained at
public expense, to which the " separated " or ob-
lates, i e the firstborn male children, were to
proceed at the age of sixteen, the lecture
system was to be employed here and tutors
were to be appointed to conduct "quizzes"
The whole course in both schools was to last
fourteen years, beginning with the fifth or sixth
year While there is no evidence of such a
system in practice in France, it is possible that
it may haye existed in England, for there ap-
pears to have been a small provincial school at
Norwich and a great school (Magna schola
Judceorum) in London For this reason an
English origin is assumed for the code (see J.
Jacobs, Jews of Angevin England, p 342)

The education of girls was not encouraged,
for " education leads woman to error " She
was to be educated for the home, and in any
case the custom of early marriage precluded an
education beyond a knowledge of the faith and
ritual necessary for the home Many women
conducted businesses, while their husbands
traveled for study; many encouraged learning
by loan of books, and by helping poor students
with board and lodging, some, however, did
themselves attain considerable knowledge of
religious traditions

In Germany arid Poland, however, the me-
dieval system began to be stereotyped, and
when the sixteenth century is reached the
traditional Jewish educational institutions are
firmly established The center of Jewish
learning, however, tended to move to Poland,
where the German Jews gradually settled in
large numbers The institutions are (1) the
Heder or Talmud Torah, giving instruction up
to the age of fourteen or even sixteen, and
(2) the Yethibah, or rabbinical academy The
Heder (lit " room ") was a private school in
which pupils paid tuition fees The teacher
(Melammed), not always a competent scholar,
frequently taught m the one room of his house,
in the midst of his family, while he continued his
occupation or business, if he had one. Some-
times he would have the aid of an assistant
(Belfer or Behelfer) who brought the pupils to
and from school and taught the elements.
Since the number of pupils was small and they
varied in age, class instruction was generally
impossible, much to the detriment of a con-

sistent curriculum Among defects of the
Hcdanrn in the seventeenth century are also
mentioned the bitter competition between
teachers, frequent changes of schools, dishonest
practices to retain pupils, inadequate accom-
modations, etc (Moses ben Ahron, 1635).
An interesting statute was passed by the com-
munity at Nikolsburg in Moravia to remove
these and other abuses (1676, revived 1726)
A board of education was also established at
Frankfort in 1662 The conditions of the
Heder remained unchanged up to the present
day, although some attempt is everywhere
being made to improve them

The Talmud Torah was originally a com-
munal school for poor and orphan children.
Toward the beginning of the sixteenth century
Talmud Torah societies arc found in most of
the Jewish settlements in northern Europe,
elsewhere communal boards of education were
elected (e g Posen, Worms) In both cases
schools were maintained by fees, by voluntary
contributions, by a share of the contributions
to synagogues, by collections made at circum-
cisions, marriages, and funerals, and by charity.
In Cracow the Talmud Torah Society super-
vised both private and public schools, and
weekly inspections of instruction were made
(see Statutes 1551-1639) But although more
rigorously supervised, the Talmud Torahs were
not much superior to the Hedanm.

The curriculum in both types of schools was
the same From the age of two or three chil-
dren were taught a few prayers and benedictions
at home, and were introduced to the cere-
monials Entering school at the age of five,
they were taught the alphabet, benedictions,
the daily prayers (Sidur), the Pentateuch with
translations into the vernacular, the rest of the
Bible, exegesis (Hashi and other commentaries),
and Talmud Reading arid writing in the
vernacular, Hebrew grammar, and arithmetic
were also taught in some schools But the
main emphasis was on religious instruction
and practice Toward the thirteenth year,
the time of initiation, when the boys became
legally members of the community (Bar-
mitzvah), they were instructed in the laying of
the Phylacteries (Tefillui) The method of
instruction throughout was oral, and the tra-
ditional mnemonic devices and numerous
reviews were employed If a boy proved in-
tellectually dull at fourteen, he was put to a
trade, apprenticeship fees being paid by the
community or societies for the poor Those
who had the ability entered the Yeshibah, the
public academy under the charge of the rabbi.

Academies were to be found in all large
towns, in Spam and the south of France they
provided, as was shown above, a broad uni-
versity education In Germany and Poland
all energy was devoted to rabbinical studies,
and all profane or vernacular works were
rigorously forbidden. The course of study
consisted of the numerous commentaries

550

JEWISH EDUCATION

JEWISH EDUCATION

cxegetical writings on the Scriptures,
and Talmud. The chief of these were the
Halakot (an abridgment of the Talmud) by
Isaac ben Jacob Alfasi (d in Spain in the
eleventh century), the Tunm (a compilation
of the codes, omitting those parts winch wen*
obsolete) of Jacob ben Asher (1340), and later
the Shulhan 'Aruk (code on ritual and legal
questions) of Joseph Caro (b 14SS) One
part of the course was given to private study
of Gemara, Rashi, and Tosftafot (the glosses on
the Talmud which were begun after Hashi)
The students prepared questions on their
readings, which were discussed }>v the Rabbi
at the next meeting Another pait oi the
course was devoted to scholastic disputation
to clarify any difficulties or contradictions in
the codes This method of disputation (Pil-
pul) tended to become an end in itself, and led
to subtleties and quibbling, but it demanded
a ready knowledge of the fundamental codes
and commentaries Learning was greatlv es-
teemed, and the learned man was given the place
of honor wherever he came Boys of promise
were eagerly sought in matrimony, arid wealthy
fathers willingly provided maintenance for
learned sons-in-law

Modern Period — These forms of education
have in part continued up to the present tune,
more especially among the Russian and east
European Jews The emancipation of the
Jews dates from the time of Moses Mendels-
sohn (1729-1786), who realized that thoir
further progress depended upon their restora-
tion to the normal conditions of social life
The vernacular which the secluded Jews spoke
through centuries of isolation must yield to the
national language of their German environ-
ment « In order to bring about this change,
Mendelssohn translated the Bible into Ger-
man, knowing that the acquisition of the
language of their adopted country would be
a right beginning toward the reformation, and
that the Bible, always a household book among
the Jews, would be the most effective means
for the purpose 'Never was a people so serious
and so passionate and so ideal in the pursuit
of an education Ten or twenty years sufficed
to make a remarkable change The dilettantes,
who had preoccupied the schools and whose
want of understanding of both their obligation
and their opportunity had been in a large
measure the cause of the decadence, disap-
peared, and schools arose in several places,
patterned after the best models, such as the
Philanthropin of Basedow (q v ) in Dessau
Among these may be mentioned the Samson 'sche
Freischule at Wolfenbuttcl, the Freischule of
Berlin, the Philanthropin of Frankfort a M
the Freischule in Seesen, and a large number
of congregational schools all over the land
The Freischule of Berlin was organized on the
plan of David Friedlander, the friend of Moses
Mendelssohn, in 1778 When, in 1774, J. J
Basedow opened the Philanthiopm, Mendels-

sohn urged that the Jews encouiagethe undcr-
takmg, and a brother of H Wessely came to
its support arid enlisted a number of Jewish
families for its patronage. But although the
experiment failed, the Jews of Dessau, in the
light of the experience and the interest in edu-
cational matters which it stiired, undcitook
to establish a school which should secure foi
the Jews the influences and the enlightenment
so vividly desired by them At first a school
for poor Jewish children, it soon became a
communal school receiving even non-Jewish
children This school was known as the Jewish
Central and Free School (Judibche Hnupt-
itnd Frei^ctnde], and later the Duke Francis
School (Hcrzoglichf Franzsch'ulc), its principal
was David Fiaenkel

Noteworthy schools of this period arc the
school of Seesen, founded by the reformer
Israel Jakobson in 1801, the school at Breslau
established by Joel Loewe, a pupil of Moses
Mendelssohn, in 1791, the Samson'scho Frei-
schule at Wolfenbuttel, which graduated such
eminent pupils as Leopold Zunz, the bibliog-
rapher, and J M Jost, the historian, and
the Philanthropin at Frankfort a M , which
was established in 1805 Some of these schools
are still in operation, though their method of
instruction and their aims have been modified
by the changed conditions and the modern
conceptions of pedagogy

In Austria, by the Edict of Tolerance issued
by Emperor Joseph II (Oct 29, 1781), Jews
were permitted to establish schools of equal
standing with those of Christians It was the
purpose of the " Toleration " to enable the
Jews in the Austrian Empire to speak the pre-
vailing language and to enter into the trades
The results of this liberal policy were not slow
to appear The Jewish educational institu-
tions were organized by Heiz Homberg in
1818, who was supported in his labors for the
uplift of the Jews by the wise and persistent
policy of the government The training of
teachers was provided for at the very begin-
ning of the movement for the reform of Jewish
education The Pedagogical Seminary at Cas-
sel was established in 1809, and the one in
Berlin, founded in 1840, was under the direc-
tion of Leopold Zunz There aie also semi-
naries at Minister and Hannover The aim is
to equip the teachers of the Jewish communal
and congregational schools in a manner corn-
poiting with the modern requirements

In England secular institutions were not
established until the beginning of the nine-
teenth century Talmud Torahs and religious
schools probably existed earlier In 1811 the
Westminster Jews' Free School was established,
followed in 1817 by the Jews' Free School in
Whitechapel, now one of the largest elemen-
tary schools in the world In the provinces,
schools were not established until some years
later, the Jews' Free School at Manchester
and the Hebrew School in Liverpool weie both

551

JEWISH EDUCATION

JEWISH EDUCATION

established 111 1M2 Tn 1S.~>1 the Jewish schools
were allowed to shaie in the national grant to
education The .subsequent history of the
Jewish schools has been the same as that of
other denominations voluntary or non-pro-
vided schools (See KNWAND, EDUCATION
IN)

Jewish secular schools have not been numer-
ous in the United States Schools were eaily
attached to synagogues and taught both re-
ligious and seculai subjects Hebiew schools
were established in New York in 1808 by the
Sheareth Israel In Philadelphia a general
Sunday school, not affiliated to any synagogue,
was established in 1838, followed in the same
year by one at Charleston, S C , at Richmond,
Va, m 1839, in New York in 1845 by the
Emanuel Society In 1864 a Hebrew Fiee
School Association was established, in which
the children were brought togethei 11 respective
of their synagogue affiliation and were taught
by voluntary teachers The rapid increase of
immigration immediately raised a complicated
problem, the extent of winch has only recently
been realized and which is only just being
faced

The Present Problem — The problem of
purely Jewish education is becoming moie and
more difficult and complex in proportion as the
facilities for secular education increase In
Russia and eastern Europe many of the types
of schools referred to above, the Heder, the
Talmud Torah, the Yeshibah, still play a sig-
nificant and important part in the lives of the
people, in Russia these schools also provide
the secular education which is denied the Jews
by the government authorities. Hut it is in
the countries where fieedom has been gieatest
that the decline of Jewish teaching has been
most rapid The Jewish religion has always
been essentially a religion of the home, many
of the ceremonials only have meaning as they
are performed in the home, the welcoming of
the Sabbath, the close of the Sabbath, the
celebration of the festivals, are occasions for
the inculcation in a concrete manner of Jewish
tenets and Jewish beliefs in the minds of the
young The growing economic independence
of children, and frequently the difference in
outlook, due to difference in language and
education, aie tending to break down the home
bonds and home life which have been at the
root of Jewish life This, howevei, is only one
of many causes On the side of the Jewish
schools for the purely sectarian and religious
education, little has been done to keep pace with
the advance in educational thought and piactice.
The methods are still in the majority of in-
stances the methods of the medieval period
Cramming and memory work without appeal to
the understanding too often tend to arouse a re-
bellious spirit On the material side, too, the
schoolroom, especially the Heder, is too often
an unsanitary room used for most other pur-
poses of life beeide teaching; the teacher,

however learned he may be, in most instances
takes up his work as a pis allcr Class in-
struction is unknown in the Heder, and the
bovs take their lessons in turn for a few minutes
at a time The visiting Hebrew teacher
(Melammcd) is professionally of the same type
as the master of a Heder, his presence is un-
welcome, his methods as unmethodical, and his
remuneration as miserable as of the Hedei
teacher. Of a higher type are the communal
Talmud Torahs, which alone may hope to cope
with the problem They are housed in modern
school buildings, they provide a consistent
curriculum, and the beginnings are being made
to train teachers for the work Class work
takes the place of individual and random tui-
tion Above all, instruction is given in the
vernacular (English or German) and not in the
Yiddish jargon At present these schools have
a struggling existence, since they are dependent
to a large extent on voluntary contributions
and fees The curriculum generally includes
elementary Hebrew, the Daily Prayers, the
Pentateuch, the principles of Jewish faith and
practice, and with more advanced students
other parts of the Bible and simple commen-
taries But even the Jewish parents who are
anxious to educate their children in many cases
have only the confirmation (at the age of thir-
teen) in view, after that time, when the boy is
able to read his portion of the Law and to lay
the Phylactenes, little further attention is
paid to his education As for the girls, their
education is almost entirely neglected and
rarely goes beyond ability to read and a knowl-
edge of Jewish faith and practice This prob-
lem is one of the most difficult which Jewish
educators will ha\ e to face Traditionally the
home lias always provided for the education
of girls The decay of the home, the early
economic independence, the weak hold of the
synagogue, the so-called attractions of the
street contain in them the causes of many a
tragedy. The girls, it must be recognized,
have as great a claim on the attention of the
Jewish school as the boys.

One other type of school may be referred to,
the congregational school, modeled on the
Sunday school, maintained in connection with
a synagogue and meeting on Saturday after-
noon or Sunday morning and sometimes one
other period in the week Here the program
is less ambitious and is confined to a little
Hebrew reading, Biblical and post-Biblical
history, the Jewish creed, arid some singing
But too often the teacheis aie voluntary
workers, the school has not the support of the
parents, discipline is weak, and the pupils at-
tend at will arid drop out early There is a
tendency, too, in the congregational schools,
more particularly in those connected with the
reformed synagogues, to abandon entirely the
teaching and study of Hebrew, since services
are in any case conducted in the vernaculai
In these schools the curriculum consists of

552

JEWISH EDUCATION

JOANNES DE GMUNDEN

Biblical history, singing, and some discussions
of Jewish creed and principles.

Much thought is being given to the question
of Jewish education both in England and
America In London the Jewish Religious
Education Board (est 1894) has for a long time
certificated teachers for Sunday school work,
and in New York several well-conducted Tal-
mud Torahs have sprung up which meet the
best requirements of seeulai schools 111 material
conditions, arid the Kehillah (Community)
has established a Bureau of Education under
an efficient director to consider the whole
question of reform in the direction of efficiency
Statistics have been obtained of the number
of unsanitary schools (Hedarim), of teachers,
salaries, funds, etc., and conferences have been
held for the improvement of the cuniculum
One other tendency which will contribute in
large measure to sonic reform is the strong
national or racial movement, an offbpnng of the
Zionist movement, which, without raising any
question of loyalty to the adopted country, aims
to arouse an interest in the cultural side of
Jewish history and Jewish life With those
proposals there is frequently connected the
adoption of the new method of teaching He-
brew by the direct method ('Ibnt be-'Ibnt), with
which much successful work has already been
done The reformed curriculum will, there-
fore, have an emotional as well as an intellectual
aim, it will stimulate an appreciation in the
best that has been, and by dissipating ignorance
will remove much of the besetting sin of con-
tempt and scoffing. I. L K. arid L G.

References —

ABRAHAMS, I Jewish Life in the Middle Ages (Lon-
don, 1896)
BENDERLY, 8 The Piohlrm of Jewish Education in

New York City, from the American Hebrew

(New Yoik, 15)11 )
Aims and Activities of Ihc Bureau of Education of the

Jewish Community of New York City (New York,

1911 )
BERLINER, A Personhche Beziehungt n zwitchen

Christen und Juden irn MittthilUr (Halberntadt,

1882 )
BLACII-GUDENHBERQ Das Padagogischc im Talmud

1880)

ELLIH, G H Origin and Development of Jewish Educa-
tion Ped Sim Vol JX, pp 50-02 Bibliography
Encyclopedia Bibhca, s v Education
FRIEDENWALD, A Contribution* of Jnvibh Phyxitwn*

Gratz College Contributions (Philadelphia, 1897 )
GRAETZ, H Hwtory of the Jew* (Philadelphia, 189(> )
GRAVES, J P History of Education up to the Muldh

Ages (New York, 190°- )
GUDEMANV, M Das jildwhe Unterrichtuive*cn wnh-

rend der Kjwnwh-ardbisf hen Ptriodt (Vienna, 1 873 )
Gexchwfitc dcs Erziehunybuwcnx und dtr Cultur tier

Juden in Frankreich und Dtutwhland (Vienna,

1880)
Geschichte dcs firzichnngstoe*en* und dcr Cultur dcr

Juden %n Itahen (Vienna, 1884 )
Geschichte det, Erziehungbwexen* und der Cultur der

Juden in Deutschln nd wdhrend dc* XIV und XV

Jahrhundertx (Vienna, 1K88 )
Quettenschnftfn zur Gcachichte dc* Untvrnchts und der

Erzichung bci den dcutxch< n J uden (Vienna, 1891 )
GUTTMANN, J. Die Srkoltuttik dcs XIII Jahrhundertx

in ihrer Beziehung zam Judentum und zur judiscfien

Litteratur. (Breslau, 1902.)

HAHTINUH, J Dictionary of the Bibb , H\ Education
Jewish Comniunity (Kehillah), New Yoik City A

Survey of the Financial tilatux of the Jewish Religious

Schools of New York City (New York, 1911)
Jewish Encyclopedia, 8 vv. Academies, Albeitus Mag-
nus, Aquinas, Astronomy , Education, Ibn

Gabriol, M annonulcs , Medicuu , Pedagogy, Tal-
mud Torah , Translations , Yeshibah, ete.
Jewibh Religious Education Board, London Annual

Jtcports
JOEL, M Beitrage znr Gcschichtc dcr Philosophic

(BrcHlau, 1870)
JOUKDAIN, A L M R((hcrcht,<s critique sur I Age ct

rOnginc des Tiaductwnu Latincs d' Arulotc (Pans

1843 )
KITTO, J A Cyfloptdw <tf Bthluat Littratuif, sv

Education
LANDAU. Geschichtt dcr judischen Arztc (Berlin

1895)
LAURIE, S S Pu-(Jhristtan Education (London,

1902)
LEJPZIGER, H Education of the Jews (New York.

1890)
LEWITT, J Darstellung der theoi etischen und praktis-

chen Padagogik im judit>thcn Alttrtumt (Berlin,

1895 )
MAIMON, S Autobiography tr by J C Murray

(London, 1888)
MARCUS, S Zur Schulpadogogik des Talmuds (Berlin,

1866)
MUNK, S Melanges rf< Philosophic juire et ambe

(Pans, 1857-1S59 )
KLIN, W Encuklopadisclns Handhuch der Padayog-ik,

s vv I&raelittvrhe Erziehuny, Judtxthw Erzich-

ungs- und VntctJichtswesin in Dcutschland
KENAN, E. Avtrroct, ct I'Averroiarm (Paris, 1866 )
Report U S Com Ed, 1894-1895, Vol II, pp 1795-

1829, 1895-1896, Vol I, pp 701-719
SniECHTER, S Mud ic* in Judaism (London, 1896 )
SCHLEIDEN, M J Du Hcdcutung der Juden fur Er-

haltung und W tedt rbelebunff der Wi^Lnt>chafttn im

Mittelaltcr (LeipssiR, 1877 )
SCHMID, K A Geschichte der Erzuhung Vol II, Pt

1, p 549 (Stuttgart, 1892 )
Encuklopadie des get>amttn Erzichungs- und Unter-

nchtswcsetui, s \ Pddagogik des alien Testaments
SIMON, J L' Education ct Vlnstruction dt& En/ants chiz

lex ancuns Jnift, d'apres la Bible ct Ic Talmud

(Leipzig, 1879 )
SINGER, S Authorised Daily Prayer Book, pp 184-209,

Ethics of the Fathers, past>irn (London )
SPIKRS, B The School System of the The Talmud

(London, 1898 )
»STEINSCHNEIDER, M Die Hebraische Ubert>etzun(jtn

des MUlelalters und die Juden als Dolmctt>chcr

(Berlin, 1893 )
STRASSBURGER, B Get>chichte der Erzie.fi ung und rft s

Vntemchts bci den Itraehfcn Von dcr rortcil-

mndijtchtn Zcit his auf die Gcgenwart (Stuttgart,

1885 )
WlEHfcN, J Geschichte und Mcthodtk dts Schulw<*< us im

Tabnudtochen Altertumc (Straswburg, 1892 )
YELLIN, D , and ABRAHAMS, I Mainionides (Phila-
delphia, 1903)

JOANNES DE GMUNDEN (c 1380-1442)
— The first professor of mathematics, as u
sepjuate subject, iu Austna He is also
known as .lohann von Omuiulen, and Johannes
de Cianmiulia, and the names Wissbier, Nyden,
and Sclnndel, arc also doubtfully assigned to
him He A\as born about 1380 at (imunden
on the Traunsee, (lemund in Lower Austria,
or ({einund in Swabia He died at Vienna,
Feb 23, 1442 He was educated at Vienna
and was professoi of mathematics there He
\\rote a work on sexagesimal fractions (see
FK \rnoj\h), Tractatm dc Minucijs phi Kins

D. E. S.

553

JOANNES DE MUR1S

JOHN Otf SALISBURY

JOANNES DE MURIS —A prominent
writer on arithmetic, astronomy, and music
He was born in Normandy about 1310, and
died after 1360 He is also known as Jean dc
Meurs (Murs, Muna) His Anthmctica cdm-
unis appeared in print in 1515. D. E. S.

JOHN, ABBOT OF ST MARTIN'S. — See

BISCOP, BENEDICT

JOHN B STETSON UNIVERSITY, DE-
LAND, FLA — A coeducational institution
founded in 1887, the present name was adopted
in 1889 The university maintains an acad-
emv, college of liberal arts, college of law, a
business college, a normal school, a school of
mechanics arts, a music school, and a school
of fine arts The entrance requirements are
equivalent to sixteen units Candidates for the
college of law which offers a two years' course
must satisfy the faculty with evidence of their
qualifications The degrees of A B , AM,
B S , and LL B , are given on the completion
of appropriate courses The faculty consists
of forty-seven members

JOHN OF DAMASCUS — The founder of
Greek scholasticism and the forerunner of the
scholasticism of the West, was born in the latter
part of the seventh century and died shortly
befoie 574 He entered the cloister of St.
Subas at Jerusalem about 730, but even before
that he had distinguished himself as a theologi-
cal writer of ability He spent two years of
his noviciate at tins monastery, and was or-
dained priest before 735 at Jerusalem He
spent the rest of his life almost entirely in his
monastery of St Sabas His importance in
the history of the Eastern Church rests upon his
great dogmatic treatise in three paits, entitled
by him the Fountain of Knowledge, his spirited
defense of image worship, and his admirable
hvmns Several of the latter are used in Eng-
lish translations by Neale, in the Eastern
Church these compositions are of great litur-
gical importance The importance of John in
the history of education rests upon the use he
makes of Greek philosophy in the first part of
his Fountain of Knowledge In this part,
entitled Philosophical Chapters, later called
De Dialcctica, and intended to be introductory
to theology, John establishes bv practical use
the principle that philosophy was to serve as
the handmaid of theology or faith, a position
which became a commonplace in Western
theology and education in the Middle Ages,
but was first stated and applied by John.
With this conception of the relation of the two,
he constructs a well-wrought-out methodology,
based upon the categories of Aristotle and
the universals of Porphyry's Isagoge In this
way the revived Anstotelianism, already
strongly tinged with Platonism, became a part
of the theology and theological training of the
East The Fountain of Knowledge, especially

the first or philosophical part and the third or
the Exposition of the Orthodox Faith, con-
tinued for many centuries to be the most im-
portant and the authoritative summary of the
philosophy and theology of the Greek Church,
taking a place as a basis of teaching more au-
thoritative than even the Sentences of Peter
Lombard in the West, or the Summa of St
Thomas in the modern schools But the in-
fluence of the work did not remain confined to
the East It was translated into Latin by
Bernardino of Sienna in the fifth decade of the
twelfth century, and was used by Peter Lom-
bard in the compilation of the Sentence*
From this translation it has been thought that
Peter adopted his method of exposition,
whereby quotations of the Fathers are arranged
under each head. J. C. A Jr

References —

Catholic Encyclopedia, B v John Damascene

Dictionary of Christian Biography, s v John of Da-
mascus

LANGEN, T Johannes von Damaskvs, cine patristi^chc
Monographic (Gotha, 1879 )

MIGNE, P Patrolofjia, Series Grcrca, Vols XCIV-
XCVI Contains hfo by the Patriarch John of
Jerusalem (Pans )

Rt'ali'nzykloptidic fur proltata ntischt Thiologu, h A
Johannes von Daniankut>

SCHAFF, P , and WACE, H Post-Nitem* fathers, Seriew
II Contains a translation of the third part of the
Fountain of Ltfi (New York, 1H99 )

See also the various histories of Christian doctrine by
Bach, Loofb, Harnack, Nitzsch, Thomasius-Bon-
wetsdi, and Schwane

JOHN OF SALISBURY — A famous Eng-
lish scholar, teacher, diplomatist, historian,
philosopher, and bishop of the twelfth century
(11 15-1 ISO) Early in life he crossed over to
France, where he studied for fifteen years under
Abclard (q v ) arid other great teachers and
secured the best scholarly training which was
to be had Returning to England, he became
secretary to Archbishop Theobald, by whom
his talent for practical affairs and remarkable
scholarship were utilized in many ways. He
was intrusted with many delicate and difficult
undertakings both at home and abroad and
exercised a quiet but powerful influence in the
affairs of Church and State Later on he was
the trusted friend and adviser of Thomas &
Bccket, shared his misfortunes and was present
at his tragic death. During the last four years
of his life he was Bishop of Chartres.

He was an enthusiastic humanist and became
the best classical scholar and the most elegant
Latin writer of the Middle Ages. The range
and readiness of his knowledge was unparal-
leled He was more thoroughly familiar than
anv man of his time with the speculations of
the ancient philosophers, was devoted to the
Platonic tradition, and was the first to make the
whole of Aristotle's Organon available to
medieval readers At the same time he was
conversant with all the phases of the scholastic
controversies and has given us accurate and
critical accounts of contemporary philosophical

554

JOHN SCOTUS ER1UGENA

JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY

discussions His own philosophy is known as
moderate realism He struck a middle course
between the extremes of realism and nominal-
ism, combining the most valuable elements of
both. While he legardcd dialectic as sterile
in itself, he admitted its efficiency as an aid to
other disciplines Reacting from the prevalent
mysticism, he made a thorough examination
of the psychological questions of the relative
importance of sensation, perception, and under-
standing in arriving at concepts, and of the
relations of faith, opinion, and knowledge
His historical knowledge was wido and accurate,
and his theology was based upon extensive
patristic learning. His acute and active intel-
lect never tired of hearing and weighing the
views of the men of his tune, and he has left us
valuable estimates of their learning and phi-
losophy His writings help us to understand
the literary and scientific conditions of the
twelfth century His great learning and inde-
fatigable industry were applied largely to edu-
cational pursuits Not only was he one of the
most cultured scholars of the century, but one
of its greatest teachers, directing the investi-
gations of a wide circle of learners He dis-
cusses frankly the educational conditions of
his day and describes in detail the methods
then in use He has left us in his M ctalogicu**
one of the very few circumstantial accounts of
medieval student life and educational proce-
dure His wiitmgs form an invaluable store-
house of information as to the matter and
method of scholastic education They cover
a wide range of subjects His Poltcraticus
(The Statesman's Book) deals with the punciples
of government, philosophy, and learning and is
the most perfect reflection remaining to us of
the cultivated thought of the twelfth century
His Metalogicits, in four books, is a defen&e of
the method and use of logic and philosophy
His Letters, some three hundred in number,
shed valuable light upon the constitutional
struggle then agitating England His DC
Septem Septcms is a treatise upon the Seven
Liberal Arts as then understood and practiced
His Histona Pontificahs and his Lives of St
Anselm and St Thomas a Becket contain im-
portant historical materials, and possess great
human interest W. R.

References : —

Dictionary of National Biography

GILES, ,1 A Works of John of Salisbury (Oxford,

1848)
SCHAARSCHMIDT, C Johannes Rarcsberiensis nath

Leben and Htudien, tichri/ttn und Philosophy

(Leipzig, 1H62 )
WEBB, C C J. Joannis Sarebbcricnxw Episcopi

Carnotensis Pohcratici Libri VIII (Oxford, 1909 )

JOHN SCOTUS ERIUGENA. — See ERIU-

GBNA.

JOHNS HOPKINS UNIVERSITY, BALTI-
MORE, MD —Incorporated Aug 24, 1867,
and opened Oct 3, 1876, has from its inception

been influential among American institutions
in upholding high standards ot scholarship
and scientific research The university was
founded by Johns Hopkins, who was born in
Maryland, May 19, 1795, and died Dec 24,
1873, in Baltimore, in which city he had accu-
mulated a fortune The first Board of Trustees
was organized on June 13, 1870, and met on
Feb 6, 1874 The Board is a self-perpetuating
body of twelve members and the President
ex officio; the trustees are elected for life The
first president was Darnel Coit Oilman (q v ) ;
he was inaugurated on Feb 22, 1901, and held
office during the first twenty-five years of the
university, resigning on Feb 22, 1901 His
successor was Ira Remsen, LL D , Ph D ,
professor of chemistry in the university,
inaugurated on Feb. 22, 1902 Upon the
inauguration of President Remsen a suburban
tract of 176 acres at Homcwood was given as a
future site by William Weyman, William
Keyser, Francis M Jencks, Julian Le Roy
White, and William H Buckler of Baltimore,
and Samuel Keyser of New York Fifty acres
of this property have been deeded to the city
for a public park The site has been irupuned
by the construction of a greenhouse and an
athletic field Plans for new buildings have
been drawn, after a competition among selected
architects, and building operations have been
begun

The institution maintains collegiate mstiuc-
tiori for undergraduates Features empha-
sized in this work are the distinction between
the discipline of college study and the freedom
of advanced research, a modified elective
system of studies (the "group system''; see
COLLEGE, AMERICAN, undei Pie sent Type of
College Curricula), and the influence upon
undergraduates of distinguished professors and
of the neighborhood of a body of giaduate
scholars conducting original investigations
Admission depends upon the presentation of a
certificate showing completion of courses in
arithmetic, political geography, freehand draw-
ing, and a science, preliminary to examinations
in English, Latin, mathematics, histoiv, and
either Greek or French or German No
certificates are accepted in place of examina-
tions In 1907 the course was increased from
three to four yeans, with an increase in enroll-
ment The principal work of the univeisity
has lam in its graduate courses leading to the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy, which may be
gained in the departments of mathematics,
physics, astronomy, chemistry, geology, zo-
ology, botany, physiology, Greek, Latin, clas-
sical archaeology, Sanskrit and comparative
philology, Oriental languages, English, German,
Romance languages, history, political economy,
political science, and philosophy A graduate
department of education is planned An im-
portant place in the university has always been
occupied by the " fellows ", twenty fellowships
arc awarded annually, each yielding $500, but

555

JOHNSON, ELLEN CHENEY

JOHNSON, SAMUEL

MJJ exempting the holder from tuition Cer-
t M n classes of individuals are also eligible for
appointment as " fellows by courtesy. From
its inception the university has offered, from
time to time, systematic courses of public
lectures. Since 1890 extension courses have
been given for teachers and others in Baltimore;
a number of these courses, which ordinarily
do not carry credit for a degree, are offered
in cooperation with Gouchcr College of
Baltimore (q v ) Admission is by exami-
nation or certificate. The medical school of
Johns Hopkins University is one of the strongest
in the United States Its buildings, in another
portion of the city irom the other departments
and adjoining the Johns Hopkins Hospital,
include a central structure devoted chiefly to
administration, two large private wards, a
number of buildings containing separate wards,
a large dispensary building, a surgical building
and amphitheater, arid a nurses7 home The
Harriet Lane Home for Invalid Children, the
Phipps Psychiatric Clinic, and the Phipps
Dispensary for the Treatment of Tuberculosis
are situated within the hospital groundb The
school has numbered among its professors Sir
William Osier, now Regius Professor in Oxford
University, Howard A. Kelly, a gynecologist,
and William H Welch, pathologist. The
school is preeminent m medical research.
Johns Hopkins University is one of the insti-
tutions originally accepted by the Carnegie
Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.

The buildings including those for the Medical
School aic valued at $1,577,330.40, with
equipment The productive endowment is
$4,557,537 07 The State of Maryland appro-
priates $25,000 The library has 137,000
volumes The average salary of a professor is
$3184 There are (1910-1911) 197 members
of the resident instructing staff, and 15 non-
resident lecturers, 54 are full professors The
student enrollment was 781, of whom there were
156 graduate students, 348 medical students,
52 physicians attending special courses, and
188 undergraduates C. G.

See OILMAN, DANIEL COIT.

References : —

FKANKLIN, FABIAN, Life of Daniel Coit Oilman. (New

York, 1910 )

OILMAN, D C Johns Hopkins University, 1876-1891,
m Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical
and Political Science, Vol X

Johns Hopkins University fiom 1873-1893. (Balti-
more, 1893 )
Launching of a University (New York, 1906)

JOHNSON, ELLEN CHENEY (1819-1899).
— Leader in the movement for reform schools
for delinquent girls, was educated in the public
schools and at the Francestown (N.H.) Acad-
emy During the Civil War she engaged in
the soldiers' relief work of the Sanitary Com-
mission, and at its close engaged in prison
reform work. She was a member of the Board

of Prison Commissioners of Massachusetts,
and superintendent of the Massachusetts
Reformatory for Women at Sherborn (near
Frarnmgham) from 1884 to 1899. She wrote
many papers on reformatory education.

W. S. M.
See REFORMATORY EDUCATION.

JOHNSON, SAMUEL (1709-1784). — It
would be strange if among the numerous
interests of the great English writer, some char-
acteristic utterances on education were not
to be found. His own career as usher in the
school at Markot-Bosworth and as master of
an academy where he only had three pupils,
among them David Garrick, was not marked
by success, nor does his Scheme for the Classes
of a Grammar School display any originality
Strongly devoted to the humanities, he failed
to recognize the value of other subjects Hence
the seventy with which he criticizes Milton's
Tractate and its emphasis on sciences and
external nature. " The first requisite," he
says, " is the religious and moral knowledge of
right and wrong, the next is an acquaintance
with the history of mankind, ... we are
perpetually moralists but we are geometricians
only by chance Our intercourse with intel-
lectual nature is necessary, oui speculations
upon mattei are voluntary and at leisure
. . . Those authors, therefore, are to be read
at school, that supply most axioms of prudence,
most principles of moral truth and most
materials for conversation, and these purposes
are best served by poets, orators, and his-
torians " To the view that popular education
would make people less industrious he replied,
" when everybody learns to read and write,
it is no longer a distinction " Of the public
boarding schools he had a high opinion in
general for " there is the collision of mind with
mind, or the radiance of many rninds pointing
to one center " But there arc exceptions, as
in the case of dull or idle boys, where the pri-
vate school is to be preferred On the question
of corporal punishment, Johnson has made
several pronouncements, generally in its favor
He himself had been severely disciplined at
school, but that apparently did not affect his
judgment of it " A child is afraid of being
whipped, and gets his task, and there's an end
on't, whereas by exciting emulation and com-
parisons of superiority, you lay the foundation
of lasting mischief," and again, " Correction
in itself is not cruel; children being not rea-
sonable, can be governed only by fear." Of
the power which he attributed to education the
following is the best evidence u I do not
deny, sir, but there is some original difference
in minds, but it is nothing in comparison of
what is formed by education " Nowhere
does Johnson devote himself to a general dis-
cussion of education, with the brief exception of
the passage in the Life of Milton. His obiter
dicta, however, are truly representative of the

556

JOHNSON, SAMUEL, JR.

JOHNSON, WILLIAM SAMUEL

attitude of the cultured classes of the period to
education

Reference : —

BARNARD American Journal of Education, Vol II
p. 66, Vol XIII, pp 359egg

JOHNSON, SAMUEL, JR (J 757-1 836).

— Lexicographer, was educated at Yale College,
and published the first dictionary in the Eng-
lish language in America (New Haven, 1798)
He was engaged in teaching, and refers to
himself in the preface of his dictionary as " an
instructor of youth for many years " Besides
various augmented editions of his dictionary,
lie published a Grammar of the English Tongu!
and a History of the English Language

W. S. M.

JOHNSON, SAMUEL, SR (1096-1772)

— First president of Columbia College (then
King's College) and educational writer, was
born at Ciuilford, Ct , in 1696, and died at
Stratford, Ct , in 1772 He graduated at Yale
College in 1714 For two years lie was a pri-
\ate family instructor and foi three years a
tutor at Yale For thirty years he was engaged
in the ministry, and in 1754 he was selected as
president of the newly organized King's Col-
lege in New York This position he held until
1763, when he was succeeded bv Myles Cooper
((j v ) His educational writings include- Com-
pendium of Logic (1752), System of Moialdy
(1746), English Giammar* (1765), Hebrew
(f ram mar (1767), and numerous essavs and
sermons on education and religion

W. S. M.
See COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY

References : —

IlkvRDHLEY, E E Life and Correspondence of Samuel

Johnson (Now York, 1874 )
("HANDLER, T B Life of Samuel Johnson (London,

1S24 )

JOHNSON, WALTER ROGERS (1794
1852) - - Educational authoi and leformei,
was born at Leommstei, Mass He studied at
(Jroton Academy and was graduated from
Harvard College in 1819 He was principal
of academies at Frammgham and Salem, Mass ,
and (lennantown, Pa (1819-1826), principal
of the high school of Franklin Institute, Phila-
delphia (1826-1836), and professot in the
University of Pennsylvania (1839-1843) He
was afterwards connected with the Smithsonian
Institution (q n ) and carried on scientific
investigations ioi the government of the
United States He made a peisonal investi-
gation of the condition of common school edu-
cation in Pennsylvania (1822-1823) and wan
active in the passage of the common school law
of that state in 1834 In his Improvement of
Learning in the United States (1825) he strongly
advocated the establishment by the State of
schools for the training of teachers He

believed it was a mistake to teach Greek in
secondary schools as a dead language, and in the
Germantown Academy and Franklin Institute
the ancient language was taught only by oral
and conversational methods He was one of
the representatives of the United States to the
first International Congress of Education held
at London (1851), and was active in the organ-
ization of the American Association for the
Advancement of Education (q v ) and the
American Association for the Advancement of
Science, of which he was the first secretary
His published educational works include • Essay*
on Education (1832), Improvement of Learning
tn the United States (1825), Provisions foi Edu-
cation in Pennsylvania (1826), Lectures on
Mechanics and Natural Philosophy (1828),
Introduction to the Greek Language (1829),
Duty of the Several States in Regard to Educa-
tion (1830), Importance of Linear Drawing
(1830), General State of Education in the United
States (1831), Schools of Ait (1835), and Chem-
istry and Natural Philosophy (1840) He
contributed numerous articles on education to
the Journal of the Franklin Institute, American
Journal of Education, American Annals of
Education, and the proceedings of the American
Institute of Instruction. W. S M

Reference : —

BAUNAHD, H American Journal of Education, 1858,
Vol V, pp 781-802

JOHNSON, WARREN (1830-1877) —
State superintendent of schools, was educated
at Farmington Academv and Bowdoin Col-
lege, graduating in 1854 He was for two years
principal of the academy at Foxcroft, Me ,
two years tutor at Bowdoin College, ten years
principal of a secondary school for boys at
Topsham, Me , and eight years (1868-1876)
state superintendent of public instruction in
Maine Author of repoits and addresses on
education W. S M

JOHNSON, WILLIAM SAMUEL (1727-

1819) —Thud president of Columbia Col-
lege, was graduated at Yale College in 1744,
engaged in the practice of law, and attained
eminence in public life He was a member of
the Continental Congress, a judge of the su-
preme court, a member of the convention that
framed the constitution of the United States,
and one of the first, senators from Connecticut
to the United States Congress He was presi-
dent of Columbia College from 1792 to 1800
He was the authoi of a Hwtory of Greece in
Veixe (1807) and of several works on literature
and science W S M.

See COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY.

References : —

BEARUHLEY, E E Life and Tinwu of W S Johnson.

(Boston, 1876 )
IRVINU, ,T T Sketch of William S Johnson. (New

York, 1830)

557

JOHNSTON, JOHN

JOURNALISM

JOHNSTON, JOHN (1806-1879) —Text-
book author, graduated at Bowdom College in
1823. He was an instructor and principal of
Cazenovia Seminary, and professor at Wesleyan
University. He wrote Rudiments of Phi-
losophy, Manual of Natural Philosophy, Chem-
istry for Common Schools, and essays on science
teaching and scientific subjects. W. S. M

JOHNSTON, WILLIAM PRESTON (1831-
1899) — First president of Tulane University
(q v ) and active in educational movements in
the South, was graduated at Yale University
in 1852 He served during the Civil War, and
attained the rank of colonel on the staff of
President Jefferson Davis He was professor
at Washington and Lee University (1867-1880),
president of Louisiana State University and
Agnculturc College (1880-1883), and president
(first) of Tulane University (1883-1889). He
was active in the organization of higher educa-
tion in the South and published numerous
papers on educational subjects. W. S. M.

Sec TULANE UNIVERSITY.

Reference : —

MAYO, A D William Preston Johnston's Work in
the New South Report of the Commissioner of
Education for 1898 1899, Vol II, pp 1367-1371

JOHONNOT, JAMES (1823-1888) —In-
stitute lecturer and educational writer, was ed-
ucated 111 the district schools of Vermont and
at the Albany State Normal School He was
teacher and principal of schools in Vermont and
New York, institute conductor in New York,
principal of the high school at Joliet, 111.;
principal of the State Normal School at War-
rensbuig, Mo., and superintendent of schools
at Deposit, N.Y. He was the author of a work
on School Ai chitecture (1872), Principals and
Practice of Teaching (1886), and of several
supplementary readers for school children.

W. S. M.

JOINERY —See MANUAL TRAINING

JOINT DISTRICT. — See DISTRICTS,
SCHOOL, CONSOLIDATION OF SCHOOLS.

JOINT UNION DISTRICT. — See DIS-
TRICTS, SCHOOL; UNION SCHOOLS, CONSOLI-
DATION OF SCHOOLS

JONES, GRIFFITH — Sec CHARITY
SCHOOLS; WALES, EDUCATION IN.

JONES, HUGH (1669-1760). — Educator,
received his training in the universities of
England He was for sixty-five years a teacher
and preacher in Virginia, and from 1702 to 1722
a professor in the College of William and Mary.
He urged the introduction of history and civics
into secondary school courses and recommended
the establishment of special departments in
the colleges for the training of the civil servants

of the colonies He was author of a History
of Virginia, and of several papers on educa-
tional topics. W. S, M

JORDANUS NEMORARIUS (d. 1236) —
The greatest mathematician of the thirteenth
century, excepting Fibonacci (q v ) He was
born at Borgentreich, in the diocese of Pader-
born, and died in 1236. He studied at Pans
He is also known as Jordanus de Saxonia His
arithmetic was based on the theory of numbers
as set forth by Boethius It was first printed
in 1496, at Pans, and went through several
editions He also wrote a work De Ponder ibn*
which was edited by Apianus and was published
at Nurnberg in 1533 An AlgonthihHx Demon-
stiatus is also attributed to him D E. S

JOUFFROY, THEODORE-SIMON (1795
1842) — French philosopher and psychologist ,
born , at Pontets and died at Paris Entered
the Ecole Normale in 1814, and in 1817 was
made doctor of philospphy and eleve-tepetiteur
in philosophy m the Ecole, and was given the
chair of philosophy m the College Bourbon,
which he resigned in 1820 In 1822 the Ecole
Normale was closed, and Jpuffroy began to
give private course* in philosophy, and to
write for several literary journals When the
ftcolc Normale was reopened in 1828, he was
made maitie dcs conferences in philosophy
From 1828 until his death he was in succession
professor of ancient philosophy, adjunct pro-
fessor of modern philosophy, and professor of
philosophy in the Facult£ des Lettres at Paris
From 1833 to 1838 he was professor of Greek
and Latin philosophy in the College de France,
and in 1838 became librarian of the University
JoufTioy was a pupil and associate of Cousin and
of Royer-Collaid. His spiritualistic lational-
isin exerted considerable influence on educa-
tional thought in France during the second
quarter of the nineteenth century His chief
work was in translating and expounding the
Scottish philosophy His principal writings
were translation of Dugald Stewart's Moral
Philosophy, 1826, Melange* philosophic/ UCK,
1823; Coura de droit naturel, 1835-1842,
Nouveaux melanges philobophiquea, 1842, and
COUTH d'tathetiquc, 1843. K. D

References : —

A \rtirlr Jouffroy in Dictionmn <l< s
nce Phtloxophiqucs
Jouffroy «</ vie et tscs cents (Paris, 1S7() )

JOURNAL OF PEDAGOGY. — Sec JOUR-
NALISM, EDUCATIONAL

JOURNALISM, EDUCATION FOR. — Pro-
fessional education for journalism is of recent
origin. Only within the last ten years in the
United States haw there been a decided move-
ment in American colleges and universities
toward the establishment and maintenance of
courses in journalism or departments arid

558

JOURNALISM

JOURNALISM

schools of journalism Occasional lectures
upon journalism had been given in various in-
stitutions, but no organized courses in jour-
nalism or in preparation for journalism had
been offered The state universities of the
Middle West were the leaders in the training
for the new profession.

In different colleges and universities different
courses are given, and there aie various foims of
organization for the courses At the University
of Wisconsin courses arc offered in the academic
department associated with the woi k in Knglish
In Kansas at the state University two years'
work is given in reporting, and in news and
editorial writing The courses are giouped
in the academic department At the Kan-
sas State Agricultural College, at the Iowa
Agricultural College, and at the Wisconsin
Agricultural College courses aie given in
agricultural journalism Those college courses
arc to prepare writers on farm papers for the
presentation of the news of agriculture in clear,
convincing, attractive style At the Univer-
sity of Illinois, the University of Indiana, the
University of Ohio, the University of Washing-
ton, the University of Pittsburg, and othei in-
stitutions theie aie departments of jouinahsm
in which fundamental courses in the gathering
and presentation of ne\vs are given The t'ui-
\ ersity of ( California, the University of Oklahoma,
the Umveisitv of Noith Dakota, Marquette
College, and other institutions give special work
for students who plan to take up journalism
as a profession At the Umveisitv of Missoun
journalism is a separate professional school,
coordinate with the schools of hi\\, medicine,
engineering, and education It has a sepaiate
faculty and gives, upon completion of a three
years' course, the degree of Bacheloi of Science1
in Journalism Sixty houis of college Au>ik,
in addition to a four vcais' high school couise,
aie lequired foi entrance In othci umvei-
sities the courses in jouinahsm count tow aids
the degree of Bachelor of Arts The gift of
the late Joseph Puhtzei, propnetoi of the
New York World and the tit Loui* J\wt-
Dispatch, of $2,000,000 to Columbia Univer-
sity for the establishment of a School of Joui-
nalism in connection with that institution
insures education for journalism at Columbia
At Cornell University, Yale Umveisitv, the
University of Pennsylvania, and the Umversitv
of Virginia, and in several other institutions
lectures on journalism, usually by men in the
active practice of the profession, are given

While all studies are regarded as helpful in
education for journalism — so broad is the
field of work of the journalist — - the studies
which he may take at the different colleges and
universities are correlated so as to present the
subjects which will be of the most immediate
and practical service. Students in journalism
are usually most interested in English and other
languages, history, economics, sociology, psy-
chology, political science, philosophy, and logic,

on the academic side On the professional side,
journalism courses in these institutions include
courses in news gathering, reporting, news
writing, newspaper making, newspaper admin-
istration, editorial writing, editorial direction,
the history and principles of journalism, copy
reading, illustration, the ethics of journalism,
advertising and newspaper publishing, and news-
paper jurisprudence The last-named subject
includes a consideration of the libel law in
its relation to newspaper publication The
names of these,4 courses given in education for
journalism suggest their content

The new movement in education for jour-
nalism has as its fundamental and distinctive
feature the application of the laboratory
method The students in the present-day
schools or departments of journalism aie taught
to produce newspapers by producing news-
papers In nearly every college or unn ersity
where journalism is now seriously taught, the
students of journalism issue, under faculty
advice, supervision, or direction, a newspaper,
usually a daily newspaper, the work on which,
other than mechanical, the reporting, news
writing, editorial writing and other work, is
done by the journalism students In some
cases the entire publication, even the mechan-
ical woik — typesetting and press work — is by
the students As the hospital supplies bedside
instinct urn to the student of medicine, the train-
ing school pi act ice in teaching to the student
of education, and the moot court a laboratory
f 01 the student of law, so the newspaper affords
actual practice foi the student of journalism
Some of these newspapers are not mere college
jouinals, but are general newspapers, giving
the news of the community in which they are
published They carry advertising in their
columns and have regular subscription lists
and the students make them profitable business
enterprises At this point the schools of jour-
nalism aie not theoretical, but intensely prac-
tical

More than one thousand students are now
enrolled in courses in journalism in American
universities The number increases each school
year

Assuming the teaching of journalism or
education in courses preparatory to journal-
ism, the problem of organization for such
education presents itself Various conditions
existing in various institutions made neces-
sary various foims of organization The
organization, nu>reo\er, depends upon the ex-
tent of courses in journalism and upon the
geneial purpose and content of such courses.
An organization which is sufficient where only
an occasional lecture on journalism is given,
or where courses in journalism are offered in
connection with an already existing depart-
ment of instruction, is manifestly insufficient
where more extended courses are offered and
independently of any other department of
mstiuction. The tendency is towards the sep-

JOURNALS AND JOURNALISM

JOURNALS AND JOURNALISM

arate grouping of journalism studies and to
such organization of the professional school
or department as will best bring about such
separate grouping. This is obtained, in some
degree at least, under practically any form
of organization It is obtained in the newer
forms of organization by grouping specifically
and formally the journalism students in a
separate and distinct professional department
or school in charge of a responsible faculty.
In the organization of such faculty to the teach-
ers selected from the College of Arts and
Science or academic department, whose sub-
jects are those prescribed or usually elected
in pieparation foi journalism, are added the
members of the so-called professional faculty,
who are teachers who give courses in theoreti-
cal and practical journalism The schools
of law, medicine, engineering, and particu-
larly the school of education, have afforded
models for the organization of the school of
journalism. This form of organization dig-
nifies education for journalism, concentrates
the attention of the students upon the sub-
jects best adapted to their professional educa-
tion and lends interest, emphasis, and strength
to the courses thus offered. W W.

See NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS IN
SCHOOLS AND COLLEGES.

References —
GIVLN, ,1 L The Making of a Newspaper (Now

Yoik, 1907)
H HUBERT, B B Education for Journalism National

Printer- Journalist, January, 1910

- The First Decennium of the National Editorial As-
sociation (Chicago, 1806 )

Lu< is H Writing for the Press (Boston, 1907 )
PULITZK.H, J The College of Journa-liHm North Amcr-

uan Renew, May, 1904

Ross, C G Writing of News (Now York, 1911 )
SHUMAN, E L. Practical Journalism (New Yoik,

1<K)5)
SLOHSON, E E Journalistic Education Independent,

November, 24, 1911.
WILLTAMH, W , and M \RTIN, F L The Practice of

Journalism (Columbia, Mo , 1911 )

JOURNALS AND JOURNALISM, EDU-
CATIONAL — Specialized professional publi-
cations develop only with the growth of a
profession Hence educational journals of a
professional type appeared only in the nineteenth
century, and in most countries quite late in
that century Such professional journals were
preceded by a type of publications, also piop-
eily called educational journals, which aimed
to create popular sentiment in favor of public
education These in turn were preceded by
a type of publications which were designed to
improve the general intellectual condition of
the people Among these were The Taller
(1709) and The Spectator (1711) in England,
and the Morahschc Wochenschriften (1713) in
Germany These were counterparts of numei-
ous book publications, such as Defoe, Family
Instructor. The development of professional
publications follows closely that of develop-

ment of educational associations (</ v ) . (Sec
also EDUCATIONAL JOURNALISM )

The following article gives, first, the more
important of the second type of magazines in
England, the United States, and Germany, and
second, a selected list of contemporary educa-
tional publications of various types in a large
number of countries where the educational
interest is great In this connection see also
the bibliographies in connection with the
articles on the educational systems of the
various countries, and also the article on
OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS ON EDUCATION

England — Just as the study of education
and the growth of a teaching piofession aie of
recent origin, so the journals devoted to the
interests of the subject and the profession made
only a fitful progress up to the last quarter of
the nineteenth century, from which period the
best of the modem educational journals date
Although, as will be seen fiom the following
article, which is not exhausti\e, the numbei of
such journals is huge, few continued foi moie
than about five years But much valuable
matter dealing with administration found, as it
still finds, its way into the geneial magazines,
periodicals, and newspapers, with which, how-
ever, no attempt \vill be made to deal in this
article Of the eaily magazines niunj' weie
devoted to special causes or \veie associated
with special societies Probably the eaihcst
educational journal in England was the (fuatd-
tan of Education conducted by Mrs Trimmer of
Lancastrian iame as "a periodical work con-
sisting oi a practical essay on Christian edu-
cation, founded immediately on the Script MTTS
and the sacred offices of the Church of Eng-
land, memoirs of modern philosophers and
cxtiacts from their writings, extracts from sci-
monn and other books relating to religious
education, and a copious examination of model n
systems of education, children's books and
books for young persons " It appealed in
1802, and eight 01 nine numbers weie issued
each year, dealing with education from the
religious and moral point of view This maga-
zine existed for four years It is significant
that more maga/ines were de\oted to Sumhn
school woik than to any other blanch of educa-
tion The nature of the magazines which iol-
low needs no further description The Sundai/
School Teachox' Magazine and Journal oj
Education (1830-1807), the Dnecloiy of Sun-
ddij School Teachei^ (1831), the Tunhei^
Offering and Sunday School Monthly (1840-
J862, 1863-1804), 'The Teacher*' Manual, o
Kcpttbitoi y of Practical Suggestions and Kibhcal
Illmtralwnt* (1840-1 84,")) , The Sunday Scholar
(1843-1844), The Sunday School Directory of
Scuptiuc Instruction together with the Psalms
and Lessons (1844-1840), The Teacher*'
Monthly Magazine published by the Church of
England Sunday School Institute (1851-1854),
and continued in 1857-1861 as the Church oj
Hngtand Sunday School Monthly Magazine for

560

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Teachers, and in 1865 as the New Monthly
Magazine for Church of England School Tcachei*
(1865-1867); and many others A periodical
of a general educational character was the
Educational Magazine and Journal of Christian
Philanthropy and of Public Utility (1835-1836),
Continued as the Educational Magazine and
Journal of Scholastic Literature (1839-1841),
which during its last year was edited bv V I)
Maurice (q v ) The English Journal of Edu-
cation was " specially designed us a medium
of correspondence among parochial clergymen
and all promoters of sound education, par-
ents, sponsors, schoolmasters, Sunday school
teachers, etc" (1843); with it were incorpo-
rated the Educational Erpos-itoj (f 1853), the
Educational Guardian (f 1859), and the M u-
seurn (f 1861) in 1863 or 1864 It dealt also
with elementary education and general educa-
tional questions, foreign educational systems,
etc , although the belief was declared in the
opening pages " that the principles of our
education need not be imported from any other
shore " The Home and Colonial School Society
(Juarteilt/ Educational Magazine (1848) was the
record of the society of that name (q v), and
had as its object the " Christian education of
the people " The same society issued in 1851)
the Home and Colonial School Society Educa-
tional Paper, intended to help teachers in ele-
mentary schools by means of papers and the
theory and practice of education In IS31
the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowl-
edge, of winch Lord Brougham (q v ) was
chairman, issued the Quartet ly Journal of
Education, which attempted to iccord the
progress of education in vanous countries and
to communicate interesting developments and
secure unity to education in the British Isles
This journal lasted until 1836 The British
and Foreign School Society made known its
objects through its organ, the Educational
Record (1848), a continuation of the Quarieily
Extract (1827), which also published notes as
to the central administration of elementary
education and papers on method, and still
continues to appear The Educator, or Home,
the School and the Teacher, was established in
1854 as the organ of the Congregational Board
of Education The agitation for the central-
ization of education was responsible for several
periodicals The Advocate of National In-
struction appeared in 1853 4i for promoting the
establishment of a general system of schools ior
secular instruction, supported by local rates
and under local management " (1853-1854)
The organ of the National Education League
was the National Education League Monthly
Paper (1869-1877), which discussed elementary
education from the standpoint of undenomina-
tionalism; while a contemporary periodical in
the interests of voluntary schools was the
National Society's Monthly Paper (1847), which
in 1876 became the School Guardian, a weekly
educational newspaper and review

Magazines ol purely professional interest
made their appearance throughout the cen-
tury, but were all short-lived The National
School Magazine (1824), though intended for
boys and girls, was a strong advocate of the
national school The Educational Review and
Magazine (1826) only existed one year in the in-
terests of higher classes of society The School-
master (1829) indicates its scope in its subtitle,
" a weekly essav, the object of which is to point
out the errors and defects of the present systems
of education and modes of managing cluldien
and to propose bettei " The Quarter 1 1/ ,/oui nal
of Education has already been referred to as
having appeared in 1831 The Scholastic
Journal and Magazine of Education was issued
for one year (1840) In 1844 appeared for
the one year the British Annals of Education,
being the Scholastic Review " of educational,
philosophical, scientific, artistical, and general
intelligence " In 1847 was formed what has
pioved to be the longest lived educational
journal in England, the Educational Times, the
official organ of the College of Preceptors (q v ),
which records current events and discuses
educational questions, a feature of this journal
has for a long time been the numbei of pages
each month devoted to mathematical piob-
lems The practical work of teachers in ele-
mentary schools was treated in the Papers
Jor tlw Schoolmaster (1851-1853) Tin Edu-
cational Expositor, " specially designed for
schoolmasters and schoolmistresses, mothers
of families, arid all interested in education"
(1853), included punciples and methods ol
teaching, biography of eminent teachers and
educators, translations from foreign educa-
tional works arid re\iews, it was incorporated
with the English Jownal of Education The
three branches of education, elementary, sec-
ondary, and university, were covered in the
Literaninn 01 Educational Gazette, u a weekly
journal of Education, Literature, and Science "
(1857) The Educational Guaidian was edited
and conducted by schoolmasters in the in-
terests of the elementary school teacher mainly
(1860-1863) when it was incorporated with
the English Journal of Education The pupil
teacher system, by which young appr enticed
teachers were practically thrown on their own
resources to prepare themselves academically
for the profession, led to the publication of sev-
eral journals in their interests, of these may be
mentioned The School and the Teachei , "for
the use of schoolmasters, schoolnusti esses,
and pupil teachers in elementary schoojs, con-
ducted by Church Schoolmasters" (1854);
the Pupil Teacher, a monthly journal of
practical education and educational literature
(1857), the Teachers' Assistant and Pupil
Teachers' Guide (1876- 1880), incorporated with
The Students' Magazine, a monthly journal
of assistance for private and class students
in literature, science, and art; The Teacher^
Magazine, being a monthly miscellany of

VOL. in — 2 o

561

JOURNALS AND JOURNALISM

JOURNALS AND JOURNALISM

hints and helps to elementary teachers
(1880)

The Museum, which was issued in ISO], was
" a quarterly magazine of Education, Litera-
ture, and Science/' and aimed to give an
accurate record of educational events, to dis-
cuss current educational questions, and to corn-
bine with this the clement of general literature
It included among its contributors Sir Joshua
Fitch, 8 S Laurie, and J S Hlackie In 1805
it was issued monthly under the title Museum
and English Journal of Education, having
incorporated the English Journal of Education
mentioned above The Acaderma, scholastic,
educational, and literary record (1808), was a
journal which discussed both elementary and
secondary questions, but was probably intended
for secondary teachers In 1809 appeared the
Educational Reporter, " a new monthly journal
reflecting the opinions and advocating the in-
terests of the scholastic profession," which up
to 1874 dealt with elementarv and science
teaching, and after that date as the Educational
Reporter and Teachers' Review gave a large
share of attention to questions of secondary
education

In 1870 the School Government Chronicle,
now the School Government Chronicle and Edu-
cation A uthonUes Gazette, made its appearance
This journal is the best organ on the adminis-
tration of education, its reports and comments
covering the proceedings of Parliament, the
Hoard of Education, the Local Government
Board, the Home Office, and the local education
authorities All parts of the educational sys-
tem are dealt with For a long time the journal
stood for the principles of unity in the educa-
tional profession and administration, which
was more or less achieved in 1899 and 1902
The Educational Review, which has as its sub-
title " embracing topics of interest in general
literature and science," appeared from January
to July of 1871, and contained papers dealing
with all grades of education The National
Union of Elementary Teachers began in 1872
the issue of its official organ, which has con-
tinued to appear weekly to the present day as
The Schoolmaster, dealing not only with cuirent
news about elementary school teachers, but
questions brought up iri Parliament and educa-
tional committees particularly affecting ele-
mentary education The Journal of the
Women's Education Union (1873), edited by
Miss Shirreff and G C. T Hartley, wan, as the
name indicates, the organ of the societv which
aimed at the improvement of education for all
classes of women

In 1879 the Journal of Education, which is at
present one of the leading educational periodi-
cals in England, was issued for the first time
under its present title Its history goes back
to 1870, when the Quarterly Journal of Educa-
tion and Scholastic Advertiser appeared, the
title was changed in 1875 to the Monthly
Journal of Education, and in the following year

to the Journal of Education with which arc in-
corporated the Educational Reporter and Scholas-
tic Advertiser. In 1879 there was also incor-
porated in the present magazine the Scholastic
Register, which dated from 1869. The Journal
of Education is the best record of English edu-
cational thought and practice. Among the
contributors may be found the names of most
of the leaders in the recent educational develop-
ment of England The journal is the official
organ of the Teachers' Guild (</./> ) since 1884,
arid is also employed as the medium of com-
munication of the Association of Teachers in
the Secondary Schools of Scotland and the
Incorporated Association of Assistant Masters
While the articles deal with all phases of edu-
cation at home and abroad, secondary educa-
tion receives particular attention Another
feature is the Translation Prize which has been
offered monthly since 1879 In 1881 was
started the Practical Teacher, which still con-
tinues as a monthly devoted largely, but by no
means altogether, to the interests of infant
and elementary school teachers Child study,
geography, and science also form features of the
journal School, a medium for the ventilation
of all matters of educational interest, was is-
sued for foui years (1886-1890) In 1899
another of the current leading periodicals was
established, the School Woild, a monthly il-
lustrated magazine of educational work and
progress, devoted mainly to questions of sec-
ondary education arid the practical work of
the classroom Important contributions have
appeared on the teaching of science in all its
branches Notes are given on educational
progress throughout Great Britain and Ireland.
Recently the scope of the articles has been
extended, becoming more general in character
than formerly School, a monthly record of edu-
cational thought and pi ogress, appeared for five
years (1904-1909), and dealt with topics of gen-
eral interest in educational theory, practice, and
administration

The formation of numerous associations
within the last few years (see EDUCATIONAL
ASSOCIATIONS), devoted to special subjects, has
led to an increase in the number of special-
subject periodicals, of which the following may
be mentioned: Classical Review (monthly),
connected with the Classical Association of
England and Wales, and of Scotland, and of
the Oxford Philological Society, and the Clas-
sical Quarterly, Modern Language Teaching,
the organ of the Modern Language Association ,
the Modern Language Review, the Mathe-
matical Gazette, the organ of the Mathematical
Association ; Child Study (formerly the Pai-
dologist, 1899), of the Child Study Society;
Child Life (1899), of the Froebel Society; and
several others. A number of periodicals serve
as the organs of general educational associa-
tions, of which some have already been referred
to; others are the A M A., of the Assistart
Masters' Association; the Teachers' Guild

562

JOURNALS AND JOURNALISM

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Quarterly; the Preparatory School^ Review
(1895), of the Association of Prcpaiatory
Schools, the Parents' Review (1890), of the Par-
ents' National Education Union, Secondary
Education (1896), of the Pnvate Schools As-
sociation, Incorporated, the Highway, of the
Workers' Educational Association, Ttainnig
College Record and Journal of Experimental
Pedagogy, of the Training College Association,
arid several local publications The most
recent publication is The Child, " a monthly
jouinal devoted to child welfare", it is ac-
cording to announcements, " a medico-socio-
logical and educational journal dealing with all
questions relating to infancy, childhood, and
youth " The first number appeared in Octo-
ber, 1910 A E T and I L K

United States. — The first educational jour-
nal published in the United States was The
Academician (1818-1820) It was a seini-
weeklv of sixteen octavo pages, and was edited
by Albert and John W Pickett and published
bv the Incorporated Society of Teachers of
New York The first number appeared on the
7th of February, 1818, and included essays on
the best modes of education, notices of literal v
and philosophical institutions, and observa-
tions on moial and physical science The
labors of Pestalozzi and Joseph Lancastei, and
the reforms which they advocated, were lead-
ing features of the journal during its two
years' existence The American Journal of
Education (1826-1830) was a monthly of
sixty-four octavo pages edited by William
Russell (qv], and was published by Tait,
Green, and (1o , of Boston The first number
(January, 1826) contains a prospectus of eight
pages by the editor, in which he observes that
" the spirit of inquiry, which has of late ex-
tended to everything connected with human
improvement, has been directed with peculiar
earnestness to the subject of education "
Science and literature, he points out, have
their respective publications, but education, a
subject oi the highest practical importance, has
hitherto not had a proper vehicle of informa-
tion The field to be occupied by the new
journal was to include (1) record of facts
regaiding the past and present state of educa-
tion in the United States and foreign coun-
tries, (2) enlarged and liberal views of educa-
tion, with means of improvement in the science
of instruction, (3) physical education, (4) fe-
male education, a topic which the editor deems
" unspeakably important ", (5) moral train-
ing; and (6) early and elementary education
The editorial statement was followed by orig-
inal articles on systems of infant schools, prog-
ress of physical education, course of study in
the New York High School, and the Boston
Monitorial School, the latter by William B
Fowle (q v ) Twelve pages of reviews and
ten pages of intelligence completed the first
number Subsequent numbers contained ar-
ticles on infant schools, the lyceum movement,

female education, monitorial schools, the edu-
cational value of the study of Latin and Greek,
progress of education in the United States and
Europe The articles as a rule were not signed,
but so far as there are signatures and initials,
the contributors included Samuel R Hall, A
Bronson Alcott, Thomas H Gallaudet, Wil-
liam B Fowle, Wilbur Fisk, William C Wood-
bridge, James C' Carter, Walter R Johnson,
Cornelius C. Felton, and Josiah Holbrook
(qqv) Among foreign educational writers
whose articles were translated and repubhshed
were Pestalozzi, Jacotot, Maria Edgeworth,
Jean Paul Richter, George Combe, and Eliza-
beth Harrison The foreign correspondence
included letters from Lou\am on Jacotot 's
system of instruction in languages, Fellenberg's
scheme of agricultural and industrial education
at llofwyl, and nine of Pestalozzi's letters to
James Pierrepont Greaves (q v ), on early edu-
cation William C Woodbrulge (q v } suc-
ceeded Mr Russell as editor of the journal in
Januaiy, 1829, and in June, 1830, it was merged
into the American Annals of Education (1830-
1839) The Annals continued the foim and
general character of the Journal Mr Wood-
bridge declared in his introductory editorial
that it was his puipose to make the Annuls
subservient to the best interests of educational
progress, and to draw from other countries the
fruits of experience and observation in matters
of institutions and methods of instiuction
The first volume contained letteis fiom Hofwvl
on Fellenberg's system of education, accounts
of educational legislation in New York, New
Jersey, and Kentucky, and a notable series of
articles on teachers1 seminaries by Thomas H
Gallaudet (q v ) Among important articles
in subsequent volumes of the Ann ah were the
study of modern languages, school discipline,
the language of infancy, manual labor schools,
study of American history, ventilation of
schoolhouses, use of the Bible in the public
school, the study of physiology, music as a
branch of education, moral and religious in-
struction, female education, truancy, education
and crime, the use of pictures in srhoolbooks,
education of the American Indian, infant schools,
letters from Hofwyl (twenty-two in all), ar-
ticles on Harvard, Yale, Columbia, Princeton,
Dartmouth, and West Point The eontnbu-
tors included Walter R Johnson, Catherine E
Beecher, Thomas H Gallaudet, Samuel K
Hall, Goolde Brown, John Giiscom, Lydia H
Sigourney, George Ticknor, Thomas S Grimke,
Jacob Abbott, William A Aleott, Henry R.
Schoolcraft, James G Carter, William B.
Fowle, Warren Burton, Theodore D wight,
Samuel G Howe, and Horace Mann (qqv ).
Mr Woodbridge was the editor of the A nnah
from 1830 to 1836, William A Alcott during
1837, and M G, Hubbard from 1838 to 1839
It was published in Boston, first by Carter and
Hendee and later by Ticknor and Allen Con-
temporaneous with the Annals was The Com-

563

JOURNALS AND JOURNALISM

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mon School Assistant (1836-1840), a monthly
journal edited at Albany by J Orville Taylor
(q.v.). As its name indicates, it was directly
interested in the common school movement
and the review of elementary school textbooks
Its contributors included James Wadsworth,
Gideon Hawley, and John C Spencer An-
other New York state journal was The District
School (1840-1852), edited by Francis Dwight
(q.v.), and including among its contributors
Horace Mann, Henry Barnard, W F Phelps,
and Samuel S Randall (qq v ) Still another
New York journal was the Teacher*' Advocate
(1845-1852) which was edited by Joseph Me-
Keen and to which Salem Town, E North,
Emma Willard, Catherine E Beecher, William
A. Alcott, and Chester Dewcy contributed
articles. This was followed by the New York
Teacher (1852-1865) edited by Thomas Weston
Valentine (qv). In New England the logical
successors of the American Annals of Educa-
tion were the Common School Journal (1838-
1848), edited by Horace Mann (</ v ), and the
Connecticut Common School Journal (1838-
1842), edited by Henrv Barnaid (q v ) Of
most significance, however, was Barnard's
American Journal of Education (185.") -1881)
This comprehensive work — thirty-one octavo
volumes of more than eight hundred pages each
— is a veritable encyclopedia of education At
a meeting of the American Association for the
Advancement of Education (q v ) held at
Washington in 1854, Henry Barnard submitted
a plan for a new quarterly journal of education
which should include " accounts of systems,
institutions, and methods of education, as well
as current educational thought " The plan
was approved by a committee appointed to
consider the scheme, but as the necessary funds
were not available, Barnard in the next year
undertook the journal on his own responsibility.
The first volume included accounts of the meet-
ings of the American Association for the Ad-
vancement of Education (qv), Frederic D.
Huntmgton's Unconscious Tuition, since become
an educational classic , accounts, with statistics,
of educational movements in England, France,
Germany, Holland, and Russia, and the Ameri-
can states; sketches of the Lawrence Scientific
School at Cambridge, the Peabody Institute
at Danvers, the American Institution for the
Deaf at Hartford, and the Perkins Institution
for the Blind at Boston, with steel portraits of
the founders of these institutions; papers on
methods of teaching Latin, Greek, mathematics,
and the physical sciences; education among
the Hebrews and the Cherokee Indians, edu-
cational biographies of Ezckiel Cheever (q v )
and Thomas H Gallaudet (qv); besides ar-
ticles on school discipline, the education of
women, improvements practicable m American
colleges, and the prevention of crime among
children The Westminster Review said of it-
" The first volume of the American Journal of
Education we received with unmingled pleasure,

save in the regret that England has as yet noth-
ing in the same field worthy of comparison with
it " Practically all important educational writ-
ings, from Plato's Republic to Herbert Spencer's
Education, were published in Barnard's Jour-
nal. He included accounts of all the great
school systems of the world; histories of the
systems of the different states of the Amer-
ican Union; sketches of the great educa-
tional reformers of the world, as well as
of American educational leaders. Normal
schools, institutes of technology, colleges and
universities, educational associations, institu-
tions for defective, dependent, and delinquent
children, libraries, kindergartens, and prac-
tically every other subject relating to education,
found exhaustive treatment in this monu-
mental work; and all the American and foreign
educational writers of the first three quarters
of the nineteenth century are represented in
its columns. In the publication of his Journal
Barnard spent a private fortune of more than
forty thousand dollars To prevent the plates
from going into the melting pot for type metal,
the Henrv Barnard Publishing Company, with
William T Harris as president and C W Bai-
decn as secretary, was organized in 1891 The
Journal is now published and sold by Mi
Bardeen as a work of reference The College
Courant (1869-1874), edited by Chester C
Chatfield, was devoted to the interests of sec-
ondary and collegiate education, and The
Academy (1886-1892), edited by George A
Bacon, was devoted to secondary education
Among the current American educational joui-
nals are the Journal of Education (1875),
School Bulletin (1874), School Journal (1870),
Popular Educator (1884), Education (1880),
Journal of Pedagogy (1887), Educational Re-
view (1891), Pedagogical Seminary (1891), School
Review (1893), and Elementary School Teachei
(1900) In many of the states of the Fnion
there are journals which meet the local needh
of particular geographic sections of the country

W S. M.

Germany — The history of educational joui-
nals in Germany goes back to the early part of
the eighteenth century Their forerunners were
the " moral weeklies " (Morahsche Wochen-
schnften), the earliest of which appeared in Ham-
burg in 1713, arid which were modeled after
Stecle's Taller (1709) and Addison's Spectator
(1711) Many other cities followed, such as Leip-
zig, Zurich, Berlin, Gottingeii, Jena, Magdeburg,
Konigsberg, Danzig, Frankfort, etc The most
influential of these papers were the Discourse
der Mahlern, published by the Swiss poets
Bodmcr and Breitmger in Zurich (1721), Der
Patriot (Hamburg, 1724), and Gottsched's
publication, Die vernunftigen Tadlennnen
(Reasonable Female Critics) (Halle and Leipzig,
1725) These and their numerous imitators
devoted much attention to the reform of edu-
cation Many of the pedagogical ideas which
later on were advocated by Rousseau and

564

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Basedow find an earlier expression in these
old weeklies. Through their influence on the
educated classes, they prepared the soil for the
spread of that enthusiasm for education which
characterizes the second half of the eighteenth
century

Gradually the pedagogic interest in many of
these weeklies predominated over the literary
and social, and purely pedagogic journals also
began to be published Among the earliest are
l)er getreiie Hofmeister (The Faithful Tutor),
Frankfort and Leipzig, 172,"), Vierteljahrlichc
Vntvrhandhmgcn mil Menwhenfreunden ubcr Er-
ziehung (Quarterly Discussion with, Philanthro-
/wfs- on Education}, published by Basodow ID
Bremen, 1768-1769, Der Kinderfretind, by C
T Weisse, Leipzig, 1776, 24 vols , Padago-
ixchc Ungte'haltwigcn, by Cainpc and Basedow,
Dessau, 1777 , Dax fichweizerblatt, by Pestalozzi
(1782), Dcr Bole auf* Thunngen, by Salzmann
(Schnepfenthal, 1788) In the early pait of
the nineteenth century the most impor-
tant pedagogical journals were Zerronnei's
Ucutwhcr Schulfrcund (Magdeburg, 1791-1823),
Stepham'sDer bayerischc Schulfreund (Erlangen,
1811-1832), ami Gutsmuths's Bibhothek fur
Padagogik, Schulwescti und die qe^animte pada-
gogi*ch( Literal ut (Gotha, 1800-1819)

With the greater attention paid to the prepa-
ration of the teacher and with the rise of the
teachers' profession, the number of pedagogic,
joui rials increased, so that, at the beginning of
the second quarter of the century, there wcie
about twenty published in the different prov-
inr**. of Germany Prominent among these
was Diosterweg's (q v ) journal, Rheuusuie
Blntter fur Erzwhung and Unteriicht (1827-
1902), and the Allgemeine Schulzcitung, which
was published by Dilthey and Zimmcrmann in
Darmstadt (1821-1881 f The present output
of the educational pi ess in Germany is far in
advance of that of any other country, both in
the number of periodicals and the degree of
specialization winch has been reached Not
only every province, but almost every district,
ha,s its own educational paper, while, at the
same time, a considerable number of papers
circulate all over the country Many of them
appear weekly, or even twice a week, and one,
the Pn'UbMbchc Lehrerzcitung, is a daily pub-
lication The local papers are geneially con-
trolled by the teachers' associations, which
are found in every part of Germany E\erv
kind of school, every subject of school study, as
well as every important educational movement,
has its own publication Thus there are not
only separate journals for the kindergarten, the
Volkschule, the Burgerschule, the Gymnasium,
the Realschule, the University, as well as for
teachers' seminaries, trade schools, commercial
schools, continuation schools, etc , but, in ad-
dition to these, special periodicals for the study
of methods in religious instruction, the mother
tongue, modern languages, classical languages,
geography, history, mathematics, biology,

physics, and chemistry, drawing, manual train-
ing, physical education, etc The fight for the
reform of secondary schools was largely carried
on in the Zeilschnfl fur die Reform der hdheren
Schulen, founded by Fr. Lange (Berlin, 1889),
while Das humanibtische Gymnasium, published
(since 1890) by Jager and Uhlig, represents the
point of view of orthodox classicism. The
success of the reform method in the teaching
of modern languages was greatly aided by Lie
neueren Sprachen, founded in 1893 by Victor in
Marburg In like manner the teachers in-
terested in school hygiene, in female education,
in the playground movement, in Herbartiaii
pedagogy, and other movements, have each
their own separate periodicals. There are also
a number of educational periodicals especially
devoted to the interests of Catholic schools

The official publications of the different
states, such as the Zentralblatt fur die gesammte
[Inter nchlsverwaltung in Preussen, which has
been published since 1859 by the Prussian
Ministry of Education, furnish a periodical
record of changes in laws and regulations af-
fecting the schools Of great importance also
are the various Jahrbucher or annuals; the
most important of these is the Padagogischer
J ahresbemcht, founded by Nacke in 1845, and
the Jahresbcnchte uber das hohere Schulwesen,
published since 1887 by Rethwisch in Berlin,
the first devoted chiefly to elementary schools
and the second to higher schools Of the
highest rank, both by the weight of its articles
and the liberal spirit of its discussions, is the
M onatsschrift fur hohere Schulen, whose two
editors are members of the Prussian Ministry
of Education, this journal, whose publication
was begun in 1902, immediately after the great
Educational Conference of 1900, undertakes
to further the reforms in secondary school
methods, initiated by the Conference. Similar
in the spirit of broad tolerance are the Lehr-
pioben und Lehrgange (Model Lessons and
Courses of Instruction) which have appeared
since 1885, in quarterly installments (Halle,
Waisenhaus), a journal that furnishes a valu-
able record of improvement in the teaching
methods of secondary school subjects Akin
to these journals in their great educational
significance are the official published records
of the Direktorcnconferenzen in the various
provinces of Prussia since 1879; at each of
these conferences several important educa-
tional questions form the basis of prolonged
discussions, each question being introduced by
an expert referee previously designated for
the task, a typical summary of the conclusions
reached in these conferences published in Kill-
mann, Die Direktoren-Versammlungen des
Konigieichs Preussen von 1890-1900. (Weid-
rnann, Berlin ) Frauenbildung, edited by Dr.
Wychgram since 1902, is the organ for the
school activities of women in the different
types of schools In addition to these there
are a number of statistical yearbooks and

565

JOURNALS AND JOURNALISM

JOURNALS AND JOURNALISM

calendars, among which Minerva, a calendar
for universities, and Mushackc's German School
Calendar may be mentioned F. M.

France. — Magazines dealing exclusively
with educational questions did not appear in
France until the organization of public educa-
tion by the Convention and by Napoleon. In
the eighteenth century such topics were not
treated outside of special works, except in the
Mercure de France, the Encyclopedic oi Diderot
(q.v ), the Journal de Trtvoux, etc It was
during the decades of the revolutionary period
that they found a place At that time, 1811,
Guizot founded the Annales de ['Education,
soon after (1816) appeared the Jouinal d' Edu-
cation, published by a society organized in
Pans for the improvement of elementary edu-
cation This society, which is still active in
the Rue du Fouarre in Pans, was the ancestor
and prototype of the societes philomathiques,
associations philotechniques, cours djadultes, etc ,
so widespread in these days.

At present the educational journals may be
divided into five classes (1) Kindergarten
and infant school journals for the mfprmatiori
of teachers in these schools, c g L Education
Enfantine To these may be added the rec-
reational journals which are intended for chil-
dren on the model of the Magazin Pittoic&que,
established in 1833, and which have increased
since 1880, e g Mon Journal (1881), St
Nicholas (1880), etc. (2) Journals for teachers
in elementary schools. These are the most
numerous They contain official documents,
subjects for pupils' home work, information
for use in classroom, educational suggestions,
etc The chief of these are the Manuel
General de rinstructwn Pnmaiic, established
in 1832, weekly in 1850, monthly in 1858, and
again weekly in 1 864, and now conducted with
the Du'twnnaire de Pedagogic under the direc-
tion of M F Buissori, the Revue de /' En-
seignement Primaire ct Pnmaire Su/nrwur, a
weekly giving besides educational articles
others referring to professional, social, and
associational questions The Revue P Magog ique,
under the direction of a committee of admin-
istrators, educationists, arid members of the
Ministry of Public Instruction, dealing with
questions of primary, secondary, and higher
education (3) Journals for secondary edu-
cation are the fewest in number One of the
earliest was L'Untverxite, devoted to questions
of public instruction and secondary education
(1883); the Revue de V Enseignement Secondairc
(1884), which under the direction of M. Jules
Gautier has cooperated in the majority of the
reforms in secondary education; Revue Uni-
versitaire de V Emeignement Secondaire (1891),
changed to Revue Universitaire in 1892, UEn-
seignement Secondaire des Jeunes Filles, etc
(4) Journals for higher education; in 1863 was
established the Revue des Cours Litteraires de
la France et de V Stranger, and the Revue des
Cour8Scientifiques,etc , which in 1870 became the

Revue Bku and the RevueSaentifique, in 1878 M
Boutmy founded the Soci&e de V Enseignement
Superieur to examine all questions relative to
higher education, and to collect all documents,
this society has set in motion most of the re-
forms made in higher education, and has as its
organ the Revue Intei natwnale de I' Enseignement
now under the direction of M. F Pica vet
Since 1892 there has appeared a Revue Heb-
domadaire des Cours et Conferences in the Sor-
borine, etc , originally undertaken by a group
of students in the Sorborme Nearly all the
special studies of the universities have each
their own reviews (5) Journals for general
educational questions, with discussions on
school hygiene, physical and moral education
These are at present few in number There
may be mentioned IS Education Moderne, es-
tablished in 1906 by J Philippe and (i, Paul-
Boncour, and now under the direction of Ci
Compayre", V Education established in 1909 by
G. Bertier. J. P. *

The following is a list of current educational
periodical , with the frequency of their ihsue
(a., annual, q , quarterly, m., monthly, f , fort-
nightly, w., weekly, d , daily , irreg , irregular) —

Great Britain —

General

Educational Record, 3 nos (London )

Educational Times, in (London )

Highway (Workers' Education Association), in

(London )

Journal of Education, in (London )
Morning Post (Schools and Scholars), w (London )
Parents' Review, m (London )
Praf tical Teacher, m (London )
School Guardian, w (London )
School Monthly, in (London )
School Review, m (London )
School World, in (London )
Times, Educational Supplement, w (London )

Administration

Education, in (London )

London County Council Gazette, w (London )

School Government Chronicle, w (London )

Elementary

Educational News, w (Edinburgh )
Infants' Magazine, m (London )
lush School Weekly and Irish Teachers' Journal, w

(Dublin )

London Teacher, w (London )
Notes for Teachers, q (Edinburgh )
Schoolmaster, w (London )
Sehoolmibtress, w. (London )
Teacher, w (London )
Teacher's Aid, w (London )

Secondary

A M A (Journal of the Assistant Masters' Assoc ),

in (London )

Preparatoiy Schools Review, 3 not, (London.)
Secondary Education, (» nos (London )
Touchers* Guild Quarterly, q (London )
Many of the general magazines emphasize secondary

education

Special Subjects

Classical Quarterly, q. (London )
Classical Review, m. (London.)
Educational Handwork, m. (London )
Geographical Teacher, 3 nos. (London )
Manual Training, m (London)
Mathematical Gazette, 6 nos. (London )
Modern Language Review, q (London )

JOURNALS AND JOURNALISM

JOURNALS AND JOURNALISM

Modern Language Teaching, S now (London )

Moral Education League Quarterly, q (London )

Music Student, w (London )

Physical Education, q (London )

School Hygiene, rn (London )

School Music Review, m (London )

School Nature Study, 3 DOB (London )

Child Life, h nos (London )
Child Study, m (London )
Journal of Experimental Pedagogy and Training Col-

lege Record, 3 nos (London )
The Child, m (London )

United States —

Gent ral

American Educational Review, m (Chicago, New

York )

Education, 10 nos (Host on )
Educational Review, 10 nos (Rahwav, N J )
.Journal of Education, w (Boston )
Pedagogical Seminary, q (Worcester, Muss )
School Journal, 10 nos (New York )
Teachers College Record, bm except July (New

York )
Western Journal of Education, m. (San Francisco )

Hightr
Intercollegian, 0 nos (New York )

titcondary

School Review, 10 noa (Chicago.)

Kb men far y

American Primary Teacher, 10 nos (Boston )
Educational Bi-monthh , bm (Chicago )
Educational Exchange, m (Bumingham, Ala)
Elementary School Tea* her, 10 not> (Chicago )
Northwest Journal of Education, 10 nob (Seattle )
Popular Education, 10 no.s (Boston )
Pnmarv Education, 10 nos (Boston)
Progressive Journal of Edut ation, 10 nos (Chi< ago )
Rockv Mountain Educator, ir (Denver )
School and Home Education, 10 HOB (Bloonungton )
Sc hool Bulletin, m (Svraeiihc, N \r )
School Education, 9 nos (Minneapolis )
Sc hool World, m (New York )
Southern School Journal, m (Lexington, K> )
Teachers' Magazine, 10 nos (New York )

Local (ehioflv Elementary)
American Education, 10 nos (\lbany)
Atlantic Educational Journal, 10 nos (Baltimore )
Canadian Teacher, m. (Toronto )
Educator-Journal, m (Indianapolis )
Interstate Schoolmen, m. (Hutcrunson, Kan )
Progressive Teacher, 10 nos (Nashville, Teiin )
School Exchange, 5 times a year (Newark, N J )
Schoolmaster, 10 nos (Saginaw, Mich )
Southern Educational Review, ir. (Chattanooga,

Term )

Teacher, 10 nos (Philadelphia )
Western Journal of Education, 10 nos (Ypsilanti )
Western School Journal, m (Topeka, Kan )

I** Ui holony

\mencan Journal of Psychology , q (Worcester,

Mass )

Journal of Animal Bohaxior, m (Baltimore, Md )
Journal of Educational Psychology 10 noh (Balti-

moio )
Journal of Religious Psychology, M (Worcester,

Mass )

Mind and Bod\ , in (Milwaukee )
Psychological Bulletin, bm (Lancaster, Pa )
Psychological Clinic, 9 nos (Philadelphia )
Psychological Review, bm (Lancaster, Pa )

, 1 dministration
American School Board Journal, m (Milwaukee )

Subjects
\ mencaii Physical Education Rev lew, () now (Spring-

held, Mass )
Boston Cooking St hool Magazine, 10 nos (Boston )

Catholic Educational Review, 10 nos (St Francis,

Wis )

Catholic School Journal, 10 nos (Milwaukee )
Child-Welfare Magazine, 10 nos (Philadelphia )
Classical Journal, 9 nos (Chicago )
History Teachers' Magazine, 10 nos (Philadelphia)
Journal of Geogiuphy, 10 nob (Madison.)
Journal of Home Economics, bm (Baltimore )
Journal of Philosophy , Pys>chology, and Scientific

Method, sm (New York )
Kmdei garteri Magazine, 10 nos (New York )
Kindergarten Review, 10 nos (Springfield, Mass )
Manual Training Magazine, bm (Peona, 111 )
Mathematics Teacher, q (Lancaster, Pa )
Mathematics Teacher, ir (Syracuse, N Y )
Nature Study Review, 9 nos (Chicago )
Playground, m (New York )
Religious Education, hm (Chicago )
School Science and Mathematics, 9 nos (Chicago)
Science, \v (New Y'ork )
Science and Mathematics (see School Science and

Mathematics above)

Scientific Temperance Journal, m (Boston )
Southern Workman, m (Hampton, Va )
Vocational Education, bm (Peona, III )

In addition to the above, there are a great
number of inmoi educational jouinals chiefly of
local circulation Practically every state has
such a local journal In some states two 01 more
compete for patronage In the same way some
of the largei cities possess such local organs
The Bureau of Education at Washington pub-
lished in 1910 a list of more than 100 educa-
tional publications issued in the United States

Germany —

General

Allgenieme Deutsche Lehi crzoitung, \\ (Leipzig)

Au« del Schule fur die Schule, rn (Leipzig )

Blatter f Ur deutsche Erzichunp (Leipzig )

Die deuthche Schule, m (Leipzig)

Die JugcndfurBorge, w (Berlin )

Der praktiache Schuliiiann, S noe» (Leipzig)

Der Saemann, in (Leip/ig )

Deutsche Blatter fur erzieheride Unterncht, w

(Langensalza )

Deutscher Fruhling, m (Leipzig)
Dcutsehe Lehrerzeitung, v\ (Berlin )
Deutsche Schulzcitung, M (Beilm )
Jahrbuch des Verems fur \M8sensehaf the he Pada-

gogik, a (Leipzig )
Mittcilungen dei Gesellschaft fur clcutscheErziehungH-

und SehulgeHchichte, 2-4 nos, (Berlin )
Monumenta (Jermamae Pacciagogic a, n (Berlin)
Neue Bahnen, in (Leipzig )

Paclagogische Abharidlungen, 12 nos (Bielefeld )
Padagogischc Blatter, q (Munich )
Padagogisehc Jahresrundachau, m (Trier )
PiidagogiHche Monatshcfte, m (Stuttgart )
PadagogiM-he Refoim, w and q (Hamburg)
Padagogische Studien, m (Eisenach )
PadagogiBchc Studien, (> not. (Dresden )
Padagogische \\ arte, f ( Ostei uiec k )
PadagogiHohc Zcitfnigcii, 0 nos (Munich)
Padagogische Zeitung, \v (Berlin )
P.ulagogiHcher Jahresiieiieht, a (Leipzig)
Piidagoirihi hen Archiv, m (Brunswick)
Xeitsehuft fur den deutBchen Unterncht, m (Leip-

zig )
Zeitbchrift fui PluloBophie und Padagogik, 6 nos.

(Langensalzd.)

Administration

Das Schulhaus, m (Berlin)
Da,s Schulzinimer, q (Berlin )
Die Schulpflege, f (Berlin )

Deutsche Schulgesetzaammlung Zentralorgan fur
das gc\sammte Sc-.hulwehen im deutHchen Reic )i 1.1
Osteneich und cler Sch\\eiz, \\ (Berlin)

JOURNALS AND JOURNALISM

JOURNALS AND JOURNALISM

Mmistcrialblatt fur Kirchen- und Schul angel cgen

heiten. (Munich )

PreuasiHchcs Volksschularchiv, q, (Berlin.)
Zentralblatt f d gesammte Unternchtaverwaltung

(Berlin )

Elementary.
Blatter fur die Schulpraxis fur Volksschulen und

Lehrerbildungsanstalten, 6 nos. (Nuremberg )
Comenms-blatter fur Volkserziehung, 5 nos (Ber-
lin )

Die deutschc Volkssehulc, f (Leipzig )
Die kathohache Volksschulen, f (Innsbruck )
Die zweisprachige Volksschulen, m (Berlin )
Der praktische Schulmann, 8 nos (Leipzig.)
Der Schulfreund, ni (Hamm )
Dor Volksschulfreund, ni (Komghbcrg )
Jahrbuch ties deutschen Lehrerverema, a (Leipzig )
Jahrbueh des kathohschen Lehrerverems, a (Co-
logne )
Padagogiseher Jahresbencht fur Deutschlands Volks-

Bchullehrcr, a (Leipzig )
Padagogisches Jahrbuch, a. (Leipzig )
Praxis der Landschule, m (Goslar )
Praxis der Volksschule, m (Halle )
Preussisehc Lehrerzeitung, d (Spandau )
Preussisehes Volkssohularcliiv, 4 nos (Berlin )

Secondary

Blatter fur hbheres Schulwcsen, m (Berlin )

Blatter fur das Gymnasialsehulwesen, m (Munich )

Das humanistische Gymiiabium, q (Heidelberg )

Die Madchenschule, m (Bonn )

Die Mittelschule und hohere Sehulen, in (Leipzig )

Frauenbildung, m (Leipzig )

Gymnasium, f (Paderborn )

Monatschrift fur hohere Schule, m (Berlin )

Lehrproben und Lehrgange aus der Pi axis der Gym-

nasien und Realsehule, q (Halle )
Suddeutsche Blatter fUr hohere Unternehtbanstalten,

q (Stuttgart )
Zeitschrift fur latemloso Madchensehulen, f (Halle )

(Berlin )

Zeitsehrift fur das Gymnasialwesen, m (Berlin )
Zeitsehnft fur die Reform der hbheren Schulen, q

(Berlin )
Zeritralorgan fur die Interessen des Realsehulwcsciib,

m (Berlin )

Training of Teachcit,

Archiv fur deutsche Lehrcrbildung, m (Jena )
Jahrbuch fur Semmaristeii und Praparande, a

(Gross-Liehterfelde )
Padagogische Blatter fur Lehrerbildung und Lehrer-

bildungsanstalten, m (Gotha )

Special Subjects.

Monatsblatter fur den Katholischen Religionsunter-
richt an hohereri Lehranstalteu, m (Cologne )

Zeitschrift fur den evangehschen Rehgionsuntci-
ncht (Berlin )

Die neueren Sprachen, 10 nos (Marburg )

Zeitschrift fur den franzosischen und enghschcn
Untemeht, 6 nos (Berlin )

Geographische Zeitschrift, m (Leipzig )

Zeitsehrift fur geographischen Unterncht, m (Leip-
zig )

Natui und Schule, Zeitschnft fur den gebainten Na-
turkuiidlichen ITriterricht aller Schulen, m (Leip-
zig )

Zeitschnft fur mathematischen und natuiwissen-
Hchaftlichen Untemcht, S nos (Leipzig )

Zeitnchrift flir den physikahschen und ohenii&ohen
llnterncht, 6 nos (Berlin )

Blatter fur Knabenhandarbeit, m (Leipzig.)

Die Stimme, m (Berlin )

Monatschnft fur Schulgesang, m (Easen )

Mubikpadagogische Blatter, m (Quedlmburg )

Der Zeichenlehrer, in (Stuttgart )

Der Kunstgarten, q (Berlin )

Die Kreide, m (Berlin )

Zeitschrift des Verems dei deutschen Zeichenlehrer,
33 now (Gross-Liehterfelde )

Deutsche Turnzeitung, m (Berlin.)

Gesunde Jugend, b nos (Leipzig )

568

Internationales Archiv fur Schulhygiene, q (Munich )
Jahrbuch fur Volks- und Jugendspiele, a (Leipzig.)
Korper und Geist, f. (Leipzig )

Educational Psychology

Kmderfehler, Zeitsuhnft fur Kmderforschung, 6 nos
(Langensalza )

Padagogisch-psychologische studien, w (Leipzig )

Sammlung von Abhandlungen zur psychologischen
Padagogik, 5 nos (Leipzig )

Zeitschrift fUr angewandte Psychologic, 6 nos (Leip-
zig )

Zeitschrift fur padagogische Psychologic der Sinnefi-
organe (Leipzig)

Zeitschrift fur padagogisohe Psychologic, Pathologic
und Hygiene, 6 nob (Berlin )

Zeitschrift fur padagojpische Psychologic und ex-
pennientelle Padagogik, m. (Leipzig )

France —

Annuaire de I'Enseignement commercial et industriel,

a (Pans )

Annuaire de I'lnstruction pubhquc, a (Pans )
Annuaire de la Jeunesse, a (Pans )
Bulletin administrate du Mimst^ic dc 1'Instruction

publique, w (Parib )

Bulletin dc rEnseignemeiit technique, f (Pans)
Ecole nouvcllc, m (Paris )
Kducateur moderne, 10 nos (Pans )
Education, q (Pans )

Enseignement mathomatique, bni (Paris )
Enseigriement npoondaire, f (Pans )
Enseignement serondaue deb JCUIIOH Killes, m

(Paris )
Enseignement sup6rieur lil>re Bulletin de 1'Institut

Catholicme dc Parib, 10 nos (Pans )
Joijrnal d'Education popuhure, cj (Parib )
L'Ecole dcs Communes, m (Paris )
Le Journal dcs Instituteurs, \^ (Paris )
Le Volume, \\ (Pans )
Les Langues moderncs, m (Paris)
Manuel general de I'Tnstruction pnmaire, \\ (]*arib )
Memonale des Prfecepteurs, f (Pari.s )
Revue de rEnseigueincnt des Langues vivanteh, in.

(Pans )

Revue de 1' Enseigriement des Sciences, m (Parib )
Revue de rEnseignement pnmaire (Paris )
Revue Internationale de rEnsngriement, m (Parib )
Revue p6dagogique, m (Paris )
Revue uuiversitanc, m (Paris )

Austria-Hungary —

Christhehe padagogische Blatter, f (Vienna )

Chnstliche Schul- und Eltenizeitung, f (Vienna )

Deutsch-osterreichische Lehrerzeitung, f (Vienna )

l^eutschcr Jugendhort, m (Vienna )

Deutsche Schulzeitunp, f (Vienna )

Freie deutsche Schule, f (Vienna )

Freie Lehrerstimme, f (Vienna )

Katholischer Schulfrcund, m (Vienna )

Obterrcichiseher Schulbotc, f (Vienna.)

Osterreichische Schulzeitung, 36 nos (Vienna)

Padagogische Rundschau, m (Vienna )

Padagogischer Ratgeber, m (Vienna)

Die Burgcrschule, f (Vienna )

Jahresbencht der osteireichischen Gruppe der Gesell-

schaft fur die Erziehungn- und SchulReschichte, ti

(Vicuina )

Osterreichische Mittelschule, ir (Vienna )
Padagogisches Jahrbuch (Wiener padapjogische Gesell-

schnft), a (Leipzig)
Verordnungsblatt fUr das Dienstbeieich des K K

Mimsteriums fur Kultub und Untemcht, f

(Vienna )
Vierteljahrschnft fur korporliche Eiziehung, q

(Vienna )
Zeitschrift fur das osterreichische Volkssehulweseri,

m (Vienna )

Zeitschrift fur das Realschulwesen, m (Vienna )
Zeitschrift fiir die osterreichisehcn Gymnasicn, m,

(Vienna )

Zeitschrift fur Kindergarten wesen (Vienna )
ZeitBchnft fur Schulgeographie, m (Vienna )

JOURNALS AND JOURNALISM

JOURNALS AND JOURNALISM

ZeithC'hnft fur Zeicheu- und Kunstunterncht, m

(Vienna )
Zentralblatt flir das gewerbheho Unternchtswesen,

q (Vienna )

Belgium —

]£cole pratique, m (Liege )
Ecolo pnraaire, f (Bruxelles )
Education farmliale, 10 noa (Bruxelles.)
Gymnastique scolairc, m. (Bruxelles)
Journal dea Instituteurs, w (Bruxelles )
Schoolbode van Limburg, f (Peer.)
Schoolgids, w (Brasschaat )
Tnbuno scolaire, bm. (Liege )
Opvoedmg, m (Maeseyck )
Zuid en Noord, m. (Ghent )

Denmark —

DanmarkB Laererforcnmgs Medlensblad, w. (Copen-
hagen,)

Skolebladet, f (Copenhagen )
Vor Ungdoin, 10 nos (Copenhagen )

Holland —

Chnstelyk Schoolblad, w (Gravenhage)

De Christel-School, w (Rotterdam)

Do Vrije School, w (Nmeguen.)

Het nieuwe School blud, M (Amsterdam )

Kathoheke School, d (Amhem )

Minerva, Nederl Stud Weekblad, w. (Leyden.)

School blad, w (Gioningen )

Vox Studiosorum, w (Leyden )

Sweden —

Folkskolans Van, w (Goteborg )
Kamraten, f (Stockholm )
Svansk Lararetidnmg, w (Stockholm.)
Verdandi, ir (Stockholm )

Norway —

Norsk Skoletidende, w (Hamar.)
Skolebladet, w (Christiania )

Italy —

Bollettmo ufficmle del Mmiatero dell' latruzione

pubblica, a (Rome.)
Corrente, m (Milan )
Dmtte dolla Sruola, w. (Rome )
Donna e la Famigha, m (Genoa )
Educatore, f (Arezzo )
Educazionc dei Bambini, f (Rome.)
La nuova Scuola, m (Milan )
La Scuola, w (Milan )
Nuova Scuola educatnce, w. (Rome.)
Nuovi Dovm — Rivista qumdicmale de Problemi

educatwi, f (Palermo.)
Paradiso dei Bambini, f (Naples )
Per la Scuola e per la Classe, f (Catania )
Ri vista pedagogica, 10 nos (Rome )

Switzerland —

Amtliches Schulblatt, m (Zurich )

Amtliches Schulblatt des Kanton St. Gailen, m

(St. Gailen.)

Berner Schulblatt, w. (Berne )
Blatter, fur den zeichen- und gewerblichen Berufs-

unterncht, m (St Gailen )
Bulletin p6dagogique, m (Freiburg )
Der Pionier, Organ der Schweizenschen permanenten

Schulausstellung, m (Berne )
Educatore, f (Bellinzona )
Journal des jeunes Filles, f (Neufchatel.)
L'fccole pnmai re, 10 nos (Sion )
L'Educateur, w. (Lausanne )
La Fourmio, m (Lausanne )
Luzermsches Schulblatt, m (Lucerne )
Monatsblatter fur Schulturnen, m. (Zurich.)
Neuer Schweizer Volksfreund, w (Basel.)
Padagogischo Blatter, w (Emsiedeln.)

Pestalozzianum, in (Zurich )

Schweizenscho Blatter fUr Knabenhandarbeit, m.

(Zarich )

Schweizerisches evangehscheb Schulblatt, w (Berne.)
Schweizensche Lchrennnurizcitung, m (Berne )
Schweizensche Lehrorzc»itung, w (Zurich )
Schweizensche paclagogischo Zcit«chrift, 6 nos

(Zunch )

Russia —

Journal of tho MmiHt<kr of Pubh< Instruction (Rus-
sian), m (St Petersburg )
Pnrodu i Ljudi, \v (St Potcrsburg )
WokiuiK S\Mctti, v\ (Mos( ow )

Spain —

Boletfn de Lt Iiibtitucion hbre de Ensefianza, m.

(Madrid )

Escuela inodeiiKt, in (Madrid)
Escuolu modcriiu, Supplement, sw (Madrid.)
Magisteiio ehpitfiol, w (Madrid)

Other Countries —
Argentine —

Arc hi \ os de Porlagogia > Cienciab afines (La Plata )
Monitoi di la EdiK IK Jon conu'in, m (Buenos Air«jh )

Australia —

Education Gazette, m (Adelaide )

Education Gazette and Teachers' Aid, m (Victoria )

Queensland Education Journal, in (Brisbane )

Brazil —

m (Rio de Janeiro )

Cape Colony —

Education Gazette, ir (Cape Town )

Chile —

Revista de Instrucci6n pnmana, m
Chile )

Costa Rica —

Educacion CostarneenHc, m (Heredia )

Cuba.—

Cuba pedag6gica, f (Havana )
Instruccion pnmaria, m (Havana )

Greece —

Paidagogikon Deltion, ir

Mexico —

(Santiago de

(Athens )

Boietin dc Instruuion ])nmaria, m (Mexico.)

Bolctfn de InhtriuruSn pi'ihhca, m (Mexico)

Escuela, ^\ (Mexico)

InHtructor, in (Aquancahentes )

Magisterio Chihuulmcnsr, m (Cmhuahuense )

New Zealand —

School Journal, m (Wellington )

Philippines —

Philippine Education, m (Manila )
Teachers' Assembly Herald, d except Mondays,
during the vacation as8embl> (Bagnio )

Tasmania —

Educational Record, m. (Hobart.)

References —

German' —
KAWCZYRNSKI, M Ktudicn zur Literatur des 18

569

hunderts, Moralische Zeitschnften

Jahr-
(Leipzig, 1S80 )

JOURNEYS, SCHOOL

JOWETT

LEHMANN, O Die dcutxcheri moralischen Wochcn-

scknften des 18 Jahrhundcrtx nis ptidagogischc

Reformschnjtrn (Leipzig, 1893 )
LEXIS, W Daa Untert ichtewesen irn Dentil hen lieich,

Vol III, p 189 (Berlin, 1904 )
Loos, T Emyklopadischea Handbuch der Erziehungs-

kunde, 8 v. Padagoguche Zeitschnften
REIN, W. Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Padagogik,

8 v Padagogische Prexse

French —

COMPAYRE, G Tho Educational Journals of Franco
Edu(. Rev, Vol XIX (1900), pp 121-142

English —
RUHHEI,L, J Educational Periodicals in England

Educ Kn , Vol XXII (1<J01), pp 472-417
Schoolmasters' Yearbook, 1910-1911, pp. 412-419

(London )

United States and Canadian —

BARDEEN, C W The History of Educational Journal-
ism in the State of New York (Syracuse, 1893 )

SEVERANCE, H O , and WALSH, C H A Guide to the
Current Periodicals and Serials of the Ifnited States
and Canada, pp 39.5, 396 (Ann Arbor, 1908)

U S Bureau of Education, Rep Com Ed , 1Q10, Vol I
pp. 003-609 (Washington, 1910)

JOURNEYS, SCHOOL —See EXCURSIONS,
SCHOOL.

JOWETT, BENJAMIN (1817-1893) —
Teacher, theologian, and educational reformer
He was born in Camherwell, London, of a
family which sprang from near Bradford,
Yorkshire, and as a boy was addicted to pri-
vate study showing exceptional mental pre-
cocity Jowett attended St Paul's School,
London, 1829-1835, under Dr Sloath, who
pronounced him the best Latin scholar whom
he had ever sent to the University At school
Jowett learned by heart large quantities of Greek
and Latin poetry and formed the habit of
retranslating into the classics passages which
he had previously translated into English
In 1835 he gamed an open scholarship at Bal-
liol and carne into residence at the University,
October, 1836. Among his contemporaries
as scholars of Balhol were Dean Stanley,
Stafford Northcote (afterwards Lord Iddes-
leigh), and Dean Lake of Durham Among
the Fellows of the College at the time weie
Tait (afterwards Archbishop) and W G Ward
Jowett won the Hertford (University) scholar-
ship in 1837, and in 1838 was elected Fellow
of Balliol while still an undergraduate He
took a First Class in Liters? Humaniores
in 1839 He graduated B A in 1839, M A.

Becker and Ewald, and other famous German
scholars. Hegel's writings fascinated him He
gradually turned to the study of Plato, to which
he devoted a large part of his life.

For many years theology was his chief occu-
pation. An intimate friend of A. P, Stanley,
he undertook an edition of St Paul's Epistle*
and threw! himself with vigor into the agita-
tion for university reform. He wished to
retain the college system, but favored an in-
crease in the number of professors. The
claims of the poor student found in him a
strenuous advocate With what he called
the " gentleman heresy " of university life
he had no sympathy He gradually became
recognized as an authority on questions of
public education In 1855 he was appointed
to the Regius Professorship of Greek in the
University His supposed heterodoxy roused
against him much theological opposition, which
for a time deprived his chair of a greatly needed
addition to its trifling endowment As Pro-
fessor of Greek, Jowett lectured on the Republic
of Plato and the early Greek philosophers,
and by his devoted attention to his pupils,
not only those of his own college, won foi
Inmself an abiding place in the affection of
the rising generation In 1S(K) his article on
the interpretation of Scriptuie, when pub-
lished in EW/f/s and Reviewx, excited once
again the anger of his theological opponents
The controversy deepened his spiritual insight
and caused him for a time to " hold his tongue
about theology "

His tutorial labors in college were immense
At one time he saw every undergraduate in
Balhol once a week His remarkable influ-
ence is attested by the long list of distinguished
and devoted pupils who received their inspira-
tion from him, and by the stamp which he set.
on Balliol From 1865 onwards he devoted
much time to the organization of education
both in college and in the university Inter-
collegiate lectures were arranged He urged
the necessity of lessoning the expense of an
Oxford career He established a hall for pooi
students He took an active part in the re-
building of the college He tried to enlarge the
area from which the University drew its stu-
dents Elected to the Mastership of Balhol
in 1870, Jowett redoubled his energies both
for the enlargement of the college and for the
extension of its usefulness, devoting to this

in 1842, and in the latter year was appointed work a large part of his private means. He

to a tutorship m Balliol College, a post which
he held for the following twenty-eight years
He took deacon's orders in the Church of
England in 1842, and priest's in 1845 Brought
up in evangelical opinions, Jowett was plunged
at Oxford into the midst of the Tractarian
Movement and was greatly attracted by W G
Ward (see Oxford Movement) In 1844 he
took a leading part on the side of toleration
of religious opinion in the University He
now became acquainted with G Hermann

570

interested himself m the development of uni-
versity and secondary education in other parts
of England The University College at Bris-
tol (now the University of Bristol) owed its
foundation m large measure to him He en-
couraged the study of Oriental languages in
Oxford by candidates elected to the Indian
( hvil Service He greatly improved the health
of Oxford by taking an active part in the better
drainage of the Thames valley. He encouraged
the drama and music in Oxford During a

JOWETT

JUDGMENT

brilliant Vice-Chancellorship he helped in
developing the system of university extension
and was chiefly responsible for the erection of
the examination schools in the High Street, an
important addition to the mechanism of uni-
versity life

In 1871 his translation of Plato was pub-
lished, and later years were largely given to its
revision for a second edition No ordinary
translation, this book contained a series of
essays and commentaries which comprised the
wisdom of a studious and active life He also
completed translations of Thucydides and of
Aristotle's Politics No Oxford teacher had a
more brilliant circle of pupils or greater in-
fluence upon public affairs He died in Octo-
ber, 1893, and was buried in Oxford

Jowett' 8 study of Plato had a profound in-
fluence upon his educational ideas It was
Plato who confirmed him m the belief that
" education comprehends the whole of life arid
is a preparation for another life in which educa-
tion begins again." It was Plato who en-
couraged him to press on men and women the
duty of self -education in later life In Bacon's
words, Jowett asked counsel of both times —
of the ancient time what is best, and of the
later time what is fittest Those whose privi-
lege it. was to work with him in public affairs
can never forget the quickness of his insight,
his grasp of detail, his courage m action, his
indifference to academic hesitations, his severe
self-command With him mere information
had been distilled into wisdom. His speech
had always the " salt of cncuinstance/' though
his plans were touched with a secret idealism
He wrote no systematic treatise on pedagogy,
but he was a master of the science and art of
education A hard worker himself, he hated
loafing But he knew that most men can only
profitably give a few hours of intense appli-
cation to their daily studies Therefore he
encouraged moderate athletics He was a
loyal friend of physical science and urged its
study in the university. But he was no partisan
of scientific as against literary, or of literary
as against scientific, studies He had reached
the synthesis where the two arc joined in one
discipline He was, perhaps, a little blind
to some of the subtler evils of the svstcm of
competitive examination, which he did so
much to generalize He knew that examina-
tions are necessary He had seen the mis-
chief caused by their absence, the danger of
dilettante studies, the necessity for most men
of a punctually recurring intellectual audit
But perhaps ho did not foresee the danger
of a too great development of the examination
system As a tutor, his way of teaching was
to compel self-knowledge arid to excite interest
rather than to satisfy it He disliked sentimen-
talism He had Dr Johnson's hatred of ex-
aggeration and conceit He had a great idea
that the welfare and prosperity of the nation
depended OP the upbringing and education of

the young men of station and ability who would
be called upon to bear part in public life To
poor scholars he was a sincere arid munifi-
cent friend He was proud of the fact that the
success of Balliol had been due to the Fellows
having always preferred public interests to
private ones. He was a sincere believer in the
virtues of college life But there was nothing
monastic in his view of college training He
did not aim at making specialists, but men of
affairs, men who would serve CJod in Church
arid State It may be said of Jowett what he
said of Plato, that " he had many sides of
wisdom, and he was not always consistent with
himself, because he was always moving onward
and knew that there are many more things
in philosophy than can be expressed in words,
and that truth is greater than consistency "
He would have said of himself, as he said of his
master, Plato, that his teaching was " half
playful, yet having a certain measure of seri-
ousness " M E S.
References : —

ABBOTT, E , and CAMPBELL, L Jowett'* Life and L(t-

ters (London, 1897 )
Jowett' s Letters (London, 1899 )

Dictionary of National Biography

DAVIH, H W C Balliol ColUgt (London, 1899 )

JOWETT, B The following Memoranda and Lot t era
txjst show his ideas of educational administration
Memorandum on Educational Reform addtrwd
to the Oxford University Communion of 1850,
Letter to Sir Stafford Noithcotc and Sir Charles
Trevelyan on the Oigamzatinii of the English
Ovil Service (1854), Evidence before the Oxfoid
University Commission, 1877 , Address to tin
University Extension Confeieme in Ovfoid, April,
1887, College Sermons, Letter to the Times,
March 3, 1887, on the Claims of University Col-
leges

SHOREY, P Benjamin Jowett Chautauquan, Vol
XLVI, pp 205 ff.

TOLLEMACHE, L A Benjamin Jowett, Master of
Balhol College (London, 1895.)

JUDGMENT — This term is employed in
a larger and more vital sense and in a narrower
arid more formal one In its pregnant sense it
means the act (or the power) of weighing facts
or evidence, in order to reach a conclusion or
decision, or (as is usual with words denoting
acts) the result, the outcome of the process,
the decision reached by the process of i effective
inquiry and deliberation In this sense judg-
ment expresses the very heait of thinking All
thinking is, directly or indirectly, a pait of the
act of judging, of forming an estimate or valua-
tion after investigation and testing The
difference in the adequacy of different cases of
thinking is due to the care and thoroughness
with which the operations of critical summon-
ing and weighing of evidence are performed.
The evaluating nature of judgment and its
relation to a reasonably reached, intellectually
valid conclusion, are suggested by the judi-
cial procedure from which the word " judg-
ment " is derived. There is primarily something
at issue, at stake, something which is as yet
undetermined, uncertain, but which needs to

671

JUDGMENT

JUNGE

be decided. Without a crisis of uncertainty
of this sort, without a questionable or prob-
lematic situation, there would be no judging.
Then there follows the calling and hearing of
witnesses, presenting all the facts relevant to
settling the matter — that is to say, there are
the processes of observation, recollection, etc ,
which bring in the data or evidence upon
which a correct decision depends Then there
is the sifting, comparing, classifying, and re-
lating operation by which is determined the
respective force, the authority, to be assigned
to this fact or that This weighing or evaluat-
ing process involves the use of the general rules
or principles bearing upon cases of this sort
that have been established in prior experience
Finally the judgment issues m a decision, or
declaration that the case is thus and so, within
certain limits of probable error From this
sketch it is evident that judging involves in
individualized concrete form all the operations
of thinking or reflective inquiry, both material
and formal: that is, the material operation by
which facts are gathered and the formal one
by which the facts are weighed and their mean-
ing determined From the standpoint of
logical analysis, existence and meaning are
thus the defining traits of every judgment

The central position occupied by the train-
ing of judgment in the scheme of education
is obvious It may be explicitly stated by
calling up to view the errors involved in failing
to give it a central position In brief, these
consist, on one side, in the amassing of mere
information, through observing and memoriz-
ing material which is put to no intellectual
use, and, on the other, in merely formal ex-
ercises in reasoning apart frorn consideration
of subject matter. In contrast with these
counterpart errors, judgments involve the
gathering of facts, but also the use of reasoning
to compare, contrast, place, and interpret the
subject-matter Only where these two pro-
cesses are combined (corresponding to the
interrelation of existence and meaning) is there
any training which is of value cither for the
practical deliberations of life or for the theoreti-
cal pursuit of science Conditions that work
against in the training of judgment are, accord-
ingly, such procedures as the following The
multiplication of isolated sense observations, as
in some schemes of object lessons and sense
training; the multiplication of logical analyses
apart from their bearing on reaching a conclu-
sion; attaching great importance to correct
reproduction of things previously learned
without employing that material in pursuing
some further inquiry; attaching importance to
correct results or " answers/' quite apart from
the mental operations by which the results were
reached; exercises where the material and
methods are externally dictated, with no op-
portunity for the employment of judgment in
selecting, arranging, and testing, methods in
which mechanical skill, automatic rapidity,

and accuracy are set above reflective iLquiiy -
as in many so-called " drill" exercises, methods
in which opportunity to commit errors is me-
chanically excluded, or in which, when com-
mitted, they are externally corrected without
throwing upon the pupil any intellectual respon-
sibility

In its narrower and more technical sense a
j udgment is a statement of a relation between
two objects, or between two contents of
thought, two meanings. This is the meaning
which the term "judgment" has gradually as-
sumed in formal logic, from its standpoint the
vitally practical meaning of judgment just
expounded is sometimes contemptuously looked
down upon as merely psychological in charac-
ter. From the standpoint of judgment proper
the actual operation of thinking as performed in
life, the formal statement of a relationship in
abstracto, is one important stage in the develop-
ment of a controlled judgment It marks a
Humming up, a gathering together of the net
outcome of prior reflections Such formula-
tions are indispensable factors in the adequately
performed vital judgment Because the function
of formulation is so important, judgment is 11(4.
unfrequently identified with the statement of
relations, or with the proposition (qv) J. D

JUNGE, FRIEDRICH (1832-1905) —A
German teacher , became prominent through
his reform of the methods of nature study in the
German schools Horn of an extremely pooi
family in a small village in Holstem, he pre-
pared for the teaching profession at Segebcrg,
a seminary of his native province From hih
earliest youth he was greatly interested in the
study of nature, and when, as a man of forty,
he received a position as a teacher in Kiel, he
improved his opportunities by attending lectures
in zoology and botany at the university, and
by working in the laboratories and museuirs
As the fruit of these studies and of IILS long
experience in the schoolroom he published, in
1885, his Dorftcich als Lebensgemeniscfuift
(The Village Pond, a Biological Conimitnity),
which was read with great interest by teachers
all over Germany In this work he condemned
the current methods of nature study, which
aimed at mere systematization, arid introduced
the observation of communities of organic he-
ings, both plants and animals, living under the
same conditions and dependent on each other
and on their environment The child's inter-
est was to be aroused by studying the life of an
organic community which was near to him, such
as the village pond, the meadow, the forest, the
swamp, etc , proceeding thence to more remote
organic communities, and finally to the aim of
all nature study, a clear and sympathetic insight
into the unity of all life in nature P. M

References —
REIN, W Encyklop&di8che8 Handbach der Ptldagogik

sv Junge, Fneanch.

WIENSTEIN, F Preussische Pbdagogen der Neuzeit,
pp. 161-176 (Arnsberg, 1900 )

572

JUNGIUS

JUNIOR NORMAL SCHOOLS

JUNGIUS, JOACHIM (1587-1657) —Ger-
man scientist and schoolman, was born in
Lubeck, and studied at the universities of Ros-
tock and Giessen In 1609 he was appointed
as professor of mathematics in Giessen Three
years later he was ordered by his sovereign, the
Landgrave Ludwig V of Hesse-Darmstadt, to
investigate the new method of teaching pro-
mulgated by Ratke (q v ) He published a
very favorable report about the work, in which,
among other things, he advocated instruction
in the mother tongue When Ratke was called
to Augsburg in 1614, to put his method into
practical operation, Jungius followed him theie
The result of the experiment, however, proved
disappointing, and Jungius returned to his
native city of Lubeck in 1615 The following
year he again entered the University oi Rostock,
this time as a student of medicine He le-
mamed for three years, and then went to Padua,
where he obtained the degree of Doctor of Medi-
cine Returning to Rostock, he founded there,
in 1622, a scientific society (natwfor^chende
Gesellschaft) , the first in Germany arid in the
whole north of Europe, " for the purpose of
investigating truth through reason and expe-
rience, of freeing from sophistry all arts and
sciences which are based on reason and experi-
ence, arid of promoting them by happy inven-
tions " He thus became one of the first repre-
sentatives of Baconian ideas in Germany In
1628 he was called to Hamburg as director of the
Johanrieurn, there he remained until his death
Among his friends were Comemus arid Haithb
(qq v ). Jungius was a pioneer in Germany in
insisting on a truly scientific method of study-
ing nature by means of experiments and induc-
tion He applied his principles chiefly to phys-
ics and to botany In botany he anticipated
some of the ideas of Lmnseus on the classifica-
tion of plants F. M

References —

AVE-LALLKMANT Das Leben des Dr Med Joachim

JUHQIU* (Breslau, 1882)
GUHRAUER Joachim Jungius und nein Zntaltrr

(Stuttgart, 1851 )
WOHLWILL Joachim Jungius (Hamburg, 188S )

JUNIATA COLLEGE, HUNTINGDON,

PA —An institution founded in 1S76 as the
Brethren's Normal School and Collegiate
Institute, the present name being adopted in
1806 An academy, college, school of educa-
tion, Bible and music schools, are main-
tained The entrance requirements to the col-
lege are equivalent to fourteen points of high
school work The college course of four year*
leads to the degree of A B. The faculty consists
of twenty-three members.

JUNIOR COLLEGE. — A term used by
the University of Chicago, the University of
California, and a few other institutions of
higher learning to designate that part of the
four-years' college course embraced in the

freshman and sophomore vears, the college
course being thus divided into a junior college
of two years, and a senior college of two years.
The outline of instruction, or the requirements
as to work and clectives, vary in the two divi-
sions, being more largely prescribed in the lowei
division than in the higher One object of
the division is to make a separation between
what is pure college work and what is the
beginning of universitv work, another is to
form a basis for the radiation of professional
instruction, beginning with the juruoi vear ,
another is to encourage small colleges of limited
endowment to limit their work to that of the
junior college, and then make the transfer of
their students casv bv admitting them to the
senior college, and another is to encourage the
larger and better equipped high schools to gradu-
ally add a thirteenth and a fourteenth vear to
the high school course of instruction, and thus
stimulate the building up of junior colleges
in the larger cities The term lias thus, bv
transfer, also come to mean a two years' course
of instruction beyond the four-vear high school,
and a number of city school systems to-dav
speak of having the first year, or both voais,
of a junior college The legislature of Cali-
fornia in 1906 authorized cities to establish
such course of instruction, covering two vears
beyond the ordinary hipji school course, and
a number of citv high schools have now added
one year, and a few are planning to add two
years A number of colleges in the Mississippi
valley have entered into junior college re-
lations with the Umveisity of Chicago With
the rapid increase in students in the larger
colleges and universities, with the rapid growth
of city school systems in equipment and in
the ability to provide advanced instruction,
and with the shrinking of the endowments
and income of the smaller colleges, relatively
if not actually, the junior college idea is likely
to make much more rapid progress in the
next decade than it has in the past E P C.

JUNIOR NORMAL SCHOOLS — These
are in a sense a revival in a new form of the old
six-weeks summer normal institute, common
thirty to forty years ago These new schools
are conducted under better auspices arid em-
brace a more definite outline of instruction.
Nebraska offers a good illustration of the new
movement This state first founded such
schools nearly ten years ago and has so far
provided for the establishment of eight such
schools. The term of instruction is six weeks
in length, and the session is held at some time
during the three summer months The in-
structors for each such school are selected and
the course of instruction is outlined by the
Board of Education for the normal schools of
the state County superintendents of schools
in adjacent counties may declare any week of
the term of the junior normal to be the insti-
tute week for their county, and appropriate

573

JUNIOR REPUBLIC;

JUSTIN MARTYR

their institute fund to assist in jts maintenance.
The different schools are supported from state
and county institute funds A few other states,
such as Idaho and Louisiana, have analog ms
summer institutes The six- weeks sumrnei ses-
sions of the regular state normal schools is a
step farther in advance, as in such cases the
normal schools have the buildings, equipment
and teachers of the regular school foi the
work of instruction E. P. C.

Reference : —

HiHtory of Junior Normals , in Kept ftupt Publ Int,h
Nrhraska, 1900, pp OH 78

JUNIOR REPUBLIC —See GEORGE JUN-
IOR REPUBLIC

JUNIUS, ADRIAN (c. 1512-1575) —A
learned Dutch scholar, of great repute for his
knowledge in physic, classical writers, history,
philosophy, and in modern languages Had
he lived, it was proposed to give him a pro-
fessorship in the new university at Leyden
He was born at Hoorn in Holland He pur-
sued his studies at Haarlem, Louvain, Pans,
and Bologna, and in the last-named umveisity
took the degree of M D He traveled in
Germany, and lived in England 1543-154S
He settled finally as a physician at Haarlem,
where he was head of the College He was a
man of great erudition, and had a prodigious
memory The following are his chief educa-
tional works —

( 1 ) Edited hooks of Ausonius, Cassms (animal
medicine), Eunapius, Hesychius (Lericon],
Juvenal, Lucan, Martial, Nonius, Marcellus,
Plautus, Plutarch, Seneca, Virgil (2) Edited
an Epithetorum . Epitome of J Havisius,
usually called Text or (3) Adagiorum (1en-
tunce VIII cum dimidia Banliw, Froben,
1558 [an addition to Erasmus7 Collec-
tions of Adagia]. (4) Emblemata, 1565. (See
EMBLEMS, and Mr. Henry Green in his
reprint of Whitney's Choice of Emblems, p
250) (5) A Greek- Latin Lexicon, with
dedication to Edward VI, 1548 (6) No-
mendator, 1557, in Latin, Greek, German,
Dutch, French, Italian, Spanish This work
was translated into English by J Higins,
London, 1585 The Nomenclator is a dic-
tionary of all necessary words arranged riot
alphabetically, but grouped under subjects
Adrian's Nomenclator is, therefore, a fore-
runner of J A Cornemus' Janua Lmguarinn,
but without the descriptive sentences There
are many in common, e g living creatures,
animals, fishes, all kinds of food, trees, vege-
tables, apparel, buildings, parts of ships,
tools, terms in war, games, money, the ele-
ments, God and spirits, handicrafts, trades,

in his Epistolary D^coui^c before his edition
of the New Testament refers to this work
of Junms, and Bnnsley (q v ) in 1612 recom-
mends the repetition of a few words daily out
of the Nomenclator F. W.

JUNKIN, GEORGE (1790-1868). — First
president of Lafayette College, graduated at
Jefferson College in 1813 He engaged in the
ministry, became interested in agricultural edu-
cation, conducted the Manual Labor Academy
at Germantown (1830-1832), was president of
Lafayette College (1832-1841 and 1844-1848),
president of Miami College (1841-1844), pro-
fessor in Washington College (1848-1860) and
Lafayette College (1865-1868) Author of
several works on religious education

W. S. M

JUSTIN MARTYR (110-165 AD) —The
earliest Christian apologist and the first
Christian after the original Apostles whose
writings are known with sufficient fullness to
enable us to form a clear picture of him and his
system. He was born in Shechem of heathen
parentage and received a thoroughly Greek
education with added advantages of foreign
travel He became familiar with a wide range
of Hellenic culture and has left, in the opening
pages of his Dialogue with Trypho, an inter-
esting description of his studies and philo-
sophical experiences He was successively a
Stoic, a Peripatetic, a Pythagorean, and a
Platonist After his conversion to Christi-
anity, he saw no reason to forego the pursuit
of philosophy nor abandon the distinctive dress
of a philosopher He simply embraced the
Christian religion as the true philosophy He
did not break with philosophy, nor regard it
as the enemy of Christianity, but rather as the
handmaid of the truth At Ephesus and at
Rome, where he resided for some years, he
held himself ready for discussion with every
comer and devoted himself to the defense anil
dissemination of the Christian faith, drawing
to himself many pupils arid disciples who
afterwards became famous champions of the
cross He was at once a philosopher and a
saint He used the dialectic method in the
spirit of Socrates, but his mental attitude was
distinctly Platonic His apologetic method
appeals strongly to men of the present day
While the Antonmes were reigning as " philoso-
phers/' he was building up a great new system
of Christian philosophy which could fearlessly
appropriate everything that had ever been
rightly said and done as its own and throw
the light of revelation over the doubts and
contradictions of the past His writings are
of the utmost value, not only as apologetical

, / * ' ' -~~~j «- v~*<w I* u**j vst.' V YUflUV^, JJ.VSV \JL11J UlO t* I t \JL\Jfa\j \Jl\J Ol I

affinities, etc. The Nomenclator is thus clearly and theological treatises, but also as pictures

a source of the Janua Linguarum of Comcmus, of Christian life and thought before the Canon

though the form was suggested by the Jesuits' of the New Testament was completed, the mam

(Salamanca) Janua Linguarum It may also outlines of which are luminously drawn by

be mentioned that Eilhardus Lubinus (q.v.) him. His Dialogue with Trypho, the Jew.

574

JUSTINIAN

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

modeled after the dialogues of Plato, contains
all the vital points of Christian theology, and
is a defense of Christianity as the successor
of Judaism and of the Christian interpretation
of the Old Testament His Apology, addressed
to the Emperor in defense of his fellow-Chris-
tians, is the noblest representative of early
Christian literature. He wrote an essay on
psychology in which he differed radically from
Plato arid the Greek philosophers on the na-
ture of the soul. W. H

References • —

\nto-Nirene Fathers, Vol I, Works of Justin Martyr

(New York, 1890 )
PUUVES, G T Testimony of Justin Martyr to early

Christianity (London, 1888)
SMITH, WM , and WAGE, H Dictionary of Christian

Biography

JUSTINIAN - See ROMAN EDUCATION

JUVENCUS, CAIUS VELTIUS AQUILI-

NUS — A Spanish priost of noble family, who
i'omposed a poem in four books consisting of
about 800 hexameters in each book Tho name
of this Latin poem was Ihxtona Evangchca, writ-
ten about the year 330 A D Juvencus is the
first of the conspicuous Christian Latin poets
" The [classical] lyric no longer existed, the
mythological epic had been sung out, arid an
npic treatment of the New Testament was a
new and daring undei taking to be approached
only in a spirit of reverence especially as re-
gards the subject matter " (J T Hatheld's
Study of Juvencus) The story of the gospels
is given in hexameters, closely following the
old Latin version of the Bible, though at points
in the New Testament Juvencus evidently
has consulted the original Greek The close-
ness of his following of the Scripture text
has taken away from any possibility of origi-
nality of treatment of the subject matter He
especially follows St Matthew, and ends his
story where St. Matthew ends his Juvencus
is of importance as an early experiment in imita-
tion of a classical model. He takes Vergil as
a model, and as Dr. Hatfield's minute study
of Juvencus shows, " the direct citations in-
clude every book of the Georgics and jEneul,
and not a few passages in the Eclogue*
He never quotes entire more than half a verse
and this but rarely/' The combination of
Christian subject matter directly from the
gospels and the close imitation of Vergihan
style made Juvencus a popular educational
work in the Middle Ages, a popularity which
continued into the sixteenth century Colet
in drawing up the Statutes for St. Paul's School,
1518, requires that the boys be taught specially
m " Chriatyn authors that wrote theyre wys-
dome with clene and chaste laten other in
verse or in prose," and specifically names
Juvencus (with other authors) to serve as
school authors to be read.

The preface or prologue to the Histona

Evangehca should be mentioned as rising to
a higher level of poetic inspiration In it
Juvencus speaks of the transitonness of all
earthly material things Nevertheless, men
are celebrated through long ages for their deeds
and lives, and poets who celebrate these deeds
themselves reap fame. The glory of Homer and
of Vergil is eternal Juvencus' song is the
life and work of Christ Even the fires which
will destroy this world will not touch that,
and perchance, even Juvencus' book \\ith
such a subject will save him from the fire,
and he ends with a prayer for divine assistance
to speak worthily on his great theme This
desire of fame is a forecast of the early Renais-
sance spirit. F W.

References : —
EBERT, ADOLF Allgemeine Oe^chichtc dtr Litteratur

ties Mittelalters ifn Abcndlandc bis zum Btginni

des XI Jahrhundtrts, 2d ed , Vol 1 pp 114-121

(Leipzig, 1889 )
HATFJELD, J T A Study of Juvencus A painstaking

work 011 the linguistic1 side (Bonn, 1H90 )
MAROLD.C C Vettu Ju venci Libri Evangeliorum III/

(Leipzig, 1886 )

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY, JUVENILE
COURTS, AND JUVENILE PROBATION —

" Juvenile Delinquency " is a term generally
used to refer to the conduct of children of all
ages when it runs counter to the public stand-
ards of propriety The term has also a legal
and technical meaning, as denned in the penal
law of New York State since Sept 1, 1909,
which says that a child between the ages of
seven and sixteen who commits any act 01
omission which in the case of an adult would be
a crime not punishable by death 01 life imprison-
ment shall be deemed guilty of juvenile delin-
quency and punished in the same manner as
an adult would be for the same offense except
when the law provides specifically other pun-
ishment for children under sixteen (L 1909,
ch 478, New York) The object sought by
the New York law, which is similar to that
in other states, is to relieve children who
commit minor offenses from the stigma and
disabilities of a public record of crime so
as to give them the maximum chance and
encouragement to make their future conduct
normal The criminal law now very generally
holds children under seven incapable of com-
mitting crime in the legal sense, and a child
between seven and fourteen years of age is
entitled to the presumption of innocence of a
guilty knowledge that he was doing wrong,
though at this age wens rea, or intent to do a
criminal act, may be shown by evidence and the
child held to full responsibility

It is less than a century since the attitude of
the laws of England and the United States,
and the practice of the courts in condemning
and sentencing very young children to bar-
barous penalties for trivial offenses revealed
little knowledge of the mental life of children
and less regard for their possible reformation.

575

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

JUVENILE DELINQUKN(1Y

Through association with hardened erinn rials
and every form of vice during the period of
police custody, court proceedings, arid subse-
quently in jails and prisons when under sen-
tence, the record reads like a deliberate attempt
on the part of the State to manufacture crimi-
nals Happily a very different effort is now
made in all civilized countries, based on a better
understanding of the psychology of child life
and a better appreciation of the environmental
factors in fixing responsibility for crime, which
lias for its aim reformation and prevention
rather than punishment. Now every possible
device is sought to keep the child away from the
contaminating influences of police methods,
criminal court procedure, jails, and prisons, and
to deal with juvenile delinquency through the
educational machinery of a children's court,
with its special juvenile probation officers, and
with the cooperation of parents, school authori-
ties, and all public and private agencies dealing
with children. Only a beginning has been
made and the change in purpose necessitates so
many new adjustments which only time can
bring about that doubtless much of our present
achievement in dealing with juvenile delin-
quents will seem to future generations to fall
as far short of justice to the child as the record
of the past looks dark and dreary to us

Character and Extent of Juvenile Delin-
quency — Very trivial offenses may constitute
delinquency, and the present tendency in
juvenile legislation is to enlarge the scope of the
law in order to bring conduct that may easily
lead to more serious crime under preventive
and probational control Thus the Colorado
law includes under delinquents persons under
sixteen years of age charged with visiting
saloons, jumping on moving trains, wandeimg
aimlessly about the streets at night or about,
railroad yards, using vile or obscene language,
associating with immoral persons, as well as
those who violate state laws and city or village
ordinances Truancy is usually dealt with in
the first instance by the truant officer or by the
school authorities, arid therefore does not appear
often in court cases Foi the entire country it,
would doubtless appear numerically neai the
top of the list of offenses charged against juve-
nile delinquents

Owing to the varied and changing definitions
of the law, no general or comparative statistics
of juvenile crime throw any satisfactory light
on the most frequent forms of juvenile* delin-
quency

The following table gives a summary of the
business of several of the more important and
best organized juvenile courts, covering the
year 1908, as taken from a report of Miss M. Z
Doty to a subcommittee of the New York Child
Welfare Exhibit. The figures are approximate
and not comparable because of the different
bases of organization and procedure in the differ-
ent courts, but they serve to show the aggregate
numbo- of children coming before these courts,

and something as to the probable serious or
trivial character of the conduct that brought
them into court.

SENT TO

JUVENILE COURTS

TOTAL

SENT
TO RE-

FORMA-

PUT ON
PRO-
BATION

HOMES

POR

NEG-
LECTED

RE-

LEABKD l

CHIL-

DREN

New York City

1 1409

1722

1649'

554

7501

(Manhattan,

Bronx, Brook-

lyn) ....

4475

776

648

216

3061

Chicago . .

3751

772

1679

1025

255

Columbus, O

1200

154

331

276

273

Indianapolis

1760

100

289

26

310

Milwaukee, Wis

926

86

544

97

199

1 Paroled Them wan no probation system m Manhattan in
this year

2 Includes those acquitted, suspended sentences, and dismissed
eases

D> LINQFFNTB

DL-

JUVENILE Counrs

PENI>-
KNT8

TOTAL

TOTAL

MlNOU
AC'TH

NAL

Oi--

ACTS

FJN8LH

New York

2400

9000

6000

2000

1000

Brooklyn

539

119S

11 9S

ChiraKo

1650

2100

500

1000

600

Columbus, ()

400

785 | 235

200

350

Indianapolis .

80

270

306

100

Milwaukee

170

770

160

460

150

r>7f>

Dr (} Stanley Hall gives a remarkable sum-
mary of the record evidences of juvenile faults,
immoralities, and crimes in Adolescence (Vol I,
ch 5, pp 325-410), which gives data for many
countries and presents many considerations of
value concerning the nature and charactei
of juvenile delinquency In New York City
two thirds of the cases brought into the
Children's Court were technically charged
with violation of section 720 of the penal law,
which in effect makes playing baseball in the
city streets or any form of annoyance in public
places and on public conveyances a misde-
meanor The majority of cases in the children's
courts of other cities which children are sum-
moned for, or charged with, like minor offenses,
more often reveal changes in the natural envi-
ronment of the child and the absence of proper
provision for the natural, and, under slightly
changed conditions, harmless acts of normal
child life rather than a depraved or inherently
criminal disposition.

A recent study of delinquent children
brought to court in Chicago during the first
ten years from June 1, 1899, when the first
juvenile court in the United States was estab-
lished in Chicago, to June 30, 1909, covered a
total of 14,183 children, about equally dis-
tributed over the ten years. Of these, 11,413
were boys and 2770 were girls. Up to 1905 the

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

court had jurisdiction only of children under
sixteen years of age, but a change in the law
that year gave the court jurisdiction up to seven-
teen for boys and eighteen for girls Among
the boys 22 per cent were fifteen years of age,
18.6 per cent were fourteen years, 14 6 per
cent thirteen years, and 13 per cent twelve years
of age. The largest number of girls range from
fourteen to seventeen inclusive, with the maxi-
mum per cent 26 3 at fifteen years

An analysis of the offenses which were the
cause of these children being brought to court
is interesting, and shows that more than half
of the delinquent boys were charged with vio-
lation of rights of property (" stealing from the
railroad " heads the list; stealing money
comes second, junk, third, shop-lifting, fourth,
breaking into empty buildings, fifth, stealing
from parents, stealing and driving away with
horse, motor, or bicycle, stealing gum, fiuit,
candy, or tobacco, stealing pigeons, ducks,
stealing newspapers and miscellaneous thefts
follow in due order) A careful study of
these cases led the investigator, Dr Breckin-
ridge, to comment " Without minimizing
the dangers into which a bov mav be led, it
seems clear that a considerable number of
these acts are not vicious, but are pcrfonned
in a spirit of harmless adventure and without
realization of their possiblv serious conse-
quences "

Next after stealing, to which is credited 50 8
per cent of the offenses, comes mcorngibility
(217 per cent), disorderly conduct (162 per
cent), malicious mischief (6 5 per cent-), va-
grancv (2.3 per cent),immorahtv (1 6 per cent),
dependent charges, — drunkenness of parents,
lack of care, etc (8 per cent), truancv (7
per cent), miscellaneous offenses (1 4 per cent)
This makes the total 102 per cent Two pei
cent represents cases counted twice, that is,
brought into court under two different charges
The total number of cases brought into court
was 11,641.

Of the girls (2770) the offenses are classified
as follows stealing (15 per cent), incorngi-
bihty (42 8 per cent), immorality (31 4 per
cent), disorderly conduct (67 per cent), ma-
licious mischief ( 2 per cent), vagranev ( 1 per
cent), dependent charges (3 3 per rent), mis-
cellaneous ( 1 per cent), not reported ( 4 per
cent) The charge of immorality ih sornewhal
different from that in the ease of bovs, and
usually signifies that the girl has been going in
bad company, or in the street day and night,
or has a bad reputation, or is staying away
from home in company with vicious people, is
strongly suspected of being immoral, or is
charged with using vulgar and obscene lan-
guage Every effort is made to protect girls
from the charge of immorality, and where the
evidence is not clear the offense charged is
usually incorrigibility.

In the treatment of the cases just cited
59 3 per cent of the bovs and 37 5 per cent

VOL in 2 p 577

of the girls were put on probation Twenty -
one and three tenths per cent of the boys and
51 5 per cent of the girls were committed to
institutions, and 16 9 per cent of the boys and
10 per cent of the girls were cases eon tinned
indefinitely or dismissed, while the remaining
cases (2 5 per cent boys and 1 4 per cent girls)
were disposed of otherwise.

Another interesting fact in connection with
the analysis of these Chicago cases shows that
67 9 per cent of the boys and 79 7 per cent of
the girls appeared in court only onee in this
ten-year period, while 86 2 per cent of the boys
and 96.7 per cent of the girls were in court
twice or less

Causes of Juvenile Delinquency — Much
may be inferred as to causes of juvenile delin-
quency from what has be^n said as to its char-
acter and extent Specific and convincing
statistical evidence is not available, but recent
studies of cases that come befoie juvenile
courts in the large cities indicate that environ-
mental conditions play the largest role Con-
gestion in living quarters, the absence of play-
grounds or any outlet for normal physical ac-
tivities of youth, inadequate or ill-adapted
schools, and commercialized amusements which
exploit the normal desire foi recreation, taken
collectively constitute a group of environmental
conditions which in the large city play havoc
with the growth and development of childhood

Parental neglect and irresponsibility plays,
perhaps, the second most important role
This in turn is attributed in part to the long
woiking day of the father, to widowhood,
and to conditions of poverty that require the
mother to be away from home at work either
for long hours or at hours when the children
are free from the control or supervision of the
school The ju\emle court ah a public agency
to deal with delinquent and neglected children
has been extended to cover neglect, and in many
states, as originally in Colorado, the parent or
parents or legal guardian who is responsible
for, or by any act encourages, causes, or con-
tributes to the delinquency of the child is guilty
of a misdemeanor This enables the court to
bring the parent into court on a charge directly
connected with the delinquency of the child, and
by suspending sentence the paient can practi-
cally be made the agent of the court to carry
out the sentence of the court undei the super-
intendence and direction of the court

Poverty and dependence would seem to be
responsible for a great deal of delinquency if
we regard the records of the court as its sole
measure Many persons believe that children
ought not to be brought into court at all on a
charge of destitution or poverty, and it is certain
that the courts are always embarrassed to know
how to deal with such cases, which would seem
more properly to belong either to private chari-
ties or to officials of the poor law than to
juvenile courts Definite commitments to in-
stitutions in the case of orphan children or of

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

children who must be taken from their parents
because of improper guardianship would still
have to be settled in a court of justice and
should of course be put within the jurisdic-
tion of a juvenile court

Treatment of Juvenile Delinquency — The
Juvenile Court, — The movement for separate
courts for children began in Massachusetts in
1869, and although measures were taken to
secure them, no progress was made The idea
was, however, adopted in Adelaide, South
Australia, in 1898, and soon after this example
was copied in Toronto. As now known, the
first juvenile court in the United States was or-
ganized in Chicago in 1899, and is now an
institution very generally found in the largei
cities of the country, as an adjunct of then
judicial system It has spread as an institu-
tion vciy rapidly even beyond the borders of
the1 United States, and is now recognized in
England and throughout Europe as a distinc-
tive American contribution to social adminis-
trative progress In many places, as in New
York City, it is grafted upon the regular ju-
dicial system. In Manhattan, the New York
Children's Court, as it is called, is known as the
children's part of the second division of the
Co'irt of Special Sessions. Two of t he judges of
the Court of Special Sessions sit in turn, three
months at a time, in the Children's Court, and
it lias its regular quota of court officials and
police officers Until recently it had no proba-
tion ofhcers, but agents of the Society for the
Prevention of Ciuelty to Children acted as
official investigators and parole officers of the
court, now there are eighteen probation officers
The proccduie of the court LS that of
the criminal court, with slight modification
depending upon the attitude and personality
of the judge on the bench. This is not a good
sample of what the Children's Court ought to
be, as conceived by those who regard it as a
new device for handling children in a new way
without necessarily implying any new legal
principles or any radical changes in our juris-
prudence

The model juvenile court seeks to express a
new attitude of society toward juvenile delin-
quency which will make the welfare of the child
and the good of the State sufficient grounds on
which to base the right of the court to control
the custody of the child and to pei mit the couit,
if necessary, to take the child from its natural
parents 01 guardians, provided its welfare is
the determining factor The juvenile court
thus becomes, not an instrument for prosecut-
ing a criminal, for the juvenile delinquent hence-
forth is not to be regarded as a criminal, but
the agent of the State for the purpose of pro-
tecting and conserving a great and fundamental
interest of the State, which is the well-being of
each individual child whose well-being for any
cause is not pioperly safeguarded by its natural
protectors or guardians.

The juvenile court, organized as part of the

administrative machinery of the government,
can also serve to bnng into effective coopera-
tion for the better protection of the child and
the improvement of its surroundings through
probation and other proper methods and court
procedure every child-helping resource of the
community, — parents, teachers, social work-
ers, playgrounds, neighborhood centers, settle-
ments, churches, and institutions of all kinds
It can secure for the child a physical examina-
tion and proper treatment for physical defects
It <5an do all of these things under the continu-
ous and wise supervision of the court authorized
at any time to intervene on behalf of the welfare
of the child arid exercise the full compelling
authority of the State. The courts of last
resort have construed the laws creating juve-
nile courts so as to uphold this broad exercisr
of power on the ground that this is a power
which has been used from earliest times by the
English chancellors, who in some of the oldest
cases held that the right to take a child from the
custody of its parents existed where the father
ill-treated or was cruel to infant children, was
drunken or debauched, or whose domestic rela-
tions tended to corrupt and contaminate his
children

To separate the child offender from the adult
criminal, to make the court an agency for rescue
as well as punishment, and to bring home to the
parent a leahzmg sense of the great responsi-
bility for the wrong-doing of his child, and to
avoid the necessity for commitment of chil-
dren to jail, — are among the prime objects
of the juvenile court

England through the Children's Act of 1909
(see CHILDHOOD, LEGISLATION FOR THE CON-
SERVATION AND PROTECTION OF) has made pro-
vision for juvenile courts by authorizing the
appointment of special children's magistrates,
and while, as yet, little progress has been made
in providing different rooms or buildings from
those in which other sittings of the coiirt are
held and thus giving to the juvenile court a
distinctive character of its own, the legal ma-
chinery exists, and only a more liberal construc-
tion of the act by the home office is necessary
to accomplish this result.

A great deal depends on the physical ma-
chinery of the juvenile court for its best success
A separate building constructed on different
architectural lines from the traditional court-
house and separated from the machinery asso-
ciated with police ai rests and prosecuting meth-
ods is desired Even in densely populated
areas the impossibility of providing separate
courts in sufficient numbers to be readily acces-
sible for all the children suggests the further
necessity of creating some local agencies other
than police courts for hearing and sifting minor
complaints, sending only the more serious ones
to the children's courts.

The existing practice in many communities
of assigning the regular judges and using the
regular couithouse foi part time in the work

578

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

of the children's court may be an intermediate
step to an improvement on existing methods
where there is no children's court, but it is not to
be commended as a solution of the difficulties
or as a way of achieving the aims of a proper
juvenile court. The detention house, or a
place where children may be kept in custody
pending trial or investigation of their cases, or
for brief periods of necessary confinement, is
an important adjunct of the children's court,
and should differ as much from the ordinary jail
as the children's court is different from the
regular court. The essence of juvenile court
procedure, however, consists in a proper system
of probation.

Juvenile Probation — The New York Pro-
bation Association defines probation as a
means of disciplining and seeking to impiove
offenders without committing them to correc-
tional institutions This is applied both to
children and adults in New York State, and now
in many jurisdictions. The " fine " system is
rapidly losing favor, especially in dealing with
children, where the parent invariably paid the
hue and was the one punished, or the child
went to jail in default of payment and was
put under influences likely to instil or develop
criminal tendencies Some method of treat-
ment that will icbtram children from continu-
ing in evil ways and at the same tune help them
to overcome bad influences and encourage them
to attend school regularly, keep away from
harmful places and unfit companions, and con-
duct themselves with some regaid for the rights
of others is so univcrsallv needed, and proba-
tion, properly safeguarded in a way to secure
appointment of efficient probation officers, so
admirably meets this need, that its adoption is
spreading rapidly Massachusetts enacted the
first probation law in 1878, which for two years
applied only to Boston, then to the entire state,
and both to juvenile and adult offenders Illi-
nois, Minnesota, and Rhode Island were the next
states to adopt probation laws in 1809, more
than twenty years aftei Massachusetts had
pointed the way New Jersey and Vermont
followed in 1900, which brought the list up to
six states, but by the end of another decade
(1910) thirty-eight states and the District of
Columbia applied probation to children, and
twenty of these states to adult offenders

The principles of probation are simple, but
their application difficult So much depends
on the personality of the probation officer
In many places such officers are appointed as
part of the spoils system in politics, and even
where, as in very few cases, civil service appoint-
ments are made, it is difficult to secure compe-
tent persons and to get adequate appropriations
fur the payment of enough probation officers
so that efficient work can be done without over-
burdening the probation officer with more cases
than he can handle with due regard to the deli-
cate nature of the woik and thoroughness in its
execution Several states, like Massachusetts

and New York, have provided for state supervi-
sion of probation work through a state proba-
tion commission, and in this way secure more
uniform and better results.

Volunteer and unpaid probation officers are
relied upon in some communities to perform
such work They can be used as aids to public
salaried officers, devoting their whole time to
their professional duties. The paid probation
officer serving as a public official under state
supervision is essential to secure the best results,
and the volunteer can best serve as an aid and
supplementary force The expense of the pro-
bation svstem is not large, ana when considered
in relation to the saving in the cost of mainte-
nance where persons are put in jails or public
institutions, it is a real economy. The "Big
Brother" movement was started in 1904 by the
Men's Club and Bible Class of the Central
Presbyterian Church of New York through the
efforts of Mr. Ernest K. Coulter, Clerk of
the Children's Court of Manhattan, to secure
a Protestant probation officer to look after
Protestant children in the court as Jewish and
( 'atholic children were being looked after by rep-
resentatives of their own religious bodies The
idea of the movement is that a man shall take
one boy, make a friend of him, and help him and
his family in any wa}r he can, that hs, be " a bip,
brother " to him The proper assignment oi
bovs from the court to the most suitable per-
sons among volunteer big brothers, the securing
of records and reports of what is done with the
boys and the instruction and guidance of big
brothers demands a central organization and
supervision which has led to the incorporation
of a board of directors The cooperation of the
Y M.C A. and the pait use of its plant for
big brother boys has been secured and plans
have been considered to organize the movement
on a national scale, but thus far it has been diffi-
cult to get sufficient financial support to test
fully its possibilities A woman's auxiliary
known as the " Big Sisters " has been started
to deal with girls

Recent Legislation — The statutes enacted
in 1910 on probation, juvenile courts, adult
contributory delinquency and dependency, and
juvenile detention homes are cited by chapter
and date in the report of the New York Probation
Commissioners for 1911, while similar statutes
for earlier years are given in previous reports
of that commission In 1910 adult contribu-
tory delinquency laws were enacted in Vir-
ginia, Rhode Island, New York, and Kentucky,
while the probation system was extended or
adopted for the first time in the District ol
Columbia, Kentucky, Louisiana, Massachusetts,
New York, Vermont, and Virginia, and statu-
tory provision for detention homes was enacted
in Maryland and New Jersey 8 M. L

See CITIZENSHIP, PJDUCATION FOR, CHILD-
HOOD, LEGISLATION FOR THE CONSERVATION
\ND PROTECTION OF; HUMANE EDUCATION,
PENOLOGY, EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS OF; RE-

579

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

KANSAS STATE COLLEGE

FORMATORY EDUCATION) SOCIAL JUSTICE AND
EDUCATION, CHILDREN, CRIMINALITY IN; EDU-
CATION AND CRIME ; ATTENDANCE, COMPULSORY ,
MORAL EDUCATION, RELIGIOUS EDUCATION

References —

BARRETT, R M Treatment of Juvenile Offenders
with Statistics of thoir Numbers Jour Royal
State Society, pp 183-261 (London, 1900 )

BAHROWS, S J Children's Court* m the United Stale*
Their Origin, Development and Results (Wash-
ington, 1904 )

BUKNS, A Relation of Playgrounds to Juvenile
Delinquency. Proc Second Annual Playground
Congress, pp 165-176 (New York, 1908 )

BHECKINRIDGE, S P , and ABBOTT, EDITH Th< Dt-
linquent Child and the Home A Study of the Can*
in tfu Chicago Juvenile Court during the Jtrat Ten
Yeattf of its History Russell Sage Foundation
Publications (New York, 1912)

Denver Juvenile Court Problem of the Child) en and
how the Statt of Colorado Cares for them (Den-
ver, 1904 )

GROSSMANN, M R E Career of the Child ( Ciimmality
in Children), pp 298-321 (Boston, 1911 )

HALL, G R Adolescence, Vol I, Chap 5 on Juve-
nile Faults, Immoralities, and Crimes, pp 325
410 (New York, 1908)

HART, H H , and otheis Preventive Tnatment of
Neglected Children Russell Sage Foundation, 4
vols on Correction and Prevention, Vol IV,
pp 419 (New York, 1910)

HART, H H (editor) Juvenile Court JMW* in the
United States Summarized RiiHsell Sage Founda-
tion (New York, 1910)

HURLLY, T D (compiler) Origin of the Illinois Juve-
nile Court Law (Chieago, 1907 )

LOENING, EDCJAR Die Knminahtat der Jugend und
die Zwangsorziehung in Deutsehland Hdwh dtr
MaatswuttK nschaften, Vol VIII, pp 11 38, 1142
(lena, 1911 )

MATK, J W Juvenile Court, Addrenses on, American
Bar Ass'n Proceedings, 1909, Minnesota Bar
A*m'n , Apr 2, 1907

The Law and the Child, Survey, Feb 5, 1910
The State and the Child, Proc N Y A(adtni}/ of
Political Science, July, 1911 (Judge Mack's
papers give elear presentation of philanthropic
and legal aspeets of juvenile courts and the
tic atment of juvenile offenders )

MANUOLD, G B Child Problems, Bk IV (Mew
York, 1910 )

MORRIHON.WD Juvftnle Offenders (New York, 1897 )

Prisoners and Juvenile Delinquents in Institutions,
1904 Special Census Report (Washington, 1907 )

Reform of the Criminal Law and Procedure, III
Treatment of Juvenile Delinquency, pp 676-705
Proceeding* of Academy of Political Science (NY),
Vol I, No 4, July, 1911

RtTssELL, C E B , and RIGBY, L M The Making of
the Criminal Valuable for foreign laws and meth-
ods of treatment of juvenile offenders (New
York, 1900 )

SNEDDKN, D S Admmistiation and Educational Work
of American Juvenile Reform Schools TeaeheiH
College Series Contributions to Education, No
12 (New York, 1907 )

Survey, The Ten Years of the Juvenile Court Vol
XXIII, No 19, Feb 5, 1910 See also special
issues under title of Charities and the Commons,
Vol. XIII, No 15, Jan 7, 1905 ; Vol XI, No 19,
Nov 7, 1903, on Campaign for Childhood, Issue
of Sept 20, 1902, pp 261-284, on Probation arid
its Problems

TRAVIS, T The Young Malefactor A Study in
Juvenile Delinquency, its Causes and Treatment
(New York, 1908 )

WE ILL, OH AS P Juvenile Delinquency and it» Relation
to Employment Report on condition of Women
and Child Wage-eai ners in the United States
Prepared undei Duection of United States Conir
of Labor (Washington, 1911 )

KALAMAZOO COLLEGE, KALAMAZOO,
MICH — A coeducational institution, char-
tered as the Michigan and Huron Insti-
tute, in 1833, and later changed to the
Kalamazoo Literary Institute. For a few
years following 1837 the school was affiliated
with the University of Michigan In Feb-
ruary, 1855, the institution was chartered as a
college. Women were, from the first, admitted
on equal terms with men. A theological sem-
inary originally planned was early abandoned
The Hoard of Trustees is a self-perpetuating
body of thirty-six, elected in three classes, one
class being chosen each year to serve three years
There arc no fraternities. Presidents of Kala-
mazoo College have been the Rev JAB Stone,
1855-1863 , John M Gregory, 1864-1867 , the Rev
Kendall Brooks, 1868-1887, the Rev Monson H
Wilcox, 1887-1891, Theodore Nelson, 1891-1892,
and Arthur Gaylord Slocum, 1892 The institu-
tion maintains undergraduate courses leading
to the bachelor's degrees m arts, and science ,
the entrance requirements are fifteen units
The degree of A M is given for one year's
graduate study m residence. Grounds, build-
ings, and equipment are valued at $142,000
The productive endowment is $460,000, yielding
an annual income of $22,000 There are (1912)
thirteen members of the instructing staff The
enrollment, in 1911-1912 was 186 C. G.

KANSAS CITY UNIVERSITY, KANSAS
CITY, KAN — A coeducational institution
established in 1896 under the auspices of the
Methodist Protestant Church It includes Mather
college, college of theology, college of music,
Kansas City Normal School, Wilson High School,
school of elocution and oratory and Kansas
City Hahnemann Medical College Students
are* admitted on meeting the entrance require-
ments of fifteen units The degrees of A B ,
B S , Ph D , and B L arc conferred The
degree of B D is conferred in the theological
department, for which the entrance require-
ment is the A B degree The faculty con-
sists of fifty-six members, of whom forty have
the rank of full professor. In 1910-1911 the
enrollment of students was 445, of whom
thirty were in the college, sixty-eight in medi-
cine, and thirteen in theology The faculty
consists of fifty-six members

KANSAS STATE AGRICULTURAL COL-
LEGE, MANHATTAN, KAN —An institu-
tion organized in 1863 as a result of the Morrill
Land-Grant Act of Congress of 1862, and by the
donation to the state of the grounds, buildings,
and equipment of Bluemont Central College,
founded in 1858. The college offers facilities
for a liberal or a technical education The
faculties include 186 professors, instructors,
arid assistants, organized into four divisions
or schools, viz. Division of General Science,
Division of Agriculture, Division of Mechanic
Arts, and Division of Home Economics Four-
580

KANSAS, STATE OF

KANSAS, STATE OF

teen four-year courses, each leading to a degree,
are offered in the several divisions Graduate
courses lead to the master's degree. Prepara-
tory courses are offered, and also short courses
of twelve to four weeks each, in agriculture,
dairying, and domestic science A department
of college extension employs a staff of fifteen
specialists, who devote their whole time to ex-
tension work consisting of lectures, farmers'
institutes, social center work, rural education,
correspondence courses, and highway, bridge,
and drainage engineering An agricultural
experiment station with a central station at
the college and four branches had an annual
budget for 1911 of $102,500 An engineering
experiment station conducts investigations of
engineering problems The campus consists
of 160 acres, and the experimental farms of
5130 acres The college has twenty buildings
devoted to instruction and laboratory pur-
poses The library contains 60,000 volumes
The total budget for 1911 amounts to $563,000
The enrollment of resident students for 1910-
1911 was 2407

KANSAS, STATE OF. — First organized
by Congress as a separate territory in 1S54,
and admitted to the Union as the thirty-fourth
state in 1861 It is located in the north
central division, and has a land area of
81,700 square miles In size it is about the
same as that of Minnesota and one third laigei
than all the New England states For admin-
istrative purposes the state is divided into
counties, and these in turn into cities and
school districts In 1910 Kansas had a popu-
lation of 1,690,949 and a density of population
of 20 7 per square mile

Educational History — The Jesuits were the
first teachers m the territory, opening schools
at a number of places for the instruction and
conversion of the Indians A white school
was opened at what is now Kansas City, in
1844, but the school which is usually rcganled
as marking the beginning of free schools in
Kansas was opened at Lawrence in 1855

Four constitutions were prepared by differ-
ent parties and conventions, viz in 1855, 1857,
1858, and 1859 The constitution of 1859
was finally accepted by Congress on the admis-
sion of the state In each of the four constitu-
tions, provision was made for a state system
of education, and somewhat similar provisions
with reference to education were contained in
each of the four In 1855 school trustees were
required to report to the Secretary of State

In 1857 a territorial superintendent of
schools was appointed to look after the school
lands, though little was done toward the open-
ing of schools before 1859 In 1858 county
superintendents were provided for, but the
office was abolished the next year In 1860
township trustees were directed to divide their
townships into districts and the district system
was definitely established. For each district

three teachers and an mspectoi were to In
elected for one-year terms During 186L
reports show that the schools in existence were
mostly subscription schools or private enter-
prises, no state aid was granted that year arid
only twelve counties made any returns as to
schools A law providing for a state one mill
tax was enacted in 1861 In 1862 reports
from twenty-eight counties weie leceived
Between 1855 arid 1860 as many as eighteen
universities and ten colleges were chartered
by the legislature, only three of which sui-
vived, two of the three becoming state insti-
tutions

In the constitution of 1859 definite proMsion
was made for a State Superintendent of Public
Instruction and for county .superintendents,
for the preservation of the school lands and for
a board of school fund commissioners, and
for the establishment of a state university
and the preservation of its funds The educa-
tional provisions of the 1859 constitution have
remained unchanged to the present tune
After the settlement of the shuery difficulties,
the eastern portion of the state began to fill up,
and the increase in population was still moie
lapid after the close of the Civil Wai The
number of onginal school districts in LS6r>
was 222, in 1866 it was 9X6, and in 1870 it \\as
2068 In 1863 the first teachers' institute uas
held, and the State Teachers' Association was
organized In 1863 Lawrence University, chai-
tercd in 1859, became the State University of
Kansas (qv ), Bluemont College, chartered in
1858, became the Kansas State Agncultuial
College ((] v ) , and the bill establishing a state
normal school was signed In 1864 the issu-
ance of bonds for school buildings was first
authorized, and the State Superintendent was
directed to hold a teachers' institute in each
senatorial district in the state In 1868 the
holding of teachers' institutes was changed
from one in each senatorial to one in each
judicial district In 1869 the examination ol
teachers was taken from the county superin-
tendents and given to a county board oi
examiners of three, of which the county supei-
mtendent was the chairman In 1870 a
district tax for library purposes was authorized
In 1870 a second normal school was estab-
lished at Leavenworth, in 1872 one was estab-
lished for colored students in connection with
Qumdaro University, and in 1874 a third
school was established at Concordia In 1S76
the appropriations for all schools were cut off.
and all but the one at Empona were definitely
abandoned The land endowment saved Em-
pona, and appropriations for it were resumed
a few years later In 1873 the State Board of
Education was created arid given power to
examine teachers for state certificates. In
1877 a four- weeks teachers' institute was made
obligatory in each county, and the control
of the institute was transferred, in part, to
the county superintendent. About 1870 the

581

KANSAS, STATE OF

KANSAS, STATE OF

movement for public high schools began, and
in 1885 the State University abandoned its
preparatory department, after which the devel-
opment of high schools was rapid In 1897 a
state textbook commission was provided for,
m 1899 high school books and school supplies
were also to be adopted, and in 1901 it was
made unlawful for any one to offer to sell to
trustees any book, map, chart, or piece of
apparatus not approved by the commission
and having a minimum price fixed by them

In 1903 an efficient compulsory education
law was enacted, and an extra tax for indus-
trial training authorized In 1905 the State
Hoard of Education was given power to pre-
scribe a course of study for the schools of the
state, a good child labor law was enacted,
and a tax for county high schools was piovided
in 1907 educational requirements for the office
of county superintendent were added

In 1909 normal training in high schools and
academies was provided foi, and $50,000 stato
aid voted for this purpose, the school land laws
were revised; the Barnes high school law
validated, and provision was made to license
business colleges to canvass for students in the
counties. The legislation of 1911 was the
most important enacted by any legislature
The minimum term was raised from five to
seven months, and state aid granted to woak
districts; the standards for certification wore
to be increased gradually, and the State Board
of Education given power to name and to in-
crease requirements, consolidation of districts,
and the provision of transportation were made
easier, city hoards of education woie reduced
in number, and made elective at large, town-
ship high schools were authorized, the high
school normal training law of 1909 was extended
and grants for agricultural instruction added;
free high school tuition for rural pupils was
provided, joint county institutes were per-
mitted; and the salaries of county superin-
tendents were materially mei eased

Present School System — At the head of
the school system of the state is a State Super-
intendent of Public Instruction, a State Board
of Education, a Board of School Fund Com-
missioners, and a School Textbook Commis-
sion. The State Superintendent is elected bv
the people for two-year terms He has general
supervision and management of the educa-
tional interests of the state, gives official
opinions to the county superintendents, pre-
pares all blanks and forms, and edits the school
laws biennially, visits each county biennially,
and makes a biennial report to the Governor.,
apportions the school fund to the counties;
and advises with the county superintendents
as to the time and place of holding their normal
institutes, arid the selection of an institute
conductor The State Board of Education
consists of the State Superintendent, the Chan-
cellor of tho University of Kansas, the President
of the State Agricultural College, the President

of the State Normal School, and three school-
men, appointed by the Governor with the con-
sent of the Senate and for two- year terms This
Board meets at its own pleasure, and its chief
function is to prepare uniform examination
questions for use in the county examinations-
to examine teachers for state certificates ana
state diplomas; to approve colleges and normal
schools, both within and without the state,
and place them on the accredited list for the
exemption of their graduates from all or part
of the state examinations; and to prescribe
standards for the certification of kindergarten
and manual training teachers, and to prescribe
the course of instruction in manual training
schools

The State Superintendent together with the
Secretary of State and the Attorney-General
constitute the Board of Commissioners for the
management and investment of the state per-
manent school fund, the normal school fund,
and the university fund. The State Superin-
tendent is Secretary of the Board. All school
districts issuing bonds must first offer them at
par to the Commission, thus insuring that all
the school funds may be kept safely invested
all the time

The School Textbook Commission consists
of the Superintendent of Public Instruction,
ex officw, as chairman, and eight persons,
appointed by tho Governor for four-year terms,
the Senate approving, and not more than five
from the ranks of any one political paity
This Commission adopts a uniform series of
textbooks for the elementary and high schools
of the state, and fixes the price at which they
may be sold Maps, charts, globes, and appa-
ratus must be similaily adopted and a minimum
price fixed Any city, town, or district nuu
vote to furnish free books to its pupils, but tho
use of the adopted books is made obligatory
upon all.

For each county there is a county superin-
tendent, elected by the people for two-year
terms He is required to visit schools, keep
detailed records of many kinds, make quarterly
and annual reports to the State Superintendent ,
apportion the school moneys to the districts,
determine and change school district linos, and
discontinue depopulated districts, hold an
annual normal institute of four wooks in length,
divide his county into from one to five truancy
districts and nominate a truant officer for
each to the county commissioners, to open
schools, employ teachers, and levy a school tax
sufficient to maintain five months of school in
case school directors fail or refuse to do so,
and to act as agent and supervisor of the orphan
and reform school pupils indentured in his
county, visiting each twice a year and report-
ing as to their condition and progress. For
his services he receives a salary of from $600
to $1800 a year, varying with the school popu-
lation of his county The county superin-
tendent together with two competent persons,

582

KANSAS, STATE OF

KANSAS, STATE OF

holding hign-grade teachers' certificates and
appointed by him, constitute the county
board of examiners. Thin board conducts
quarterly examinations, using questions pre-
pared by the State Board of Education, and
grants four grades of county teachers' certifi-
cates. Cities of the first and second class are
exempt from the county examinations, and
any school district employing ten or inoie
teachers may have its own board of examineis
and examine its own teachers Holdeis oi
state certificates and normal school ceitihcates
are exempt from such local examinations.

The counties are divided into school districts,
each having a district board, consisting of a
director, a cleik, and a treasurei, each elected
for three-year terms Cities having a popula-
tion of 15,000 or over constitute cities of the
first class and are governed by boards of edu-
cation of six members elected at huge Cities
of from 2000 to 15,000 population consti-
tute cities of the second class, and are governed
by boards of education of six members also
elected at large Cities of 250 to 2000 people
constitute cities of the third class, bu1, unless
pro\ ided for by special law, these are governed
as school districts The treasurer of the boaid
has charge of the nione) of the district or city,
and the clerk keeps all records and makes an
annual report to the school meeting and to the
county superintendent An annual school
meeting is provided for, and its powers set
forth The annual meeting of the district may
by vote, it the county superintendent concuis,
discontinue its schools, and pay an ad|oimng
district to teach its pupils for one or more
years, and still retain its integrity as a dis-
trict , or it may vote to annex the district
to an adjoining district or city, or to con-
solidate its schools with those of one or more
other districts

School Support — The state originally re-
ceived the sixteenth and thirty-sixth sections
(2,801,306 acres) for common schools, two
townships (46,080 acres) for a university,
90,000 acres for an agricultural and mechanical
college, and 30,380 acres of salt lands for a
normal school The common school lands
have been sold and a permanent common school
fund of $8,500,000 has been built up So large
is the number of school children in Kansas that
the income from this fund is worth only about
ninety cents per census pupil, five to twenty-
one years of age, per year It is apportioned
to the counties and from the counties to the
districts semiannually on this basis The
one-mill state tax enacted in 1861 was later re-
pealed. Strong efforts have been made within
the last ten years to secure a new state school
tax, but so far they have been unsuccessful.
The university lands have produced an endow-
ment of $145,000; the agricultural college
lands, $500,000; and the normal school lands,
$270,000 The chief reliance of the schools
is on local taxation, which may go up to 4£

583

mills. District I mauls must levy up to that
rate if necessary to maintain a seven months'
school Cities may also levy local taxes for
schools up to 6 mills if of the first class, 9 mills
if of the second class All cities and districts
may, in addition, levy a tax of from £ to 1 mill
for industrial training, and i to 2 mills addi-
tional for library purposes About 85 per cent
of the total expenditure for education comes
from local district taxation

Educational Conditions — Of the total
population, about 95 per cent are white and
90 per cent are native born The foreign born
arc largely English, German, and Swedish
There are few cities in the state, and about
75 per cent of the total population live in
rural districts

Since 1903 the state has had a good com-
pulsory attendance law, and since 1905 a good
child labor law Each county is divided into
Ironi one to five truancy districts, and a truant
officer is appointed to see that the law is en-
forced Cities form independent truancy dis-
tricts In 1900 Kansas stood thud in the
percentage of literates (2 9 per cent) in the
total population, Iowa and Nebraska alone
having less The estimated value of the school
property of Kansas is $18,000,000, or an
average of about $1900 for each schoolhouse in
the state Since 1903 the state has offered aid
for industrial instruction (manual training and
domestic science), duplicating any amount
raised and expended up to $250 a year in each
place Separate schools for the colored race
are not permitted except in the cities of the
first class and the high school at Kansas City,
Kan , but a recent leport of the State Super-
intendent recommends such change m the law
as will permit of then establishment

Teachers and Training — About one fourth
of the teaching force each year is composed of
inexperienced teachers, and about 80 per cent
are teaching on second and third grade county
certificates About 5 per cent are normal
graduates For the training of these, and the
improvement of those in service, a teachers'
normal institute, of not less than four weeks'
duration, must be held in each county each yeai
Adjacent counties may combine for a union insti-
tute The time and place of holding the institute,
as well as the institute conductors to be em-
ployed, must be approved by the state superin-
tendent, and all conductors must be certificated
for the woik by the State Board of Education.
A State Teachers' Reading Circle, under the
direction of a board chosen by the county super-
intendents' section of the State Teachers' Asso-
ciation and with the State Superintendent as
ex officw Chairman of the Board, outlines a
course of reading each year for the teachers of
the state, and all examinations for state teach-
ers' certificates must include reading circle
work as one of the examination subjects. For
the training of new teachers, the state main-
tains three normal schools, and has made ex-

KANSAS, STATE OF

KANSAS, STATE UNIVERSITY OF

tensive provision for normal training classes in
the high school of the state, with annual state
aid.

Secondary Education. — The law provides
for three kinds of high schools, — district,
union, and county. Cities and single districts
may establish a high school for their own chil-
dren, which must be maintained out of the
ordinary district funds. Counties may estab-
lish county high schools for all the children of
the county, by election and majority vote, and
levy a special county high school tax up to six
mills for the support of the same Anv two or
more school districts may vote to unite to foim
a union for the purposes of providing higher
instruction, in which case each district main-
tains its separate schools and the union district
is a separate superimposed district, with power
to levy regular district taxes, but the share
paid by each district is in proportion to the
number of children attending the union dis-
trict. The support of all high schools is bv
local taxation, except that, since 1905, anv
county not maintaining a county high school
may vote to levy a general county high school
tax of from one fourth to three mills on all
county property except that cities of 16,000 in-
habitants or over are exempt, and to apportion
the proceeds of such tax pro rain among the
different high schools of the county in propor-
tion to the average daily attendance in each
Pupils in non-high school districts in the poorer
counties are provided with free tuition in ad-
jacent high schools. State aid is granted for
normal training classes ($500) with $250 addi-
tional if they alho offer courses in agriculture and
domestic science

Higher and Special Education — The Uni-
versity of Kansas (qv), opened m 1866, and
the State Agricultural College (qv.), opened in
1863, are the two higher institutions maintained
by the state In addition to these two state
institutions, eighteen denominational colleges
offer higher education within the state

COLLEGE

LOCATION

OPENKD

CONTROL

FOR

Highland University
Baker College

Highland
Baldwin

1857
1858

Presb
M K

Both sexes
Both sexes

St Benedict's Col-

Atchison

1858

R C

Men

lege

Ottawa College

Ottawa

1805

Bapt

Both scxe*

Washbura.

Topeka

1805

Cong

Both sexes

Ht Mary's

St Mary's

1809

R C

Men

Bethany

Lindsborg

J881

Luth

Both sexes

Kmporia

Kmpona

1883

Presb

Both sexes

Kansas Wcsloyan

Sahna

1886

M K

Both sexes

University

Southwest Kansas

Wmfield

1880

M K

Both sexes

College
Midland College

Atehison

1887

Luth

Both sexes

Cooper College
Fairmount College

Sterling
Wichita

1887
1892

U Pros
Cong

Both sexes
Both sexes

St John's Lutheran

Wmfiekl

1893

Luth

Men

Kansas City Uni-

Kanna *

18^0

Moth

Both sexes

versity

City

Prot

McPhcrson College

McPiieMon

1897

Ger

Both sexes

Bapt

Friends University

Wichita

1898

Friends

Both sexes

( Campbell College

Holton

1903

II B

Both sexes

Since 1899, the state has made special appro-
priations for the partial support of Western
University at Qumdaro, an institution founded
for " freedmen " before the days of emancipa-
tion The Governor also appoints a majority
of its Board of Trustees, thus virtually making
it a state normal, agricultural, mechanical,
and domestic science school for the colored
race The state has similarly practicallv
adopted the Topeka Industrial and Educa-
tional Institute, a western Tuskegee, and
makes small annual appropriations for its
partial support The state also maintains the
Soldiers' Orphans' Home at Atchisou; the
State School foi the Deaf at Olathe, the State
School for the Blind at Kansas Citv, Kan ,
the Boys' Industrial School at Topeka, and
the Kansas Industrial School for Girls :tt
Beloit E P C

References : —

A Columbian Hilton/ of Education in Kansas, compiled

by Kaunas FMuratnis (Toprka, LSW )
BL \CKMAK, FRANK W Higher Education in Kansas
Circ Inf US Hui Ednc , 1«KM), No 1! (Washing-
ton, 1WM) )

Constitutions of Karibun, 1S55, 1S57, 1858, 1859

Law* RdatuiQ to thi Common tirhoolt> of AV/w,sas, l()ll cd

Kept1* tfupt Publ Insti /£a?<sa.s, annual ISbl— 187(>, l>i-

onnial, 1877-1878 to date The First Hien Kept ,

1877-1878, up 34-42, contains an outline of the

history of carnation in Kansas from 1854 to ls7o

KANSAS, STATE UNIVERSITY OF, LAW-
RENCE, KAN — A coeducational institution
forming part of the free public school system
of the state, and established by act of legisla-
ture in 1864 Seventy-two sections of land
had already been set apart for the purpose In
Act of Congress in 1861 The institution was
opened at Lawrence, the citizens oi which
provided the first building, in 1S66 The \&\\
school was opened in 1878 the school of phin-
macy in 188,5, the school of engineering in
1891, in 1896 the graduate school was organ-
ized, and in 1899 a full school of medicine
was instituted , in 1909 the school of education
and division of university extension were
added.

The government of the University is vested
in a board of seven regents, six of whom tire
appointed by the Governor and who hold
office for four years The departments of
instruction of the University are as follows
graduate, college, fine arts, law, pharmacy,
medicine, summer session, education, univer-
sity extension. The entrance requirements
are fifteen units except in the medical school,
where two years of college work are required,
and in the law school, where, after 1912, one
year of college work will be necessary. All the
departments offer four-year courses leading to
their appropriate degrees, except the law school,
where only a three-year course is given leading
to the LL.B. Advanced degrees, including
A.M., M.S., and the Ph D., are conferred foi
work in residence. The total registration in

584

KANSAS WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY

KANT

1910-1911 was 2398. The teaching staff con-
sists of 176 professors and 65 instructors and
assistants.

KANSAS WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY,
SALINA, ELAN — A coeducational institution
founded in 1886 under the auspices of the
Northwest Kansas Conference of the Methodist
Episcopal Church. Academic, collegiate, nor-
mal, musical, commercial, and oratorical de-
partments are maintained Candidates are
admitted on about eight points of high school
work On completion of the appropriate
courses the degrees of A B , Ph B., and B 8.
are granted The faculty consists of forty-
three members

KANT, IMMANUEL (1724-1804) —The
most important and commanding figure in the
development of later modern culture, and the
author of the intellectual and moral revolution
which brought forward and fashioned a radical
conception of the significance of humanity
Ho was born of humble parentage in Komgs-
borg, Germany The advantages that came to
him in youth through his education during eight
years in the Collegium Fredeucianum weie due
to the devotion and wisdom of his mother, the
material assistance of a maternal uncle, and the
belief 111 his ability by the family pastor, F A
Schultz, who was also a leader in the movement
known as Pietism Despite his poverty, he
completed a course at the university in his
native city (1740-1746), intending, as sometimes
supposed, to prepare himself for the Church
This alleged purpose waned as he passed on in
the acquisition of culture in many fields under
the influence of KnuUen and Teske, professors
of philosophy and physics, respectively The
following nine years were passed as a tutor in
several families near Komgsberg, and brought
to him valuable personal and pedagogical experi-
ences

In 17«V> Kant returned to the university,
and, qualifying as a private lectuiei in mathe-
matics, physics, and philosophy, was destined
to pass over forty years as an eminent teacher
in this one institution His six years' service
AH a librarian in the castle library aftei 1766
enabled him to expand his acquaintance with
literature in all its branches Having earhci
declined the vacant chair of poetry, lie was pro-
moted in 1770 to the professorship of logic and
metaphysics. His brilliant and popular lec-
tures covered a wide range of subjects, as was
1 hen the custom of members of the philosophical
faculty Arnoldt's inquiry into the range and
repetition of Kant's lectures is in itself an inter-
esting sketch of his versatility He lectured
on logic 54 semesters, metaphysics* 19, physical
geography 46, moral philosophy 28, anthro-
pology 24, theoretical physics 20, mathematics
H>, natural right 12, encyclopedia of philos-
o;>hv 11, pedagogy 4, besides on a number of
*,/> M subjects He created and gave academic

standing to physical geography and anthro-
pology, despite his lack of travel His active
teaching ceased in 1796, owing to the infirmi-
ties of age By the exercise of strong will he
overcame the physical weakness of his youth,
and by regulating his daily life by principles he
fashioned a character that is one of the noblest
models of self-education

Before Kant became the author of the revo-
lutionary critical philosophy, his mental de-
velopment carried him through several inter-
esting phases Equipped as a student with the
Leibmtz-Wolffian philosophy, he turned his
attention to the more scientific problems of
the material univeise He held to the unity of
the physical woild, advocated a mechanical
dynamism for the explanation of its phenomena,
elaborated the nebular hypothesis to account
for its origin, and gave foreshado wings of the
conception of evolution (A General Natural
History and Theory of the Heavens, 1755)
These years were succeeded by a period of rather
quiet and uncertain empiricism in which the
influence of Hume and Rousseau seemed to
impress him The Dreams of a Spirit-Seer
explained by the Dreams of Metaphysics (1760),
was written apparently to show the impossi-
bility of knowledge beyond experience

In 1769 a "great light" came to him which
brought out clearly the contrast between na-
ture (to be explained by causality), and spirit
(whose essence is to be found in morality and
religion) In his inaugural dissertation, On
the Forms and Principles of the Sensuous and
the Intellectual Worlds (1770), he had advanced
so far as to sec that physical science and
philosophical idealism aic but two aspects of
knowledge and reality which human experience
unifies In a letter to Herz (1772) there is the
first definite intimation of the settling of the
real problem that he tued to solve Then fol-
lowed the silent and lonely years of reflection
which resulted in the Critique of Pure Reawn
(1781) and marked the beginning of the philo-
sophical revolution that is still in progress The
new method of "criticism " shows the possi-
bility of experience and science by discovering
the a priori forms of space and time and the
twelve categories possessed by leason, and by
establishing the principle of human self-con-
sciousness as the maker of nature and the uni-
fier of experience The subjective and syn-
thetic basis of all truth of natuie was made1 a
basis for the objective1 and metaphysical value of
moiality as expressed in the " categorical nn-
peiative " of the Critique of Piacttcal Reason
(1788) The systematic rounding of his think-
ing was reached in the srothetical and teleologi-
cal principles of the Critique of Judgment
(1790) The completeness of his attack on th<
problem of the unity of experience appears
from the attempted harmonization of the three
Critiques b\ giving a psychological foundation
to the first in intellect, to the second in will,
and to the third in the feelings. His semce to

585

KANT

KANT

philosophy became a harmonization of ration-
alism and empiricism, of dogmatism and
skepticism in the method and results of " criti-
cism/' making possible the radical develop-
ment of idealistic philosophy which greeted
Germany within a decade after his death.

The influence of the critical philosophy grew
slowly The less than thirty publications on
it after three years grew to one hundred and
fifty in five years, and fell but little short of
three thousand books, pamphlets, and articles
by 1804. Kant became the center of a contend-
ing mass of friends and foes An anonymous
philosophical book (by Fichte, 1794) was im-
mediately attributed to him Three years
later Feder, who in an early review of the first
Critique called him a Herkeleian and thus drew
from Kant the Prolegomena to Every Future
Metaphysics that can appear as Science (1783)
and eventually the famous second edition of
the Critique (1787), was on his own admission
literally forced out of his chair of philosophy
at Gdttingen because he could not seem to
understand the Konigsberg philosopher Im-
portant additional writings of Kant are Idea
of a Universal History, etc (1784), Fundamen-
tal Principles of the Metaphysics of Morals and
Metaphysical Foundations of the Natural Sci-
ence (1786), Religion within the Limits of Mere
Reason (1793), The Metaphysics of Ethics
(1797), Anthropology with Reference to Prag-
matic Ends (1798), Logic (1800), Physical
Geography (1802), and On Pedagogy (1803),
the last three being edited by two of his pupils

Kant's contributions to education as a prac-
tice and a. theory are to be sought in his long
career as an effective teacher of the leaders of
his country, his writings bearing directly on the
subject, and the immeasurable influence of his
epistemological and ethical thinking upon the
cultural and technical thought of his own and
succeeding ages In later years he modestly
doubted the value of his early efforts as a teacher
of children, saying, " there could never have been
a worse tutor in the world than himself, because
he could not even apply those pedagogical rules
which he knew " As an academic teacher he
held his chief end to be "to promote right
opinions, and to inculcate fixed principles in
minds of native excellence, in order to afford
the only proper direction tq the development of
talent " His high ideal demanded that stu-
dents should be taught how to think, rather
than given mere information. The famous
tribute of Herder in 1792 to his teacher of thirtv
years before shows the rare command of knowl-
edge (" nothing worth knowing was indifferent
to him"), the well-developed technique of in-
struction, and the effective guidance of liberty
in thinking which made Kant the great teacher.

Owing to an old university rule, which re-
quired of one of the professors public lectures
on the subject two hours a week, Kant's formal
attention to education was given chiefly in his
lectures on pedagogy throughout four semesters

between 1776 and 1787. This material, which
never received systematic handling, was edited
by Rink and published as Ueber Padagogik
(1803) It has since appeared in several Ger-
man editions, and in one French and two Eng-
lish translations Kant's interest in education
as a topic for reflection probably awakened dur-
ing the early years when Montaigne was a fa-
vorite author and Rousseau's writings riveted
his attention, and continued to the end of his
active career. He treated directly, however, of
only a few questions in education. He drew
chiefly on the memories of his own expenences
as a teacher, and in part agreed with the peda-
gogy of the A ufklarung as it was expressed in
Rousseau, Basedow, Tainpe, and others In
some of his views he characteristically departed
from the positions of his contemporaries and set
problems for the nineteenth century, chiefly
in the evolutionary basis and the moral task of
education.

Education is the greatest and hardest prob-
lem that is presented to man, because its pui-
posc is the attainment of human destiny and
perfection which consist in absolute moral
worth. " Man can become man through edu-
cation only " The history of the race shows
progress through education towaid the devel-
opment of humanity Since "there are germs
in human nature" and the unfolding of "hu-
manity from its seeds" does not take place of
its own accord, education is the most necessary
of all arts A call for an effective rationaliza-
tion of this ait and foi experimental nchoolb is
made at the same time that princes and paients
are criticized foi pursuing the defective ainife of
experience instead of " the good of the world
and the perfection for which man is intended "
As a principle Kant declares "Children should
be educated, not with reference to their present
condition, but rather with regard to a possibly
improved future state oi the human race, ? c
according to the idea of humanity and its entire
destiny " His conception of education includes
its necessity, its possibility, its worth, lib prin-
ciples, its art, and its types. It is necessary,
because of the great gap existing between the
rawness of infancy and the human will organized
into free action under law, and because nature
alone does not educate It is possible, because
a " germinal reason and a quasi-germinal mo-
rality," as innate capacities, actually equip man
for perfection It has value, because of the
absolute worth of goodness as human destiny
" It is morality alone which gives meaning to
man, and at the same time puts an end into
educational thought and effort." It is rational
and involves principles, and we may therefore
hope for a future science, wherein every activity
in the artistic nature of teaching will be placed
on a firm basis. Education is evaluated also
according to types of schools, teachers, and
methods

The educational solidarity of the individual
and the race is expressed not only in his wonder

586

OoigWilholm Fiiedr Hc^el (1770-1M1 ) Soc p 2U

Inmianufl Kant (17J4-1M)4) S« i p 5Sb

Johann Friodnch Herbart (177<M841) 800 p 250 Fnedr Wilhelm Christ Karl Ferd von Huinboldt

( 1 707-1835) See p. 340.
A GKOUP OF GERMAN EDUCATORS.

KANT

KAY-SHUTTLKWORTH

" whether the education of the individual should
imitate the development of the race in general
through its various generations/' hut also in his
insistence " that every phase of educational
effort must proceed upon a recognition of the
basis which natural and mechanical processes
universally present, be it in physical, psychical,
cultural, or moral education, in the constant
endeavor to hand the child over to a free, ra-
tional, individual independence "

Kant's " treatise " on pedagogy was divided
into two parts On Physical Education (§§ 34-
90) and On Practical Education (§§ 5)1-113)
The former includes all natural or mechanical
processes, the latter all that hab reference to
freedom. The development of the individual
is conceived as requiring foui typeb of educa-
tional activity, discipline, cultivation, civi-
lization, and morahzation Discipline includes
everything pertaining to physical nature, and
attempts "to prevent the animal natute fiom
becoming injurious to human nature," both
individually and socially. Under cultivation
are included instruction and teaching, which are
designed to equip the individual with skillful-
ness as the means of executing a great variety
of purposes. Civilization, which is not treated
by Kant, leads to the acquisition of prudence,
and the complete socialization of the individual
Morahzation is the means of bringing the indi-
vidual to " acquire that type of mind which
chooses good aims onlv " He, chaiged his age
with developing the first three and omitting
the fourth type of educational activity

The antinomy between constraint and fiee-
dom haunted Kant constantly He ictuiiib
repcatedlv to the question " How shall 1 cul-
tivate freedom under conditions of compul-
sion? " His only definite recommendation with
respect to the plan of instiuetion was the intro-
duction of "a catechism of right," an outline
of which he furnishes in the Metaphysical
Elements of Ethic* (1797). The method pro-
posed invites children to apply the moral law
to concrete cases of conduct, and thus become
conscious of it and accept it as the one obli-
gatory principle of the will. Moral education
differs in aim and in method from the cultural
development of the mental capacities of the
individual The ethical conception of duty also
became the basis for religious pedagogy His
insistence on freedom as the essence of man's
intelligible character and the veiv oppobite of
causality as the key to empirical character
greatly influenced the educational theorv of the
following century, as is instanced in Herbart/s
polemic against transcendental freedom, and
its continuance by his followers.

Kant disapproved of a state scheme of edu-
cation, because it was too narrow and misdi-
rected. The development of humanity being
the end of education, " the basis of its plan must
be cosmopolitan". Princes also distort educa-
tion by seeking merely to make men " citizens "
who are to be used to further the immediate

purposes of the State His great interest in
Basedow's philanthropic institute at Dessau
was therefore due to his belief in this experi-
ment as promising a way of true educational
reform

The philosophy created by Kant was itself
a system full of pedagogical motifs by reason of
its acute analysis of inner experience and its
recognition of the creative power of pure
reason It also became fruitful in opening
the current epoch of western thought in which
the pedagogy as well as t he philosophy of Fichte,
Sehelhng, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Herbait,
Sehleiermaeher, Schiller, Goethe, Niemeyei,
Schwarz, and their numerous followers radiated
throughout the nineteenth century K. F B

References —

AmrxEH, E Gorman Kantian Bihhogiaph^ (Bv
vear«, to the death of Kant ) /'lulosophical
Review (Boston, 1H93-18W) )

BALDWIN Dictionary of Philosophy and Psychology,
Vol III, Pt 1, pp 28(>-320

BUCHNEK, E F Th( Educational Thtory of Imnmiiutl
Kant Translated and edited with an Intro-
duction Contains a hibhograph> of translations
of Kant's writings and literature bearing on his
views of education, pp ^5-98 (Philadelphia and
London, 1904 )

CAIRD, K The C ritual Philosophy of Emmanuel
Kant (Glasgow, 1*89 )

CHITUTON, A Kon1 on Education (London, 1S99 )

FKIKHE, K Pttdagogittcht \ emuthe in da- Kanlischtn
tfchulc (Leipzig, 1902 )

PAULHBN, F Immanutl Kant, his Life and Doctmie
Translated by J E Creighton and \ Lefe\ re
The best single-volume introduction to the de-
velopment and influence of the Kantian Philosophy
(New York, 1902 )

Ro»«i, Ci La Dottnna Kanltanu dclV Kducaztoiti
(Turin, 1902 )

STANDINGER, F Kant'H Bedentung fui die Padagogik
Kantetiidien, Vol IX, pp 211-254

V UHINUKK, H Kant*tudn,H (Hamburg, since 1890 )

KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH, SIR JAMES
PHILLIPS (1804-1877) — First Secretary of
the Committee of Council on Education in
England and Wales, wa.s born at Rochdale,
Lancashire, in 1804, the son of Robert Kay
As a boy he was employed in a bank belonging
to a relation at Rochdale, but in 1824 entered
the University of Edinburgh as a student of
medicine, becoming M D 1827 He had a
brilliant university couise during which, both
in Edinburgh and in Dublin, he studied the
condition of the poor After graduating he
settled at Manchester as a physician and
served as medical officci of the Ancoats and
Ardwick Dispensary situated in one of the
poorest and most crowded districts of the city
During the outbreak of cholera in 1832 he was
devoted in his attendance at the cholera hospital
The experience gamed during this epidemic
and as secretary to the Manchester Board of
Health impressed upon him the social danger
of the insanitary surroundings of the poor In
1832 he published a pamphlet entitled The
Moral and Physical Condition of the Working
Classes Employed in the Cotton Manufacture
in Manchester the disclosures of which led to

587

KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH

KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH

local measures for sanitary and educational
reform He was an ardent supporter of the
Anti-corn Law movement He was appointed
in 1835 Assistant Poor Law Commissioner,
and for some years served in that capacity first
in Norfolk and Suffolk and afterwards in the
metropolitan district As a Poor Law official
he became more than ever convinced of the
necessity of national educational reform In
1839, when the Committee of the Privy Coun-
cil for Education in England and Wales was
first appointed, in order to administer the par-
liamentary grant for public education in Great
Bntam, Dr Kay (as he was then called) was
appointed tho first secretary of the Committee,
being allowed to retain for a time the superin-
tendence of the metropolitan schools for pauper
children under the Poor Law Board He thus
became the first secretary of the Education
Department for England and Wales

Hand in hand with his intimate friend and
colleague under the Poor Law Board, Mr.
Edward Carleton Tufnell (born at Chichester
1806, educated at Eton and Balhol College,
Oxford, and subsequently director of Green-
wich Hospital), Dr Kay worked out apian for
establishing a training college for the prepa-
ration of teachers who would devote their lives
to the care of hapless pauper children in the
Poor Law Schools of Norwood The condi-
tion of these children was deplorable Kay
and Tufnell conceived the idea of establishing
a training college, the discipline and spirit of
which should fit and inspire young men for
this task of mercy and rescue Their first
step was to travel in Europe in order to ac-
quaint themselves with the best that had been
done in other countries for the professional
training of teachers destined for the schools
of the poor After visiting Holland, Prussia,
and France they went into Switzerland,
attracted by what they had heard of the work
of Pestalozzi (who had died in 1827) and of
Fellenberg and Father Girard (qq v ) who weie
still engaged in their educational work Re-
turning to England, Kay and Tufnell found
premises at Battersca in West London The
house still forms the nucleus of St John's
College, Battersea In 1840 the college was
opened for the admission of students, the fiist
pupils being some boys selected from the
school of industry at Norwood in view of the
excellence of their conduct and their intel-
lect ual promise The period of instruction in
the training school was to last for three years
and to be followed by two years' employment
as pupil teachers in the Battersea village school
during three hours of every day The new
training college, which was maintained at the
private cost of Kay and Tufnell, was cordially
supported by philanthropists in all parts of
the country and quickly grew into an institu-
tion of considerable size The whole of the
household work was committed to the charge
of the boys and young men. The masters

588

partook the same diet as the pupils The aim
was that the teacher of the peasant's child
should himself be acquainted with the peasant's
duties In this, the first organized training
college for men teachers in England, the first
Secretary of the Education Department resided
during the critical years in which he built up
the administrative fabric of English public edu-
cation under the supervision of the civil State

The success of the college was great In
1843 Kay (who had assumed the name of Kay-
Shuttleworth on his marriage in 1842 with
Janet, daughter and heiress of Robert Shuttle-
worth of Gawthorpe Hall, near Burnley)
handed over the college to the committee of
the National Society (q v ), by whom it has
been conducted with increasing usefulness,
though with great modifications in its cur-
riculum and mode of life, to the present day

In the meantime Kay-Shuttleworth had
thrown himself with vigor into the new work
of the Education Department On his appoint-
ment as Secretary, the Ministers of the Crown
had given him a special injunction to assert
the civil influence in education The first
steps were to propose (1) the establishment of a
great training college for teachers, arid (2) the
inspection of all schools receiving government
aid The first of these schemes was wrecked
by dissensions between the civil power and the
ecclesiastical bodies on the subject of the
religious instruction to be given in the college.
The second part of the plan, viz. inspection,
was entirely successful, the whole weight of
the Benthamite tradition favoring the adoption
of the plan It was because the idea of a state
training college broke down that Kay-Shuttle-
worth and his friend Tufnell determined to
establish the training college at Battersea at
their own expense Their indomitable courage
and personal self-sacrifice won the day Estab-
lished by private effort, the college became the
first of a long succession of training institutions

During the early years of his secretaryship,
Kay-Shuttleworth proved himself biilliantlv
resourceful in administrative ideas He per-
suaded the government to employ John
Hullah to introduce a modification of the
Wilhelm method (the fixed (hit system) into
the teaching of singing in elementary schools
It was an application of the Pestalozzian
method of ascending from the simple to tho
general through a clearly analyzed series of
steps Hullah's efforts were extraordinarily
successful Kay-Shuttleworth also introduced
Pestalozzian methods of the teaching of arith-
metic and geography He was also the first
to insist upon the teaching of drawing as an
indispensable part of elementary education

In 1843 the Committee of Council, on Kay-
Shuttle worth's advice, began to give regular
grants in aid of (1) the erection of teachers'
residences; (2) the purchase of school furniture
and apparatus; and (3) the establishment of
training colleges under the management of

KAY-SHUTTLEWORTH

KEATE

religious bodies or approved educational so-
cieties This gave a decisive turn to English
policy in regard to national education The
idea of a State monopoly in elementary educa-
tion was definitely abandoned. Under Kay-
Shuttleworth's influence the State entered
into a partnership with the religious and
voluntary associations for the improvement of
the education of the poor This concordat
between the civil state and the religious or
voluntary associations was the keynote of
Kay-Shuttleworth's policy. In an eloquent
pamphlet entitled The School in its Rclatwm to
the State, the Church, and the Congregation,
issued anonymously with the sanction of the
government, Kay-Shuttleworth expounded the
policy of the new Minutes and vigorously
defended the idea of a concordat between
the State and the religious bodies against the
secularist party on the one hand and the anti-
governmental ecclesiastical wntcrs on the other
Owing to a breakdown of health from over-
work, Kay-Shuttleworth resigned his office of
Secretary of the Committee of Council in 1849
In the same year he was created a baronet
Recovering from his illness he devoted himself
with ardor to public work He was vice-
chairman of the Central Relief Committee
duimg the cotton famine in Lancashire, 1861-
1865 He served on the Royal Commission
on Scientific Instruction (Duke of Devonshire,
chairman) from 1870-1873 His later yeais
weie occupied with reforming the administra-
tion of several local grammar schools, especially
(Jiggleswick and Burnley Pie died in London,
1877

Kay-Shuttleworth was the true begetter of
the modern English system of elemental v edu-
cation aided bv the State. The training of
teachers, public inspection of schools, the pupil
teacher svstem, the combination of secular in-
struction with religious teaching and with
liberty of conscience, and the synthesis of con-
tributions from the government treasury and
from local benefactors were prominent features
oi his plan, and all of them have persisted with
modifications down to the present time
Matthew Arnold said with justice that, "when
at last the system of English elementary edu-
cation comes to stand fully and fairly formed,
Kay-Shuttleworth will have a statue " He
combined in his own person the administrative
decision of the Benthamites, the philanthropic;
ardor of the sanitary reformer and the reli-
gious zeal of the Anglican statesman

M. E. S
References : —

ADKINS, T History of St. John's College, Battcrsea

(London, 1906 )

Dictionary of National Biography.

KAY-SHTJTTLEWORTH, Sm J Four Periods of Public

Education, 1832-1839-1846-1802 (London, 1862 )

The School in its Relations to the State, the Church, and

the Congregation (First issued anonymously in

• 1847 )

Thoughts and Suggestions on Certain Social Problems
(London, 1873.)

KAY, DR., and TUFNELL, E CARLBTON On the Train-
ing School at Battersea, in Reports on the Training
of Pauper Children (London, 1841.)

Minutes of the Committee of the Privy Council on Edu-
cation

Report of the Duke of Newcastle a Commission on Popular
Education, 1861, Vol I

KAZAN, UNIVERSITY OF -- See RUSSIA,
EDUCATION IN.

KEAGY, JOHN M (1795-1837). -- Ameri-
can advocate of the word-method of teaching;
reading He was educated in private schools
and graduated from the university of Pennsyl-
vania in 1817 In turn he was principal of the
Harnsburg Academy and the Friends' High
School in Philadelphia, and professor in
Dickinson College He became interested in
th6 work of Pestalozzi and his Ainencan dis-
ciple, Joseph Neef (q v ), and became an ardent
advocate of the word method of teaching read-
ing in opposition to the alphabet method then
in use His educational writings include Ef*say
on English Education (1824) and Pcdalozzian
Primer, or First Stcptt in Tenth ing Chddien
the Art of Reading and Thinking (1827)

W S M

KEATE, JOHN (1773-1852) — Headmas-
ter of Eaton College from 1809-1834 He
was educated at Eton and King's College,
Cambridge, where he distinguished himself in
classical scholarship He giaduated B.A in
1796 and was elected fellow In 1791 he was
appointed assistant master at Eton and in
1809 became headmaster Ills whole career
Avas a struggle with the frequently tuibulcnt
and rebellious bovs, dischpine was bad, and he
suffeied many indignities Under such con-
ditions the state of scholarship was poor
Kcato's chief claim to fame as headmaster was
his constant and \\holesale use of the biich,
on one occasion he flogged as many as eighty
boys Many stones are related of the flogging
headmaster He distrusted bovs as much as
Hawtrey and Arnold (qq r ) relied on then
sense of honor Nor was the staff of mastois
of the standard of scholarship usually connected
with good schools In the end, howevei,
Keate attained a measuic of popularity and
secured efficient assistants He was able on
his resignation to hand over to his successor,
Hawtrey (</?'), a better disciplined school
than he had found He sympathized with
educational reforms, but the problem of dis-
cipline absorbed the greater part of his atten-
tion He did encourage oratory and English
composition and the establishment of debating
and other societies After his resignation he
lived in retirement as rector of a country
church.

References : —

Dictionary of National Biography
LYTE, SIR H 0 MAXWELL History of Eton College
(London, 1911)

589

KEBLE

KELLNER

KEBLE, JOHN (1792-1866). — English poet
and divine, born at Fairford, Gloucestershire,
the son of a clergyman from whom he received
his education until his entry into Corpus
Chnsti College, Oxford He obtained a fellow-
ship at the early age of nineteen, after graduat-
ing with a double first He was ordained in
1815 and remained at Oxford until 1823, when
he became a parish priest In 1827 he pub-
lished the Christian Fear, a collection of reli-
gious poems which attained a remarkable
popularity From 1831-1864 he was professor
of Poetry at Oxford. In 1835 he became Vicar
of Hursley in Hampshire It is, however,
with the " Oxford Movement " that Keblo is
most generally identified as one of its chief
leaders and inspirers. Connected with this move-
ment were his share in the Tract*, foi the Times
and the translation of the Church Fatners
(Library of the Fathers) Keblc wrote many
books on religious topics and in addition to the
Christian Year was the author of Lyra Innoccn-
tium (1846), and Prwlect tones Academics (1844),
in which ho discussed the theory of poetry On
state control of schools, which was suggested in
his day, Koblo took the stand that England " as
a Christian nation was a part of Christ's
Church and bound in all her legislation and
policy by the fundamental laws of that Church "
Keble College, Oxford, opened m 1870, was
named in honoi of Keble, " to the memory of
one of the most eminent and religious writers
whom the Church of England has ever pro-
duced, one whose holy example was perhaps
even a greater power for good than his Chris-
tian Year "

See OXFORD MOVEMENT.
References : —

COLERIDGE, SIR J T Life of John Keble. (London,

1869)

Dictionary of National Biography
LOCKE, W Life of John Keble. (London, 1892 )

KEHR, KARL (1830-1885) —A German
educator, born in Goldbach, Thuringia, and
educated at the seminary at Gotha, where he
was appointed teacher of pedagogy in 1863
In 1872 he became the director of the semmaiy,
which position he later exchanged for a similar
one at Halbcrstadt, and finally at Erfurt
Through his efforts in these positions, as well
as through his numerous writings, he exerted
a great influence on the training of teachers in
Germany. His most important work is his
History of the Methods of Elementary Instruc-
tion in Germany (Geschichte der Methodik des
deutschen V ' olksxchulunternchts) , published with
the collaboration of a number of schoolmen in
lcS77 He was the founder of Padagogische
Blatter fur Lehrerbildung und Lehrerbildungs-
anstalten. F. M.

References —

KLEINSCHMIDT, K. Karl Kehr. (Leipzig, 1908.)
PJBIFHBR, F W. Die Volksschide des XIX Jahr-

590

hunderts in Biographies, der hervorragenden Schul-
manner. (Nuremberg, 1872.)

WIENSTEIN, F. Prcussische Padagogen der Neuzeit,
pp. 29-40. (Arnsberg, 1900 )

KEILHAU — A village near Rudolstadt in
Thuringia, Germany, the scene of FroebeFs
first school, which he established in 1816 for
the education of his brother's children and
others Although founded in Griesheim as the
Allgemcine deutsche Erziehungsamtalt, it was
soon moved to Keilhau Froebel was assisted
by Wilhelm Middendorff and Heinnch Lange-
thal; in 1823 they were joined by Johannes
Arnold Barop, a nephew of Middendorff
Froebel left the institution in 1829 Under the
influence of Barop, who became sole owner of
the school in 1854, the institution gradually
developed into a private boarding and second-
ary school In 1870 the examination for the
one year military service was held in the school
for the first time In 1878 Barop died and was
succeeded by his son, Johannes Barop In
1892 the Prussian curriculum for secondary
schools was introduced, but the principles of
Pestalozzi and Froebel remained, and the in-
stitution is still marked by the emphasis on the
social and cooperative work The school is
now a Kealschule with Latin as an optional
subject There are about 100 pupils In
1896 an alumni association was formed The
present headmaster is Dr. Otto Wachter

References : —

Keilhau in Wort und Bild (Leipzig, 1902 )

KELLER, JOSEPH EDWARD (1827-
1886) — Jesuit educator, educated at St
Louis University. .He held professorships at
St Francis Xavier's College, Cincinnati, and
St. Joseph's College, Bardstown, Conn. He
was president of Woodstock College and pro-
vincial of St Louis University He was
author of several religious and philosophical
works. W. S. M.

KELLNER, LORENZ (1811-1892) — One of

the most prominent Catholic schoolmen of mod-
ern Germany, born at Kalteneber, near Heili-
genstadt, Prussia, and educated at the seminary
of Magdeburg After a few years' experience
as an elementary teacher, he was appointed
to a position in the newly founded seminary at
Heihgeiistadt, of which his father was the
principal From there he was called, in 1848,
as school inspector to Manenwerder, West
Prussia, and later on in the same capacity to
Trier in the Rhine province, where he worked
for thirty-one years until his retirement in 1886.
For several years he was a member of the
Prussian parliament. He published a large
number of educational works and articles
treating of the history of education, the meth-
ods of teaching the mother tongue, and other
matters of pedagogical interest. Among these
may be mentioned: Erziehungsgeschichte in

KELLOGG

KENTUCKY, STATE OF

Skizzen und Bildern; Zur Padagogik der
Schule und des Hauses, etc His autobiog-
raphy, Lebensblatter, Ennnerungen aus der
Schulwelt, is a model of its kind F M

Reference: —

WIBNSTBIN, F. Preusaische Pbdagogen der Neuzed,
pp. 13-28. (Arnsberg, 1900.)

KELLOGG, MARTIN (1828-1903; — Uni-
versity president, graduated from Yale College
in 1850 and the Union Theological Seminary in
1854 He subsequently studied at the uni-
versities of Bonn and Berlin in Germany He
was professor m California College from 1860
to 1869, when this institution became the Uni-
versity of California, and continued as professor
m the University of California to 1893, when he
was chosen president of the institution (1893-
1899) He was the author of seveial Latin
texts and of numerous addresses on educa-
tional subjects. W. S M.

See CALIFORNIA, UNIVERSITY OF

KELTIS, or CELTES, CONRAD — See

RENAISSANCE AND EDUCATION.

KENDRICK, ASAHEL CLARK (1809-
1895). — College professor and textbook au-
thor; graduated from Hamilton College in
1830, and later studied at the University of
Athens He was tutor and professor at Col-
gate University from 1831 to 1850, and pro-
fessor at the University of Rochester fiom
1850 to 1880 His published woiks include
Child's Book in Greek, Introduction to Greek,
and Greek Grammar; he also edited several of
the Greek classics . W. S. M.

KENESIS. — See TROPISM

KENNEDY, BENJAMIN HALL (1804-
1889). — One of the most brilliant classical
scholars in England during the last century and
headmaster of Shrewsbury School He be-
longed to a family of distinguished scholars
When he entered Shrewsbury School in 1819,
he at once attracted attention by the romaik-
able quality of his compositions, and while still
at school he won the Porson Prize, one of the
most important of the classical prizes at Cam-
bridge University In 1823 he entered St John's
College, Cambridge, and graduated B A with
great distinction After serving lor u vear as
assistant master at his old school he was elected
to a fellowship at his college m 1828 Fiom
1830-1835 he was assistant master at Harrow and
in 1836 he was elected headmaster of Shrews-
bury. Here his first task was to reduce the
school to discipline, winch, as in most English
public schools of the day, was somewhat lax.
He also paid much attention to the housing ac-
commodations, then in a very bad state through
overcrowding While laying chiet stress on the
classical studies, he introduced French and mathe-

matics, geographv and history into the curricu-
lum, although little value was attacheu to any
of these subjects and none counted for pi omotion
Another innovation was the institution of daily
supervised preparation, atliletics were encour-
aged, religious instruction and devotion were
strengthened, and the establishment of a school
choir encouraged an interest in music. In many
ways Kennedy's reforms show the strong influence
of Arnold (q v ) at the neighboring school at
Rugby When the inhabitants of Shrewsbury
claimed that the school was founded as a free
school in the literal sense, Kennedy wrote a
pamphlet, Shrewsbwy School t Past and Present
(1862), to prove thaiLibna Sthola Grammaticalis
meant a royally chartered school preparatory
for the universities, a view which was
proved to be baseless (Sec FREE SCHOOLS )
Kennedy was not onlv a remarkable classical
scholar, but widely read in modern literature
and history As a teacher he ^as, in spite of
his impulsiveness, eminently successful, and
trained a large number of famous scholars He
had a remarkable abilitv in writing Latin
verse, as may be seen in Mobutu? Corolla (1850)
and in Between Whiles, 01 Wui/fwie Amusements
of a Woilnig Life (1882) His influence on
classical teaching was exercised by his gram-
mars, especially the Public School Latin Pumet
(1806) and the Public School Latin Pnmcr
(1871), he also edited a number of classical
texts, including Vergil, the Agamemnon of
yKschvlus, and Sophocles' (Edipus Tyrannus
He resigned from the headnuistership m 1866,
and in the following year was appointed Regius
Professor of Greek at Cambridge.

References : —

Dutionary of National Bio(jifij)h]j

FIHHEH, G W Annalxof tihrtwbbury School (London,

1899 )
How, F D KuGteat SUioolmaatii* (London, 1904 )

KENTUCKY, STATE OF — Originally a
pait of Virginia, organized as a separate ter-
ritory m 1790, and admitted as the second
now 'state m 1792 It belongs to the South
Central Division, and has a land area of 40,000
square miles In aiea it is practically the same
size as Ohio or Vnginia For administrative
purposes the state is divided into 119 counties,
and these in tuin into cities and towns on the
one hand, and into educational subdivisions
and subdistncts on the othei In 1910 Ken-
tucky had a population of 13,289,905, and a
density of population of 57 per square mile

Educational History — The hi st permanent
settlement was made in 1774, and the first
private school was opened at Harrodsburg in
1776 Other schools were opened, and private
higher schools or academies were established at
various places before 1800, but these schools
were very primitive and elementary In 1799
the foundation of a state university, to be
known as Transylvania University, was laid
by the union of Transylvania Seminary, estab-

591

KENTUCKY, STATE OF

KENTUCKY, STATE OF

lished by Virginia in 1780, and Kentucky
Academy, chartered by the Kentucky legislature
in 1794 The institution for a long time re-
mained but little more than an academy.
Though a number of private and advanced
schools existed in the different settlements, no
general interest in education existed before
1 820 at least So far as there was any interest,
it centered about the academies, but even they
did not prosper, and their lands and funds wore
not infrequently mismanaged 01 squandered
The state constitution, adopted at the time of
admission, and a second state constitution,
adopted in 1799, contained no mention of
education

The first legislation with reference to edu-
cation took place in 1798, when the legislatuie
granted 0000 acres of land to each of three
academies and two seminaries. In 1805
and 1808 acts were passed extending these
provisions to all the existing counties Per-
mission to raise $1000 by a lotteiy was also
given to each institution. By 1820 there \*ere
forty-seven county academies in opeiation,
though they led but a precarious existence,
and their failure as a system of education be-
gan to be recognized by this time. Between
1819 and 1829 six colleges were chartered,
which were destined to compete with and even-
tually to ruin the chances of Transylvania
University developing into a strong university

The first mention of education in a message
of the Governor occurs in the messages of Gov-
ernor Slaughter in 1816, arid again in 1817,
1818, and 1819, but the legislature took no
action on his recommendations In Decem-
ber, 1821, the state made provision for the first
aid for common schools by providing that one
half of the net profits of the Bank of the Com-
monwealth were to be set apart to form a pei-
manont Literary Fund, but the income, which
eventually amounted to about $60,000 a year,
was not spent for education, but was used by
the legislature for defraying dcficicnces in the
general state revenues. In 1821 the legislature
was induced to appoint a commission to
investigate the question of public education
and to make a report on the subject This the
commission did in 1822, reporting in favor of
fostering Transylvania University as a state
institution, the retention of the academies as
training schools for teachers, and the estab-
lishment of a general system of public educa-
tion for all, as nearly free as possible. The
report favored the New York plan, with state
appropriations supplemented by local taxation.
The document was an able one, but since the
people were not ready for taxation for educa-
tion, the legislature did nothing more than
print the report.

Louisville had the best schools in the state
at the time, and in 1829 these were made free
schools by a city appropriation for support.
The next year, however, the city reverted to
tuition fees, which continued up to 1840, when

the schools were once more made free city
schools. Night schools were established in
1834, and a superintendent of schools was first
appointed in 1839

An act to establish "a uniform system of
public schools" was passed in 1830. This
gave county courts power to lay off the counties
into school districts, and the people were to
elect three trustees for each district. Taxes
up to six and a quarter cents on the $100 and a
poll tax of fifty cents might then be levied for
schools So small was the interest in education,
and so great the unwillingness of the people to
pay taxes for schools, that few schools were ever
organized, and the law remained practically a
dead letter The distribution of the surplus
revenue in 1837 seems to have awakened a new
interest in education By an act of 1838
$850,000 of this fund was set aside for educa-
tion, and the foundation of a public school sys-
tem was laid By this law a state school fund
was established; a state board of education and
a state superintendent of common schools were
created; and county school commissioners,
district school trustees, and local taxation were
provided foi At this time, half of the children
of school age had nevei been to school, and
one thud of the adult population could not
read or write This law provided a definite
form of organization, but it took fifteen years
to overcome the indifference and the opposition
of the legislature and the people siiffrcientlv to
get the law into operation m every county, and
no marked progress was made until after the
Civil War In 1840 the state refused to pay
the interest on the school fund, and in 1845 the
state school bonds were destroyed by legislative
act In 1848 the debt to the school fund was
recognized and capitalized in the form of a
bond; and in 1849 a proposal to levy a state
two cent tax for schools was submitted to a
vote of the people and adopted The nev\
constitution of 1850, the first to mention edu-
cation, contained a section which fixed the
debt of the State to the school fund and de-
clared it to be inviolate for the purpose of
sustaining a system of common schools, and
another section which provided for the election
of a state superintendent of public iiihtiuction
In 1850 a law declaring the debt to the school
fund a first charge on the rcsoui ces of the treas-
ury was carried in spite of the determined op-
position of the Governor, and in 1853 some
kind of a school was finally got into opeiation
in each county of the state The yearly in-
come from all state sources was at this time
but sixty cents per census child By 1863 the
income had risen to $1.10, but the losses of the
Civil War caused it to fall to seventy-two cents
by 1867. In 1855 the state school tax was
raised from two cents to five cents by popular
vote, and in 1856 an unsuccessful attempt to
revive Transylvania University by converting
it into a slate normal school was made The
Civil War for a time seriously interrupted the

592

KENTUCKY, STATE OF

KENTUCKY, STATE OF

work of education, and at its close the need of
educating the negro was added to the educa-
tional problems of the State

In 1867 agitation for a better organized and
financed system of public education was begun
by the new State Superintendent, Z F Smith.
Two years later his proposals for an increase of
the state school tax from five cents to twenty
cents, with poll taxes and local taxation, were
approved by the legislature and the people, and
in 1870, a new school law was enacted which
laid the basis of the present system In 1S73
district taxation was authorized to supplement
the state funds A system of colored schools
was begun in 1866, when all taxes paid by the
colored people were set apart for the benefit of
colored schools, and in 1882 the apportionments
for white and colored schools weie equalized,
and the state school tax raised from twenty
cents to twenty-two cents Since thus tune
other additions have been voted, the present
tax being twenty-six and a half cents In
1884 county superintendents, elected bv the
people, were substituted for the county com-
missioners appointed by the county courts,
the size of districts reduced, and provision
made for state and county institutes

In 1891 another new constitution was
adopted, in which full and definite provision foi
a state system of public instruction was made
for the first time, arid the legislature was
charged with the duty of providing " an effi-
cient system of common schools throughout
the state " The school fund was carefully
defined, the direct-tax refund made by the
national government, amounting to $606,
641 03, \\as added to the permanent fund,
separate schools for the two races were made
mandatory, the income from the fund was
required to be distributed without distinction
as to race or color; and aid to sectarian schools
was forbidden The revised school law of
1893 carried these provisions into effect and
provided, in addition, for the grading of all
schools a five-months term, obligatory county
teachers' associations, and county teachers'
libraries In 1896 a compulsory school law
was enacted, which required eight weeks of
continuous attendance each year from all
children between seven and fourteen In 1902
an act providing for county taxation and a
county poll tax "to extend school terms was
enacted. In 1904 county school book com-
missioners to select a series of uniform textbooks
for the schools of the state were provided for
[n 1906 two state normal schools for white
feachers were established. In 1908 a county
school district law was enacted which provided
For a partial abandonment of the school dis-
trict plan and a partial approach to the county
unit system. County high schools were also
provided for. An educational commission was
also created for the purpose of considering a
revision and improvement of the school laws of
the state.

Present Educational System. — At the head
of the state school system is a Superintendent
of Public Instruction, elected by the people for
a four-year term and receiving an annual salary
of $2500 He prepares all blanks and registers
used, issues plans for school buildings; renders
decisions on appeal; is general custodian of the
school funds; must travel and visit the schools
of the state; apportions the state school fund;
makes plans for the teachers' institutes, and
holds an annual conference with the institute
conductors He is also a member ex officio and
chairman of the State Board of Education, the
State Board of Examiners, and the Boards of
Trustees of the three state normal schools, and
a member ex officio and secretary of the State
School Book Commission.

The State Board of Education is an ex officio
body, consisting of the State Superintendent of
Public Instruction, the Secretary of State, and
the Attorney-General It has charge of the
school fund bonds, makes rules and regulations
for the government of schools and the manage-
ment of counly teachers' libraries, and pre-
scribes and publishes a graded course of study
for use in the schools The State Board of
Education, together with the Governor, Audi-
tor, Treasurer, and Clerk of the Court of Ap-
peals, form the State School Book ( Commission,
which adopts a series of textbooks for the
schools of the state, acting on the recommen-
dation of the different county school book
commissions. The Superintendent of Public
Instruction, together with two piofessional
educators appointed by himself, constitute the
State Board of Examiners This body ex-
amines all county superintendents and all
applicants for state diplomas and certificates,
and prepares, subject to the approval of the
State Board of Education, all questions used
in the state and county examinations of teachers

For each county a county superintendent of
public instruction is elected by popular elec-
tion for four-year terms He must hold or
secure a state certificate or diploma or a county
superintendent's certificate He must visit the
schools of his county, superintend the taking
of the annual school census and examine and
report the results, decide nil questions touch-
ing the administrative duty of teacheis or trus-
tees, pay all teachers on the certificates of tho
trustees, requisition the county jiulge for all
textbooks needed to supply to indents, and
make an annual settlement with the county
judge and an annual report to the State Sup-
erintendent The county judge makes ap-
pointments, and may remove the superintend-
ent for cause With the county judge 01 the
county attorney, he divides the county into
districts and groups these into four, six, or
eight subdivisions. Each district then elects
one trustee and the different trustees unite to
form subdivision boards of trustees, of each of
which the county superintendent is ex officio
a member, but without a vote except in case

VOL. Ill — 2Q

593

KENTUCKY, STATE OF

KENTUCKY, STATE OF

of a tie Tlu1 chuu man of those subdnibion
boa ids of tiustees, together with the county
superintendent, form the county board of
education for the county This body grants
all county teachers' certificates, and the counVy
superintendent makes a report of all receipts
and expenditures to it It employs all teachers
for the county high schools and fixes then sal-
aries, and may prescribe a course of study for
t he same It detei mines the amount of county
school tax needed and lays the amount before
the financial court of the county It may
establish new school districts, change bound-
aries, and consolidate districts It holds the
title to all school property, and may condemn
or purchase sites and build and repair school
buildings. County boards are required to
establish at least one county high school in
each county not having a four-yeais high school,
or to unite with such a school already in exist-
ence, and to arrange for the free tuition of all
high school pupils in the county Three and
two year high schools may also be provided,
and all courses shall include domestic science,
manual training, and elementary agriculture
The county superintendent, together with
two persons appointed by him, constitute the
county boaid of examiners This body ex-
amines all candidates for county teaoheis' cer-
tificates, using uniform state questions, and
reports the results to the county board of
education The county superintendent, to-
gether with the county judge and the county
attorney, constitute a county school book
commission, of which the county superintend-
ent is chairman This body meets, examines
the books submitted to the State School Hook
Commission in response to its advertisement
and reports its choice A book to be adopted
must receive a majority vote of the county
school book commissions, except that after
three trials, the books having the largest num-
ber of votes may be adopted

The school district law is an attempt on
the part of the state to do away with some of
the evils of the district form of school govern-
ment, and is an approach toward the count v
form of school government The number of
trustees for each school district has boon re-
duced to one, holding office for two years, and
he is a member of a subdivision board of trus-
tees Kach trustee is required to supervise the
school or schools of his subdistrict, compile an
annual school census, and report in writing to
his division board The division boards elect
the teachers for the different, schools, and have
general oversight of the schools Graded school
districts, levying a special school tax for graded
schools, may be established by petition and
affirmative vote of the people Such districts
may elect their own boards of trustees, who
possess about the same powers as boards of
trustees for county subdivisions, and who
report to the county superintendent of schools.
Cities similarly enjoy special privileges, and

594

report to the Stale Superintendent direct
Graded school districts and cities receive their
quota from the state school fund, but are ex-
empt from the county school tax levied, if they
levy a local tax of twenty cents for schools
The colored race may establish graded schools
on the same terms as the white race , that is,
each race pays for its own Money and taxes
for ungraded common schools are distributed
without reference to lace or color.

School Support — The State was admitted
before the policy oi making land grants for
education was begun by the national govern-
ment and hence received no public land for
schools The permanent school fund of the
state is largely nominal, being in the form of
bonds of the commonwealth, the interest on
which is raised, in pait, by direct taxation
The state money is apportioned to the counties
(for the districts) and cities on the basis of the
numbei of census children, six to twenty years
of age, though in making the apportionment,
no subdistrict is considered as having less than
fifty census children A county school tax of
not over twenty cents on the $100 and a county
poll tax of $1 may also be levied by the fiscal
courts of the county, on the recommendation
of the county boaid of education, but all
cities and special tax districts which levy a local
tax of twenty cents are exempt .Irom this so-
called county tax Any subdistrict may lew
a local tax up to twenty-five cents, but voi>
few do Graded school districts, where es-
tablished bv either lace, may levy a local tax
up to fifty cents and a local poll tax up to $1 50
Countv high schools are maintained out oi the
county school tax

Educational Conditions. — Of the total pop-
ulation about 87 per cent are white and
J3 pei cent are negroes Only about 3 per
cent of the population are of foreign birth
The state is largely rurak and agricultural, 78 2
per cent of the total population living in rural
districts, and about IS per cent living in
cities of over 8000 inhabitants The illiteracy
hi the state in 1900 was verv large, 165 per
cent of the total population ov^ ten years of age
being illiterate The percentage of illiterates
among the whites was 12 8 per cent and among
the colored people it was 40 1 nor cent This
hits boon materially reduced since 1900

In material conditions, the schools of the
•state, outside of the cities, make little better
showing Schoolhouses and school repairs are
still provided hugely by local subscription,
though the number built by voting bonds has
increased within recent years. As late as 1907
11.5 per cent of the schoolhouses of the state
were log houses, and but 1.5 per cent were of
brick or stone. Only 77 per cent of the school-
houses are reported as being supplied with
suitable desks and blackboards; 41 per cent as
being supplied with globes, maps, and charts;
while the average value of furniture and ap-
paratus was but $57 per schoolhousc, and the

KENTUCKY, STATE OF

KENTUCKY WESLEYAN COLLEGE

average value of schoolhouses and grounds was
$365 each. In the twenty-five cities of the
state good school buildings are provided

The school system of the state is as yet im-
perfectly organized, and the elementary school
system is only imperfectly developed The
establishment of graded schools will help to
round out the elementary school work, though
these can be organized only in the more thickly
populated districts, and few can be organized for
the negro race under the present laws In
1906-1907 there were 105 white and thirteen
colored graded schools in the state No sta-
tistics as to length of term of the county schools
are available, other than that only 8 per cent
of the schools are maintained for mere than
six months No statistics are available to
show the number of teachers who have had any
form of professional training, but the number
is not large

Teachers and Training — Up to 1906 the
preparation of white teachers for the state was
made in private institutions, but in that vear
two state normal schools for white teachers,
the eastern and the western state noimal
schools, were established by the legislature,
and both of these have done good work (luring
the short time they have been in existence
For the education of colored teacheis the stale
has for some time maintained the Kentucky
Normal and Industrial Institute for coloied
persons, an institution offering normal, agricul-
tural, mechanical, and domestic mstiuction

Secondary and Higher Education — Graded
schools have been oigamzed in many of the
towns, but a high school system for the state is
only now in the piocess of development The
new high school law of 1908 provides that the
county boards of education, by 1910, must
establish one or more county high schools in
each county riot having a first-class (iour-yeai)
high school, and directs the county boaids to
pTovidc for the free tuition of all pupils complet-
ing the course of study in the elemental y schools
of the county The law provides for the estab-
lishment of two, three, and four year high
schools, and provides that domestic science,
manual training, and elementary agriculture
shall form a part of all high school courses of
study. The funds for providing these schools
are rather meager, as all county boards of
education are allowed to levy a county school
tax of only twenty cents on the $100 lor all
purposes, and out of this fund the high schools
must be maintained With the awakening of
the state in all matters relating to education
which is now under way, a good system of
secondary schools may be expected to be de-
veloped before long

In higher education the state helps to main-
tain the State College of Kentucky (qr), lo-
cated at Lexington This institution owes its
origin to the Land Grants of 1862, the institu-
tion opening in 1866 In 1880 a state tax of
one cent was imposed for the benefit of the

college, and in 1904 an additional appropriation
of $15,000 per annum was made The institu-
tion is a combined agricultural and mechanical
college and a school of science and arts The
state also maintains the Kentucky Normal
Industrial Institute for Colored Persons, lo-
cated at Frankfort; two normal schools for
white teachers, the Kentucky Institute for
Feeble-minded Children at Frankfort, the
Kentucky School for the Deaf at Danville,
and the Kentucky Institution for the Educa-
tion of the Blind at Louisville Ten colleges
for men or for both sexes, and nine for women,
mostly denominational, supplement the one
state institution in providing collegiate instruc-
tion for the young people of the state

E. P. C.
References : —

Constitutions of Kentucky, 1792, 1799, 1850, 1891.
LEWIS, A F History of Higher Education in Ken-
tucky Circ Inf U S Bur Educ , No 3, 1899.
(Washington, 1H99 )
Rept Supt Pub Jnntr Ky , annual to 1885, biennial

from 1SS6-18K7 to date
School Law 8 of K <n tu< ky 1 908 ed .

KENTUCKY, STATE UNIVERSITY OF,
LEXINGTON, KY. — A coeducational in-
stitution founded in 1865 as a Land Grant
college as a constituent member of Kentucky,
now Transylvania, University In 1878 the
agricultural and mechanical college was sep-
arated from the university and in 1880 was
moved to Lexington Bv an act of the Gen-
eral Assembly the style and title of the institu-
tion was changed to State University At
present provision is made for departments of
agriculture, mechanic arts, and military science;
an experiment station is maintained; and in-
struction is offered in sciences and classics
The entrance requirements are about fifteen
units The university embraces an academy,
colleges of arts and science, agriculture, civil,
mechanical, and eleetucal engineering, law, and
a school of education The college ot law, to
which after 1911 only candidates v\ho can be
admitted to the freshman year of college work
will be admitted, gives a three-year com so
leading to the degree of LL B The School of
Education courses aie accepted by the state
for teachers' certificates of different giades
and duration There \\ere enrolled in 1909-
1910, 721 students, of whom 427 were collegi-
ate, 46 law, and 155 in the academy. The
faculty consists of 65 members

KENTUCKY WESLEYAN COLLEGE,
WINCHESTER, KY — A coeducational in-
stitution founded in 1863 and under the aus-
pices of the Kentucky Conference, Methodist
Episcopal Church, South It provides pre-
paratory and collegiate courses. The require-
ments for admission are fifteen points of high
school work Courses are offered leading to
the A B and B.S degrees The A M
degree is conferred after a year's work in resi-

595

KENYON COLLEGE

KERSEY

denee arid die pi emulation of a thesis. The
faculty consists of nine professors.

KENYON COLLEGE, GAMBIER, OHIO.

— Founded in 1824 as the theological seminary
of the Protestant Episcopal Church in the
diocese of Ohio The present title was adopted
in 1891 Candidates are admitted bv certifi-
cate from high schools or by examination,
the requirements being fifteen units The
college courses are divided into four groups,
the classical course leading to the A B degree,
the philosophical course leading to the Ph B
degree; the scientific leading to the B 8 and
the literary leading to the B L. The faculty
consists of twenty members

KEPLER, JOHN (1571-1630) — One of the
great astronomers, born at Weil in Wurttem-
bcrg After attending various schools, he
entered the University of Tubingen and studied
classics and theology. He found an oppor-
tunity to study the Copernican system privately
and devoted himself to the subject In 1594
he was appointed to the chair of mathematics
at Gratz, and had sufficient time to pursue his
astronomical studies In 1600 he became
Tycho Brahe's laboratory assistant arid in 1601
succeeded his master as imperial mathematician
and astronomer His fii st work which attracted
attention was the Mystenum Cosmoyraphicum
(1596) In 1609 he published Commentaries
on the Motions of Mars, the study of which
had been assigned to him by Tycho Brahe
In this work he established two important
rules (1 ) of the elliptical movement of planets,
(2) that the line joining the planet to the sun
sweeps out equal areas m any two equal in-
tervals of time In 1612 Kepler became a
teacher at Lmz and continued his investiga-
tions Between 1618 and 1621 he published'
(1) Epitome of the Copernican Astionomy, in
which his two previous laws are applied to
other planets besides Mars, the distance from
the earth to the sun is given with greater
accuracy than by previous writers, the eclipses
of the sun and moon are discussed and ex-
plained (2) Harmony of the Woild, in which
he formulated his third important rule that
" The squares of the times of revolution of
any two planets (including the earth) about
the sun are proportional to the cubes of their
mean distances from the sun." It was also in
this book that he discussed the " music of the
spheres," and gave a musical notation for each
of the planets. (3) Comets, which included an
account of the comet later known as Halley's
Comet. In 1627 he published the Rudolphme
Tables which were based on the observations
made by Tycho Brahe and himself While
Kepler is ranked among the leading astrono-
mers, much of what he wrote is of little value;
of a mystical temperament, he often gave him-
self up to wild speculations, allegorical interpre-

tations, and astrological explanations and pre-
dictions. On the whole, however, his method
of work was scientific, for however fanciful his
hypotheses may have been, he was untiring in
correcting these by thorough observation and
investigation.

References : —
BERRY, A. A Short History of Astronomy. (New

York, 1899 )
BREWSTER, SIR DAVID Martyrs of Science (London,

1846)

Livet> of Galilei, Tycho Brahe. and Kepler. (London,
1894)

KERLIN, ISAAC N (1834-1893) — Educa-
tor of feeble-minded and backward children
He was educated in the schools of New Jersey
and the University of Pennsylvania, taking a
medical degree in the latter institution in 1856
He engaged in teaching feeble-minded children,
and from 1858 to 1892 he was superintendent
of the Pennsylvania School for Feeble-minded
Children He was the author of a number oi
papers on the care and training of feeble-
minded and idiotic children W. 8. M

See FEEBLE-MlNDEDNESS

KERSEY, JOHN (1616-1690*0 —Teacher
of, and writer on, mathematics In 1650 he
was teaching in Covent Garden London, and
afterwards he removed to the Sign of the
Globe in Chandos Street, St Martin's Lane,
London In 1650 he published Anthmetiquc
Made Kasie, or a Pcifcct Methode for the true
knowledge and practice of Natural Arithmchquc,
according to the ancient vulgar waif, without
dependence upon any other A uthorfor the ground v
thereof By Edm Winyate, Esquire The
Second Edition, Enlarged (at the request and
unth the approbation of the A uthor vnth divert
chapters) . By John Kcrsei/, Teacher of
the Mathematiquex The late Professor Augus-
tus de Morgan described Wingate as " one of
the very best of the old vvnteis on arithmetic "
Kersey is also associated with Edward Cockei's
Decimal Arithmetic, 1684 On the title page it
is stated " Whereunto is added also his

Algebraical Arithmetic according to the

Method used by Mr John Kersey in his In-
comparable Treatise of Algebra " This had
been published, the first volume in 1673 and
the second in 1674, as The Elements of the
Mathematical Art, commonly called Algebra
This work received the commendation of some
of the best mathematicians, and became for
some time the standard work. The Prospectus
of John Kersey, which appears in the 1650
edition of Wingate's Arithmetic, shows the
mathematical teaching in probably the best
mathematical school of the times. F, W.

References : —

Dictionary of National Biography

\\ ATHON, FOHTRR Beginnings of the Teaching of Mod'
(rn Subjects in England (London, 1909)

596

KEUKA COLLEGE

KIEL

KEUKA COLLEGE, KEUKA PARK, NY

— A coeducational institution chartered in 1892
as a member of the University of the State of
New York. The first class was graduated in
1900. It is under the auspices of Free Baptists
and Disciples of Christ It maintains a prepa-
ratory institute, a college, and a department of
music. The admission requirements are about
fourteen units. The Regents College entrance
diploma is accepted The college offers courses
leading at the end of four years to the A B
and B 8. degrees Of the emollment of 107
students in 1910-1911, twenty-seven were in
the college. The faculty consists of fifteen
members

KEY. — See MUSICAL TERMS.
KHAYYAM. — See OMAR KHAYYAM.
KHOWARAZMI —See AL-KHOWARAZMI.

KIDDLE, HENRY (1824-1891). — School
superintendent and textbook author He was
principal of the first school established by the
New York Public School Board (1841-1848)
He was assistant superintendent of schools of
New York City, under Samuel S Randall (q v )
from 1856 to 1870, and city superintendent of
New York from 1870 to 1879 He was the
author of textbooks in astronomy, physics,
and grammar, of a series of school readers, and
of several manuals for teachers, and was co-
editor with Alexander Schem of a Cyclopedia of
Education W S M.

KIEL, THE ROYAL CHRISTIAN-
ALBRECHT UNIVERSITY OF — Founded by
Duke Christian Albert of Holstein-Gottorp in
1665, the plans for its establishment dating
back to the closing days of the Thirty Years'
War, while the imperial decree had boon secured
as early as 1652 from Emperor Ferdinand III
by Christian's father The institution was
opened under the most promising auspices, four
faculties with a teaching staff of sixteen pro-
fessors attracting no less than a hundred and
forty students at the very beginning, a num-
ber which rose to almost nine hundred during
the first decade of the university's life After
the death of the founder, the umveisitv was
seriously impoverished as a result of the strug-
gles which continued uninterruptedly between
the house of Gottorp and the kingdom of Den-
mark. The history of the university at this
time reads like that of an eighteenth-century
American college, for we learn of an instructor
who lectured on history, poetry, elocution,
natural philosophy, politics, mathematics, and
physics. But the attendance during the wmtei
semester of 1762-1763 had shrunk to three
students. Brighter days were in store for the
university, however, for at this time the duchies
of Rchleswig and Holstem were reunited under
Danish rule, and quiet was restored In 1768

King Christian VII issued a mandate m ac-
cordance with which all residents of Schleswig-
Holstein, who pursued university studies and
looked forward to a career in their native land,
were compelled to spend four semesters at the
University of Kiel Even under Danish rule
the university continued to reflect German
intellectual traditions and ideals, and politically,
too, there was a strong sentiment among the
faculty m favor of a reunion of the duchies with
Germany. This pro-German attitude came to
a head in 1848, when several of the professors
sided with the duchy in its attempt to throw
off the Danish yoke As a result eight mem-
bers of the faculty were dismissed after the
disturbance had been quelled After 1866 the
university flourished under Prussian rule, in
1876 a new lecture hall was built, which was
enlarged in 1902, while a library and a group
of institutes and laboratories have been elected
on the University hill. With these improve-
ments in equipment, and with the growing
importance of the city as a naval base, the
attendance of the university has grown
steadily of late and is still increasing, the sum-
mer enrollment being larger than the winter
registration on account of the charming loca-
tion of the city. The faculty of philosophy
includes departments of agriculture and veteri-
nary medicine, while the faculty of medicine
makes provision for the study of dentistry and
maintains, among others, a hygienic institute
and a clinic for nervous and mental diseases
A student union, the Seeburg, situated on the
shore of the bay, and, with the exception of
the Palaestra Albertina at Komgsberg, the only
one of its kind in Germany, has recently been
completed The library contains almost
800,000 volumes and over 25,000 manuscripts
The annual budget of the university amounts
to approximately $450,000. Among promi-
nent former teachers of the university may be
mentioned Von Jhcrmg in law, Stromeyer and
Oohnheim in medicine, Pfleiderer m philosophy,
Dahlmann, Droyssen, Waitz, and Von Treitschke
in history, Curtius, Mullenhoff, and Mobius
in philology, Hertz in physics, and Eichler m
botany Klaus Groth, the famous Low-German
( Plattdcutsch) author, was a docerit at Kiel for
several years

The faculty is composed of 75 professors and
64 docents In the winter semester of 1893-
1S94 Kiel ranked nineteenth m attendance
among German universities, but by 1911-1912
it had advanced to the sixteenth position In
the latter year there were enrolled 1861 stu-
dents, of whom 75 were auditors, the matricu-
lated students being distributed as follows
Philosophy 708, medicine 506, law 320, theology
(Protestant) 52 R. T., JR.

References : —

LEXIS, W Dae V nternchtswes&n im deutschen Reich,

Vol I, pp. 409-419 (Berlin, 1904)
MINERVA, Handbuch der gelehrten Welt, Vol I (Straae-

burg, 1911.)
597

KIEV

KINDERGARTEN

KIEV, UNIVERSITY OF —See RUSSIA,
EDUCATION IN

KILDARE PLACE SOCIETY. — See IRE-
LAND, EDUCATION IN.

KINJESTHETIC SENSATIONS —The sen-
sations which arise from moving the members
or from lifting weights and similar experi-
ences are known as kinspsthetie It has been
shown that there are sense organs in the
muscles and tendons and in the tissues about
the joints, and it has also been shown that the
sensations of movement and the others of this
group disappear or arc weakened whenever
these sense organs are anaesthetized, or when
the posterior roots of the cord through which
their impulses are transferred to the brain are
destroyed, as is the case in the disease known
as tabes. It is demonstrated that the kin-
aesthetic sensations arise from the sense organs
in muscle, tendons, and about the joints

W. B. P.

References : —

ANGELL, J R Psychology (New York, 1906 )
GOLDSCHEIDER, A Gesammeltc Abhandlungen, Vol. II.
(Leipzig, 189H )

KINASTON or KYNASTON, SIR FRAN-
CIS (1587-1642) — English scholar and poet,
of a Shropshire family He was at the Uni-
versity of Oxford 1601-1604, and also went to
Trinity College, Cambridge, and took his M.A
there in 1609. He was called to the bar at
Lincoln's Inn in 1611. In 1635 Kinaston
published a Latin verse translation of two books
of Chaucer's Troilus and Cressida The object
was to familiarize foreign as well as English
readers with Chaucer's subject matter and is
an excellent indication of the position of Latin
at the period for such a purpose Educa-
tionally, Kinaston is still more important on
account of his project in 1635 to convert his
own house in Bedford Street, Covent Garden,
London, following Sir Thomas Gresham's
(qv.) example, into a college, which he agreed
to furnish with books, manuscripts, musical
and mathematical instruments, paintings,
statues, etc., as well as charts, experiments,
secrets, and demonstrations He drew up The
Constitutions of the college, which he termed
the Musaeum Minervae (printed 1636) The
normal course was to be for three years and a
half, though it could be prolonged to seven
years. It was to be confined to gentlemen
The object of the institution was to prepare
the nobility and gentry with all necessary
instruction (e.g. in languages) before under-
taking foreign travel, which was then a part of
educational equipment. The officers were:
I. The Regent (in the first instance Kinaston
himself), who was to " see performed " —
Heraldry, Blazon of Coats and Arms, practical
knowledge of Deeds and Evidences, Principles
and Processes of Common Law, Knowledge of

Antiquities, Coins, Medals, Husbandry, etc
II. The Doctor of Philosophy and Physic
III The Professor of Astronomy who was to
teach Astronomy, Optics, Navigation, and Cos-
mography. IV. The Professor of Geometry
to teach Arithmetic, Analytical Algebra, Geome-
try, Fortification, and Architecture V The
Professor of Music to teach skill in singing and
music, to play upon Organ, Lute, Violl, etc.
VI The Professor of Languages for Hebrew,
Greek, Latin, Italian, French, Spanish, High
Dutch VII. The Professor of Defence, to
impart skill at all weapons and wrestling.

Other subjects to be taught in the Musaeum
were Riding, Dancing and Behavior^ Paint-
ing, Sculpture, Writing Further, Kinaston
intended to have attached a school for " the
young gentlemen whoso parents are desirous to
have them brought up in the Musaeum from
their first yeans " As much as possible all the
subjects were to be treated "by demonstration
and experiment " Every year each professor
was to give some rarity to the library from
his own branch of learning.

It was provided in one of the regulations
that opportunities should be taken by pointing
to examples of the leaders in their own time
and of their own ancestors to train the scholars
of the institution to serve as " an example,
help, reason, and happiness " to their inferiors
This project fell through on the death of Kinas-
ton in 1642 F. W.

See ACADEMY, COURTLY; GENTRY AND
NOBLES, EDUCATION OF.

References : —

Dictionary of National Biography

WATSON, FOSTER Beginnings of the Teaching of Modern
Subjects in England (London, 1905 )

KINDERGARTEN, THE —An institution
for furthering the systematic development of
children below the school age by the oigamza-
tion of their natural play instincts in accord-
ance with the principles upon which develop-
ment is based The name, which signifies a
children's garden or garden of childien, was
selected by its founder, Fneduch Fioebel (<y v ),
because it expressed the idea winch he wished
to convey, of development directed by a
knowledge of the organism to be developed,
and aided by the selection of a right environ-
ment. There is another aspect of the kinder-
garten, however, — its social aspect, — of which
this name gives no suggestion From this
standpoint it has been defined as "a society of
children engaged inxplay and m various forms
of self-expression, , through which the child
conies to learn something of the values and
methods of social life without as yet being
burdened by its technique." These widely
differing definitions indicate the complexity of
the institution

The kindergarten was the product of Froe-
bel's mature years, since he had been a teacher

598

KINDERGARTEN

KINDERGARTEN

for nearly a quarter century before the idea
of such an institution came to him It is with
the kindergarten that his name is chiefly asso-
ciated, however, and upon it that his fame will
ultimately rest He himself consideied the
evolution of the kindergarten as the crowning
achievement of hit* educational careei, the su-
preme effort of his creative genius This was
due in part to the fact that lie consideied it
the true foundation for effective school work
and therefore the right beginning of all educa-
tion, and in part to the fact that it embodies
as in a nutshell the aims, means, and methods
of education as he conceived it

Evolution of the Kindergarten — The doc-
trmes which the kindergarten embodies were
derived from many sources While Froebcl
was still a student at the Umveisity of Jena,
he came into contact with the idealistic philoso-
phy of which that university was the center,
and by later study he made its views his own
That philosophy interpreted the universe as
an organic* whole developing by means of a
self-developing spiritual principle, and man as
a part of that whole, whose end is to realize
himself as one of its members by means of his
o\ n self-activity (q v ) It interpreted the in-
stitution of society as expressions of man's
spiritual nature, and held that that spiritual"
development of the individual could onlv be
effected bv participation in them These
views led Froebel to form certain important
educational conclusions, — that education is in
reality a process of development, that because
man i« spintual and therefore creative, his
development must be effected by means of
creative self-activity, that since his spiritual
development is achieved by participation in the
organized life of his fellows education must be
social, and that the best agency for his develop-
ment during the early years is the child's own
characteristic form of activity, play yAll these
doctrines Froebel had accepted and applied in
his work with children of the customary school
age for many years. The idea of an institu-
tion for young children in which play organ i/ed
m accordance with these principles should be
the sole educational agency did not occui to
him until he was forced to consider the needs
of a group of young children in an orphanage
in Burgdorf, Switzerland, to the directorship
of which he had been appointed in 183,") It
was toward such an institution that his thought
hud been logically tending for some vears, and
it is not surprising that when the idea dawned
upon him, he should have given several years
to its elaboration

In the institution which Froebel conceived
he wished children to play with the freedom
which they feel in the home, and the person in
charge to organize and interpret their play
experiences in the spirit of the mother but with
an insight that the mother does not ordinal il\
possess The carrying out of his idea, there-
fore, meant that the child gardenei must be*

able to meet the children upon their own
plane and lead them to a higher one by guiding
their natural play impulses Froebel saw,
however, that, if play was to become an edu-
cational agency in this sense, it must be
organized in several respects The customaiv
forms of play needed to be analyzed and
classified with reference to the ends which each
tends to accomplish in the child's development,
and a progressive series of play instrumentali-
ties needed to be devised by which that, de-
velopment could be effected More nnpoitant
than even these was the determining from a
careful study of childien what the leading plav
interests are during the vears for which such
a form oi education was intended, and how
each may best be oigamzed In providing for
the child's physical development by means of
play, for example, his physical status during
the years between four and six, and the natuie
and degree of development possible to him,
must be determined* before plays and games
for the furthering of that development could
be devised A like study was needed befoie
the plays and games that tend towaid social
cooperation or toward constructive orspsthetic
effort could be created

Although the knowledge required foi such a
study of chilchen's play needs was inadequate
at this period, Froebel undertook the organi-
zation of the play instrumentalities which his
institution called for These instrumentalities
fall naturally into two groups, those in which
no material is needed, and those in which the
idea requires a medium for its expression In
the first belong the games of social cooperation
and contiol These are mainly of tw7o kinds,
— the dramatic games wrhose purpose is to
represent the activities of groups of social
VN orkers, such as the farmer, the carpenter, and
others, and the games of skill by means oi
v.hich the qualities needed for successful social
effort are cultivated The instrumentalities
which Fioebel invented for the progressive
development of the children's constructive and
aesthetic power are the materials known as the
" gifts and occupations " He had employed
modeling, weaving, sewing, etc , with oldei
children, and it was with the adaptation of
these to voung children that he now began.
He saw, however, that although progressive
exercises in each provided for continuity in
separate lines, the relation between them,
which he considered necessary, was lacking
He recognized the need, therefore, of a prin-
ciple of connection, not alone to bind together
the various forms of creative expression, but to
furnish a basis for expression of any kind
This gave him the idea of an organized series
of playthings from which children should gam
a progressive series of sense impressions. This
was the root idea of the kindergarten gifts.

For the first of these he selected a set of balls
of the six standard colors, for the second, the
tin «e fundamental forms, and for the several

599

KINDERGARTEN

KINDERGARTEN

immediately following, cubes differently di-
vided. From these he wished the children to
gain, progressively, ideas of color, form, num-
ber, dimension, etc., and the ideas thus gained
he intended them to work out creatively by
means of plastic material The gifts as an
organized series, therefore, furnished the central
principle which bound the several forms of
play material into an organic whole The
organization of a system of instrumentalities
which embodied the idea of progressive de-
velopment that he wished to see effected m the
child was therefore an important step in the
evolution of the kindergarten itself By the
establishing of unity in the material for play,
Froebel felt that he had made it possible to
bring about the higher unity required in true
educational effort, — that between the child
and the means by which his development is to
be effected There are additional reasons,
however, for Frocbel's choice of the objects
designated as gifts According to the thought
of the period, children have foregleams of
great principles in the form of " anticipa-
tions " and " premonitions " These principles,
it was behoved, could be brought to their con-
sciousness by play with the objects that sym-
bolize them The gifts are, therefore, not alone
the means of conveying fundamental sense im-
pressions, nor yet agencies for the exercise of
creative self-activity; they are symbols of
universal truths for children to absorb By
play with the first gift, Froebel believed that
thov would become conscious of the principle
of unity, and by play with the second of the
principle of mediation of opposites So im-
portant did he consider this second principle
that he not only embodied it in a gift, but
made it the principle of method in the gifts
and occupations alike This feature of the
gifts occasioned no little criticism when the
kindergarten doctrines were brought to the tost
of modern thought, as will be seen later.

The Kindergarten in Practice — With the
organization of the materials for play com-
pleted, the institution which Froebel had con-
ceived could come into existence. As has been
stated, the conception of such an institution
came to him in Bur,gdprf, Switzerland, in 1885
As an objective fact, it came into existence in
Blankenburg, Germany, in 1837 It is because
the name " kindergarten " was np{ adopted
until 1840 that the latter year is given as the
date when the first kindergarten was estab-
lished Blankenburg was a city of 2000 in-
habitants, about two miles from Keilhau, the
scene of Froebel' s earlier labors It afforded
many opportunities for the gardening arid
nature excursions upon which Froebel laid
great stress. A building adapted to the needs
of the experiment was difficult to find, how-
ever, and the little company of children met
in a disused powder mill In spite of the un-
attractive surroundings, the new institution was
at once Huccossful Froebel entered into a

play with the children so completely, and the
materials which he presented were so attrac-
tive, that the children were carried away with
enthusiasm, and never realized that their play
was being directed The exercises were simple
and informal, but similar in general character
to those of the kindergartens at present The
children formed a circle upon entering and
sang songs of greeting and thanksgiving
Then came a period of play with the organized
materials in which the children's experiences
were taken as a point of departure, and given
meaning and relation by Froebel After this
the children marched to the gardens, the woods
or fields, or the playground out of doors In
both the games and the nature observations,
the children's immediate interests formed the
starting point, and from these they were led
naturally to games or observations controlled
by those in charge. After the games or out-
of-door period, came another period of pla>
with the organized materials, and sometimes
stories were told From all accounts, Froobol
indeed " lived with the children " One writo'
says of theso first kindergartens " Although
the kindergarten system was then still in the
making, its spirit was there m a freshness and
wholeness that can hardly have been surpassed
since "

The kindergarten has made great progress
since Froebcl's day, although the play program
which he devised has not been materially
altered. The doctrines which the kindergarten
embodies are more clearly comprehended at
the present ; the agencies which it employs
have been greatly improved ; the program of
exercises has been elaborated ' and tho kmder-
gartners are better prepared to realize its
ideals. A more fundamental knowledge of the
child's nervous and muscular development has
shown the need of a larger material and more
active games than those which Froebel planned,
a clearer insight into his modes of thought has
created stones suited to his comprehension yet
tending toward the formation of true literary
tastes, and a better acquaintance with tho
facts of his musical development has brought
into existence songs that are childlike in
thought and musical feeling, but in harmony
with the fundamental principles of musical
art The kindergarten song, picture, and story
are recognized to-day as the best that the arts
which they represent can furnish

The program of oxercises in the kindergar-
ten has changed somewhat since Froebel's
day, although not wholly for the better.
There are but {ew kindergartens at present in
which the out-o5-door work receives the atten-
tion which Froebel gave it or which its im-
portance merits. Many other phases of the
kindergarten program have been elaborated
The opening period, originally devoted mainly
to songs, now generally includes more or less
organized conversation upon some phase of the

P.hi1r1rf>n;w f»vnprip>iif».o A nr^rmil i« frpmipntlv

children's experience A

600

is frequently

The Original Kindergarten Cuele at Blankenburg

A Public School Kindergarten at Work

Gardening i" an American Kindergarten

Kindergarten Circle in an American Public School.

The Pestalozzi-Froebol House at Berlin. The Original Kindergarten HOUHC at Blankenburg.

KINDERGARTEN EDUCATION.

KINDERGARTEN

KINDERGARTEN

devoted to musical interpretation, voice work,
or picture interpretation, but the games, and
gifts, and occupation exercises still receive the
greater share of attention. In many kinder-
gartens the gift and occupation exercises over-
shadow everything else

The work of the kindergarten has been
much criticized of late as being too formal
to be in accord with the principles of child
development. The foundation idea of the kin-
dergarten is that of development, and foimal
work is therefore out of harmony with it.s fun-
damental conception There IH but our phase
of kindergarten procedure which has a tendency
toward routine, — the work with the gifts and
occupations Froebel devised these as one of
several means to the child's development, ap-
parently of no greater significance than the
games or the garden and nature work. As
time passed, the balance between these several
agencies became disturbed, some being neg-
lected and others overemphasized The out-
of-door work has been almost eliminated, as
lias been stated The work with the gifts
and occupations, on the contrary, has received
an inordinate emphasis, for reasons given latei
But to select for emphasis the one among the
several agencies that tends toward the formal
and the mechanical is to give the work a direc-
tion that its founder could not have intended,
since it is out of harmony with the fundamental
idea which the kindergarten embodies It is
the undue emphasis that has been placed upon
the kindergarten material that has caused the
work of the kindergarten to become stereo-
tvped and formal. Jt is against thus feature
of its work that the " liberal " movement, dis-
cussed elsewhere, is directed

Status of the Kindergarten in Different
Countries. — The progress which the kinder-
garten has made during the seventy or more
years of its existence has surprised even its
friends It has found its way to every con-
tinent and its literature has been translated
into the world's leading languages. It was
introduced into almost every country in
Europe during the twenty years following Fioc-
bel's death in 1852, by his most distinguished
pupil, the Baroness von Bulow In some of
these countries the movement has made little
or no progress, and efforts in its behalf are un-
organized at the present time; in others the
kindergarten is replacing the infant school (q r ),
which had been organized to nv et the needs of
the pre-school period before the kindergarten
came into existence, and in others 10 has be-
come an organic part of the school system
In the countries of northern Europe the exist-
ing kindergartens are mainly private or charit-
able. They have existed in Holland since
1857 as a result of the Baroness von Bulow's
influence, and may now be found in all the
large cities. Institutions for kindergarten train-
ing have been established m Leyden and
Rotterdam. The state, however, does not

concern itbell \vith these. Dcmiuiik sent stu-
dents to Dresden in the early seventies to be
trained by the Baroness von Bulow, that they
might introduce the kindergarten into their
own country As a result, the movement has
had a steady growth, and kindergartens may
be found in the larger cities. Copenhagen has
as many as fifty, and a well-equipped training
school. There are no kindergartens in Noi-
way and very few in Sweden In Finland,
however, there are thiity or more, and a train-
ing school at Helsingfors Russia sent stu-
dents to Geimanv for training as early as
1801 There is a tiainiug school at St Peteih-
burg and some kmdeigartens in the large cities

In Spam and Portugal, too, as well as in
Home of the countries of southeastern Euiope,
the kindergarten has but a slight foothold A
kindergarten was opened in Oporto in 1879,
and at about the same time Spam sent seveial
students to Dresden for training. Upon then
return thcv established some kindergartens
and a training college at Madiicl The king
of Spain was trained by one of these kmder-
gartuers In the early seventies seveial
wealthy Greek viomen went to Dresden ioi
training and upon their return established
kindergartens in Greece Kindergartens ha\c
also been opened in Bulgaria, Rouinama, and
Scrvia, but in all of these countries actnc
effort in behalf of the kindergarten is blight
In many European countries the kindergarten
has had a greater growth and has exerted a
marked influence In Germany, however, but
little recognition has been given to it in spite
of the effort of the Baroness von Bulow and
other devoted friends of the cause The
centers of kmdergaiten influence in Germany
have been Hamburg, in which Fioebcl's widow
settled in 1854 to take up the work of kmdei-
garten training , Dresden, which the Baroness
von Billow made the chief scene of her labors,
and Berlin, in which citv Froebel's niece and
co-worker, Madame Schrader, built up the well-
known Pestalozzi-Froebcl Haus As a result
of these and other efforts the kindergarten LS
gaining strength in Germany, although it is
not likely that it will be made a part of the
system of public education. At the present
time, kindergartens are to be found in all the
large cities, supported in whole or in part by
municipal grants The Rewahranstalten, or
caretakmg institutions for children below the
school age had gained favor in Germany before
the kindergarten was conceived, and such in-
stitutions share with the kindergarten in public
favor In 1902 it was estimated that there
were over 800 kindergartens and Bewahranstal-
ten, in which 79,000 children were enrolled.

In Switzerland kindergartens have not been
made a part of the school system, but their
work is recognized as the true basis for that
of the school, and the private institutions
are rapidly being transferred to municipal au-
thority. As early as 1876, 206 private crtches

($01

KINDERGARTEN

KINDERGARTEN

were converted into kmdeigartcns under state
control in Geneva, under the able leadership
of Madame do Portugal! In 190(5 there \\ere
forty-seven municipal kindergartens in Zurich,
and seventy-three in Basel There aie also
several well-equipped training colleges

In Italy kindergartens are prnalc and
communal, although they receive grants from
the general government Kindergartens have
been established in at least one fourth of the
communes, Milan alone in 1908 having sixty-
five under communal, and eleven under pri-
vate, control Since children are allowed to
enter at the age of two and a half years, many
of the so-called kindergartens are in reality
creches, or dav nurseries, in which the educa-
tional features of the kindergaiten aie want-
ing The lack of trained kmdergartners is
the weakness of the Italian kindergartens
There arc some good training courses in con-
nection \vith the normal schools, and excellent
private training schools in Naples, Verona,
and Rome In the last named citv IH the
Royal Froebcl Institute, which received an
endowment from Victor Emmanuel 1 1 (See
MONTESSORI METHOD )

England and France arc the principal Emo-
pean countries that have retained the infant
school instead of adopting the kindergarten
But the Froebehan doctrines have had a
marked influence upon the infant schools of
England, and the movement in that country
is of great interest. The first kindergartens
were opened in London and Manchester in
1S54, as a result of the Baroness von Bulow's
effort Many of the leaders are known to
kindergartneis the world over They have
directed their efforts, not to the establishing
of kmdergartners, but to the modification of the
methods employed m the infant schools (q p )
Official recognition of Froebehan principles was
given in the Education Department's Circu-
lar (322) on the Instruction of Infants (1893)
This necessitated the organization of courses
of instruction for the teachers, the estab-
lishment of courses in the training colleges,
and the inspection of the work done In
1896 there were thirty or more institutions
that gave kindergarten instruction, and ten
kindergarten colleges proper This has prove 1
a task of some magnitude in view of the fact
that in 1900 there were enrolled in the infant
schools of England 622,494 children below
the age of five years Of the results, Mr.
R E Hughes says in his Making of Citizens,
"In the best English infant schools a profound
revolution has taken place during recent years.
Formal lessons in the Three R's have disap-
peared and the whole of the training of the
little ones has been based on the principles of
the kindergarten as enunciated by Froebel.
Much of the old routine still remains, neverthe-
less there is no part of the English educational
system so brimful of real promise as the work
that is being done in the best Infant Schools "

(Sec ENGLAND, EDUCATION IN,
SCHOOLS )

The Baroness von Bulow's efforts in France
in 1855 resulted in many reforms in the m-
lant schools of that country. Their reorgam-
/ation upon a Froebelian basis continued for
several years, but as the result of the feeling
aroused by the Franco-Prussian war, every-
thing German, even the name kindergarten,
was rejected, and .progress in that line came
to an end In 1906-1907 the Ecolcs Mater-
nelles enrolled 651,955 children between the
ages of two and six years Their work is
well organized and their equipment fair, but
their education! work leaves much to be De-
sired (See FRANCE, EDUCATION IN )

If the real purpose of the kindergarten is \,o
furnish the right beginning for the work of
the school, that purpose is best realized in
Belgium and Austria-Hungary, since these
countries have adopted the kindergarten as
a part of the school system Belgium had a
system of infant schools for children between
the ages of three and six years, but in 1857 the
Baroness von Bulow convinced the Belgian
authorities of the wisdom of reorganizing these
on a kindergarten basis, and the E coles Gardi-
cnnes or Jaidin* d' Enfants are now in effect
true kindergartens In 1905 there were 2771
such institutions in the country, which were at-
tended by 258,149 children, one half of those
between the ages of three and six in the country.
In completeness of equipment, in the prepara-
tion of its teachers, and in the quality of work
done the Janiin* d' Enfants of Belgium may
well serve as a model for other countries.

In Austria-Hungary infant schools had been
organized before the kindergarten was invented,
but the influence of Froebcl began to be felt
even during his lifetime, and the transforma-
tion of the ml ant schools was gradually effected
In 1872 kindergartens were made a part of the
school system In 1903 there were 77,000
children between the ages of three and six years
in the kindergartens of Austna, and 154,000 in
those of Hungary There is also a completely
organized system of day nurseries, which enrolled
152,000 children The kindergartens of Hun-
giry are among the best in the world and may
be classed with the best Swiss and American
kindergartens The equipment U admirable
and the spirit and training of tLo teachers
excjllent There are many gooJ training
schools

The kindergarten has gained a foothold
on other continents also Those in Asia and
Africa are in the main the result of missionary
effort by the leading churches of the United
States In Buenguella, Portuguese West Af-
rica, there are kindergartens in four out of
five mission stations There is another such
kindergarten in Umtali, Rhodesia There
are a few kindergartens in other parts o£
Africa, — in Cisambia, Bailundu, Machakos,
and Cape Town

602

KINDERGARTEN

KINDERGARTEN

in Asui the kindergarten is in large measure
tne product of American missionary enterprise.
In Asiatic Turkey there were in 1896 twenty-
eight kindergartens, the outgrowth of a mission
kindergarten opened in Smyrna in 1885 In
India there are several kindergartens and
training schools of missionary origin, — one
at Lucknow, in connection with Thoburn Col-
lege, and one at Sholapur Kindergartens may
also be found in Calcutta, Bombay, ( 'awnpore,
Madras, and several other cities There are
several kindergartens in connection with mis-
sions in Burma, and at least two in China, one
in Foochow, and one in Penang In Foochow
there is also a training school In Japan the
kindergarten is a conspicuous part of the mission-
ary work A kindergarten and training school
were oiganized in Kobe College, one of the
important renters for training of girls, in 1889,
under the leadership of Miss Annie L Howe
This has had a wonderful development Several
other training schools have been organized since
that time

In Japan, however, the kindergarten had
been adopted before it became an agency in
the missionary work of that country When
Japan reorganized its educational system upon a
western basis in the early seventies, it sent to
Germany for some one to introduce the kin-
dergarten into its educational plan As a
consequence, a kindergarten was opened in
connection with the Female Higher Normal
School in Tokyo, in 1876, and the adoption
of the kindergarten as a part of the public
school system was provided for In 1904
there were 185 public, and nearly a hundred
private, schools In these 24,000 children be-
tween the ages of three and six years were
enrolled In buildings, gardens, playgrounds,
and in general equipment the kindergartens
compare favorably with the best in America.
Training work has not been adequately oigan-
ized, however, and many kindergartners are
not well trained This is not surprising in view
of the many difficulties to be overcome The
fact that Japan has already done so much is
proof that she will do still more The fact
that the leading country of the Orient has
adopted the kindergarten will insure a like
adoption by other Oriental countnes in the
near future (See JAPAN, EDUCATION IN )

In Australia the kindergarten has not gamed
as strong a foothold as one would expect
The school system is based upon that of Eng-
land and the problem is therefore that of sub-
stituting the kindergarten for the infant school,
or reorganizing the latter in accordance with
the principles of Froebel The centers of
kindergarten work and influence are Sydney,
Melbourne, and Adelaide Sydney stands
at the head of the movement in Australia.
It has a fully equipped training college, with
a staff of American trained teachers The col-
lege has about fifty students In this city
the tendency is to substitute kindergartens

for the infant schools, and theie arc theieforo
several public kindergartens, as well as pri-
vate ones The Educational Depaitment of
New South Wales has become convinced of the
value of kindergartens, and is establishing them
in the public schools of the province wheievei
possible The work in Melbourne has also been
of great value Something along kindergarten
lines was attempted in the infant schools of this
city as early as 1887 In 1900 the reorganiza-
tion work of the infant schools upon a kinder-
garten basis was begun and much has been
accomplished in that direction Reforms in
this direction have also been introduced in
Adelaide

In South America the kindergarten has ap-
parently made but little progress Some kin-
dergartens were organized in Buenos Aires and
elsewhere in Argentine in the nineties, but the
training of the kindergartners was apparently
very inadequate, and in 1900 all these in Buenos
Aires were closed by the Board of Public Edu-
cation Miss Sara C Eccleston, who has given
kindergarten instruction in the normal school at
Buenos Aires for nearly twenty years, said with
reference to this that " the imitations winch
were permitted to flourish for a time have been
a great hindrance to the advance of the sys-
tem " She adds, " As there are now several
members on the board who have an idea of how
a genuine kindergarten should be conducted, it
is to be hoped that what seems to be a blow at
the system is but a means to reestablish the
institutions under proper conditions " What
the present status of the kindergarten in that
country is could not be ascertained In Uru-
guay the introduction of kindergartens was
arranged for by the sending of students to
Germany and Belgium for training by the
government The results of this effort made
in 1890 could not be learned In Chile some
kindergartens have been opened, arid some
kindergarten instruction is given in the nor-
mal school at Santiago In 1908 the gov-
ernment sent its leading kindergartner to
the United States for observation This will
doubtless give the movement in that country
an impetus toward kindergarten effort In
Brazil one or two kindergartens have been es-
tablished as a result of missionary effort in the
United States In Mexico the kindergarten
situation is not unlike that in the countries
of South America There are ten or more
kindergartens in the City of Mexico, and a few
m other parts of the' country Here, too,
the training of kindergartners is very inade-
quate, since it is only such as can be obtained by
the study of kindergarten books The attempt
is being made to improve this by improving
and developing the kindergarten instruction
in the Curls' Normal School of the City of
Mexico

In the United States the kindergarten has
found a cordial reception and its doctrines
have exerted a great influence. This country

603

KINDERGARTEN

KINDERGARTEN

has a creditable number of kindergartens, but
the success of the movement is not measured
by that alone; it is measured as fully by its
reorganization of the school, and the appli-
cation of its principles to other fields The
first kindergarten in the United States was
opened in Watertown, Wis , in 1855, by Mrs
Carl Schurz, a pupil of Froebel. During the
next fifteen years ten or more German kin-
dergartens were organized in German-speak-
ing communities The first kindergarten for
English-speaking children was opened in Bos-
ton in 1860, by Elizabeth P Pcabody, who is
usually considered the apostle of the kinder-
garten in the United States In 1868 Madame
Matddc Knege and her daughter came from
Germany to organize kindergarten training in
Boston, and in 1872 Miss Marie Boelte, now
Madame Kraus-Boelte, organized kindergarten
training classes in New York City The follow-
ing year, her pupil, Miss Susan E Blow, in coop-
eration with W. T. Harris (q v ), opened the first
public school kindergarten in St Louis, Mo.
The movement grew rapidly and St Louis be-
came one of the chief centers of kindergarten
influence At about the same time a kinder-
garten was opened in the German-English
Academy of Milwaukee, Wis , and training
courses were organized both in German and
English by the president, W N Ilailman,
and his wife, Eudora L Hailman The first
kindergarten in Chicago was opened in 1874
by Mrs Alice H. Putman, and training work
under her direction was inaugurated soon
after In 1880 four hundred kindergartens had
been opened in thirty different states, and kin-
dergaiten training had been organized in ten of
the leading cities During the decade from
1880 to 1890 kindergarten associations were
organized in all the important cities of the
country for the promotion of the kindergarten
cause Many of these opened kindergartens
in the poorer parts of their respective cities,
and thus proved the value of the kindergarten
to educational authorities In consequence,
kindergartens were increasingly incorporated
into the school system. From 1890 on, the
increase in public school kindergartens has
been rapid In 1903-1904 the Report of
the Commissionsr of Education showed that,
there were over 3000 public kindergartens,
which were attended by nearly 200,000 chil-
dren The number of private kindergartens
is supposed to be about 1500.

With the growth of the movement there has
been a great increase in the number of kin-
dergarten training schools. At first these
were all private or were supported by kinder-
garten associations There are at least a
hundred of these at present. In addition,
kindergarten training departments have been
organized in more than seventy state normal
schools, and nearly twenty colleges and uni-
versities. This growth has been made possible
by the enactment of laws in twenty-seven states,

604

legalizing the expenditure of public school
funds for the education of children below the
legal school age, In eight states the kinder-
garten may be established without legislation
The kindergarten therefore has a legal foot-
hold in all but eleven states It has also been
adopted in Cuba, in Porto Rico, and the
Philippines.

The kindergarten in the United States has
been the stimulus to the adoption of the kin-
dergarten in Canada This was the direct
result of a visit made to the kindergartens
of St Louis by Mr. J L Hughes of Toronto
in 1882, at the request of the department of
education of the Province of Ontario The
result was the adoption of the kindergarten as
a part of the school system in that province,
Miss Ada Marean, now Mrs Ada Maiean
Hughes, being appointed supervisor of lundei-
gartens in Toronto Before the end of the
decade the other cities of the piovince had
adopted kindergartens, and training depart-
ments had been organized in the normal
schools at Toronto, Ottawa, and London In
1905 there were 130 kindergartens in the pro\-
mce, which were attended by 12,000 children

In the province of Quebec there are public
kindergartens in Montreal only. The move-
ment in this city was inaugurated in 1892,
and in 1905 there were sixteen public kinder-
gartens in the city and suburbs. There is
a kindergarten training department in the
McGill normal school. In other Canadian
provinces the kindergarten has found less
foothold In New Brunswick there have been
private and mission kindergartens since 1880,
but it was not until 1910 that public kinder-
gartens, two in number, were opened in St
John. In Nova Scotia there are three public
kindergartens, and a kindergarten training
department in the normal school at Truro.
In Winnipeg there are only private and chari-
table kindergartens. The need of kindergar-
tens in the western provinces is conceded,
however, and its extension to that field is but
a matter of time.

Influence of the Kindergarten. — The rec-
ognition which the kindergarten has received
the world over is proof that it possesses excep-
tional educational value. Its doctrines, based
upon the conception of evolution before the
theory had been worked out, are in fundamental
accord with modern thought, and have in re-
cent years received signal indorsement from the
evolutionary sciences. As the world's thought
has been reconstructed on the basis of these
sciences, the value of the kindergarten has been
increasingly recognized. The critical study
which it has received during recent years
has satisfied educational experts that the con-
ception of education which it embodies is
essentially the true one. In spreading that
conception, and in indicating the reconstruc-
tion in general education which must follow
its acceptance, the kindergarten has been a

KINDERGARTEN

KINDERGARTEN

significant influence. By showing the vital
interest that children take in doing, the kin-
dergarten demonstrated at one stroke that
activity, ba^ed upon the child's stage of de-
velopment, forms the true basis for education.
By revealing the ^child's delight m beauty, it
indicated the value of art as an educational
factor; and by illustrating the pleasure and
profit that children derive from games and other
forms of social cooperation it suggest od a means
for the child's social development that had not
thus far been utilized for educational purposes
It demonstrated these truths for one period
only, but from that demonstration their appli-
cation to the rest could easily be inferred The
application of these truths to educational
procedure beyond the kindergarten has as
yet made little progress except in a few coun-
tries. Although kindergartens flourish in Ger-
many its doctrines are wholly unrecognized in
the work beyond the kindergarten But in
Belgium, Switzerland, Austria-Hungary, and
Italy, these same doctrines have exerted a
marked influence, not alone in transforming
the infant schools, but in reconstructing that
in the grades beyond And although Eng-
land has not adopted the kindergarten, a com-
plete reorganization of the infant schools is
in progress on the basis of its principles, and a
reorganization of the work beyond as well
It is in the United States that the application
of the kindergarten doctrines to the work
beyond the kindergarten has made the great-
est progress, and what follows applies mainly
to that country. The fact that the elementary
curriculum is being reconstructed in the United
States on the basis of the child's developing
powers at different periods, that subjects involv-
ing activity, such as art and manual training,
are being accorded an important place there,
and that games and other forms of cooperative
effort are being incorporated into school life, - -
all these changes are due in no small degree
to the influence and example of the kinder-
garten.

It is not alone in the reorganization of the
curriculum upon a psychological basis, how-
ever, that the influence of the kindergarten is
apparent; it is discernible also in a new con-
ception of method. Upon the old basis little
was asked of the child in the educational
process except receptivity. According to the
new, as illustrated in the kindergarten, the
child must make his contribution of self-active
effort before the teacher can furnish the inter-
pretation and guidance which constitute her
contribution On this basis, educational
method is a process of interaction between the
child and the teacher, in which the child con-
tributes the impulses and interests, and the
teacher the organization of these toward their
educational ends. The attitude toward chil-
dren which this calls for is illustrated by the
kindergartner, whom the children regard as
a companion rather than as a teacher. Such a

method calls for even more than sympathetic
insight, it calls for a knowledge of the chil-
dren's piogressive development at different
stages, and the means of furthering it that was
not demanded of the teacher in the earlier day
That the spirit which this conception of method
inplies has already permeated the school in
large measure is apparent The work in ait,
in manual training, in music, and in language
shows that the teacher seeks to secure fiom the
children original expression, upon which she
may exercise hei function of guidance, for the
purpose of leading them to higher levels of
insight and power.

The influence of the kindergarten is apparent
in still another direction The school is organ-
ized upon a monarchical principle Its chief
virtue is obedience to an external authority
The practice of that virtue does not, however,
fit children for a self-governed life among their
equals. The qualities needed foi such a life
are acquired unconsciously in the kindergarten
by participation in cooperative plav That
institution is based upon the principles of
democracy. It has, m fact, been called " the
republic of childhood." It t>eoks to form
correct habits of social action in children, but
to do even more, — to lead them upon t he basis
of their own social experiences to a compiehen-
sion of and a recognition for the need of social
laws As a result of an insight into this truth
the school has recognized that the development
of self-governing power in children mav be
made an organic part of its procedure, and that
such development is quite us important an
educational end as the teaching of the school
arts It is, therefore, progressively organizing
its work upon a cooperative and self-govern-
ing basis, and is becoming, hko the kinder-
garten, a rmmatme society in which the la\\>
underlying social coordination a^d control ar<
learned by practice

These are a few of the more important lines
in which the kindergarten has influenced general
education It is difficult to trace that influ-
ence, however, since the doctrines of Froebel
have become interwoven with allied doctrines
derived from other sources. Dr Monroe says
"The Froebelian movement is characterized
by an emphasis upon the importance of the
child, upon his interests, experiences, and
activities as the starting point and means of
introduction, and by an improvement in the
spirit, purpose, atmosphere, and morale of
the schoolroom Whenever the emphasis in
school work is placed upon the activities of the
child rather than upon the technique of the
process of instruction, and whenever develop-
ment of character and personality is sought
rather than mere impartation of information
and training of intellectual abilities, there the
Froebelian influence may be recognized."

Modern Tendencies. — The effort to apply
the doctrines of the kindergarten to general
education had an effect upon the kindergarten

605

KINDERGARTEN

KINDERGARTEN

itself that was hardly anticipated Upon its
adoption by the school the kindergarten was
brought to the test of present-day knowledge
of the child's development, — a knowledge far
greater than that possessed by Froebel himself
That test revealed the fundamental truth
which the kindergarten embodies, but it re-
vealed also defects hitherto unrecognized — the
result either of Froebel' s inadequate knowledge
of the facts of child development or of his inter-
pretation of these facts in a manner not sanc-
tioned by modern scholarship The smallness
of the kindergarten material and the lack of
adequate activity in the games resulted from
Froebcl's inadequate knowledge, the symbolic
basis in the gifts grew out of his belief that the
children have anticipations of universal truths
in advance of experience, and that they may
become conscious of these by means of play
with materials which symbolize them This
challenging of kindergarten theory and prac-
tice caused considerable hostile feeling among
kmdergartners who had thus far accepted the
Froebelian doctrines without question, and
considered the doctrine of symbolism as not
only sound because sanctioned by rational
psychology, but of especial importance. It
was m fact regarded by many kmdergartners
as the keystone in the arch of kindergarten
education and the justification for the exalta-
tion of kindergarten instrumentalities In
time the differences between the theory and
practice of those holding these different atti-
tudes became more clearly defined and the
terms "conservative" and "liberal" were
adopted to designate them. The work of the
two schools which have thus grown up shows
considerable divergence. That of the con-
servative school follows quite closely the
traditional lines, although it shows that the
criticisms have not been without effect In
consequence the size and quality of the materials
has improved in even the most conservative
kindergartens; the games are better adapted
to the children's physical needs, and the "oc-
cupations" are used with a better apprecia-
tion of the principles that underlie art education.
The theory and practice of the liberals has
not been fully worked out as yet. They recog-
nize the need for an interpretation of the
universe such as philosophy gives as a basis
for education, but they maintain that in the
nature of the case no such interpretation can
be final. Any interpretation implies an ade-
quate basis of facts, arid this the inductive
science alone can furnish Although the end
of education must be found in the interpreta-
tion of the facts, they agree with the educational
expert in believing that the method of educa-
tion cannot be deduced from philosophy but
must be found m the observed facts of child
life, i.e. in the sciences. Basing their method
upon genetic psychology, the liberals interpret
education according to Froebel, as the pro-
gressive organization of the impulses that have

educational significance, — the impulses to
communicate, to dramatize, to represent, and
to construct. They value the kindergarten
instrumentalities chiefly because of their power
to satisfy and thus to organize these various
impulses, and consider that the Froebelian
ideal of education has been realized when the
children's responses to the stimuli of the mate-
rials have been guided to a higher plane than
they could themselves reach The liberals,
therefore, use the kindergarten material " on
a basis of selection and elimination rather than
as a related whole whose value is lost if the
charmed circle of unity be broken " Thus
the whole tendency of the liberal movement is
away from the formalism into which the work
of the kindergarten has fallen and which has
brought it into disfavor, and in the direction of
that for which it was originally created, — the
child's natural development The movement
has already had an appreciable effect in lessen-
ing the mechanical work against which criti-
cism has been directed and in bringing back into
the kindergarten the childlikeness that pre-
vailed there in FroebeFs own day The
liberal kmdergartners believe that the recon-
struction of kindergarten thought and practice,
which they are attempting to effect, will not
only make the kindergarten a more perfect
instrument for its mission to the world's little
children, but a more perfect one likewise for
the dissemination of the doctrines which it
embodies, — the doctrines of the new edu-
cation N. C V.

See FROEBEL, FKIEDRICH, and articles on
the various National Systems of Education;
also INFANT SCHOOLS, INFANT EDUCATION

References —

COLE, P R Herbai t and Frotbd, An Attempt at Syn-
thesis (New Yoik, 1907 )

Elementary School Teacher, University of Chicago
Articles on Kindergarten Revision, Vols IX and X

England, Hoard of Education Special Kiports on
Educational Subjedv (London, 1°-08-1()09 ) o
Provision made for children under the compulsory
school age, in Belgium, France, Germany, and
Switzerland, Vol XXII b Notes on the provision
made for the teaching of young children in foieign
countries and British colonies, Appendix to Vol
XXII

MARENHOLTZ-BULOW, B VON Life of Baroness von
Marenholtz-Billow (New York, 1901 )

MATVANNEL, J A Educational Theories of Herbart
and Frorbel (New York, 1906 )

MACVANNEL, J A , and HILL, P. S Kindergarten.
Problems (New York, 1909 )

MITHAELIH, E , and MOORE, H K Letters on the
Kindergarten (Syracuse, 1897 )

MONROE, PAUL Textbook in History of Education
(New York, 1905)

Report of Committee of Nineteen, Report of Inter-
national Kindergarten Union, 1908

The Kindergarten and its Relation to Elementary Edu-
cation Sixth Year Book of Society for Scientific
Study of Education, and Supplement to same
(Chicago, 1907 )

VANDE WALKER, NINA C The Kindergarten in Amerir
can Education (New York, i908 )

KINDERGARTEN AND THE ELEMEN-
TARY SCHOOL. — See KINDERGARTEN.

606

KINDERGARTEN

KINDERGARTEN

KINDERGARTEN, HYGIENE OF THE

— The physical characteristics oi the child of
three to six are such that the primary aim of the
kindergarten should be healthful develop-
ment and protection from disease. Not only
is the child at this period growing rapidly and
its brain undeveloped, but its organism is
poorly protected from contagious disease
The constituents of the blood are different in
rase of the child and in case of the adult. The
numbci of white blood corpuscles in the blood,
whose function is to destroy invading germs,
ic the leucocytes with bactericidal ponei,
according to some investigator, is much less
In other ways the child's protection seems to
be inferior. Experiments upon animals have
shown that young animals are likely to be
more susceptible to contagion than mature
animals, and the statistics of the ordinary
children's diseases show that most of them
occur in the early years of childhood The
mortality, also, is usually greater in the eaily
years It has been estimated that more than
90 per cent of the mortality from the oidmary
children's diseases, scarlet lever, diphthena,
measles, and whooping cough, occurs before
the age of ten (See CONTAGIOUS DISEASES,
MORTALITY AMONG SCHOOL CHILDREN )

Most of these diseases not only occur moie
frequently, but are more fatal in the eailv
yeais Infantile paralysis is perhaps the otilv
marked exception In case of this disease it
is said that, while children are moie ficquently
attacked, it is more fatal to adults Extended
studies of measles have given emphatic CM-
dence of the importance oi protecting child i en
at the kindergarten age Studies in Munich
and Ciraz indicate that the mortality among
children between two to fi\e years of age is
between 26 per cent and 5 per cent, \\hile
among children from five to ten years of age
it is only from .1 to 4 per cent. In other
words, if an epidemic of measles oeeuis in the
kindergarten, out of a thousand cases fortv
children are likely to die, while, if it is possible
to postpone the epidemic, even to the primary
school age, there are likely to be only three or
four fatal cases in a thousand (See CON-
TAGIOUS DISEASES; and articles on separate
diseases, eg COLDS; DIPHTHERIA etc)

Hence, the first duty of the kindergarten is
to protect the children. It should never
become the breeding-place for the school
diseases For this protection of the children
the kindergartners must have an intelligent
training in hygiene, and special records of the
health condition of the kindergarten children
should be kept It should bo possible for the
teacher and the higher school officials to know
at once from adequate records just how many
unprotected children theie are, or how much
inflammable material is present in the class
whenever a case of contagious disease occurs.
Only in this way can rational and effective
measures be adopted If a case of measles,

607

for example, occurs, and most of the children
have not had the disease, the kindergarten
should at once be closed. If, on the other
hand, the majority of the children have already
had the disease, the individual children that
are unprotected can be excluded, but closure
is unnecessary.

In regard to the schoolhouse for the kinder-
garten, there is a growing opinion that as far
as possible the work should be out of doors,
and only m inclement weather should the
occupations be in the house Whether in or
out of doors, the ordinary rules of school
hygiene should be observed Care should be
paid to the children's eyes, children with
defective hearing should have special atten-
tion; and cleanliness should be everywhere
enforced

The kindergarten room should be large and
well \entilated, the walls plain with simple
hospital base without wainscoting, or the like,
to catch the dust The chairs should be
arranged for occupation so that the light comes
from the left and the rear of the children and
none of the children face the sunlight The
blackboards should be low, and in the toilet
rooms the bowls and sinks low, individual
drinking cups used, or better a fountain of the
improved modern type provided Individual
towels, or paper napkins, or the like, should be
used, the clav shouli be disinfected every
da\ , and all kindergarten apparatus disinfected
at intervals Especially to be condemned are
dry sweeping, the use of feather dusters, the
common towel, and common drinking cup
(See BLACKBOARDS, CLEANLINESS OF THE
SCHOOLROOM, DESKS AND SEATS, DRINKING
FOUNT UNS, etc )

The air of the kindergarten room should
not only be kept clean and be of the proper
temperature, probably not more than 65° F ,
but it should be moistened by suitable devices,
if nothing bettor offers, bv a large shallow vessel
of water on the stove or radiator. The extreme
dryness of the air in many schoolrooms causes
discomfort and many colds and sore throats
(See AIR OF THE SCHOOLROOM )

As the kindergarten occupations consist
largely of physical exercise and the use of the
voice, the best modern methods of cleaning
should 1)0 used, a vacuum cleaner if possible;
if not, sleeping with oil preparations or the
kerosene oil brush at night and wiping off
the furniture and apparatus with a moist cloth
m the morning (See CLEANLINESS OF THE
SCHOOLROOM )

Finally, especial care should be given in the
kindergarten to the hygiene of the nervous
system At this period, when the brain is in
process of rapid growth and development,
when much of the nervous substance is imma-
ture, it is important that there should be no
undue stimulation either by too complex and
too fine occupations, by overstimulatmg plays,
or by unduly exciting stories, and the like.

KINDERGARTEN

KINDER MANN

The interest of kindergarten children can be
easily kept by simple occupation , excitine
stories and occupations are unnecessary and
unwise, and likely to leave the children in a
blase condition, unfortunate from the point of
pedagogy, as well as that of hygiene It is
maintained by Professor Tyler, President Hall,
and some others, that the fundamental nerve
centers controlling the large muscles of the
different physiological series, and functioning
the simpler and larger movements must bo
developed in the early years, if the normal
development and the health of the nerves in
later life are to be insured These funda-
mental nerve centers form the line ot defense
for the whole body, arid any promatuie de-
velopment of the accessory centers, those
functioning in the finer and more complex
movements, is distinctly to be condemned for
hygienic reasons. Thus, the activitv in the
kindergarten should be spontaneous motor
activity, as far as possible the simple plays and
games and simple occupations All of the gifts
and apparatus should be large, the occupations
and exercises should involve the larger muscles;
all fine delicate and complex processes are
put of place For example, the use of a hammer
in driving a nail is a more healthful occupation
for the kindergarten child than the threading
of a needle; for the former involves the use of
the large muscles of the hand and the arm,
while the latter requires the delicate and
complex coordination of the muscles of the eye
and fingers Some kmdergartners seem to
suppose that if in the finer occupations the
work is held at a suitable distance from the
eyes, that is all that is necessary, but a great
part of the children probably at the kinder-
garten have hyperopic eyes, and their ai ins are
not long enough, so that it is possible for them
to hold the book or the work at the proper dis-
tance. The larger occupations are also neces-
sary for their positive value

The main business of the child at the kinder-
garten age is physical growth and spontaneous
motor activity. Thus the primary aim of the
kindergarten should be to protect the child
from disease at all cost, to give opportunity
for spontaneous normal development, and to
develop habits of healthful activity both physi-
cal and mental. All scholastic acquisitions
are of secondary importance and any formal
scholastic training is out of place, and, if
obedience be taught, other necessary social
training will come spontaneouslv from associa-
tion in group activities

In recent years, improvements have been
niade in the kindergarten and there is a grow-
ing interest in all matters of health pertaining
to the kindergarten child. The reforms espe-
cially needed at the present time are the follow-
ing: (1) Clear and emphatic enunciation of
health and normal development as the primary
aim of the kindergarten. (2) The training of
all kindergarten teachers m school and per-

sonal h}gienc (3) The adoption of modern
methods of scientific cleanliness, which involve
the abolition of common drinking cups, com-
mon towels, and the like. (4) The organiza-
tion of the kindergarten out of doors for all
occupations at all seasons of the year when the
weather will permit (5) Care of the nervous
system by the avoidance of all forms of pre-
mature stimulation, fine and difficult ^ work,
and the like (6) Competent health inspec-
tion with an adequate system of health records
for each pupil and the adoption of modern
methods in the management of contagious
diseases W. H. B.

See also CHILD PSYCHOLOGY; CHILD STUDY;
GROWTH, KINDERGARTEN.

References —

AHT. ISAAC' A An Inquiry into the Status of the Kin-
dergarten Reprinted from Archives of Pediatrics

April, 1909, Vol. XXVI
BUUK, F and G A Study of the Kindergarten Problem

(San Francisco, 1899 )
BURNHAM, W H The Hygiene of the Kindergarten

Kindergarten Review, June, 1909, Vol XIX, No.

10, pp 590-599
The Hygiene of the Kindergarten Child Proc

N E A , June, 1904, pp 416-422
EBY, F The Reconstruction of the Kindergarten

Pcd Sem , July, 1900, Vol VII, pp 229-280
HALL, G S The Pedagogy of the Kindergarten

Educational Problems, Vol I, pp 1-41. (Now

York, 1911 )
KERGOMARD, P and BR|JB, S U Enfant de 2 a 0 An*

(Pans, 1910.)

TYLEH, J M The Kindergarten Child Kindergaiten
Rnncw, January, 1910. Vol XX, pp 269-276

KINDERGARTEN MAGAZINE --See
JOURNALISM, EDUCATIONAL

KINDERGARTEN REVIEW — See JOUR-
NALISM, EDUCATIONAL

KINDERMANN, FERDINAND (1740-
1801). — An Austrian educational reformei,
born in Konigswalde, near Schluckenau, in
Bohemia He studied theology at the Uni-
versity of Prague, where he received the doctor's
degree m 1766 In 1771 he was called as pastoi
to the town of Kaphtz in southern Bohemia and
there devoted his energies to the improvement
of the rural schools He introduced manual
and industrial training, and his work attracted
the attention of the Empress Maria Theresa,
who was keenly alive to the educational needs
of her subjects. She appointed him as geneial
inspector of the German schools of Bohemia,
and raised him to the nobility with the title
" von Sehulstein." In 1790 he was made Bishop
of Leitmeritz, where he continued to work for
the education of the people until his death.

F M

References: —
BARNARD, H. American Journal of Education, Vol.

XXVII, pp. 508-512
FRISCH, B\ Biographien dsterreichwchcr Schulmanner,

pp 30-55. (Vienna, 1897 )
RULF, F. Maria Thcresia und die bstcrrcichische Scnul-

rcform. (Prague, 1883 )
TIBIIANZL, J Die Bedeutung Ferd Kindermanna fur

daa Schulwwn , Munich, 1905)

608

KING

KINGSLEY

KING, CHARLES (1789-1867), — President
of Columbia College, educated in England and
France. He engaged in commercial and jour-
nalistic pursuits, but took an active interest
in educational matters From 1825 he was
one of the trustees of Columbia College, and
was president of the college from 1849 to 1864.
Under his administration the school of medi-
cine was reestablished and the school of mines
organized W S M

KING'S COLLEGE, LONDON, ENGLAND

— A constituent part of the University of
London (qv), founded in 1829 " for the pur-
pose of giving instruction in the various branches
of literature arid science and the doctrine and
duties of Christianity as the same are incul-
cated by the United Church of England and
Ireland " The Duke of Wellington was an
ardent supporter of the college in its begin-
nings Work was begun m 1831, and in 1836,
when the University of London was founded,
King's College became a constituent body.
To the departments of literature and science a
medical department was soon added; an engi-
neering department followed in 1838; a hospital
in 1839, theology in 1847, evening class in 1856;
an oriental section in 1861 , the woman's de-
partment in 1881 In 1903 the obligation of
membership of the Church of England for
appointment on the teaching stall was removed
completely, except in the faculty of theology
Bv act of 1908 the depaitments of theology and
advanced medicine were placed under independ-
ent boards and King's College and the King's
College for Women were incorporated in the
reconstituted University of London, with tho
following faculties and departments arts,
science (natural arid medical preparatory),
engineering, evening classes, and teacheis'
training department Tho institution has al-
wavs boon woll attended and the enrollment in
1910-1911 was 3147 (1402 regular and 1745
occasional students)

KING'S COLLEGE, THEOLOGICAL DE-
PARTMENT — See LONDON, UNIVERSITY OF

KING WILLIAM'S COLLEGE, I O M —

See COLLEGE, ENGLISH, GRAMMAR SCHOOLS,
PUBLIC SCHOOLS

KINGSBURY, JOHN (1801-1874) — Leader
ill the movement for the organization of high
schools for girls; was born at Coventry, Conn ,
on May 26; 1801, and graduated from Brown
University in 1826 He taught for two years
in the schools of Providence, and in 1828 ho
organized the Providence Young Ladies' High
School, which he conducted for many years.
He was one of the founders of the American
Institute of Instruction (q.v.) arid of the
Rhode Island Institute of Instruction, and
from 1857 to 1859 he was State Superintendent
of schools in Rhode Island. W S. M.

Reference : —

BARNARD, H John Kingsbury and the Young Ladies'
High School at Providence American Journal of
Education, 1858, Vol V, pp 9-34

KINGSLEY, CHARLES (1819-1876) —

The English clergyman, poet, and novelist
was born at Holne, Dartmoor, and educated
privately and at King's College, London. He
entered Magdalene College, Cambridge, in
1838, was ordained in 1842, and in the same
year he became curate of Eversley which prac-
tically became his home until his death He
was for a year, Professor of English Literature
and Composition at Queen's College, Harley
Street, London, under F D Maurice (q v ), and
in I860 became Professor of Modern History at
Cambridge. In his own parish he took a deep
interest in the education of his people and
established an adult school, a writing school
for girls, and an infant school Ho is, however,
associated mainly with tho Christian Socialist
Movement, which he espoused in 1849, stirred
by the sufferings of workingmcn throughout
tho country Under the name of " Parson
Lot " he wrote " Lottery to the Chartists " in
Politics for the People and the Christian
Socialist Cheap Clothe* and Nasty exposed
the evils of the sweatshop, and the novels,
Yeast and Alton Locke placed before a larger
public tho social questions of the day His
interest centeied in " national education,
sanitary and dwelling-house icfoim, the free
sale of land and corresponding loforni of tho
land laws, moral improvement of tho family
relations, public plaoos of locioation " As a
member of tho Educational League ho strongly
advocated a national and comprehensive systom
of education and supported W F Forster's
Bill (1870). In 1809 ho delivered a presi-
dential address on education, " female and
male, compulsory and for all charges," before
tho Social Science Congress at Bristol, which
was published and widely distributed Like
his friend, Maurice, he svmpathized strongly
with the movement for the higher and profes-
sional education of women In Health and
Education, a collection of various essays (1874)
Kingsloy dwells on the value, of a knowledge of
hygiene and sanitation and on tho importance
of science Aleiandria and her Schools (1854),
is a collection of four lectures dealing with tho
rise, development, and decline of different sys-
tems of philosophv from tho Ptolemaic era
onward, and it \va.s with one phase of this that
tho no\elist dealt in Hypatia (1853) It is
perhaps in the field of children's literature that
Kingsley's contribution has boon greatest and
will be more enduring His earliest work for
children was Glaucus or the Workers of the Shore
(1855), which like Madam How and Lady Why
were intended to interest children in science.
Heroes or Greek Fairy Tales (1856), Water
Babies (1S63), and Hereward the Wake (1866)
are beaut rlul stones which will always continue

VOL. m — 2 R

609

KINNER

KIRKLAND, JOHN THORNTON

to make their appeal to readers both young
and old.

References : —

Dictionary of National Biography.

KINGSLEY, C Alton Locke, with an Introduction by

hie friend, T Hughes, giving an account of Kmgs-

ley's connection with social movements (New

York, 1SS9 )
KINQHLEI:, MRS Charles Kmgsley, his Letters and

Memories of his Life, by his wife (New York,

1892)

KINNER, CYPRIAN —A Silesian de-
scribed by Samuel Hartlib as " of a very public
spirit to advance that part of learning which
is the foundation of all the rest, ? c the right
education of children." Kinner was born and
educated in Silesia, and married a rich wife,
fiom whose estate £2600 was set apart to
develop his educational plans But the im-
perial troops entering Silesia, he and his wife
were driven into exile in Transylvania arid
Hungary, where he met Alsted Kinner then
came into communication with Comemus, and
went to meet him in Prussia ("omernus was
called away to Lessna, and Kinner was left at
Dantzic " to depend upon Providence " He
was anxious to devote himself entirely to edu-
cational plans, but had no funds even for
subsistence Samuel Hartlib translated the
Latin draft of Kmner's educational tract,
and published it in London c 1648, under the
title A Continuation of Mr John Amos Coin-
cnni^K School Endeavours, 01 a Kinnniaiy
Delineation of Dr Cyprian Kinner tiileman ,
///.s Thoughts concerning Education The title
is interesting as anticipating that of John
Locke He aims at three "marks" Piety,
Leainmg, and Civil Prudence His main posi-
tion for earlv teaching is realistic and is stated
as follows " 1 show Naturall Things in the
living book ot Nature, Things Artificiall in the
Shops and Work-houses of their Makers, arid
both of them in the Repositories of their
figures and representations, which belong to
our School, where 1 show them either living
or carved (vet as near the life as may be) or
at least painted " Kinner is thus a follower of
Lubinus (q v ), as well as of Comemus, and
appears to go even farther m the suggestion
that " animals should be provided and kept for
the purposes of school teaching " F W

References : —

ADAMHON, J W Pioneer* of Education (Cambridge,
1905 )

WATHON, FOSTER A Companion of Comemus. Edu-
cational Times (London), May, 1S94

KIRCHENORDNUNGEN — The laws or
regulations for the government of the evan-
gelical churches of Germany, issued by the
rulers of various states, often with the advice
and consent of the orders or estates While
there were Kirchcnorrtn \tngen before the Refor-
mation, the sixteenth century is the period in
which most of them appear Through these

610

regulations the old laws were modified to meet
Reformation ideals, and the maintenance of
proper administration of teaching and sacra-
ments was secured Without some such laws
an apparently impossible condition would
have had to exist the free development and
administration of church and school laws upon
the basis of the Lutheran ideal without the
sanction of any responsible and efficient ad-
ministrative body While these Oi dnungen were
generally promulgated by the seculai authority,
they were largely the work of clergymen and
teachers Melanchthon, Luther, Bugenhagen,
Joannes Aepin, Urbanus Rhegius, and many
other prominent men of the time lent their
assistance Luther was the authoi of the
Wittenberg Knchenordnung of 152tf and col-
laborator in several others Melanchthon was
concerned in the writing of at least nine
Ordnungen, beginning with Nuremberg (1526)
and the Saxony Visitation Articles (1528)
When once a few typical Ordnunyen had been
framed, they were adopted as models Thus
the Saxony Visitation Instructions became the
basis of the Brunswick Kirchenordnung (1528),
and upon the latter were based those of Ham-
burg (1529), Lubeck (1531), Pomorama (1535),
Schleswig llolstem (1542), and many others, in-
cluding that of Wittenberg (1533) " This Wit-
tenbeig Oi dn ung in time became the model after
which at least seven others were composed

While the Oi dnungen are not uniform in their
material or arrangement, there is at least a
general similarity in subject matter As a rule
there is a first part, called Credcnda, which is
dogmatic in its nature and is an expression, in
more or less definite form, of the agreement of
the city or provincial church with the general
Lutheran confession of faith This is followed
by the Agenda, which contains piovisions con-
cerning liturgy, appointment of church ofh-
ccrs, duties of officers of church and school,
organization of church government, discipline,
administration of church property, care of sick
and poor, baptism, and miscellaneous matters
relating to church affairs. C L R

References : —

MERTZ, GEORGT Da*, Sctiulwesen der dcutschcn Refor-
mation (Heidelberg, 1902 ) (This work con-
tains HynopwH of educational matters with which
the Kmfnnordnun(j(n deal )
RICHTKR, \ E DM cvangchxUicn Kirchtnordnunf/cn

dcs 1(> Jahihundcrt*, Vol 11 (Wemmi, 1N4» )
SEHLINU, E Du cvanodischui Kirchcnordnunyen dts

IV Jahrhundnt* (Leipzig, 1902 )

VORMBATJM, R Kvanfjclixrhe Schidordnungcn (Guterh-
loh, 1860 ) (Ru liter omits a gieat deal of mate-
rial not bearing directly upon church affairs , while
Vormbaum gives only Srhulordnungen, — parts of
Kirchenordnungcn or special documents complete
in themselves Sehhng gives the documents
complete )

KIRKLAND, JOHN THORNTON (1770-
1840). — Fourteenth president of Harvard
College and son of the famous educational
missionary among the Six Nations of the Ameri-
can Indians, educated at Phillips Andovor

KIRKLAND, SAMUEL

KNOWLEDGE

Academy and Harvard College, graduating from
the latter m 1789. He was instructor at Phillips
Andover Academy and tutor at Harvard He
was president of Harvard from 1810 to 1828
His publications include numerous biographical
and historical works W. S. M.

See HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

KIRKLAND, SAMUEL (1741-1808) —Ed-
ucational missionary among the Indian tribes
of the Six Nations, educated in Dr Whcclock's
school for Indian youth (subsequently Dart-
mouth College) and at the College of New
Jersey (now Princeton), from which he was
graduated in 1765 P\>r nearly forty years
he was engaged in educational and religious
work among the Indians of the Six Nations
lie organized the Hamilton Oneida College
(now Hamilton College) an institution for the
education of Indian and American youth

W S M

KITCHEN GARDEN — The Kitchen Gar-
den is a method of teaching little children
household processes through songs and games
with an equipment designed foi the purpose
This method was devised bv Miss Phmly
Huntmgton (d 1910), who directed a mission
school for girls on the East Side of New York
Citv more than thirtv years ago A visit to a
kindergarten exhibition gave her the idea that
children might be taught housework thiough
games She wrote the songs and games, \\lnch
were afterward published in book form She
began by using toys as thev were found in the1
market, and later found manufacturer who
made articles designed for this pin pose
Classes were formed in the Wilson Mission by
a number of young women interested in the
work of teaching these children. The Kitchen
Garden Association was formed in 1880 to
promote the teaching of industrial and domestic
arts, enrolling eighty active members and super-
vising the instruction of nearly a thousand
children m and near New York Classes were
formed in the West and South The Kitchen
Garden Association was reorganized as the
Industrial Educational Association (See
HOUSEHOLD ARTS.) Miss Hunting! on also
devised a scries of lessons in cooking taught
in the same way and published a volume of
these lessons. The toys were copyrighted.

The Kitchen Garden system is still used in
Settlement work in New York City to some
extent, and for the same purpose in other
parts of the country, but it has never become
incorporated in the public school system The
work is being continued by Miss Peck of New
York, whose method is now being used m Los
Angeles, Washington, D C , and New York

H K

KLAUSENBURG (KOLOZSVAR), THE
ROYAL HUNGARIAN FRANCIS JOSEF,
UNIVERSITY OF. — The youngest of the

three Hungarian universities (the other two
being Agram and Budapest), established in
1872. The university maintains faculties of
law and political science, medicine, philosophy,
and pure science, there being no school of
divinity The great majority of the students
(1497 out of 2116 matriculated students in
1909-1910) are enrolled in the faculty of la\v,
medicine following with 321, and philosophy
and pure science bringing up the rear with 29S,
191 auditors bring the total attendance of the
year in question to 2307 The annual budget
amounts approximately to $415,000 The
library, founded in 1872, contains 200,000
volumes. Associated with the university is a
Unitarian theological faculty, established in
1556, and a reformed theological academy,
founded m 1895 Klausenburg is also the seat
of an agricultural school, originally established
in 1869 and reorganized m 1906 R T , Jr.

References : —

Gedenkbuch der Univerait&t (Klausonburg, 1903 )
MARKI arid PISZTORY Geschichte der Umventil&t
(1896 )

KNEIPE. — This term in the language of
the German student may mean (1) the place
where drinking takes place, or the tavern,
(2) the drinking itself, or (3) by transference,
a fraternity house The Kmipc, befoie the
introduction of fraternity houses, a recent
movement, afforded the best meeting place for
the members of one organization In the
derived meaning of the drinking ceremony the
Kncipe is less formal than the Kommcr** In
connection with these ceremonies definite codes
Bicrcommcnt) have been established arid are
carried out under a presiding officer

Reference : —
VOLLMANN.J Bur8^cot>ijt>Worterbuch

tfatz, 1S46 )

KNIGHT, EDUCATION OF THE —See
CHiv\LRir EDUCATION, GENTRY AND NOBLES,
Enur \TIOV OF, MANNERS AND MORAL*, KDI-
r \TION IN

KNOWLEDGE.— A term of the very wid-
est scope, designating, as will presently appear,
a variety of operations and of subject matter
that, however, possess at least two elements in
common namely, some connection direct or
indirect with intelligence (or reflection) and with
certainty, security, assurance, settledness Like
many analogous terms, — conception, judg-
ment, thought, for example, — the term has
both an active and a passive sense; it desig-
nates both an operation or act, that of know-
ing, and the result, what is known. Like the
term "science," however, the word "knowl-
edge" is itself used mainly in a passive sense
to denote the content, the subject matter, which
is the outcome of the successful performance of
the function of knowing The verb "to know"
and the participle "knowing" retain both

611

KNOWLEDGE

KNOWLEDGE

senses, designating the act of inquiry, search,
finding out, and also the possession of a certain
subject matter The opposite of knowledge is
ignorance.

The term " knowledge " covers four distinct
connected matters Of these the two first to
be mentioned are the most personal, direct, and
practical They are knowledge in the sense of
intelligently acquired skill, and in the sense of
acquaintance We know how to walk, talk,
skate, etc , experts know how to weave, dyo,
work metals, etc Ability to do things is per-
haps the most primary sense of knowledge The
abihtv is distinguished from instinct only in
that it has been intelligently acquired But
even this difference is not consistently main-
tained, for we speak, popularly, of an instinc-
tive knowledge The first necessity oi a living
being is to know how to conduct itself with re-
spect to certain situations; in order to live it
must be able to adapt its behavior to the be-
havior of the things with which its own for-
tunes are bound up This necessity includes
not only physical needs, but also the fundamen-
tals of social intercourse and the elements at
least of some of the social arts The primary
and profound character of this sort of knowledge
is seen in the fact that until the rise of philos-
ophy among the Greeks the same word de-
noted art f (technical skill) and knowledge,
namely, T*yy-r\. The well-known recourse of
Socrates to the analogies of the arts, his appeal
to the procedure of the shoemaker, flute player,
carpenter, etc , in his logical discussions was
witness to the fact that the control of his mate-
rial evinced by the artisan in reaching the ends
appropriate to his art represented at once the
most certain and the most intelligent piocedure
extant

Familiarity, acquaintance, are closely con-
nected with knowing how to do, and to a consid-
erable extent they lesult from the latter and
measure its extent So far as we can adapt
ourselves readily and successfully in any situa-
tion, we are familiar, acquainted The rough
edges of a strangeness, remoteness, the barriers
of understanding nothing, are worn away In
their place there is a sense of intimacy, 01 inner
adjustment When we know how to behave
with respect to a thing, we know what it is
like; we are on terms with it; there is mutual-
ity of response Knowledge in the form of
acquaintance is not only the outcome and
reward of knowing how, or intelligent skill;
but it establishes emotional ties — a capacity
for appreciation, or apprehending the thing in
terms of its worth, its usefulness for a purpose.
Acquaintance, familiarity, normally presup-
pose a certain amount of friendliness, of agree-
ableness, as well as a sense of power and ease.
But excessive familiarity, too long continued
occupation with one subject, " bifceds con-
tempt ", it leads to revulsion, a sense of e;nnui
•ind constraint

Our third sense of knowledge covers that

acquired from others, that attained indirectly
by learning from others Communication by
means of language carries us far beyond the
limits of personal acquaintance with persons
and things, leading us to know of or about
many matters which are within the direct ac-
quaintance of other people By oral tradition
and more especially by written and printed
language, this second-hand knowledge comes
to include much that is not and that could
not be within the direct acquaintance of any
living. Such knowledge constitutes informa-
tion (q v ) and also learning — in the sense
of what is learned or is to be learned.

In all the three above-mentioned types of
knowledge, intelligence or reflective thought
is used, but only secondarily It is employed
as a means of gaining control of things, in
enlarging acquaintance with them, in appre-
hending and understanding things reported by
others It is not, however, used in any sense as
a source of knowledge for its own sake Gradu-
ally, however, materials of acquaintance and
of information are amassed and systematized
not for the sake of increasing familiarity arid
possession of learning, but for the sake cf
rational demonstration or of inferential dis-
covery of new knowledge. Men are not con-
tented with the kind of assurance that icsts
upon personal acquaintance or upon the credit
of others, they search for that which opens
from rational grounding, from logical sequence
and system Thus a fourth kind of knowl-
edge comes into existence- rational knowledge,
science, knowledge that so and so is true Like
information, this sort of knowledge is indirect,
but it is indirect in the sense of dependence upon
logical data and premises, not in the sense of
dependence upon the observations and reports
of others From this point of view, knowledge
is identical with science, and we have no logi-
cal right to denominate intelligent skill, matters
of acquaintance, of information, knowledge,
unless they are reduced to general principles
and are connected with one another in system-
atic ways. Otherwise they represent beliefs,
opinions, rather than knowledge. This ten-
dency to define knowledge from an exclusively
logical point of view has been an important
factor in calling out in reaction the philosophy
of pragmatism (q v ), which regards this exclu-
sive view of knowledge as the characteristic error
of mtellectualism (or rationalism, as it is some-
times termed). The purely technical character
of knowledge when defined on a purely logical
basis, its aloofness from practical considerations,
from the affections and aversions (so important a
factor in acquaintance) and from the social pro-
cesses of learning and transmission characteristic
of information, are treated as evidence that sci-
entific knowledge, when isolated, is an abstrac-
tion Thus the other types of knowledge
are regarded as not only more primitive geneti-
cally and psychologically (which would be
generally admitted), but also as more final and

612

KNOWLEDGE

KNOX, JOHN

significant. In fact, knowledge as a system of
logical propositions is regarded by it as ulti-
mately of value because of the greater control
and the greater richness of content that it sup-
plies to the more direct, active, and social types
of knowledge

Educationally speaking, there can be little
doubt that the order in which the four types of
knowledge have boon set forth in this article
represents the order of their development
The opposition of all modern educational le-
forms to beginning with so-called "deductive"
methods, with systems of definitions, classifi-
cations, and laws of explanation, is, in substance,
a claim that the logical type of knowledge repre-
sents a matured, relatively late specialized
development of more basic bodies of knowing,
and is consequently meaningless and educative! I y
harmful when presented in isolation or as a
starting point. On the other hand, many of
the reformers have, in their reaction against ab-
stractions in education, failed to note the opera-
tion of a subordinated factor of reflection and
interpretation in even the more primitive modes
of knowing, and have thus made the mistake of
identifying the " concrete " with the bare
physical object, instead of with the centei of
an active experience, or interest

Many questions of instiuction are bound up
also with the matter of the i elation of infoimu-
tion or communicated knowledge, to personal
acquaintance A flavor of the second-handed,
derived, and more or less conventional hangs
about information Its subject matter is not
so vitally lived through, so intimately appie-
ciated, as that of familiar acquaintance Any
examination of prevailing modes of instruction
will show that the mere bulk of matter com-
municated in books and lectures tends to swamp
the native and active interests operative in
intelligent behavior and in the acquaintance-
ship it brings Then this mattei remains
unassimilated, unorganized, not leally under-
stood It stands on a dead level, hostile to the
selective arrangements characteristic of think-
ing, matter for memorizing, rather than for
judgment, existing as verbal symbols to be me-
chanically manipulated, rather than as genuine
realities, intelligently appreciated Yet with-
out this communicated matter, the circle of
personal acquaintance is veiy narrow and
superficial, and personal activity hardly gets
above the place of routine The solution is
found in realizing that social communication is
a very real factor in personal doing and ac-
quaintance. The educational ami is not to
multiply information for the sake of informa-
tion, nor yet to try to exclude it or narrow it
down as much as possible It is to fuse the
transmitted matter and the matter of direct
behavior and emotional response with as inti-
mate union as possible, so that the former
will gain force, vivacity, directness from the
latter, while the former is insensibly but con-
tinually extended and deepened by the latter.

In short, the common error does not consist
in attaching great importance to transmitted
facts and ideas, but in presenting them in such
an isolated way that they are not spontane-
ously welded with the intense, though narrow,
matters of direct concern. J. D.

KNOWLEDGE, SOCIETY FOR THE DIF-
FUSION OF USEFUL —See SOCIETY FOB
THE DIFFUSION OF USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.

KNOWLEDGE, THEORY

EPISTEMOLOGY , KNOWLEDGE.

OF. — See

KNOX COLLEGE, GALESBURG, ILL —

A nonsectarian, coeducational institution, in-
corporated as Prairie College in 1836, had itn
inception in the plan of the Rev George W
Clale, a Presbvtenan clergyman, to found a
college in the Middle West In 1837 the insti-
tution was chartered as the Knox Manual
Labor College The name was changed to Knox
College in 1857 The Lincoln-Douglas debate of
1858 \vas held on the grounds of the college
Distinguished presidents have been Jonathan
Hlanchard (1845-1856) and Norton Bateman
(1876-1893), educational leaders in Illinois, and
John. Huston Fmley, '87. who in 1903 became
president of the College 01 the Cit y of New Yoi k
(q v ) Knox College is one of the institutions
originally accepted by the Carnegie Founda-
tion for the Advancement of Teaching (q v }
The Board of Trustees is a body of twenty-five
members selected bv a committee of the trustees
on whose recommendation the board acts, the
term of service is for life By resolution of
the board no denomination can have a majority
of trustees

Knox College maintains undergraduate
courses leading to the A B and B S degrees
The entrance requirements are fourteen units
A conservatory of music was organized in
1883 The degrees of A M. and M S are given
for one year's graduate study in residence

There \\as in 1910-1911 a faculty of twenty-
five members and an enrollment of 616 stu-
dents, of whom 335 were in the collegiate
department C C

KNOX, JOHN (1505-1572) —The great
leader of the Scottish Reformation, and deviser
of the Book of Discipline The date of his
birth is uncertain, for though the traditional
date is 1505, yet there are implications from
contemporaries that seem to point to the
limits of 1513-1515 Knox is thought to
have been born in Giffordgate, a hamlet adja-
cent to Haddington in Scotland It is assumed
that he was educated at Haddington Grammar
School, and entered St Andrews University in
1529, where he studied the ancient fathers,
particularly St. Augustine (q.v ), a fact which
explains his " preparedness " for the doctrines
of Calvin (q.v.) later on. By 1540 he had be-
come a priest of the Church of Rome, exercised

613

KNOX, JOHN

KNOX, VICESIMUS

the office of notary, and for a time was a pm nte
tutor. It was not till 1545 that he showed any
signs of becoming a Protestant. Knox came
to England, and was sent by the Privy Council
as Protestant Minister to Berwick-dn-Tweed,
where he stayed for two years, with a congrega-
tion consisting of the garrison and citizens. In
1551 he was removed to Newcastle-on-Tyno,
and was appointed a royal chaplain, and had thv
offer of the bishopric of Rochester, which ho de-
clined In 1554, when Queen Mary had already
begun her policy of persecution, Knox left
England, and after a tour through Swiss Prot-
estant congregations, he reached Geneva and
entered into friendship with John Calvin
From 1554 to 1559 Knox remained on the Con-
tinent He became one of the two ministers
of the English Protestant refugees at Fiank-
fort in November, 1554 Here internal dis-
sensions took place with regard to the use of
the English Prayer Book, and Knox voluntarily
retired to Geneva in 1555 The complete
supremacy of Calvin in Church and State
made a most imposing object lesson in theo-
cratical government, one not lost on Kno\,
whose Book of Discipline was afterwnids
dosely framed on the Genevan model His
theological views were definitized by his treatise
on Pi edcdmation published in 1500 Kno\'s>
permanent return to Scotland was in 1550
He was appointed minister at St Giles' Chuich,
Edinburgh, and soon became the leader of
the Scottish Reformation In 1500 the Ks-
1ates demanded a statement of the views of
those who opposed Roman Catholic doctrine,
and to Knox and five others \vas intrusted the
drawing up of the Confession of Faith Penal
statutes were then granted against the saving
of mass In 1500 the organization of the
Reformed Church was laid down in the Book
of Discipline, which was drawn up by Knox
and the other five ministers who had composed
the Confession of Faith, and was translated
into Latin, so as to obtain the criticism of
Calvin and the Swiss Reformers Knox brought
Geneva and Calvin to Scotland and accli-
matized them to Scotch soil The Ecclesias-
tical polity earned with it, as was the case at
Geneva, the educational system, and this,
again, was of the most democratic type.

The chapter in the Book of Discipline de-
voted to schools could not be carried out with-
out a large sum of money, arid though the
Scottish reformers proposed to appropriate the
money for this purpose from the old eccle-
siastical revenues, the Scottish nobles, as had
been the case with the English nobles, hoped
to get a share in the plunder Their success
necessarily deferred the carrying out of such a
scheme into immediate execution. The Book
of Discipline, however, did not receive the sanc-
tion of the Scottish Parliament, and Scottish
education was not endowed with Roman spoils
Nevertheless, the educational ideals of the
Book of Discipline mark an important stage

014

in the history of education, for they suggest
a deliberate scheme of organization of national
education The salient educational features of
the Book of Discipline together with the steps
in the actual development of the Scotch educa-
tional system are presented in the article on
SCOTLAND, EDUCATION IN

The later years of Kriox's life (1560-1572)
were concerned with the political and religious
questions centering round the names of Mary,
Queen of Scots, and (afterwards) of the regent,
the Earl of Moray Politically, in the days of
the Tudors, he was prepared to advocate the
deposition of tyrants, and thus is a prede-
cessor of the spirit of aCiornwell Religiously,
Knox put Scotland in touch with the religion
of Geneva, of the Huguenots, and the Dutch,
and thus tended to help forward cosmopolitan
sympathies, at least, amongst Protestants in
Great Britain and abroad His demociatic
tendencies are shown in laying the basis of
Scotch Presbvtenamsm, in the introduction
of lav elders and deacons into church govern-
ment It is not too much to say that these
characteristics, though not technically educa-
tional, have had great educational effects

F. W.

See r \LVINISTS AKD EDUCATION, SCOT-
LAND, EDUCATION IN

References —

BROWN, P H John Knov, a Biography (London,

1895 )
POWVNT, H John KJLOT, the Hero of the Scottish R(foi-

matwn (Now York, 1905 )
J)icfionary of National Biography
KUG\R, .1 History of Early Hcottiah Education (Edin-

burgh, IS'M )
KKKR, J Hiottwh Education ftchool and Unwrsity

(Cambridge, 1(>10 )
STRONG, J History of Secondary Education in Scotland

(Oxford, !<)()<))
YOUNG, T P Histoirc dd En\cian< merit pnmairc et

bucondairv en /jfco&ie (Pain, l'M)7 )

KNOX, SAMUEL (1756-1832) —A pi-
oneer of education in Maryland, educated at
the University of Glasgow He was engaged
for some years in the ministry of the Presby-
terian church In 1795 he became principal
of the Frederick Academy Subsequently
he organi/ed and became the president of
Baltimore College He was active in the at-
tempts to organize a common school system in
Maryland and published numerous pamphlets
on the subject Thomas Jefferson (q v ) was
keenly impressed with his educational views.
Knox's most valuable contribution to the litera-
ture of education is his Essay on the best System
of liberal Education adapted to the Genius of the
United States (Baltimore, 1799). W. S M

Reference —

STKINKR, B C Samuel Knox Rep Com. Ed for
1898-1899, Vol I, pp 577-G04, (Washington, 1899.)

KNOX, VICESIMUS (1752-1821) —Eng-
lish schoolmaster and essayist, born near

KNOX, VICESIMUS

KONIGSBERC;

London. He was educated at Merchant
Taylors' School and St. John's College, Ox-
ford, graduating B.A in J775 and obtaining
a fellowship. In 1778 he succeeded his fathei
as headmaster of Tonbridge School, a position
held up to 1812. He devoted himself to mis-
cellaneous essay writing, Wnitei Evening* or
Lucubrations on Life and Letter*, #,s,sr;//,s
Moral and Literary, Family Lecture* or Do-
mestic Divinity and several other works of a
religious nature For his school he edited
Catullus, Horace, and Juvenal, and Elegant
Extracts, or Useful and Entertaining /V/swif/fs
in Prose, Delected foi the Improvement of Clas-
sical and Other Scholar in the Ait of tipcakinq,
in Reading, Thinking, Composing, and ni the
Conduct of Life (1785), Klegan't Ejtracts or
Useful and Entertaining 1'iecc* of Poehij se-
lected for the Improvement of Youth (17S9),
Elegant Epistles or a Copious Collection of
Familiar and Amusing Letters selected foi the
Improvement of Young Persons and foi Goteral
Entertainment (1790) His treatise, entitled
Liberal Education or a Practical Ti entire on
the Methods of acguning Useful and Polite
Learning in two volumes (1781), is a Aaluable
contribution to the history of education It
not only contains sound criticisms of existing
practice with suggestions for reform, but a good
account of the best textbooks of the pcnod
While insisting on thorough classical cumcu-
lum as the only means of educating gentlemen,
Kno\ would admit such studies as English,
French, geography, history, and the elements
of Euclid The modern languages are to be
taught on the same method as the ( lassies,
that is, grammatically, although he recom-
mends broad reading in English liteiatuie
both in and out of school Accomplishments
and athletics are advocated, provided that
they do not become disti acting Examina-
tions are to be held frequently as a method
of retaining what has been learned Knox
recognizes that women are intellectually as
capable as men and would have them educated
privately (for boys the public schools were
best) ii/English and French, the classics being
added, if they have inclination and wealth
The second volume deals with the universities
and gives a very good insight into the corrup-
tion and lack of discipline there prevailing
Knox attacks conservatism, formality in tnfles,
absence of study, and idleness of the professors
and fellows, who regard the universities not
as places of education but as almshouses.
The remedy according to Knox is greatei em-
phasis on study and loss on formalities super-
vised by the proctors In 1821 Knox wrote
Remarks on the Tendency of Certain Clauses
in a Bill now Pending in Parliament to degrade
Grammar Schools, with Curwn/ Stnctuics on
the National Importance of preserving Inviolate
the Classical Discipline prevcribai by the Found-
ers The pamphlet was called forth by a
Bill to introduce* into the old foundations

instruction in reading, writing, and anthmeti"
for poor children.

References —

Dictionary of National Biography.

RIVINOTON, S The History of Tonbridgc School
(London, 1898 )

KNOXVILLE COLLEGE, KNOXVILLE,

TENN — A coeducational institution foi the
education ot negro youth iwider the auspices
of the United Presbyterian chinch opened
in 1875 The following departments are
maintained collegiate, normal, theological,
musical, industrial, and common school The
entrance requirements to the college, which
offers courses leading to degrees, are about
fourteen points of high school woik Oi the
404 students enrolled in 1909-1910, only 29
were in the collegiate department There is
a faculty of thirty -four members

KOBEL, JAKOB (1470-1533) — One of the
most prominent of the early German writers
on arithmetic His name also appeals us
Kobel, Kobelius, and Kobihnus He was
born at Heidelberg in 1470, and died at Oppen-
heim, January 31> 1533 He was a fello\v
studont of Copernicus at Cracow lie \vas
a man of varied attainments, meeting with
success as a ttechenmcivtei , printer, engraver,
woodcarver, poet, and public official He wrote
three works on arithmetic that met with great
fa\ or (1) Am New qeonlnet Rethenbiechhn,
Augsburg, 1514, (2) Mil dei Knfde o(V Sc/ineb-
fcdcin, Oppenheim, 1520, (3) Vysicibuch,
Oppenheim, about 1515 The thud related to
gauging, at that time a very popular subject
The first of these books was purely commercial,
and the operations on numbers were performed
by means of counters, as was then the custom
Roman numerals are used practically through-
out, the work, even in writing common frac-

IIC ^00

tions, where — - — „ appears for - — . His

Illr. LX 4(>()

work showed little Italian influence, and it is
one of our best sources of information as to the
early ( Herman arithmetic D E S

KOHLMANN, ANTHONY (1771-1838) —
Jesuit educator, received his training in the
schools of Germany He became superior
of the Order of Jesuits in the United States
in 1817 He was rector of Georgetown College
from 1818 to 1820 and superior of Washington
Seminary from 1821 to 1824. He published
a number of philosophical and theological
works W S M

KONIGSBERG, THE ROYAL PRUSSIAN
ALBERTUS UNIVERSITY OF — Founded by
Margiave Albrecht, the last knight of the
Teutonic Order in Prussia, who in 1541 es-
tablished a university preparatory school,
transformed into a university, of Protestant
affiliations, three years later.

61 f

KNOX, JOHN

KNOX, VICESIMUS

the office of notary, and for a time was a pnvale
tutor. It was not till 1545 that he showed any
signs of becoming a Protestant. Knox came
to England, and was sent by the Privy Council
as Protestant Minister to Berwick-on-Tweed,
where he staved for two years, with a congrega-
tion consisting of the garrison and citizens In
1551 he was renuned to Newcastle-on-Tyne,
and was appointed a royal chaplain, and had the
offer of the bishopric of Rochester, which he de-
clined In 1554, w hen Queen Mary had all end \
begun hei pohcv of persecution, Knox leit
England, and after a tour through Swiss Prot-
estant congregations, he reached Geneva and
entered into friendship with John Calvin
From 1554 to 1559 Knox icmamed on the Con-
tinent He became one of the two ministers
of the English Protestant refugees at Frank-
fort in November, 1551 Here internal dis-
sensions took place with regaid to the use oi
the Knghsh Prayer Hook, and Knox volunlariL
retired to Geneva in 1555 The complete
supremacy of Calvin in Chinch and Stale
made a most imposing object lesson in thco-
cratical government, one not lost, on Knox,
whose Book of Discipline was aitei \snids
Uoselv flamed on the Genevan model His
theological views were defmitized bv his treatise
on 1'icdevtniaturti published in 15(>() Knox's
permanent leturn to Scotland was in 1559
He was appointed minister at St Giles' Chinch,
Edinburgh, and soon became the leadei of
the Scottish Reformation In 1500 the Ins-
tates demanded a statement of the views of
those \\ho opposed Roman Catholic doctime,
and to Knox and five others was intrusted the
drawing up ot the Confession of Faith Penal
statutes were then granted against the s.tymg
of mass In 1500 the organization of the
Reformed Chinch was laid down in the Hook
of Discipline, which was drawn up by Knox
and the other five ministers who had composed
the Confession of Faith, and was translated
into Latin, so as to obtain the criticism of
Calvin and the Swiss Reformers Knox brought
Geneva and Calvin to Scotland and accli-
matized them to Scotch soil The Ecclesias-
tical polity carried with it, as was the case at
Geneva, the educational system, and this,
again, was of the most democratic type.

The chapter in the Book of Discipline de-
voted to schools could not be earned out with-
out a laige sum of money, and though the
Scottish reformers proposed to appropriate the
money for this purpose from the old eccle-
siastical revenues, the Scottish nobles, as had
been the case with the English nobles, hoped
to get a share in the plunder Their success
necessanty deferred the carrvmg out of such a
scheme into immediate execution. The Book
of Discipline, however, did not receive the sanc-
tion of the Scottish Parliament, and Scottish
education was not endowed with Roman spoils
Nevertheless, the educational ideals of the
Book of Discipline mark an important stage

614

in the history of education, for they suggest
a deliberate scheme of organization ot national
education The salient educational features of
the Book of Discipline together with the steps
in the actual development of the Scotch educa-
tional system aie presented in the article on
SCOTLAND, EDUCATION IN

The later years of Knox's life (1560-1572)
\\ere concerned with the political and religious
questions centering round the names of Mary,
Queen oi Scots, and (afterwards) of the legent,
the Karl of Moiav Politically, in the days of
the Tudors, he was prepared to advocate the
deposition of tyrants, arid thus is a prede-
cessor of the spirit of 11 Cromwell Religiously,
Knox put Scot hind in touch with the religion
of Geneva, of the Huguenots, and the Dutch,
arid thus tended to help foiward cosmopolitan
sympathies, at least, amongst Protestants in
Great Britain and abroad His democratic
tendencies are shown in laving the basis of
Scotch Presbyteriiimsm, in the introduction
of lav elders and deacons into church govern-
ment It is not too much to say that these
characteristics, though not technically educa-
tional, have had great educational effects.

F. W.

Sec CALVINTSTS A\TD EDUCATION, SCOT-
LAND, EDUCATION IM

References —
HIIOWN, P 11 John Knox, a Biography (London,

IS').1) )
f\>w VN, II John Knox, tht U<ro of the Scottish Rtfm-

tnatutn (N(\v York, l(K)"i )
Dutionani of \afional Buniraphy
KiKi\u, J //< \tory of Ear 1 1/ /vo///s'/< Kducation (Iviin

luiitfli, IS'H )
KERH, J ft<ofti\h Education Kdwol and Vniwrxity

(( \imbi ulKo, 1'UO )
STHONO, J History of Suondari/ Kduiation in Siottand

(Oxford, I'M)'))
YOUNU, T P Histout <l<l K/ivif/m nienf pt imaire ct

wcondaire en Eu>t>nt (Pans, 1M07 )

KNOX, SAMUEL (1750-1832) —A pi-
oneer of education in Maryland, educated at
the University of Glasgow He was engaged
for some years 111 the ministry of the Piesby-
tenan church In 1795 he became principal
ot the Frederick Academy Subsequently
he oigani/ed and became the president of
Baltimore College He was active in the at-
tempts to organize a common school system in
Maryland and published numerous pamphlets
on the subject Thomas Jefferson (q /> ) was
keenly impressed with his educational views.
Knox's most valuable contribution to the litera-
ture of education is his KSMUJ on the best System
of libeinl Kducation adapted to the Genius of the
United Statei (Baltimore, 1799) W S M

Reference —

RTEINFR, Ii (1 Samuel Knox Rep Com Ed for
1S<)S-1S99, Vol l.pp 577-604. (Washington, 1899 )

KNOX, VICESIMUS (1752-1821) --Eng-
lish schoolmaster and essayist, born near

KNOX, VICESIMUS

KONIOSBERC;

London. He was educated at Merchant
Taylors' School and St John's College, Ox-
ford, graduating B A in 1775 and obtaining
a fellowship In 1778 he succeeded his tathei
as headmaster of Tonbndgc School, a position
held up to 1812 He devoted himself to mis-
cellaneous essay writing, Winter Eneninys or
Lucubi alions on Life, and Letter^, A\s<y//s
Moial and Liteian/, Family Lictutes 01 Do-
mestic Dun nit)/ and several other works of a
religious nature1 For his school he edited
Catullus, Hoi ace, and Juvenal, and Ehyanl
Ertracts, 01 Useful and Entertaining Passaqev
in Prose, Delected foi the Improvement of Clas-
sical and Olhei Scholar in the Alt of Speaking,
in Reading, Thinking, ('ant poking, and in the
Conduct of Life (17S5), Elegant Eitiarh 01
Useful and Entei tain ing Pic(c\ of Poeln/ De-
lected foi the Jmpi ore nn nt of Youth (17S9),
Elegant Epistles 01 a Copious Collet t ion of
Familiar and Amusing Letter* selected foi the
Improvement of Young Person** and foi (Uncial
Entertainment (1790). His tieatise, entitled
Libenil Education or a Practical Ticaliv on
the Methods of acgumng Useful and I'olilc
Learning in two volumes (17S1), is a valuable*
contnbution to the history of education It
not only contains sound criticisms of existing
practice with suggestions for reform, but a good
account of the best textbooks ol the period
While insisting on thorough classical cuincu-
lurn as the only means of educating gentlemen,
Knox would admit such studies as English,
French, geography, history, and the elements
of Euclid The modern languages arc to be
taught on the same method as the classics,
that is, giammatically, although he recom-
mends broad reading in English hteiature
both in and out of school Accomplishments
and athletics are advocated, provided that
they do not become distracting Examina-
tions are to be held frequently as a method
of retaining what has been learned Knox
recognizes that women are intellectually as
capable as men and would ha\c them educated
privately (foi boys the public schools were
best) in English and French, the classics being
added, if they ha\e inclination and wealth
The second volume deals with the urmersities
and gives a very good insight into the corrup-
tion and lack of discipline there prevailing
Knox attacks conservatism, formality in tufles,
absence of study, and idleness of the professors
and fellows, who regard the universities not
as places of education but as almshouses
The remedy according to Knox is greater em-
phasis on study and less on formalities super-
vised by the proctors In 1821 Knox wrote
Remarks on the Tendena/ of Ceitain Clause*
in a Bill now Pending in Parliament to degrade
Grammar Schools, with Citrwn/ Stnctwes on
the National Importance of picwmnq Inviolate
the Classical Discipline pu^cnhcd bi/ the Found-
ers The pamphlet was called forth by a
Bill to introduce into the old foundations

instruction in reading, wilting, and aiithrnct"
for poor children.
References —

Dictionary of National Biography

RiviNfJTON, S The History of Tonbndgr School
(London, 1898 )

KNOXVILLE COLLEGE, KNOXVILLE,

TENN — A coeducational institution lor the
education of negro youth iwidwr the auspices
of the United Presbyterian church opened
in 1S75 The following departments are
maintained collegiate, normal, theological,
musical, industrial, and common school The
entrance requirements to the college, which
offers courses leading to degiees, are about
fouiteeri points of high school work (_)1 the
404 students enrolled in 1009-1910, only 29
were in the collegiate department There* is
a faculty of thirty-four members

KOBEL, JAKOB (H70-15:W) --One of the
most prominent of the early (iernian writers
on arithmetic His name also appears as
Kobel, Kobelms, and Kobihnus He was
born at Heidelberg in 1 170, and died at Oppen-
heirn, January 31> 153,3 He was a fellow
student of Copernicus at Cracow He was
a man of varied attainments, meeting with
success as a Rcchcnmc^td , printer, engra\ei,
woodcarvei, poet, and public official He wiote
three works on arithmetic that met with great
fa\or (1) Am Neir getndnet I\< ehenbicchlin,
Augsburg, 1514, (2)KIildci Ki gde od' tichneb-
fedein, Oppenheim, 1520, (X) Vyvcilnuh,
Oppenhenn, about 1515 The third related to
gauging, at that time a very popular subject
The first of these books was purely commercial,
and the operations on numbers were performed
by means of counters, as was then the custom
Roman numerals are used practically through-
out the work, even in writing common frac-
tions, where - * - appears for ;— His

woik showed little Italian influence, and it is
one of our best sources of information as to the
earlv (Jcr man arithmetic I) K S

KOHLMANN, ANTHONY (1771-183H) —
Jesuit educator, received his training in the
schools of Germany Ho became superior
of the Older of Jesuits in the United States
in 1X17 He was rector of Georgetown College
from ISIS to 1S20 and supenoi of Washington
Seminal v fiom 1S21 to 1S21 He published
a number of philosophical and theological
works W S M

KONIGSBERG, THE ROYAL PRUSSIAN
ALBERTUS UNIVERSITY OF — Founded by
Margrave Albrecht, the last knight of the
Teutonic Order in Prussia, who in 1541 es-
tablished a university preparatory school,
transformed into a university, of Protestant
afrihi'Uyas, three years later.

61. r

KONIGSBERG

KRAKATT

The new university secured a good atari,
notwithstanding financial difficulties, enroll-
ing a considerable number of foreigners, prin-
cipally from Poland, Russia, and Sweden
Its further development was sadly hampeied,
however, by the plague of 1549 and still more
by the Thirty Years' War in the following cen-
tury For two centuries after its establish-
ment its history is replete with theological
controversies The close of the seventeenth
and the beginning of the eighteenth centiuv
marked an era of healthy giowth, for which
the Great Elector and the first kings of Prussia
were largely responsible The period of its
greatest renown, however, came somewhat later
in the days of Kant (</?>), who became a docent
at the university in 1755, and full professor
of philosophy fifteen years latei (1770-1797).
One of his successors was J F Her hart (q v ),
who established a pedagogical seminal at
Konigsberg m 1810

In 1862 a new mam building was erected
for the university, and for thirty years after
the Franco-German War considerable activity
was displayed in the building of laboratories
and institutes of various kinds, including labora-
tories for agricultural chemistry and for dairy-
ing, and in 1901 a new library building contain-
ing almost 300,000 volumes and about 1500
manuscripts

Among the prominent former members of
the teaching staff may be mentioned Bessel in
astronomy, Jacobi in mathematics, Hagen m
natural science, Burdacb 'n anatomy, Helm-
holtz in physiology, physics, arid mathematics,
Wagner in surgery, Karl Lachmann m Gei-
manic philology, and Simson and Stobbe in
jurispiudence The German Crown Prince is
rector of the university, a prorector being
elected annually by the faculty The annual
budget amounts to about $400,000 Through
the initiative and financial assistance of Di
Fritz Lange, a German physician who prac-
ticed for a number of years in New Yoik Citv,
the first German student "Union," the PaUps-
tia Albertina, was established by the univei-
sity in 189S The building contains a gym-
nasium and a lelectory, clubrooms, fencing
rooms, swimming pool, etc , but owing to the
lack of sufficient endowment, provision has
been made in it since 1905 for several umvei-
sity seminars

In size Konigsberg ranks fifteenth among
fhe twenty-one German universities In the
venter semester of 1911-1912 there were m
attendance 1694 students, of whom 199 were
auditors. By faculties the matriculated stu-
dents were distributed as follows philosophy
701, medicine 432, law 280, theology (Protes-
tant) 92 The teaching staff consisted of 91
professors and 57 docents

The city of Konigsberg is also the site of a
i oval academy of art, established in 1845 and
leorganized in 1901

The municipal library was founded m 1540

OU

and contains 50,000 volumes and over 600
manuscripts

R. T , JR.
References : —

ARNOLD, D H Historic der Kbmgsberger Umvcrsit&t*

(Komgsberg, 1746-1709 )
BONK, H Das Jubelfest des SSOj&hngen Bestehena der

Albertwt-Umversit&t am 8V. und 87 Juh, 1894

(Komgsberg, 1895 )
LEXIS, W Das Unternchtewrsen im deutschen Reich,

Vol I (Berlin, 1904 )
Minerva, Handbuch der gdehrten Welt (Strassburg,

1911 )
PRUTZ, H Die komgluhe Albtrtus-U nwersit&t Kbmgn-

berg ttn 19 JahrJnnidcrt (Komg^berK, 1844 )

KOREA — See JAPAN, EDUCATION IN

KRAKAU, THE UNIVERSITY OF, KRA-
KAU, AUSTRIA. — One of the oldest univer-
sities in Europe, the papal bull providing for
its establishment having been signed by Pope
Urban V on May 12, 1364. No provision was
made in the deed of foundation for a theo-
logical faculty, and six years after its founda-
tion the university was compelled to close its
doors Permission to establish a faculty of
theology was gi anted by Pope Boniface IX in
1397, and three years latei the university was
reorganized by King Wladislaw Jagello of Po-
land, being removed to a new site in the fol-
lowing year Krakau being the capital of
Poland from 1320 to 1010, the university
served for several centuries as the center of the
intellectual life of the Kingdom of Poland.
Gradually, however, after the Polish capital
had been transferred to Warsaw at the begin-
ning of the seventeenth century, a decline set
in and led finally to another reorganization in
1817 In the meantime, at the last partition
of Poland in 1795, Krakau had been turned
o\er to Austria, becoming part of the fiee
state of that name thirty years later In 1840
Austna again assumed control, and since then
the development of the university has been
marked by continuous progress The German
language was used in all faculties, with the
exception of the theological, from 1853 on,
but has been gradually supplanted by Polish,
which has reigned supreme since 1870

The university library was founded in 1400
and contains over 400,000 volumes, over 0000
manuscripts, over 3000 maps, and almost
10,000 engravings and other reproductions.
It is housed in the old university building,
which was completed in 1497, but altered and
repaired at various times between 1839 and
1872 The new mam building was erected in
1881-1887 The annual budget of the uni-
versity amounts to approximately $225,000
Krakau is the third largest university in
Austna, being exceeded in point of attendance
only by Vienna and Budapest. In the winter
semester of 1909-1910, there were enrolled
3211 students, including 441 auditors, of whom
209 were women. Of the matriculated stu-
dents, 130V men were registered in the faculty

KRAUS

KRUSI, HERMANN, SK.

of law, 446 men and 48 women in the faculty
of medicine, 701 men and 182 women in phi-
losophy, and 86 men in theology (Catholic)

Krakau is also the seat of an art academy,
established as an art school in 1818 and trans-
formed into an academy in 1900 Here, also,
Polish is the language of instruction

R T, JK.
References : —
HEKZ, J Cr< tchichtc der Krakauer Umvcrmttit (Vienna,

1H47)
MOUAWHKI, K Hibtorya Umwersytetu Jaaidlom>kn.got

in Muncra srrcularui Universitatib CracovienitiK,

Volb 1 and II (Krakau, 1900 )
SoLTYKowirz, .1 O titanie Akadcmii KrakoivbkUj

(Krakau, 1811 )

KRAUS, JOHN (1815-1896) —Active in
American kindergarten work He was edu-
cated in the normal schools of Gcimany, and
after coming to America was engaged in private
and public school woik, and from 1S67 to 1873
he was connected with the Bureau of Educa-
tion of the United States In 1873, with his
wife (Maria Kraus-Boelte), he organized a
training school for kindergaitners in New York
City His published writing includes seveial
papers on the kindergarten W. S M

KRUSI, HERMANN, JR (1817-1903) —
Amencan Postalozzian, born at Yverdon,
Switzerland, on June 24, 1817 He leceived
his education in the cantonal schools at Tio-
gen, the normal school at Gais (conducted by
his fathei), and at the noimal school at Dres-
den, conducted by Dr Blochmann, afterwards
minister of public instruction of Saxony, and
at one time an associate of Pestaloz/i in the
institute at Yverdon Aftei an additional
year of inspection of the nonnal schools and
other institutions of Germany, he retiuned to
Switzerland and taught for five4 year* in the
cantonal normal school at (iais under the
pnncipalship of his father (1841-1846) In
1846 he received an appointment as instructor
in a Pestalozzian school at Cheam, England,
organized by Charles Mayo (q v ) The school
was Pestalozzian in name only, notes Krusi,
for its methods were relics of the medieval
age At the end of the year he se\eied his
connection with the school at Cheam to
accept an appointment in the noimal college
conducted by the Home and Colonial School
Society (q v ) lie had charge of the classes in
methods of teaching, mathematics, and di aw-
ing, and while here he worked out and pub-
lished his system of inductive drawing After
five years (1847-1852) in the noimal college in
London, he returned to Switzerland, but a
year later he came to America to accept a post
in the private normal school conducted by
William Russell (q r ) at Lancaster, Mass
Here his associate teachers were Dana Pond
Colburn and Sanborn Tenney He was insti-
tute lecturer in Massachusetts for two years
(1855-1857), having as associates his country.

men Louis Agassiz and Arnold Guvot (qqv).
For two years he was associated with W F
Phelps (q r ) in the newly organized state nor-
mal school at Trenton, X ,1 (1857-1859)
The next three years were devoted to lectuie
work in Massachusetts, and m 1862 Mr
Krusi accepted an appointment/ in the state
normal school at Oswego, New York, with Dr
E A Sheldon (q v ), where he spent twent>-
fivc active years in the woi k of training teachei s
He was one of the principal figures in the
Oswego movement (q r ) which emphasised oial
methods of instruction in pnmai y schools. He
resigned his post at Oswego in 1887 and .spent
his closing yeais at Alamoda, California, wheie
he died on Jan 28, 1903 His published
writings include a Si/btem of Inductive Dmwing,
published originally in England and repub-
lishcd in the United States, Life, Woik, and
Influence of Pcstalozzi, Recollection* of mi) Life,
and various essays and addresses on the
philosophy and history of education

W S. M.
References : —

KIIUHI, HERMANN, JR RLCollictwn* of inn Ltf< tin,
Autobiographical tfkdch ^upphnuntcd hy Extinct*
fiom his perform! Ritoid^ and n Rcvmv of A?s Lit-
LKiry IJrodm tion^, to{j<(fni with mlatid J£&M///s,
anangrd uiul edited b> Elizabeth Sheldon Ailing
(New York, 1<M)7 )

MONROK, WILL S History of the Pctfalozzian Morc-
muit in the Unite- d States (Syiaeuso, 1U07 )

KRUSI, HERMANN, SR (1775-1844) —
Swiss educator and first associate of Pestalozzi,
educated in the schools of (iais in the canton
of Appenzell He taught in the public schools
of Appenzell from 1703 to 1799, uhen he took
charge of an orphan school at Burgdorf It
\\sis here that he made the acquaintance of
Pestalo/zi After a short time Krusi united
his school with that of Pestaloz/i, and he
accepted the rank of assistant teacher Three
of Krusi's friends, Tobler, Niederer, and Buss,
\\ere called to the Burgdorf institution as
additional assistants The four men had pre-
viously ar lived at ideas similar to those held
by Pestalozzi Thev ^ere devoted to, and
behe\ed in, disseminating his ideas Thev
Ined under conditions of great poverty, sim-
plicity, and e\en ignorance, but they lived in
an atmosphere of human love In his f\((ol-
Icdion^, Krusi savs that his life at
\\as broadened, deepened, and
When Pestaloazi transferred his institution to
Yverdon in 1S05, he was accompanied bv
Krusi He continued to labor here until
1X16, when there arose serious diffeicnces
among the associates of Pestalozzi because of
the arrogant demeanor of the financial manager
of the school, Joseph Schmid (see PESTALOZZI).
Krusi, Tobler, Buss, Niederer, and the other
trusted associates of the great Swiss reformer
resigned m a body, and Krusi organized a
private school at Yverdon which he conducted
foi HI\ years In 1822 he was called to the

C17

KYMOGRAPH

LA CHALOTAIS

pnncipalship oi a highei cantonal school at
Trogari Undei his administration the school
attained distinction, and pupils weie sent to it
from different pints of Switzerland and from
Italy. In 1833 Krusi was called to the prm-
cipalship of the new noimal school at Gais
The school became well known in Europe, and
was visited by many American and English
students of education who have left recoids of
their impressions It was in many important
features a replica of the more famous institu-
tion at Yvcrdon Books, except for reading,
were seldom used The instruction was largely
oral, but the pupils had to make their own
books, by collecting and oigamzing the subject
matter of class exercises into notebooks Field
excursions for the purpose ol studying natural
history and local geography occupied consulei-
able time, and walking, climbing, swimming,
arid systematic exercises in gymnastics formed
a part of the physical training of the students
lie continued at the head of the cantonal
normal school at Gais until his death in 1S44
His son, Hermann Krusi, Jr (q v ), was first a
student and later an instructor in the noimal
school at Gais W S. M.

References : —

BARNARD,

Lift, Educational Pruuiphs, and
Mtthwib of r^tolozzi (I'tstalozzi and P<staloz-
ztani^tn (Haitfoid, 1S5() )

(JuiMPH, RCK.KU DK, J'dtalozzi His Life and Woik.
(New York, lS')f> )

KIUJSJ, HERMANN, Jit Pmtalozzi HIH Lift, Work,

and Injlufucc (Now York, n d )
^Rfcnllfttwn** of mij Lift (Now York, 1<K)7 )

Kitusi, HERMANN, SR Kunnerungin aws nieincm ptida-
(jo{jit>ditn Lvbtn und Wirkcn (Stuttgart, 1840 )
An abbreviated translation of tho hanio in Bainob'
titudiett in Education First SLTICB (Stanford
Umvoi.sity, ]S9b-lh97 )

KYMOGRAPH

ORATORY

- See PSYCHOLOGICAL LAB-

KYOTO, UNIVERSITY OF —See JAPAN,
EDUCATION IN.

KYPHOSIS —See SPINAL CURVATURE
LABOR — See MANUAL LABOR , SOCIETY

FOR PROMOTING MANUAL LABOR, also INDUS-
TRIAL EDUCATION, GILDS AND EDUCATION;
MANUAL TRAINING

LABOR BUREAUS —See VOCATIONAL
GUIDANCE OF SCHOOL CHILDREN

LABOR, CHILD — See CHILD LABOR

LABOR PERMITS — For school children
See LEAVING CERTIFICATES

LABORATORY (from Lat laborarc, to labor)
— Originally the term applied to the shop where
the alchemist or chemist elaborated his chemi-
cal and medicinal products, now used very
generally to indicate the buildings or rooms set

apart for conducting practical investigation
in any of the sciences The laboratory fur-
nishes a most important adjunct to any educa-
tional institution and is essential in the teaching
of any science, and is treated in its various as-
pects under different captions in the Cyclopedia
The theory of laboratory work is discussed
under EXPERIMENT, EXPERIMENTATION, LOGIC
oi< , EXPERIMENT IN EDUCATION, EXPERIMENT,
TEACHING BY, also PSYCHOLOGY, EXPERI-
MENTS, SCIENCE, EXPERIENCE, and EMPIRI-
CISM The function, equipment and opera-
tion of laboi atones is discussed under each
of the natural sciences, as BOTANY, CHEM-
ISTRY, PHYSICS, etc Of special educational
interest is the treatment undei EXPERIMENTAL
PEDAGOGY, PSYCHOLOGY, EDUCATIONAL, PSY-
CHOLOGICAL LABORATORY In a bioader, less
technical sense, the term is sometimes used to
lefer to such work as is described under EX-
PERIMENTS SCHOOLS and STATISTICAL METHOD
The liteiatuie of the subject will also be found
in connection with the articles mentioned
above The historical development of the
labniatory is outlined in the histoncal sections
of the articles on the various natural sciences

LABORATORY METHODS IN MATHE
MATICS — See MATHEMATICS, LABORATORY
METHODS IN

LABORATORY, PSYCHOLOGICAL — See

PSYCHOLOGICAL LABORATORY

LACE MAKING — See HOUSEHOLD ARTS

LA CHALOTAIS, LOUIS RENE DE CARA
DEUC DE (1701-17S;>) —French magistrate
and statesman He was a striking figuie dui-
mg the preie\ olutioimi v peiiod, and one \\lio
exeited a noteworthy influence on the educa-
tional thought of his time His Tiro Jtepoit* on
the Constitution* of th( ./CM///.S submitted in
Decembei, 1701, and May, 1702, to the Parha-
ment of Brittany, of which he was Attoiney-
geneial, were largely instrumental in bringing
about the suppiession of the ordei in Fiance
(1704) Falling into disfavoi, he was thio\vn
into puson, and theie in solitaiy confinement
wrote a lemarkable defense, closing with these
woids " Wiitten with a pen fashioned lioin
a toothpick and in ink made from a mixture of
chimney soot, vinegai, and sugar, on the papei
wrappings of packages of chocolate " " The
\vntmgs of La C'lmlotais," said Voltaire, " will
live forcvei " The most important ^work of
his life was probably , his /£.s,sw d'ttducntntn
national? on Plan d' Etudes pom la Jcuncw
(1703), whose significance has unfortunately
been almost completely overshadowed by
Rousseau's A'/w/c, which appeared in the pre-
vious year This memoir, looking to the re-
form of the secondary education of his time,
was almost immediately translated into Dutch,
Russian, and German. He proposed to sub-

618

LACHMANN

LACTANT1US FIRMIANUS

stitute for an educational scheme that was
primarily adapted for purely school purposes,
one that should fit the individual to discharge
the duties that devolved upon him as a citizen
After a general introduction on the function of
education, the inadequacy of the existing in-
stitutions, and the characteristics of the teacher,
he laid down general principles for fixing the
number of colleges (i c secondaiv schools),
discussed some general considerations oi
method, and closed with a carefully elaborated
curriculum for the secondary schools In
many of his arguments, especially those on the
importance of the place occupied by physical
education, on the practical value of modern
language4 study, and on substituting lay
teachers for the omnipresent clciical teachers,
he was unquestionably far in advance of the
prevailing practices oi his time. F E F

References —

rjiHsoN, F I)t(tio?mair< de PtdaaoyH, BV

La Chalo-

DELVAILLP, J La Chalotais, Kducatcur (Pans, 1()1() )
La Chnlotais tt It Du< d' Aiunilloii, ('tnu^jtondaiiLe du

Chualm d( Fontittt (Parib, IS'H )
ROIIIDOU La Chalottus <f /< s Ju>uitei> (Rcmieb, !S7f) )

LACHMANN, KARL (1793-1831) -
German scholar and critic, born at Brunswick
He was educated at home and in the local
gymnasium, and in 1800 proceeded to the Uni-
versity of Leipzig with the intention of studying
theology He transferred, ho\\e\er, to classical
studies which he pursued under lleyne (q r )
at Gottmgen, and under Beneke's influence he
took up Germanic philology He took his
degree at Halle Alter tea< hmg for a time at
Herlin and Komgsbeig, he became professor
extraordinary at the University ol Korngsbcig
and lectured on German philology In 1825
he was called to Herlin, and in 1830 became a
member of the Academy ol Sciences He
edited numerous \\orks in Greek, Latin, and
German literature, and introduced new concep-
tions and new standards in textual criticism
The text, the author, the content and spirit of
the work, were nil to receive1 consideration It.
was, however, on the purity of the text and the
restoration of the original which churned his
chief attention Among the chief of his edi-
tions are those on Proper tins (1810), Proper -
tius, Catullus, and Tibullus (1829), Fr/Wrx of
Avianus and Babnus, Lucretius (184,")- 1850),
Greek Testament (the introduction containing
an exposition of his views on textual criticism,
1850). Lachmann also wrote on meter in Greek
poetry, on the dialogue in Greek Tragedy, and
edited many early Geimnu works Applying
the principles of Wolf's Pjohqowrnn, he tried
to prove that Die NiMunqm Xot could be
dissected into twenty original lays, and later
he divided the Iliad into eighteen distinct lavs
Of Lachmann's influence Munro says, '* HardU
any work of merit has appeared in Germany
since Lachmann's Luaetnw in any branch of

literature without bearing on every page the
impress of his example."

References : —

Aftco< miinc dcui^ht Biofjraphn

Hfcitiz, M Kail Lachniann, einc Biographic (Berlin,

1851 )
SANDYH, J E History of Cla^ical Scholarship. \t>\

III (Cambridge, 1<K)S )

LACROSSE -- A game which had its origin
with the American Indians under the name of
" Baggataway " It was played by tv\o .sides,
each consisting of a \\holc tribe, often number-
ing hundreds of player s The match was
started at dawn and continued until one side
had scored 100 goals, this often required se\ eraJ
da>s of play from dawn until sunset with a few
short periods of rest From this crude game oi
battle, the Indians and the white inhabitants
of Canada developed the modern game The
number of players was limited to twelve4 on
each team, the size of the pla\ ing field decreased
to about 125 yards by 50 yards, the goal posts
lowered to six feet, the SMC and shape of the
44 crosse " or playing .stick fixed, and the old
buckskin ball replaced by a hard, rubber ball
From Canada the game spread to the Urnted
States in 1SC>7 and to Great Britain in 1877
H:tr\ard was the first college to adopt la-
cross when a team was organized in 1SS1
Princeton, Columbia, New York lTrnversit\,
and Yale soon followed, and the game has
gained steadily in popularity v\ith college and
preparatory school students

Lacrosse is a splendid game, the running,
dodging, catching, and throwing the ball, ser\e
to develop vitality, speed, agility, and self-
control in a large measure Fewr games offer
as many opportunities foi indr\idual skill and
team play as lacrosse Students \\ ho are too
small for football or towing often develop into
skillful players, foi agilitv and skill are more
desired than weight or strength The game
is intensely interesting to spectators and in
every way is one of the best games played rn
the colleges and schools (J L M

References : —

IIouitE, .1 \ , Jr Lacrosse in the United States
i ny Manazini, Vol VII March, 1S86

MACKENZIE,, Ross LIKIOSM Outiny Maaazini
XXI, October, 1SM1>

LACTANTIUS FIRMIANUS (c 250 325)
--The last of the Latin apologists, a pupil of
Arnobius (q r ) He made Cicero his literan
and philosophical model with such success that
he was known amongst the humanists as 44 the
Christian Cicero " He attained such eminence
as a teacher of rhetoric that Diocletian made
him official professor of eloquence in his new
capital of Nicomedia, which he intended to
make the intellectual and political equal of
Rome Constantine chose him to preside over
the education of his heir-apparent, Crrspus, m
which occupation he spent his closing years ai

619

LADY MARGARET HALL

LAKE FOREST COLLEGE

Trier He was m no sense an original thinker,
hut is distinguished for his sound judgment and
elegant literacy style, the milky softness of
which procured for him the name Lactantius
He was a thoroughly consistent example of a
Christian philosopher and his writings contain
much valuable information as to the ancient
systems of Philosophy His Divine Institu-
tions was the first attempt at a systematic ex-
Eosition of Christum doctrine in Latin The
itter part of his Epitome of this largei work is an
admirable compendium of religious ethics His
treatise On the A tiger of (rod, directed against the
Stoics and Kpicmeans, in which he proves the di-
vine chai actcr capable of righteous indignation,
was higlily praised by St Jerome The Work-
ruan^hij) of God is a discussion of the anatomy
of the human body and the nature of the soul
in opposition to the Epicurean Philosophy He
adopts the Creationist view, affirming that the
soul is the immediate workmanship of God
without human coopeiation His book on the
Death* of the Peiwcutots is a resume* of the
vanous persecutions from the time of Nero
and is of prime importance to the historical
student His treatise on Grammar is lost

W R

References • —
Anti-Niccne Fatlur&, Vol VII, contains a translation of

Lactantius' wiitniKs (New York, 1897 )
SMITH, 8m WM , and WACE, H Dictionary of Christian
B togi a phy contains a valuable aiticle on LactantiUH

LADY MARGARET HALL, OXFORD —

See WOMEN, EDUCATION OF; OXFORD UNI-
VERSITY

LAFAYETTE COLLEGE, EASTON, PA —

A Presbyterian college opened in May, 1832,
under the presidency of Rev George Junkin,
D D A scientific school was established in
1865 thiough the hbeiahtv of Ario Paidee,
Ksq The college department now maintains
three courses of study, Classical, Latin Scien-
tific, and General Scientific, leading to the de-
grees of A B , Ph B., and B S , and the technical
school courses in civil, mining, electrical, and
mechanical engmeenng, and analytical chem-
istry leading to the appiopnatc degrees The
entrance requirements are fifteen units The
faculty (1911) consists of fifty members and the
students numbei ,560, — 286 in the college, and
2,54 in the technical .school, with twenty pur-
suing graduate studies The college is beauti-
fully located at the junction of the Lehigh and
Delaware rivers The grounds occupy sixty
acres The buildings number fifty Among
those who have given distinction to the college
are Professor James II Coffin, LL I) , author
of The Winds of the Globe, whose discoveries as
to cyclonic storms are the basis of the forecasts
of the Weather Bureau, and Professor Francis
A March, LL D , L II D , D C L , who was one
of the pioneers in the philological study of the
English language. EthelbertT) Warfield, D.D ,
LL.D , has been president since 1891

LAGGARDS IN THE SCHOOLS. — See

RETARDATION, AND ELIMINATION OF PUPILS.

LAKANAL, JOSEPH (1762-1845) —
French statesman, teacher, and, after Con-
dor cet (<? t> ), the most important of the edu-
cational leaders of the Revolutionary period.
He was a member of the National Convention,
and of the Council of Five Hundred. His
position in educational history rests exclusively
upon his activity as member of the Committee
of Public Instruction in the former body The
lull, of which he was joint author with Sieves
and Daunou (q v ), presented to the Conven-
tion, June, 1793, provided that the state as-
sume the support of elementary instruction,
and that secondary and higher education (bar-
ring some few subsidized higher institutions)
should be left to private initiative. This bill
shared the fate of so many of the projects of
the Revolutionary assemblies and was set
aside for another (the plan of Lepelletier)
It was the icport of Lakanal (February, 1795)
that resulted in the foundation of the ficoU*
centiales (central schools), which bridged the
gap in secondary education between the passing
of the old legnne and the establishment of the
lycees by Napoleon in 1802 Lakanal's most
distinctive work was his report (October, 1794)
which provided for the foundation of the Noi-
mal School (see NORMAL SCHOOL, HIGHER)
After the defeat at Waterloo, Lakanal came to
the United States, where he spent some twenty-
two years among his fellow countrymen in the
south, residing at New Oi leans lor a part of the
time He returned to his native country in
1837, arid there spent the remainder of hiB life

F E F
References : —

KUISHON, F Dictionnatre de P&QaQogu, « •\ Lakanaf
LAKANAL Expose smnmaire de* Traoaur dc Joseph
Lakanal ex-Menthre de la Convention natiunaii ct
du Consul des Ciny-Centb, pour t>aurcr pendant hi
Revolution lcf> Science* t let, Lettret,, ct ccm fjm /<vx
honoraient pur leurs Travaux (Paris, 1838 )
LEGENDRE 'Lakanal (Pans, 1882 )
SAINT-HILAIRE, G Lakanal, sa Vie et tics Travaux
(Pans, 1849)

LAKE ERIE COLLEGE, PAINESVILLE,
OHIO — An institution founded in 1847 as
the Willoughhy Seminary at Willoughby, Ohio,
for the higher education of women, and moved
1o its present location in 1856, where instruc-
tion was begun in 1859 The present title was
adopted in 1908 The entrance requirements
are fifteen units, candidates being admitted
by examination or by certificate from ac-
credited schools The college confers the
degree of A B The enrollment in the col-
lege in 1911-1912 was 118 There are thirty
members on the teaching staff

LAKE FOREST COLLEGE, LAKE FOR-
EST, ILL. — Founded in 1857 as the Lind
University by a company formed for the pur-

620

Sn William Hamilton (I7ss ]s.">(>) Seep li

Quiiitm Hotfn ( 1st V 1'MJi) Sc<

Joseph Luiicubtor (1778-1S3S) Scop (>J1 Tlnmias Hrnry Huxloy (iSJS-lS'Jfj) See p

A GROUP OF KM.LISH EDTICATORS.

LALOR

LANCASTER

pose of establishing a residence suburb and an
educational institution within easy distance of
Chicago In 1865 the legal title of the insti-
tution became the Lake Foiest University
Collegiate work with a four years' course was
not begun until 1876, up to that date a second-
ary education was provided ior boys in the
Lake Forest Academy, and for girls in Ferrv
Hall Attempts were made from tune to time
to develop professional, schools but in 1902
it was decided to confine attention to the de-
velopment of the academic and collegiate
departments only The entrance require-
ments are sixteen units The degree of A B
is conferred on students who complete the
required courses, which are arranged according
to the group system The AM is granted
after a veai of residence work and a thesis In
1911-1912 then1 were enrolled in the college
185 students The faculty consists of eigh-
teen members

LALOR, THERESA (1766-1846) —Foun-
der of the first Roman Catholic school for gnls
in the United States She opened a school
for Catholic girls in Philadelphia in 1797
T\vo years lalei she took charge of the girls'
school founded at Georgetown and in 1808 she
became the mothei superioi of the Convent
and Academy of Visitation Five convents
of her order \\ere established in the United
States W S M

LAMARCK — See INVOLUTION, SCIENTIFIC
THEORY OF

LANCASTER, JOSEPH (1778-1838). — The
English educator and advocate of the monito-
iial svstern (q r ) He was born in Southwark
(London) on the 25th of November, 1778, the
son of a small tradesman Precocious pietv
and copious speech seemed to justify his
parents' hopes that he would become a Dissent-
ing minister, but he disappointed them by
joining the (Junkers, a sect without paid preach-
ers After being occupied for some time as
usher, he (piobablv in 1798) opened a school
on his father's premises His enthusiasm and
his natural aptitude foi managing children
combined with the food and clothes, which
Ihe berie\olence of some Quakers enabled him
lo distribute during a severe wmtei, made Ins
school so popular that it had to be trans-
ferred twice or thrice into larger rooms Lan-
caster was nearly overwhelmed by his success
His pupils were too many for him to teach
alone and he could not afford to pay for help
The, idea, therefore, occurred to him of making
those who knew a little teach those who knew
less Being entirely ignorant of the history
of education, he thought that the idea was new,
and he embodied it in a system of discipline
and instruction showing considerable ingenuity
As he also invented sundry money-saving de-
vices, such as substitutes for reading books and

copy books, he reduced the cost of maintain-
ing a school

Lancaster was so proud of his system that in
1803 he published Improvements iti Educa-
tion as it respect* Ike Industrious Classes of the
Community, containing a Short Account of its
Pi event State, Hints towards its Improvement,
and a Detail of some Practical Experiments
(onducive to that End The fact that a second
edition was published the same year proves
the author's success in " pushing it " He had
now begun to seek supporters outside the
circle of his coreligionists The earliest of
his noble patrons were Lord Somerville and the
Duke of Bedford, the most exalted was George
III, with whom he procured an interview in
1805 The king listened patiently to a long
account of the " System," expressed a wish that
every poor child in his dominions should be
taught to read the Bible, promised to sub-
scribe a £100 a year, and put down the Queen
for £50 and the Princesses for £25 each.

The royal favor expanded both the enthu-
siasm and the imprudence of Lancaster He
had already, with only a fraction of the cost
assured, built a large schoolhouse in the
Borough Road, he now added a printing press
and a slate manufactory, he started a model
rural school, and traveled in state to deliver
lectures advocating the establishment of other
schools Toward the end of 1807 his debts
were over £6000 and he was arrested On
Jan 22, 1808, William Coiston, Joseph Fox,
and he, meeting at Corston's house on Lud-
gate Hill, formed themselves into a " So-
ciety for the purpose of affording education
to the children of the poorei subjects
of George 111 " (See BRITISH AND FOREIGN
SCHOOL SOCIETY ) In July William Allen
(q v ) and others were added to the Committee
The members made themselves responsible
for Lancaster's debts, undertook to manage
his financial affairs, and released him for mis-
sionary journeys As these resulted in the
establishment of a good many schools, all re-
quiring masters trained in the System, the busi-
ness gradually grew too big for the original
Committee, to which in December, 1X10, more
than forty noblemen, statesmen, and philan-
thropists were added

In 1812 Lancaster, against the advice of
his friends, started a boarding school in which
his System was to be applied to secondary
education This was a private speculation
\\lncli in a vear brought him to bankruptcy
The institution in the Borough Road \v«ts not
involved in his rum, as the Committee, antici-
pating it, had induced him, for valuable con-
sideration, to relinquish his legal title to the
premises In order to acknowledge his past
services and provide for his future needs, the
Committee created the post of superintendent
of the schools with nominal duties and a liberal
salary, but irritable vanity prevented his trying
to cooperate with the men who had been

621

LANCASTER

LANDER COLLEGE

his generous and disinterested supporters,
and m April, 1814, having persuaded an un-
suspecting foreigner to provide the capital
for starting a rival school in a neighboring
street, he resigned his appointment The
rival school was a failure and Lancaster, hav-
ing alienated the sympathies of the public,
sank into obscurity and distress

In 1818 he resolved to abandon his ungrate-
ful country and begin a new life in the New
World. Lancaster's System had preceded
him and ho was warmly welcomed from Al-
bany to Washington. He made his first home
at Philadelphia, but " rumors of debt and
discreditable pecuniary transactions in Eng-
land " rendered cordial relations with the
Quakers impossible arid he moved on to Balti-
more. There he opened an " institute/' but
it does not appear to have been very success-
ful and in 1825 he was glad to accept an invita-
tion from Bolivar, the " Liberator " of South
America, to organize schools for the young Re-
public. In less than two years he fell foul of
the President and was compelled to leave
Caracas.

Information respecting the remainder of his
life is very fragmentary We catch glimpses
of him here and there lecturing or teaching,
sometimes enjoying brief prosperity, some-
times sick and poor In 1827 he was at New
Haven, in 1828 the City of New York voted
him $500, in 1829 he went to Canada, where
the Parliament made several grants to enable
him to carry on his experiments in education,
but m 1833, having quarreled with the Speaker,
ho returned to the United States From New
Haven ho issued an appeal for aid pending the
first payment of an annuity which the leading
members of tho British and Foreign School
Society wore subscribing to buy for their old
traducer In September, 1838, he was arrang-
ing to return to England, but an accident in
a New York street ended his life on the 23d
of the next month.

For about seven years after his interview with
the king, Lancaster was the center of an ex-
tensive and passionate controversy. He was
assailed on personal and on religious grounds.
He was accused, quite unjustly, of having stolen
his System from Bell (q v.) and said to have
invented nothing except its defects The
greatest of these was its catholicity. Lan-
caster and his supporters maintained that in
schools attended by the children of all sects
the teaching should not be distinctive of any
sect Bell's supporters maintained that the
doctrines of the Established Church should be
taught. The personal controversy has long
coasod to interest, but the religious contro-
versy is still unsettled in England. A hundred
years ago it had one beneficial result, — it
)od to the establishment of many schools in
emulation or in rivalry. D. S-N.

For portrait, see p. 621.
Sec MONITORIAL SYSTEM.

References : —

BINNS, A. B. A Century of Education, 1808-1908, being
the Centenary of the British and Foreign School Society
(London, 1908.)

Educational Record (London), the organ of the British
and Foreign School Society, generally contains
some article bearing on the subject Appears in
February, June, and October of each year

SALMON, D. Joseph Lancaster. Contains a full Bibliog-
raphy. (London, 1904.)

LANCELOT, CLAUDE (161^1695) —One
of the most influential teachers in the schools
of Port- Royal (q v.) none contributing more to
the fame of the society by his pen than he
His most notable writings were unquestion-
ably a series on learning foreign languages, the
first being* Nouvelle M&hode pour apprendre
facilement la Langiie latine (1644) This was
intended as an abbreviated form of DespauteTc,
the grammar then in almost universal use,
but all its rules were in French verse, whereaa
those in the older text had been in Latin verse.
This was followed by similar texts Greek
(1655); Italian (1660); Spanish (1660).

F. K F.

References : —
CADKT, F Port-Royal Education, tr by A. D Joneo.

(London, 1898)
SAINTK-BIJJUVE. Port Royal
VERIN. Etude sur Lancelot (Pans, 1869 )

LANCING ST MARY AND NICHOLAS
COLLEGE, SHOREHAM, SUSSEX — See

GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, COLLEGE, COLLEGE, ENG-
LISH, PUBLIC SCHOOLS.

LAND GRANT COLLEGES. — See AGRI-
CULTURAL EDUCATION, NATIONAL GOVERNMENT
AND EDUCATION.

LAND GRANTS FOR EDUCATION —
Sec NATIONAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCA-
TION.

LAND, SCHOOL — See SCHOOL FUNDS*
NATIONAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION

LANDERZIEHUNGSHEIME. — See DEUT-
SCHE LANDERZIEHUNGSHEIME , BOARDING
SCHOOL.

LANDER COLLEGE, GREENWOOD, S C

— An institution for the education of girls
arid young women under the auspices of the
South Carolina Conference of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, South. The institution
was founded in 1872 as the Williamston Fe-
male College and was moved to its present
location in 1904 under the new title. Sub-
collegiate, collegiate, and music and art courses
are offered. Ten admission units are require-
ments. By its charter the college is author-
ized to grant degrees. The faculty consists
of nineteen members.

(.22

LANDSMAJNASCHAFT

LANGE

LANDSMANNSCHAFT — The name of one
type of Student Association in the German
universities originating in the eaily part of the
seventeenth century They were ongmally
groupings of students according to the dis-
trict from which they came \Mthin each nation
(See UNIVERSITIES ) For a long time the resi-
dence qualification was adheied to, but latei,
membership was thrown open When the,
BurKchcnwhaft (</ /» ) arose (about I860), many
of the LandsniannxchaftcH weie dissolxed and
joined the new mo\emcnt When (he />///-
whcHM'hftftcn \\ere suppressed (following the
rcxolutionarv period of 1830), the name ('<>//>s
((//') was assumed bjr mau\ organizations
For a time there was no distinction between
('or ft* and Lnn(lxmann*chaft, but since 1888
the latter lia\e a separate cential orgam/a-
tion, the Coburgct Land*ni(inn\chaften-hon-
vcnt and a periodical, the Land*niunn^cha}-
tcn-konvcHtzntuny In i)omt of organization
and exclusiveness the Land\inann\chaft moie
nearly resembles the Corps than the Biu-
*chcn*chaft

See STUDENT LIFE

Reference : —

SCHULZK, V , and SSQVI\NK, P
lutn (Leipzig, 1910)

Day dcutxcke titudentcn-

LANE, ALBERT GRANNIS (J 841-1906) —
School superintendent, educated in the public
schools of Chicago lie was puncipul of the
Franklin School, Chicago (ISoS- 1869, su-
pcnntendent of Cook Count x, Illinois (1868
1873 and 1877-1891), nix superintendent
of the schools of Chicago (IS91-I89S) and as-
sistant supeiintendent (1X98-1906) He was
actixe in the National Education Association
and was the authoi of a numbei of papeis on
educational subjects W S M

LANE THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY, CIN
CINNATI, OHIO Established in 1829, 01-
gamzed uudei the Presbv tenan church ol 1 h<
United States to educate >oung men foi the
ministry All candidates must be members
in full communion with some e\ angelical
church, and for the admission to the full couise
should be graduates of a college 01 univeisity
Diplomas aie granted on completion of the
full three years' Course

LANFRANC (( 1005-1089) — Aichbishop
of Canterbury, bom at Pa\ia He studied law
for a time, but on his father's death he went to
France, and with a band of scholar opened a
school at Avianches in 1039, which attiacled
many students Determining to de\ote
himself to a religious life, he went to the
monastery at Bee, where he opened a school
which was attended by students from France,
Germany, and Italy In 1070 Lanfranc became
Archbishop of Canterbury, and in that position
did much to promote learning in England by
introducing and preferring foreign clerks Lan-

franc was especially interested in the Cathe-
dral of Canterbury, which was in the hands of
monks The Constitution* of Lanfranc deals
with the charge and conduct of oblates and
young novices, but, except foi a reference to
leading, no mention is made of their instruction
Lanfranc was the a ut hoi of many woiks,
the chief of these is \\\r DC Corpoic et tiangutne
Domini no\tn, a defense of tiansubstantiation
against Berengaiuis of Touis

References - -

I)u Itttndrij of \atunnil liioyraphy

(ini-^, I Lnnfinin Opt/a (Oxford, 1H14)

LKUH, A F Ktituahonfil C'tiariern and Documents

(Cambridge', JM11 )
MiuNfc, I* Pattologia Lutina, Vol CL

LANGDON, SAMUEL (1723-1797) —
Klexenth president of Harvard College, from
which he graduated in J740, He taught at
Portsmouth, N H (1740-1745), engaged in
the work of the ministry, and was chaplain
in the colonial army He was president of
Harxard College fiom 1774 to 17SO, and the
author of a number of philosophical and le-
ligious works W S M

LANGE, FRIEDRICH ALBERT (1828-
187,r)) — Philosopher, born Sept 28, 1828, at
Wald near Solmgen in Westphalia, the son of
a pastor who afteiward became a well-known
piofessor of theology After attending the
gxmnasiaof Duisburg and Zuiich, he studied
classical philology at Zurich and Bonn, and
t a light foi ten years (IS52-1S62) in the gym-
nasia of Cologne and Duisburg and the LTmver-
sitv of Bonn Resigning his position at
Duisburg for political reasons, he became the
editoi of a libeial paper and secretary of the
( harnber of commeice of Duisburg, took an
actixe interest m labor unions and xTanous so-
cial icfoims (cooperative societies, consumers'
leagues, loan societies), and delivered popular
lectuies on philosphv His celebrated \\ork
on the /7/.S/OM/ of Maicuali&m (translated b\
E C Thomas, 3 xols, 1892) first appeared
in 1865 (second edition lexised and enlarged,
1873 1875, later edition edited by Cohen) and
xx as folloxved bv txxo able economic treatises
The Lnboi Qn< \tion, 1865, and J N MilF*
]'/r/rs on the Soaol Qmdion, 1866 During this
actixe jienod he also contiibuted a numbei
ol excellent ai tides on education to SehnndV
xxTell-knoxx n Kn( i/ilopedift and \\oiked on 111.1*
Loqual Stndi(\, which vxas ])ul)hshed aftei his
death (1877) In consequence of antagonism
to his utdical .social and political views, Lange
jesigned his positions (1866) and removed to
Switzerland where he devoted himself to jour-
nalism, business, politics, and teaching, until
1872, when he was called from his professorship
of philosophy at Zurich to a similar chair at
Marburg Here he died, \ov 21, 1875, m the
bloom of his manhood, a victim of his strenu-
ous devotion to xvork

LANCiEN

LANGUAGE, ENGLISH

Lange endeavored to reconcile the prevail-
ing scientific realism of his age with the
traditional idealism by going back to Kantian
critical idealism Foi him materialism is a
legitimate working hypothesis for the mental
as well as the physical sciences, but impossible
as an ultimate philosophy in view of Kant's
criticism and 1 he physiology of the sense organs,
while specula/! ive idealism belongs with re-
ligion and art to the realm of poetry, which,
howevei, have a high value for the life of man
We cannot icach ceitain and objective knowl-
"dgc in religion and metaphysics through
leason and understanding their value lies
in their subjectivity, in then being the highest
realization of the individual's spnitual self
And though natural science too is merely the
product of man's mental oiganizatron, its
value rests upon the elimination of self, of
all teleological, emotional, religious, Aesthetic,
and moral pr esuppositions Natural science
must be supplemented by a critical idealistic
philosophy, the leal world by the world of
values, the world of ideals

In education Lange demanded that \\e keep
in mind both the ethical goal and the psychologi-
cal factor , pedagogy must employ the pohtr-
cal sciences, physiology, and modem empirical
psychology, and become an empirical science
of national education He criticized many
of the tendencies and methods common in (lei-
many, the mama for centralization and um-
fornntv, the mechanization of instiuction,
the position of religious instruction in the
curriculum, and pleaded for greater freedom
and elasticity, foi physical tunning, foi train-
ing rn citizenship, for realist re studies, for better
training of teachers, and recommended many
reforms which have since been adopted

F T

References : —
BOKNEMANV, L Dorpftld und Alhttl J^nnye (Liui-

Konsalssa, 1WU )
KLLISEN Lange, eine L(ht'm>b(.t>(krt,ihun(/ (Leipzig,

1S91 )

UnhRWfcd, F History of J'hilobojthij, Vol 11 Tr by
G S Morris (Now \oik, 1H% ) The host
Gorman edition is the 10th, Ubor\vog- Homze,
the disdiHMon of Lunge, in l*t III, Vol II

LANGEN, RUDOLPH VON — See

RENAISSANCE AND ElHTC \TTON

LANGLEY, JOHN (d KM?) Headmaster
of St Paul's School, London, H>40 1(i:>7 lie
was bom near Hanbury in Oxfordshire, grad-
uated H A from Magdalen 1 1 all rn 1f>l(i, and be-
came schoolmaster at Gloucester m Hil7, where
he stayed till 1()27 In HV4.S he \\as one of the
licensers of the press for books of philosophy,
history, poetr\, morality, and arts Langley
wiote 7V///,s KhtituucT Adumbtufio in n\uni
J'tuiluur ticholtv (1644) and ,in 1 HhoductioH
to (f HUH mui Di Edward Reynolds, after-
wards Bishop of Norwich, v\ho preached
Langley's funeral sermon, 1657, spoke of

Langley as " a learned man, a historian, cos-
mographcr, and a great antiquary in the most
memorable things of this Nation" He thub
entered into the tradition of the great anti-
quary-schoolmaster, William Camden (q v )
and marks the growing tendency toward
widening the field of interest, of schoolmasters
beyond the merely classical to the recognition
of the claims ot England, in its language, his-
tory, and literature, to the attention of masters
and pupils of English schools F W

References : —

Dictionary of National hiofjiapfuj

M< DoNNfcLL, M F A Hiiton/ of *S7 Paul'* School
(London, 1!KW )

REYNOLDS, EDWAKD ^1 Xnnioti touthniu th( I ^ of
flutnnti Lmi nt?i(j, pre(K hcd m Mer«r\ C'hnppil, ot
th( Fiuu'iul of Unit Lairntd Grnthman, Air John
Lattglci/, loti Sthoohna'stti of *S7 Paul'* tfthool in
London, on tin J/,s/ dfii/ of Xcphni ho, Iho7 (Lon-
don, 165S )

LANGUAGE, ENGLISH — The English
language as a clearly differentiated branch of
scientific and academic studv was not fullv
lecogm/ed until the dcATelopment of the mod-
ern science ot philology In the se\enteenth
century interest rn the antiquities of the Eng-
lish people had led to a certain amount of
examination oi the language of the older
periods, mainly with a view to the translation
of Anglo-Saxon texts and then use in eccle-
siastical history and polemics (sec AMJLO-
SAXOX) Vlt hough these earliest irnestiga-
tions weie not carried on in a thorough or sys-
tematic way, a number of woiks were then
\\iitten, ( <j grammars and dictionaries ((/ /• ),
which were of some use to later students of the
language In the succeeding century student, s
of language weie interested rn the subject
mainly from a philosophical point of \re\\, and
attempts were made, always upon an insuffi-
cient basis of fact and observation, to explain
language as a universal human activity accord-
ing to the rules of a systematic logic Atten-
tion being directed mainly to theory, the studv
of the facts of the speech languished Of the
English philosophical linguists one of the most
ingenious was Lord Monboddo, James Burnett,
who published hrs OIKJIH and Piogre^ of Lnn-
(funqc m six \olumes, from 1773 to 1702
More representatrve of linguistic scholar sin])
specifrcalK , and perhaps the most important
work of the eighteenth century dealing with the
English language, is ,1 Home Tooke's HjHd
I'lfHHiila, 01 the I)iPi'i\ion\ of Puflct/, the fust
\olume of which appealed in 17S() Tins
\\oik, which is concerned mainly \vrth etymol-
ogy, was undertaken in a casual way as result
of a la u suit in which Tooke was concerned,
the derision of which tinned upon the mean-
>ng of certain English prepositions Although
the book is full of the wildest theoretical deriva-
tions of words and of unfounded linguistic
geneiahzations, it nexertheless shows con-
siderable information and even scholarship of

624

LANGUAGE, ENGLISH

LANGUAGE, ENGLISH

a miscellaneous and unsystematic kind It
serve? as a fair index to the state of knowledge
with respect to language in its time, and slums
also that the lack of a proper method was the
mam reason why much of the linguistic inves-
tigation of the philosophical students of lan-
guage has proved unsound and valueless

The historical and scientific study of language
according to modern methods begins with the
foundation of the science oi philology in the
early nineteenth century The scholailv point
of view with respect to the study of the indi-
vidual languages, eg English, French, (lei-
man, etc , has in general followed the changes
in the theoretical conception of the whole sub-
ject of philology (q v ) T\M> important and
differing conceptions of philology ma\ heie
be noticed The first and eailiei of the two is
that which was formulated hv Fuedrich August
Wolf (q v ) in his various outings on classical
antiquity, especially the lileratuie and ait of
Greece It was left to his followers, Boeekh,
H Paul, and others, to e\1end his concep-
tion of philology to othei civilizations, espe-
cially to the Teutonic civilization of Km ope
The greatest achievement of Ihe Wolfian
conception of philology has been the pro-
duction of the (Y?//m/y/ss <lci qei ni<i niv h en,
Ptulologic (2d ed , Vol 1, 1S96), under the
general direction of 11 Paul, but with the
collaboration of various scholars in spe( ial
fields The inherent difficulties of the syn-
thetic Wolfian conception of philology, and the
natural tendency of all such studies toward
greater differentiation and specialization, pie-
paied the way for the second and moic analytic
conception of philology, which is the one pre-
vailing to-day, at least in practice, and the one
which has been most fruitful of results This
theory of philology makes the subject in manv
respects coincidental with the science of linguis-
tics, the tendency in this direction being apparent
even in Paul's (Jiundn^ from the greater rela-
tive importance of the fifth, the linguistic sec-
tion, as compared with the other sections of
the book. The founder of the modern science
of philology or linguistics, as distinguished from
Wolf's imaginative and poetical conception of
the subject, is usually assumed to be Franz
Bopp (qv), born 1791, who chose as his
particular subject of investigation the origin
of the inflectional system of the Indo-Germanic
languages Bopp's method was compaiative,
and in the course of his investigations he not-
only arrived at a theory of his o^ n with respect
to the origin of inflection, but a more impor-
tant result of his work was the detailed proof of
the common relationship and origin of the
Indo-Germanic languages, a fact which had
been guessed before Bopp's time, but never
credibly demonstrated The conclusions of
Bopp established the comparative method of
linguistic investigation upon a sound basis,
and this method has more or less colored all
subsequent study of language. Still further

differentiation was brought about by Jacob
Grimm (V//'), who published in the year 1810
the first \olume of his Dcutwlu (r)(immatil>
To Grimm belongs the credit of first clearly
formulating the methods and the laws oi the
historical study of language. His procedure,
familiar to every novice to-day, was to place
the various forms of a special language, Eng-
lish for example, in a chronological sequence
from Anglo-Saxon to Modern English, the
conclusions drawn being those which arose
immediately from the observation of the facts
thus arranged Grimm declared himself hostile
to all general abstract and logical ideas in the
st udy of language, thus placing himself squarely
in opposition to the philosophical and logical
school of linguists, which still flourished in his
day Grimm also regarded language as a
purely social product, subject to the laws of
natural growth, like all other human institu-
tions, and although this aspect of language
was not extensively developed by him, he
deserved credit for being one of the first
to perceive it cleailv. Grimm likewise de-
served recognition for being the first student of
language to see clearly the importance of the
sounds of language, historically considered, and
also of the forms of a language other than
the standard language, that is, of the popular
dialects, for the understanding of the history of
the language One other distinction CJiimm
also max claim, that of being one of the earliest
scholaily editors of Teutonic texts, Anglo-
Saxon as \\ell as German. Grimm, with his
many-sided activity, may stand, therefore,
us a type of the best among historical philolo-
gians, and the value of his methods may be
inferred from the fact that the results of his
investigations aie to a large extent accepted
to this dav

The aim of the historical student of language
is theoretically less ambitious than that of
either the \\olfian philologist 01 the compara-
tive student of language, but as his field of
observation becomes more restrrcted in extent,
it is covered in a correspondingly more detailed
and exact way The final purpose of the
historical students of the English language has
been so to search and elucidate the mateiial
of the language as to enable them to present
a complete picture of it To this end the
student must devote himself to the minute
study of all the objective facts of the language,
in phonetics, in morphology, in vocabulary,
and in Hjrntax Before such a vast array of
facts can be presented in a systematic way for
any single language, a great deal of counting,
cataloguing, and classifying is necessary, inves-
tigation of a more or less mechanical and sta-
tistical type, which the modern student, at least
of English, thanks to the earlier investigators,
to a considerable extent escapes, but which is
still sometimes unjustly made the reproach of
linguistic specialization t>y those who are
hostile to it, it should not be forgotten, how-

VOL. Ill 28

625

LANGUAGE, ENGLISH

LANGUAGE, ENGLISH

evei, that the present simplicity and

fiorn tho.se now a\ailable This does not

quence, shows that later usages arise legulailv
out of earlier, such observations constituting
a rule or law of the development of the lan-
guage In general the earlier historical stu-

vvv.i, ijirn< vtic pjvnrin r>i n i [ji in i > ,mu .MM rill IMMII lllUM1 HOW HXHIUUMC J I11S UOeS UOt

in the history of the language are hirgelv the mean, however, that the editing of English

result of statistical labors, Ia\\s in language texts is a closed account The Early English

being nothing more than observation of nidi- Text Society publishes lists of unedited

vidual instances Having thus gathered and manuscripts which should be copied and

classified the facts of his language, the historical printed, and ne\v editions, taking account of

student, by placing them in chronological se- the results of more recent investigations, of

much of the literature of the Old and Middle
English periods are greatly to be desired
There is at present no edition of the Keowulf,

,, ., the most important monument before the (1on-
dents of language concerned themselves but quest, in English or in German, which gives
little with the causes or the psychological or an adequate and comprehensive treatment of
physical explanations of the la\\s which thev the poern The text has been frequentlv
recorded They looked upon it as their task printed, accompanied by glossaries and textual
to state empirical laws, trusting that \\hen a comment, but there is no modern summing up
sufficiently large area of observation had been of the poem in all its aspects as an historical
thus covered, many questions that appeared and literary record With a few notable
difficult of solution would be answered of exceptions, the same is true of the main monu-
themselves. In this hope they were not dis- ments of Anglo-Saxon literature, verse and
appointed, but obviously a mere descriptive prose, arid in the preparation of exhaustive
statement of the facts of a language is not all editions of the texts now available the English
that can be expected of the historical student, scholar has an important and pressing service
arid it is now assumed that the descriptive to perform. Middle English texts ha\e been,
laws arc preliminary to the explanation of the on the whole, more thoroughly edited than
meaning of the facts as illustrating general Anglo-Saxon, and of recent years some at ten-
social and psvchological processes in language tion has been given to the careful editing, from
This fuller realization of the significance of a linguistic as well as literary point of view,
psychological activities and of social custom of texts of the Early Modern English period!
in language is due to the investigations of especially of dramatic texts
Paul, Stemthal, and in general of the contem- In the studv of the sounds, the inflections,
porary school of linguists, the studv of the the vocabulary, and the syntax of the language!
physical side of language by the flourishing much has also been accomplished The trea-
modern school of phoneticians has been pro- tises of Ellis, Sweet, Jespersen, Sievers, and

ductive of particularly valuable results

,
others present a fanly comprehensive history

These are, in general, the principles upon of English sounds The questions which await

which the modern scientific study of language solution are more or less minor ones of the

is based, but a brief surnrnarv of the more limits of dialects, of the values of occasional

important results of the historical and descrip- manuscript symbols, of the individual char-

tive study of the English language will best acteristics of 'certain writers, etc, besides, of

show what has been accomplished and what course, rnanv theoretical questions of the origins,

remains to be clone in that particular held In the causes, and the processes of sound changes'

the first place the duty of the student of Ian- The study of English inflections has been

guage concerning \\hich there would probably carried much nearer completion than that of

be least difference of opinion, that of trans- English sounds The progressive changes in

fernng the early literary monuments of the the system of English inflections, from Old

language from perishable and inaccessible to Modern English, their chronological divi-

rnanuscnpts to multiplied printed copies, sions and dialectical variations, are subjects

assuring then preservation and general acces- of elementary knowledge to the student of

sibihty, has been performed The important the language, and may be easily observed in

manuscripts have been transcribed and printed, the many schematic statements in the various

most of them having been published in the manuals and historres of the language On the

\olumes of the Early English Text Society other hand, the growth and development of

Some of the manuscripts have been photo- the vocabulary, from the complex nature of the

graphed, but this method of producing exact subject, is less readily presented in historical

mechanical copies of the originals has not as survey The outlines of the subject may be

yet been extensively employed, although the followed in the various publications of Professor

time is doubtless not far distant when at least W W Skeat, who has made this field particu-

valuable manuscripts will thus be brought larly his own; and the material for a com-

withm the reach of all libraries Unless prehensive history of the English vocabulary

unexpected and startling discoveries are made, is being gradually presented in the volumes of

there is consequently nothing to be added to the New Enghih Dictionary The syntax of

the published documents that will, in any the language, on the other hand, although it

matenal way, alter the conclusions concerning has been by no means a neglected field, still

the English language which may be drawn presents its main problems unsolved, arid, in

(326

Main ICntraiicc and In

Vir\\ fiom Foothills to the H

\n Inner Court Momonal Church

LKLAND STANFORD Ju. UNIVKHMTY

LANGUAGE, ENGLISH

LANGUAGE, ENGLISH

fact, unstated. The results of syntactical
investigations in English seem to be out of
proportion to the amount of time and applica-
tion which have been spent on them, and cer-
tainly are not equal in importance and general-
izing value in their own field to the results of
linguistic investigations in other directions,
for example, in phonetics or morphology. The
reason for this is probably to be found partly
in the inherent difficulty of the subject and
partly in the lack of an intelligible and gener-
ally accepted method. Syntax may be defined
as the study of language as it takes form in
the expression of thought, that is, of the f 01 ma-
tion and combination of sentences It includes
thus not only the use of the various cases,
tenses, moods, genders, etc , according to the
laws of concord, but also all departures from
grammatical norms, word order, phrasing and
the grouping of complex ideas, perhaps also
the use of tones and inflections of the voice, of
gevture and facial expression in coloring and
assisting the meaning of the phrase A com-
plete syntax of the language would naturally
include not only the written literary language,
but also the colloquial spoken language of
everyday intercourse, as the dictionary does,
for example, in the treatment of words Such
a syntax of the language as is here described
may possibly never be written, since the diffi-
culty of reducing the multitudinous facts of
observation to systematic statement seems
humanly almost insurmountable Conse-
quently no attempt has ever been made to
write a descriptive, historical syntax of the
language, parallel to the descriptive statements
of inflections, sounds, and vocabulary In
general it would seem that in the study of
syntax the historical method must take a
secondary place, and must serve as a guide
and corrective to the student, rather than as an
end in itself. It is possible that by studying
all the recorded forms of a past period, for
example, the Old English period, an approxi-
mately complete norm of Old English syntax
could be realized, and by placing beside this
norm a transition English, a Middle English,
and a Modern English syntax, to mention only
the larger chronological divisions, conclusions
of far-reaching significance would undoubtedly
result But a complete normal syntax for any
one period is still far from realizable, much
less a series of syntactical pictures for a group
of successive periods More practicable than
such an endeavor to build up a general
descriptive and historical syntax of the Eng-
lish language is the attempt to show how and
why different specific syntactical forms arose.
The histor cal study of the phenomena thus
takes its place as an aid in the psychological
explanation of them Instead of placing
before himself the hopeless task of comprehend-
ing the whole vast structure of the language,
the syntactical student may more profitably
limit himself to following out the psychological

principles underlying certain forms or groups
of forms that have their principle of unity
within themselves He may thus disregaid
and free himself of the burden of the obvious
and the indifferent, and give his attention to
those phenomena which will enable him to gain
some insight into the spiritual life which serves
as a background for the language, and which
carry with themselves results which may be
intelligently estimated and valued

The work which, better than anv other, mav
serve as an index to and a summary statement
of the results of the modern scientific and
historical study of the English language is the
New English Dictionary This woik origi-
nated from a suggestion of Archbishop Trench,
who in the year 1857 proposed the collection
of materials for a new dictionarv which should
be a worthy record of the English language
This collection of references was immediately
begun, quotations being taken " from all the
great English writers of all ages, and from all
the writers on special topics whose works nngh
illustrate the history of words employed in
special senses, from all writers whatevei
before the sixteenth century, and from as many
as possible of the more important writers oi
later times " (Preface to Vol I, p 5) The
dictionary i&, therefore, not a compilation from
older dictionaries, but all the material used
in it was collected for this specific purpose
" The aim of the Dictionary is to furnish an
adequate account of the meaning, origin, and
history of English words now in general use, or
known to have been in use at any time during;
the last seven hundred years It endeavois
(1) to show, with regard to each individual
word, when, how, in what shape, and with
what signification it became English, what
development of form and meaning it has since
received; which of its uses have, in the course
of time, become obsolete, and which still
survive, what new uses have since arisen, by
what process, and when, (2) to illustrate these
facts by a series of quotations ranging from the
first known occurrence of the word to the latest,
or down to the present day, the word being
thus made to exhibit its own history and
meaning; arid (3) to treat the etymology of
each word strictly on the basis of historical
fact, and in accordance with the methods
and results of modern philosophical science "
(Vol. I, p 6) The first volume of this work,
published by the Clarendon Press, Oxford, ap-
peared in 1888, and the whole is now Hearing
completion, the latest section (1911) coming
down to " Tezkere " In its combination of
thoroughness with exactness, the New English
Dictionary represents the highest achievement
of modern English scholarship It is some-
times called the Oxford Dictionary, from the
place of its publication, or Murray's Dictionary,
from the name of its general editor

In the academic development of the subject,
the scientific study of the English vernacular

627

LANGUAGE, ENGLISH

LANGUAGE, ENGLISH

made its way much less rapidly in England
than in Germany In the latter country the
study of the modern Teutonic languages,
English among others, had already been exten-
sively developed by such scholars as Bopp,
Grimm, Schleicher, and others, before it received
recognition in England in the appointment of
Max Muller to the chair of comparative phi-
lology in the University of Oxford, in 1868
The explanation of the fact that German
scholars have devoted so much time to the
historical study of English is obviously to be
found in the practically equal significance of
the earlier periods of English for the history of
English and (lerrnan The mam stress in these
earlier studies was therefore placed upon the
comparative aspects of linguistic history
Only slowly and with difficulty did the study
of the English language specifically detach
itself from the larger subject of comparative
philology Aside from the Hawliiisonian Pro-
fessorship of Anglo-Saxon (see AM.LO-SAXON),
no official provision was made in the University
of Oxford for the study of the English language
until the establishment of the Merton Professor-
ship of English Language and Literature in
1885 Only within the last twenty-five years,
consequently, has the study of the English
language received final recognition as a distinct
and imp ji taut part of the curriculum of an
English university

In America specific provision for the study
of the English language by the creation of
professorships in English philology or English
language has also been made only in recent
years Among earlier linguists, for example,
William D wight Whitney was first Professoi
of Sanskrit in Yale University, after 1870
Professor of Comparative Philology, Francis
James Child was Boylston Professor of Rhetoric
and Oratory in Harvard Unuersity from
1851 to 1870, and after the latter date Professor
of English A pioneer student and teacher
of the English language in America is Francis
A March (qv ), since 1856 Professor of English
Language and Comparative Philolog}^ in La-
fayette College Within the past generation
the study of the English language has grown
rapidly in Continental, English, and American
universities Whether or not special provi-
sion is made for such work by the appointment
of a professor of the English language, courses
are now given in all universities which cover
the various aspects of the historv of the lan-
guage, at least in the earlier periods of Anglo-
Saxon arid Middle English The modern
period, for obvious reasons, is much less
generally studied than the earlier periods
The historical study of the language remains,
however, largely a university subject Apart
from their purely scholarly and scientific
significance, university courses in the English
language are usually regarded as a part of the
preparation of prospective teachers of English
in secondary schools or colleges Hut in recent

years a number of non-technical manuals of the
history of the English language have been
written, not from the point of view of rhetorical
usage, but from a more purely linguistic posi-
tion , and with the help of these books the his-
torical study of the vernacular has made
considerable progress in the colleges. It is
generally assumed that the attitude of students
toward their native speech in the secondary
and in the lower schools should be practically
constructive and not scientific or analytic,
and consequently the historical study of the
English language has not been introduced to
any considerable extent in such schools. The
work of the lower grades in grammar and
composition (q /> ) is usually placed pedagogi-
cally under the head of language, but such
" language work " obviously cannot attempt
anything systematic or scientific

The question of the content and the value of
the historical study of the English language as
part of a liberal education for Englrsh-speak-
ing students is one that is frequently dis-
cussed and may be most conveniently con-
sidered from two points oi view, first as to its
practical usefulness, and secondly and more
disinterestedly, as a subject- of knowledge and
reasonable curiosity that deserves to be culti-
vated for itself alone The practical advan-
tages to be derived fiom the historical and
scientific study of the vernacular aie mainl\
such us arise irom the acquisition of a cleaiei
understanding of the nature and the uses ot
language as a medium of communication, thus
enabling the student to become more certain
and confident in establishing the principles of
his own use of language The study of the
changes which have taken place historically
in the language, for example, is likely to beget
rn the student a more intelligent and less
dogmatic attitude toward practical questions
of the contemporary speech than is frequently
found He may thus be brought to realize
that language at all times has been a social
possession, flexible and made up of compro-
mises, and that its forms have always been
determined, not by exteinal authority of an\
kind but immediately by the practical uses
to which the language was to be put In this
way the fact of the speaker's or writer's own
first-hand constructive power over language is
brought home to him Such a realization is
at present particularly necessary and helpful
for the American student, whose sense of rev-
erence for the authority of the standard and
classic language of literature has been developed
at the expense of his own individual feeling
for expressiveness by dogmatic instruction in
rhetoric and composition Since the his-
torical study of the language acts usually not
as a sedative but as an excitant upon the
student, obviously the place for it is not in the
early but in the later years of the college
course It would seem best to conduct such
study in the college not in a detailed, sys-

<>28

LANGUAGE, ENGLISH

LANGUAGE, ENGLISH

tematic way as the science of language, but less
technically by calling attention to particularly
suggestive and illuminating examples of the
way in which language reveals the activities of the
mental life which lies back of it Perhaps the
most simple arid effective avenue of approach
to the study of language for the non-professional
student is through etymology and the study of
vocabulary in general The study of phonetics
is rendered unusually difficult for younger
students because of their inability to objectify
and observe their own speech sounds as dis-
tinguished from the arbitrary and inconsistent
symbols of the English language, but the
subject is one that cannot very well be neglected,
and students should be tiamed at least to
observe contemporary use and to undei stand
(he meaning of phonetics as applied to the
explanation of etymological foims It is
perhaps easy foi university-trained instructors
to make the mistake of attempting too much
in elementary linguistic couises, oiten doubl-
less from a feeling of the dignity and impoitance
of the science of philology But with all due
revei ence for the science of philology, one
should realize that the college is haully the
place for scientific linguistics, and that the
purpose of the instruction should be to extend
the aiea of the student's interests and to shape
his powers of linguistic observation rathei
than to present an organized science of the
language The discussions of contemporary,
especially of divided, uses are particularly
instinctive, and the students may thus be led
to form the habit of analyzing and passing
judgment for himself on the linguistic facts
which he observes

A certain amount of the study of language is
ob\ lously necessary to the leading and appre-
ciation of whole periods of English literatuie
The mam question for decision heie is, just how
much training in language is necessary befoie
a student may be said to be able to lead Shake-
speare or Chaucer or the literature of the periods
before the Conquest Opinions will doubtless
vary, but it seems certainly a safe rule that the
student should give as much attention to lan-
guage as is necessary to enable him to under-
stand the meaning of his authoi exactly If
early texts require what seems an excessive
amount of preliminary linguistic preparation,
they might better be omitted altogether than
read carelessly and inexactly The student
who does not understand the syntax or the
special meanings of words in Shakespeare, who
misses three or four out of every ten words in
Chaucer, and is never sure of his grammai , may
blunder through the texts and come out at the
end with some sense of enjoyment, and of
exhilarated, even though confused, imagina-
tion; but he can never have any feeling of
assurance that he has read his author aright
English literature as early as Shakespeare or
earlier should not be read with the same attitude
of mind toward its language as is maintained

in leading Pope or Scott or Tennyson If one
wishes to tieat with justice the language m
which the earlier literature is wiittcn, one must
assume a questioning attitude toward it, just as
one does toward the social and literal y tiadi-
tions which the earlier literature records In
reading the literature of the Old English period
the necessity of studying the language is so
obvious that it cannot be avoided It is
chiefly in the intermediate period between Old
and Modern English, when it is so easy for the
careless reader to delude himself into the belief
that he can get at the soul of an author without
knowing how to define his words or to parse
his grammar, that the understanding of litera-
ture is likely to suffer from the neglect of the
study of language The only safe rule is to
examine every linguistic usage which differs
Irom normal contemporary usage, and, il the
burden of such examination is too great in any
texts, to defer the reading of such texts until
the student is ready to undertake them

From the second point of view, the amount
and the nature of the information with respect
to the language which the well-informed stu-
dent may reasonably be expected to have may
be briefly summaiized The grouping of lan-
guages into families, which is one of the most
important results of the comparative method
of linguistic study, presents new and illuminat-
ing ideas to the student, and consequently
English should be placed among its related
languages and some consideration should be
given to the general question of the origin and
differentiation of dialects Within the held of
English specifically, the three gieat chrono-
logical divisions of Old, Middle, and Modern
English should be distinguished, and the pecul-
iar characteristics of each period, especially in
sounds and inflections, may be profitably ex-
amined in detail In connection with the study
of sounds historically, it is extremely important
that the student of the vernacular should re-
ceive training in the observation and analysis
of contemporary sounds and vocal processes,
both in his own speech and in that of others
It is only by persistent practice that the stu-
dent can become truthfully and exactly obser-
vant of the actual phonetic character of speech,
that he can, for example, distinguish the audible
forms of English words, which are the vital and
changing forms, fiom the visual forms, which
in English are usually arbitrary and conven-
tional In the study of speech sounds, it is
advisable, if not absolutely necessary, to make
use of some approximately scientific method of
sound notation, the most practical being a
simple phonetic alphabet in which the symbols
differ as little as possible from the standard
alphabet, but in which no symbol has more
than one value Such an alphabet is employed
in the indications of pronunciations in the New
English Dictionary The use of a phonetic
alphabet will lead naturally to the considera-
tion of the history of standard English orthog-

629

LANGUAGE, ENGLISH

LANGUAGE, PSYCHOLOGY OF

raphy and of the principles which should
govern the users of the language in their atti-
tude toward spelling The study of the Eng-
lish vocabulary may be approached from many
different points of view ; but so far as the history
of the language is concerned, attention should
be directed at least toward the various ele-
ments of which the vocabulary is composed,
the sources whence these elements are derived,
and the occasion and method of the introduc-
tion of borrowed words into the language It
is important that the student should understand
the principles upon which the science of ety-
mology is based as a corrective of the popular
superficial method of etymologizing The
stylistic value and color of the elements of the
vocabulaiy are matters mainly of rhetoric, but
the study of the history of words leads over
insensibly and unavoidably to a consideration
of their values in use. Finally, the events in
the history of the English people which have
been important for the development of their
language, for example, the Roman mission, the
Danish invasions, the Norman Conquest, etc ,
will indicate the relation which exists between
the life of the people and the growth of their
language. In general the aim of an introduc-
tory course in the history of the English lan-
guage should be to prepare the student, first,
to use intelligently the material contained in
the various handbooks, dictionanos, grammars,
and other storehouses of information with re-
spect to the language, and secondly, to observe
with some degree of accuracy the facts of Ins
own speech and of the speech of his environ-
ment An intelligent understanding of the
fluctuating material of the native speech cannot
be obtained otherwise than by some such at-
tention to the elementary facts of its history
and use G P K

See ENGLISH USAGE, LITERATURE, PHILOLOGY,
PHONETICS

References : —

COLLINS, J C The Study of English Literature A
Plea for its Recognition and Organization at the
Universities (New York, 1891 )

DELBRUC'K, "B Einleitung in das Sprachstudium, 3d
ed Chapter on the history of linguistic scholar-
ship, especially in the early and middle parts of
the nineteenth century (Leipzig, 1S(W )

EMERHON, O F The American S(holur and tht Modtrn
Languages Publications of the Modern Language
Association, Vol XXIV, pp Ixxm-eii

FIRTH, C H The School of English Language and
Literature (Oxford, 1909 )

HEMPL, GEORGE The Teacher of English and his Atti-
tude toward his Subject Publications of the
Modern Language Association, Vol XIX, pp
xxxi- 1m

JEHPKKSKN, O The History of the English Language
C'ongrt^tt of Art*> and Science, St Louis Exposition,
Vol III, pp 205-219

KITTREDOE, CJ L Present Problems in the Study of
the English Language Congress of Arts and
Science, St Louis Exposition, Vol III, pp 22O
233

NBTTLEHHIP, H The Study of Modern European Lan-
guage and Literature in me University of Oxford
(Oxford, 1887 )

OEHTEL, H Lectures on the Study of Language Mainly
a discussion of methods and theories. (New York,
1902)

WYLD, H C The Historical Study of the Mother
Tongue Mainly from the point of view of pho-
netics (New York, 1906 )

LANGUAGE, PSYCHOLOGY OF. — Any

form of expression by means of which one in-
dividual conveys his own emotional or idea-
tional states to some other individual may
properly be called language Thus the cries
of the wild animal are very properly referred to
under the term "animal language " Gestures
have long been recognized as forms of language
The highly developed forms of oral speech and
written communication which are character-
istic of human beings are merely the final
stages of a long evolutionary series of foims of
social expression The earlier writers* upon
language, not recognizing the relation between
the highly developed forms of language and
the more primitive forms of expression, de-
vised various theories of the origin of language
which assumed a sudden rise of this mode of
expression Thus, it was legaided as a special
gift of God to man, as a mark of his superiority
to all other animal forms

Again, it was held that man through his
power of imitation of natural wounds suddenly
hit upon the device of using these sounds as
a means of repiesentmg the extcinal objects
imitated The cries of vanous animals, for
example, were supposed to have been repeated
whenever man wished to communicate with his
fellows that the animal imitated was near at
hand These theories have been superseded
in all later discussions by a more comprehen-
sive account of the whole evolutionary series of
forms of expression to which human language
belongs

The great work of Wilhelm Wundt, Vvl-
kerpsychologie, brought out the psychological
importance of the study of language In the
first two volumes of this work, Wundt calls
attention to the fact that language is nothing
more or less than a highly evolved form of emo-
tional expression In the earliest stages of
emotional expression the movements of the
vocal cords are not to be distinguished from
various other forms of emotional activity
Thus, the infant in distress makes noises ex-
actly as he kicks with his legs and threshes
about with his arms and hands The facial
contortions of the infant, including the move-
ments of the organs of the mouth, are purely
spontaneous and individualistic modes of be-
havior All of these different types of be-
havior are familiar to the student of the enu>»
tions (q v )

The first stage of the evolution of language
may therefore be described as the strictly in-
dividualistic and the emotional stage. -A
differentation begins to appear among emo-
tional expressions as soon as the individual be-
comes a member of the social group Certain

630

LANGUAGE, PSYCHOLOGY OF

LANGUAGE, PSYCHOLOGY OF

of the emotional activities of such an individual
are of special importance because they induce
imitation in his fellows Thus the facial ex-
pressions are of much greater social importance
than the internal changes in the circulatory
system A person who is angry experiences a
change in the rate of his heart boat, and at the
same time shows a fixed con ti action of the
muscles of his hand and jaw The expression
of the face produces in those who an* about the
angry peison either mutation 01 a definite pio-
tective reaction, while the inner change4 which
takes place in the angry person V circulatory
system passes wholly unobserved This social
.significance of the observed leaction tends, to
raise it to the higher level In the tusl place it
is bi ought more or less under contiol by the in-
dividual himself, and in the second place it
calls foi a reply from other members of the
social group It becomes thus a medium for
the transmission from individual to individual
of emotional states

The first types of communication aie those
which transmit purely emotional states The
frightened animal may induce a stampede in
the other animals about him through men*
social imitation He cannot at this stage of
development indicate in any \\ay the ideas
which are in Ins own mind He nun, however,
communicate the emotional state of feai in all
completeness The second stage of language
is, thoiefore, to be described as the stage of
emotional imitation It is at this stage that
most animals come to a standstill in the (solu-
tion of language The frightened animal may
indicate by its cry or action its internal emo-
tional state, but it never pi oduces a terminology
which makes it possible to tell about the ob-
jects which it sees

In human society, and possibly among the
higher animals, theie develops through expres-
sion the ability to communicate ideas as well
as emotions These ideas are at first very
simple in charactei Thus the hungry animal
may go through the movements of taking food
Certainly among piimitive human beings this
mode of communication through pantomime
is very common The gestures that are in-
volved in such communication thiough pan-
tomime have been called natural signs Thev
are natural in the sense that they are paitial
activities of the typo which the individual
would perform if he weie in the actual presence
of the object which he wishes to depict They
aie signs in the sense that they do not deal with
the actual object, but merely recall the object
to the two parties to the communication
Almost any simple human activity can be com-
municated in this way Thus, the act of dig-
ging or throwing, the act of running 01 of look-
ing toward some object in the distance, can be
made to convey to another human being a \eiy
large fund oi experience Attention should be
drawn to the fact, that even the higher animals
do not succeed in carrying this type of com-

munication to any high stage Indeed, it may
be doubted whether they succeed at all except
by the mere accidents of emotional expression
such as was described in the last paragraph
At all events, such simple gestures as those of
pointing are never developed in any conscious
way among the animals, whereas, they appeal
in all races of men. Natural signs, or primitive
pantomimic gestures, may be distinguished
from forms of emotional imitation as a third
stage of language4 development

There are certain disadvantages in the use
of the hands for social expression These dis-
advantages must have made themselves verv
early felt in primitive society The use of
gestures would interfere with any form of man-
ual occupation The use of the hands for ex-
pression would also be disadvantageous in any
parley between enemies, foi it would involve
going out into the open, and also it would limit
the ability to use weapons on the part of the
person who was making an effort to communi-
cate with others

Finally, there is a fundamental fact of de-
velopment which must ha\e operated to limn
the use of the hands for purposes of pureh
social expression This fundamental fact ap-
pears in a natural tendency of the hand to de-
velop a whole series of habits of movement
which are not social in their character at all
The hand ev olved in t he direction of the manipu-
lation of objects, and in so far as the various
arts were cultivated, the hand must have been
devoted moie and more to forms of skill, and
less and less to the incidental forms of emo-
tional expression which are natural in eailier
stages of development Tins can be seen in the
life of the infant The hands gradually come
to be specialized oigans foi seizing objects and
holding them, and ]ust m so fai as the hands
and arms are tiained in the dnection of manipu-
lation of physical objects, they are less and
less used for purposes of expiession The \ocal
cords, on the other hand, have no value as
organs for the manipulation of external objects
Thev aie very naturally utilized, therefore, as
organs of emotional and social expression
Thev are sufficiently delicate in their muscula-
ture to make possible a great variety of acts,
and they aie under the control of the speaker
to Mich an extent that they become admirable
avenues for social expression No physical
medium is needed for oral expiession except the
an, which is always present, thus the vocal
cords are supenoi to gestures for communica-
tion in the dark, and foi parley between ene-
mies and friends who are hidden from cadi
other by intervening objects

Such considerations as these indicate some of
the reasons \vhy in later human evolution the
vocal expressions are selected fiom among the
obseivable forms of behavioi for the higher
uses of human language Oial expiession is,
however, not the exclusive means of these
higher forms of expression, and we find noi

Uil

LANGUAGE, PSYCHOLOGY OF

LANGUAGE, PSYCHOLOGY OF

only the vocal apparatus, but also, though to
a less extent, the hands, serving the purpose of
the fourth stage of language development, to
the description of which we may now turn

The fourth stage of language development
differs from the peiiod of natuial signs in that
the signs winch are employed at the higher level
have less and less immediate connection with the
situations to which they lefei The sign needs
now only to symbolize in some manner the
situation to which it i elates Thus we find in
mature language that there is no traceable
connection between many oi the sounds which
we employ and the objects to which they refer
Indeed, it is doubtful whether such a connec-
tion could be traced, even if we had the com-
plete history of the word One interesting
illustration of the purely aibitrary chaiacter of
language expression is found in the word "gas "
This word was invented by the Belgian chem-
ist, Van Helmont. He needed a word to cx-
ptess the state of matter which is denoted by
this term, and so employed the term without
any historical antecedents In this example
we hav*? an admit able illustration of what is
meant by the symbolical chaiactei of an ex-
pi ession The vocal expression is connected in
human experience with a ceitam idea Once
the connection between the sound and the idea
has been made, the sound will in all future ex-
periences tend to arouse the idea Theie need
be no natuial connection between expiession
and idea, provided the connection has been
established in some way, and has been com-
monly accepted We may describe this stage
of language development by saying that as-
sociational connections have been substituted
for natural connections Associational connec-
tions are frequently established between gestures
and ideas as well as between sounds a nil ideas
Thus the deaf and dumb of oui own generation
have a symbol foi the word " make " and all
of its derivatives This gesture consists in the
crossing at the wrists of the two folded fist.s
It is enough for the puipose of human experi-
ence that there should be a connection between
this gesture and the ideas The gesture car-
ries the ideas to any one who is trained in the
interpretation of this symbol It is olmous
that associational language leqmres a high
form of mental development, the individual
must have a stock of ideas which can be related
to the various forms of expression, and he must,
in addition, have sufficient mental power to
make it possible for him to hold the connection
between the mode of expression and the idea

Foi purposes of education, it is this final
stage of language expression that is of impor-
tance The child in the school finds it necessary
to leain a vast body of ideas and the words
which go with those ideas Earlier stages of
emotional expression are not of any very great
impoitu nee in education, although the control of
the facial expressions is undoubtedly one of the
lessons that must be learned in all social groups

After the associational stage of language has
been reached, further processes of evolution go
forward in the changes that take place in the
meaning and character of words Thus, there
is a continual development of meanings This
is often illustrated in the English language,
as is shown in Trench's Enqhdi Paul and
Present The word " villain/' for example,
which originally meant a laborer about a coun-
try place or villa, has gradually modified its
meaning until it has the present well-known
significance Furthermore, the sounds of words
undergo a change The history of English
shows \ erv plainly, by the different rhymes
which are employed at different stages of the
development of the language, that there is a
tendency for many sounds to grow short ei in
their articulation Qualitative changes also
appeal as languages evolve The transition
from German to English, or between any two
languages, is accompanied by a verv notable
modification in the quality as well as in the
length of the sounds involved Thus, the
German word Tag is the same in its origin as
the English word Day

More significant than these gradual changes
in language is the fact that individual inter-
pretations of woids may diffei to such an ex-
tent that the same sound may be i elated in two
different experiences to wholly different mean-
ings The ambiguity oi words has often been
commented upon Locke, in his E^vmj on ttu
Human iJntlcibtandinq, discusses at great length
the dangers that grow out of the ambiguous
use of woids, and this has been the subject of
frequent comment on the part of educators
since that time

With the development of written symbols
the means of human communication has been
very greatl> cnlaigcd Written svrnboK
appeared much later than oral conventions
In the earliest stages of \\riting, there was the
same tendency to use natural signs that we
find in gesture language4 The earliest written
symbols were diagrammatic sketches of the
objects which the wrilei would call to the mind
of the readei The diagrammatic sketch came
to be \erv much simplified as the power of in-
terpretation increased Finally, in the occi-
dental wot Id, some Semitic nation, probabh
the Phoenicians, discoveied the possibility of
relating directly the written symbols to the
sound elements of language That there is no
necessary intellectual connection between the
elementary sounds and separate letters is well
attested by the Chinese language, where the
written symbol is related to the whole word
rather than to the single sound After the
association of the written symbol with the
single sound had been established, various
changes appeared through the gradual modi-
fication of the sound connect ed with the letter,
and thiough various modifications in the foi m
of the letter itself (See Wiirnv; )

Language instruction has always occupied

032

LANGUAGE, TEACHING OF

LANGUAGES, ARTIFICIAL

a \ei\ important place in the schools Since
it is a highly evolved mode of expression it
requires laborious cultivation on the part of
the child Indeed, the school may he de-
scribed as very largely an institution which m-
lioduces the child to this conventional mode of
expression, and gives him the necessary mean-
ings with which to interpret language Head-
ing and writing have, theieiore, constituted a
very large part of the elemental v couise of
^tudy From time to time lefoimeis Inn e
vigorously advocated a i eduction of the amount
oi energy devoted in the school to the nistiuc-
tion in language, on the othei hand, the tend-
ency has often been to enlarge the emphasis
upon language by the introduction of ioieign
languages as well as vernacular (\ H J.
Sec READING, MODERN LAN cm AGES

References : —

Jn>L>, (" H Pt>i/cholo(jij, (Jenmil Introduction (Now

\oik 1(K)7 )
MULLKH, F MAX Tkt Scutiu of Lunitmu/t (London,

1SSM )
STOUT, Cl I? Groundwork of I\t/cholo(ji/ (New \oik,

(New

moi )

SWKFT, H History of Lanuunut (London, 1
\VHITNFY, W I) Lift atul Grouth ^^j J;<ni(ju(i{j<

\ork, 1S<)<O
Mnj Mriller and tht X(nn« of Lanymigi , d Cntni^m

(Now York, 1X*)1> )
ITNDI, VV VolktritM/thologti (Lup/iK, 1(K)0 )

\\ITNDI,

LANGUAGE, TEACHING AND STUDY

OF — See (JK\MMAH, CJitEKK L^NUVACJK \M>
LITER vrriiK, L\\c;i \tiks, ARTIFICI\L, L\\-
<;i u,i;, KNC.LISH, LVTIN LYMUJACE AND Lrr-

kKVrUKK, MODERN L \NCHl UiES IN EoTC \TION,

ORIENT YL L\NC,I'\GE AND LITERATURE, etc,
HE \DING, TK \CHING BEGINNERS, YERNUTLAR
IN EDUCATION

LANGUAGE, USAGE IN —See ENGLISH
USAGE

LANGUAGES, ARTIFICIAL —The en-
dea\oi to fashion an artificial language has a
long hist on , and has assumed many different
ioims An imperfect kind of language which
appeals only to the eye has been in practical
use foi half a century and more m the cocje of
signals employed in naval and military com-
munication Still older are the attempts to
construct a unncrsal artificial language which
could be both wntten oi printed and spoken
Descartes in 162!) outlined a scheme1 foi a uni-
versal, philosophical language His plan was
to establish a system "of all the thoughts
which can entei into the human spirit," taking
first the simple ideas, and combining these
simple ideas in order to foini the more complex
ideas Each simple idea was to have its ap-
propnnte character or symbol, like the primary
numbers of the arithmetical system , and eom-
plexer and more, limited ideas weie to be e\-
pressod by combinations of these characters in
such a way that the elements of a word would

express mathematically its logical content.
"The invention of this language," says Des-
cartes, " is dependent upon a true philosophy,
foi it is impossible otheiwise to indicate all the
thoughts of the human mind, or to put them in
ordei, 01 even to distinguish them in such a
way that they shall be clear and simple
If the primary ideas which are in the human
imagination and oi which all things that men
think are composed, weie thus set forth and
generally accepted, I would venture to hope tor
a universal language1 easy to Icain, to pio-
nounce, and to write, and, most important of
all, one which should aid the judgment,
piesenting to it so distinctly all things that it
would be almost impossible foi it to deceiye
itself With the aid of such a language,

a rude mstic could better judge of the truth of
things than 1he philosophei can now do."

This theory of Descartes is at the base of a
great many attempts to construct a universal
philosophical language It supposes first a
systematic program of all logic al ideas, classified
under general heads with sub-classifications
leading to the4 paiticular and concrete, and
second a set oi symbols, numerical or hteral,
chosen arbitrarily to designate these ideas
The resuH would be a kind of algebra of lan-
guage, the meaning of evcrv combination of
symbols being absolutely fixed by its place in
the philosophical system Descartes himself
never worked out his theory m1o a practical
form, but this \sas done by others George
Dalgarno, a Scotchman, published in 1061 his
.Ij.s Siqnojum, a universal and philosophical
language, followed in IWiS b\ Bishop Wilkms1
Ebbfty humid* (i Hval ChnKHtd and a Philo-
sophical Lnmiuaqt'i in which the vocabulary is
based upon forty logical categories, supposed
to be exhaustive of all general and pimuuv
ideas Leibnitz (q r } carried further the
methods of Dalgarno and Wilkms, against
whom he directed the4 reproach that they \\ere
not sufficiently philosophical Leibnitz dreu
a close parallel between mathematical and
logical pioeesses Every thought ha\rng, as
he maintained, as fixed a character as a
number, the4 primary ideas may be des-
ignated by primary numbers, and all com-
plex ideas merely a,s eombmatiors of pirmarv
ideas1 The combinations of ideas are thus
supposed to be analogous to multiplication in
arithmetic They may be expressed by num-
bers, and the4 problem of a unnersal language
consists simply in transforming the mathe-
matical formulas into morels that may be pro-
nounced In can ring out this seemingly
simple plan, Leibnitz, in common \\ith all the
other inventors of philosophical languages,
makes use of a system extiaor dinar ily compli-
cated when one looks at it from the point of
view of the practical user of language But it
is apparent that the achocates of an artificial
philosophical language have paid little heed to
questions of practical use They have been

(533

LANGUAGES, ARTIFICIAL

LANGUAGES, ARTIFICIAL

concerned primarily with the attempt to sys-
tematize and then to symbolize all logical
ideas, and the discredit which has in general
fallen upon the program methods of systematic
logic has deprived their efforts of both scientific
and practical interest to the modern student of
language.

An entirely different point of \ie\v LS usually
assumed by modern theonsts in the construc-
tion of artificial languages Instead ol a uni-
versal philosophical language, they generally
advocate an auxihaiv international language
The purpose of such a language they assume
to be to supplement the mothei tongues ol the
various countiies m ordei to make international
scientific and commercial communication easiei
by the use of one arbitral ily selected language
m the place of the present variety of local and
national speeches They assume further that
no national idiom, either a dead language like
Latin, or a living language like English or
French, has any chance of being accepted by
a sufficient number of the nations concerned to
answei the purposes of an international speech
It is not supposed, except by extreme theonsts,
that a single artificial language of this practical
character will ever supplant native idioms in
the familiar intercourse of daily hie The
principal aim of these advocates of artificial
languages is not "the federati m of man"
through the imposition ol one speech upon all
peoples, but the strictly utilitarian end of
greater ease of intercommunication It is ap-
parent that such a language in any case must
appeal to a relatively limited numbei of people,
mainly to travelers and to those interested in
international science and commerce It is also
apparent that the need of an international
auxiliary language is greater in Europe than it
is in America, and that the people of relatively
small countries like Denmark, or of countries
which use a language difficult to leain and not
generally known, like Russian and Hungarian,
will profit more by an auxiliary language than
will the people of Germany, France, or England
But the great advantage of such a language
to all nations cannot be denied, and the mam
difficulty to be met is not a theoretical one, but
the piactical difficulty of getting one language
generally accepted

The first important experiment of recent
years in the manufacture of an artificial lan-
guage was that of Schleyer, who called his
language Volapuk A Roman Catholic priest,
Schleyei perhaps felt in an especial way the
need of an international medium of communi-
cation The year 1879 is given as the date of
Schleyer 's discovery, or invention, of this
language, of which he wrote a grammai that has
passed through a number of editions The
language employs the Roman alphabet, and
bases its vocabulary mainly upon English,
because English is the language of the largest
number of people who might be supposed to be
interested in an artificial language Hut inas-

iiimh as the sounds of Volapuk are not the
sounds of the English letters, even an English-
speaking person would find it difficult to under-
stand the spoken form of a word in Volapuk
Ah to the grammatical system, Schlcycr invents
more or less arbitral y inflectional elements to
indicate case and tense relations, the parts of
speech, etc. He also accepts other arbitrary
rules, for example, he excludes the sound and
the letter h altogether, and to a large extent the
letter / , since the Chinese find this latter sound
difficult to pronounce Since no word, accord-
ing to his rules, can end in a spirant, the Eng-
lish-Romance word ro^e becomes lol in Volapuk
To avoid the final spirant, the English xooth
becomes tut, English program becomes ploqam
And since every root must end in a single
consonant, English friend becomes fien As far
as possible, roots must also be monosyllabic,
and Schleyei therefore remo\es initial and
final unstressed syllables, with the result that
compliment becomes phn, French lemm^uM?
becomes makab These fe\v illustrations \\ill
indicate the main defect of Volapuk Al-
though it purports to be based mainly upon
the most familiar of European languages,
English, French, German, and Latin, the foims
of the words are so altered that they cease to
be recognizable Schleyei 's method through-
out is extremely arbitrary, and though Volapuk
is an advance over the older philosophical
languages, it develops its relatively sound basic
principles in a very uneconomical and unsatis-
factory manner Moreover, in attempting to
make his language universal, for example, in
introducing modifications with reference to the
Chinese, Schleyer has exceeded the limits of
practicability An international European lan-
guage is a sufficiently difficult achievement,
and Schleyer has to a considerable extent sac-
rificed usefulness to a vain longing foi univer-
sality Finally, Schleyer was not sufficiently
systematic in establishing his principles and in
adhering to them, with the result that his
language is often as arbitrary and as exceptional
as are the natural idioms

Perhaps the greatest service of Volapuk to
the study of artificial languages was the dem-
onstration it gave of the practicability of
such a language It was followed bv numer-
ous other experiments, most of them very short-
lived An important advance was not made
until the appearance of Esperanto in 1887
This language was the invention of a Russian
physician, l)r Zarnenhof, whose youth was
passed in a village in which four different and
antagonistic languages were spoken, Russian,
Polish, German, and Hebrew As a schoolboy
Dr Zamenhof was stirred bv the ideal of an
inter -language, and Esperanto, as it finally
appeared, was largely the outcome of these
early humanitarian impulses. The interest in
Esperanto at first spread slowly, but enthusi-
asts gradually gathered in support of it, and it
soon carne to have more adherents and students

034

LANGUAGES, ARTIFICIAL

LANGUAGES, ARTIFICIAL

than liny 'iitincial language before it had ac-
quired To-day it shares with its successor
and rival, Ido, or the Idiom Neutral, the place
of eminence among artificial languages

So far as its grammar is concerned, the ruling
principles of Esperanto are simplicity and reg-
ularity The alphabet consists of twenty-
seven letters, five vowels, and twenty-two con-
sonants, each of which has a constant and
single value, the vowels being given what is
known as their Continental or Italian pronun-
ciation Esperanto is thus phonetically regu-
lar The symbols used are the familiar ones of
the Roman alphabet, but five consonant sym-
bols arc used twice, with the awkwaid device
of diacritical marks placed over the respective
letters to indicate their special values Thus
g = the sound in " good," g = the sound in
" gem " The accent of words is fixed, and
falls always on the penultimate syllable
Specific endings indicate the various parts
of speech substantives always end in -o, ad-
jectives in -a, derivative adverbs, ? e those
denved from words which appear also as nouns
and adjectives, in -e The definite article is
In, it is indeclinable, but the syntactical rules
foj its use are somewhat complicated The
language has no indefinite article, the in-
definite idea being assumed from the lack of
definition

Nouns are inflected for the plural number
by adding -j (= -y) to the singular, and for
the accusative case by adding -n to the singular
or plural form of the nominative Adjectives
are inflected like nouns The nominative
singular, therefore, of the phrase " the good
father " would be la bona patro, the accusative
la honan patron The plurals, nominative and
accusative, would be la bonaj patroj, and la
honajn patrojn, the adjective agreeing with the
noun in inflection Comparison of adjectives
LS expressed analytically by means of separate
words of comparison, like English more, most

The personal pronouns are Mi, I, Vi, thou,
vou; Li, he, *S? (pronounced like English she),
she, Qi (0soft as in gem) it; Ni, we, 77?, they
The indefinite "one," German "man," is om,
and the reflective pronouns for all genders and
numbers is si The accusatives of all these
pronouns are formed as in the nouns by adding
-n Possessive pronouns are formed from the
personals by making them adjectives, that is,
by adding -a

There is only one conjugation for the veib
in Esperanto, which is therefore completely
regular Inflections are used to indicate
tense and mood, person and numbei being ex-
pressed only by the subject of the verb The
inflection of the infinitive is -i, ami = to love;
of the present tense, all persons and numbers,
•as, Mi amas = I love, 77 / a mas = they love;
of the past tense, -w, Vt amis = you loved,
Li amis = he loved; of the future, -o», Mi
amos = I shall love, Li amos = he will love,
of the conditional mood of verbs, -us, Mi

amus — I should or would love, of the im-
perative, also of the subjunctive, -u, Amu =
Love, Li finu = Let him finish, ke mi amu =
that I may love Three participial fonns,
-anta, present, -inta, past, and -onta, futuie,
are used for the participles of the active voice,
which can be used as nouns, adjectives, or ad-
verbs by taking the proper endings There
are also three passive participles, -ata, -ita,
-ota, subject to the same rules as the active
participle. These participles are used in the
formation of verb phrases like those of English
grammar

Prepositions are followed by the nominative
and not the accusative case Adverbs, prepo-
sitions, and conjunctions, i c the particles in
general, are less reducible to simple type foims
than the other parts of speech, and conse-
quently this part of Espeianto grammar is
likely to seem more difficult and artificial
than the rest Many of the foinus also seem
strange, eg krom, except, without, kial,
why; kiam, when, tial, therefore, etc The
word order of Esperanto is logical, and very
similar to that of modern English

In its vocabulary Esperanto is based upon a
relatively small number of root woi dh, chosen ac-
cording to the sound principle of the maximum of
internationally A first group of v\ 01 ds is made
up of roots which are of the highest degree of
Intel-nationality among the Euiopean people,
e g atom, aksiom, foint, flut, fo^fct , teatr, tabah,
etc (in the spelling of Esperanto) Another
group consists of those which are onlv partially
international, but which are chosen for their
places in the international language because
they are used by the larger number of European
languages. By a similai process of selection
the whole vocabulary is thus built up on this
principle of the maximum of familiarity or
internationality It should be observed, how-
ever, that this root vocabulary ib not concerned
with questions of etymological origins in the
various national speeches Thus the Eng-
lish language is assumed to possess the loot
word vir-, "man," because it has the adjective
"virile" The guiding principle in the selec-
tion of the roots has been their intelligibility,
not their etymological history Besides its
vocabularv of international roots and its in-
flectional system, Esperanto also makes use
of composition or agglutination in the forma-
tion of words Thus the prefix mal- indicates
the contrary or opposite, eg annko, "friend,"
malamiko "enemy"; the suffix -?w indicates
the feminine, e g viro, " man," wnno, " woman,"
patro, "fathei,*" patrirw, "mother"; -et indi-
cates the diminutive, eg monto, "mountain,"
montcto, " hill," etc

Esperanto has suffered the usual fate of arti-
ficial languages in that it has had to meet with
the opposition of a rival language, in this
case Ido, or Idiom Neutral Ido was promul-
gated by the Dclegitaro por Adopto di H el-
panto Linyuo Internacwna (Delegation for the

635

LANGUAGES, ARTIFICIAL

LAPSES

Adoption of an International Auxiliary Lan-
guage). This Delegation resulted from the
Pans Exposition of 1900, and was self-consti-
tuted, its purpose being to decide which of the
various international languages should be
generally accepted as the standard one En-
deavors were made to have the International
Association of Academies assume the responsi-
bility of deciding this question, but this organi-
zation refused to do so by a vote of twelve to
eight The Delegation then constituted a
committee of twelve, which met in 1907, with
the distinguished scientist, Professor Ostwald
of Leipzig, in the chair. This committee unani-
mously decided that the best language was a
modification of Esperanto, presented by M
de Beaufront and known as I do Overturns
were made to the Lingua Komitato (Linguis-
tic Committee) of the Esperantists, looking
toward the cooperation of the advocates of
E-iperant'j and Id) The Esperantists, how-
ever, refused to join forces with the Delegation,
and Ido consequently now presents itself as
an independent claimant for recognition as an
international auxiliary language

Accepting in general the principles of Es-
peranto, Ido differs from it only in details
which its supporters regard as impiovements
suggested by experience For example, Ido
does away with the diacritical marks of the
Esperanto alphabet, and uses only the twenty-
six symbols of the English alphabet It like-
wise dispenses with the accusative case of
Esperanto, on the ground that case is suffi-
ciently indicated by word oidei, as in the
English language, which has no case forms
except a few survivals in the system of the
personal pronoun It further advocates a
number of modifications and extensions of the
vocabulary of Esperanto In general the
reforms of Ido may be regarded as canymg
to a higher degree of simplicity and effective-
ness the principles of Esperanto

Several questions suggest themselves as to
the future of international auxiliary languages
It seems at present impossible to say which
one, if any, of the languages now competing
for the honor will be generally accepted On
the other hand, there seems little reason to
doubt that in course of time some one mtei-
national language will meet with goneial ac-
ceptance and will be used for the purposes to
which such a language can be put Some of
the best linguistic thought of modern times
has been expended on the subject, and the im-
provement of such a language as Ido, for ex-
ample, as compared with Volapuk, has been
very great. An artificial language, being the
result of human theory arid ingenuity, must
necessarily perfect itself gradually, and the le-
proach of impermanence which is frequently
made against all such projects may as justly
be urged against international arbitration, or
peace, or any other formative idea

C P K

References : —

COUTURAT et LEA. Histoire de la Langue Universelle.
(Pans, 1903 )

HUBHCH, S Volapuk, a Guide for Learning the Uni-
versal Language (New York, 1887 )

PITMAN, GUILBERT Various grammars, dictionaries,
reading books, and other propagandist literature,
published by Pitman, 85 Fleet Street, London, E C ,
England

&PR\GUE, C E Handbook of Volajnlk (New Yoik,
1888 )

WOOD, M Dictionary of Volapiih Volapuk- English,
Enyhsh-Volapdk (New York, 1889 )

Z \MKNHOF, L L An Attempt towards an InteinatLOJial
Language by l)r Esperanto, tr by H Phillips
(New York, 1889 )

E^pcrantist, and current literature

LANGUAGES, MODERN IN THE PRI-
MARY GRADES —See MODERN LANGUAGES
IN EDUCATION

LANTERN IN THE SCHOOL —See VISUAL
AIDS TO TEACHING

LAOS — See FRANCE, EDUCATION IN THE
COLONIES OF

LA PLATA UNIVERSITY — See ARGEN-
TINE REPUBLIC, EDUCATION IN THE

LAPSES — Inappropriate responses to a
given situation, especially in speaking and wnt-
mg, and occuriingm that condition of attention
known as absent-mindedness If attention
is regarded as the focal point of consciousness,
the lapse mav be considered as due to the le-
lationship between the focal point and the inai-
gm Propei adjustment to environment re-
quires not only concentration of consciousncs*
at one point, but a proper relating of the mai-
gmal elements If this is not the case, the
iesu.lt is absent-mindedness Absent-minded-
ness may be due to two quite different phases
of the attention process In the first place,
the attention may be so concentrated at one
point as to neglect to too great an extent the
marginal elements (abstraction) In the sec-
ond place, the absent-mindedness may be due
to too little concentration, that is, dividing
of the attention (distraction)

In speaking and writing we cany on a num-
ber of more or less separated activities at the
same time, the attention usually being occu-
pied with the thought of expression ; and the
expression itself being cared for by the more
or less automatic processes controlled In
t he marginal elements of consciousness Fre-
quently, when the attention is concent uited 01
distracted, these two processes interfere with
each other, and lapses result An example is
frequently to be found in the schoolroom, when
the teacher, m asking a question, inadvertently
gives the answer to the question It is to be
noted that the person making the error is
frequently unaware of the fact, and never
aware of it until after it has occurred It is
the result of involuntary processes, due to the

630

LARABEE

LASCAR1S

causes mentioned above. Fatigue, hurry, and
nervousness often are inducing causes of lapses,
and some persons are much more inclined to
make them than others Lapses have interest-
ing similarities to the phenomena found in
aphasia (q.v ) EH. C

References : —
BAWDEN, H HEATH A Study of Lapses I\t/<holouu<il

Review Monogiaph tin/) Vol III, No 11, pp 1

122
JASTHOW, JoshPH The Subconif um\, pp 11(> H)

(Boston, !<)()() )
\\ELLH, F L Lmguibtir Lapses 1/r/tms oj Pfitl<>^>-

/>/<//, Psychology and Scientific. Method*,, pp "i 110

LARABEE, BENJAMIN (ISO! - iss;-}) —
Fourth president of Middlebuiv C-ollege, lie*
graduated from Dartmouth College in 1S2S
ind the Andover Theological Semmaiv m
18,31 He was pimcipal of a manual train-
ing school at Springfield, Tenn ; professoi
and president of Jackson College, Columbia,
IVnn , and president of Middleburv College
(1840-1866) From 1871 to 1876 he was lec-
turer at Dartmouth W S M

LASALLE COLLEGE, PHILADELPHIA, PA

— See CHRISTIAN BROTHERS

LASALLE, ST. JOHN BAPTIST DE

(1651 - 1719") - Founder of the Institute of
the Christum Brothers (q v ) Born of a noble
family at Khemis, he eaily showed a highly
.spiritual and devotional temperament, and at
the age of eleven received the tonsure In
1667 he was installed Canon of the Cathedral
at R heims He studied at the local university,
and took his M A in 1669, and then proceeded
to the Sennruu v of Saint Sulpice in Pans, where
he also attended lectures at the SOT bonne
The students at the seminary were required to
help the director in catechizing a large number
of children, and the questions of method were
frequently discussed In 1678 Lasalle en-
tered the priesthood Inspired by the enthusi-
asm of his spiritual director, Nicolas Roland,
he succeeded him in the general supervision of
the Congregation of the Sisters of the Child
Jesus, which conducted a free school for girls,
although on his own confession he was not
greatly interested in education It was almost
by chance that he undertook the great educa-
tional work which gives him an important
place in the history of education A relative
living in Rouen requested him to assist in the
opening of a free school in Rheims, of which
Adrien Nyel was the master The success ol
this school led to the foundation of otheis,
until there were five masters in the town
Lasalle soon discovered that in spite of him-
self he must take an interest in the welfare of
these men, and, acting at first as their adviser,
he decided before long to resign his canonry
and his worldly possessions and live with
them. In 1681 a house was purchased, and
the foundation for the Institute of Christian

Brothers was laid A rule was drawn up, which
was the basis of the later rule; new teachers
joined the community, and the demand for the
Frercs des Ecoles ChrHiennes rapidly increased
Unable to satisfy any requests but those from
towns, he undertook to train boys who were
sent to him by the country clergy and who were
to return to their homes after their period of
training. A novitiate had already been insti-
tuted, more by accident than by design. In
1688 Lasalle accepted a call to Paris; in 1691
a house was rented at Vaurigard, near Paris;
and in 1693 the Rule was drawn up as now
known In 1695 the Manual was issued
Christian Brothers were requested to take
charge of the schools of several parishes. The
work of Lasalle himself, however, was not con-
fined to the elementary schools He person-
ally took charge of a Sunday school for young
artisans under twenty, and taught them mathe-
matics, mechanics, drawing, and other voca-
tional subjects After the English Revolu-
tion (1689) he was requested by Louis XIV
to take chaige of a number of Irish and Eng-
lish Catholic boys of good families. But the
extension of his work in Paris brought him into
conflict with the established order of writing
masters and schoolmasters, and as a result
of a lawsuit, he was forbidden to open schools
in Pans without the permission of the Pre-
centor (1705) Furthei, he was not minium
from ecclesiastical jealousy, and attempts \\eu
made to remove him from his position as Su-
perior of the Brothers In 1705 he opened at
St Yon another house, which was destined t<>
become the mother house of the Institute In
1712-1714 he traveled in the south of France,
Msitmg the houses of the Christian Brothers
and novices In 1716 he resigned as Supeiioi,
and was succeeded by Brother Barthelemv
In 1719 he died at Rouen

On French education Lasalle and his Insti-
tute exeicised the greatest influence in intio-
ducing a better class of teachers and a better
conception of schools and instruction How
far his influence went outside of I'Yance it is
impossible to say, but many of his reforms in
education weie certainly reintroduced or re-
discovered later For a detailed account of his
educational work and theory, and a list of
his writings, see CHRISTIAN BROTHERS and the
leferences there given

References : —

Catholic Encyclopedia

(itJiijBEKT, T Histoirc de S Jean Baptit>te d< La^allc

(Pans, 1901 )
HAVELET, \ Hi^toire de Venerable Jean Baptiste de

LasaUi* (Pans, 1S74 )
ZELTER, J Dor ncligp Johann Baptists de Lasallo, cm

Piiclagoge vor 200 Juhren In Phdagogische Vor

trtiw und Ahhandlungen, Vol III, 1 (Kcmpton,

1895 )

LASCARIS, CONSTANTINE (1434-1501 )
— A Greek teacher of the Renaissance period
He belonged to a noble family, and until its

637

LATERAL CURVATURE

LATIN LANGUAGE

capture by the Tuiks lived in Constantinople,
afterwards finding a lefuge in Corfu and Italy
He was Greek tutoi to the daughtei ol Fran-
cesco Sforza at Milan, taught at Rome with the
support of Cardinal Bessanon, and in Maples
at the request of Ferdinand I Foi a tune he
was also in Spain The last thirty-five years
of his life he spent as a teacher of Greek at
Messina, where he numbered the future Car-
dinal Bern bo (q v ) among his pupils His
chief work was the Grammatica Grwca ttivc
Compendium octo Oratwnes Partium (1476),
probably the first Greek woik known to have
been printed This Grammar was much used
in schools. Lascans also collected and copied
many Mss His collection, which was left
to the Senate of Messina, was placed in 1712
in the National Library in Madrid

References —

SANDYS, J E History of Classical Scholarship, Vol

II (Cambridge, 1908 )
VILLEMAIN, A Lascans ou les Grecs en XVbme 8ibcle

(Pans, 1825 )

LATERAL CURVATURE —See SPINAL
CURVATURE

LATHROP, JOHN HIRAM (1799-1866)
— First president of the University of Mis-
souri He graduated from Yale in 1819, and
taught school in New England for seveial
years He was professor in Hamilton College
(1828-1840), president of the University
of Missouri (1840-1849 and 1865-1866),
president of the University of Wisconsin
(1849-1859), president of* the Umveisity
of Indiana (1859-1860), and professor in the
University of Missouri (1860-1866)

W S. M

LATIN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE,
IN EDUCATION. — Historical — The history
of Latin in the schools is practically the history
of schools, at least of all schools above the most
elementary character, from the closing centuries
of the Middle Ages until well into the nine-
teenth century. The secondary school was
the dominant school throughout all this period
and in almost all cases they were Latin schools
To such an extent was this true that the terms
by which they were known, Grammar Schools,
Public Schools, Free Schools, Gymnasien,
Lyc6es, Colleges, were practically all synony-
mous with Latin School Until the nineteenth
century Latin was practically the only sub
ject; that is, all other subjects were studied in
cidentally and through the medium of the Latin
language and literature Greek might be added ,
and in some cases in the eighteenth, and quite
generally in the nineteenth century, mathe-
matics Hence the historical aspect of Latin
in the schools is treated at length in various
articles The entire scope of the subject is
included in the article on GRAMMAR SCHOOLS
The articles on GYMNASIUM and LYCEEB give

other aspects of this subject, as do also in a less
direct way those on ACADEMY, COLLEGE, and UNI-
VERSITY The article on the RENAISSANCE AND
EDUCATION treats of the formulation of the
secondary school as it was given the Latin form
in which it has dominated throughout the mod-
ern period; that on education during the Middle
Ages, its place and function in the earlier period
For a detailed statement of the place of Latin
language and literature in the educational
systems of the nineteenth century, see the sec-
tions on Secondary Education in the vanou>
articles on the national systems given undei
the caption of each nation

The following sections relate to the develop-
ment of the school material connected with the
subject, and the scope and method of the sub-
ject in the present.

Latin-speaking — As ancient Rome had
endeavored to establish a universal Empire,
so the medieval ecclesiastics attempted to
organize a universal Church, within which there
should be the uniformity of dogma, of Church
ritual, and along with it uniformity of languag »
in which divine service should be conducted, viz
Latin With the various dialects into which the
Latin was broken up in Spain, France, Italy —
there was only one standard to which appeal
could be made for intelligibility, viz the ancient
Latin, as contained either in classical authors,
in the Vulgate copy of the Scriptures, or in
the tradition of spoken Latin, mainly if not
entirely centered in the ecclesiastics When
the new enthusiasm of the Renaissance came,
with the fresher knowledge of Latin and Greek
authors, the need of the Latin speech as felt in
the medieval penod was emphasized, the leal
change being the recognition of the necessity
to substitute classical Ciceronian language for
the old monkish jargon and barbarism which had
been developed in the long course of medie-
valism So, in 1516, when Bishop Fox founded
Corpus Christi College, Oxford, by statute, he
required his first lecturer, " the sower and planter
of the Latin tongue, to manfully root out bar-
barity from our garden, and cast it forth should
it at any time germinate therein." Besides
reading classical authors, Bishop Fox directed
his lecturer to read to all who wished to hear
him the Elegantice of the Latin Tongue, by
Laurentius Valla, who had described Latin as
the "sacristy of erudition " He had embodied
the opn ^on of all the scholars when he said that
since Latin is the treasury of learning and the
instrument of conveisation, it should be the
we language in common use amongst all
nations It was clear that all Christians ini-
tiated in the same religious duties must use it.
It was often pointed out that the diversity of
languages was due to sin, and the return to a
unity in language seemed therefore to have a
certain religious implication. There would be
a confusion of all kinds of knowledge if differ-
ent languages were used, owing to men's ig-
norance of many languages. The enthusiasm of

638

LATIN LANGUAGE

LATIN LANGUAGE

Ihe Renaissance led to the ubiquity of students,
and Latin followed in their train Tims it is
said that hotel keepers and merchants had to
adapt themselves to some sort of Latin speaking
and beggars moaned out Latin tags m their ap
peals to student passers-by

In the earliest statutes (1274) of an (Kfoid
college, viz. Merton College, it is laid do\\n foi
scholars "when they speak they must use the
Latin language," and in its use defei to the
direction and correction of the giannnar
master. In Queen's College, Oxfoid (Statutes,
1341), scholars had the choice at table oi Latin
or French, and only out of politeness to a visitor
were they to speak the vernacular In 1556,
Trinity College, Oxford, made the requnement
that all public conversation, especially amongst
scholars, was to be in "a learned tongue "
It may be mentioned that about 1705, when
Dr. Woodroffe proposed that Gloucestei Hall
(afterwards Worcester College) should become a
specially Greek College, the requnement. \vas
suggested that for two yeais students should
converse m ancient Greek and then leain Latin
and Hebrew Similarly, at Cambridge colleges,
Latin was required as the language of convei-
sation, until the great Civil War Wordsworth
(Scholar Academics, p 90) points out that,
though Latin ceased to be used conversation-
ally in college halls, yet it continued to be used
as the language of college lectuies, disputations,
and on official occasions He further states
that Adam Smith was the first to lecture in Eng-
lish at Glasgow University, though it seems prob-
able that Dr. Hutchison had done this in 1727
The registers and annals of the College of
Physicians were kept in Latin up to the end of
the seventeenth century Phvsicians made
Latin notes of cases, and still prescriptions in
England show marked traces of the old Latm-
ity in dealing with the pharmacopia* The
annual Harveian oration m the College of Phv-
sicians of England was given in Latin till 1X65
As recently as 1874 the retnmg proctoi at
Cambridge gave his speech m Latin And
still, on public occasions, the public oratoi m
the English universities gives his speeches at
presentations for honorary degrees in Latin
Fulbecke, in the Preparative to the Study of Laic
(1600) and Dodencige in his English Lairyo
(1631) expect the lawyer to have ability in Lat m
"clear and neat style," and to avoid barbarisms
James Whitlocke, a judge on circuit, going to
Chester, was met at W hitchurch by many gentle-
men of Shropshire and Cheshire, and had a
Latin oration made to him at the marketplace
The Council of Trent in 1562 required that
preaching should be in the vernacular, which
points to a survival of a previous practice of
preaching in Latin. In 1564, when Queen
Elizabeth visited Cambridge, Dr Perne preached
a Latin sermon before her m King's College1
Chapel. M. Massebieau quotes from M
Haureau to show that sermons in Latin were
frequent, abroad Such a statement does not

hold of England except in unuersity seimons
and sermons ad Clcruni Candidates for tin-
degree of 13 D in the University of Cambridge
were required to preach once in Latin and once
in English at St Mary's Church (George Pea-
cock, On the Statute*, of Cambridge, p 12) In
1635 Cornelius Burges preached to his fellow
Puritan ministers of London in Latin Wil-
liam Bedell, while at Venice (1607-1610) as
chaplain to Sn Henry Wotton, wiote his sei-
mons in Italian and in Latin Previously, in
the time of the Marian Persecution (1553-
155X) the chief English exiles in Strassbuig,
Fiankfort, and Geneva spoke with foreigners
mainly m Latin.

Ambassadors ordinarily spoke Latin, but
in 1659 John Pell spoke Latin to a burgomaster,
who told him he had given over speaking
Latin "these fifty years," though in 1660
Edward Leigh in his Advnc on Travel states
spoken Latin to be a necessarv pait of the
equipment for the Grand Toui of travel (See
Cambridge Histojy of English Litetature,Vu\ VII,
P 314 )

When the Nonconformist Academies (q v )
were established, lectuies weie given in Latin,
and it is said that Dr Doddndge was the first
to introduce the use of English foi the regular
lectures in 1730

But quite outside of the higher institutions
of learning, Latin speaking must have been
common in medieval and Renaissance times.
As Mr Leach says with regard to pre-Reforrna-
tiori knowledge 'of Latin "The diplomatist,
the lawvei, the civil servant, the phvsician,
the naturalist, the philosopher, wrote, lead,
and to a large extent spoke, and pel haps,
thought, in Latin " He suggests iurther that
Latin was used by merchants, the bailiffs of
manors, town and gild clerks, generals, travel-
ers, architects, all of whom needed a knowledge
of Latin as a spoken as well as written lan-
guage In othei words, before the Retoimation
England was to a large extent bilingual,
e\ ery educated man, as it has been said, " knew
something of the language in which he said his
piaveis " The one profession was the Church
This was the demociatic outlet, foi achance in
a Church careei was a pool bov's chance,
whether he was to become a diplomat, a lawyer,
or even a physician Boys were bi ought up
in the chantry of a church, / e within the
chinch building itself, and bieathed the at-
mosphere of Latin The Renaissance intensi-
fied the importance of Latin foi children, but
insisted on pure Latin instead of the medieval
barbarism Erasmus, Vives, Sir Thomas El-
vot, regarded Latin as the one language by
which a child could become well instructed
both in literature and all sciences (See Sir
Elyot's Governour, Croft's Edition, Vol I,
pp. 33, 54, 116) The child should be sur-
lounded by parents, tutors, servants, all ^of
whom should speak to him only in Latin For
an instance of such family training see Cor

LATIN LANGUAGE

LATIN LANGUAGE

cfenus' Colloquies (Bk II, Colloquy 50), said to
refer to the household of Robert Stephanus,
and the well-known case of Montaigne Latin
speaking became at any rule the mark of a
gentleman's training, and important for all
who contemplated foreign travel There is
the extraordinary case of Robert Gentih
(1590-1654), son oi the famous Perugian lawyei
Alberico Gentih, educated in England He
always spoke to his father in Latin, and his
mothei in French, and at seven years of age
it is said he could speak both languages as well
as English But his after careei did not add
ciedit to the educational prodigy

The Reformation made Latin speaking less
important for the ordinary child, because sei v-
ices took place in the vernaculai But tor
the educated and for the intelligent Protestant,
Latin speaking was still essential, for those who
road Calyimstic foieign writers, and wished to
be in touch with foreign thought The Exile-
Reformers were permeated with the educational
views of coreligionists abroad, arid the leaders
in the reign of Elizabeth introduced the require-
ment of Latin speaking into the school statute
In the writer's Grammai /SV//w>»',s up to ]()'()( j
(pp 316 ct seq ) are given representative in-
stances of the requirement oi Latin speaking in
the statutes of English grammai schools irorn
1524 to 1664

In Mahm's Comwetudinanum for Eton Col-
lege in 1560 a boy was to be named as a i uxto*
if he was detected talking English in lesson time
and for other school lapses The name was
originally given to the boy in each form who
had to repeat the lessons first and to answer
questions, and it is suggested by Maxwell-Lyte
that it came Irom medieval times by analogy
to the cubtoK chon, whose duty was to' begin the
singing in church --as the school r//sfas uas
to begin the repetition in school In 1021-
1628 the Comududmanum of Westminster
School required monitors, "Two lor the Hall,
and as many for the Church, the School, the
fields, the cloister, which last attended them
to the washing and were called Mninton^
unmundorn The captain of the school was
over all these, and was named Monitui Mont-
tor inn These monitors kept boys strictly to t he
speaking of Latin in their several commands,"
it was their duty to present " complaints
or accusations" every Friday morning At
flought on-le-Sprmg (1574) the boys thus ap-
pointed were called Impositor*, and held duty
from Friday to Friday Custodes, Monitors,
and hnpositors, as checks on lapses into Eng-
lish speaking, became a frequent institution in
schools, and within the memory of those still
living there were similar checks against speaking
Welsh instead of English in some Welsh schools
As to the method of training in the speaking
of Latin, John Brinsley (q v ) devotes Chaptei
XIX of the Ludm Liternnus (1612) to a de-
tailed statement The criticism there made of
Latin speaking m the schools is not that it is

040

not attempted, but that the boys speak "in
barbarous phrase/' and do not "uttei their
minds in Latin easily, purely, and freely."
Brinsley objects to the ordinary school practice
that Latin speaking should not be delayed, for
fear of barbarisms, till the third, fourth, or
ill tli lorms, but should be begun from the first
entrance into "construction " The first Latin
reading books and authors should be chosen
for the purpose of teaching correct Latin speak-
ing Hence the employment in the school of
the Confahulaliuncultt puerifes or Children' t>
(Latin) Talk, and the Colloquies of Cordenus
(see COLLOQUIES) Children "should then
begin to practice to use those phrases which
they there learn " Brinsley further notes
that the reason the Latin grammar is written
in Latin and not 111 English is "only or chiefly
to tram up scholars to Deliver all their Grammar
rules and matters concerning Grammar, in
Latin " The methods to be employed in teach-
ing Latin speaking are given in full by Brinsley
All examination of grammar rules and reading
of authors should be questioned out closely arid
answered at first in both English and in Latin,
until the pupils can answer in Latin alone
What the pupil is unable to answci in Latin,
" utter you cvei beioie them, that as the child
leaineth of the mother or of the nuise to begin
to speak, so they may of you and of their au-
thoi," in Latin The daily use of the leading
oi dialogues out of English into Latin, u is
nothing but such talking," and may be sup-
plemented In the master " speaking in Latin
easily and purely even in ordinary matters "
For from the dialogues — like those of Con-
fabululmm nlu />//m/rs and Cordenus, children
can speak not only oi what is there included but
also form talk modeled on them for themselves
In parsing the dialogue's, i e construing and
paisu.g them, the\ should further 4< talk "
them, uttenng e^ery sentence pathetically, to
one another, first in English, then in Latin
The earlv stages ot Latin speaking thus ac-
quired, Brinsley requires class work in parsing,
etc , questions and answers to be in Latin by
teacher and pupil, other exercises are grammati-
cal disputations, use of variety of phrases, and
further and harder dialogues. But "war-
rantable and pure phrase," in which lies the
solution of Latin-speaking, consists in "practice
m a good way," and Brinsley adds, "as in all
the rest, is that which doth all."

One of the projects of the seventeenth century
m connection with training in Latin speaking
\\as descnbed by Eilhardus Lubinus m 1614
as the setting up in each country of a Co3no-
oniw, or Community, in which there should be
those who had the pure Latin accent and
speech, and who should be attended by serv-
ants and attendants, even kitchen scullions,
who also spoke pure Latin, so that pupils could
go and learn no less quickly and perhaps no less
certainly than formerly in the Forum Roinanum
By residence in such a colony for two or three

LATIN LANGUAGE

LATIN LANGUAGE

years, sound Latmists might be produced,
Lubmus thought, " profitable to mankind and
in it to the distressed Church of God " Lubi-
nus's views were translated into English, and
published by Samuel Harthb in his True and
Readie Way to Leaine the Latine Tongue
(1654). One of the Sloane Mss in the British
Museum Library contains a lettei of Thomas
Home, written to Samuel Harthb in 1652
Home suggests that the charges commonly
bestowed on public schools should rather
be laid out for the planting of Roman, Grecian,
and Hebrew colonies And Latin-speaking for-
eigners should be brought to England, Polomans,
Germans, French, Spaniards, Italians, " who
speak Latin well and must be induced to speak
no other."

Abroad, Latin was spoken, as Alfred Frank-
lin says: " Le Latin etait la seule langue recue
' an pays Latin,' " and he quotes a letter of
GUI Patm, of May 24, 1650, in which the wntei
says. " J'ai et6 aujourd'hui au pavs latin, qui
est 1' Universit^ "

Another description of the training rn Latin
speaking may be found in lloole's Vr/r />/.s-
covery of the Old Art of Tenth nig School (1660)
Latin speaking as a school training gradually
declined aftei the commonwealth period in
England, though J T Philhpps urged enthu-
siastically more Latin speaking and less ^gram-
mar teaching in his Compendious Waif of Teach-
ing Ancient and Modem Language (1727)

There is now a tendency to return to the
direct method of teaching Latin, and, at least
to some degree, of Latin speaking One of
the best expositions of the latest^ English
methods in this direction is l)r W H 1)
Rouse's Latin and Greek, Section Vil of Pro-
lessor J W Adamson's Practue of In,stru(tion
(London, National Society's Depositor, 1(K)7)

F W

Latin Grammars, Vocabularies, and Teach-
ing Apparatus — Dictwnanes — Vocabularies
with the English as well as the Latin weie an
earlier form of teaching equipment in England
than the grammar A collection oi vocabulai ies,
word glosses, and glossaries from Mss ex-
tending from the eighth to the fifteenth cen-
turies was made by Thomas Wright and pri-
vately printed in 1857 In 1SS4 this collection
was reedited and published by R P Wulckei
Among the vocabularies thus brought to
light by Wright are Alexander Ncckam's
Treatise De Utcnulibus of the twelfth centuiv
and the Dictnmanu* of John de Garlande of the
thirteenth century Neckam's book consists
of Latin terms for all the ordinary avocations
and occupations of men and women, with a
continuous interlinear gloss of explanations in
easier Latin, in French, and in English It is
conjectured that the explanations were for the
use of the schoolmasters, whose Latin knowledge
might need support and suggestion The vo-
nbularies with then words giouped round
subjects instead of being ananged alphabeti-

VOL III

cally, were rather lesson books than diction-
aries in the modern sense John de Garlande's
Dictwnarius gives the Latin names for parts
of the body, and for trades and manufactures
He then described the house of a Parisian citi-
zen and its furniture, his own wardrobe, the
Church arid its priest, and various other occu-
pations Dean Nowell, in the Statutes for
Hangor Friar School, in 1568, describes the
method for use of vocabularies, which probabl}
had gone on for centuries previously " Th<*
schoolmasters shall every night teach their
scholars then Latin words wrth their English
significations" After practicing them, the
boys are to appear the next morning with the
words and meanings retained in memory In
1580 the Harrow rules explicitly state that
"three words" are to be given each night —
but they probably mean the words clustering
round each subject, eg parts of the body,
diseases, virtues, vices, herbs, fishes, trees, etc
Apparently the earliest punted vocabulary
was that of John Star, bridge, ( 1500, and this
book continued in use as late as 1630, the latest
reMMon having been made bv John Hiinsley,
the author of the Ludus liteianu.s The vo-
cabulary developed into the dictionary form
The first Latin dictionary of Renaissance times
was that of Ambrosms' Calepmus, published
at Reggro in 1502 Calepmus made a great
collection of Latin words from Latin writeis,
and included meanings in Italian and other
languages Eventually the dictionary was
not only Latin, but polyglot, containing in its
greatest* expansion eleven languages From
Oalepinus Robert Stephanus adopted a Dic-
tionanum, m Latin and French, in 1531 This
was the first great Latin dictionary to illustrate
the force of words in idioms and to indicate
shade of meanings of words as used in various
writers It \vas quickly followed, m 1535, by
Oh.serwttwncs in M Tullnnn Cueionem, a dic-
tionary of words used by Cicero, wiitten b>
Alarms Nizohus, general!} known as the The-
saurus Cicenmianu.s Lauientius Valla's Elegan-
iiaium lingua Latincc hhu M* in 1471 and the
r nntcopia MM lingua: Latin CP ('oniweniaui,
1489, of Nicholas Perotti, though gladly used as
dictionaries by happy owners, were rat her essays
in philological and literary criticism on a large
scale But, such crude criticism was overshadowed
by Julius (Vsar Scaliger in his D( Causis Latnia
Lniquw, 1540, in which he claimed to enumer-
ate 634 enors in Valla Erasmus wrote books
which were used for teaching purposes Of the
dictionary kind were the Adagin, the first form
of winch appealed in 1500, the Copia Ver-
boruni in 1511, the Parabola* strc Simiha,
1513 The Colloquia, 1516 (see COLLOQUIES),
was perhaps Erasmus's chiel schoolbook, but
it is not of the dictionary type The Adagui
were proverbs in Greek of which he gave a
translation and exposition The Copni Vn-
boium supplied variety and iullness oi language
for composition instead of the old barbarisms

LATIN LANGUAGE

LATIN LANGUAGE

aiui inelegancies Tlio Apophthegrnata of Eras-
mus was not published till 1531 It was not till
1538 that in England was produced a Latin
dictionary, that of Su Thomas Elyot Elyot
states his indebtedness to the old collections of
words oi Festus, Vano, Nonius, Nestor Of the
moderns, he had taken from Lauientius Valla,
Perotti's Cornucopia, the Italian "friar," Cale-
pin, the Spanish Antomus .Elms Nebrissensis
(Dtctionauiun Itilinu-lnxpnnuum ct Inxpano-
latinuw, 1532), the Fiench (luillaume Bude
( Lc i icon gi wco-lati n // /// , 1 530) In 1 505
Thomas Cooper, at one time Bishop of Lin-
coln, compiled his ThewuiHs based on Elyot
and on Stephens This was followed by the
Latin dictionaries of E (Jrant, 1581, based on
Jean (1iespm ((leneva, 1562), Rudolph Wad-
dmgton, grounded on Stephens and Ye" ion,
15S4 John Mmsheu's Dnclor in lingua^, a
polyglot dictionary including Latin, followed
in J5()9 John Rider and Francis Holyokc
produced their notable Latin dictionary in
1017, in which Philemon Holland helped Tins
NVI-. unproved upon by Holyoke in JG33, in his
!)'< lionai i utn Ktynwlogicum Latinum But it
vv\ts in 1077 that Holyoke's son Thomas com-
pleted the large dictionary proudly asserted
to bo " the most complete and useful of any
that was ever vet extant in this kind "

But dictionaries were for scholars and school-
masters, ordinarily not for pupils, though
Hoole in 1000 places them among reference
b joks to be kept tor use by the scholars There
\vas published, however, a Skort Dictionary for
Young Kcginncri* by John Withals, the earliest
edition of which is traced to 1550 This was
essentially an English- Latin vocabulary, ar-
ranged according to subjects, giving the names
oi objects clustered together under heads of the
skj , elements, winds, birds, the sea, fishes, etc
Tins book was revised by Dr Evans, Abr
Fleming, and last by William Clark (in 1034)
The later editions confessedly obtained material
fiom the well-known Hadrian Jumus's Nomen-
clator (1507) The last editor explains that
the older is not alphabetical, because another
method enables the grouping of helpful ex-
pressions around any object Thus with the
words " night " and " day " can appear the
expressions u it is dark," " it is clear," and other
sentences, proverbs, and sayings which relate
to these topics The object is to provide the
young scholars with materials for Latin con-
veisation (See above on L\TIN SPEAKING )
It is probable, however, that no work in this
field was so important in the history of language
teaching as the Jartua Ling uar urn (1011)
of William Bathe or Bataeus (1504-1014), an
Irish Jesuit on the stall of the Irish College at
Salamanca The Spanish Janua consisted of
some 1150 (sentences 1042 to 1100 being
omitted) sentences 01 centunce in Latin, with a
Spanish translation on opposite pages, an \p-
l)»n<ln dc Ambtgui^, defining nouns and verbs
with \anotiN meaning*, and an fndci containing

about 5300 words, based on Talepmus, and
giving a translation in Spanish and reference
to their use in the sentences The centuries of
sentences are grouped around some central
topic, thus, the first five centuries deal with
the cardinal virtues, the sixth with human
activity, the seventh with peace and strife,
and so on, only the last century is built on a
different plan The Janua Lmguarum was at
once accepted as a model, and many other works
in different languages appeared, following the
lines of Bathe's work, the best known of these
is the Janua linguaruni reserata (1631) of Co-
memus (q v ) (See Corcoran, T , History of
Clascal Teaching, Dublin, 1911 ) From what
has been said of vocabularies, nomenclators,
and such dictionaries as this of John Withals,
it will be seen that there was plenty of previous
material for John Amos Comenius (q v ) when
he came to compile his Janua hnguarum resc-
rata (which is a vocabulary arranged in topics
arid sentences about them) in 1031 and his
Orbis pictus in 1057

Grammar — All through the Middle Ages
the instruction had been " direct," for pupils
could not afford MBS books, and in mam
cases even the teachers did not possess them
^Ehus Donatus, a grammarian of the fourth
century A D , wrote the one elementary Latin
grammai which was in use foi a thousand years
For a full account, see C Thurot, Extnut^ de*
vin?iU8cnts latins (Paris, 1809) But with an
oral system of teaching, and with a paucity of
MSB even of Donatus's Accidence, teaching
material and methods became traditional, -and
teachers taught largely according to the piae-
tice or " use " of the teachers under whom the\
were themselves taught The famous school
attached to the hospital ol St John at Ban bury
under the regime of John Stanbridge seems to
have established a prestige in method of
Latin grammar, and the phrase " aiter the man-
ner of Baribury School" perpetuated Stan-
bridge's fame and his method The other
grammars of the middle ages were not simple
like Donatus's Priscian and his subtleties
gave way to the still more abstract, metaphysi-
cal, and fantastic speculation of Alexander de
Villa Dei, and other textbooks, or traditions
of them, such as those held up to scorn by Eras-
mus, eg Flonsta (Ludolf of Luehow), Papias,
Hugutio, Michael Modista, and Eberhard oi
Bdthune (irammar had become a " specu-
lative," not a practical study, and one of the
keenest desires of the Renaissance teachers
became the unification and standardization of
giammar The eaihest printed grammar in
England was that of 1481 at Oxford The next
to claim attention is John Holt's Lac Puerorurn,
1497 Stanbridge and Whyttington supplied
many forms of the Latin Accidence, but this
made the case still stronger for a uniform gram-
mar The later most important names con-
nected with the evolution of the authorized
Latin giammai ol LV10 me William Lil\,

LATIN LANGUAGE

LATIN LANGUAGE

Thomas Linacre, John Colct, Erasmus, and
Cardinal Wolsey

Lily had been at work on an elementary
Latin grammar as far back as 1509, and a
letter of Colet in 1520 speaks of the book as an
accomplished fact, and as Lily's book, to be used
by him as first master of St Paul's School A
further letter of Colet dated 1513 refers to it as
Colet's own gift The earliest printed copy is
that of the Absolutisximus de octo orationi*
partium mstructwnc libcllm, published at Basle
in 1515, and at Strassburg in 1515 It consists
of twenty-one leaves, and contains a preface by
Erasmus, disclaiming the authorship, and
acknowledging that he had readily made emen-
dations in it, but that it was Lily's composition
The fact seems to be that Colet made the first
draft, Lily supplied emendations and probably
wrote the syntax, and was commissioned by
Colet to mark any further examples for inclu-
sion as they occurred in the reading of classic
authors with the boys Lily meantime sent
the little book to Erasmus for suggestions, and
the report arose that it was entirely Erasmus's
own work It is to be noted that William Lily
died in 1522, so the title of Lily's Grammar is
only correct for the part composed before that
date In 1523 Thomas Linacre composed his
Rudimcnta Grammatics for the use of the
Princess Mary As Juan Luis Vives wrote
about the same time a scheme of studies
for the Princess, and as the two documents were
sometimes printed together, the mistake has
been made of regarding them as joint authors
of a Latin grammar. Linacre's Rudimenta
Grammatical is not to be compared with his DC
Emcndata Struct ura Latim tier moms of 1524, a
much more elaborate work Colet died in
1519, but his dEditw, as his Accidence is called,
was not published till 1527 This Latin title
must not be allowed to obscure the fact that
Colet 's grammar is in English In it is an
emphatic statement of the Renaissance view of
grammar teaching, of which the essence is that
Latin speech was before, and is before, grammar
rules Colet 's dZditio contains Lily's Syntax
in English and Lily's verses to his scholars
De Monbus In 1528 Cardinal Wolsey entered
the grammar arena, with his Rudirnenta Grant-
matices of thirty-four leaves Wolsey ( ? 1475-
1530) had been a Fellow of Magdalen College,
Oxford, like Lily, and, as is sometimes foi got-
ten, had been a master in the Magdalen Col-
lege School (1498) In the Preface to his
Rudimenta, he gives his remarkable sketch of
studies and methods to be pursued by the
masters of Ipswich Grammar School, and e\i-
dently his plans were intended as a model foi
other schools The "lytell proheme," and the
Accidence are borrowed whole from Colet, as
also are Lily's contributions to Colet's gram-
mar Other contributors were pressed into
the service of the so-called Lily's Grammar,
e.g , Thomas Robertson (from 1524 to 1534),
master of Magdalen College School, Oxford,

who gave the Qua genu* arid versifying rules
with it

With these new grammars and the survn al of
medieval grammars and grammar traditions
there sprang up a great diversity in the course
of teaching In 1540 came King Henry YIU's
Proclamation that " As his Majesty purposeth
to establish his people in one consent and
harmony of pure and true religion so his tender
goodness towaids the youth and childhood of
his realm mtendeth to have it brought up under
one absolute and uniform sort of learning "
Hitherto, the King goes on to say, every master
had his grammar, and eveiy school, diverse
teachings, and " the changing of masters and
schools did many times utterly dull and undo
good wits " Accordingly he commands thai
Lilv's Grammar is to be used and " none other "
The first edition traceable is that of 1542 (t\u>
years after the Proclamation) and the exact
title of what was constantly called Lily's
Grammar is An Introduction of the t t/ghl
paries of xpcche and t/ic construction of OH M/?//r,
compiled and set by the cowmandcnunt of OKI
most gracious sovcieign Louie the King (anno
J542) Contrary to the earlier grammars, this
official grammar is in Latin It is now unknown
who were the commissioners to determine the
exact contents of the autlion/ed grammar,
excepting that it is traditionary that l)i
Richaid Cox, tutor to King Edward \ 1, \\as
one of them

Lily's giammar \\as thus in supreme autlioi-
ity from 1540 onward In 1758 it was appro-
priated as the Eton grammar, and its use in
Eton College continued till about 1X08 From
175X to the present its authority has quietly
declined and 'vanished, without enaetn ent
As a business monopoly, Lily's gran n ar
was very valuable, considerable sums being
paid for it as "rent " It passed through the
hands of Francis Flo\\ei and John Batter ^by
to John Norton, and in the family of the Gor-
tons it remained for generations, \\ith license
to print granted to the universities Eccle-
siastical sanction was given to it by Artnle*
of } imitation of the archbishops and bishops,
who inquired if any other gi annual was being
used in any schools to its detriment Attempts
were made unsuccessfully to upset its author-
ity in Convocation in J004 and in the House of
Lords in 1675

Theie were mam attempts at emendations
of the King's or Lily's grammar, by tiansla-
tions of the Latin parts, by various forms of
exposition or <4 elucidation," by " pi axes " on it,
and by writings which announced themselves
as friendly to it, but as supplemental y Among
these weie Thomas Grangei's Si/ntagrna (haw-
niatictun, 1616, John Danes's Light to Lily,
1631, John Clarke (of Lincoln), Dux Groni-
nutttcu^, 1633, Thomas Hayne's Compendium,
1037, James Shirley (the dramatist school-
master), Via ad Latintun Linquutn, 104*.), and
Charles IIoolc's Latin (iititnntai, 10."il, hi>

LATIN LANGUAGE

LATIN LANGUAGE

Common Rudiment*, 1651, and his Ea*ic En-
trance, 1659 In addition to these* there were
the foreign Latin giammars such as those of
Peter Ramus, Antonio de Lebrixa, Vossius,
etc In 1641 Thomas Fainaby curiously
enough obtained a special authorization for his
tiystema Grammaticum, too learned a woik foi
ordinary school use, and, as is not always re-
membered, Jeremy Taylor in 1647 and .John
Milton in 1669, wiote short and easy Latin
grammars Two othei Latin grammars had
some good points, those of John Brookbank, A
Breviate of our King'* whole Latin Grammar
vulgarly called Lilhe\, 1660, and Richard
Lloyd's Latin Grammai , 1653

The diveisity of grammars grew apace In
1726, the particularly good (ftammar of the Latin
Tongue by Solomon Lowe gives a list of 1S6
wnters of Latin grammars whose works had
been or were in use in England at that date
Criticism of the authorized giammar culminated
111 a work of Richard Johnson, master of the
Fiee School, Nottingham, entitled (ftammat-
ical Commentaries, bang an Appaiatu*' to a
new National Guam mat, by way of Animadvct-
*ion upon the Fahities, Ob*cuntie*, Redundan-
cies and Defects of Lillif* *ij*tem now ui M.ST
in which al*o aie noticed many eiror* of the
most eminent Gianiniai ian*, both ancient and
modem, 1706

Hut controversy was earned furthei than
Ihe question of an authorized grammar l)r
.Joseph Webbe (d c 1633) was a phvsieian-
gi animal mil, who enthusiasticallv urged that
Latin as a language was to be learned entirely
from Latin authors, independently of systematic
and elaborate grammars, authorized or un-
authorized Other writers wished grammar, to
be taught by an appeal to realistic teaching, a
method which (>omenius's Oibm pictu*, 1657,
greatly stimulated The whole history of Lilv's
grammar affords the most striking instance of
the failure to maintain the use of a particular
book by giving it special royal authorization

Besides dictionaries, grammars, colloquies
(q v ), verse making (q v ), rhetoric (see RHETO-
RIC), the Latin apparatus was chiefly concerned
with Latin letter writing, theme writing, and
other forms of Latin composition The great
desideratum was the material on which the pupil
could express himself in Latin speech and writing,
good subject matter and elegant and eloquent
phrases and idioms

The Adagia, Copia Verborum, and Apoph-
thegms of Erasmus had succeeded to the old
Vulgaiia of Horman arid others, all of which
has been drawn up with the purpose of assisting
the " making of Latins " The books to help
m the writing of letters were numerous
Among the most important were those of
Erasmus and Vives, De conscnbendt* cpi*tohs,
arid of Englishmen, John Clarke's Episto-
loyniphia In theme writing, Aphthornus of
the foiuth centiin v D was reestablished
as an ancient aiilliontv for method For

644

subject matter Reusner's Symboto, Lycos-
thene's Apophthcgmata, 1555, and all sorts of
books of Flore*, and sayings from the classics
and modern writers, especially on the subject of
moials, were the hunting ground of boys for
then themes For phrases and elegant ex-
pressions, Valla, Erasmus, Aldus Manutius,
and the English collections of Calhopma
(1613) and Bibltotheca 8chola*tica Iristructis-
MW«, 1633, both by Thomas Diaxe, were recom-
mended In addition, in the seventeenth cen-
tury came John Clarke's Phia*cologia puerih*,
1638, Hugh Robinson's ficholw Wintomensi*
Phra*e^ Latimv, 1658, Thomas Willis's Protein
Yinctu* 1655, and William Walker's Diction-
anj of English and Latin Idiom*, 1670 But the
largest in this sort was William Robertson's
Phra*eologia Generalt*, 1686, consisting of
about 1400 closely printed double-columned
pages Solomon Lowe, in his Latin Grammar,
1726, not onlv enumerated the writers of
Latin grammars, but also stated the names of
118 authors of these vocabularies, phrase
books, examples, and sentential*, who were or
had been used in England

The tendency of these analytical products
of phrases and expressions was toward isolated
scraps of knowledge This tendency was in-
tensified b\ the use of compends or epitomes
into which every solid subject of study was
brought Francis Bacon was led to call these
"epitomes" the " corruptions and moths of
histories, which had made excellent histories
bare and unprofitable dregs " The theory on
which epitomes and the collection of phrases
had been based was probably the usefulness of
the method when the collections were made by
the pupil himself For the use of paper
books in the* collection of literary phrases,
examples, and commonplace extracts was much
older than Ascharn, who is sometimes thought
to be the first suggestor, and remained through-
out the seventeenth and even eighteenth cen-
turies a most valuable method For in the
old English grammar schools the processes of
classical training depended largely on the ac-
tive initiation of the pupil to gam such control
over what he read in authors that he should be
able to use it again, in new form, from his O\MI
independent standpoint of free composition
and speech The employment of highly ana-
lytical methods for the sake of copiousness and
elegancy of expression in Latin speech and com-
position (which brought into the schools the
excellent piece of work of William Walker on
the Particle* in 1663) produced a plethora of
books to supply pupils both with subject matter
and choice expressions for all manner of sub-
jects on which they hacj to write The very
development of classical learning brought a
state of Latin apparatus, which took away the
old Renaissance sense of initiative on the part
of the learner by offering him full provision
ready to hand to meet all his wants, and was
joined with a corresponding degeneracy of

LATIN LANGUAGE

LATIN LANGUAGE

especially the weaker schoolmasters arid schools,
so common in the eighteenth century F W

See COLLOQUIES; COMMONPLACE BOOK,
DICTIONARIES; GRAMMAR, VISUAL AIDS TO
TEACHING; also DONATUS; PRISCIAN; LILY,
and the other grammarians referred to.

Latin, Teaching of — The position occupied
by Latin in the curriculum of the secondary
school is due primarily to tiadition During
the Middle Ages and at the Revival of Learn-
ing Latin was the medium of communication 111
science, literature, and politics Consequently
it was the first and most important element in
education, supplemented by Greek and mathe-
matics, it formed the whole curriculum (See
GRAMMAR SCHOOLS ) In the seventeenth cen-
tury the native tongue began to form a small
part of the course of study This was followed
in the eighteenth century by the modern foreign
languages, and in the nineteenth by the vaiious
sciences Practically all the time devoted to
them was taken from that allotted to Latin
and Greek The process has continued until
now Greek is omitted from the curriculum in
practically all public high schools and in most
private ones, and Latin has been reduced to
modest proportions (See (}REEK IN THE
SCHOOLS ) Latin now occupies about one
fifth of the total time of the secondary schools,
but it has to maintain itself against vehement
criticism and opposition The critics main-
tain that Latin is not a "practical" subject,
and that the results of Latin teaching are
entirely disproportionate to the amount of
time which it demands The defendeis of
Latin urge two mam leasons for its retention
in at least its present condition (1) its \alue
as a mental discipline, (2) its value as a prac-
tical subject

The value of Latin, or of any subject m
particular, as a mental discipline, has been much
impugned m recent years, particularly by the
psychologists, but there is a tendency now
apparent to recede from the exticme position
in this regard, and there is abundant testimony
from unprejudiced observers in all walks of life
to the value of Latin as a training instiiiment
For above every other subject it trains (1) the
process of observation, (2) the function of
correct record, (3) the reasoning power and
general intelligence in correct mien nee from
recorded observations To this should be
added its great value in developing the powei of
voluntary attention

The value of Latin as a piactical subject
has to do particularly with the effect of the
language in the cultivation of English style
In the English vocabulary a very large propor-
tion of words in everyday use are of Latin ori-
gm, and it has been estimated that two thirds
of the Latin vocabulary of the classical period
has in some form or other come over into Eng-
lish speech. For the correct use of synonyms
in English and the habit of expressing one's
thoughts clearly, concisely, and cogently, a

discriminating knowledge of Latin is indispens-
able, and while not every pupil in the school
may be expected to develop a good style, ne\ei-
theless he should be given the necessary foun-
dation for it

When we turn to literature, we find that
Latin is influential everywhere — particularly
in our classical authors — by allusion, by quo-
tation, by actual domestication Many of
our great English writers are permeated with
Latin We cannot expect that all will desire
to food their minds on the works of our great-
est authors, however much we might prefer it ,
but certainly we should not deprive them of
one of the most irnpoitarit elements in their
enjoyment should they be so minded

The criticism of the results of Latin teaching
has borne more heavily in recent years, and
teachers are coming to realize that this criti-
cism has genuine foundation There has been,
therefore, much discussion as to improvement
of method, and many suggestions, particularly
by editors of textbooks It may be said in
general that the tendency of these suggestions
has been toward greater emphasis upon oial
teaching and the testing of acquaintance with
the language by the ability to read its ordi-
naiy foims at sight It has been too true that
the value of the exercise in translation, which,
when properly done, should be voiy gieat,
has been seriously impaired by the very wide-
spread use of English translations, a practice
which results in slow progiess on the one hand,
and dulled nioial sense on the other Then,
too, in most of oui colleges the classes, particu-
larly in the earhei veais, have been so largo
that adequate personal attention to indnidual
students has been impossible, and this diffi-
culty is becoming more and more serious m
secondary instruction with the rapid growth of
our public high schools Admimstiative offi-
eeis have shown a cuiious disinclination to
treat languages \\ith the same consideration
that is extended to the sciences While it is
accepted without question that scientific in-
struction without individual laboratory woik
under the eye of laboratory assistants is im-
possible, the equally obvious fact that instruc-
tion in languages without similar practice can
be only haphazard and slipshod, is either not
peiceived or knowingly neglected

Naturally in the teaching of any language we
should begin with the essentials of giammai,
together with sufficient exercises to insure the
complete learning of the forms, and enough of
the syntax to make the reading of simple sen-
tences possible This would be followed by
easy reading, and then by more difficult read-
ing, until the student acquires sufficient mastery
to read with some ease whatever he would
naturally come in contact with And this is
practically (with certain restrictions) what has
been followed for centuries in the teaching of
Latin The question has been chiefly as to the
nature of the instruction in the first year and

645

LATIN LANGUAGE

LATIN LANGUAGE

the sequence of reading mat WIN! In the main
the colleges have dominated the high school
curriculum in America by their requirements
for admission, and thus we find that for a long
period the course of instruction in the high
schools has been the beginner's book, a certain
amount of (1»sar, certain orations of Ciceio,
certain books of Vergil's Mnnd (See COUHSE
OF STUDY ) When the high school course has
been four years in length, as is the case almost
everywhere, one year lias been devoted to
everv one of these four subjects Wheie the
course is five years, or six, teachers have en-
larged it by the addition of Ovid, Nepos, Sal-
lust, arid in some cases have increased the time
devoted to the beginner's book so as to spend
upon it a year and a half

In recent years theie has developed a strong
feeling that the prescription of so much read-
ing has a deleterious effect upon the teaching in
the schools, and that better results could be
attained if there were less definite prescription
of authors arid more insistence on the ability
to translate easy Latin at sight

The first year of Latin is the most important
work in the whole high school curriculum
This importance lies in the fact that the pupil
is studying not only Latin, but the phenomena
of organic speech In some schools in ( ierman v
and in England the pupil makes his first ac-
quaintance with a foreign language in the study
of French , but this practice has not taken root
in the United States, and there the first serious
study of linguistic expression begins in the
Latin classroom

Let us see for the moment what the problems
of the Latin student are, what the English-
speaking child will find difficult or unusual
Fust and foremost, he will be struck by the
Latin forms English is practically a formless
language, the few terminations remaining are
not sufficient to form a foundation for the care-
ful study of the expression of ideas by means of
termination The pupil will now for the first
time have to distinguish between the various
cases of the noun and the various tenses and
moods of the verb This comes as a shock to
the average English-speaking child, and it-
requires months upon months of careful and
insistent drill before the expression of case
relations by changes in termination becomes
second nature For example, in an English
sentence like, " The boy strikes the dog with a
stick," outside of the .s in the verb no indica-
tion of meaning is given by any termination,
and the three substantives would suffer no
change in form, no matter what change in mean-
ing might be brought about by transposition
On the other hand, m Latin the syntax would
be expressed not merely by the sense, but also
by a formal difference in every noun Further-
more, the pupil would be troubled by even the
simplest syntactical structure An English
sentence l;ke, " The father gave his son some
money that he might buy the book," is com-

646

prehensible to the child without any serious
mental effort, but in the Latin sentence he
must become acquainted with the idea of pur-
pose and its expression and the use of mood to
take the place of the auxiliary. This difficulty
is immeasureably enhanced when " to buy " takes
the place of " that he might buy." Another
difficulty which is none the less real is that of
pronunciation. For the first time the pupil
comes into contact with what is essentially the
Indo-Germamc system of sound expression,
from which English has seriously varied Then,
too, there is word order and its possibilities in
an inflected language With these difficulties
staring him in the face, and with progress made
exceedingly slow on account of the necessity of
accurate thinking along several lines at the same
time, the first-year Latin taxes the patience,
the ingenuity, and the skill of even the best
of teachers And in the United States in par-
ticular, owing to conspicuous administrative in-
competence, the work of the first year is usually
in the hands of the most inexperienced teacher
The Introductory Work , the Customary Method
— The material it* provided in the numerous
first-year books, which show almost every
possible idiosyncrasy of method It may be
said in general that they embody the care-
fully thought out schemes of the individual
authors They follow two mam lines of presen-
tation, one of which may be called the block
system, the other the fragmentary system In
the latter — and by far the most influential —
the lessons, particularly the earlier ones, are
so divided that fragments of declension and
fragments of conjugation alternate with each
other, thus, either the nominative singular,
or the nominative and accusative singular, or
the nominative singular and the nominative
plural of the first and second declensions arc
followed by the present indicative, singular
number, or third person singular and plural, as
the case may be Subsequent lessons fill out
the paradigms of the first and second declen-
sions and the first conjugation, after which the
other conjugations and the remaining declen-
sions are taken up In the mean time elemen-
tary rules of syntax, such as the agreement of
the subject and the verb, the government of
the accusative case, the ablative of instrument,
the ablative of place, the dative of possessor,
the objective or possessive genitive, the use of
ut to express purpose, sometimes the use of
cum in the sense of " when " are scattered along
according to the caprice of the author The
object of thus breaking up inflectional groups is
to provide early in the course reading material
which will have in itself some reason for exist-
ence, and thus avoid the aridity of the old-
fashioned textbook In the former class, the
textbook gives first the declensions in their
order, supplementing them only by so much of
the verb inflection as seems necessary to make
the construction of sentences possible; then
follow the conjugations in their order. The

LATIN LANGUAGE

LATIN LANGUAGE

earlier exercises from English into Latin and
from Latin into English are largely confined
to the translation of detached forms The
critics of the first system maintain thai it di-
vorces things that belong together, those ol
the second that it makes the early Latin woik
not merely dull, but practically hopeless, because
the pupils see no evidence of pi ogress As a
matter of fact, the superiority of the hi st met hod
to the second is merely specious, and the frag-
mentary acquisition of forms caines with it
many evils A tliird method of presenting
forms, advocated by a few, is what one might call
the topical treatment The pupil begins with
the study of a case throughout all its forma-
tions, and after proceeding thiough the declen-
sions he takes up the veib similarly Eveiv
one of these three methods requires a live teacher
to make it successful, and practically, theiefore,
none shows any superiority ovei the othei
Theoretically the second method is piefeiahle,
supplemented by the third wherevei feasible,
the first being the least defensible of them all
The selection of the material ol the fust book
involves the three divisions of forms, syntax,
and vocabulary It is generally agieed that
unusual foims should be excluded, on the pim-
ciple that only those in most common use are
vital, while the unusual ones can better be
learned (if learned at all) wheie they o< cur
Consequently the old apparatus of nile iollowed
by exception has practically disappeared, arid
the beginner's book lays particular stress upon
the normalities of language This principle,
however, suffers some modification in practice
It is frequently easier to learn the complete
series, even though some of the elements
are rare, than to break it up into fragments,
the effort of mind is often much greater in
the second case The terminations are best
leai nod in groups, even though examples of
some of them are comparatively infrequent
Principal parts are best learned complete, though
in the case of many verbs certain of them are
never found In the main, however, the prin-
ciple is sound In the case of syntax the situa-
tion is different. Comparatively little syntax
should be given in the beginners books, and
this should be not necessarily the most com-
mon, but the most simple, for the learning of
forms taxes primarily the memory, while the
study of syntax exercises principally the
reason Therefore the indicative construc-
tions should appear in the beginner's books, and
only those uses of the subjunctive which make
but slight demand upon the reasoning power,
such as its use in wishes, in expressions of pur-
pose and result, and little else Jt is customary
in the beginner's books to devote the last few
lessons to the more elaborate constructions;
but conditional sentences and the whole body
of constructions with dum and the like, quin,
qiwminux, and concessive clauses would better
be deferred to the second year The same is
true of the more involved relative constructions

The choice of vocabulary obviouslv depends
upon the aim of Latin teaching in general It,
it is generally argued, we taught pupils to
speak Latin as we did formerly, we should
natuialh require a colloquial vocabulary, but
since our chief aim now is to give the means of
reading Latin literatuie, we must choose the
vocabulary with this end in view A number
ol beginner's books claim to limit the vocabu-
lary to the words in most common use in Caesar
This practice is sound, because it has been found
that t hose words are also in common use through-
out the literature, while birds and animals,
furniture and everyday occupations would
leave the pupil absolutely helpless before a
page of any Latin author The size of the
vocabulary for the first year should be about
500 words, and the textbooks usually show
about that number But no fixed list of words
can bo learned completely by all the pupils,
and a certain margin must be allowed loi
forgetfulnoss, consequently the beginner's book
would do well to show a vocabulary slightly
in excess of 500

The exeicises in translation are usually di-
vided into Latin-English and English-Latin
Some teachers hold that no translation from
English into Latin should be expected until
very substantial progress in the learning; of
forms has been secured, pcihaps not until the
middle of the year , but the weight of opinion
inclines to the view that translation irorn Eng-
lish into Latin should begin with the first les-
son This work, however, is very much more
difficult than translation from Latin into Eng-
lish, and the demands in vocabulary and syntax
should accordingly be lessened

The OKI I 01 Duect Method — Dissatisfaction
with the r esult s ol the traditional method have
led in recent years to the employment of the
oral or direct method The advocates of the
latter insist that Latin should be taught as if
it were a modern spoken language, conse-
quently they follow in general the principles
of direct teaching as employed in the teaching
of modern languages Almost from the very
beginning Latin is the customary language of
the classioom At the outset short com-
mands and questions having to do with the
necessary activities and surroundings of the
classroom form the means of instruction The
pupils are required to answer every question in
Latin and to follow every command with a
statement of what they are doing As they
progress the range ol vocabulary is enlarged,
but still restricted primarily to the ordinary
activities of life After a little time the teacher
tells the class short stories in Latin, explaining
the meaning of unfamiliar wordy in the same
tongue and requiring the class to give him back
the story in such Latin as they can command
In this method translation, whether from Latin
into English or from English into Latin, is prac-
tically unknown This is reserved for the pe-
riod when the pupil, having obtained a ready

647

LATIN LANGUAGE

LATIN LANGUAGE

command with the fundamental principles of
Latin, is ready to begin that comparison of Latin
and English idiom which renders translation so
valuable an exercise Drill in syntax is ob-
tained partly by the oral exercises, partly bv
written work To pi ovule for this drill the
teacher may require his pupils to embody such
and such constructions in the written work,
while in the oral work he may have the Aarious
ideas expressed first in one fashion and then in
another, turned from active to passive, 01 horn
the independent to the dependent foi m Short
narratives composed of independent sentences
may be rewritten so as to mvoh e various kinds
of subordination The effect of such training
is to make the forms of the Latin language
second nature to the pupils, and to i educe the
strain upon the memory by constant practice
The method requires a great deal of ingenuity
arid readiness on the part of the teacher, tor
every opportunity afforded by any chance
remark of the pupil must be improved at once,
but in the hand of a competent teachei the
results are claimed to be vasth superior to
those of the old method. After some months
the pupils have a greater grasp of the forms and
easy syntax of the language, and are then pie-
pared to go on to serious reading with much
greater ease The chief drawback of the
direct method is one of time The eaihei
stages require a great deal more tune than is re-
quired by the old method, but the ad\ocatcs of
the new method maintain that, what is lost in
speed is more than gained in dehmteness and
quality of knowledge, and t hat in the subsequent
years the previous delay is much more than
made up One of the important results of this
method is that pupils feel that they have a cer-
tain control of the language and are thus re-
lieved of the temptation to use unfair means in
preparation

Very recently in the United States an at-
tempt has been made to modify the traditional
method by adding to it some of the features of
the new method Recent textbooks give more
attention to colloquial features, and the vocabu-
lary of the earlier lessons has to do with t he ordi-
nary activities of life But this choice of vo-
cabulary is intended merely to facilitate the
colloquial handling of the language by the pupils,
and is expected to give way to the normal
literary vocabulary as soon as the serious read-
ing of Latin literature is begun

Pronunciation —Whatever method is em-
ployed, the initial difficulty is that of pronuncia-
tion The Roman method is commonly
employed Objections are occasionally made
to it but its foundation is secure both in
knowledge and in intellectual honesty It is
frequently said that we do not know how the
Romans pronounced This is true only to the
extent that those who have not actually heard a
modern language do not know how it is pro-
nounced. We have a fairly accurate knowledge
of the sounds of the Latin letters, and we have

special directions as to the position of the organs
of speech in articulation While some of these di-
rections come from a cornpaiatively late period,
— as late, in fact, as the sixth century AD, —
vet the laws of linguistic development show con-
clusively that the directions of this period in-
volve certain preceding conditions which can
be postulated with accuracy To determine
Roman pronunciation we have, besides the direc-
tions of the grammarians just alluded to, trans-
literations ol (iieok words into Latin and ol
Latin words into Greek We have inscnp-
tional evidence as to the length of the vowels,
occasional remarks in Latin literature touching
upon pronunciation, and the evidence presented
by the Romance languages, which modified in
transition the Latin sounds aftei a definite
manner We are able, therefore, to give in the
textbooks the sounds of the Latin letters with
practically as much certainty as we can the
sounds oi a modem language in textbooks foi
foreign use To the ear of a Cicero a modern
Latmist would speak \\rth an "accent" but
he would be understood It is the business ol
the teacher to show in pronunciation a careful
attention to exact enunciation and to require
on the part of the pupils the same accuracy
The pupil should HCA ei hear a Latin \\ord mis-
pronounced by the teacher The Latin that
is to be translated should if possible be read
aloud by the pupil, and such practice should be
continuous A little careful practice every day
is hotter than a great deal at intervals The
teacher should pay attention particularly to the
quantities of all the vowels in his o\vn enuncia-
tion and to s\ liable division, the pupil, how-
ever, should not be forced to learn anything but
the quantity of terminations and penultimate
syllables The former should be learned in the
acquisition of the forms, the later on meeting
with thene\v woid Inasmuch as Latin accent
depends upon the length of the penult, it is not
necessary to requiie a careful maikmg of the
earlier syllables in the word, except, where it is
an obvious derivative of a form already known
Hidden quantities, so called, should not be
required of the pupils, but the teacher should
be careful to pronounce them correctly as far
as our knowledge extends

The, Later Reading — In many of the oldei
English schools and in those Amencan schools
with a curriculum of inoic than foui yeais, the
introductory work extends over into the second
year, but in the new English schools and in the
vast majority of American schools the reading of
genuine Latin begins in earnest with the begin-
ning of the second year The arrangement of
the curriculum for subsequent years differs in
different countries In general Nepos and CSP-
sar are taken up first, and then a mixed com-
bination, composed mainly of selections from
Cicero, Ovid, and Vergil, but with possible sub-
stitutions of Livy, Sallust, and Terence, has been
the habit In the United States up to very
recently the almost universal practice has been

648

LATIN LANGUAGE

LATIN LANGUAGE

to devote the second ycai to Ciesar, the third
to Cicero, the fourth to Vergil The amount of
Caesar prescribed (four books) has pioved to be
a very severe task for the ordinal y high school
class It has involved a definite ad\ am e every
day, and it has thus been impossible1 in many
cases to take account of weak students 01 to
linger for the purpose of securing thoroughness
The plan recently adopted decreases the amount/
of reading specifically leqmred and lays in-
creased emphasis upon reading at sight and the
acquisition of additional vocabulary (See
COLLEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS )

The transition from the beginner's book to
Caesar is difficult, and the pupil is apt to show a
weakness entirely unexpected from the work of
the previous year This is due to the complex-
ity of the periodic sentence Word order and
the various devices of subordination gi\ e a great
deal of trouble At the outset the teacher must
he content with short lessons in \\hich attention
is paid particularly to the new constructions
and the new words He should also dexote a
good deal of attention to \vorking o\ei the Latin
sentence into genuine Knghsh The class
should be drilled in the difference between Latin
and English idiom, and should be icquucd to
tianslate at least the re\ie\\ passage into <oi-
rect English The work done duiing the < hiss
hour should be of (v\o kinds the work of the
previous day should fust be leviewed, and the
rest of the hour should be devoted to a piehmi-
narv sight translation of the work of the next
day under the guidance of the teacher As far
as possible, the homework should be restricted
to the study of syntax (often in written exer-
cises) and vocabulary Every now and then
the pupils should be lequned to x\nt<> out in
class the translation of a small portion (if only
four or five lines) of the day's lesson, and these
written translations should then be crrtici/ed
by the teacher from the point of xie\\ of the
English expression One such exercise is worth
a dozen oral translations ior the appreciation
on the part of the pupil of t lie differ ence bet \\ een
Latin and English expression The teacher
must never lose sight of the fact that from the
beginning of the second year the most important
part of the training is the development on the
part of the pupil of the sense of style, by which is
meant good English as an offset, to good Latin
If the advantage claimed for the stiuh of Latin
in appreciation of English style is to he secured,
it- can only be done irr this way

Cirsar furnishes particular problems In
the main his narratiye is simple, concrete, nai-
low in range of ideas, and easily followed In
fact, no author in the whole Latin literature i,s
I letter suited for the reading of the second-year
Latin. But Ceosai shows a fondness for the
insertion of speeches in what is called indirect
discourse. These haye nothing to do with the
narrative, and could be omitted without dis-
turbance. The length of these speeches in the
first book has led many teachers to begin

with the second book Such a practice is faulty
in principle, and, inasmuch as the speeches are
not necessary to the narrative, it is far bettei to
begin \\ith the first book, and for the teacher
either to translate or to paraphrase the speeches
as they occur in order merely to give the setting
of the stor v A good deal of stress has been laid
upon the ability of the pupil to turn direct dis-
course into indirect discourse and the reveise, but
it should be remembered that Caesar is the only
author whose style is characterized by indirect
discourse in mass, and thai, so far as the learn-
ing of Latin is concerned, the time devoted
to the intricacies of indirect discourse would
much bettei be devoted to more extended
reading Nevertheless, until we are prepared
to give up Cjrsat, some attention should be
paid to the indirect discourse, and the speeches
might x\ ell be reviewed toward the end of the
year, when Ca\sai\s story is being studied as
a whole

In studying Ca'sar due attention should be
paid to the de\eloprnent of his narrative and to
the Roman art of \\ar Pupils might be re-
quired after a campaign to write out an account
of it, 01 the\ might be leqiincd to plan or de-
suibea battle Some attention may be paid to
C.esar as a man, his dealings with his troops,
his attitude toward the State, the circum-
stances which led to the Civil Wai But of
course these studies should be supplemental
merely, for after all, while Ciesar is history, he
is being read primarily to learn Latin If the
plan of preparation indicated is followed, no
particular effort need be made to develop the
power to translate1 at srght, but a poiiocl max be
dexoted, perhaps as often as once a week, to
sight translation only The passage read max
be nieieh a further section of the adxanco nar-
rative, 01 interesting passages may lie selected
from the later books or from an> other Latin of
approximately equal difficulty

During this yeai much attention must be
paid to piose composition, and as this impor-
tant exercise is Joi the purpose of systematic
grammatical study, it should be done systemati-
cally from the beginning The exercises should
bo graded in difficulty, and should follow a defi-
nite plan of syntactical development Thex
should, accordingly, not be merelv based upon
a small section of the text All that can be ex-
pected is that the \ocabulaiy should be that of
the stage of study and that the style should be
nanatne If the subject can be made either
identical or similar with what the student is
leading, so much the better It is the habit of
many to devote one period a week to prose com-
position This is theoretically objectionable
It is beftei that a short exercise should be done
exerv day Review exercises embodying a
number of principles previously studied may
occupy the period every now and then, but one
period a week devoted to Latin composition in-
vohes too long an interval between efforts
Oral composition in connection writh the reading

649

LATIN LANGUAGE

LATIN LANGUAGE

of the day may often be productive of excellent
results.

When some of the Live* of Nepos ate sub-
stituted for a portion of the Caesar, the same
general principle should be followed in the
teaching, but the supplementary work would of
course be different. Nepos is, however, riot so
suitable as Caesar for this stage, because his
vocabulary is much wider and involves many
unusual words, and many of the conceptions are
abstract Nor does the brevity of the episodes
serve to counterbalance the greater complex-
ity of the periodic sentence.

Ordinarily Caesar is followed bv Ciceio
Cicero not only represents the highest point of
Latin classical style, but he was the greatest
Roman orator arid an important figure in the
death struggle of the Republic The orations
usually chosen are the four against Catiline,
the one on Pompey's command and the one for
the poet Archias The orations against Catiline
are the easiest of all, and have an important
political significance The Pro Lcge Manilla,
in addition to being a comparatively early
speech, marks the beginning of Pompey's growth
as a great figure, and also forms a good oppor-
tunity to study the rhetorical elements in the
orator's style The Pro Arch) a is in effect a
eulogy of Greek literature and a wonderful
example of the panegyric style Sometimes
the teacher prefers to read a different set of
speeches for the purpose of focusing the atten-
tion of the pupils upon some particulai side of
Cicero's multifarious career, and many teachers
like to substitute for some of the speeches men-
tioned selections from Cicero's correspondence,
chosen either to show the great orator's human
side or to throw sidelights upon the history of
the period Some teachers regard Cicero as
dull and uninteresting to pupils, and prefer at
least to begin the third year with Vergil This
apparently unpedagogical practice is defended
on the ground that Vergil, even if not thoi-
oughly understood, is interesting on account of
the narrative, that his style is not difficult, and
that outside of the strangeness of the poetical
dress, the narrative moves quickly and easily
Moreover, the syntax on the whole is easier than
that of Cicero, because of the absence of involved
sentences Others begin the third year with
Vergil, and after a time they take up Cicero
completing both Cicero and Vergil in the fourth
year. But this is all pedagogicallv unsound
Vergil should be deferred to the fourth year,
because his writings are pure literature, and
need for proper appreciation and enjoyment as
much maturity of mind as can be brought to
them On the other hand, Cicero makes but
small demands upon the mental maturity of his
readers. In teaching Cicero it is proper to
go more into detail about the history of the
later years of the Republic and the condition of
parties at Rome The work of the Caesar year
in this regard might well be amplified, and the
attempt made to give the pupils some rational

idea of the workings of the Roman constitution,
but the main stress should, of couise, be lam
upon the interpretation of the speeches them-
selves The teacher should possess a great
deal of imagination because Cicero is serious,
ironical, humorous, jesting, or playful in turn,
and his invective on the one side is offset by
the deepest pathos on the other Very often the
point of the passage depends on the order of the
words or the application of a particular word
References that seem blind can be lighted up by
modern instances Cicero's personal character
and the main facts of his personal life should not
be overlooked, and the teacher should try to lead
his pupils to some understanding of the man
whose soul was torn in two directions, who felt
always the conflict between inclination and
duty, who followed a sinking cause with his
eyes open and remained true to his convictions
even at the cost of life

When Ovid is read, whether after Caesar or
Cicero, it serves as an introduction to Latin
poetry and to ancient mythology It also re-
lieves the early study of Vergil of the drudgery
usually attendant upon the shift from prose to
verse, and makes it possible to treat Vergil as lit-
erature from the beginning Selections from
the Meta?norphose8 arc usually chosen, because
the narrative is easy The chief difficulty is
one of word order To relieve this some editions
have the earlier selections jewntten in prose
order Scansion also is a serious exercise for
most pupils, even when they have been carefully
trained in pronunciation from the beginning
Most teachers are content if some appreciation
of rhythm is developed, and pay little attention
to the conflict between verse and word accent
that regularly obtains in the first part of the
verse Others maintain that, as Latin is a lan-
guage of almost " level stress," the verse will
scan itself, if the words are pronounced as they
should be pronounced in prose. Few teachers,
however, are able to reach this point of perfec-
tion, even in their own scanning

It has been objected that because the woiks
of Vergil represent the highest reach of the
Roman imagination and the most finished
product of Roman literary art, they should be
reserved for the later period of study, when the
attainments as well as the maturity of mind of
the student are greater If we were sure that
our students were going to continue the study
of Latin foi some years, this objection would
weigh, but the great majority of secondary pu-
pils terminate their study of Latin with the
high school course, and it seems indefensible
that any should give up Latin after four years'
study without having had the opportunity to
read Vergil

Since most American high schools prepare
for the college examinations at the end of their
course, it becomes necessary in the last year
to devote considerable attention to a review of
grammar and syntax Vergil, however, is not
well suited for this His style is in general

050

LATIN LANGUAGE

LATIN LANGUAGE

very simple; subordination is conspicuous
by its absence, the subjunctive constructions
that are so common in all Latin prose are com-
paratively rare The syntax ol the cases can,
it is true, be studied with some effect because
most of the so-called poetic usages have to do
with case constructions , but these are the easiest,
after all, and the pupil needs most to review
the construction of the verb This is best ac-
complished by the careful wilting of Latin
during the whole of the last year

The selection usually read is the first six books
of the dftneid This is justified, first, bv its
extreme interest for all kinds of pupils, secondly
by the fact that neither the llwolicn no? the
Georgics treat matters of umveisal appeal
The subject and the vocabulary of the Ilucohct*
were exotic to the Romans themselves That,
of the Georgics is too specialised to warrant
any great attention on the part of high school
pupils The first six books of the dEneid are
without question the most important part of
this poem, and they have a world interest
which is not so much felt in the latter books

In teaching Vergil the aims are altogether
different from those that dominate the teaching
of Osesar and Cicero Here is no place for the
study of military operations, the colonial sys-
tem or method of government, nor is there
any occasion for investigation of paity feuds
and social relations Since the Roman epic
is a purely hteiary creation, stmss should be
laid as far as possible upon the liteiaiv element
The ancient mythology, the ancient simplicity
of life, the ancient moralit v, all claim attention ,
but these are subordinate to the fai-i caching
literary interest which Voigil exemses upon all
subsequent authors Most of the school edi-
tions contain copious parallel passages from
later literature In many cases these aie not
genuine parallels, and the pupil eithei gets no
impression or only a very vague one fioni read-
ing them This ought not to be the case An
attempt should be made to focus the attention
of the students upon certain impoitant features
of English literature and upon ceitain paiticu-
lar authors who have been under classic influence
With that in view it would be well to treat at
greater length the influence of Veigil upon
Shakespeare, upon Tennyson, upon Milton, and
so forth This can be done usually with the
material provided in the editions The pupils
should also be taught throughout to visualize
the scenes, to form their own judgments as to
the narrative in its various stages, to become
independent in attitude Here, too, extreme
care should be exercised in translation Poetic
language should be tendered poetically It
will be the first experience of most students in
distinguishing what is prosaic in expression
from what is poetic;, and the fact that Latin
verse differs from Latin prose will be better
understood if the difference between English
prose and English verse is also shown Images
and metaphors should not be washed out Due

attention should be paid to the artistic setting,
the picturesque qualities of every scene The
teacher should nevei lose sight of the fact that
in teaching Vergil he is teaching the principles
of literature in general, just as in the earlier years
of the course he was teaching universal giam-
niar In this way Vergil ought to be not merely
the proper culmination of the secondary Latin
course, but also an important element of the
pupil's general culture

With a longer couise Sallust's ('atiluia might,
be read as a foil to (1icero's Catilinanan^
Variety inav also be at tamed bv selections from
Terence 01 Livy, or bv more extended antholo-
gies, a large numbei of which are no\\ available4,
adapted to the wants of pupils of diffeient
grades (1 L

See r^ssAR ; CICERO , NEPOb , SALLURT ;
VERGIL.

References —

Latin Speaking —
A Compendious Way of teaching Ancient and Modern

Languages formerly pratti&td by (he learned Tanaguil

Faber . with observations on the same subject

by Asiharn, Can u\ Mdton, Locke, etc B> J T

Phillipps (London, 1727 )
BOMER, A Die latdnivhen Schilltrgesprdche dcr

Humanitttfn Introduction (Berlin, 1H<)7 )
Hermt* Anglo-Lalinut, Or, Direction* for Young

iMtinibtb lo uptake Latuit puitly (London, HvJ9 )
LATHAM, HENRY On UK Action of Exam i?iat tons

HiBtoncal Notices on Chap III (Boston, 18SO )
MAHHEBIEAU, L IAS Colloqui^ S(otairfb du Seiztemc

StecU, Chaps II and IV (Pane,, 1S7S )
PAIIKEH, C S On the Histoiv of Classic al Edmation in

the volume Es^ay* on a Ldxial Educ(i(ion,w\rtvd In

Re\ G W Fanar (London, 1S07 )
PAULHKN, F (Jtxehuhte <i<* ydehrtin rnttinchts, 2d

ed See Index undei Latetnimht Spraclu und

Lateinischer Unterrtthi
Si OWL, A MONHO& Enah^h Grammar Schools in th<

Reign of Queen Elizabeth, pp 104-105 (New

York, 1<)()S )
Tin Tim and Readu \\ ay T<> L<ann the Latine T origin

*\tt(*t«1 bji Thm Ejcillinfly hatned find approved

A n1 hours of Thru Nation*, Eilhardux Lubinus, a

(i(iman, Mi linhaid (\inw of Anthony in Corn-

uall, the French Lwd of Montaigne Presented by

Samuel Harthb, Et>q (London, 1654 )
\V\THON, FOHTKK Engtivh (t'rammar Schools, C'hup

XIX (Cambridge, 1 90S )

Latin Dictionaries —

Encyelopcrdui Bnlttnnica, llth eel., 1910, s \ Dic-
tionary

M \YOH, J E B Latin-Euglifc.il and Englwh-Latm
Le\i<»)giaph> Journal of Classical and Sacred
Philology, Deeember, 1S.")5, and March, 1X57

^A\, ALBERT Kditoi of Piowptonum Parvu-
loium, Kives noti( et» of KloHsarH^, vocabularies, in
medie\al time-, Camdni Society (London,
1H()5)

\\RKIHI, TnoM\h Collection of Vocabularies, Word-
(ilo8t>(b and Gtottsants (j>ri\atelj printed, 1857).
Reedited by R P. WinVker (London, 1884)

Latin Grammars —

P \ULBEN, FKJEDKICH Gettchichte des gclehrten Unter-
ncht8 »See Index, under (irammatik und gram-
mati^eher I'nterncht (Leipzig, 1896 )

SHAW, A E The Earliest Latin Grammars in Eng-
lish Tiani>ach,orut of the Bibliographical Society,
Vol V, pp :W-(>5

WATHON, FOSTER English Giammar Schools up to
("haps XIV, XV, XVI, XVII, XVIII.

(Ml

LATIN SCHOOLS

LAUD

WIIOBEL, JOH Corpus grammatical am mcdiaen
(Lauruz, 1897)

Latin Phrase-boek* —

WATSON, FOSTER English Grammar Schools, Chap
XXVI and Note B on p. 467 (Cambridge,
1908.)

Method —
BENNETT, C E , and BRISTOL, G P The Teaching of

Latin and Grc( A in the Secondary School Now od

(London and Now York, 1011 )

COOKSON, C Essays on Secondary Education (Ox-
ford, 1898)
CORCORAN, T Studies in the History of Clascal

Teaching (Dublin, 1911 )
GARNI!:, ,T B Handbook for High School Trmhu** of

Latin (Cape Oirardeau, 1909 )
HECKBR, E A The Teaching of Latin in Secondary

School* (Boston, 1909 )
JoNEb, WHS The Teaching of Latin (London,

190d )

KELSEY, F W Latin and Greek in American Educa-
tion (Now York, 1911 )
MICHAELIH, CJ Welchc Forderung kann d<r latent tvchc

Unttrncht an ReforntbchuliJi durch da& Franzotu^chc

erfahrcn * (Marburg, 1902 )
NORWOOD, C , and HOPE, A 11 llujhu Kdtuahon of

Hoys in England (London, 1909 )
ROUHE, W H D The Teaching of Latin in the Pcr.se

School, Cambridge (London, 1910 )
Classical Woik and Method in the Twentulh Centin i/

(London, 190S )
TeadmiK of Lutm uud Grook Pioi Siotch Cla^ual

Abtot , 1910-1911
SLAUGHTER, M 8 The High S(hooJ Coui^c in Latin

(Madison, 1908 )

LATIN SCHOOLS. — See GRAMMAR SCHOOLS;
PUBLIC SCHOOLS, SECONDARY SCHOOLS, MIDDLE
AGES, EDUCATION IN THE

LATRINES, SANITARY — Samtaiy toilet
systems for schools must satisfy Hie following
general conditions (1) They must bo situ-
ated either in the building or near enough
to secure privacy, close supervision, and also
to pi event exposure during cold or inclement
weather (2) They must have sowoi connec-
tions and be piovided with individual wash-out
.seats, and urinals In villages and country
districts whoie sewer and water supply systems
are not available, the air pressure tank system
connected with force pump, manipulated by
hand 01 some form of motor and septic tank dis-
posal ought to be installed (3) Each seat
should be furnished wit h an individual automatic-
wash-out attachment, in addition to some
general flushing system under control of the
janitor (4) In all cases where toilets aie in-
stalled within school buildings, special construc-
tion of such rooms is necessary They must,
have a cem< nt or tiled flooi, with outflow con-
nections so that frequent scrubbing and flushing
mav be secured The walls should be encased
with nght-colored glazed brick, or tile, both foi
the sake of cleanliness and the non-absorption
of light The ceilings should be furnished with
hard cement plaster and painted with a light -
colored water-proof paint (5) The seats and
urinals should be located along the inner walls
of such rooms and faced toward the light.
(0) Each toilet seat should be in a separate

stall, fitted with doors The custom of build-
ing the stalls without doors offends against
both decency and modesty These doors ought
to be hinged and connected with a spring,
so that when the seats arc not in use the
door will swing back into the stall so as to
allow light and if possible direct sunshine to
enter The children could then be taught to
close and latch the doors when they use the
stalls (7) Where toilets arc within school
buildings, down-draught ventilation through
both the seats iuul urinals is necessary This
can be accomplished, when proper plumbing
material is furnished, either by an exhaust
fan connected with the vent ducts, or by the
use of separate exhaust chimneys in which fires
are kept burning (8) Urinal stalls should be
made with back, sides, and bottoms of white
glass Such material is now on the market,
and is far better than slate, marble, 01 trans-
parent glass It is not absorbent, does not
discolor, is easily cleaned, and furnishes pii-
vacy (9) The flushing of urinal stalls is a mat-
ter of importance to prevent odors and insuic
cleanliness. The best form of flushing thus fai
developed consists in placing a well protected
overflow trough on the uppei pait of the back
of the stalls The ordinary perforated pipe
is liable to clog and fail in the proper distribution
of the water ovei the entire surface of this part
of the stall ( 10) The bottom of the stall should
slope slightly toward the back and deliver into
a trough leading to sewer connections This
trough ought to be connected in such a manner
that rubbish could not enter (11) In laige
buildings, especially those of more than two
stones foi high schools or grammar giades, toilet
facilities should be afforded on en ch flooi These
should open fiom lest rooms 01 from secluded
halls It is an inexcusable blunder to locate
toilets to open into corridors alongside of class-
rooms (12) In all school buildings where play-
grounds are afforded ample toilet facilities must
be placed in basements or detached buildings,
and these made easily, but indirectly, accessible

The rural school buildings of oui country
are rarely furnished with even decent toilet
facilities, not to mention sanitary matters
No icform in sanitation in country hfe is more
to be desired at this time than that connected
with sanitary toilet systems Typhoid fever
and hookworm disease, not to mention others,
will never be eradicated until at every country
school and every farmhouse sanitary toilets
are available F B. D.

For references see under ARCHITECTURE,
SCHOOL

LAUD, WILLIAM (1573-1645) —Arch-
bishop of Canterbury and Chancellor of Oxford
University After attending the free school in
his native town, Reading, he proceeded to
St John's College, Oxford, from which he
graduated B A in 1589, M.A. in 1598, and D.D.
in 1608. In 1611 he became president of his

652

LAURIE

LAURIE

college, a position which he retained until 1621
He held many preferments, and in 1633 be-
came Archbishop of Canterbury From 1630
to 1641 he was chancellor ot the university
However reactionary Laud may have been in
ecclesiastical and political matter**, he exercised
his position as head of the university to promote
its welfare He insisted on subscription of the
three articles in the Thirty-sixth ('anon by
every candidate for a degiee, on attendance at
services and sermons, and on obedience to
academic regulations, such as the wearing of
academic dress, attendance at lectuies, and
taking examinations for degrees Through his
influence the use of Latin on all occasions was
enforced In 1628 on his inspiration a scheme
was introduced for the appointment of proctors
by each college in a certain cycle which elimi-
nated the ever-recurring disputes In 1036
were promulgated the Laudian or Caroline
Statutes (Corpus Rtatutoriim), which had been
so carefully drafted under Laud's supervision
that they remained practically until the Uni-
versity Reform Act was passed m 1854 While
they destroyed the democratic control of uni-
versity affairs, the Statutes introduced a good
administrative system, at the head of which
stood the Vice-Chancellor, appointed by the
Chancellor and Convocation from among the
heads of colleges Public oral examinations
for both the B A and M A , based on a bioad
curriculum, were introduced and enforced,
and superseded the obsolete disputations
Laud was a liberal benefactor of the univeisitv,
he himself presented oriental Mss and secured
other literary gifts, he founded and endowed
a chair in Arabic, and obtained for the univer-
sity the privilege of printing Bibles While
his position warranted such action as he took
in relation to Oxfoid, his proposal to visit Cam-
bridge m 1636 to enfoice Anglican discipline
met with considerable opposition , and although
his right as metropolitan was secured to him
by royal decision, the threatened visitation
never took place.
See OXFORD, UNIVERSITY or.

References : —
BBODRICK, O C History of the University of Oxford

(London, 188G )

Dictionary of National Biogiaphy

MULLINGER, J B Hilton/ of the Vnwirwty of Caw-
bridge, Vol III. (Cambridge, 1911 )

LAURIE, SIMON SOMERVILLE (1829-
1909). — British educationalist, who held one
of the first chairs in education established in
Great Britain. In 1876 he was appointed first
Professor of the Theory, History, and Practice
of Education in the University of Edinburgh,
and continued in office until his resignation in
1903. In 1882 an unsuccessful attempt was
made to bring Laurie to Columbia University.
His principal contributions to educational
history and theory were Primary Instruction
in Relation to Education (1867); Life and Edu-

cational Writings of John Amos Comeniux
(1881), Mediaeval Education and the Ri&c and
Constitution of Universities (1886), Language
and Linguistic Method in the School (1890),
Institutes of Education (1892), Historical 8ui-
re u of Pie- Christian Education (1900), Studies
in the History of Educational Opinion since
the Renaissance (1903) He is also well known
as a writer on philosophy, his principal con-
tributions in this department of knowledge
being Metaphi/sica, Nova et Vetusta (1884),
Ethica, or the Ethics of Reason (1885) and Syn-
theticu, being Meditations cp intern oloyical and
ontoloyical (Clifford lectures of the University
of Edinburgh, 1905-1906) Laurie's theory
of education is contained in his Institutes, first
published in 1892, and his conception of the
aims and methods of education is largely de-
termined by his philosophical standpoint, and
is the practical application of his views on
metaphvsics and ethics His philosophy was
to a large extent determined by his study of
Kant, and to a lesser degree by his reading of
Fichte and Hegel According to Laurie, we
may distinguish within experience two grades
of knowledge, a sentient expeiicncc or knowl-
edge in which facts and events are connected
merelv by their time and space connections
This kind of experience is found in the life of
animals, of the young child, and a very large
part of the experience of manv men is of 1his
natuie On the other hand, >\e may have
a rational knowledge or experience in which
events and facts aie connected by means of in-
ternal or intrinsic connections Now man
differs from the animals in that he is an active
reason, and the whole upward progress of man
mav be considered as the process by which
sentient experience is lifted up or converted
into rational expeiience Hence on the ethical
side, the work of reason is to ascertain the mean-
ing of impulse and to rationalize it, and ah a
consequence the supreme end of education is to
endeavor " to build up " in the mind of the child
and youth a system of moral ideas which will
constitute a permanent reservoir of motives
always ready foi use, whether in moral judg-
ment or moial action. For "man is an ethi-
cal being only so far as he is a self-regulated
being " Similarly, on the intellectual side,
method in education is the active will or reason
gradually converting this merely given sentient
experience into rational knowledge, or it is
the passing from the mere particulars of sense
to the umversals of reason Hence m education
the all-important thing is the evoking of the will
or reason to undertake the task of rationalizing
the given sentient experience The difficulties
of such a conception of experience are similar
to those met with m Kant's philosophy. If
we assume at the beginning a dualism within
experience, it is difficult to conceive how this
can be finally overcome. Of his historical
writings the most important is the account of
Pre-Christian Education. A. D.

653

LAUSANNE

LAVATER

See EDUCATION, ACADEMIC STUDY OF.

References : —

Biography of S S Launo, Sch Rev , Vol II, pp r465-
467

RKMACLE, G La Philosophic de S S. Laurie (Pans
and Brussels, 1910 )

WATSON, FOSTER Professor S S Laurie of Edin-
burgh Educ Rev , Vol IX, 1895, pp 1-9.

LAUSANNE, THE UNIVERSITY OF. —

One of the oldest institutions of higher learning
in Switzerland, having been established as an
academy as early as 1536. Its origin is directly
connected with the introduction of the Refor-
mation in French Switzerland, the academy
serving as a training school for Protestant
clergymen It was not until the beginning of
the nineteenth century, however, that the
academy was extended, the first step in this
direction being the establishment of chairs of
philosophy and law A closer approximation
to a real university was secured in 1838, when
a reorganization of the institution resulted in
the formation of four faculties, — theology,
law, pure science, and letters The technical
school (founded in 1853) was added in 1869,
and four years later a school of pharmacy, in
1888 an independent medical school was
founded, which had existed for several years
before this as a special division of the faculty
of pure science The institution was finally
raised to the rank of a university in 1890, and
consists at the present time of the faculties
of Protestant theology, law, medicine (includ-
ing dentistry), letters (including a special
school for the teaching of modern French), and
science The last mentioned is divided into
three groups (a) mathematics and natural
sciences, (b) pharmacy, (c) engineering

The language of instruction is French, but
eight classes in the faculty of law are given
in the German language, there being a fair
number of German students at the university
The Cantonal Library contains about 285,000
books and pamphlets In addition to the
theological faculty of the university, there
exists in Lausanne a divinity school of the
Free Evangelical Church of the Canton of
Vaud, established in 1847. Lausanne also

Eossehses an academy of commerce Both the
itter and the university offer vacation courses
during the summer months Connected with
the faculty of science is a special institute for
agricultural chemistry, while with the faculty
of medicine are affiliated a large and a smaller
hospital, and a blind asylum with an ophthal-
mological clinic In the summer semester of
1910 there were in attendance 1187 students, in-
cluding 169 auditors, the matriculated students
being distributed as follows: theology, 15, law,
267 ; medicine, 321 ; philosophy and science,
584. About one third of the students, including
the majority of the auditors and almost half of
the students m the medical school, are women,
the percentage of matriculated women students

654

at the Swiss universities being much higher than
that at the German universities. R. T., JR.
References : —

L'Umversite de Lausanne Son organisation et son per-
sonnel en 1896 , (Lausanne, 1896.)

Cinquantenaire de I'Ecole d'Ingenieura de I' University de
Lausanne, 1853-1903. Album de Fdte. (Lau-
sanne, 1904)

Minerva, Handbuch der Gelehrten Welt, Vol. I, pp. 152 f.
(Strassburg, 1911 )

LAVAL UNIVERSITY, MONTREAL, CAN-
ADA.— A Catholic University established at the
request of the Bishop of Montreal as a branch of
the Laval University in Quebec. Faculties of
theology and law were established in 1878, medi-
cine m 1879; and arts in 1887, although the arts
faculty has never been developed beyond the
definite provision of courses in French. Instruc-
tion is in French, except in the faculty of theol-
ogy, where Latin is used. Connected with the
university are the following schools : Ecole Poly-
technique (1874); Comparative Medicine and
Veterinary Science (1886), Dental Surgery
(1894); Pharmacy (1906); Agricultural Insti-
tute (1893); Higher School for Young Women
The Montreal institution became wholly inde-
pendent in the matter of administration in
1889, but the degrees are still conferred only
by the Quebec institution The enrollment of
students is about 1 000.

LAVAL UNIVERSITY, QUEBEC, CANADA

— A Catholic university, founded by the Semi-
nary of Quebec in 1852, when the royal charter
was obtained The institution was recognized
by a Papal Bull m 1872 There are four
faculties, theology, law, medicine, and arts,
and schools of surveying and forestry The
Visitor of the university is the Archbishop of
Quebec, who appoints the professors in the
faculty of theology The university is admin-
istered by a rector, vice-rector, and a council
consisting of the directors of the seminary and
three senior professors in each faculty. A
number of seminaries and colleges are affiliated
with the universities The enrollment of stu-
dents in 1910-1911 was 421.

LAVATER, JOHANN KASPAR (1741-1801).

— This passionate and influential Swiss preacher
and writer achieved his career in his native
city, Zurich As a Protestant he was a cham-
pion of religious liberty, but at the same time
narrow in his own theology. Because of his
strong enthusiasms and convictions, and of the
mystical tendencies in his thinking, he was
frequently subject to charges of heresy He
was known also because of the friendships he
formed with Fichte, Goethe, Pestalozzi, and
others. His lively human sympathy, his keen
observations of human faces, and his skill as an
artist in sketching them enabled him to produce
the memorable work on physiognomy on which
his fame rests In 1775-1778 he published in
four volumes the Physiognomische Fragmente

LAVATORIES

LAW

zar Beforderung der M emetic nkenutnixs und
Menachenhebe, which has ci edited him with
having founded the art of interpreting human
character through expression, chiefly of the
face. Without a knowledge of anatomy, he
endeavored to frame a few pnnciples to guide
this art The form of a human being; is some-
how significant of its inner natuie Character
is expressed by movement The mind's quali-
ties are definitely and legibly expressed in the
face. The book produced a great and lasting
impression, although its scientific merit was
limited. E F B

Reference —

MANTAOAZZA, P Physiognomy and
(London, 1897 )

LAVATORIES

See LATRINES

LAW — Generally speaking, a law is the
statement of an order or relation among the
elements of an object or situation, tins ordei
or relation being a means of undei standing, or-
ganizing, and controlling other traits of the ob-
ject or situation in question, and of reducing
other situations 01 objects, apparently unlike,
to a form in which the same, or a closely con-
nected, method of treatment is applicable A
law is thus, logically speaking, a statement ol a
relation or order which is employed as tin effec-
tive method of pioceduie in fuither dealings
with phenomena

The kind of order that is significant and the
kind of procedure that is indicated depends, of
course, upon the charactei of the material dealt
with The fundamental distinction of sub-
ject matter is that between acts (or functions)
and states (or structures) As the primary
human concern is the maintenance of life, and
especially of group or associated life, the first
type of law to emerge into conscious recogni-
tion was the rules of oidei applicable to the
activities of human beings in relation to one
another, — laws in the jurat sense, whether
political or moral Now a statement of an
order among acts, when employed as a deter-
mining method with respect to further acts, is
obviously a rule of action It presented itself,
accordingly, as having authority over phe-
nomena, as in some sense a command or ///-
junction to act in certain way* When atten-
tion was directed to natural existences, and the
effort was made to discover and state a unif 01 m
order among them, the inevitable tendency was
to conceive of natural law after the analogy of
jural law. as a disclosuie of a superior authority
which " governed " the particulars which were
then conceived after the manner of subjects
" obeying " law The course of the authority
to govern was referred to God, Nature, Forces,
or Reahon, according to the tenets of a philo-
sophical school.

In the eighteenth and nineteenth centimes,
the advance of science produced the positivistic
movement. According to this movement, a

law is simply a statement of an order of coexist-
ence or sequence among phenomena (as the ele-
ments of a phenomenon) The conceptions of
authority, of governing power and obedience
were eliminated, being simply a formulation of
umfoimity abstracted from phenomena This
conception makes a complete break between
jural and scientific law

This distinction marked a most important
advance in science and culture Stated in this
absolute form, it brought with it, however, its
own peculiar difficulties Jural and moral laws
were conceived now only as a command, an
imperative Hence they seemed arbitrary, rest-
ing in ultimate analysis either upon mere supe-
noiity of force, or else upon purely ideal con-
siderations of what should be, what ought to be,
lacking positive, existential force and efficiency
In the first case, law meant despotism, in the
second, an empty abstract conception of what
ought to be, as ovei against what is On the
other hand, scientific and natural law, being
conceived as merely a unifoi mity among things
as they exist, was completely divorced from
matters of action, save as action was reduced
to the type of given physical existences — to
the denial, accordingly, of its significant traits
c/s action

Various tendencies have converged to bring
forward a third conception of law, which brings
the practical and the scientific senses of the
term into working relations with each other,
eliminating, however, the sense of superior
authority and of coercive command What
makes in any given case a statement of an order
(whether physical or social) a law is its use ai> a
method of piocedun* in dealing with furthei cases,
with future possibilities A scientific law is
thus not a meie statement of coexistence, it
is such a statement employed as a method of
procedure in furthei inquiries, interpretations,
and organizations It is thus in some sense a
rule of action, that is, a way of directing or
guiding action in the region of investigation.
Moreover, the statement of a uniform order is
either limited to the paiticulai cases in which
it has been already observed, or else in its
extension to new rases is hypothetical — a rule
ol anticipation, prediction, and probable be-
haMoi In addition, through applied science
and the aits such uniformities as are observed
and abstracted are embodied in methods of
controllrng and adapting things to human needs,
and thus pass into the realm of overt and social
action

Fiom the side of social and moial concerns, a
conveise movement has taken place With the
development of democracy and freer inter-
course, moial and political laws lose alike the
form of rigid imperatives and of empty ideals,
and tend to be concencd as a conception of an
order of action adapted to securing ends of
objective value From both sides, accordingly,
the sharp antithesis between a law of natural
existence and one of practical endeavor is

655

LAW

LAW, EDUCATION FOR THE

softened down, so that both intellectual and
practical elements are included in the concept
of law. J D.

See GENERALIZATION, HYPOTHESIS; also
ACTIVITY; PRAGMATISM.

LAW. — See PRINCIPLE

LAW, EDUCATION FOR THE.—
Historic and Sociological Position of Law —

Law shares with divinity the distinction of
being the first of academic studies The
earliest university was the temple school, in
which the divine law, which included the
human, was inculcated, and in which the priest,
who was also the lawyer, was trained for his
sacred calling Not through all its history,
not through the long process of its seculariza-
tion, not through all its vicissitudes of contempt
and esteem, has the law ever quite lost its
ancient distinction of a quasi-sacred doctrine
to be seriously and reveiently studied Other
professional studies, like that of medicine,
have aiisen, as a necessity of professional
development, through the decay of the system
of apprenticeship through which admittance
to the guarded privileges of the profession was
gained Wherever legal education bet i ays this
tendency, as it has m England, and, indeed,
in all common law countries, the result has
been due to special conditions, — in England,
to a peculiar and distinctive legal development,
isolated from the main cuncnts of European
thought, in America, to the exigencies of a forced
legal development under primitive conditions

But these facts, which loom largo to the
student of English and American conditions,
must not be permitted to distort his view, of
the general and permanent position of law in
the scheme of higher education Considered
merely from the histoiical point of \iew, the
loss of its sacred or religious chaiacter may,
indeed, affect its prestige, and might conceiv ably
relegate it to a subordinate place in the uni-
versity curriculum, 01 even eliminate it entiiely
therefrom But with the decay of the con-
ception of law as a branch of divine science
there has arisen a lecogmtion of its controlling
position among the social sciences As the
concrete expression of the aggregate of social
forces which dominate the world and shape
its development, it can no moie be sepaiated
from other social sciences than can the will of
man be isolated fiom the intellectual and moral
qualities which set that will in motion and
direct its activities Robbed of all its attri-
butes of divinity, law remains as the will of
society expressed in action, and as such its
place in the hierarchy of learning is secure

That law has not as a university discipline
suffered an eclipse during this period of transi-
tion from the old to the newer conception
of its place in the divine* human order is due
to the fact that the transformation of opinion
has been n gradual, almost an imperceptible

one, the modern view coexisting with and
gradually supplanting the older, a process
which is still incomplete. If the great schools
of law which flourished at Pa via, Ravenna, and
Bologna in the twelfth and thirteenth cen-
turies have lost theii honorable preeminence,
the fact is due to no failuic of appreciation or
of service, but only to the fact that newer
foundations more richly endowed or more
fa voiubly situateel have exercised a more
powerful attraction on the aspiring votaries
of the science The 12,000 students enrolled
under the law faculties of the German uni-
versities in the* winter scmestei of 1911-1912
furnish convincing evidence of the penna-
nonce1 and importance of the law as an aca-
denue' discipline (For the history e)f legal
education on the Continent see UNIVERSITIES
for its history in England, see INNS of COIJKT )
United States. — Place of Law in American
TrwhtioHs — In no community erf ancient or
modern times has the study of the law been
more geiieial or pursued with greater avidity
than in the United States The legal character
of the controversies of the American colonies
with the mother country elrew many of the more
ardent patriots of the day to the study and
practice of that profession, and gave it unex-
ampled scope and influence Edmund Burke,
in a notable passage, attributed the spirit
of resistance1 to aggression which the colonists
ehsphned to their familiarity with the princi-
ples of Knglish law The " government e)f
laws, not e>f men," which arose on the rums
of the colonial system, the institution of a
federal system bawel on a constitutional docu-
ment e>f a highly legal character, the assump-
tion bv the courts of the function of detei mining
the con.stitutional validity of acts of legisla-
tion, all conspired to give to the lawyer and the
study of law a high degree of political impor-
tance The result has been not only to enlarge
to an unprecedented degree, perhaps to exagger-
ate, the function of the law ab an instrument of
social regulation, but to attract to the pio-
fession multitude's of young men whose in-
ter ost lav rather in the political than in the
legal sphere of activity

For nearly « hundred years after the. settle-
ments in New England there was no recognized
law, no settleel procedure, and consequently no
need of lawyers The judges were for the most
part laymen, and they decided the causes
brought befoio them on principles erf "natural
justice/' 01, in Massachusetts and Connecticut,
in accordance with the " Word of God " The
first code e)f laws of the Commonwealth of
Massachusetts, prepared under authority of
the General Court, or Legislature, was drawn
by the Rev. John Cotton, and entitled A Copy
of Afosc.s, his juclicials, compiled in an exact
method There were no English law books
in the colonies until the Governor of the
Massachusetts Bay Colony, in 1647, imported
two copies of Coke OH Littleton and half a

65b

LAW, EDUCATION FOR THE

TAW, EDUCATION FOR THK

doxcn other volumes " to the end that we may
have better light foi making and proceeding
about laws " It was more than a hundred years
later that the first volume of law reports in
America appeared (Kiibv's Connecticut Re-
ports, published in 1789), arid not until 1802
that the first book of practice (Atncncan Prece-
dents of Declniotntn\} issued from the pi ess

Education in the Lair during the Colonial
Period. — Under these no\el conditions —
a new body of law slowly taking shape in the
customs of an isolated community, a bench
composed of ministers, business men, and
"gentlemen" haying no legal training or
experience, with no reported decisions and no
indigenous legal literature — it is not to be
wondered at that a, trained bar was long in
appearing Attoineys theie were in plenty
in all the colonies, but these were foi the most
part men of no education and of little chain ctei
The first lawveis to appeal in the colonial
courts were derelicts of the piofession in Kng-
land, and, toward the lattei pait of the seven-
teenth century, an occasional hamstci of
reputation whom fate had exiled fioni the
atmosphere of the Inns of Couit Then eailv
in the new centun voung Ameiicans of good
family began in increasing numbers to resort
to London for an experience of Old \\oild life,
and not a lew of them took achantage ol the
opportunities t heic alToided to ))iusue the studv
of law It is significant of thespmt oi the tune,
in England as well as in the colonies, that
many of these had no professional aim, and that
the law presented itself to them a* a bunch
of polite leaimng suitable for gentlemen who
might leasonablv expect lo phn a pionunent
part in the public 01 social life oi the lime
The instruction afforded in the time-honored
univeisities of the common law, the Inns ol
(1ouit, was of an insignificant chaiacter, but
the courts of law and chancery, presided o\ ei
by such men as "Mansfield, Kenvon, Kllcn-
borough, Thurlow, and Kldon, and illuminated
by the eloquence of Erskme, Pitt , and Camden,
were then real schools and to these they ic-
sorted There, too, weie the pnccless books
of the law and the expanding treasures of the
law reports, and these they read with an eager
interest which, in this more sophisticated and
heavy-laden age, we cannot easih undei stand
It is said that something like twoscore Ameri-
can-born lawyers were educated in England
puor to 1760, and that 11.5 more weie admitted
to the Inns of Court ((//') between that date
and the close of the RCA olutiun - - more than
two thirds of them from the southern colonies

Apart from pmate reading of the tew acces-
sible English books and the practice1 of attend-
ing court, two courses offering a more system-
atic training were open to the law student of
the revolutionary period He might secure
a position as copyist or assistant in the clerk's
office of some inferior or higher court, or, if
he had the means, he might enter the office of

some leading inembei of the lur, piefrrabh
one of the few who had good la\\ libraries,
" there absoibing, by study, observation, and,
occasionally, bv direct teaching from his
senior, the principles of the law " (Warren,
Hi^tmij of thf Ameueon Bar) The lattei
was a method open only to young men of means,
as the privilege of entering the office of a lawvei
of reputation could be gained only by the pay-
ment of a considerable ice A promisson
note of George Washington is still extant,
undertaking " to pav .lames Wilson, Esq , 01
order on demand one hundred guineas, his
fee for recemng my nephew Hushrod Washing-
ton as a student of law in his office '; The
memoirs of the tune show that as a method of
legal instruction this system left much to be
desired The lawver \\as too apt to regard
the fee as compensation for entering the office
and for the privilege of reading the law books
or the notes and briefs of the office, and not
as calling for any personal instruction 01 advice
In some cases, it is true, the arrangement took
on the form of a free apprenticeship, the in-
cumbent being pnvileged to aid m the prepara-
tion of cases and less iiequently to assist in
then trial Hut the system must in all but
the exceptional cases rune been an unsatis-
factory one, and the lawver gained his education
in legnl principles after rather than before his
admission to the bar Indeed, even under the
most favoiable circumstances the education
of the student must have been of the most
meager chaiactei After all, the books avail-
able were lew in number, and until the appear-
ance of Hlackstone's woik in 1769, \\eie all of
a highh technical character I ittleton's
Tenure^ and Coke's learned but crabbed and
unsystematic COHIHH ntauc* on Littleton weie
the works geneialh recommended, and to
most students they must have pnn ed an ob-
stacle rathei than an aid to the mastery of the
law Then artificial, limited, and fragmentary
character, as well as then lemoteness from the
actual conditions and the actual law of the
colonies, rendered them peculiarly unsuitable
for the usf of students To these must be
added one or two books on the technical
system of common law pleading oi the dav and,
pei ha ps, a digest or abridgment of precedents
There was nothing in all this to gi\e a compre-
hensive view of the law or to enable one to
grasp it as a SA stem or to relate it to the social
hie of the tune A few oi the more favored
students were more fortunate in the lange and
\anetv of then studies John Adams mords
that he read the Institute* of Justinian, besides
other works on Roman Law, and Chancellor
Kent added to these the studv of Grotius and
Puffendorf, Kapin's Dissertations on the Laws
and Customs of the Anglo-Saxons, and Sir
Matthew Male's History of the Common Law
Daniel Webster's leading included all the
standard English books, and, in addition, the
works of Vattel, Burlamaqui, and Montes-

657

LAW, EDUCATION FOR THE

LAW, EDUCATION FOR THE

quicu But those weie the exceptional men,
in talent as well as in opportunity, and though,
through their professional eminence, they
exerted a marked influence on the course of
legal development, they could do little to affect
the general standard of legal education

It is a curious and interesting result of this
wide diversity of training and equipment of the
lawyers of the formative period in our legal
development that both groups — the half
educated through their defective grounding
in the principles of the common law, the highly
educated through their familiarity with the
writings of continental jurists of the phil-
osophical sort — contributed to maintain for a
considerable time the freedom and flexibility
oi American law It was not until the bai
geneially as the result of a more thorough train-
ing in the common law had become indoctri-
nated with the spirit as well as the rules of that
system, that our jurisprudence became, like
that of the mother country, authoritative and
inflexible In the meantime the restricted and
technical character of the education of the greater
part of the bar had produced the unfortunate
effect of imparting to our law a certain hard
and technical character which it has never lost
Littleton and Coke and Hawkins (Plea* of the
Crown) and Lilly (Entries and Doetnna Plact-
tanda) were not the most desirable teacheis foi
a new society of freemen with a new woild
to create And we may safely charge to their
influence the feudal survivals and the rigid
and artificial legal reasoning which have done
so much to hamper the free development of
life in the western world

The Influence of Blackslone — Two events
of capital importance m the history of legal
education in America marked the latter part
of the eighteenth centurv the appeal ance
of Blackstone's Commentaries on the Lairs of
England and the institution of systematic
legal instruction in colleges and schools of law
That these two events were not unrelated will
appear in the sequel It would be difficult
to exaggerate the influence of Blackstone's
work on the bar or on the course of legal de-
velopment in this country Its success was
instantaneous, and it became at once the
favorite, if not the only, textbook of the Ameri-
can student Two years after the publica-
tion of the fourth and concluding volume of
the work in England it was repubhshed in
Philadelphia, and it is said that 2000 copies
of the work were immediate! v absoibed 111
the colonies before the outbreak of the Revo-
lution Burke, in ti speech delivered in 1775,
to which reference has already been made,
ventured the assertion that nearly as many
copies of the Commentaries had been sold in
the colonies as in England The reasons for
this success are not far to seek The book
made a varied appeal — to the sentiments
as well as to the needs of the American student.
Its panegyrics of Anglo-Saxon liberty and its

denunciations of Noiman and Stuart tyianny,
however turgid and unconvincing they may
seem to the reader of a later date, awakened
a responsive chord in the men of that time
of revolt That the common law, instead of
being the convenient instrument of despotism,
was m spirit and in truth the guardian of the
ancient liberties of the race, was a welcome
revelation to the lay community as well as to
the bar, while the legal profession acquired
a new dignity as the inheritors of such a tradi-
tion, the appointed guardians of its sacred
flame The utilitarian merits of the work,
as a tuistwoithy guide to a knowledge of the
law, were not less conspicuous Though
necessarily somewhat superficial, it was upon
the whole an accurate presentation of the
common law and equity systems as adminis-
tered in Westminster Hall Over Coke and
Littleton it had the advantage of being modern,
untechmcal, and readable Its somewhat
florid and balanced style did not repel the reader
of the time ot Gibbon and Burke, and even
to-day it can, like them, be read with pleasuie
as well as profit But the chief merit of the
woik, and that which gave it instant and com-
plete command of the held of legal education
was its comprehensiveness and its systematic
charactei In its pages it was possible for the
first tune to see the English law as a whole,
and, what is more important, as a connected
whole, i elated in all its parts and inspired bv a
common spirit The law now had unity, rea-
son, a soul, and Blackstone was its prophet
But a prophet is more than a teachei , he is also
an authontv, and so it came to pass that the
new book of the law was received not onlv as
an indispensable means ot acquiring a knowl-
edge of the law, but as the final and authori-
tative statement of its rules and principles
But in the course of time its inspiration came
to be questioned Professoi William (J
Hammond, perhaps the most learned of the
American commentators on Blackstone, tells
us in the preface to his edition of the Com-
mentaries (published in 1890) that " upon all
questions of private law, at least, this work
stood for the law itself throughout the country,
and at least for a generation to come exercised
an influence upon the jurisprudence of the new
nation which no other work has since enjoyed
and to which no other work can possibly nou
attain "

But it is rathei witli his position as a teacher
and with the indirect influence which he exeitcd
on the development of the law as the result
of forming the mind of the American bar, that
we are now concerned, and here his authority
was more enduring A knowledge of Blackstone
was everywhere accepted as sufficient evidence
of fitness for the bar The first effect of this
was to set the law student free from the neces-
sity of seeking a master or an office connection
There could be no need of a teacher or a library
for one who had the entire body of the law

f>r>8

'LAW, EDUCATION FOR THE

LAW, EDUCATION FOR THE

within the compass of a single book, and that
a readable, understandable book It was,
perhaps, to be expected that the law school,
when it came, would put the Commentaries
m its proper place, as only one of many books
of the law which the student must master, but
the contrary was the case Blackstone may
almost be said to have been the father of the
> American law school He made it possible, and
supplied it with the principal material for in-
struction As an illustration of the place actually
occupied by the work in the teaching of the
schools it is interesting to note that a manu-
script volume of the lectures delivered at the
famous Litchfield Law School in Connecticut
shows numerous citations of authority, but that
" the references to Blackstone not only out-
number those to any other book, but may
be safely said to outnumber all the rest to-
gether. "

It is, of course, obvious that the swelling
tide of legal literature during the past century,
and, still more, the enormous expansion of the
law in that period, must have seriously affected
the position of Blackstone's work as the princi-
pal source of legal knowledge Law students
can no longer satisfy the demands of the bar
by the easy process of reading that now ven-
erable classic But it is certainly no exaggera-
tion to say that by far the greater number of
the lawvers now living in this country read the
Commentaries as an important, if not essential,
part of their education for the bar, that in most
cases it was the first law book placed in their
hands, and that their examination for admission
was, at least in part, based on it It still forms
a part of the regular work of instruction in per-
haps a majority of the law schools, and is an
important pait of the recommended reading
in nearly all of them, while, of the multitude
of young men and women who still come to the
bar without a law school training, it is safe to
say that three fourths 01 more read Black-
stone in whole or in part In closing our ac-
count with the greatest single influence on
education in the western world, let it be noted
that we owe to it more than can be estimated
in the establishment of a tradition of the unity
of the law and a resultant general uniformity
and consistency in the law of the seveial
states of the American commonwealth — a

tradition The great European schools of
jurisprudence had scarcely a name in America.
The civil law was an alien, and, to the average
lawyer, an abhorrent system, bound up in
some mysterious way with popery and the
imperialistic system of the Continent It is
true that sporadic efforts were made in some
of the colleges (at King's College m New York,
now Columbia University, in 1773, at the
College of William and Mary in Virginia in
1779, at Yale College in Connecticut in 1789,
and at the College of New Jersey, now Prince-
ton University, in 1795) to maintain courses
of lectures in the law of nature, international
law, and the civil law, but these were feeble
beginnings, born out of time, arid came to
nothing The systematic teaching of the law
was to come from the profession, not from the
universities, and was to be born of the failure
of the apprenticeship system, not of the scien-
tific or historical spnit Indeed, it could not
be otherwise As has elsewhere been said,
academic instruction presupposes a body of
organized knowledge, and that was lacking in
the law of the period with which we are deal-
ing There was as yet no system — not even
a coherent body — of American law The
common law, then and now a half foieign thing,
had indeed grown to be a well articulated,
developed system of law, but it had never
been rationalized, systematized, and related to
other legal systems or to ethics and the social
sciences. There was an English law, but no
English jurisprudence Accordingly, neither
in England nor in this country was it possible
to teach the law of the land philosophically or
systematically The result was that, as soon
as the instructor undertook to teach the law
as a connected whole, he found himself teach-
ing a single book — Blackstone's Commen-
taries Now, no system of academic instruction
can be based on a single book, however epoch-
making. Even the sacred books of the race
had to be developed by glossators into a litera-
ture before they became fitted for this purpose
Perhaps the most interesting attempt to
make the law a subject of academic instruc-
tion at this period was made at Columbia
College As eaily as 1784 the tiustees of the
college voted to establish a law school with
three professorships, viz " A professorship

priceless boon, inasmuch as it has made for in the Law of Nature and Nations, a professor-

national unity and social solidarity How
much of the eighteenth century that still
cumbers the law of the twentieth we also owe
to it, it would be vain to inquire The fault,
if fault there be, is due not to Blackstone, but
to the undue persistence of the Blackstonean
tradition, and for this our law schools are to
blame

Early Law Schools in America — It is a
disappointment to discover that legal educa-
tion does not enter upon a. new phase with the
advent of the law school. Originating as it
did, it was of course devoid of any academic

ship in the Roman Civil Law, a professorship
in the Municipal Law " Lack of means
prevented the carrying out of this ambitious
project, but in 1793 it was found possible to
make a beginning, and James Kent was ap-
pointed to the first regular law professorship.
This brilliant voung man, then at the threshold
of his long and distinguished career, took up his
duties with energy and in a true scholarly and
scientific spirit. His was a noble aim, but was
not destined to be realized In his first course,
given in the fall of 1794, he " was honored,"
he notes, " by the attendance throughout the

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course of seven students and thirty-six gcntle-
men, chiefly lawyers and law students, who did
not belong to the college " The next year he gave
a more extended course to two students and
his own clerk No students presenting them-
selves for the third year, he tendered his
resignation, which was accepted in April, 1793
In 1823, after twenty-five years of distinguished
public service as judge, chief justice and chan-
cellor of the state of New York, ho resumed
his chair at Columbia, which had in the mean-
time remained unoccupied The fame which
he brought back with him and the gi owing
importance of New York as a legal center drew
to his lectures more students than had been
attracted to his previous venture, but he soon
wearied of the unaccustomed labor, and, after
three years of service, again resigned his chair
But the service of these years was not confined
to tho influence that the lecturer exerted on t he
few students who came under his immediate
instruction, for they resulted in the production
of the first systematic treatise on American
law and one which was destined to hold that
distinguished place to the end of the (eiilurv
It was in 1826 and 1827 that Kent embodied
in printed form the leetuies which he had de-
livered during his second mcumbencv of the
professorship in Columbia College under the
title Commentaries on American, Law While
tins work of the American jurist did not take
the legal profession by storm, as that of the
great English commentator had done, and while
it never took the place of the latter as the favo-
rite textbook for students, it had, neverthe-
less, an instantaneous and permanent success
Though less systematic and less comprehensive
than Blackstone's work, it was at once accepted
as a clear, learned, and accurate exposition of
the law of the land. As the only work which
purported to cover the field of American law,
it became the indispensable adjunct of the
English work, and its graceful style commended
it to the lay reader as well as to the legal pro-
fession The permanence of its influence
may be gauged from the fact that it has passed
through fourteen editions (the last published in
1896), and that it is still deemed a necessary
part of every well equipped law library and
is still frequently cited in the courts throughout
the nation It is significant of the rapid
growth of a consistent native jurisprudence
under the influences above described that, by
the end of the first quarter of the century, only
forty years after the Revolution, a treatise
on American law of a fairly comprehensive
and systematic character should have become
possible. The foundations of an American
legal education were beginning to appear —
a consistent body of national law and a legal
literature.

The first of the schools which were destined
to become the characteristic note of American
legal education was founded in 1784 at Litch-
field, Conn , by Tapping Reeve, a learned

lawyer, who afterwards became Chief Justice
of the Superior Court of Connecticut It had
a brilliant career of thirty-five years, in the
course of which it educated ovci a thousand
young men for the bar arid carried on its rolls
the names of many men who afterwards be-
came famous in political and professional life.
Its influence may be measured oy the fact that
it di ew its students from all parts of the coun-
try from Maine to Ohio President Timothy
Dwight of Yale College gives a favorable
view of the character of the instruction im-
parted in the school, saying, " Law is here
taught as a science, and not merely nor princi-
pally as a mechanical business; not as a col-
lection of loose, independent fragments, but
as a regular, well-compacted system " This
was written in or about 1820, when the
school numbered 40 students and was at
the height of its influence It was probably
to the rapid rise of the Harvard Law School
after 1830 that the decay of the Litchfield
school was due The New England of that
day was incapable of supporting more than
a single flourishing school of law The Harvard
School, founded in 1817, led a precarious
existence until the establishment of the Dane
Professorship in 1830 This rendered it pos-
sible to secure the services of Joseph Story,
then a justice of the United States Supreme
Court, whose fame, with that of his distin-
guished colleagues, John Hooker Ashmun arid
Simon Greenleaf, attracted students from all
parts of the country, and soon made the Hai vard
institution the leading law school in the United
States In the meantime several other schools
of temporary fame and of varying influence,
perhaps a dozen in all, had come into existence
and passed away These weie all small, and
made little or no mark on their time One of
the most famous of these, founded by Judge
Samuel Howe at Noithampton, Mass , is re-
corded as having " flounshed from 1823 to 1829,
with a yearly aveiage attendance of ten stu-
dents " Well might the learned David Hoff-
man of Maryland say of this period, " In
America alone a law student was left to his
own insulated and unassisted efforts " The
comment of the author of A History of the
American Bar, that " the legal profession had
not yet fully accepted the idea that law could
be learned in a law school as well as in a law
office" was to hold good for a long time to
come

The character of the instiuction given in the
schools of this period varied only with the
genius and temperament of the instructor.
So far as the scanty records of the time show,
the methods employed were much the same
in all Generally Blackstonc's Commentaries
was placed in the hands of the students and
furnished the basis of instruction in the law
as the " regular, well-compacted system "
described by President Dwight This was
supplemented by courses of formal lectures

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on the several branches of the law as adminis-
tered in the United States, by weekly or more
frequent ''quizzes" on Blackstone and on
the lectures previously given, and by " moot
courts," usually conducted bv the instructors
In some instances, as at Litrh field, the whole
ground, including the substance of Blackstone,
was covered in lectures, which the students
were expected to commit to wilting St
George Tucker, an eminent lawyer of Viigima,
made his lectures on Blackstone, delivered at
William and Mary College, the basis of a well-
known edition of the Commentaries, published
in 1803 The instruction in all of the schools
was of a stnctly piofessional and utilitarian
character, confined to the law which the student
might expect to encountei in his subsequent
practice, and included no legal histoiy, general
jurisprudence, or civil law Occasionally inter-
national law found a place in the cumculum,
and the momentous constitutional decisions
of the time were commented on and discussed
Such was the American law school oi the penod
of national expansion, and such it continued
to be, m method and in spmt, almost to the
end of the century.

The Nineteenth Centuty Law School Develop-
ment. — But the law school movement was
now on Between 1830 and 1800 numberless
schools of the geneial character of those de-
scribed above sprang into existence, inanv of
which proved to be permanent Among these
were several of the university foundations which
have since become deseivedly famous, such as
the Law School of Yale College m New Haven,
established in 1843, that of the University
of Pennsylvania at, Philadelphia, in 1S52, of
the University of Michigan at Ann Arbor in
1859, and, in the same year, the Union College
of Law of Chicago, which later became the
Law School of Northwestern Univeisitv and
the Columbia Law School in the Citv of New
York There are no statistics available for
this period, but the Report of the Commissioner
of Education for 1871 lists forty law schools as
in existence at that date, with a total enrollment
of 1722 students As only one of these was
without a university connection, it is obvious
that the record is incomplete There must
have been a consideiable number of pmato
schools of the type of the Albany Law School
(founded in 1851), maintained to satisfy a
local need, which failed to attract the notice
of the Bureau of Education This is, perhaps,
the explanation of the fact that no law schools
are reported for seventeen of the thirty-seven
states which then comprised the Union The
number of students was usually small, eight
schools having less than a dozen each, and four-
teen having twenty-five or less Only four of
the total number had more than 100 students
in attendance, the Michigan Law School,
which had already assumed the preeminence
which it was long to letain in the West, leading
with 321

But the movement for systematic mstiuction
in the law had not yet gained the momentum
which it was soon to acquire During the dec-
ade from 1870 to 1880 only seven new law
schools are reported, though the number of
students had risen to 3227 By 1890 the number
of schools had increased to fifty-four, with 5252
students. There were now eighteen schools with
an attendance of 100 and upwards, the Colum-
bia Law School leading with 625 students and
Michigan a good second with 587 The Har-
vard Law School, which, under the administra-
tion of Professor C C Langdell, had already
entered upon the careei which was to make
her for a generation the undisputed leader in
legal education, had at that time 279 students
em oiled But the period of expansion had now
come The inci easing volume and complexity
of the law combined with the now and more
exacting demands of the profession to demon-
strate the inadequacy of the apprenticeship
system, if such it can be called, and students
flocked in increasing numbers to the existing
law schools and demanded new ones In the
decade from 1890 to 1900 the number of law
schools nearly doubled (there were now 100),
and the number of students increased 100 per
cent

The demand for new centers of legal instruc-
tion must have been pretty well satisfied for
the time being by the multiplication of schools
in the last decade of the century, as only foui-
teen new law schools have since come into
existence But the swarm of students contin-
ues The 13,642 of 1900 had in 1910 become
19,567, an increase of nearly 50 per cent The
giowth in influence of the leading schools is
attested by the fact that no less than sixty-
five have to-day over 100 students each, that
thirty-eight have an enrollment of over 200
each, eighteen of 300 and upwards, and ten of
more than 400 The latest available icports
give the Michigan Law School a student body
of 897, Harvard of 810, the New York Law
School of 763, the New York University of 688,
and Columbia of 465 Two thousand students
are enrolled in the law schools of Chicago, and
2500 in those of New York City

Impiessive as these figures arc, it would be
easy to exaggerate their significance They
do not indicate that the American lawyer has
even yet fully accepted the idea that the law
school is a better place then the law office for
acqunmg a knowledge of the principles of the
law, but only that that idea is making its way
in the profession It is safe to say that even
to-day not less than two thirds of those
who apply for admission to the bar have gained
their professional training wholly or mainly m
law offices Nowhere in the United States is
attendance at a law school a prerequisite to
admission to the bar The tradition that law,
being an art and not a science (for so the tra-
dition runs), can best be acquired in tho legal
workshop survives with the notion that every

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free American, who is a male of full age and
not yet convicted of ciime, is entitled to make
his living by practicing law as well as in any
other art or craft Both these traditions
have still enough of vitality in them to hamper
the course of legal education, but both are slowly
yielding to the pressure of the time

The same conditions which were driving law
students in increasing numbers into the law
schools conspired to make the schools more
exacting in their demands upon the students
who resorted to them These demands took
on two forms — the requirement of a better
general education and the raising of the stand-
ards of instruction Down to the middle of
the la&t century students were generally ad-
mitted to the schools without examination and
without any close scrutiny of their qualifica-
tions for the study of the law The first an-
nouncement of the Columbia Law School,
published in 1859, provides that " Any per-
HOII of good moral character whether a graduate
of a college or not, may be admitted to either
of the classes No examination and no par-
ticular course of previous study is required for
admission " It was not until 1876 that the
additional requirement was made that the
candidate u must be at least eighteen years of
age and have received a good academic edu-
cation, including such a knowledge of the Latin
language as is required for admission to the
Freshman Class of this College " — a standard
which has now come to be general in the law
schools of the country. Two influences, ema-
nating from the profession have contributed
to this result — persistent pressure from the
American Bar Association (which, at its crea-
tion in 1878 had provided for a Committee on
Legal Education) and the general adoption by
the courts of rules for admission to the bar pre-
scribing a minimum of previous academic train-
ing for all candidates Probably the demand
of the legal profession on the law schools would
have gone no further had it not been for an
impulse communicated by the universities

It is significant of the movement of higher
education in America that the law schools have
almost from the beginning been university
foundations Of the 114 schools reported
for the year 1910, only 20 are without a uni-
versity connection It is true that the rela-
tionship is in many instances only nominal,
but even in such cases it tends to become real
Though for reasons elsewhere given the influ-
ence of the university spirit upon the law de-
partment has been slow in asserting itself, it
is making itself felt in increasing measure It
is from this source that there has come a
persistent and wide-felt pressure for a better
preliminary education for law students. Har-
vard led off in 1897 by instituting the require-
ment of a college degree for admission to the
law school of the university Columbia fol-
lowed with the same requirement six years
later, but has since modified it in favor of a

three years' college course The movement has
gone on steadily, and is still in progress. While
Harvard is still alone in requiring a college
degree, at least six law schools now require
three years, ten or twelve require two years,
and a dozen or fifteen one year of college study
as a prerequisite to admission

Confidently with this development there
has been a marked increase in the length of
the law school course The earlier schools
seldom gave more than a year's instruction,
but by the year 1880 thirty eight of the forty
eight schools then in existence reported a two
years' course Of the 114 schools reported in
1910, only two confess to a course of one year,
thirty four having a course of two years and
seventy eight of three years One of the most
powerful influences in bringing about thih
rapid development of the law school course
from two years to three was the Association of
American Law Schools, organized by a group of
representatives of the leading schools of the
country in 1900, whirh after the year 1908 re-
stricted membership in the Association to
schools having a course of not less than three
years leading to the first professional degree

But the circumstance that has contributed
most powerfully to the lengthening of the law
school course, and one which is still operating,
has been the geneial introduction into the
schools of new methods of instruction involving
a large increase in the time required to cover
the 01 dinar y subjects of the legal curriculum
Doubtless the " ease system " of legal instruc-
tion would have come sooner or latei in any
event (it is at least as old as the common law),
but its introduction at the critical period of
legal education in America, which has been
described above, was due to the genius of
Professor C C Langdell of Harvard, who in-
troduced it as the basis of instruction in that
school when he assumed the position of dean
in 1870 Based on the sound assumption that
a system of law which has been developed by
reported judicial decisions can best be studied
in and through those decisions rather than in
the writings of commentators and editors, the
new method soon became a leaven which was in a
short time to leaven the whole lump of legal edu-
cation in this country. Properly employed, it
became a powerful means of stimulating the
interest of the student, and to the admirable use
made of it at Harvard is to be attributed the
second rise to greatness of that venerable seat
of legal learning Harvard found her first dis-
ciple in the Albany Law School, which adopted
the " ease system *" in 1889, and in 1890 it was
introduced in the Columbia Law School. Its
progress since that date has been rapid, and it
is now employed in a considerable majority
of the law schools of the country

The material equipment of the law schools
has kept pace with their growth in size and
in the intellectual graces. Most of them have
separate buildings devoted to their use, and,

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though some are still sadly deficient in library
facilities, many of them have large and rapidly
growing collections of law books Twenty
only are without libraries ol their own, though
these usually have access to the collections of
state or county libraries Thirty two more have
less than 2000 volumes, but forty have libraries
of .5000 and upwards, twenty four of more than
10,000, ten of more than 20,000, and eight of
more than 30,000 The Harvard Law Li-
brary, one of the most complete in the world,
contains 125,000 volumes

It is in the persistently professional character
of the law school that we find the chief source
of its strength and of its weakness Created
bv the profession and, for the most part, even
in the university schools, conti oiled bv it, it
has kept in close touch with the adimnistiii-
tion of the law, and has thus been preserved
from assuming too much of an academic
character The instruction, still for the most
part given by lawyers in active practice, 1ms
been of the most concrete, practical charactei
In many of the schools the hours of instruction
are still arranged with a view to permitting
the students to carry on their work in law
offices at the same time, and it is safe to sa v that
a majority of the students in the law schools
avail themselves of the opportunity so 1o do
This practice has not only militated against
the influence of the law school as a seat of
legal learning, but has put a premium on
methods of instruction which made the4 least
possible demand on the time and energv of the
student Even in schools in which this practice
does not obtain, the professional influence has
generally been thrown against legal studies of
a general or " theoretical " charactei and
against methods involving research The re-
sult is that even to-dav the curriculum of the
law school seldom includes anv subjects except,
those required for the bai examinations, and
these comprehend nothing but those branches
of the law which the lawyer is apt to require in
his daily practice Consequently few of the
schools 'have deemed it necessary or proper
to offer courses in the civil law, in legal histoi v
(even in the history of our own legal system),
in general jurisprudence, 01 even in public
law, other than the law of the federal consti-
tution Even when they are given, such
studies are usually regarded as "frills" or
" extras," and are apt to be relegated to an
additional, postgraduate course which is
rarely taken. A few schools, like those of
Columbia, Northwestern, and now, perhaps,
Harvard, must be excepted from this condemna-
tion, a liberalizing influence, coming from a
school of political science or a department of
history or economics, having to a degree
leavened the professional tradition in those
institutions. The statement of the Committee
on Legal Education of the American Bar As-
sociation contained in its Report of 1802 is as
true of conditions to-day as it was of those

twenty years ago u It is evident that vhr
course of study in the schools is, with a very
few exceptions, confined to the branches of
practical private law which a student finds of
use in the first vears of his practice It is the
technical rather than the scientific or philo-
sophic view of law winch is taught "

England — In England the house of the
law has always been divided against itself
Even yet there is no promise there of that fu-
sion of theory and practice, of academic with
technical training, which the universities,
through then control of professional educa-
tion, are promising us in America We may
or we may not. believe that the celebrated
Lombard jurist Vacarms taught at Oxford in
the middle of the twelfth century (the evidence
is far from convincing), but certain it is that
the study of that Romanized Roman law,
which we call the canon law, flourished at
both Oxford and Cambridge from an early
period until prohibited by Henry VIII, and
that the study of the civil law, of almost equal
antiquity, was by the same monarch encour-
aged bv the foundation* of professorships at
both universities At the tune when the Ro-
man law was sweeping everything before it on
the Continent, its study was pursued with
enthusiasm in England, and there were not
wanting those who anticipated a similar tri-
umph for it over the barbarous English law
But the common law was a self-made, inde-
pendent old body, with a way of its own The
creation of lawyers, who saw nothing good in
anything of foreign origin and nothing but evil
in anything Roman, it was intrenched in the
Inns of Court (q v ), where the members of
the bar and their students lived and studied
and disputed over the cases in the Year Books
together Thus in England, as later in Amer-
ica, legal education was the work of the ac-
tive bar, and it is to this fact that Maitland
(English Law and the Renaissance) attributed
that " toughness " of the common law which
enaJDled it to resist and defeat the Romanizing
influences emanating from the universities
Fr orn that day to this the two streams of legal
learning have flowed on without mingling —
from the unncrsities, the stream of legal
science, philosophy, arid history, from the
Inns of Court, the stieam of practical training
which should fit men for the actual work of
the bar Sir John Fortescue, Chief Justice
of the King's Bench in the reign of Henry VI,
in his treatise DC Laudibus Legum Anghac,
raises the question " Why the laws of England,
being so good, so fiuitfull and so commodious,
are not taught at the universities, as the Civill
and Canon Lawes are," and he answers it,
not very convincingly, by saying, " In the uni-
versities of England sciences are not taught
but in the Latm tongue; and the lawes of the
land are to be learned in three several tongues
towitte, in the English tongue, the French
tongue and the Latin tongue. . . . Where-

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foro, while the lawes of England aic learned in
these three tongues, they cannot conveniently
be studied in the universities where only the
Latin tongue is exercised " Doubtless the
real reason is to be found in the learned Chief
Justice's fui the r statement that " the same
Lawes are taught and learned, in a certame
place of pubhque or common studio, moio
convenient and apt ior attayning of them than
any other University Foi this place of studie
is situate me to the King's Courts, where the
same lawes are pleaded and argued and judge-
rnents by the same given by Judges, men of
gravitie, ancient in year*, perfit and giaduate
in the same lawes Wheielore, eveiv day m
Couit, the students in those Lawes resort by
great numbers into those Courts wherein the
same lawes are read and taught as it were in
common scholes "

The reference is to the Inns of Chancerv
and the more famous Inns of Court, which
together constituted at that period " as it
were an university or school of all commendable
qualities requisite for noblemen," the charges
being so high that u the children onely of Noble
men doe studie the Lawes in those Inns " A
latoi wntei, Joseph Walton, Esq , (J C in a
paper read before the American Bar Associa-
tion in 1899, speaking of the great activity
of corporate life which the Inns displayed
during the sixteenth and early seventeenth
centunes, says, "The education of the stu-
dents was not left in the hands of salaried
teachers, but the Benchers (the governing
body of the Inns) and the Bar alike cooper-
ated in the work " The fact that then as
now no man could practice at the English bar
unless he had been admitted as a student at
one of the Inns of Court and had been in resi-
dence the prescribed number of terms fur-
nishes the final and convincing answer to the
question propounded by Sir John Fortoseue.

But the Inns were to fall upon evil days.
As we have learned m America, instruction
bv " salaried teachers " has some advantages
over that imparted by busy members of the
profession, and so it came to pass that the bar,
which had created the system of legal educa-
tion, through neglect destroyed i1s own off-
spring By 1688 it was possible for Roger
North to say. " Of all the professions in the
world, that pretend to book learning, none is
so destitute of institution as that of the Com-
mon Law Acadenuck studies, which take in
that of the civil law, have tutors and pro-
fessors to aid them, and the students are en-
tertained in colleges under a discipline, in the
midst of societies, that are, or should be, de-
voted to study, which encourages, as well as
demonstrates, such methods m general as
everyone may easily apply to his own particu-
lar use. But for the Common Law, however,
there are societies which have the outward
show or pretense of Collegiate Institution,
vet in reality nothing of that sort is now to

be found in them; and whereas in more ancient
times there were exercises used in the Hall,
they weic more for probation than for insti-
tution, now even those aie shrunk into mere
form, and that preserved only for conformity
to rules, that gentlemen by talc of appearances
m exercises rather than by any sort of perform-
ances, might be entitled to be called to the
Bar "

After the abdication of its teaching function
the corporate bar left the students to their
own devices The " lawes of England" were
not taught in the universities, and thus the
system of an office appienticcship grew up,
the student becoming a pupil for two or thiee
years in the chambers of a conveyancer,
equity draftsman, or special pleader The
requirement of twelve terms (thiee years) of
residence in the Inns of Court was satisfied
by the eating of a certain number of dinners
in the Hall This was the state of legal edu-
cation in England from the middle of the seven-
teenth to nearly the middle of the nineteenth
century, when (in 1832) the great Society of
Attorneys and Solicitors was formed, for the
purpose, among other things, of providing for
the education of its bianch of the piofossion,
and when (in 1840) the Benchers of the four
Inns of Court established the Council of Legal
Education

The modern period of legal education in
England coincides pretty nearly with what may
be called the second period in the development
of the law school in the United States, dating
from about the year 1860 There, as here, it
was due not to an awakening of the univer-
sities to a sense of their duty to the community,
but to a conscious effort of the profession to
secure a better equipment, for the discharge
of its increasing responsibilities It is true
that the teaching of English law was intro-
duced at Oxford as fai back as 1754, when Sir
William Blackstone delivered his famous lec-
tures there, but the experiment attracted no
professional students, and exerted no direct
influence on legal education It was not until
the movement inaugurated by the Incorpo-
rated Law Society and the Council of Legal
Education of the Inns of Court had gained
considerable momentum that the universities
awoke from their lethargy and established what
may be called schools ol law These include,
besides the venerable studies in the Homan law,
upon which the chief emphasis is still placed,
courses in general jurisprudence1, English con-
stitutional law and history, international law,
and in the principal topics of English law.
Apparently these attract but few candidates
for the bar, and the legal profession, as of old,
pursues its own course. The character of the
instruction provided by the latter is largely
determined by the time-honored division of
the professional field between the two distinct
orders of solicitors and barristers The hon-
orable societies which constitute the four Inns

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of Court are gilds of barrister f,, and (he educa-
tion provided by them is confined to candi-
dates for the bar in the restricted English
sense of that term It was to meet the demand
for more systematic training for the neglected
solicitor's clerk that the Incorpoiated Law
Society (now the Law Society of the United
Kingdom) has instituted examinations to test
the proficiency of students in the principles
of law and procedure Quite recently the
society has also opened some courses of in-
struction Meanwhile in the* Inns of Tom! the
potential hamster may, if he so desires, puisne
courses of lectures in the whole field of English
law as well as in Roman law, jurisprudence, and
international law But he is not required to
do so, and it is reported that he seldom does
The new university foundations in London,
and several of the provincial centers — Man-
chester, Liverpool, Leeds, and Sheffield —
have also set themselves, somewhat feeblv
as vet, to the teaching of the law of the land

The looseness and lack of consist encv of the
scheme of legal education in England lendeis
it a difficult task to descube it as a whole, 01
to characterize it fairly It seems as vet to
be without form and void The two older
universities are still out of the cunent of pio-
fessional influence Their emphasis is still on
the law of the dead past rather than of the
living piesent,and they have not sought to es-
tablish any relation between the two Then
courses in English law are too general in chai-
actei to be of much use to the professional
student, and it is doubtful if he would a\ail
himself of them if they were peifectlv adapted
to his purpose The tradition of the bar
still strongly favors a " practical " educa-
tion, obtained principally in a law office,
with enough reading of the standaid text-
books to enable the student to pass the pie-
scnbed examinations As it is of no particular-
advantage to him to attend la\v lectures,
he is in general content to do without them
It is reported that the total number of law
students registered in the universities and the
Inns of Court does not exceed 2000, a much
smaller number than the Inns alone harbored
in the sixteenth century The lectures in the
Inns, like those in the universities, are for
the most part of the didactic sort, often con-
sisting of dictation The "case method,"
which is revolutionizing the teaching of law in
America, is spoken of with respect, but is no-
where employed It may be added that there
is no uniform standard of prolnmnai v education
for law students, that the courses of instruc-
tion are short, — not more than a year being
devoted to the English law in most schools, —
and that, excepting in the older universities,
the instruction is for the most part given by
members of the active bar The only " sys-
tem " that can be detected is the system of
examinations These are substantially the
same in all the universities, in the Inns of

Court, and in the Law Society, and are said to
be of a rigorous charactei.

It is apparent that much lemains to be done
to make the legal education of England
the efficient, instrument of legal progress that
the times demand But we aie told that there
is much ground for encouragement, that the
bar is awakening to the need of reform, that
the universities and Inns are feeling the in-
fluence of the American renaissance of the last
two decades, and that a new Society of Public
Teachers of Law in England and Wales has
recently been formed to organize and push
forward the woik of legal education in the
mother country of the common law As Pro-
fessor Hiizeltine of Cambridge says, " These
are happy auguries for the future "

The Continent of Europe — The American
law school has for more than fifty years held the
admiration of the profession in England, and
has received unstinted praise fiom the leaders
of that kindred bar - - a fact which a compari-
son between the conditions of legal education
in (he two countries serves to explain But
no such acclaim comes from Continental juiists.
For them the American system, even at its
best, falls lamentably shoit of that ideal of
sound scholarship which informs the legal edu-
cation of the Continental countries of western
Europe As the inheritors of a tradition of
woild law, which VNUN itself only the expression
of natural law, a law written in the constitu-
tion of man, the ] mists of Europe cannot regard
the study of anv isolated legal system, however
developed and complete in itself, as in any
pioper sense a scientific performance To
the French or the (lei man student, who re-
gards his polity as only a fragment of a world
ordei, the self-contained, self-satisfied attitude
of the English and American lawyer seems nar-
low and provincial It would be as reasonable,
as scientific, to study the institution of the
family without reference to the society of
which it forms a part as to study the law of a
given community \\ithout reference to the
general law Hence the Continental student
icfuses to be impressed with our claim that by
making the study of the cases the basis of legal
instruction we have made our teaching of the
law scientific He answers that a scientific
method does not of itself make a science He
insists that the content of a subject of study
is as important as the method of investigation
employed upon it, and that until we have,
through a new birth of scholarship, related our
law to that of the rest of the civilized world,
past and present, and to the ethical and social
sciences, we shall never have a legal education
worthy of the name

This description of the conditions which
have formed the ideal of legal scholarship on
the Continent and determined the character
of the legal education which there prevails
points back of the universities to an order of
ideas of which they are in part the fruit and

065

LAW, EDUCATION FOR THE

LAW, EDUCATION FOR THE

in part the preservers As his law was the
law of imperial Rome, the Continental lawyei ,
had there been no universities, could not have
failed to conceive of the law that lie was called
upon to administer as only a part of the general
European law The law student acquired a
knowledge of his own law through the study
of the Roman law. But here the university
was a necessary instrumentality The law to
be learned was not an indigenous common law,
as in England, but a system handed down and
" received," set forth in a language which only
the learned know, and expounded in writings
of great erudition which only the learned could
interpret and expound. And thus, as the
only depository of this learning and of the texts
anil other material on which it was based, the
university became the seat of legal instruction
Its instruction was and enough at first — the
scholastic interpretation of the inspired texts
and of the scarcely less inspired gloss which
encrusted it But with the Renaissance a new
spirit entered into the teaching of law, as into
every other department of university educa-
tion, and it was broadened and enriched bv the
studv of philosophy and of general principles
of jurisprudence But it was not until the
nineteenth century that the despised local law
came to be accounted worthy of a place in the
university curriculum, and not until the last
quarter of the century that it was received as
of equal worth and dignity with the Roman law.
The new value which, under the reviving spirit
of nationalism, has been put on the local common
law in all continental countries and especially in
Germany has contributed powerfully to this le-
sult

Germany — But the European universities
are not only the recognized seats of legal leam-
ing; they are also, through their relations to
the government, the official gateways to the
public service Through them and in no other
way is admittance gained to the bench, the
bar, the high offices of state This is pre-
eminently true of the universities of Germany,
which have long enjoyed the monopoly, and
it is not too much to say that they have fairly
earned it, through the combined practical and
scientific character of the education afforded
by them. The student matriculates at the
university at the age of eighteen or nineteen on
the completion of his course in the secondaiy
school (Gymnasium] His studies, which cover
the whole range of German as well as Roman
law, include also international law, the philos-
ophy of law, comparative jurisprudence, general
and German legal history, and political science,
and can usuallv be completed in three years
The instruction is mainly by lectures, with
little or no discussion, though these are sup-
plemented by seminars and practica for the
more advanced and ambitious students The
lectures and other exercises are admittedly of
a thoroughly scientific character, involving
at every stage the consideration of principles

666

of a geneial and fundamental character The
student is encouraged to avail himself of the
courses in philosophy (including ethics), logic,
economics, and sociology given under the aus-
pices of the faculty of philosophy, and it is
said that few of them neglect to do so On the
completion of his course the student is sub-
jected to a rigorous examination covering all
the work done by him If he is a candidate for
the doctor's degree, he submits a disserta-
tion on some topic in the law to which lie has
given special attention

The course ol " theoretical " instruction
heie outlined is the same for all law students,
but there is a further course of " practical "
instruction which varies more or less according
to the career which the referendar, or graduate,
intends to pursue It will be borne in mind
that in Germany the law is studied not only as
a preparation for legal practice, but for the
bench (there a separate profession) and for
other branches of the public seivice To con-
fine our attention to the bench and bar, it may
be said that the candidate foi the lattei is re-
quired to spend not less than four years, and
the candidate for the former fiom eight to nine
years, in the service of the state, as an assegai
or assistant, in the courts and in other legal
positions, always under supervision and in-
struction, at the end of which time he again
submits himself to an examination to test his
fitness for the service for which he offers him-
self Then and not until then is the systematic
legal education complete

France — The uniformity which, combined
with a wide range of freedom in the election of
courses and instructors, characterizes the sys-
tem of university instruction in law in Germany,
is lacking in the French universities The
system which there obtains is one of great
flexibility, adapting itself to that one of the half
dozen or more branches of the legal profession
which the student proposes to enter Never-
theless, as all but a comparatively small num-
ber pursue the complete course of study lead-
ing to the degree of licentiate in law (licence en
droit), the more restricted courses which pre-
pare for the lower grades of the profession,
(avoue*, notaries, and huissiers) may be neg-
lected The student who aspires to become
an (jvocat or magistrate, or, indeed, to enter
any of the higher grades of the public service,
matriculates at the university, as in Germany,
on the completion of his course in the lycee or
secondary school He is a year or two younger
than the German student, but is more serious-
minded and wastes little or no time in getting
down to work The character as well as the
scope of the instruction imparted is well ex-
pressed in a paper on " The Teaching of the
Law in France," read by Thomas Barclay of
the French bar, before the American Bar As-
sociation in 1899 The teaching of the pro-
fessors (of whom there are thirty eight in the
law faculty of Paris), he tells us, " is distrib-

LAW, EDUCATION FOR THE

uted with a view to enable the student to
take the degree of licence en droit at the ter-
mination of an ordinary three years' course of
university study There is an examination at
the end of each year, and no student for the
degree of licence can enter for either of the three
examinations out of their prescribed order

" The subjects of the first year's study are
as follows . Roman law — the lectures on this
subject embrace the whole of the legal insti-
tutions of Rome, with a view to initiating the
student into the part which history plays in
the development of law History of French
civil and constitutional law — here the idea is
to awaken in the student that interest m tradi-
tion, and at the same time that critical under-
standing of laws by reference to their origin,
which will bring him to respect their character
without making him a slave to their form

" In the same order of ideas there is a course
of lectures for the first year's student in Political
Economy, treated with regard to the current
development of legislation, on the assumption
that he will be enabled to understand a law
better if he sees the reason for it Lastlv is
included about one third of the contents of
the Civil Code in which the lecturer endeavois
again to explain why the law is as it is, and,
as far as possible, to connect its provisions with
the ethical basis upon which it rests

" The second year's study includes another
one third approximately of the matters treated
in the Civil Code The study of Roman law
continues, but in this year it is treated with
special reference to what contemporary Ficnch
law has borrowed from it In this year also
the student must attend lectures on criminal
law, administrative law, and public international
law

" In the third year he takes the remaining
one third of the contents of the civil code, and
commercial law, private international law and
civil procedure "

Though this university training, culminating
in the licence en droit, is a necessary stage in
the evolution of the French lawyer, he is not-
entitled to call himself an avocat or to practice
as such in the higher courts until he has also
devoted three years to " assiduous attendance
at the hearings in court " and has carried on
practical work and discussions under the direc-
tion of the " Order of Advocates "

Other Countries —The legal instruction in
other continental universities does not differ
in important respects from that given in Gei-
many and France In some more attention
is paid to the philosophy of law and to general
and comparative jurisprudence than in others,
and in the universities of Austria and Italy to
economic history and theory, to social legisla-
tion or to ecclesiastical law, but the spirit which
animates them is everywhere the same Law
is treated as a branch of social science, haying
its roots in ethics and in the history of civiliza-
tion, and accordingly as a true university

667

LAW, WILLIAM

discipline to be studied in the spirit of scholai-
ship and science The only conspicuous delect
in the continental scheme of legal education
is its complete neglect of that great system of
the common law which divides the hegemony
of the western world with the Roman law

G W K
References —

General —
BENTON, J H , Jr Influence of the Bar in our State

and Federal Government (Boston, 1894 )
MAITLAND, F W English Law and the Renauftanee

(Cambridge, 1901 )
PAULSEN, F The German Universities (New York,

1906 )
RASHDALL, H Unwraitws of Europe in the Middle

Ages (Oxford, 1895)
WAENTIU, H Die Amenkamxchen Law Schools und

der Reform des Reehtsunternchtx in Preussen

(Leipzig, 1902)

Special —

BARCLAY, T The Teaching of Law in France (Re-
port* of American Bar Association, Vol XXII,

HAZKLTINK, H D Legal Education in England (/ft -
ports of American Bar Association, Vol XXXI \ ,

KENT, J An American Law Student of a Hundred
Years Ago, Gretn Bag (Boston, 1007 )

LEWINHKI, K v The Education of the German
Lawyer (Reports of American Bar Association,
Vol XXXIII, p 814 )

KEINBC'H, P S The Enoh*h Common Law in the Early
American (Womes (Madison, Wib , 1KCW )

SMITH, MUNROE Legal Education in Europe Colum-
bia University Quarterly, Vol IV, p 138

THAYER, J B The Teaching of English Law at Uni-
versities Harvard Law R(vuu\ Vol IX, p^lG9

WALTON, J Early History of Legal Studies m England
(Report* of American Bar Association, Vol XXII,
P 001 )

ZANE, J M The Five Ages of the Common Law
(Seleet Essays in Anglo-Ameriean Legal History)
(Boston, 1907)

Reports —

American Bar Association Reports (Philadelphia)
Commissioner of Education of the United States

Report* (Washington)
Legal Education m Europe (Report of United States

Bureau of Education, Washington, 1894 )
Legal Education in the United State* (Report of the

Committee on Legal Education, American Bar

Association, XV, Reports )

LAW, WILLIAM (1686-1781) — English
divine and mystic, born near Stamford in
Northamptonshire He graduated at Cam-
bridge in 1705, and was ordained in 1711.
Owing to his Jacobite views, he was deprived
of his degrees m 1713 As a non-juror he was
excluded from preferments in the Church.
Law was a prolific writer in the field of theology,
and for one work, Christum Perfection, he re-
ceived a gift of £1000, with which he founded
a school for girls at King's Cliffc In 1745,
through the help of the widow of one of his
admirers and a friend, he founded a school for
boys and almshouscs at King's Cliffe. Law
and his two friends lived as nearly as possible
according to the principles laid down m his
most important work, A Serious Call to a
Devout and Holy Life (1728) Here he devotes
some chapters to education, and attacks the

LAWN TENNIS

LEANDER CLARK COLLEGE

prevailing system as tending to piide, Nam-
glory, and ambition. The only basis of edu-
cation is Christianity; hence humility and
meekness are its ends The method accord-
ingly should be the study of the experiences of
men who have led Chi istian lives In the same
way girls should not be trained up to value
nothing but personal beauty, rather should
they learn to li\e for their own sakes and the
service of God And it was along these lines
that the Rules to be observed by Girh at the
King's Cliff e School were drawn up While
Law's works have been neglected, his influence
may be measured by the woi k of the Wesleys,
Whitcfield, and other evangelical leaders who
frequently visited him.

References : —

Diction art/ of National Biography

OVKRTUN, J H William Law, Non-tjuror and Mystic
(London, 1881 )

LAWN TENNIS — This game is very
modern in its present form, though it had its
prototypes* in comparatively distant ages
There are records showing that crude games
of the lawn tennis type were played in Italy
and in France .several hundreds of years ago
One of these crude games, In louyue pnuwe
of the French, was earned to England, and was
probably the forerunner of modern lawn tennis
In 1874 Major Wmgfield introduced a game
under the name of s phainhtike , which was
gradually modified and the name changed to
lawn tennis, and in 1877 definite rules were
drawn up and the first championship contest
held Since 1877 lawn tennis has spread
throughout England, the British colonies,
America, Fiance, — everywhere, in fact, where
two or three Englishmen are gathered togethei

The leabons for the great popuhuity of this
game are many It requires but a small piece
of level ground, it is adapted to both sexes,
all ages, and various degrees of strength; it is
intensely interesting, it may be played by two,
three, or four persons, and, like croquet and
golf, it is a distinctly social game One of the
most difficult problems in physical education
is to teach students m our schools and colleges
forms of exercise which may be kept up after
graduation Lawn tennis fulfills this condition
in a larger measure than any other game or
sport The popularity of lawn tennis is attested
by the fact that it is the most widespread game
in the colleges and secondary schools of the
United States, 976 per cent of the colleges
have from one to fifty-two tennis courts

A tennis court may be laid out on a smooth
lawn or a surface of clay and gravel. The
dimensions for a single court (for two players)
are 27 by 78 feet, a double court (for three
or four players) is 36 by 78 feet It is necessary
to have at least 8 feet clear on each side and
20 feet at each end The directions for laying
out tennis courts, the rules of the game, and

othei kinds of information concerning the con-
duct of tournaments, etc , are described in
detail in the Lawn Tennis Guide, published
annually (Boston, Mass).

G. L. M.
References : —

Badminton Library Lawn Tennis; Tennis (London.)
DBWHUHMT, E B The Science of Lawn Tennis. (New

York, 1910)
MILKS, E H Lemojix in Lavm Tertnw (London,

1S99 )
WALLIH, A J. The Complete Tennis Playei . (London,

1908)

LAWRENCE COLLEGE, APPLETON,
WIS. — A coeducational institution founded
in 1848 as an academy, with the title Lawrence
Institute In 1849 the title was changed to
Lawrence University, and in 1908 to Lawrence
College Collegiate music, expression, and art
departments are maintained The entrance
requirements are fifteen units The college
offers a four-year com so leading to the degiee
of A B A pre-engmeermg course fitting stu-
dents to continue a professional course at the
University of Wisconsin is also offered. Then-
is a faculty of forty-three members The
enrollment of students m 1911-1912 was 450 in
the college.

LAWS, SCHOOL — See LEGISLATION,
EDUCATIONAL, SCHOOL LAWS AND DECISIONS

LEACH, DANIEL (1806-1891) — School
superintendent and textbook author, born at
Bndgewatei, Mass He received his secondaiy
school training at the Bndgewater Academy,
and was graduated fiom Blown University in
1830. For several years he taught in the public
schools For ten years (1838-1848) he was
principal of the Classical High School at
Roxbury (Boston) From 1848 to 1855 he
was one of the agents (supervisors) of the
State Board of Education of Massachusetts,
and from 1855 to 1884 he was city superin-
tendent of the schools of Providence, R J
He was active in the educational associations
of New England, and was a frequent contribute!
to educational journals He published three
textbooks — an arithmetic, a spelling book,
and a geography. W S M.

LEANDER CLARK COLLEGE, TOLEDO,

IA. — A coeducational institution founded in
1856 under the auspices of the United Brethren
Church at Shueyville and moved to its .present
location in 1881 It maintains an academy,
college of liberal arts, teachers' course, music,
business, elocution, and fine arts courses
The entrance requirements are about fourteen
units The college confers the A.B , A.M., and
M S , the two latter on completion of a year's
residence and the presentation of a thesis In
1910-1911 the enrollment was 262 students, of
which 78 were in the college The faculty
consists of eighteen members

66S

LEARNED SOCIETIES

LEARNED SOCIETIES — See At \DEMIES,
INSTITUT DE FRANCE; SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES,
GERMANY, EDUCATION IN, and articles on
other national systems

LEARNING. — The process whereby ex-
periences are gained which function effectively
in meeting new situations This process may
take many different forms, and what is popu-
larly called learning is usually a complex process
involving many of these forms All learning
presupposes on the part of the learner a stock
of innate dispositions and instinctive tendencies
which are the foundation for all acquired
responses

The simplest type of learning is the forma-
tion and development of perceptual processes
The stimulation of the sense organs is both
logically and genetically the beginning of the
learning process. Such stimulation leads to
the organization of perceptual experiences
The importance of building upon such a con-
crete foundation has been frequently em-
phasized in educational theories, but there is
always a tendency to fall back upon the sym-
bolic and formal without a sufficient concrete
perceptual basis True perceptual develop-
ment demands much more than mere pres-
entation of the objects of the external world
to the pupil It cannot be taken for granted
that children will recognize the true character
of objects thus presented Perceptual develop-
ment demands the careful analysis of objects
into their elements through observation and
the fusion of these elements into new wholes

The second type of learning is the acquisition
of bodily habits, which frequently goes forward
in connection with the progress of perceptual
learning just mentioned Habits may arise
directly from instincts, in which case theie is
little, if any, of the learning processes involved
They may also arise by the method known as
that of " trial and success " This method of
learning is typical of both man and the lower
animals An unusual situation, or one for
which no organized response is already present,
calls forth diffuse movements, some of which
are accidentally successful and tend, therefore,
to be repeated, while the unsuccessful move-
ments are gradually eliminated and an habitual
mode of response established The oldei
education neglected this aspect of the learning
process, which is emphasized in the modern
subjects of manual training, drawing, etc

The acquisition of language, written and
spoken, is the most important of all human
habits, because of its connection with the third
type of learning, which belongs essentially
to man, namely, the acquisition of power of
response through the medium of ideas Ideas
are transmitted by means of language and re-
tained by means of memory; hence, the popular
use of the term "learning" as equivalent to
memorizing.

In the work of the schoolroom most of these

LEAVES OF ABSENCE

forms of learning are combined The pi ocean
of learning to read, for example, involves the
perceptual recognition of words and sentences,
the motor responses of eye and voice, and, if
the reading is not merely mechanical, the ac-
quisition of ideas E. H. C.

References : —

CALVIN, S S The Learning Process (New York,

JDDD C H Genetic Psychology for Teachers, pp 1-35,

24H-2G4 (Now York, 1903 )
KiRXHATRirK, E A Gtmtu Ptydiolituu, PP -Sf> ,i98

(Ni*w York, l^O*) )
SWIFT E .1 Mind ui ttu Making, PP If>h-Jl8 (New

York, 19W )

LEAVES OF ABSENCE — By this is meant
leaves of absence foi a term, or year, granted to
teachers, for good reasons and frequently on
partial pay, their positions being held for them
until their return Such leaves of absence are
common in the larger universities, where the
sabbatical leave is a well-established institution
In such institutions the teacher is allowed to
spend each seventh year in absence on one half,
two thirds, three fourths, and sometimes on
full pay In a few of our larger institutions
the half-sabbatical is also allowed, a half-veai
on partial pay being allowed aftei each three
years of service In the smallei colleges and
in the state normal schools such leaves on pay
are seldom granted, and, when granted, are
more frequently granted foi long and meri-
torious service than as a regular privilege for
all As the salary of the instructors in such
institutions is usually so small that they can-
not afford to take vacations at their own ex-
pense, such lea\es of absence for study are
seldom taken except by young instructors
who are trying to complete their studies for a
university degree The result is that these in-
stitutions suffer because their instructor lack
contact with men in their own hues m other
and in largci institutions The summer ses-
sion of the largei universities, however, is doing
much to remedy this defect

In the public schools such leaxes of absence
for study and travel are confined entirely to a
few large cities Many cities are so fai neglect-
ful of their own interests that they refuse to
grant leaves ol absence to their own teachers,
even when they are willing to travel and study
at their own expense In a few cities, such as
Boston and Rochestei, the plan of gi anting
to teachers a year off from time to time4 foi
purposes of travel and study has been adopted,
but the number of such cities is as yet very
small Both Boston and Rochester provide
for vacations for purposes of travel and study
after seven years of service, on half pay, and
Boston has provided further for years of rest on
full pay for long and meritorious service A
few other cities, as for example Omaha, have
adopted the plan of granting leaves of absence
for study to those teachers who are willing to
take them at their own expense, and, in lieu of

LEAVING CERTIFICATE

LEAVING CERTIFICATE

any pay while absent, granting salary increases
on tne basis of such study on the return of
the teachers to the school system Probably
few things would be of greater value to teachers
in the elementary schools of our cities than an
occasional year off on partial pay for purposes of
travel or study, and the extension of the plan
of sabbatical leaves is one of much importance
Certainly leaves of absence without pay for any
worthy educational purpose ought to be granted
cheerfully by Boards of Education

E. P C

LEAVING CERTIFICATE — A form of
certificate granted to pupils in elementary or
secondary schools, carrying with it certain
privileges In elementary schools such certifi-
cates indicate that the pupils have completed
certain required work, years, or courses, or
have been in regular attendance for a certain
time, and are usually used as permits to go out
to work Such a certificate has been in exist-
ence in France for thirty years, where it is
given, on the basis of a public examination, to
those pupils who have completed the primary
school course and have reached the minimum
age of eleven years The examination covers
only the subjects studied in the elementary
schools up to the completion of the cours moyen,
and the certificates awarded (certijicat d' etude f>
elementaire) are much esteemed by French
children and parents, and are almost a pre-
requisite for employment of any kind An-
other certificate marking the attainment of a
somewhat higher stage is the ccrtificat d* etude
prnnaire supeneure (See FRANCE, EDUCA-
TION IN )

In England local authorities may frame by-
laws regulating the total or partial exemption
of pupils from school attendance, and in addi-
tion may insist that such pupils obtain from
an Inspector of the Board of Education a
certificate of proficiency to the effect that a
candidate has attained the standard of the
grade which he should have reached by age
No certificate is granted below the fourth
standard or grade The whole matter is now
under consideration of the authorities

In the United States there is no certificate
as such, though the elementary school, or grain-
mar school diploma, granted almost every-
where, is in effect a somewhat similar certificate,
but much less highly esteemed by both pupils
and employers than is the case in France
Diplomas of graduation are commonly granted
to those who complete the eighth grade (in
some cases still the ninth) of city schools, arid
generally the ninth grade (though frequently
the eighth, and, in some parts of the South, the
sixth) m rural schools In most cases diplomas
signed by the city or county superintendent
of schools, or the county board of education,
are issued to the graduates, and graduating
exercises of a somewhat formal character arc
very frequently held. To many this marks

the completion of their school course, and the
diploma thus becomes for them a leaving certifi-
cate The diploma has an academic value
almost entirely, and is of use to the pupil only
in case he or she desires to enter a high school.
In itself it is seldom required or asked for as a
prerequisite to employment, and no such im-
portance is as yet placed on its possession as is
the case in France

So far as leaving certificates are granted,
they partake of the nature of work certificates,
or age and schooling certificates These are
granted in almost all states where a child-
labor law is strictly enforced, and they thus be-
come a prerequisite for employment in the case
of young persons A common form is a
certificate from the school authorities, stating
the pupil's age, and certifying that he is entitled
to employment at certain kinds of labor and
for certain hours Pupils from fourteen to
sixteen are commonly required to hold such
permits, and all illiterate minors, over sixteen,
in some states must present evidence of at-
tendance at evening schools to be entitled to
employment in the day time These certifi-
cates must be kept on file by the employer,
and exhibited, on request, to attendance
officers and labor inspectors Massachusetts
presents an excellent example of the employ-
ment of this kind of a leaving certificate Two
other forms of such permits, or certificates, are
commonly granted One is a permit to school
children, usually between the ages of twelve
and fourteen only, granted by the school au-
thorities or the juvenile court judge, on evidence
of parental need for the labor of the children,
permitting them to engage m certain forms of
light labor during certain specified hours
Badges are sometimes used, as in the case of
the New York City newsboys The other form
of labor permit or certificate is that permitting
children who have been in regular attendance
at school during the preceding year to engage
in certain forms of labor during the summer
or other vacation Such permits state the age,
define the time limits of the vacation, and
specify the kind of labor permitted. (See
CHILD LABOR, ENGLAND, EDUCATION IN,
FRANCE, EDUCATION IN, PART TIME SCHOOL
ATTENDANCE )

Leaving certificates from secondary schools
are usually granted to candidates who have
reached at least the age of sixteen and have
attained a certain standard in secondary
school subjects Most frequently such certifi-
cates serve to exempt their holders from other
examinations required for entrance into the
universities, or certain professions, eg in
England, accounting, medicine, architecture,
etc. School leaving certificates may be granted
by the State, as in Germany and France, or by
universities, as in England and America In
Germany there are two types of leaving certifi-
cates, the Einjdhngenschein, or certificate for
admission to one year of military service,

670

LEAVING SCHOOL

LECTURE SYSTEMS

granted at the end of a six-year course in a
.secondary school, and the Abitunentenprufung
(q.v.), granted at the end of a full nine-year
course. In France the leaving certificate is
the Baccalaureat (qv) In England there are
numerous examining bodies which grant such
certificates ; the most prominent are the Oxford
and Cambridge Joint Board, the Joint Matricu-
lation Board of the Northern Universities,
the University of London, and the College of
Preceptors Each university also conducts its
own matriculation examinations and system
of school inspection, and in many cases the
certificates granted are equivalent to leaving
certificates The tendency to establish some
system of interrecognition of certificates is
at present being considered under the Board
of Education, but there is not much likelihood
that any general, state-wide ceitificate, con-
ducted by the central board, will be intro-
duced (See England, Board of Education,
Consultative Committee, Propoxah for a Si/\-
tcm of School Certificates, London, 1904 , and
He/tort on Examination* in Secondary School*,
1911 ) In America school leaving ceitificatey*
aie found commonly in the Middle West and
the West, along with the general system of
accrediting schools

See ACCREDITED SCHOOLS, ENGLAND, Knr-
rvrioN TN, EXAMIN VTIONS, FR \NCfc, Km-
C\TIO\ TN, GERMANY, EDUCATION IN; and
other national systems

LEAVING SCHOOL —See COMPULSORY
ATTEND \NCE; RETARDATION AND ELIMINATION
OF PUPILS; LEAVING CERTIFICATES

LEBANON UNIVERSITY, LEBANON,
OHIO — A coeducational institution organized
in 1855 as the Southwestern Noimal School
The present title was adopted in 1907, and in
1908 bv an act of the Ohio legislature the
university became a part of the citv school
system, supported by city tax Colleges of
liberal arts, of business methods, fine arts, a
college for teachers, a school foi agncultine,
summer school, preparatoiy school, and a uni-
versity extension department are maintained
More than 4000 students have received a part
of their education in this institution

LEBANON VALLEY COLLEGE, ANN-
VTLLE, PA — A coeducational institution es-
tablished in 1866 undoi the auspices of the
United Brethren Church Academic, college,
music, and art departments arc maintained
The entrance requirements are fifteen units
Classical, chemical-biological, mathematical-
physical, historical-political, and modern lan-
guage courses are offered, leading to the degree
A B Of 232 students enrolled in 1910-1911,
119 were in the college department The
faculty numbers twenty-one members

LECONTE, JOSEPH (1832-11)01) —Scien-
tist, university professoi, and textbook author,
educated at the University of Georgia, the
New York Medical College, and the Lawieiicc
Scientific School of Harvard He was pro-
fessor in the University of South Carolina
(1856-1869) and the University of California
(1869-1901) He assisted Professor Louis
Agassiz (q v ) on his scientific expedition to the
coast of Florida. He was the author of Ele-
ment* of Geology (1878), Compend of Geology
(1884), Cotnpai alive Physiology (1900), and
of one hundred and fifty scientific and phil-
osophical papers W S. M.

LECTURE METHOD —Any use of ex-
tended, formal discourse for the presentation
of knowledge to students may be included
under the lecture method It has its largest
value arid its widest use among mature students
and in those subjects where an objective
method cannot be readily utilized Hence its
wide use in colleges and universities, where
almost all fields, save those of linguistics and
the natural and applied sciences, employ it
as the dominant method of instruction The
lecture method is only slightly used in the
high school, and not at all in the elementarv
school, save in the highly amended form of
short and intermittent talks Its restricted
use in the lower schools is due to the obvious
limitations of the method The mstructoi
has no way of knowing as he proceeds that each
point and its relation is mastered, and the stu-
dent himself is not given the opportunity for
interruption in case of failure or doubt in gi asp-
ing the argument, which would be the case
where the method of discussion is utilized
The response of students in the lecture room
is receptive lather than active, and the impres-
sions, being given by verbal means with little
or no chance for objective or other visual
demonstration, are likely to be abstract and
verbal, if not actually hazy H S

See INFORMATION TALKS , also the section
on method in the articles on the various aca-
demic subjects

LECTURE SYSTEMS — The provision of
lectures for the public has become widely
ramified and has assumed many forms The
system of free public lectures maintained by
school authorities, now one of the most wide-
spread, at any rate in the United States, is of
recent origin, and was inaugurated in New York
in 1889 Free lectures had been provided by
the American Museum of Natural History in
1884, but only for teachers The total number
of lectures given in 1909-1910 was 1654
(literature, history, sociology, art, 854,
general and applied science, 318, descriptive
geography, 391, Italian, Yiddish, and German,
91) These were attended by 959,982 persons,
while 134 local superintendents and 56 stere-
opticon operators were employed The

671

LEE, ROBERT EDWARD

LEEDS, UNIVERSITY OF

system was adopted by many largo cities,
eg Boston (1896), Philadelphia (1898),
Chicago (1897), Newark, Cincinnati, Rochester,
and many others Generally the lectures
originated from the activity of clubs or asso-
ciations, e g at Boston through the Twentieth
Century Club and the Home and School
Association, and at Philadelphia through the
Home and School League, which worked in
connection with .school authorities, providing
lectures and receiving the use of school build-
ings This phase of the subject will be treated
undei the SCHOOL AS A SOCIAL CENTER It is
also in connection with the school that some
city systems and private schools have insti-
tuted special lecture courses to which the
parents of scholars are invited, and wliich are
afterwards discussed by parents and teachers
(See PARENTS AND SCHOOLS ) Another form
of this activity is found in connection with
museums in which popular scientific lectures
are given in connection with the exhibits
(See BOTANY; LIBRARIES, MUSEUMS ) In ad-
dition to these systems of free public lectures,
numerous clubs and associations have piovided
and continue to provide semi-public lectures
and courses Of these the chief may be men-
tioned, and will be found treated under separate
heads CHAUTAUQUA, CONCORD SCHOOL OP
PHILOSOPHY AND LITERATURE, COOPER \TIVE
HOLIDAYS ASSOCIATION, LYCEUM, MECHAN-
ICS INSTITUTES, Y M C A Of a more formal
character, and differing from public lecture
systems in being specialized and technical, and
in most cases consisting of courses of lectures,
are those conducted for the tiaimng of teachers
in service (see INSTITUTES, TEACHERS, Tu UN-
ING OF), for the improvement of agriculture,
conducted bv agricultural boards and univer-
sity departments of agriculture (see AGRICUL-
TURAL EDUCATION), for further education of
adults conducted by pnvate organizations,
public school authorities, and universities, see
ADULT EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY EXTENSION,
WORKING MEN'S COLLEGES; WORKERS' EDU-
CATIONAL ASSOCIATION

LEE, ROBERT EDWARD. — General Lee's
work as an educatoi only is heie considered
Born in Westmoreland County, Virginia, 1807,
Lee graduated from the U S Military Acad-
emy in 1829, with the very unusual honoi of a
perfect record Subsequently (1852-1855) he
served most ably as supenntendent there,
gaining an experience uselul in Ins later edu-
cational work At the close of the Civil War,
Lee was the idol of the South, and the most
respected in the North of all who had been
connected with the Confederacy Bereft of his
profession, broken m fortune, he nevertheless
declined the offer of an independent estate in
England, and refused likewise to lend his name
to remunerative financial enterprises The
very esteem in which he was held fixed in him
the determination to contribute personally to

672

the rehabilitation of the South With neither
inclination nor aptitude for statesmanship, he
selected the field ol education as the one in
which he could render his best service Feeling
that he belonged to the whole South, he refused
the headship of a denominational college.
Fearing political entanglements, he declined
overtures from the state university of Virginia.
Instead he accepted (September, 1805) the
presidency of Washington College (now Wash-
ington and Lee University, q v ) This insti-
tution had been endowed by Washington, but
the disasters of the late war had scattered its
funds, while a hostile army had destroyed its
equipment and all but wrecked its buildings
To the upbuilding of this college as a social
agency Lee gave the remainder of his life. His
general policy was to make the college course
" practical " in ordei to meet the pressing needs
of the devastated section Departments of
engineering and " applied chemistry " were in-
troduced, and a school of commerce planned
To rendei these newer courses more accessible,
the uniform curriculum gave way to the elec-
tive system The success of the new president
was in all respects preeminent In the words
of one of his colleagues, u he found the college
practically bankrupt, disorganized, deserted,
he left it rich, strong, and crowded with stu-
dents he gave it organization, unity,
eneigy, and practical success " The influence
of his personality on the student body was not
the least of his successes

Upon Lee's death (Get 12, 1870) the college,
feeling itself justly entitled to the honor, had
its name changed to Washington and Lee
University (q r ) W. H K

References —

JONES J W Personal Reminiscences of Gen Robert

K Lee (New York, 1874 )
PAGE, T N Robert E Lee . Man aud tioldier (New

York, 1912 )

LEEDS, UNIVERSITY OF, LEEDS, ENG.
— One of the recently founded English univer-
sities The university had its origin in the
Yorkshire College, which was formed in 1884
by the amalgamation of the Leeds School of
Medicine (1831) and a college of science (1874).
From 1887 to 1903 the college was a constituent
part of the Victoria University, together with
Owens College, Manchester, and University
College, Liverpool, and remained such after
the last body obtained a university chartei
In 1904 Yorkshire College obtained a charter
and became by act of Parliament the Univer-
sity of Leeds, with all the usual power apper-
taining to such a body, " to do all such things
as may be requisite, . . to cultivate and pro-
mote arts, science, and learning " The govern-
ing body consists of the Court, which is formed
by the Chancellor, Pro-Chancellor, Vice-Chan-
cellor, and Pro-Vice-Chancellor, and repre-
sentatives of the universities and schools, of
local councils, of benefactors, of the Crown,

LEFT-HANDEDNESS

LEIBNITZ

and others The Council is the executive
body, and the Senate has the general regulation
of academic work The university is main-
tained by endowments, donations from dif-
ferent sources, government grants, grants from
city and county councils in the Ridings of
Yorkshire, and student fees The Cloth-
workers' Company of London gives an annual
subsidy of £4000, and has provided buildings
for instruction in dyeing, textiles, and tmctoiial
chemistry, while the Skinners' Company sup-
ports a department for instruction in subjects
appertaining to the leather industries Woik
is offered in departments of arts, commerce,
law, science and technology, medicine, and
dental surgery With the univeisity are
affiliated the Huddersfield Technical College,
and the College of the Resuncction, Mirfield
Evening classes and extension courses aie
given With the aid of the county council of
the North, East, and West Ridings the univer-
sity conducts agricultural courses and experi-
ments, and sends lecturers and dairying mstruc-
tois to various local centers While the general
cultural work is strong, the applied sciences
receive especial attention (lasses and labora-
tories are open to men and women on the same
terms The university is not residential, but
facilities are afforded for the accommodation
of students, who, however, are drawn in the
majority from a radius of thirty miles of the
city As in the case of the other urnveisities
recently established, considerable progress has
been made especially HI adaptation to local
needs and interests Piofessor Michael E
Sadler was appointed Vice-Chancellor of the
univeisitv in October, 1911 The enrollment
in 1911-1912 was 901, with a teaching staff
of 152

Reference : —

England, Board of Education Reports from Universi-
ties and University Colleges (London, 1911 )

LEFT-HANDED NESS —See AMBIDEXTER-
ITY

See LAW, EDUCA-

LEGAL EDUCATION

TION FOR THE.

LEGAL RIGHTS OF CHILDREN — See

CHILDHOOD, LEGISLATION FOR THE CON SEW v\-
TION AND PROTECTION OF

LEGISLATION, EDUCATIONAL —See
COMMISSIONS, EDUCATIONAL, RECENT AMERI-
CAN, SCHOOL LAWS AND DECI IONS

LEHIGH UNIVERSITY, SOUTH BETHLE-
HEM, PA — Founded in 1865 as a result of the
gifts and bequest of Judge Packer, amounting to
$2,000,000 The aim of the university is to
provide technical, lileiaiv, and scientific prep-
aration foi the type of work demanded by the
resource of the region The institution is
well equipped with huge laboratories to give

VOL J1J 2\ 67

instruction in civil, mechanical, metalluigual,
mining, electrical, and chemical engineering,
and in electro-metallurgy, chemistry, and
collateral studies. The entrance requirements
are fourteen units The university confers
the degrees of A.B and B S. and the various
degrees in engineering A special course is
also provided for teachers, a psychological
laboratory and a practice school being main-
tained. In 1910-1911 the number of students
enrolled was 655 The faculty consists of sev-
enty-three members

LEHR- UND LERNFREIHEIT. — See

FREEDOM, ACADEMIC

LEIBNITZ, GOTTFRIED WILHELM,
FREIHERR VON (1646-1716) —One of the
two or three most universal minds in modern
history, contributed new ideas and projects
of fundamental reform to nearly all the larger
provinces of inquiry and practice, education
among them. His place in educational history
is scarcely comparable to that which he holds
in mathematics (as the inventoi, simultaneously
with Newton, of the calculus), in logic, in
metaphysics (theory of monads), and in
lational theology (as the chief representative
of the eighteenth-century type of optimism)
His father, professor of ethics and law at
Leipzig, dvmg early, the boy was largely
self-taught, by omnivoious reading in his
father's libraiy, he declares that he learned far
moie than at school His studies met the
opposition of his schoolmaster, who, hndmg him
leading Livv in Latin for pleasure, endeavored
to airest this " piemature " erudition, and to
restrict his pupil to the catechism and the
Vcstibulum of Conienius This experience
left its impress upon Leibnitz's educational
theory, he was always stiongly convinced ol
the follv of treating all ehildien by the same
rules and of the danger of quenching the
child's natural intellectual curiosity by task-
work Leibnitz received Ins baccalauieate at
the University of Leipzig at seventeen, next
studied mathematics at Jena, and took his
doctorate in law at Altdorf in 1666 A deci-
sive epoch in his intellectual development was
a lesidence in Pans, 1672-1676, interrupted by
tiavel in England, at this time he came into
contact with the full stieani of new ideas in
philosophy, mathematics, and the natural
sciences During part of the same period, he
had his one experience in practical pedagogy,
acting as tutor to the sixteen-year-old son of
his former patron, the Baron von Boyneburg,
the subsequent career of the pupil was not dis-
creditable to the teacher In 1676 Leibnitz
took the post of councillor and librarian to the
Duke of Hannover (Brunswick- Luneburg), in
this service, save for several extensive jour-
mes, he continued till his death, forty years
later His manifold scientific interests and
his endless ingenious plans for the advance-

LEIBNITZ

LEIBNITZ

ment of civilization — which ranged from a
scheme of compromise by which he hoped to re-
unite Protestants and Catholics, to the inven-
tion of a calculating machine — involved him
in a voluminous correspondence with over a
thousand persons, including most of the impor-
tant scholars, philosophers, statesmen, and
sovereigns of Europe This prodigious epis-
tolary activity prevented him from giving any
adequate connected presentation of his phi-
losophy. Convinced of the dependence of
public welfare upon the progress of science,
and of the dependence of the progress of
science upon cooperation and organization,
he brought about under royal patronage the
creation of the Society (afterwards Academy)
of Sciences of Berlin, and sought to persuade
Peter the Great and other monarchs to estab-
lish comprehensive institutions for research and
the diffusion of knowledge

The general philosophy of Leibnitz, one of
the most involved, technical and, at first
acquaintance, paradoxical in modern thought,
cannot otherwise than misleadmgly be set
forth in brief space The pait of it most
nearly pertinent to educational theoiy is the
epistemological doctrine of the posthumous
New Essays concerning Human Understand-
ing, 1765 (English tr , Langley, 1890), a polemic
against Locke's sensationahstic account of the
origin of ideas Other of the important phi-
losophical writings of Leibnitz may be had in
English translations by Duncan, 1890, Latta,
1898, and Montgomery, 1902.

The direct contribution of Leibnitz to edu-
cational theory is to be found chiefly in a
brief work written in his twenty-first year
Method lib nova diwtndw docendccqiie juns-
pntdenticB (pub 1667). The book us chiefly
a treatise on the study of jurisprudence, but
the first part of it deals with intellectual edu-
cation in general It is characteristic of
Leibnitz that he defines both the process arid
the end of education in terms of activity, its
aim is " the acquisition of a permanent read-
iness for action " of any desired sort (agen-
di promptitudmem acquisitam permanentem)
Such acquired power of action, 01 habitus, rnav
characterize anything capable of action, even
inanimate things The process In which it is
acquired is " habituation " (uwuefadw), or a
" making accustomed " to the desired activhv
itself Education is thus for Leibnitz merely
the highest form of a process which is exem-
plified even in the inorganic, — as when by
bending metal rods we accustom them to recoil
in a certain way With animal training, in
particular, the training of children is closely
related " Since infants in their early years
do not greatly differ from the brutes, their
instructors might not unprofitably borrow
something from the methods of tho teachers of
animals " Tho term dortnna covers the pio-
cess of " habit uation " in all sentient beings,
animal or human, institntw is the special form

of it adapted to the training of the rational
animal. At all its levels " habituation " de-
pends chiefly upon two factors: the frequency
(multitude) of the impressions made by the
practice acts, and their intensity (magnitudo).
In teaching, the former requires very frequent
reviews — not merely " annual reviews, as in
the ordinary schools, but daily, weekly and
monthly " as well The latter demands that
each repetition have quamdam vim impnmendi,
i.e. a power of actually making an impression
on the child This may be gamed partly by
associating the matter taught with vivid sense
impressions, prefcrablv of more than one sense.
Both can best be realized by a carefully grad-
uated increase in the attainments demanded
Throughout, it is important that the acquisition
of the hah it MS be made agreeable (jucundum),
either bv showing its connection with attrac-
tive ends, or " by the use of means that are
themselves agreeable " That children ought
so far as possible discere ludcndo, " to learn by
playing/' is one of Leibnitz's most constant
and characteristic contentions. Teachers must
so &ct that the pupils " may of their own
accord (spotite) make themselves more capable
of learning " Leibnitz, therefore, recommends
the use of alphabetical blocks, pictures, in-
structive games, and of the Oibis pictus of
Comcnius (q v ), which pupils should be set
to paint in appropriate colors In order that
the maximum instruction may be accomplished
with the least possible fatigue of the pupils,
onlv part of the day's lesson should be studied
by any one child, then, " while he recites the
others will, by listening, learn his portion as if
at play."

The course of instruction should be divided
into four periods During the first, that of
infancy, the child should learn at home the
vernacular, Latin, and some history. If he
talk Latin in the morning with his master and
fellow pupils, " and the vernacular the rest of
the day with the women and servants," it is
quite possible for a knowledge of two languages
to be acquired simultaneously at an early age.
From his sixth to twelfth year the child should
attend the public school; " let him not live
too much at home, in order that he may learn
to care for himself " The studies of this
period include a " more special knowledge of
history," mathematics, elegantuv verborum,
and several natural sciences, together with
music and various physical exercises. From
twelve to eighteen the youth should have more
freedom, studying, " not under preceptors, but
friends," in the university Besides learning
a number of sciences, French and Italian, and
enough Greek and Hebrew to enable him to
read the Bible in the original, he should
" declaim publicly and act in stage-plays. "
The fourth period, beginning at eighteen (or
twenty, in the case of those who mature slowly),
should be devoted to travel and the study of
the, life, laws, and institutions, and the indus-

674

LEIGH, EDWARD

LEIPZIG

trial, commercial, and agricultural methods of
foreign countries To such studious pere-
grinatw Leibnitz at this time attached great
importance, not only for its benefits to the
individual, but also as a means of promoting
international good will, and of making the
special attainments of each people eventually
the possession of all Later (1696), m his
Projet de I Education d'un prince, he discoun-
tenances early foreign travel for curiously chau-
vinistic reasons But the principle discere
ludendo is still reiterated

The educational doctrine of the Mcthodus
Nova is an extraordinary production for the
seventeenth century It is remarkable not
only for what it contains, but also for what it is
free from There is in it none of that use of
vague analogies from the " method of Nature "
characteristic of Ratke and Comemus (qq v )
So far as it goes, the method of Leibnitz is
purely psychological

In 1711 Leibnitz wrote to a friend that he
had often contemplated a new edition of the
Mcthodus Nova and an amplification of the
part dealing with education in general
" There are, decidedly, some thoughts in this
little book which even now I do not think ill
of " This project of revision was never
executed But the book was reprinted in
1748, with a preface by Chr Wolff

A 0 L.
References : —

Avi/r, F B Leibnitz und ("onumus (Prague, 1867 )
GUHRAUEH, G E Leibmtz (Jubilee ed Breslau, 184(i )

Abridged Kngl tr hv Markic, J M Life of G W

Leibmtz (Boston, 1845 )

HULSEN, Lnbnitz ah Padaooyi (rharlottenburg, 1>7* )
LEIBNITZ Works (Opera Omma, ed by DutenB L ,

Geneva, 17G8, for the M cthodat. Nova, 8eo Vol IV,

pt m, pp 109 ff )
PFLEIDEUER, K Lnbnitz a/.s Patriot, Stafomaiin und

Bitdungistraoer (Leipzig, 1870 )
RUSHELL, B The Philosophy of Leibnitz (Cambridge,

1900)

See also BALDWIN, J M Dictionary of Philosophy
and Psychology, Vol III, pt 1, pp 330-338

LEIGH, EDWARD (1642-1671) —Writer
on the history of religion and learning;, born
at Shawell in Leicestershire He graduated
B.A. from Magdalen College, Oxford, in 1620,
and M A in 1623. He entered the Middle
Temple, and in 1625 spent six months in
France. In 1640 he was elected M P foi
Stafford He was a member of the Assembly
of Divines, and colonel in the Parliamentary
army In 1656 he published a Treatise of
Religion and Learning and of Religious and
Learned Men, in which he advocates the
"Syncretism of Religion or of a friendly
reconciliation of the different parties amongst
themselves." Of learning he distinguishes
three types: (1) that which draws us to itself
by its own force, e.g. virtue, knowledge, and
truth; (2) that which is desired for fruit and
profit, as money; (3) that which draws us both
by its force and dignity and by profit He
then proceeds to show how learning has always

been appreciated, and points out the value of
learning in different professions, especiallv the
clerical But human knowledge is valuable for
practice, not for ornament or pride In the
Scriptures are " all the treasures of natural
and moral philosophy, of politics, of poetry,
of history, of mathematics, of metaphysics "
Leigh still favors the seven liberal arts, and
also recommends the study of mathematics,
the civil and canon law, and oriental languages
He gives an account of universities at home
and abroad, and in the latter part of the work
adds a Biographical Dictionary of famous men
in religion and learning Another work by
Leigh is Three Diatribes or Discourses, First of
Travel or a Guide for Travellers into Foreign
Parts Secondly of Money and Coyns. Thirdly
of Measuring the Distance betwixt Place and
Place (1671 ) He points out the usefulness
to society at large from the journeys of travel-
errf, and gives examples of travel for study,
a?, a its value for the advance of the knowledge
of foreign languages, although he regards the
" Latin tongue " as still necessary for the
traveler For Leigh's references to books on
travel, see TRAVEL, EDUCATIONAL VALUE OF
Leigh was also well known for his System or
Body of Divinity wherein the fundamentals

of Religion are opened, the contrary ei roars
refuted, 1654 In connection with scholar-
ship, his most important production was
Cntica Sacra or Philologicall and Theologicall
Observations on all the Radices or Primitive
Hebrew Words of the Old Testament in Order
Alphabeticall (final form published 1662).
This was " the best Hebrew-English lexicon
of the age " (D M Welton, John Lightfoot,
the English Hebraist, Leipzig, 1878) F. W.

Reference : —

Dictionary of National Biography

LEIGH, EDWARD (1816-1889) — Educa-
tional writer and textbook author , graduated
from Brown University in 1835, and three
years later from the Andover Theological
Seminary For many years he was engaged in
educational work in St Louis Author of
Illiteracy in the United States, and readers,
spellers, and other school books W S M

LEIPZIG. — See GERMANY, EDUCATION IN.

LEIPZIG, THE ROYAL SAXON UNIVER-
SITY OF. — The second oldest university in
the present terntoiy of the German Empire,
having been established in 1409 by Papal Bull
of Alexander V under Frederick the Quarrel-
some, Landgrave of Thuringia and Margrave
of Meissen, and his brother William, who wel-
comed the German students on their leaving
the University of Prague under their professors
Otto von Munsterberg and Jphann Hoffmann
as a result of university legislation in favor of the
Bohemians The University of Prague served
in most particulars as a model The first year

675

LEIPZIG

LEIPZIG

369 students were enrolled The details of the
early history of the institution are somewhat
veiled in mystery, no definite information is
available, for example, as to whether the uni-
versity was composed from the very beginning
of the four traditional faculties Originally there
were two "colleges," which seived as homes
of students and professors, but the student
body rapidly outgrew these accommodations
By the close of the fifteenth century, Leipzig
eould boast of a larger attendance than any
other Noith German university, and soon be-
came for a time the most renowned institution
of higher learning in Germany, as it is unques-
tionably one of the foremost universities of the
world to-day The establishment of a univer-
sity in the neighboring town of Wittenberg
in 1502 made serious inroads on the attendance
at Leipzig, but from the close of the sixteenth
century on, through the seventeenth century,
the institution had a larger enrollment than anv
other German university By the beginning
of the sixteenth century Leipzig had become
thoroughly saturated with the humanistic
spint It was not until 1539, undei the influ-
ence of Melanchthon, that the pimciples of the
Reformation carried the day, a complete reor-
ganization being completed in the year 1559.
At this time Leipzig was the wealthiest univer-
sity in the land, but shortly afterwards a period
of deterioration set in, which lasted for over a
century, the institution being characterized by
an ultiaconservative spirit that looked askance
at improvements and innovations It was as a
result of this spirit that Thomasius (q v ) after
his dismissal turned to Halle, and began his
lectures in that city in 1690 (See HALLE, UNI-
VERSITY OF )

It was not until after the Napoleonic dis-
turbances were over that significant internal
reforms began to be instituted, in 1830 a
complete reorganization was effected, and in the
following year the erection of a new university
hall furnished an important addition to the
material equipment of the institution Thir-
teen years later a dormitory and a lecture build-
ing were added, and soon after a period of build-
ing activity was begun which resulted in the
erection of a whole series of institutes and clinics
of one kind or another (for illustrated descrip-
tion see the Festschrift cited under Refeiences),
of a splendid library, and of a new mam build-
ing (completed in 1897), Leipzig in this respect
being better equipped than most other German
universities The new Aula contains a colossal
painting by Max Khnger, representing the de-
velopment of Greek culture For several dec-
ades large contributions have been made by the
state, about three million dollars having been
supplied for building purposes between 1878 and
1902 Inasmuch as the kingdom of Saxony
has only one universitv to support, as against
ten in Prussia, usually large funds are available
for maintenance, the annual budget amounting
to nearly one million dollars, a sum exceeded

in Germany only by the appropriations made
for the University of Berlin The library was
founded in 1544 by Kaspar Borner, during whose
administration as rector of the university (1539-
1543) marked advances were made The new
building, which was completed at a cost of
over one million dollars in 1891, contains 550,000
volumes and about 6000 Mss The University
of Leipzig is especially well supplied with
institutes and departmental libraries, among
which may be mentioned the Germanistic
institute (11,000 volumes, Sievers), the in-
stitute for experimental psychology (Wundt),
the pedagogical seminar, the physical-chemistry
laboratory, and the Inxtitut fur Kultur- und
Unwersalgeschichte (22,000 volumes, Lam-
precht), of which the last, located in the Haus
zum golden en Bdren (erected in 1736, and occu-
pied by Gottsched up to the time of his death
in 1767), deserves particular mention The
faculty of philosophy includes a department of
agriculture with an agricultural institute, and
a department of veterinary medicine with a
veterinary clinic and a polychnic.

Among prominent teachers associated with
this institution mention may be made of
Johann Chnstoph Gottsched and Christian
Furchtegott Gellert in literature, Stobbe and
Wmdscheid in jurisprudence, Cohnheim in
pathology, Thiersch in surgery, Weber in anat-
omv, Curtius in classical, Wulker in English,
and Ilildebrand, Haupt, and Zarncke in Ger-
manic philology, Wachsmuth in history, Roscher
in economics, Overbeck in archaeology, Chris-
tian Hermann Weisse and Fechner in philos-
ophy, Johannes Olearius and Julius Franz
Dehtzsch in theology, Mobus in astronomy;
Leuckart in zoology, and Wishcenus in chem-
istry Goethe was a student at Leipzig from
1765 to 1768

In the winter semester of 1911-12 there
were 4900 matriculated students in attendance,
Leipzig being the third largest university in
Germany, and exceeded only by Berlin and
Munich Of these students 391 were enrolled
in the faculty of theology (Protestant), 872 in
law, 841 in medicine, 108 in dentistry, and 2816
in philosophy; in addition there were 926 audi-
tors The teaching staff consisted of 242 in-
structors, of whom 76 were docents The King
of Saxony is rector magmficentissimus, a rector
magmficus being elected annually by the faculty.

The city of Leipzig also contains a commer-
cial college founded in 1898 (about 500 stu-
dents), a Royal Conservatory of Music, an
institute for experimental pedagogy and psy-
chology, established by the Teachers' Associa-
tion of Leipzig in 1906, the library of the
imperial court (159,000 volumes), a city library
founded in 1677 (126,000 volumes), and a peda-
gogical central library founded in 1872 (over
150,000 volumes). R. T., Jr.

References —

BINDING, K Die Feier des fllrtfhundertf&hrigen Br-
stehenn dcr UniversitAt Leipzig, amtlicher Bcricht irn

676

LEISURE

LTCLAND UNIVERSITY

Auftragv de» akadtnnschen fienatw (London

1910)
BHUCHMtLLBR, W. Der Leipziger Xtudvnt, 140V -IUU4

Aus Natur und Gemteswelt Series (Leipzig, 1909 )
EULENBURG, F. Entwicklung der Univervittlt Leipzig

in den letzten hundert Jahren (Leipzig, 1909 )
Festschrift zur Frier des 600 jOhngcn Bestehena dtr

Umvereit&t Leipzig, herausKOReben von Rektor und

Senat. (Leipzig, 1909 )
FRIEDBERG, E Die Universitdt Leipzig m Vergangen-

heit und Gcgenwart (Leipzig, 1898 )
LEXIS. W. Das U-nterrichtswesen im deuischen Renfi,

Vol I, pp 503-534 (Berlin, 1<K)4 )
Minerva, Handhuch der gelehrten Welt (Strassbuie

1911)
SEELIGER, G Die Leipziger Urnversitut in fittherrn

Jahrhunderten In Leipziger Zeituchrift ftir Han-
dels-, Konkurs- und Versicherungsrecht, 1909, pp

577 ff

LEISURE — See PLAY

LELAND, CHARLES GODFREY (1824-
1903) — The American poet and authoi , exer-
cised a profound influence in the movement
for the introduction of the industrial arts in
schools In 1881 there was established under
hi& direction the Public Industrial Art School
of the city of Philadelphia, maintained from
funds appropriated by the school boaid
Leland himself had charge of design, while all
the other arts, modeling, painting, mosaic,
pottery, carpentry, woodcarving, cabinet-mak-
ing, metal work, embroidery, etc , were under
the charge of, though riot taught by, ,1 Liberty
Tadd The principle on which Leland based
his experiment was that the lace lias developed
the ornamental before the useful Such work
results in mental and moral improvement, forms
the foundation for trade preparation, and, if
generally introduced in all schools, public and
private, would break down false notions about
labor Leland's work attracted considerable
attention in America and Europe The British
Home Arts and Industries Association, of
which Walter Besant (q v ) was treasurei , was
inspired by Leland's work (Minor Artx) and
his school Leland wrote many practical guides
and manuals in various fields of industrial aits,
his chief work on the general subject is his
pamphlet on Industrial Art in Schools, con-
tained in the Circulars of Information issued
by the United States Bureau of Education (No
4,% 1882).

LELAND STANFORD JUNIOR UNIVER-
SITY, STANFORD UNIVERSITY, CAL — A

coeducational institution founded in 1885
through the gift of Mr and Mrs Leland Stan-
ford in memory of their son. " Its object is
to qualify students for personal success and
direct usefulness in life " The university is
located on the Palo Alto Farm in the Santa
Clara Valley, thirty miles southeast of San
Francisco. The grounds consist of over nine
thousand acres, partly level and partly rising
into the foothills of the Santa Cruz Range and
overlooking the Bay of San Francisco. The
central group of buildings is ranged round

677

two quadrangles, the one consisting of twelve,
the other of fourteen buildings The build-
ings of the medical department, which was
established in 1908, are located in San Fran-
cisco, and are four in number, including the
Lane Hospital Fifteen units are required for
entrance A four-year course leading to the
degree of Bachelor of Arts is, offered Tuition
is free except in the professional courses of
law arid medicine With the exception that
English composition is a prescribed study
in the first year for those who do not satisfy
the matriculation test, the undergraduate
Avork in all departments is elective Students
must select as their major subjects the work
of some one department, and as minors
Rome collateral work Advanced courses are
offered leading to the degree of Master of Arts,
the professional degree of Engineer, Juris
Doctor, Doctor of Medicine, and Doctor of
Philosophy The high school teachers' cer-
tif^iite is granted by state, city, and county
boards of education, on the recommendation
by the university, to candidates who have
fulfilled the requirements of the State Board of
Education The grammar school teachers'
certificate LS also granted to graduates of the
University on fulfilling the requirements The
University library contains 197,000 volumes,
including the Hopkins Railway Library,
the Thomas Welton Stanford Australasian
Library, the Ilildebiand Librarv, mainly of
works as Germanic philology and literature,
and the Jordan Librarv of Zoology, consisting
of several thousand volumes and pamphlets on
fishes The Leland Stanford Junior Museum
contains valuable collections of pictures, an-
tiquities, poitery, laces, and curios An active
fraternity life has been developed among the
students, many of whom live in the fraternity
houses The Students enrolled in 1911-1912
numbered 1762, distributed as follows- gradu-
ates, 208, undergraduates, 1450; specials, 104,
summer session, 59 Leland Stanford Jumoi
University is one of the institutions on the ac-
cepted list of the Carnegie Foundation for the
Advancement of Teaching It has a productive
fund amounting to .$21,000,000, and the income
for 1910-191 1 was $886,550 The faculty consists
of sixty-one professors, twenty-eight associate
professors, thirty-seven assistant professors, arid
forty-six instructors, and one hundred and
forty-seven lecturers and assistants David
Starr Jordan, Ph D , L L D , is the president

LELAND UNIVERSITY, NEW ORLEANS,

LA — A coeducational institution for colored
students, incorporated in 1870, and owing its
existence to the gifts of Mr Holbrook Cham-
berlain of Brooklyn College and normal
departments, each with preparatory depart-
ments, music, manual training, and theological
departments are maintained A number of
auxiliary schools arc under the charge of the
university The entrance requirements are

LEMBERG

LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM

equivalent to a four-year high school course.
The college course leads to the degree of A B
The faculty consists of sixty-eight members
The enrollment in 1911-1912 m all departments
was 1715.

LEMBERG, THE IMPERIAL ROYAL
FRANCIS UNIVERSITY OF — This uni-
versity is situated in the city of that name, the
capital of the province of Galicia, Austria, and
is the younger of the two Gahcian universities,
the older being Krakow It had its origin in a
Jesuit institution, established m the second half
of the seventeenth centuiy, the original charter
dating from the year 1661 It was not until
almost a century later, however, that this
charter received the Papal sanction, the con-
firmation of King August III in 1758 being
followed a year later by a bull of Pope Clement
XIII In 1784 the Jesuit college was trans-
iormed into a state institution by Ernperor
Joseph II, the language of instruction from this
time on until 1824 being Latin In 1805 the
institution was again reorganized and given the
tank of a lyceurn, and eleven years later it was
raised by Francis I to the dignity of a univer-
sity of three faculties, theology (Catholi0),
philosophy, and law and political science, the
medical faculty not having been added until
1891 The faculty of philosophy includes a de-
partment of pharmacy From 1824 until 1871
German was employed as the language of in-
struction in the faculty of philosophy and in the
majority of courses given under the faculty of
law Since that time, however, a number of
changes have been instituted, and at the present
day Polish holds complete sway The library
of the university contains about 220,000 vol-
umes, over 900 manuscripts, and almost 12,000
coins and medals The annual budget amounts
to approximately $275,000 In the winter sem-
ester of 1910-1911 there were 4704 students in
attendance, of whom the majority were regis-
tered in the faculty of law

Lemberg also contains a technical school,
founded in 1884, in which the language of in-
struction is Polish and which was attended by
1745 students in 1910-1911, a college of veteri-
nary medicine, founded in 1881, which grants
the degree of Doctor of Veterinary Medicine,
and the Ossolinski National Institute, which
contains a library of 130,000 volumes, espe-
cially valuable for Polish history and literature,
and almost 5000 manuscripts, over 2000 maps,
22,000 coins and medals, autographs, engrav-
ings, paintings, etc. R T , Jr.

References —

Acla Umversitatis Leopolilance in Galicia anno 1784

inaugurate (Lemberg, 1780 )
FINKEL, L , and STARZY^SKT, S ffistorya Umwersy-

tetu Lwowskiego (Lemberg, 1894 )
Minerva, Handbuch der gelehrten Welt (Stransburg,

1911 )
WOLF, G Kleinere historische Schnften, pp 1 nq

(Vienna, 1892.)

678

LENOX COLLEGE, HOPKINTON, IA.

— A coeducational institution opened in 1859;
it is under the care of the Presbyterian Synod
of Iowa There are maintained an academy,
college of liberal arts, a school for teachers,
and schools of commerce, agriculture, music,
expression, and art Two courses are offered,
leading respectively to the degrees of A B
and B.S The enrollment in 1910-1911 was
138 students The faculty numbers fifteen
members

LEONARD AND GERTRUDE — The title
of Pestalozzi's epoch-making educational ro-
mance See PESTALOZZI

LEONARDO FIBONACCI. — See FIBONACCI.
LEONARDO OF PISA — See FIBONACCI.

LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM (1729-

1781) — This German critic, dramatist, and
philosopher is one of the very few men who,
without becoming a teacher or a writer of
educational books, have won permanent places
for themselves in education He was born at
Kamontz, Saxony, and died at Wolfcributtol,
Brunswick He was the son of a Protestant
minister, and was destined for the Church He
early showed ability as a student, but the
attempts to give him university training, first
at Leipzig and then for medicine at Wittenberg,
resultod in failures, because of his growing
fondness for the drama He then decided to
make literature his profession In spite of finan-
cial limitations, many disappointments, and
frequent change of residence, he became the
best expression of the German Aufklarung, and
gave the Leibnitz- Wolffian philosophy a new
impulse by adding a poetical element and by
turning it into effective channels of individual
culture He may be credited with having
created the art of modern literary criticism,
and awakened the national, literary spirit
of modern Germany His greatest work is
Laokodn, or the Limits of the Plastic Arts and
Poetry (1766) His best dramatic writing is
Minna von Barnhelm (1767), which led the
way for a distinctive German literary expres-
sion, and in more recent years has been serv-
iceable in American schools as a reading text
for students of German While director of
the national theatei in Hamburg, he so pre-
sented the traits of dramatic art and so struggled
for freedom from French standards in the Ham-
burg dramatics (1767-1769) as to arouse critical
opposition to his aesthetic ideals. After being
compelled to cease the religious controversy
in his later years occasioned by his anonymous
publication of Reimarus's Wolfenbuttel Frag-
ments, he employed the drama as a means of
expressing his passion for freedom of thought,
writing Nathan the Wise (1778^1779).

Lessing's influence on education was in large
part directly due to his mariner of conceiving
and interpreting the problem of the spiritual

LESSING, GOTTHOLD EPHRAIM

LESSON PLANS

nature of man from the pedagogical point of
view The philosophical and religious issues
of his age received profound modification bo-
cause of the singular aid he brought to them
from his large and bold conception of education.
Education puts nothing foreign into a person,
but only anticipates what each one could secure
for himself Its results cannot be attained at
once, but depend upon irregular stages of de-
velopment It assumes the possibility of the
moral perfection of man, which includes the
ideals of rationality and freedom These can-
not be obtained by a single individual nor by a
single age. Education uses for purposes of dis-
cipline and instruction the material that can be
gathered only in experience The most impor-
tant problem in education is, not an arousing
of emotion, but a formation of the will through a
construction of a rational field of thought As
each individual appears at a certain level in the
total development of humanity, he must be
trained to look to the past, and not forget the
task of advancing the future Education is
the orderly arrangement of the development of
working ability in the pupil in conjunction with
the adapted order of the topics of instruction

God leads the human race in a way, not analo-
gous to, but identical with, the process of the
education of the individual Tracing this educa-
tional parallelism between the race and the in-
dividual is the task of Lessing's briefest, and one
of his most important books, the Education of
the Human Race (1780) Religious dogmas he
revised in the light of universal development
Religion and revelation go together, for the his-
tory of positive religion is meiely the divine edu-
cation of humanity Man's actions are guided
at first by instinct, reason slowly acquires di-
rection of the will, until finally freedom appears
Education is the natural and normal process
whose methods and ideals are applicable equally
to the individual and to the race The recapitu-
lation theories whieh play an important role
in the educational thinking of the nineteenth
century had their sane arid vigorous start in
Lessing's keen analysis of the educational
process and the application thereof to the
phenomena of reason, religion, histoiy, and
society E F. B.

See ^STHETICB; HUMANISM, NEC-HUMAN-
ISM

References —
LKSHINCI, G E The Education of the Human Race

Tr (Anon) (London, 1K58, pp 69) , also b\ F \\

Robertson (London, 18H3)
NIBMKYER, E Vber Leaning's Padaqogtk (Dresden,

1874)
REIN, W. Encyklopfaimrhea Handbuch <l<r Pilda-

gogik, s v. Leasing alt* Pddagog
REUTER, W. Leaaing's Erziehung des Mcnsthenge-

echlecht* (Leipzig, 1SS1 )

ROLLBBTON, ,T W H Life of G K Leaning (Con-
tains bibliography ) (London, 1SS4 )
STAHR, A. The Life and Work* of G E Leaving

Tr. by Evans (New York, 1873 )

LESSON PERIOD. — See SCHOOL MAN-
AGEMENT.

679

LESSON PLANS — It is the practice of
supervisors in training or practice schools to
demand plans of the lessons to be taught by
student-teachers or apprentices These are
written and submitted to the supervisor in
advance for criticism They vary somewhat
in form, but in general they agree in calling for
a statement of the special aims of the lesson,
the subject matter selected for the purpose,
and the pedagogical methods employed at
each step of the procedure The subject
mattei and the teaching procedure are fre-
quently stated in parallel columns so as to
indicate their i elation in time sequence
At first only a single lesson is included within
the plan, later several lessons may be included
within the unit of a larger topic, thus weekly,
monthly, and term plans of teaching procedure
may come within a single plan In certain
schools where close supervision of teaching is
provided, lesson plans extending over the
wider units of time may be required of teachers
in it. pi liar service

The lesson plan is useful in assisting the
young teacher to organize his work, in giving
the supervisor some means of preventing
avoidable mistakes and crudities, and in sav-
ing the teacher in the classroom from that
(liiTuseness which is likely to arise in adjust-
ing the process of instruction to the children's
interests, errors, questions, and doubts In
so far as the lesson plan fixes a general proce-
dure in the mind of the teacher and leaves the
specific adaptations to be made in the class-
room, it is a useful device Overinsistence upon
the writing and following of lesson plans may
make the instruction formal and rigid, depriv-
ing it of that flexibility and spontaneity
\\hich are requisite in using the full resources
of teacher and pupils The application of the
lesson plan in any very detailed way to the
supervision of teachers in service is a doubt-
ful procedure A trained and experienced
teacher charged with the full responsibility
of class contiol and instruction has neither the
need nor the energy for the preparation of
detailed written plans The teaching art is
so much a matter of opportune presentation
and interpretation of expenence that a clear
knowledge of the purposes of the school, a
scholarly command of subject matter, and a
command over the fundamental principles of
teaching once acquired aie about all that the
professionally trained and experienced teacher
requires bv way of preparation The rest is a
matter of insight and inventiveness in the face
of classroom situations Frequent self-criticism
and supervisory aid provide for the proper
growth required from year to year H S.

See TEACHERS, TRAINING OF; SUPERVISION
OF TEACHING.

References —

FINDLAY, .J J Principles of Class Teaching (Lon-
don, 1903 )
STRATER, G. D The Teaching Process. (New York, 1911)

LESSON, TYPES OF

LEWIS

LESSON, TYPES OF — The form "les-
son" is applied to the unit of 1 caching activity
which occurs within the time assigned to a
class period in the school schedule For the
purposes of administration these lessons are
designated in terms of the subject matter
treated, e g geography, reading, civics, or
geometry lessons For the pedagogical pur-
poses of teaching and supervision, they are
named after the dominant type of teaching
method employed in the lesson, e g drill, re-
view, examination, recitation, developmental
lessons 1 1 S

See TEACHING, TYPES OF

LETTER METHOD — Tn the teaching
of reading or spelling, any method which util-
izes the letter as a unit of analysis 01 synthesis
in the treatment of the structure or sound of
words is a " letter " method of teaching
Thus (1) teaching spelling or reading by
spelling the letters, the alphabetic method
(2) by sounding the letters, the phonetic-
alphabetic method, and (3) by marking the
letters and then sounding them, the diacriti-
cal method, are all species of the " letter "
method II S

See ALPHABETIC METHOD; PHONETIC
METHOD; DIACRITICAL METHOD, RE \DING,
TEACHING OF , SPELLING, TEACHING OF

LETTER -WRITING —See KPISTOUB

LETTERS AND ARMS —The famous
controversy as to the precedence of physical
prowess in war, or the mental tiiumphs of
learning and knowledge was part of the larger
dispute between noble birth and peisonal merit
The humanists appealed to Cicero's dictum,
redan t arm a toyr The Ingenious (Jentleman,
Don Quixote (pt 1, ch xxxvm Oims-
by's translation, pp 212 et xcyq], compaies
the student and the soldier, a favorite com-
parison, when the days of chivalry ripened
into the Renaissance Letters say that aims
cannot be maintained without the laws laid
down in military writers Arms can equallv
reply that without them laws laid down in
letters cannot be maintained, for states are
dependent for their very existence upon their
ar inies

Judged by difficulties of attainment, emi-
nence in letters may lequire " time, watching,
hunger, nakedness, headaches, indigestions,
etc " Hut to become a good soldier "costs a
man all the student suffers, and in an incom-
parably higher degree, for at every step he
runs the risk of losing his life " Don Quixote
makes an attack on "engines of artillery"
and assigns their invention to hell, for making
it easy "for a base and cowardly arm to take
the life of a gallant, gentleman " It is clear
that Don Quixote awards the palm to the
soldier over the student Mr H K Watts
(Don Quixote, Vol II p 211 n) quotes from

Bowles the name of a \\ork entitled A)/srf»Mo
supra la Lite delle Artm et delle Lcttcre (Fi-
renze, 1580) by Francesco Bocchi, who, like
Don Quixote, decides in favor of arms. He
also names a treatise entitled Pro Equitc
contta Literal DecJamaho by a Spaniard,
Juan Angel Gonzalez, published at Valencia
in 1549 In 1576 Louis Leroy wrote a book
contrasting modern and ancient knowledge,
and entitles it the Interchangeable Course or
Variety of Things in the whole World, and the
Concurrence of Arms and Learning, though
the first and fawousest Nations (translated
into English by Robert Ashlev in 1599) Le-
rov has no hesitation in awarding the palm
to learning, and this was the position taken up
in most of the books as the Renaissance spirit-
gamed sway The discussion natuiallv plays
an important part in the books on the educa-
tion of gentlemen and nobles (q v ) Thus,
Aschani (q v ) in his Schoolmaster (1570) de-
scribes the whole tendency of Castighone's
Cortcgiano (q v ), " To join learning with comely
exercises Conte Baldesar Castighone doth
trimly teach "

In 1595 William Jones translated the Nenmo
or Treatise of Nobility written bv John Bap-
tist a Nenna of Ban, who was both a doctor and
a knight The author hesitates to say which
is more excellent arid noble, " that which doc-
tors pui chase by their learning or knights
by arms " In 1598 J Keper translated the
Courtier* Academic of Count Hannibal Romei
(first published in Italian at Ferrara in 1588)
In this book Romei devotes a chapter to the
subject of the " Precedence- of Letters and
Arms, two most principall Faculties " — and
decides in favour of military art, which accord-
ing to the author has all the characteristics of
the liberal arts, viz " material subject, end, and
the instrument which to the end conduceth "

F W

See CHIVALTUC EDUCATION, GENTRY AND
NOBLES, EDUCATION OF

LEVELS OF DEVELOPMENT —See

GROWTH, CHILD PSYCHOLOGY; ADOLES-
CENCE AMD YOUTH; also PLATEAU.

LEVERETT, JOHN (1662 - 1724). — Sev-
enth president of Harvard College, educated
at the Boston Latin School and Harvard Col-
lege, graduating in 1680 He engaged first
in the ministry and later in political life He
was speaker of the House in the Massachu-
setts Legislature and judge of the supenor
court of that commonwealth He was presi-
dent of Harvard College from 1708 to 1724

W. S. M

LEWIS, DIO (1823-1886) —Author of
a system of gymnastics, graduated from the
Harvard Medical College (1845) He was
teacher in the public schools and lecturer on
physiology and physical training from 1837 to

680

LEWIS

LIBANIUS

1861, when ho founded in Boston a normal
school for the training of teachers of gymnas-
tics Author of New Gymnastic System (1862),
and many essays on physical training

W S M.

LEWIS, SAMUEL (1799 - 1854). — First
state superintendent of schools of Ohio He
attended the public schools and engaged in
teaching He did pioneei woik in Ohio, and,
as state superintendent (1837-1843), he investi-
gated the educational conditions of the state
on horseback, visiting ovei three hundred
schools during his hist yeat in office He se-
cured the enactment of a state school fund, the
privilege of loans to poor districts foi the
erection of schoolhouses, and tin* publication
of a state educational journal, Ohio School
Dtiector, of which lie was the hist editor
lie was one of the oigamzeis of the Western
Literary Institute (q v ), and continued a
member of the Ohio State Board of Education
fioin the cxpnation of his term of office to
the time of his death W S M

Reference • —

H \HN\HD, H \mcrican Journal of Education, ISoS,
Vol V, pp 71M-740

LEXICONS —Sec LATIN LANGU\GB AND
LITERATURE IN EDUCATION, DICTION VKIE.S

LEYDEN, UNIVERSITY OF, HOLLAND.

— One of the four roval umveisities of Hol-
land, founded in 1575 to commeinoiate the
successful end of the siege of the town bv the
Spaniards Given the choice bv William I
of immunity fiom taxation or the pel mission
to found the um\eisit>, the citizens piefened
to establish a " fiee public school and imnei-
Mty " The institution was housed at hist
in the Convent of the White Nuns, part of
which was rebuilt by the municipality in 1618
and is still u&ed "The university at once
became the centei and i allying point of Piotes-
tant students, Huguenots fiom Fiance and
Puritans from England, and attained a great
leputation in Euiope thiough the eminence of
its scholais and teacheis, among whom was
Joseph Scahgei, Lipsius, Vossius, Hemsius,
Giotms, Salnmsius, Roeihave, Armimus, etc
In 1807 the Leyden became a royal unneisity
of Holland, but in the Napoleonic iceonst ruc-
tion of 1811 it was tinned into an acadeim of
the University of France, only to be lestoied
to its earliei position in 1815 Its piesent
organization goes back to the Law foi Higher
Instruction of 1876 There aie now five
faculties law, medicine, science, letters,
and theology A remarkable feature of this
university, as of other Dutch universities, is the
extent of academic freedom enjoved by teach-
ers and students The enrollment in 1910-191 1
was 1195
See NETHERLANDS^, EDUCATION IN

References : —

Minerva, Haudbu&h der gelehrten Welt, Vol. I (iStrass-

burg, 1911 )
SANDYS, J K History of Classical Scholarship, Vol II.

(Cambridge, 1908 )
THWINQ, C F Universities of the World, pp. 49-65.

(New York, 1911 )

LEYS SCHOOL, CAMBRIDGE, ENG-
LAND — Sec GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, ENGLISH;
COLLEGE, COLLEGES, ENGLISH, PUBLIC

SCHOOLS,

LIBANIUS — A distinguished Greek sophist
(i c teacher of rhetoiie and oratory) of Antioch
in the fouith centui> A D He wab born in
314, of one of the inspected families of Antioch
His father dying \vhen he was eleven years
old, he was left to the care of his mother and
her two hi others, who undertook peisonally
to direct his education Until he was fifteen
he displayed little liking for books, but he was
then seized with a passionate deMie foi learn-
ing, which led him in the end to seek the soph-
ist's life At the age of twenty-two he went
to Athens, and spent four veais at the umvei-
sity theie He opened his hist school at Con-
stantinople, \\here he taught with great success,
but, being compelled b\ the mtiigues of nval
sophists to leave the city, he letned, first to
Nicira, then to Nicomedia At Nicomedia he
taught five veais, at the end of which time he
was lecallcd to Constantinople In 354 he le-
1110% ed to Antioch Theic he at first set up
a pmate school, but soon received an official
appointment, with a salary from the state
He taught at Antioch untif about 394, which
was piobablv the \ear of his death

Libamus's position as u sophist of Antioch"
(the title gnen him by John Chiysostom) was
one of great importance in the city, and earned
with it much peisonal influence The school
of which he was head consisted of himself,
at least foui "ihetors'1 (probably teachers of
the moie elemental y or technical, 01 of the more
piactical, as distinguished fiom the more
literary, part of oiatory), one or more "giam-
manans," or teacheis of literature, and, at one
time, a teachei of Latin, and possibly a teacher
of law Either by appointment 01 thiough
his personal influence, he acted as Direct 01
of the whole school and unnetsity s%stem of
Antioch, subject, of course, to the direction of
the municipal council and the empeior He
was the mouthpiece of council and teachers in
then dealings wilh each othei, and at timcb
made the selection of new teachers, arid deter-
mined, in some degree, the amounts of then
salanes Libamus's pupils came from all
paits of Asia, as well as from other parts of the
Greek world They went forth from his school
into nearly eveiy walk of life Though firm
in his adheience to the old faith, he numbered
among his friends pagans and Christians
alike Ho had great influence with all ranks
of officials, and was e\er ready to advance the

681

LIBANIUS

interests of his fellow citizens and of his city.
He was admitted to the intimacy of the Em-
peror Julian, by whom he was greatly admired,
and whose untimely death he bitterly lamented
Libanius has left us a considerable body of
writings They are sixty-four speeches, in-
cluding an autobiography, about fifty declama-
tions, a large mass of rhetorical and school ex-
ercises, such as descriptions, character sketches,
narratives, together with arguments to the
speeches of Demosthenes, and over fifteen hun-
dred letters, addressed to all classes and kinds
of men. The speeches are on topics and events
of the day, and they abound in autobiographi-

LlBANtUS

cal notices and in references to the life of the
times A like interest attaches to the letters,
which are invaluable for a depiction of Li-
banius's character and for information about
the men and the manners of the day

The best edition of Libanius is that of Richard
Forster, which is still in course of publication
and of which six volumes have been published
to date (1903-1911, Teubner, Leipzig).

J W. H. W.
References : —
SIEVEKH, G R Das Leben des Libaniux. (Berlin,

1868 )
WALDEN, J W H The Universities of Ancient Greece.

(New York, 1809.)

Printed in the United Stairs of America.

682

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1926

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COPYRIGHT, 1913,
BY THE MACMILLAN COMPANY.

Set up and electrotyped Publis^1ftMar£Vl*jl-
Reprinted May, 1914; August 1918; February,

1925; November, 1926.

A CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION

EDITED 1«V

1'Al'L MONKOK, PH.D.

PROFESSOR OF Till HJSjom OI I I>1 < YflON, TKVCHKKS COLLKGE
< 01 I MU1A I MM KMTA

DKPARTM KNTA L EDITORS

Enwxuh K IJuriiivKK, PH. I). . 1'iolcssoi ol Education and I'hiloso- l>if»<,K \PHV.

phv , Johns Hopkins University, PIIILOSOIMI\
lialtimoic, M<1

\\ILLI\M 11 J>i RXHAM, Pn.D. . Prolessoi oi Pedagogy and School ](\<,n\i

Hygiene, CKuk University, AVoices-
tfi, Mtiss.

(T\I;|{IIL (-oML'AYRE Inspectoi (u'licuil of Puhlu* Instiuc- EIUHAFFON IN

lion, Puns, Member oi the Insti- FJIA,\( i-
tute of Fi.uire

]CLL\V(»<>I> 1*. Ci HBKKLE\ , Pa.D . He.ul ol Department of Education, EDK \IIO\\L

Jjeland Stanioid Junior University, ADMIMM'II VIJO.N
Stanfoid University, C'al

.Joiiv Di^Wi'V, PH.]) , LL.l). . . Trolessoi of Plnlosopli) , Columbia PHILOSOPHY or

Univeisit}, New Yoik City EDUCATION

CII\I:LKS II JITDD, PH.!) , LL.D Dneetoi, School of Education, Uni- PSYCHOLO(;Y

M'iMt\ of Chicago, Clneago, 111

Vitnu u F [j A( H ChtiiiU Cominissionei for England MJDDLK A<,i s,

and \\ales, St. James, London RKFOKM vi ION

WILL S MONKOK, A K . . Pioiessoi ol P,s\< holog(\ and Histoiy l>rouu\vii\ ,

of Kdueation. State Normal School, AMKRICAX
Monti Ian, N J.

J. E G DK MOXTMOKKXCY, M.A., LL P> P>ai iistei-ut- Law, London ; Assist- HISTORY OF

ant Editoi, The Contem^oiartj Jle- EDITATIONXL

new Aj)i\iiMsru \TFON

WIUIKLM Mrxui, PH.D. . . . Late Pioiessoi of Pedagogy , Univei- EIM CATION jx

sity oi P>eilm, Ueilin, (Jprman\. (II-RMAXY

ANNA TOLMAX SMITH .... Sjiecialist, P>ui«'au of Kducation,\\'ash- NATIONAL

in^ton, DC SYSTKMS

HKNKY SUZZALLO, Pn.D. . . . Professor of the Philosophy of Educa- JVlFnion OF

tion, Teachers College, (.'oliuubia EDUCATIOX
University, New York City.

FOSTER WATSON, LiTT.D. . . . Professor of Education, University EM.LISH

College of Wales, Aberystwyth, EnuAri

Wales. HISTORY
v

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME IV

Francis A. Alabaster, A.M., Dean, Nebraska
Wesleyan University. (Nebraska Wen-
leyan University.)

Carter Alexander, Ph.D., Assistant Professor
of Educational Administration, Uni-
versity of Missouri . ( Umvers / ty of M i s-
souri.)

Benjamin R. Andrews, Ph. D., Secretary De-
partment of Household Arts, Teachers
College. (Educational Museums.)

Roswell P. Angier, Ph.D , Assistant Pro-
fessor of Psychology and Acting Director
of the Psychological Laboratory, Yale
University. (Topics in Psychology)

Joseph Cullen Ayer, Jr., Rev., Ph.D., Pro-
fessor of Ecclesiastical History, Divinity
School, Protestant Episcopal Church,
Philadelphia, Pa. (Topics in Early
Christian and Medieval Education )

Leonard P. Ayres, Ph.D , Director, Depart-
ment of Education, Russell Sage Foun-
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Schools )

Kendric C. Babcock, Ph.D., Specialist in
Higher Education, Bureau of Educa-
tion, Department of the Interior, Wash-
ington, D.C. (National University)

Elijah W. Bagster-Collins, A.M., Associate
Professor of German, Teachers College,
Columbia University (Modern Lan-
guages.)

Franklin T Baker, Litt.D., Professor of
English Language and Literature,
Teachers College, Columbia University.
(Children's Literature.)

Harry E. Bard, Ph.D., Formerly Commis-
sioner of Education, Peru. (Education
in Peru )

David P. Barrows, Ph.D., Professor of Po-
litical Science, University of California.
(Education in the Philippines.)

James L. Barton, D.D , Secretary American
Board of Commissioners for Foreign
Missions, Boston (Educational Aspect
of Modern Missions.)

Maurice A. Bigelow, Ph.D., Professor of
Biology, Teachers College, Columbia
University. (Topics in Biology)

R. Blair, M.A., B.Sc., Education Officer to
the London County Council (Edu-
cation in London.)

Charles K. Bolton, A.B., Librarian, Library
of Boston Athenaeum, and Associate

Professor of Library Science in Simmons
Col 1 ege . ( libraries . )

Edward F. Buchner, Ph.D , Professor of
Education and Philosophy, Johns Hop-
kins University (Educational Philoso-
phers.)

Anna Buckbee, Instructor of Pedagogy,
State Normal School, California, Pa.
(Otnvego Movement.)

John C. Burg, Secretary to President, North-
western University, Evanston, 111.
( Northwestern University.)

John Burnet, LL.D., Professor of Greek,
The University, St. Andrews, Scotland.
(Plato.)

William H. Burnham, Ph.D., Professor
of Pedagogy and School Hygiene,
Clark University. (Topics in School
Hygiene.)

Calvin B Cady, Lecturer in Music, Teachers
College, Columbia University (Music
and Musical Terms )

Edward H. Cameron, Ph.D , Assistant Pro-
fessor of Psychology, Yale University.
(Topics in Psychology )

E Kate Carman, Public Schools, Indian-
apolis, Ind. (Lunches and Lunchrooms
in Schools )

Walter G. Clippinger, A.B , President of
Otterbein University, Westerville, O.
(Otterbem University.)

Morris R. Cohen, Ph.D , Assistant Professor
of Philosophy, College of the City of
New York. (Philosophy.)

Percival R Cole, Ph.D , Vice Principal of
the Training College, Sydney, Australia.
(Education m New Zealand.)

Cora Helen Coolidge, Dean, Pennsylvania
College* for Women, Pittsburgh.
(Pennsylvania College for Women.)

Ida M. Coppinger, American Colonization
Society, Washington, D.C (Educa-
tion in Liberia.)

C. Ward Crampton, M.D., Director of
Physical Training, Board of Education,
New York City. (Physiological Age.)

G. C. Creelman, B.S.A., LL.D., President,
Ontario Agricultural College, Guelph,
Can. (Ontario Agricultural College.)

Ell wood P. Cubberley, Ph D., Professor of
Education, Leland Stanford Jr. Uni-
versity. (Educational Administration;
Mate Systems of Education.)

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME IV

George S. Davis, LL D., President

College, New York City ( \onnnl
College, New York City.)

Isaac N. Demmon, LL.D , Professor of
English, University of Michigan.
(University of Michigan.)

John Dewey, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor ot
Philosophy, Columbia University.
(Topics in Philosophy of Education.)

Grace N. Dolson, Ph.D , Instructor in Phi-
losophy, Smith College. (Nietzsche )

Fletcher B Dresslar, Ph IX, Specialist in
School Hygiene, IT. S Bureau oi Edu-
cation, Washington, D.C. (Lighting of
School Houses.)

Samuel T. Dutton, A.M., LL D., Professor
of School Administration and Superin-
tendent of Teachers College Schools,
Columbia University (International
Peace and Education )

Edward C. Elliott, Ph.D , Professor of Edu-
cation ; Director, Course for the Train-
ing of Teachers, University of Wiscon-
sin. (Teachers' Pensions)

Alston Ellis, Ph D., LL.D,, President Ohio
University, Athens, O. (Ohw Univer-
sity.)

Charles H. Farnsworth, Associate Professor
of Music, Teachers College, Columbia
University. (Music in Education.}

Frederic E. Farrington, Ph.D., Associate Pro-
fessor of Educational Administration,
Teachers College, Columbia University
(French Educators.)

John H. Finley, LL.D., President, College
of the City of New York (Munici-
pal Colleges and Universities ; College
of the City of New York.)

Abraham Flexner, A.M., Specialist, General
Education Board. (Medical Education )

Homer Folks, Secretary, State Charities Aid
Association, New York City. (Educa-
tional Aspects of Modern, Philanthropy )

Julius I. Foust, Ph.B., President, North
Carolina Normal Industrial ( Allege
(North Carolina Normal Industrial
Cottege.)

Shepherd I. Franz, Ph.D., Scientific Dirccloi
and Psychologist, Government Hospi-
tal for the Insane ; Professor of Phys-
iology, George Washington University
(Topics in Psychology.)

Harry M. Gage, Dean, Parsons College, Fair-
field, Iowa. (Parsons College.)

Raymond G Gettell, M.A., Northam Pro-
fessor of History and Political Science,
Trinity College, Hartford, Conn. (Po-
litical Science.)

Willystine Goodsell, Ph.D., Assistant Pro-
fessor of the History of Education,
Teachers ( College, Columbia University.
(Petrarch.)

Edward McQ. Gray, Ph.D., President of
University of New Mexico. ( Univer-
sity of New Mexico.)

Louis H. Gray, A M., Ph.D., Assistant Ed-
itor on Hastings' Encyclopedia of Religion
and Ethics. (Oriental Studies.)

J. William Harris, Ph.D., Professor of Edu-
cation, University of the Pacific, San
Jose, Cal ( University of the Pacific.)

Philip J. Hartog, M.A., B.Sc., Academic
Registrar, University of London.
( University of London.)

William Heaford, Journalist, London.
(Modern School.)

Charles R. Henderson, PhD., D.D., Pro-
fessor of Sociology and Head of the
Department of Practical Sociology ;
University Chaplain, University of
Chicago (Educational Aspects of Pe-
nology.)

Ernest N. Henderson, Ph.D., Professor of
Philosophy and Education, Adelphi
( College. (Moral Educati on ; Peda-

Milo B Hillegas, Ph.D., Assistant Profes-
sor of Elementary Education, Teachers
College, Columbia University. (Mon-
lesson Method.)

Henry Holman, M.A., Formerly Professor of
Education m the University College of
Wales, Aberystwyth. (Pestalozzi.)

Williston S Hough, Ph.M , Late Dean and
Professor of Philosophy, George Wash-
ington University, Washington, D C.
(Logic.)

Ira W Howerth, Ph.D., Professor of Educa-
tion and University Extension, Univer-
sity of California. (Patriotism.)

A V Williams Jackson, Ph.D., LL.D., Pro-
fessor of Indo-Iraman Languages, Co-
lumbia University (Oriental Studies;
Per si an Kd u,cat ton.)

Joseph Jastrow, Ph.D., Professor of Psy-
chology, University of Wisconsin.
(Mesmerism ; Mi nd-readmg.)

John B Johnston, Ph.D., Professor of Com-
parative Neurology, University of Min-
nesota. ( University of Minnesota.)

Wm. Dawson Johnston, Litt.D., Librarian
of Columbia University. (Libraries:
Pedagogical Libraries.)

E. Joranson, Principal of Northwestern
College, Fergus Falls, Minn. (North-
western College.)

Vlll

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME IV

Charles H. Judd., Ph.D., LL. D.,' Professor
and Head of the Department of Educa-
tion, Director of the School of Educa-
tion, University of Chicago. (Topics in
Educational Psychology.)

Isaac L. Kandel, Ph.D., Teaching Fellow,
Teachers College, Columbia University.
(Topics in Educational History and
A dministrat ion.)

Henry C. King, D.D., President of Oberlm
College. (OberKn College.)

George C. Keidel, Ph.D., Associate in Ro-
mance Languages, Johns Hopkins Uni-
versity. (Myths and Mythology.)

George P. Krapp, Ph.D., Professor of Eng-
lish, Columbia University Philology;
Teaching of English Literature.)

Edward Kremers, Ph.G., Ph.D., Director
of the Course in Pharmacy ; Professor
of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Univer-
sity of Wisconsin. (Education in
Pharmacy )

E. G. Lancaster, Ph.D., President of Olivet
College. (Olivet College.)

Arthur F. Leach, Charity Commissioner for
England and Wales, London. (Topics
in English Educational History.)

Gonzalez Lodge, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor
of Latin and Greek, Teachers College,
Columbia University. (Ovid.)

Samuel B. McCormick, D.D., LL.D., Chan-
cellor, University of Pittsburgh. ( Uni-
versity of Pittsburgh.)

Charles T. McFarlane, Pd.D., Controller of
Teachers College, Columbia University
(Maps, Charts, etc )

Richard C MacLaurin, LL.D., President of
Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
(Massachusetts Institute of Technology.)

Frank L. McVey, Ph.D., LL.D., President
of the University of North Dakota.
( University of North Dakota.)

C. Riborg Mann, Ph.D., Associate Pro-
fessor of Physics, University of Chicago.
(Physics.)

Shailer Mathews, D.D., Professor of His-
torical and Comparative Theology ,
Dean of the Divinity School, University
of Chicago. (Pedagogy of the New
Testament.)

Charles M. Melden, D.D., President of the
University of New Orleans. ( Univer-
sity of New Orleans.)

George L. Meylan, M.D., Associate Pro-
fessor of Physical Education and
Medical Director of the Gymnasium ,
Columbia University. (Henrik Ling;
Olympic Games; Physical Education.)

Paul Monroe, Ph.D., Professor of the His-
tory of Education, Teachers College,
Columbia University. (Topics in the
History of Education.)

Will S. Monroe, Ph.D , Professor of Psy-
chology and Education, State Normal
School, Montclair, N.J. (American
Biography , etc . )

Frederick Monteser, Ph.D., Head of Ger-
man Department, DeWitt Clinton High
School, New York City; formerly
Lecturer on Education, New York Uni-
versity. (German Educational Biog-
raphy.)

J. E. G. de Montmorency, B.A., LL.B.,
Library Editor of The Contemporary
Review; Barrister, London, England.
(Topics in English Educational History )

Vida F. Moore, Ph.D., Professor of Phi-
losophy and Pedagogy, Elmira College.
(Lotze.)

William F. Notz, Rev., Ph.D., Professor of
English and Hebrew, Northwestern
College, Watertown, Wis (Lutheran
Church and Education in the United
States.)

Mary A. Nutting, Professor of Nursing and
Health, Teachers College, Columbia
University. (Education for Nursing )

George Ordahl, Ph.D., Professor of Psy-
chology and Education, University of
Nevada. ( University of Nevada.)

M. Vincent O'Shea, B.L., Professor of Edu-
cation, University of Wisconsin. (Edu-
cation for Parenthood.)

Edwin B Owen, B.S., Registrar, North
Carolina Agricultural and Mechanical
College. (North Carolina Agricultural
and Mechanical College.)

John L. A. Paton, M.A., High Master, Man-
chester Grammar School, Manchester,
England (John B. Paton.)

Arthur G. Paul, A.B., Registrar; Instructor
in English, Occidental College, Los
Angeles, Cal. (Occidental College.)

Josiah H. Penniman, Ph.D , LL.D., Vice-
Provost, University of Pennsylvania.
( University of Pennsylvania.)

Clarence Arthur Perry, Division of Recrea-
tion, Russell Sage Foundation, New
York City. (Playgrounds.)

Clark E. Per singer, A.M., Associate Pro-
fessor of American History, University
of Nebraska. ( University of Nebraska.)

Jean Phillipe, Ph.D., Associate Director of
the Laboratory of Physiological Psy-
chology, Sorbonne, Paris. (Henri
Marion.)

iz

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME IV

Walter B. Pillsbury, Ph.D., Professor of
Psychology, University of Michigan.
(Topics in Psychology.)

C. H. PluggS, Bureau of Education, Wash-
ington, D.C. (Education in the Nether-
lands.)

Mary W. Plummer, Principal, Library
School. The New York Public Library.
(Training for Library Service.)

Robert W. Prescott, Secretary to President,
University of Oregon. ( University of
Oregon.)

William M. Proctor, A.M., Professor of
Education and Biblical Literature, Pa-
cific University, Forest Grove, Ore.
(Pacific University.)

George H. Putnam, LL.D., Publisher and
Author, New York City. (Literary
Censorship.)

Hastings Rashdall, Rev., D.Litt , D.C.S.,
Canon of Herford. (Oxford University.)

Josephine A. Rathbone, Vice-Director,
School of Library Science, Pratt In-
stitute, Brooklyn, N.Y. (Libraries :
School Libraries.)

Wyllys Rede, A.M., D.I), Acting Pro-
fessor of Philosophy and Ethics,
Goucher College, Baltimore, Md.
(Philosophers and Church Fathers.)

Rudolph R. Reeder, Ph.D., Superintendent,
Orphanage, Hastings-on-Hudson (Or-
phanage Homes and Schools.)

Charles R. Richards, S.B., Director, Cooper
Union for the Advancement of Science
and Art, New York City. (Manual
Training.)

L. S. Rowe, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of
Political Science, University of Penn-
sylvania. (Education in Mexico.)

Elizabeth Rusk, Instructor in Psychology,
Brooklyn Training School. (Object
Teaching.)

Michael E. Sadler, LL.D., Litt.D., Vice-
Chancellor, The University, Leeds, Eng-
land. (English Educational Biography.)

David Salmon, Principal, Training College,
Swansea, Wales. (Topics in English
Educational History.)

Charles F. Sanders, Rev., A.M., Professor
of Philosophy, Pennsylvania College,
Gettysburg, Pa. (Pennsylvania College.)

Peter Sandiford, M.Sc., Ph.D., Lecturer in
Education, Manchester University,
England. (Part Time School Attend-
ance.)

William N. Schwarze, Rev., Ph.D., Resident
Professor of Greek, German, English,
The Moravian College and Theological

Seminary, Bethlehem, Pa. (Moravian
Church and Education.)

Jesse B. Sears, Assistant Professor of Edu-
cation, Leland Stanford Jr. University.
(Educational Philanthropy.)

Carl E. Seashore, Ph.D., Professor of Psy-
chology and Dean of the Graduate
College, State University of Iowa.
(Noise; Pitch.)

Jane Sherzer, Ph.D., President; Professor
of English, Oxford College for Women,
Oxford, O. (Oxford College for Women.)

Raymond W. Sies, Professor of School Ad-
ministration, School of Education, Uni-
versity of Pittsburgh. (Teachers1 Pen-
sions.)

Anna Tolman Smith, Specialist in Education,
United States Bureau of Education,
Washington, D.C. (National Systems
of Education.)

David Eugene Smith, Ph.D , LL.D., Pro-
fessor of Mathematics, Teachers Col-
lege, Columbia University. (Topics in
Mathematics.)

Roy C Smith, Captain, United States Navy.
(Naval Education.)

Edwin E. Sparks, LL.D., President of Penn-
sylvania State College. (Pennsylvania
State College.)

J. E. Spingarn, Ph.D., Formerly Professor
of Comparative Literature, Columbia
University. (Comparative Literature.)

Charles H. Spooner, LL.D., President of
Norwich University, Northfield, Vt.
( Norwi ch University . )

George C. Sprague, Ph.D., Registrar New
York University (New York Uni-
versity.)

Henry Suzzallo, Ph.D., Professor of the
Philosophy of Education, Teachers Col-
lege, Columbia University. (Topics in
Educational Method.)

Eben Swift, Colonel, United States Army
(Military Education.)

Frank Thilly, Ph.D., LL.D., Professor of
Philosophy, Cornell University. (Paul-
sen.)

John M. Thomas, D.D., President of Mid-
dlebury College, Middlebury, Vt.
(Middlebury College.)

Wm. Oxley Thompson, D.D., LL.D., Presi-
dent of Ohio State University. (Ohio
State University.)

Edward Bradford Titchener, D.Sc.,
Litt.D., Ph.D., LL.D., Sage Professor
of Psychology in the Graduate School,
Cornell University. (Mental Measure-
ments.)

CONTRIBUTORS TO VOLUME IV

Rudolf Tombo, Jr., Ph.D., Associate Pro-
fessor of the Germanic Languages
and Literatures, Director of the
Deutsche Haus, Columbia University.
(German Universities.)

William Turner, Rev., S.T.D., Professor of
Philosophy, Catholic University of Amer-
ica, Washington, D.C. (Peter Lombard.)

Harlan Updegraff, Ph.D., Professor of
Education, Northwestern University,
Evanston. (Moving School.)

Clifford Brewster Upton, A.M , Assistant
Professor of Mathematics, and Secre-
tary, Teachers College, Columbia Uni-
versity. (Mechanical Calculation )

Francis P. Venable, Ph.D., LL D , President
of University of North Carolina. ( U in-
versely of North Carolina )

J. W. H. Walden, Ph.D., formerly Instruc-
tor in Latin, Harvard University.
(Marcus Aurelrus )

Edward J. Walsh, Rev , C.M., President of
Niagara University, Niagara Falls, N.Y.
( Niagara Un wersi ty . )

Booker T. Washington, AM , LLD., Prin-
cipal, Tuskegee Normal and Industrial
Institute. (Negro Education)

Foster Watson, M.A , Litt.D., Professor of
Education, University College of Wales,
Aberystwyth, Wales (Topics in Eng-
lish Educational History.)

Raymond Weeks, Ph.D., Professor of Ro-
mance Languages and Literatures,
Columbia University. (Phonetics.)

Adolf Weidig, Associate Director American
Conservatory of Music, Chicago.
( Music Schools . )

Herbert Welch, Rev., D.D., President* of
Ohio Wesleyan University. (Ohio Wes-
ley an University.)

Charles Welsh, Editor and Author, New
York City. ( Nursery Rhymes.)

Guy Montrose Whipple, Ph.D., Assistant
Professor of Education, Cornell Uni-
versity. (Topics in Psychology.)

Walter Williams, LL.D., Professor of the
History and Principles of Journalism
and Dean of the Faculty of Journalism,
University of Missouri. (Newspapers
and Periodicals.)

John D. Wolcott, Ph.D., Chief of Library
Division, Department of the Interior,
Bureau of Education, Washington,
D.C. (Official Publications m Educa-
tion )

Frederick J. E Woodbridge, Ph.D., LL.D.,
Deun of Graduate Faculties and John-
sonian Professor of Philosophy, Colum-
bia University (Locke )

Robert S. Woodworth, Ph.D., Professor of
Psychology, Columbia University.
( Nervous System.)

FULL-PACE ILLUSTRATIONS

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A CYCLOPEDIA OF EDUCATION

(4)

LIBERAL ARTS — A term used in contra-
distinction to the fine arts on the one hand and
the technical and practical arts on the other
(for the former, see AHT IN THE SCHOOLS, etc ,
for the latter see INDUSTRIAL EDUCATIOIS and
TECHNICAL EDUCATION) The liberal arts have
constituted from the time of the Greeks the
curriculum of secondary and higher schoolb
The function of the liberal arts in education is
discussed in the aspects in ART IN EDUCATION,
COURSE OF STUDY, THEORY OF, and LIBER \L
EDUCATION The other aspects of greatest
educational interest of the liberal arts con-
cerns their organization into a curriculum and
the development of scholastic degrees in con-
nection with them.

During the Middle Ages the liberal arts were
organized into a distinctive curriculum, includ-
ing seven of the arts only The " Seven Lib-
eral Arts" included substantially all learning
These subjects comprise grammar, rhetoric,
and dialectic, also called the trivium, and arith-
metic,, geometry, astronomy, and music, also
called the quadrivium The distinction be-
tween the lower and higher groups of subjects
goes back to Plato, who found in music and
gymnastics, the traditional Greek cunicu-
lum, sufficient material for the earliest stages
of education, but organized an advanced stage
in which the appropriate subjects were arith-
metic, geometry, music, and astronomy. Dia-
lectic or philosophy was recognized as a yet-
higher stage, appropriate only for the intel-
lectual class Aristotle's treatment of the
curriculum is incomplete, and does not include
discussion of the advanced stages He adds
reading, writing, and drawing to the traditional
rnusic and gymnastics of the old Greek curricu-
lum It is evident that he would add some
study of the natural sciences to the advanced
subjects These were called the liberal sub-
jects The sophists and rhetors laid especial
emphasis on the three introductory subjects,
grammar, rhetoric, and dialectic, using dia-
lectic to indicate logic, now scientifically
formulated by Aristotle and no longer the
general philosophical study of Plato. The
Romans borrowed the Greek organization of
learning, making it more systematic M. T
Varro, a contemporary of Cicero and Caesar,
wrote a treatise, now lost, on The Nine Liberal
Disciplines. To the seven of later authority
were added medicine and architecture Qum-
tilian and Seneca wrote on these subjects,

VOL. IV — B

but assigned no definite number of studies to
an approved curriculum. During the fourth
century Martiarius Capella (q v ) wrote the
Marriage of Philology and Mercury, in which
for the first time the arts appear authorita-
tively as seven The arts represent the brides-
maids in a heavenly wedding, and on the ground
of their mundane characters medicine and ar-
chitecture are omitted At about the same
period Augustine wrote a treatise on six of the
liberal arts, omitting astronomy and possibly
other subjects because of other work and in-
terests

Probably Cassiodorus (q v ) (480-575) was
the first to assign the limit of seven as
authoritative This he did in his treatise DC
Artibus et Dit>ctphrn*> Libcrahum Literaruw,
which formed a companion piece to a work on
sacred literature, both written for his monastic-
brethren Here the seven pillars of the temple
of Wisdom referred to in Proverbs (ix, 1) is
given as conclusive evidence of the hxity of
the curriculum Thus, as the Roman had ab-
sorbed the Greek, so the Christian accepts
the Roman organization of learning Isi-
dore of Seville (q.v ), who comes shortly after,
limits the subjects to seven and uses the
terms trivium and quadnmam Succeeding
medieval writers indicate that the terms are
fixed. Many of the great monastic leaders,
later the schoolmen, and in fact all who wrote
on education, give treatises on all or some of
the seven liberal arts Especially is this true
of the earlier periods, with such as Alcuin
(qv), Rabanus Maurus (qv), with whom
as with the later schoolmen, interest was more
intense in philosophical and dialectic discus-
sions Painting, sculpture, and engraving
add their testimony to the universality of this
organization of learning even after the Renais-
sance brought that wider interest in knowledge
which finally resulted in the overthrow of the
fixed restricted conception of the limits and di-
visions of learning Yet it must not be under-
stood that the content of these various subjects
was the same as in modern times For the
most part the extent of these subjects was far
broader, even if the content of some of them
was not so profound

Grammar. — This subject included the studv
of literature as well as that of the grammatical
structure of languages Quintilian says of the
subject (I, 4) " This profession, distinguished,
as it is, into two parts, the art of speaking cor-

LIBERAL ARTS

LIBERAL ARTS

reetly, and the illustration of the poets, carries
more beneath the surface than it shows on its
fiont." The same conception prevailed with
the later Greeks Dionysius Thrax (c 160
B c.) divided grammar into six parts 4< (1)
trained reading, with due regard to prosody,

(2) exposition, according to poetic figures ,

(3) ready statement of dialectic peculiarities
and illusions; (4) discovery of etymologies, (5)
accurate account of analogies, (6) criticism of
poetical productions, which is the noblest part
of the grammatical art " The medieval defi-
nitions are quite as broad Isidore defines
grammar as " the science of correct speaking
and of the sources and foundations of litera-
ture "; Rabanus Maurus, as "the science of
interpreting the poets and histories and the
method of correct writing and speaking "

Grammar was thus equivalent to our term
"language and literature/' and as such monop-
olized the attention of students during the
early half of the Middle Ages and formed a
broad foundation for the elaborated curricu-
lum of the later Middle Ages

The purpose of grammatical instruction was
first, then, to give the student a working knowl-
edge of the Latin language To do this to
those who had no vernacular training, since
Latin had now become a "dead" language, or
at least a foreign tongue, with few books for
the students, was a new task As aids to this
new educational problem a great vaiietv of
texts were produced Donatus (q v) still fur-
nished the foundation But a number of
compilations of proverbs, fables, dialogues, or
colloquies were produced to gi\e a readier
command through inductive methods The
so-called Cato's DibUchs (q.v), a senes of 143
couplets or moral maxims, formed the most
popular. Memorizing of these gave a vocabu-
lary and a working knowledge. Other gram-
mars supplemented those of Donatus and the
more elaborate one of Pnscian (See LATIN
LANGUAGE.) Some of these were component
parts of encyclopedic works on the Seven
Liberal Arts, such as those of Capella, Cassio-
dorus, Augustine, Isidore of Seville, Alcuin,
and Rabanus Maurus Each century, however,
produced a number of independent treatises
on Latin grammar, most of them introductory
texts, more appropriate to the task of introduc-
ing the pupil into a foreign tongue in an age
when general culture was at a minimum and
books and other ordinary means -of instruction
were scarce. The most noted of all these texts
was the Doctnnale of Alexander de Villedieu
(q.v ), written in 1199 Its most striking char-
acteristic was that it was written entirely in
verse. When the method of introductory
grammatical study was wholly by memorizing,
such a text had great advantages It became
very popular, almost replacing the other text
and rivaling Donatus The Doctnnale em-
bodied many of the changes which the language
had undergone in the period intervening since

Pnsemn's work, incorporated a vocabulaiy
moie necessary to the Church, and adopted
methods more in harmony with the dominant
dialectic interests Other popular texts, such
as Bethune's Giasdsjnus, were also in verse.
In addition to the giammars, numerous vocabu-
laries appeared in the various vernaculars to
assist the grammar student

The extent to which the study of grammar
introduced to a knowledge of literature is much
disputed Priscian quotes the Mneid of Vergil
more than 700 times in his grammar. Aris-
tophanes, Aristotle, Julius Caesar, Cicero,
Demosthenes, Herodotus, Homer, Horace,
Juvenal, Lucretius, Ovid, Sallust, Terence, and
other writers are also quoted, some of them more
than a hundred times Naturally none of the
later texts contained anything like this amount
of literary material. But a thorough study of
Priscian would give a fair introduction to some
of the Latin authors. To what extent the
authors themselves were read is even a more
disputed question Whatever the facts may
be, it is evident from recent investigation,
that the old opinion concerning the igno-
rance of the Middle Ages must be revised
to a very considerable degree Thcodulphus,
Bishop of Orleans and successor of Alcuin,
states that he actually taught from Vergil,
Ovid, Pompeius, Sedulius, Rutihus, Arator,
Fortunatus, Juvencus, Pruderitius. A century
later Walter von Spier comprised in his gram-
matical studies Vergil, the Latin Homer,
Horace, Persius, Juvenal, Statius, Terence,
Laetantius, Boethius, and Constantino Such
lists could be extended indefinitely. Students
from various centuries have left testimony as
to literary activities quite as extensive. It is
but natural that the Christian authors should
predominate But a knowledge of classic
literature was not extinct.

Rhetoric — This formed the most impor-
tant subject of study in Roman education, but
during the Middle Ages it was the least impor-
tant of the subjects of the trivium Rhetorical
training was essential in a society where politi-
cal interests were dominant, but it had little
significance in the training of the clergy or the
men of public affairs during the Middle Ages ,
for church services called for little or no ora-
torical power, and public affairs developed no
learned or trained class aside from the clergy
Rabanus Maurus states in his treatise on rhet-
oric, " It is sufficient if youths give some atten-
tion to the study of rhetoric Even then not
all who expect to enter the priesthood, but
only those who are not as yet obliged to devote
their time to pursuits of greater usefulness,
should study the subject. At any rate one who
wishes to acquire the art of eloquence can do BO
more advantageously by reading and hearing
great orators than by studying the rules of
rhetoric/' But there was a general need in
an uncultured society for a professional class
that could write and compose the various docu-

LIBERAL ARTS

LIBERAL ARTS

luents necessary in the complicated ecclesias-
tical, legal, and political life of the times

The study of rhetoric then became directed
to two objects training in composing letters to
various people in authority and in constructing
various documents such as contracts, wills,
decrees, deeds, commendations, immunities, or
records of any kind The first was known as
E pi stole? , the second as Dictamen (q v ) While
the various encyclopedic texts, based largely
on the old Roman writers, such as those of
Cussiodorus, Capella, Isidore, and Rabanus
Maurus, continued to be used to some extent,
far more popular were the various textbooks
prepared on Epwtolw and Dictamen. The
former texts dealt in a formal way with the
superscription, salutation, exordium, narra-
tion, petition, conclusion, and subscription;
the latter contain models for the various kinds
of documents needed in temporal and ecclesias-
tical affairs and in common life, such as privi-
leges, commissions, citations, donations, peti-
tions, exemptions, visitations, etc Many
manuscripts left are the dictation of teachers
or the exercise work of scholars, and it is now
thought that frequent instances of this charac-
ter were but recently held to be pious forgeries
of designing ecclesiastics With the founding
of the universities the study of rhetoric merged
into the study of Roman law, into which the
Dictamen developed. In some universities,
courses in the Ars epistolandi were also given

Logic — This subject was identical with
dialectic, but though closely bound up with
philosophy and metaphysics, did not include
them as a school subject Especially during
the early Middle Ages were metaphysical and
philosophical interests quite foreign With
the development of theological interests in the
eleventh century, metaphysical distinctions and
philosophical doctrines became of great im-
portance; but it was only with the develop-
ment of the universities and the recovery of
the work of Aristotle that philosophy was added
as a distinct part of the curriculum. The
writings of Boethius (q v ) were the sourc.es
from which the early Middle Ages drew its
knowledge of logic While with Boethius the
metaphysical and philosophical implication
and the relation of logic receive the greatest
attention, it was his formal logic that was
drawn upon for textbook purposes Similarly
Cassiodorus, Capella, Isidore, and Alcum
furnished in their encyclopedic treatises text
for common use. But these again dealt al-
most exclusively with formal logic With
the rise of theological discussion following
Rabanus Maurus and Scotus Erigena, logic
became of transcendental importance, was
generally mentioned second in the trivial
studies, and in reality replaced grammar and its
inclusive though superficial study of literature.

While from now to the close of the Middle
Ages logic was the subject of greatest impor-
tance because it became bound up with all

other aspects of study and all phases of intel-
lectual interest, yet as one of the Seven
Liberal Arts studied in the schools and the
universities it was formal logic alone Logical
metaphysics was reserved as a part and function
of theology Both during and preceding the
university period numerous bnef school texts on
formal logic appeared By far the most fa-
mous of these was the one by Petrus Hispanus
(d 1277), which was very generally used for
300 years

Arithmetic — The church was interested in
the study of arithmetic, astronomy, and music,
the major portion of the quadnvium, as well
as in the study of the tnvium. The standard
encyclopedic texts of Boethius, Cassiodorus,
Isidore, Alcuin, Rabanus were the basis for
the study of arithmetic While following this
period numerous treatises and textbooks on
arithmetic were produced, there was really
no creative work and no advance made in the
subject until the thirteenth century At this
tune the algonstic or Arabic notation came
into general use. The chief practical arithmet-
ical interest was in the calculation of Easter
The works of Bede and of Rabanus Maurus
were the chief treatises. The ordinary monk or
priest, by the use of Bede's rules, could compute
Easter with a knowledge of the four funda-
mental processes. Numerous church synods
required this much arithmetical knowledge of
all priests, and after the time of Charlemagne
this knowledge was fairly general To such
an extent did the computation of Easter,
and one other practical problem — the use of
the abacus (q v) — make up the whole of
arithmetic, that the ordinary term for the
subject was computus But the older texts,
based upon Boethius, hardly touched the
practical aspect of the subject. They scarcely
have a reference to a rule of operation They
are devoted for the most part to a classification
of numbers, a study of their properties, mys-
tical, symbolical, and otherwise. Bede and
Rabanus depart from this, later minor text-
book rules follow them, and in the last centuries
of the Middle Ages a great variety of texts
appeared. The advance in arithmetic dates
from Gerbert (q v ), later Pope Sylvester, to
whom is attributed by some the introduction of
the Arabic notation Without question he intro-
duced the columnal computation and the meth-
ods of fuudamental operation substantially as
they arc to-day. The introduction of the Arabic
notation was very gradual, and its general ac-
ceptance was the work of the thirteenth and
following centuries Boethius persisted as a
text into the sixteenth century. From the
opening of the thirteenth century, arithmetic
found new utilization in commerce and industry,
and there were two distinct types of arith-
metical texts corresponding to the two types of
mathematical interests, — the theoretical and
the practical. In fact, these aspects appeared
as two distinct subjects, anthmetica and algo-

LIBERAL ARTS

LIBERAL EDUCATION

rismus. The former was encouraged in the
universities, though some, such as Paris, gave
little or no attention to arithmetic In some
institutions, as Vienna and Leipzig, both sub-
jects .received attention (See ARITHMETIC;
ALGORISM, COMPUTUS; NOTATION )

Geometry. — The course followed by geome-
try was much the same as in the case of arith-
metic. In the early third of the Middle Ages
it was studied exclusively from the encyclo-
pedic texts, though the treatise of Boethius
seems to have been unknown The scope of
the subject, however, was that indicated by
the etymological significance of the term It
corresponded to modern ideas of geography
plus the rudiments of surveying It was
based on Pliny rather than upon Euclid.
Capella adds some treatment of lines, circles,
triangles, chiefly of their symbolic meaning
Rabanus writes On the Universe as a treatise
in geometry With Gerbert in the tenth cen-
tury, a knowledge of Boethius's summary of
Euclid was again brought to light In extent
it was limited to the first four books of Euclid,
with full demonstrations of only three or four
propositions From the thirteenth century
on, beginning with translations from Arabian
sources, the subject rapidly expanded

Astronomy. — In the quadrivium this was
the most popular as well as the most practical
subject. Its practical use in the calculation of
the calendar and in the construction of the
sundial gave it a greater everyday value than
arithmetic, with which it was closely bound
up Its general aspect was astrology, which
was of far more practical concern to the com-
mon man than modern mathematical astron-
omy. In fact, astrology was related most in-
timately to every aspect of everyday life, and
as such was a study of utmost practical concern
Whether astronomy or astrology, it was the
same symbolical and mystical interpretation
of phenomena that so characterized all of the
theoretical study of that period. In addition
to the symbolical material, the ordinary texts
included the elements of mathematical geog-
raphy to about the same extent that a modern
school geography does, making allowance for
the difference in actual scientific knowledge.
Such texts were those of the encyclopedists
Capella, Cassiodorus, Isidore, Alcum, and
Rabanus. Bede's work was more compre-
hensive In the early university period trans-
lations of Ptolemy and of Aristotle On the
Heavens were introduced and widely used.
Elementary texts, especially that of the English
monk, Sacrobosco (thirteenth century), ap-
peared and were widely used The general
interests in and the character of teaching of
astronomy in the later Middle Ages were
such as to afford an excellent foundation for
the rapid advance made in the Renaissance
period. (See ASTROLOGY; ASTRONOMY )

Music — As one of the Seven Liberal
Arts, music had little in common with our

modern idea of music. It consisted of the
mathematical study of music, together with
mystical and symbolic study of numbers af-
ter the Pythagorean ideas It concerned it-
self neither with singing nor with ability to
perform on an instrument. There was some
practical study of music, made necessary by
the church services; but this was not a liberal
art, and the development of secular and folk
music did not begin until late in the medie-
val period As long as the Greek ideas of music
prevailed, — and this was for the greater part
of the Middle Ages, — there was no escape from
these conditions Boethius was the standard
text, as he continued to be in the universities
down into late modern times. Cassiodorus,
Isidore, and other encyclopedic texts were
used, but they were for the most part conden-
sations of Boethius Music in this sense was
a part of the regular university course, and also
appeared very generally in monastic and ca-
thedral schools throughout the Middle Ages

The later historical aspect of the arts curricu-
lum is considered in the articles on each of the
subjects mentioned; UNIVERSITIES; COLLEGE,
COLLEGE, AMERICAN, incidentally in the articles
on DEGREES and related topics See also
the cross references given under MIDDLE AGES,
EDUCATION IN

References —

ABELSON, P The Seven Liberal Arts. Full bibliog-
raphy (New York, 1906 )

COMPAYRE, G Abtlard and the Origin and Early His-
tory of Universities (New York, 1902 )

DAVIDSON, T Aristotle and Ancient Educational Ideal*.
(New York, 1K92 )

PAETOW, L ,T The Arts Course at Medieval Universities
unth Special Reference to Grammar and Rhetorn
(Urbana, III , 1910 )

PARKER, H The Seven Liberal Arts Eng. Hist
Rev, Vol V, pp 417^61, July, 1890

RABHDALL, H Universities of Europe in the Middle
Ages (Oxford, 1895.)

WEST, A. F Alcuin and the Rise of Christian *SVAoo/s.
(Now York, 1892 )

LIBERAL EDUCATION — The conception
of liberal education dates from Aristotle He
distinguished sharply between a liberal educa-
tion, an end in itself, and a mechanical or pro-
fessional training, a means for practical ends
beyond itself. The chief traits of a liberal
education were its association with leisure and
its exclusive connection with the faculty of
knowing. These two traits were necessarily
combined with each other. Slaves, serfs,
mechanics, tradesmen, were too much occupied
with practical matters to have the leisure
requisite for devotion to knowing for its own
sake. Only a leisure class was in a situation
to devote itself to the cultivation of the mind
for the sake of the mind. Even in theoretical
matters, however, excessive assiduity evinced
an illiberal spirit. The chief material of a lib-
eral education was music (in the Greek sense).
The question how far practice was necessary
was decided by applying the criterion suggested

LIBERAL EDUCATION

LIBERAL EDUCATION

above. If skill in doing became the chief end,
the study was illiberal Practice for the sake
of doing should be relegated to the servile,
unfree class of artisans In a liberal education
that amount of practice should be permitted
which would promote the understanding and
enjoyment of the arts as practiced by others

The distinction between liberal and servile
education was thus based by Aristotle upon the
distinction of classes upon which Greek society
was founded. Practice and education for
practice were essentially illiberal because pur-
sued by persons who wore not free themselves
or, who if legally free, were so given up to the
narrow ends of money making, etc , as to have
no interest in the exercise of the knowing facul-
ties for their own sake This exercise was tho
appropriate and congenial function foi those
whose social station relieved them from all
menial preoccupations

The distinction between the free character
of knowing and the subservient character of
doing which underlay the Aristotelian defini-
tion of a liberal education was also associated
with several points in his metaphysical and
ethical system Puie knowing, concerned onlv
with the rational relations of immaterial forms,
was, according to Anstotlo, the highest thing
in the universe It was tho final cause of
the existence of nature, the supreme end and
good It denned the nature of God as pure
activity It dealt with the reason, the explana-
tion of all else, and was complete in itself —
just as a syllogism is self-inclosed, needing no
help from outside In contrast, doing or piac-
tice sprang from appetite^, which are bod-
ily, not ideal expressed needs, lack, incomple-
tion, imperfection, and in general was due to
man's share in the animal, not the divine na-
ture The highest, the freest, or most liberal
of all pursuits was a theoretical contempla-
tion and inquiry which were supra-civic

Aristotle's distinction became basic in all
later definitions and classifications of educa-
tion It took specific effect in the conception
of the seven liberal arts (q v ) His assertion
of the supremacy and divinity of the purely
theoretical life was emploved in the middle ages
to justify theology as the supreme study, and
to place the monastic life above not only
secular careers but above that of the parish
clergy - the latter being devoted to necessarv
practices and not to the exclusive cultivation
of divine knowledge

At the time of the revival of learning, how-
ever, the domination of theology and allied
concerns was taken as a symptom of a profes-
sional education, that preparing for the clergy.
Liberal education was identified with the
humanistic studies, a knowledge of classic
antiquity and the Greek and Latin literatures
Although the older classification of the seven
liberal arts survived, these arts — such as
grammar, rhetoric, logic — were identified,
not with " sacred " grammar and rhetoric

and with the logic which was a handmaiden
of theology, but with that of classic literatures
However, the interest in the content of these
literatures tended, while reviving the idea of
liberal education, to relegate its conventional
divisions to the background

In the eighteenth century the rise of natural
science began to disturb the now orthodox
identification of the liberal with the ancient
languages Pure mathematics was unambigu-
ously taken in the fold, the other sciences were
left as doubtful claimants In the nineteenth
century the furthei development of literature
and philosophy m the vernacular tongues of
Europe gave the living languages a claim for rec-
ognition as elements in liberal education The
growth of history and the social disciplines per-
turbed the content of the idea still further.
Liberal education had claimed to be the peculiar
representative of man as man, of human
interests as such; and history, anthropology,
political economy, and sociology seemed to
concern themselves with humanity even more
directly than did the classic literatures

As a consequence of such causes, practically
all attempt to define a liberal education by some
principle of content has been given up, though
it is still generally felt that Greek, Latin, and
mathematics, at least from algebra through
calculus, are peculiarly liberal in character.
The attempt is now made to define it from the
standpoint of aim, or of a peculiar, if intangible,
influence it exercises upon those devoted to it.
This end and effect are more easily stated from
the negative side than from the positive side.
Some would call it scholarship and would say
that higher education, as distinctly representing
the liberal interest in education, should be given
t o the promotion of scholarship Among those
lepresentmg this idea there is, however, a
marked difference of attitude Some would
include research and discovery in the province
of scholarship, while others would exclude them
us specialized and technical Many deny the
claim of scholarship to represent the cause of
liberal education and would substitute a spe-
cific refining and ennobling of the mind known
as culture However, the status of various
subjects with respect to their power to bestow
culture is involved in much uncertainty and
polemic discussion Negatively, the conven-
tional idea of a liberal education is more easilv
made out It excludes education designed to
prepare one for any special calling, particularly
if this calling is closely associated with money
making, or if preparation for it involves much
manual manipulation and dexterity — such as
the laboratory pursuits of a technological edu-
cation Latterly, it has been held by professed
upholders of the cause of liberal education that
it is opposed to education Tor social service
This notion, however, is mainly an American
innovation Historically, the chief pursuit
of the leisure class has been statecraft and
diplomacy. One of the leading marks of lib-

LJB10R1A

LIB UK I A

oral studies wa,s that it picpaied men for
managing the state, including the lower clashes
In the Uruted States, with the development
of democracy, the notion of a special ruling class
with a special education fitting it foi social
control has disappeared Accordingly educa-
tion for social service is no longer education
for directing the affairs of other people, but for
contributing to their happiness and well-being
Such a conception would let in the physician
and the engineer Consequently it is too hi oad
for the purposes of the traditional notion of
hbeial education

The fact is that in a society which frankly
bases its constitution upon class distinctions,
it is comparatively easy to assign a distinct
content and a distinct purpose to liberal edu-
cation With the growth of social studies, of
the democratic ideal, and the increased applica-
tion of the best scientific intelligence to the
conduct of practical affairs, it becomes in-
creasingly difficult to do so Liberal education
becomes a name for the sort of education that
every member of the community should have
the education that will liberate his capacities
and thereby contribute both to his own hap-
piness and his social usefulness It has value
as a limiting concept to criticize various edu-
cational schemes Thus an education in Latin
and Greek may be quite illiberal if pursued by
methods which restrict the play of the imagina-
tion and the sympathies, and bind down mental
appreciations to one limited sphere The same
is obviously the case with education for law,
medicine, engineering, or the clergy In shoit
a liberal education is one that liberalizes Theo-
retically any type of education may do this
As matter of fact, all of them fall much short
of accomplishing it, some in one respect and
some in another In so far they fall short of
being an education in any worthy sense of the
word. J D

See ACTIVITY; CULTURE, HUMANISM, LIB-
ERAL ARTS.

LIBERIA, EDUCATION IN — Liberia is
an independent negro republic under the con-
trol of black men, and has maintained its sov-
ereignty for sixty-four years It extends 350
miles along the coast of West Africa and 200
miles into the interior, and possesses thiiteen
ports of entry. The population is above one
and a half million, of whom 25,000 are emigrants
from the United States and their descendants
Planted by the American Colonization Society
in 1817, Liberia declared its independence in
1847. In language and institutions the lead-
ing people are strongly attached to the United
States

The American-Libenans exercise ever in-
creasing authority over the aboriginal tribes,
which, however, are dominated by several
native chiefs. A strip of land twenty to eighty
miles broad extending along the Atlantic
coast is effectively administered by the govern-

ment, which is modeled on that of the United
States The coast region is divided into four
counties, Bassa, Sino, and Maryland, each
under a government superintendent, and
Montserraclo, which is subdivided into four
districts, each under a superintendent This
local organization has facilitated the progress
of public education The government system
is based upon an act of 1869 providing for the
maintenance of at least one public school in
every settlement and township in each county
The act called for an annual appropriation of
one thousand dollars from each county treasury
to be applied to the support of public schools,
and the levy of local taxes for the same pui pose
By a second act of the same year the legisla-
ture created an Interior Department charged
among other duties with the educational
interests of the republic A supplementary
law provided for the appointment of a commis-
sioner of education in each county, subject to
the Secretary of the Interior Prior to 1869
missionary societies had been actively engaged
in efforts for the instruction and elevation of
the people of Liberia, and the two principal
church associations repiesented in the field,
the Methodist Episcopal Chui ch of the United
States and the American Protestant Episcopal
Church, had already made great progress in
establishing schools when the government sys-
tem was inaugurated

In 1900, or thirty-one years ufter the
passage of the first education act, the govern-
ment was excited to new effort in this matter,
and the legislature provided for the appoint-
ment of a superintendent of public instruction
charged with the immediate direction of pub-
lic schools throughout tho country Spe-
cific regulations were at once issued for the
guidance of teachers and local school officers
The provision for a local school tax had proved
futile, and the legislature assumed the support
of the public schools by an annual appropria-
tion

As to the actual provision of schools in this
republic, the latest reports give the following
particulars The Methodist Episcopal Church
maintains schools in every county, having a
little more than a thousand pupils on their rolls,
including aborigines and Amcnco-Liberians
The former comprise about 57 per cent of
the total number, and their ratio is steadily
increasing The central school of this system
is the College of West Africa, located at Mon-
rovia It was founded in 1830, and accommo-
dates about a hundred students in the several de-
partments, theological, collegiate, and prepara-
tory Special provision is made for industrial
training Many of the leading men and women
of the country, including a large number of effi-
cient teachers, were educated in this institu-
tion The Protestant Episcopal Church main-
tains many schools, which center about four
principal institutions, namely, Epiphany Hall,
at Cuttington, Cape Palmas, comprising a high

LIBERIA

UBRARIKS

school, collegiate department, and divinity
school, a girls' school and orphan asylum a1
Mount Vaughan, near Cape Palmas, St John's
School, for boys, at Cape Mount, and a school
for girls at Clay- Ashland The latest statistics
show a total of fifty schools in this system, of
which twenty-seven were for day pupils only
and twenty-three boarding schools The enroll-
ment in the schools in 1905 was about 1500, of
which number 74 per cent were native Liben-
ans The schools of this system are under
the close supervision of a resident bishop
The average annual salary of the teachers
langes from $150 to $300, which exceeds the
average in other mission schools The Lu-
theran Church also maintains a few schools
among the native Africans at the Muhlenberg
station

The government school system in each
county is under the direction of a local school
commissioner The latest statistics give a
total of 102 schools, each under a single teacher,
and a total enrollment oi 3320 pupils, of whom
about one fourth are aborigines

The chief national institution is Liberia
College at Monrovia The institution was
founded by the efforts of the Massachusetts
Colonization Society, and was placed under the
control of two boards of tiustecs, one lepie-
senting the society and the othei the legisla-
ture of Liberia The college building was
furnished by the Boston board at a cost of
$20,000 Liberia gave the twenty acres which
form the campus of the college and a grant of
1000 acres of land in each of the four counties
of Liberia as an endowment The college was
opened for students in 1802, and aftei varying
fortunes passed to the sole control of the re-
public in 1890 Since 1900 the income of the
college from public sources (taxes and endow-
ment) has averaged about $25,000, annually,
and additional funds are also supplied from
America The college has the benefit of sev-
eral public scholarships endowed in t he names
of men who have rendered unusual service to
the country The latest statistics show a
registration of 120 students, including both
young men and young women, and a corps of
twelve instructors The college is the alma
mater of the most prominent citizens of the
country, among the number being the fonner
chief executive, Honorable Arthin Barclay

Industrial education is a feature of both de-
nominational systems At the White Plains'
school and the Sinoe River Industrial School,
sustained by the Methodist Episcopal Church,
students are taught building, woodwork,
masonry, brickrnakirig, farming, and the culti-
vation of cotton, ginger, and rubber The Col-
lege of West Africa has a printing department,
in which job work is done, arid the Liberia
and West Africa and other papers are printed
Most of the work is done by native Africans
In the college proper the girls are trained also
in domestic economy, housekeeping, dress-

making, fancy work, and kindled arts In the
Prot estant Episcopal schools industrial training
is given at the four chief centers of educa-
tion At Epiphany Hall students are taught,
the cultivation of coffee, cotton, and rubber,
at St John's School, (Jape Mount, there is an
agricultural department, in which rice is
raised with success, and efforts are being made
to secure facilities foi teaching other indus-
trial arts A beginning has been made in in-
dustrial tiaming in the public schools At
Rick's Institute, at Kai-Poo, the work consists
chiefly of the cultivation of coffee, and the
farm yielded 3000 pounds in 1902, 1600
in 1903, and 1400 in 1904 An excellent
printing department has been fitted up at
Liberia College, arid other industrial work is
being gradually introduced

The American Colonization Society has aided
schools in Liberia from time to tune, in par-
ticular the school at Mt Coffee, foity miles
from Monrovia This school has been the
especial charge of the Mt Coffee Association
of America, of which l)r Edward p]verett
Hale was an interested and active member
The Colonization Society, as trustee for a
fund left for schools by a Mr Graham, supports
two schools, which bear his name Graham
School, No 1, is located at Greenville, Sinoe
County; reports from teachers beginning
with the year 1905, and ending with Mar 31,
1911, show the total attendance of scholars
to have been 1261, Liberian boys and gnls,
993, native boys and girls, 268 Graham
School, No 3, is located at Royesville, Mont-
serrado County, the report of the teacher for
the five years ending Mar 31, 1911, shows
the total attendance of scholars to be 447,
Liberian boys and girls, 243, and native boys
and gills, 204 The piesent President, Daniel
Edward Howard (inaugurated Jan 1, 1912), is
emphasizing the needs of improving the public
school system, of agricultural education, and of
Liberia College I M C

References —

ELLIH, (Tboitirb W Education in Liberia, Rep V &

Com Ed for IWf, (Washington )
HAKTZLLL, J C1 Article in Lihrria, Bulletin 17,

November, 1900

Liberia, Mexxaycx of President Barclay
Rcjwrte of the American ( Colonization Society Latest

LIBERTY COLLEGE, GLASGOW, KY -

An institution for the higher education of
women, founded in 1874 In 1911 there was
amalgamated with it the Florence University foi
Women, Florence, Ala Preparatory, collegi-
ate, normal, commercial, music, art, and domes-
tic science departments are maintained The
entrance requirements are equivalent to about
three years of high school work The degrees
of B A , B S , B C , and M A are conferred

LIBRARIES — Historical — Babylon and
The temples of the ancient cities

LIBRARIES

LIBRARIES

which lie between the Tigris and Euphrates,
such as Telloh, Nippur, Sippar, Borsippa, and
Nineveh, were administrative and literary
centers as well as the shrines of gods From
ten to thirty thousand inscribed clay tablets
in each temple preserved official record of
battles and of the divinations which foretold
success or failure There wero also treaties,
petitions, diplomatic letters, laws, deeds, and
church rituals These constituted royal 01
national libraries, presided over bv Nebo the
god of learning, and under the care of the kmg-
pnest or a high official

Later when Hammuiabi 0 BC 2200) be-
came chief ruler in Babylonia, Mardik was
advanced to be the head of all gods, and Baby-
lon became the center of records and learning
Hammurabi's famous laws were cut into the
wall of the temple These records and others
were brought together by Ashurbampal (B r
67 J -626) at Nineveh when he became King oi
Assyria Copies of inscriptions on monuments
of victories and of all national legends were here
recorded on clay tablets and cylinders These
were arranged by classes, were catalogued, and
indexed by title Many of those which describe
divinations had excellent drawings to illustrate
the text A century later (Ezra v, 17) Darius
ordered a search to be made in the hall of books
at Babylon for a decree regarding the house of
God at Jerusalem

The temples were great schools, and populai,
because preferment, as in the Middle Ages,
came through the priestly office The libraries
had many easy texts and vocabularies for bovs
to study. Ashurbanipal says that he had stud-
ied at the temple, probably as a youth

Egypt — At El-Amarna, the Egyptian capi-
tal of the Pharaoh Akhuaton, who tried to up-
lift religion and free art from convention, much
of the national library has been found, com-
posed chiefly of correspondence with provinces
and with kings in Western Asia These
archives were in chaige of Tetou-nou, an Egyp-
tian, whose assistant was Shamas-Niki, a
Babylonian The hieroglyphic writings of
Egypt never supplanted the cuneiform of
Babylonia as the language of culture and diplo-
macy, and Shamas-Niki must have been indis-
pensable. The papyrus plant which furnished
food, fuel, and clothing for Egypt became the
fragile medium for perpetuating her writings,
until parchment or prepared skins came into
use There were many papyrus collections in
Egypt (see Richardson's Some Old Egyptian
Libraries, 1911); but the great library at Alex-
andria grew up under foreign influences, the
product of one of many long periods of foreign
domination of the Nile valley

Greece — Greece left records of books, book
selling, and schools, but little of libraries
Demetrius Phalerius, poet and orator, honored
with as many statues as there are days in the
year, fled to Alexandria, and there advised
Ptolemy in his plans for a great library, al-

8

though Aristotle is said to have aided in the
arrangement Aristotle's own library (Stiabo
XIII, 1, § 54) passed to Theophrastus and from
him to Neleus of Scepsis, where it lay hidden
to escape the rapacious bibliophile kings of
Pergamum until bought by Apellicon of
Athens Sulla the dictator and book-lover car-
ried the collection to Rome .to have its texts
copied and spread abroad

From Ephesus, where, we are told, there was
a book chained to the door of Diana's temple,
came Zenodotus (« c 280) to manage the Alex-
andrian library, to walk in its colonnades with
peripatetic teachers, and to dine in rooms sel
apart for its students This was the mother
library, distinguished thus from the daughtei
library in the temple of Serapis The oldei
collection was in part destroyed by Caesar, bin
Antony gave 200,000 manuscripts of Peiga-
mum to Cleopatra for the Sera pen n> Of this
great library fleeting and uncertain glimpses
appear in 391, when Theodosius ordered its de-
struction, a generation later when Orosius says
that he saw ancient books in Alexandria, and
in 640, when Amrou, the great caliph Omafs
lieutenant, is said to have used the lemnant
for fuel

Rome — M Terentius Vairo, autlioi of a
work entitled DC Bibltotheci**, now lost, was
commissioned bv Julius Ca'sai to collect books
for a library Under succeeding Ca\sais
Rome became a citv of libraries, to which stu-
dents of the many schools of oratory and
philosophy resorted Telephus, a grammarian
of Pergamum in AD 117, is said by Suidas to
have issued a Nohtia hbrorum which described
minutely the libraries of his time Forty yeais
earlier ('rates, ambassadoi fiom Pergamum,
probably stimulated an interest in libraries
while lectuiing on grammar at Rome C
Asinius Pollio, the geneial, poet, and friend of
Vergil and Horace, founded the first library in
Rome from spoils of his lllyrian campaign,
B c. 39 Pliny calls him " the first to make
men's talents public property," but Plutarch
claims this honor for Lucullus

The Portions Octavise, a typical Roman li-
brary between the Capitolme Hill and the Tiber,
was founded by Augustus It has temples
to Juno and Jupiter, connected in the rear bv a
long schola, or hall for conversation A space
of equal length behind the schola had three divi-
sions a middle section, the curia, devoted to
meetings, with the Latin library at the left arid
the Greek hbraiy at the right About this
compact building theie was a double colonnade
443 feet by 377 feet, to provide, as at Alexan-
dria, a meeting place for master and pupils
Rome had nearly thirty libraries, to which Ves-
pasian and Trajan made large additions Their
manuscript rolls were kept in bookcases or
presses, inlaid, and surmounted by busts, un-
less there were portraits on the walls. There
was usually a director with a subordinate in
charge of each language Men like Luoullus

LIBRARIES

LIBRARIES

lavished money on their libraries until Seneca
spoke bitterly of books as " ornaments of din-
ing rooms," reaching to the ceilings He adds
" Nowadays a library takes rank with a bath-
room as a necessary ornament to a house I
could forgive such ideas if they were due to
extravagant desire for learning " (Dc tran-
quilhtate animi).

Middle Ages. — Christianity did not alter
the form nor greatly abate the luxury in libra-
ries. Eusebius, in his History, speaks of
Bishop Alexander's library at Jerusalem (A D
250) as a storehouse of knowledge St Jerome
worked in the library of Pamphilus in Ca»sarea
in Palestine, and calls the founder a rival in
zeal of Demetrius Phalerms ami Pisistratus
the tyrant In the early Christian Church the
apses on either side of the a It HI were used to
store the altar vessels and ritual books Thus
one apse came to be used as a religious 01 mo-
nastic library. Christian enthusiasts ret reating
into the deserts and mountains to escape luxury
needed books to keep themselves from igno-
rance. From them first came primitive library
rules Those of St Pachomius (A D 292-345)
were developed near Denderah in Upper Egypt
St Benedict perfected library administration,
and his successors influenced the government of
early college libraries (Clark, ('arc of Books )
Monte Cassmo, Saint (Jail, and Cluny are ex-
amples of these Benedictine libraries

In the manuscript era the monks of monastic
libraries were also publishers and booksellers
The Abbot Loup of Ferneres kept a depot for
books at S Josso-sur-Mer Others were at
Wear mouth and Yarrow Becker estimates
that from AD 750 to 1200 there were 13(> li-
braries in monast cries, with about 12, 000 books
in all Of these about thirty were complete
Bibles

The two great figures in medieval learning
\vere Cassiodor us (q v ) and Alcum (q v ) Cas-
siodorus maintained a scriptorium where his
monks copied the classic authors Alcum sim-
plified the forms of written letters arid stimu-
lated scholarship There are many woodcuts of
the early years of printing which depict the
monk in his library or scriptorium Cassiodorus
said "As the antiquarian copies the words of
Christ, so many wounds does he inflict upon
Satan " Here was the inspiration of medieval
book making Some of the best work was done
bv the Benedictine nuns, and trial pages written
by nuns of St Mildred's Abbey, Isle of Thanet,
still exist

By a law of recompense, the era of fanaticism
that effaced or destroyed many manuscripts
was followed 'by the age of printing Books
became cheap, and libraries leaped fiom a hun-
dred to a thousand volumes The scriptorium
lost its influence, however, as a part of the
monastic library The Arx Moncwh, the
Biblia Pauper urn, the rude picture book of the
Bible story, arid the Donates 01 popular gram-
mar were multiplied beyond the dream of

Cassiodorus Then movable type came, and
the modern library was inevitable Before
the voyages of Columbus there were printing
presses in 236 cities in Europe, with over a
thousand printers A million books were is-
sued with good ink on durable paper before the
end of the fifteenth century The Bible, fol-
lowing Christian missionaries into everv coun-
try, taught the world to read " Some/'
said Fox, " gave a load of hay for a few chap-
ters of St James or of St John in English "

Richard de Bury (q v), who finished his
Philobiblon in 1345, shows forth the spirit
which governed cathedral and university li-
braries in England The general attainment
of learning had grown to such proportion that
Bishop Carpenter's librarian at Worcester in
1464 was required to be a graduate in theology
and a good preacher It was his duty to ex-
plain hard passages in the Bible, make lists of the
books in his keeping, and examine the shelves
each year on the Friday after the Feast of
Relics (in January) At St Martin's, Dover,
now part of Dover College, the administrative
details, worked out very thoroughly, have been
preserved At Pembroke College the titles of
books were written on parchment attached to
the left half of a board The right half was cov-
ered with a thin layer of wax, on which the
name of a borrower might be scratched in line
with the book's title The borrower deposited
a " pledge," sometimes the value of the book,
or an agreement in writing

Education in 1400 is reflected in the character
of college libraries in England Theology and
kindred subjects claimed three fourths of all
the college books, with one fourth devoted to
grammar, poetry, music, medicine, arithmetic,
geornetr}r, and astronomy The proportion
was not materially altered in colonial New Eng-
land, but in the Southern colonies private
libraries reflected a later and broader taste.

Great Libraries Founded in Early Modern
Period — The Vatican library at Rome has
historic origins in church records dating from
the second century, and was associated in the
fourth and fifth centuries with Popes Damasus
and Hilary With Boniface VIII, a true pon-
tifical library began, when he ordered a cata-
logue to be made in 1295 These books were
scattered in' the fourteenth century, some going
to Assisi, where they may still be seen Nicho-
las V (1447-1455) was a book lover, collecting
for the common convenience of all learned men,
and fifteen years later Sixtus IV provided a
building for the new collection, appointed
Platina as librarian, and made the modern
Vatican library a reality From 1475 to the
time of his death in 148 1, Bartolommeo Platina
fitted his library with banchi and wall cases,
added paintings by Ghirlandajo and Melozzo
da Forh, and catalogued the books There
were the Latin and Greek rooms, the Bibhotheca
tfccreta and the Bibliotheca Pontificia Platina
and his three pages slept in an adjoining room.

LIBRARIES

LIBRARIES

Jumpei was used to fumigate, fox tails to dust,
and brooms to sweep the library A notice of
the time of Julius II asked readers not to quarrel
nor to jump over the desks A pleasant
description of the library will be found in
Montaigne's Travels in Italy in 1581 Scholars
were first admitted in 1888 Much might
be said of the Laiirentian library at Florence
and of the origin of old collections in other parts
of Europe The familial print by Woudanus
in 1610 of the hbiary of Lcyden University
represents gentlemen with their hats and cloaks
on, followed by dogs, going from case to case to
consult the chained books

Edwards, in his Memoir & of Libraries, has
given the story of the plundeimg of monastic
libraries in the sixteenth century, when manu-
scripts were used to light candlesticks, to rub
boots, and to wrap grocers' bundles, " and some
they sent over sea to the bookbinders, not in
small number, but at times whole ships full, to
the wondering of the foreign nations " Books
are still found with pieces of written parchment
used in the bindings In some college libraries
the desks were sold since no books remained

A century later a great need stimulated re-
newed interest in book collecting Humphrey
Chetham in 1651 saw the value of " godly Eng-
lish books, proper ioi the edification of the com-
mon people/' and founded chapel libraries and
a town library in Manchester The Reverend
Thomas Bray, whose life was one of amazing
eneigy and results, promoted deanery and pai-
ish libraries all over England and parish hlmi-
nes in the English colonies to preseive the
clergy from ignorance

The British Museum had its ongin not as a
hall of official records, but in three great collec-
tions illustrating English history The death
of Sir Hans Sloane in 1753 brought about the
act (26 Geo II, 1753) for the purchase of his
treasures of art and books, together with the
Harleian manuscripts, the two collections to be
united with the Cottoman manuscripts, al-
ready the property of the nation, under a board
of trustees. The British M useum was opened
as Montague House in 1759, the Royal Li-
brary of the Kings having meanwhile been given
by George II The romantic career of the late
Sir Anthony Pamzzi, Italian refugee, librarian
arid scholar, resulted in placing the British
Museum in the front rank " He governed his
library as his friend Cavour governed his coun-
try," wrote Dr Garnett, " perfecting its in-
ternal organization with one hand while he
extended its frontiers with the other " The
printed catalogue, from troubled beginnings in
1834, is now complete, and represents a great
bibliographical achievement, closing with the
year 1900. Of earlier origin, the Bodleian li-
brary at Oxford, opened in 1602, was the first
" public " library in Europe; the second was
that of Angelo Rocca, opened at Rome m 1601
The John Rylands Library at Manchester,
begun in 1890, took high rank two >eaib later

when the ancient Althorp Library of the Earls
Spencer was purchased This collection, asso-
ciated with the genius of Dibdm, illustrated by
examples the whole range of the history of
printing

The Bibhotheque Nationale in Paris can be
traced to a collection of records m the Louvre
in the time of Charles V Guillaume Bud6 was
the first Maitrc de la Libraine du Roi in 1544,
and in 1556 a copy of each book printed in the
country " with privilege " was by law deposited
in the library For several centuries two library
families, the De Thous and the Bignons, held a
sway of varying power, building up the collec-
tion by unceasing labor and foresight In 1721
the books were removed to the Palais Mazarm,
the Bignons serving as librarians from father to
son from 1642 to 1784 The revolution sent its
spoils of churches and country houses, swelling
the accumulations of centuries to a total of
nearly three million volumes A catalogue is
now (1912) being printed

All the important countries of Europe have
royal or national libraries, varying in size
and administrative efficiency. The Imperial Li-
brary at St Petersburg, with over a million vol-
umes, is one of the most valuable m the world,
and is freely open to scholars In most cases,
however, the great libraries of the continent are
the accumulation of time rather than of sys-
tematic effort, and from them down to the hum-
blest civic collection there is rarely any liberal
control comparable to that which is everywhere
characteristic of American libraries

America — For two centuries at least after
the arrival of Winthrop in Massachusetts Bay,
Boston was the literaiy center of the English
colonies Her clergy and her civic rulers could
not be content without writing as well as read-
ing books A library established m the Town
House at Boston through the will of Captain
Robert Keayne, dated in 1653, was composed of
books in English, and the idea may have been
suggested by the small municipal collections
formed at the English Norwich and elsewhere as
early as 1608 New York owes its advent into
library history to Reverend John Sharpe, chap-
lam at the fort, who proposed in 1712-1713 a
public school, a public library, and a catechiz-
ing chapel The library was to be free to all
Sharpe 's books, and those of the corporation li-
brary of 1728, sent over by the Society for the
Propagation of the Gospel, together with the
much finer collections of the New York Society
Library, founded in 1754, were all swept away
during the Revolution.

Franklin once said that in his boyhood there
was not one good bookstore south of Boston.
When a lad, he went to Philadelphia and pro-
jected there in 1731 the first subscription
library in the colonies. Franklin says: " I
set on foot my first project of a public nature,
thai i oi a subscription library. . , I was not
able, with great industry, to find more than
n(t\ persons, mostly young tradesmen, will-

10

LIBRARIES

LIBRARIES

ing to pay down for this purpose forty shillings
each, and ten shillings per annum On this
httle fund we began " This collection even-
tually became the Philadelphia Library Soci-
ety, and half a century later was strengthened
by adding the Logaman library, which had
been founded in 1745 through the generosity
of James Logan, famous as the secretary
of William Penn. The Redwood Library,
established in Newport, R I , in 1747, be-
longs to this period. A similar library, also
an institution for self-improvement, was begun
m the following year by some seventeen young
men of Charleston, S. C

As early as 1774 the Connecticut Courant made
the assertion that the need of public libraries
was " too manifest to be denied ", but up to
1850 the public library had no such chaiacter
as it has to-day. It is true that Boston and
New York made spasmodic attempts at city
libraries, but in reality the only libraries during
this time were the Bray or parish libraries,
mostly unused, arid the subscription libraries,
which flourished because they were near by
and were not necessarily self-sustaining.

The first ten years of the nineteenth century,
influenced by the conditions in France, show a
gicat intellectual awakening Clubs of all
kinds, and especially learned clubs, sprang up,
and almost all had a reading room or a library
From this beginning many athenaeums or
scholars' libraries came into being, from New
England to Georgia.

During this same period the establishment of
state and national libraries was begun New
Hampshire, the pioneer, had a colonial library
as early as 1770, which was reestablished as a
state library m 1818 New Jersey followed with
a library as early as 1796, though it was so much
broader in scope that it has served as a type to
guide many later state libraries It was a suffi-
ciently elastic model to allow for the changes
which time and varying conditions have im-
posed, enlarging the original conception into a
far wider idea of its duty to the people, than that
of a merely legislative function South Carolina,
Pennsylvania, and New York, the best known
of the early state libraries, were all founded
before 1818. In 1800 the national government
established a library Its beginnings were so
small that its first catalogue (1802) was hardly
necessary. When the British took Washington
in 1814, the library was burned, and twice since,
in 1825 and 1851, fires have occurred Jeffei-
son's library was purchased in 1815, and was
the first of many famous collections to be added
The Library of Congress now aids her libraries
through printed catalogue cards, bibliographies,
and other material

All these were tendencies away from libraries
which were under private control, and the
tendency became more marked when towns
like Salisbury in Connecticut (1803) and
Peterborough in New Hampshire (1833) es-
tablished libraries with town funds These

foreshadowed the true public library, but it
was not until George Ticknor of Boston grasped
the significance of the great benefit that would
come when books were free to all, that the
movement came to its fruition The first con-
vention of librarians was held in New York,
Sept. 15-17, 1853 The fact that fifty-three
delegates were present shows how great was the
awakening, both among scholais and among
librarians

In 1848 William F. Poole printed a modest
index to the many periodicals which had be-
come useless and because of the impossibility
of finding the material hidden there. This
was the origin of Poole 's Index At about
the same time other men came into prominence
in the library world, which at this time cen-
teied around Boston Jcwett failed to create
a National Librai y, came to the Boston Public
Library (1855), and made himself widely
known by his rules for cataloguing Thirteen
years later Justin Minor succeeded them At
this time Poole was about to go to Cincinnati,
and Cuttei prepared to succeed him as libra-
rian of the Boston Athenaeum. These men and
many others met in Philadelphia in 1876 and
founded the American Library Association, with
the Library Journal as its organ

Recent Development — Scientific Libiary
Management — Edwards (q v ), Panizzi, and
Ewart (q v ) in England, and the leadeis in
America laid the library woild under a debt
hard of compiehcnsion in the present day of
universal progress Library devices of all
kinds were being peifected and improved at
this time on both sides of the Atlantic New
rules for cataloguing were being tried, and
Dewey and Cutter weie bringing to perfection
their system of classification See LIBRARY
CLASSIFICATION

Women at this tune had little connection
with libraries, but this has grown greater ab
their sphere of activity has grown \viclcr Mrs
Anne Waddell, a woman of affairs in New York,
was named in the charter of the New York
Society Libraiv in 1772 During the first half
of the* nineteenth century women's sole literary
interests were such as? might be derived from the
circulating libraries in the stationers' or bakeis'
stores A few very erudite scholars were al-
lowed to use the libraries of general literature,
but the general attitude of mind toward such
use was reflected by Charles Folsom, who pro-
tested in 1855 against women having accesfc to
" the corrupter portions of the polite litera-
ture "

In 1850 Haivard had 68,000 volumes, the
largest collection in America, the Library of
Congress about 46,000, the New York Library
Society 30,000, and the Library Company of
Philadelphia 55,000, the second in size To-day
these would not seem large collections for am
prosperous town.

The hbiarv movement in the United States is
indebted to many forces foi its success The
11

LIBRARIES

LIBRARIES

Mathers, Prince, Sharpe, and others of the co-
lonial clergy fostered the collection and care of
books. Franklin, a great social and scientific
factor in our development, emphasized the li-
brary as an aid to the skilled laborer Follow-
ing the American Revolution and its period of
inaction, French ideals had an awakening
impulse, caught up and carried on by the fai-
reachmg lyceum system of rural lectures. No
doubt also the articles by Edward Edwards and
the speeches of Ewart had their echo on this side
of the Atlantic Certainly the Report of the
Commissions*, appointed by the House of
Commons to inquire into the constitution and
government of the British Museum under
Pamzzi, and published in 1850, must have in-
terested and aroused men interested in books,
in administration, and in social forces

Li bran/ Legislation — An enlightened opin-
ion has in some states forced special library
legislation, but more often a few devoted men
have obtained the laws that in time create
a regard for libraries The library law of
New York, passed m 1835, under which
a school district could raise a sum of money
for the purchase of books, established the prin-
ciple of taxation for the support of libraries
Now Hampshire passed a very simple library
law in 1849, with no limit as to appiopnation
and no conditions as to management Massa-
chusetts enacted in 1851 a brief law undei which
libraries multiplied rapidly in the common-
wealth Maine in 1854 passed an unsatisfac-
tory law, permitting the levy of a dollai on each
ratable poll to establish hbranes, and twenty-
five cents per poll for maintenance Vermont
did little better in 1865 The Ohio law of 1847
tied the library to the educational system In
1872 Colorado passed a good law, and Illinois
devised an elaborate and thoroughly satis-
factory act which has influenced many states,
New Jersey, Wisconsin, Michigan, California,
Missouri, and others Some sections of the
country were for a long time very backward in
library legislation, including Connecticut, Penn-
sylvania, and even New York, where the fairly
convenient school district system was not altered
till 1892

The State Library Commission, which was
established by Massachusetts in 1890 to foster
town libraries, set an example that has been fol-
lowed throughout the country; with increasing
powers and a firmer conviction of the work to be
accomplished, state commissions have grown in
importance and in the scope of their work for
library extension In many states the coopera-
tion of the state commission and the state li-
brary has made the use of books a vital and far-
reaching force for intelligent citizenship

Library history in the United States has been of
short duration, but, with no traditions to forget
and no customs to break, progress has been rapid
History, as far as it has been made, has had less
of the dignity of mere age and more of the fruit
of r.-j heal achievement One has only to study

12

library history in France, Germany, or Italyt
to realize that what has been done in the United
States toward establishing an intimate relation-
ship between good books and the social life of
all classes has been pioneer work.

Free Public Libraries. — Library progress in
the sociological sense must be studied in three
sections England, although handicapped by
inability to free her library and museum prop-
erty from taxation, began before 1850, under
able leaders, her campaign for free libraries
America, recognizing early the right to levy
taxes foi the establishment and maintenance of
public libraries, made greater progress along
seemingly radical lme&. The, Continent, crip-
pled by social and economic conditions, has only
very recently welcomed modern ideals.

In 1700 John Evelyn said that Paris had more
libraries than were in the three kingdoms of
Great Bntain, and Gibbon declared in 1800 that
no scholarly work could be done in English
libraries A conference at Manchester half a
century later agreed that since Gibbon 's day
little improvement had been made, and William
Ewart was asked to begin a parliamentary fight
for a hbraiy law. The bill of 1845 " for en-
couraging the establishment of museums in
large towns" was passed, it allowed half a
penny in the pound to be levied for land and
buildings for museums in large towns, but no
specimens or books could be bought. Edward
Edwards, for many years on the staff of the Brit-
ish Museum, took up the study of library condi-
tions at home, on the Continent, and in the
United States, embodying his researches in ar-
ticles published in 1847 and 1848 Ewart then
brought in a bill, which met with vigorous oppo-
sition and the most absurd arguments before its
passage in 1850 This act was permissive foi
towns of 10,000 inhabitants and over, kept to
the same inadequate rate, and made no provi-
sion for the purchase of books, but it was
distinctly for libraries as well as for museums,
although the latter have always overshadowed
public libraries in English legislation Subse-
quent acts advanced the rate to a penny, al-
lowed the purchase of books and newspapers,
permitted money to be borrowed for the erec-
tion of buildings, and extended these privileges
to Scotland and Ireland So great was the con-
fusion arising from conflicting library acts that
in 1894 they were consolidated, making a nearly
uniform law foi the United Kingdom.

The rate limit has hindered library progress,
and taxation of library property has still further
decreased the net return from a rate already
too small for healthy growth in populous com-
munities. London, with no central government
until 1899, has had a slow development. Eng-
lish libraries in early days depended too much
on mechanical devices; the librarian was a
custodian and clerk rather than an adminis-
trator, and his influence was limited. Until
recently there have been no training schools for
young men and women who fill the minor places,

LIBRARIES

LIBRARIES

so that these have been less intelligently man-
aged than large libraries which could tempt
officials from the British Museum An Ameri-
can is apt to think that the English librarian
does not trust his public enough, that he does not
do enough for schools, for rural districts, and in
the way of cooperation with neighboring libra-
ries The Englishman considers our classifica-
tion on the shelves too close and too inflexible,
and he experiments cautiously with the many
social plans by which Americans bind the com-
munity to the public library

In America Ticknor set the pace for hbiary
progress when, in 1851, he spoke of his aim for
the proposed public library in Boston " I would
establish a library which differs from all free
libraries yet attempted; I mean one in which
any popular books, tending to moral and intel-
lectual improvement, shall be furnished in such
numbers of copies that many persons can bo
reading the same book at the same time , in short,
that not only the best books of all sorts, but the
pleasant literature of the day, shall be made
accessible to the whole people when they most-
care for it, that is, when it is fresh and new "

But even in America the free public libraiv
has come with wise slowness into favor As late
as 1876, when one hundred and throe delegates
met at a conference of American librarians, only
fourteen represented institutions of the modern
free public library type. Libraries maintained
by shareholders and by annual subscribers still
predominated With the rapid advance of the
free library the scope of its work along social
lines has become a subject for debate Wo aio
not far from that condition referred to in 1X50
by a member of Parliament who prophesied
that the working classes would soon bo asking
for " quoits, peg-tops, and footballs " Sunday
opening, first tried in Cincinnati in 1870,
was an early step in the radical movement in
America Work with children, now recognized
as essential in a good library, attempts to attiact
and hold the young when they first learn to
read Indeed, story telling and games are in-
troduced in branches of great city libraries to
win the very young and the foreign born Uni-
versity extension lectures, given on certain even-
ings each week and on Sundays, bring older
people to the building and give them predigested
treasures from books and art More hboial
rules for the circulation of books (the two-book
system and special cards for teachers), free
access to the shelves or to special standard col-
lections, and even free delivery from libraiv
to home, all illustrate the endeavoi to make the
free library indispensable

A distinct effort is now made to educate taste
in architecture by new ideals of excellence in
buildings, but the facade follows the plan and is
not merely a pleasing exterior Hooks on li-
brary planning fortify the librarian against the
inexperienced architect who desires effect only

Library Methods — The American mission-
ary spirit, radical though it may be, has had its

influence in the old world as well as in the con-
servative communities of the new Ceitam
mechanical improvements, such as the decimal
and expansive systems of classification foi
placing books on the shelves, indexing the books
of the library on cards instead of in lodgers,
making a charging record for books taken out
of the building so that statistical information
may easily bo compiled, and uniform cataloguing
rules, adopted in preparing cards to bo issued
by the Library of Congress, are revolutionizing
the routine of library administration The
libranan, while ho may still be a " missionaiy
of culture," must recognize that his vocation
calls for business ability

English and American methods, though diffei-
mg, are not fundamentally divergent after all
The Continent, however, can show little en-
lightened library development outside a few
isolated examples in Holland, Switzerland,
Germany, and Sweden In Germany the dual
library system, a Staritbibhothek, or sleepy mu-
nicipal library in the mam street, and a Volk*-
biblwthek or cheap fiction library on the side
street, has delayed the coming of the all-round
large public library Social club libraries also
have satisfied the more intelligent mombois of
the community, who are bound together by a.
love for art, music, archaeology, or science

Franco has few cities where the public seem to
want libraries, and zeal is not expected from
poorly paid librarians The scholarly libia-
rian, however, still survives in some historic
French towns What France lacks in organi-
zation Italy carries almost to an extreme A
library assistant in Italy can bo transfonod
from city to suburb 01 to a distant city,
finding the same system everywhere In the
northern countries of Euiope people's libraries
are still parish chanties, except where Miss
Valfnd Palmgron, through addresses and writ-
ings, has introduced American methods and
aims The censorship in Russia has crushed
library progress there, and throughout many
square miles no books are accessible to the pub-
lic The works of a contemporary poet undei
the ban of the censor could not be found in a
library which honored him by bearing his name
Still, in Russia, and in Siberia, interesting little
libraries may be found where a librarian has
been born for the task, undismayed by conditions
which prevail all about him

Germany and Switzerland have attempted
catalogues on a groat scale, but in most Euro-
pean capitals the catalogues are inaccessible,
or inadequate, and the service is veiy slow
Munich, Stockholm, and Brussels have been
famed in the past for helpful employees and
convenient appliances, but administrators die
and policies change. The real library move-
ment is to be seen at Charlottenburg and Essen
in Germany, at Dordrecht and Gromngen in
Holland, at Stockholm, and at several other
places where modern methods are but just
coming into vogue Foreign scholars have

13

LIBRARIES

LIBRARIES

attended English and American hbiaiy confer-
ences, and have admired what they saw, but
they have been slow to believe that these radical
methods could be made successful in Continen-
tal cities They are, however, very gradually
making the experiment ('KB

School Libraries — District School Libumex
— The district school library movement ante-
dated the modern public library movement in
this country by about forty years Its original
impulse came from educators who saw that if
the State was to gain intelligent citizens, as a
result of its investment in education, the young
must not only be taught reading, but must be
given good books to read

New York was the pioneer, and a law was
passed in 1835 permitting the voters of any
school district to levy a tax of $20 to start a
library, and $10 annually to maintain it
This permission failing to appeal to the rural
taxpayer, the legislature of 1838 passed a law
appropriating $55,000 annually for the estab-
lishment of libraries in every school district ot
the state, with the provision that after three
years the money might be spent for books or for
teachers' wages, at the disci etion of the district
These were not to be stiictly school libraries
for the use of the pupils alone, but were also in-
tended for the use of the people of the district

The example of New York was followed by
Massachusetts, which, through the eflorts ot
Horace Mann (</ v ), passed in 183.") a permissive
school district law, and in 1842 added the stimu-
lus of a state appropriation of $15 to each dis-
trict that should raise an equal amount

Following the lead of New York and Massa-
chusetts, seventeen states passed more or less
effective laws providing for district school h-
bianes, as follows Connecticut, 1839, Rhode
Island and Iowa, 1840, Indiana, 1841, Maine,
1844, Ohio, 1847, Wisconsin, 1848, Missouri,
1853, California and Oregon, 1854, Illinois,
1855, Kansas and Virginia, 1870, New Jersey,
1871, Kentucky arid Minnesota, 1873, and
Colorado, 1870*

The results of this legihlation were in the main
disappointing Jewett 's Notices of public libi a-
nes in the United States, published by the
Smithsonian Institution in 1851, reports 9505
public school libraries in all, containing 1,522,-
332 volumes, of which 1,338,848 volumes were
in New York, 91,539 in Massachusetts, 47,220
in Michigan, and 19,637 in Rhode Island, no
other state reporting moie than 10,000 In the
Bureau of Education's special report on hbranes
in 1876 the total number of volumes in school
libraries had declined to 1,365,407 In New
York State, where alone the school libraries
were very generally established, the number of
volumes in libraries fell from over 1,300,000 in
1851 to 825,000 in 1892, and most of the annual
appropriation had come to be devoted to gen-
eral school purposes

Success of the Movement — Two reasons are
usually assigned for the comparative failure of

14

the school library movement in the country
First, defects in legislation; many of the states
failed to give state aid or gave it only intermit-
tently 01 failed to provide for the supplementing
of state aid bv local taxation, thereby keeping
up local interest in the libraries Second, de-
fects of administration, there was seldom any
supervision over the selection of books, and the
local school authorities were not accountable to
any central authority for the management of the
libraries But underlying both of these rea-
sons was the fact that this early school librarv
movement was strictly a school enterprise
The educators originating it did not realize that
books alone do not make a library, and that
only where organized into libraries do masses of
books become available for use To be efficient
a library should be well chosen, classified by
subject, the contents of the books brought out
by analytical cataloguing The books need to
be mended and rebound, they should be charged
when in circulation, both for safety and in older
that their use may be recorded All this is a
librarian's business, not a teacher's, and in the
forties and fifties librarians themselves had not
yet worked out methods of efficient library
administiation, — library science was in its
infancy

American librananship did not become an
organized profession until 1876 Bvthat time
the great increase in the number and size of
libraries in the country (from 694 libraries with
2,201,632 volumes m 1851 to 3647 libraries with
12,276,964 volumes in 1876, exclusive of school
libraries) had forced librarians to create moie
uniform, economic, and efficient methods of
administration, and for the first ten or fifteen
years the sessions of the American Library As-
sociation were largely devoted to questions of
library technique, — cataloguing, classification,
charging systems, shelving, etc Very dry and
uninspiring subjects, but thanks to the fine qual-
ity of thinking expended on them and to the
esprit de corps that put every improvement
at the disposal of the whole profession, these
problems were solved so successfully that the
enormous expansion in the number and size of
libraries during the last twenty-five years was
accomplished easily and has been accompanied
by an even greater expansion of use According
to the Bureau of Education Reports there were
in 1884, 2988 libraries of over 1000 volumes in
the United States, containing in all 12,376,473
volumes, with a total circulation of 10,899,469,
in 1908 there were 5640 libraries, with 62,628,-
541 volumes and a circulation of 82,222,584. In
other words, while the libraries have doubled
in number, their size has multiplied by five, and
their use has increased nearly eightfold

With problems of library administration in a
fair way to be settled, librarians next turned their
attention to improving the quality of books in
the libraries Principles of book selection were
evolved, and bibliographic tools for the evalua-
tion and selection of books were forged, a partial

LIBRARIES

LIBRARIES

list of which will bo found appended With
these methods and tools librarians weie now
equipped to aid educators in their endoavo? 1o
make the school libraries a dynamic element in
education .

In 1888 Melvil Dewey, who had perhaps done
more than any other man to promote adminis-
trative efficiency in American libraries, was
made State Librarian of New York, and thus
the organizing genius of the new hhrananship
was brought to bear on the unsatisfactory con-
ditions of district school libranes Mr Dewev
found that the $55,000 still appropriated under
the law of 1838 had been almost wholly di-
verted to general school purposes, that in
many cases the hbranes had been dispersed,
and that where they survived, the original
purpose of supplying books to the people of the
school district had been lost sight of, and that
the books wore regarded as part of the school
equipment A new law drawn up by Air
D^wvy transferred those that had developed
into public libraries to the regents of the
university, to be carried on in connection with
the state library, while the appropriation of
$55,000 (subsequently increased to $100,000)
was continued, but it was specifically directed
that it be administered by the Department of
Public Instruction for pedagogic and reference
books for the use of the teachers and pupils
That rule, however, was annulled in 1910, and
school libraries in communities that have no
public libraries may be opened to the public
Since 1892 the number of volumes in the school
libraries has increased from about 800,000 to
3,135,408 volumes, selected from lists appioved
by the state authorities and bearing on the
state course of study The state education de-
partment reports that the libraries are well caied
for; that in some cases the librarian of the
local public library supervises the school li-
brary, and that in many cases there arc trained
librarians in charge of the school libraries

State commissions to stimulate the establish-
ment and to advance the efficiency of libranes
have been established in thirty-three states,
beginning with Massachusetts in 1891, and in
many states the school libranes have come
under their influence. In Illinois the library
commission lends books to county school li-
braries; in Minnesota the relation between the
commission and the schools is very close, —
the commission organizes school libraries and
revises the list from which purchases must be
made, the state superintendent of education
employing a member of the commission's staff
to care for school books In Missouri and
Nebraska the state library commission* are also
in touch with the district school libianes In
Connecticut the State Library Committee
(Commission) is directed by law to assist in
the selection, purchase, and administration of
school libraries and to lend them books and pic-
tures In Oregon the library commission is
directly responsible for the district school li-

braries A mandatoiy tax ol not less than ten
cents per capita foi each child of school age
shall be levied by each county ha\mg less
than 100,000 inhabitants and set aside for school
libraries Tins is apportioned by the county
superintendent, who must report to the Oiegon
Library Commission the amount apportioned to
each district and the number of school children
in each distuct During July of each year the
local school authorities must select from lists pre-
pared and iurmshed bv the library commission
such books as aie desirable for their district, the
aggregate mailing price of which shall not exceed
the apportionment This list must be sent
to the library commission by Aug 10, and
the commission buys the books, thus receiving
much larger discounts than each library pur-
chasing separately could obtain If the lists
from any districts fail to be received by Aug
10, the commission shall select the books for
these districts The county superintendent
shall appoint a librarian who shall receive and
have the care and custody of the books, and
shall loan them to the teachers, pupils, and other
residents of the district in accordance with regu-
lations prescribed by the commission \\hen
school is in sessron the hbiarv shall be placed
in the school house, and the teachers shall be
responsible for its proper care and protection

A revival of effort to increase the number and
improve the efficiency of public school libraries,
due in part at least to direct or indirect stimulus
from library sources, is felt all over the country
and has been reflected in recent legislation.
Only eight states (Arkansas, (ieorgia, Missis-
sippi, New Hampshire, Tennessee, Texas,
Vermont, West Virginia) have no school librai}'
system established by law

An analysis of existing laws sho\\s that they
fall into three classes, — permissive laws, in
which the district is allowed to tax itself for a
school library, persuasive laws, in which the
state grants aid to the district, usually dupli-
cating the amount raised by the distiict, and
mandatory, in which the establishment of school
libraries is required, part of the school funds
being set aside for the purpose, and some state
official or body, superintendent of schools, 01
library commission being made responsible for
the enforcement of the law

Only the exceptionally energetic school au-
thorities or progressive communities avail
themselves of the privileges granted by a per-
missive law When the inducement of state
aid is added, the moderately energetic and intel-
ligent will take advantage of it , but a manda-
tory law, the execution of which is intrusted to
state authority, will overcome the inertia of the
great mass, and will achieve the desired result
of a well selected library in every public school
in the country

The essential points to be covered by a good
school law are* — (1) A mandatory minimum
annual tax levy by county (2) Compulsory
selection from a well chosen list made by some

LIBRARIES

LIBRARIES

recognized and lesponsible authority (3) A
central purchasing agency and a state contract
price. (4) A definite and fixed time for annual
purchase (5) Suitable rules and regulations
to prevent scattering of the books

The Oregon law described on page 15 is es-
pecially to be commended as providing all these;
requirements. A brief resume* of the laws relat-
ing to state aid for public school libraries will be
found in Library Journal, Vol XXXVII, 1912,
pp 312-315

School Libraries in Towns and Cities — School
library legislation has in the mam concerned
itself with the problem of the country school,
while library work in city schools has largely
developed along the lines of coopciation be-
tween the public library and the schools

To-day practically all of the public libraiv
systems in the cities of the United States have
organized school departments through which
classroom libraries are placed in the schools
In Buffalo the public library has placed S28
libraries in the grammar schools of the city,
from which 418,753 volumes were circulated in
1910 In St Louis traveling libraries are sent
to the grade schools In 1911, 176 traveling
libraries containing in all 101,759 volumes, weie
sent to schools, and deposit stations are estab-
lished in ten school buildings in which 59,238
volumes are placed The Cleveland Public
Library appointed a supervisor of classroom
libraries in 1906, and the use of classroom libra-
ries is being developed as rapidly as the re-
sources of the library will permit Detroit
sends books for supplementary reading to the
schools, circulating 77,869 volumes to school
children in 1910. In Pittsburgh a catalogue
of books for the use of pupils of the first eight
grades was published in 1902 by a committee of
teachers arid librarians A second, revised
edition was published in 1907 Books are sent
to 108 schools, about 100,000 volumes are cir-
culated for home use yearly, and nearly twice
that number used in the classrooms The
Newark Public Library has a school depart-
ment, maintains a reference room containing
books and periodicals for the use of teachers,
and sends about 500 traveling libraries to class-
rooms.

The State Board of Education of New Jersey
decided in 1911 that in all communities having
free public libraries the board would recom-
mend, subject to the approval of the local board
of education, that the school library be admin-
istered by the public library, the circulating
books, both fiction and nonfiction, becoming
part of the working collection of the public
library, with a distinguishing label, " Bought
from the school library fund "; the pedagogical
and strictly reference books are to be left in
the school buildings where desired The public
library, on the other hand, must agree to fur-
nish such books to the schools as may be needed
in school work.

In New York City the work of supplying

classroom libraries is carried on by the board
of education This work began in 1893 before
the consolidation of the several privately en-
dowed and maintained libraries of the city into
the present efficient public library system. In
1903 the board appointed the head of school
work in the Buffalo Public Library as superin-
tendent of school libraries of New York City
There are in 1911 more than 12,000 classroom
libraries in the system, containing from thirty
to forty books each, and with a circulation of
about 8,000,000 volumes a year. There are
also teachers' reference libraries in each school
building

The New Yoik and Brooklyn Public Libra-
ries supplement these school libraries by sending
traveling libraries to the schools on request,
and the New York Public Library has a school
department which promotes reference work with
the schools in the neighborhood of each branch
of the library

High School Libraries — In an article in
School Review (Vol XIV, p 762) it is stated
that " In every city school building theie
should be set apart as a library one large loom
furnished with comfortable chairs, in which
should be found daily papers, suitable maga-
zines, a liberal supply of the best fiction, travel,
popular science, live, unabridged historical
narrative, biographical essays A modern card
catalogue should be provided, which the stu-
dents should be taught to use " A trained
librarian to make the catalogue and to teach the
use of it, as well as to stimulate the use of the
books themselves, is needed to complete this
picture Ho\v many high schools of the eoun-
tiy have established such libraries cannot be
stated The last Bureau of Education statis-
tical report on libraries gives the number of
school libraries in the country having over 1000
volumes as 1644, but private schools and the
larger public school libraries are included

In New York State there were in 1909 fifty-
three high school libraries, established within
the last twenty years, thirty of which are for
the exclusive use of the schools, nine of them
are for all grades, though housed in high school
buildings, and fourteen of them combine the
functions of high school and public libraries
Twenty-five of these libraries are in charge of
librarians having previous library training or
experience A very important function of the
high school librarian is that of giving instruc-
tion to the pupils in the use of the library,
catalogue, indexes, and reference books This
is done systematically in several high schools in
New York State, and the committee on high
school libraries of the New York Library Asso-
ciation has been bringing the matter to the at-
tention of high school principals. It has been
done for some years in the Detroit Central High
School; in other high schools, as at Newark, this
instruction is given by the English teachers
aided by the public library In Cleveland the
high school libraries are under the charge of the

LIBRARIES

LIBRARIES

public library. The schools furnish equipment
and reference books, the library the librarian
and a permanent circulating collection, and, in
addition, lends books as needed, a regular de-
livery schedule being maintained between the
high school libraries and the public library
Instruction in the use of books, based on a man-
ual prepared by the supervisor of high school
branches, is given regularly in all the high school
libraries, for which credit is given in English

Library Training in Normal Schools —
Most school libraries depend for their efficiency
on the teacher, who must not only acquire enough
knowledge of library economy to arrange, care
for, and record the use of the books, but who
should be able to guide the reading of the chil-
dren and also to make the books contribute their
utmost toward the enrichment of the school
work In order to attain this end, normal school
students must be trained in the care and use of
books and given some critical knowledge of
children's books

In a report of a subcommittee of the Na-
tional Council of the N E A on the relation
of libraries to normal schools, in 1899, the ques-
tion was asked if " the professional training of
teachers had not reached that period in its de-
velopment where the library must be one of the
chief factors in the training of pupil teachers *> "
No mention was made in the report of any defi-
nite course in library training being given by a
noi mat school, but an affirmative response was
made to the query shoi tly after bv the announce-
ment of library courses by normal schools in
different parts of the countiy In 1902 a
trained librarian was engaged by the Cleveland
Normal School to give a course in "hbiaiv
use " In 1903 a study of juvenile literature was
added to it The course occupies three periods
a week for three terms, is on the same basis of
credit as other regulai courses, and is required
for graduation

The Normal School at Whilewatei, Wis , pub-
lishes a helpful outline of the work given there.
The N. E. A published in the Proceedings foi
1900, and as a separate pamphlet (now out of
print), a report on the subject which outlined u
rather elaborate* scheme of library instruction

In several cities, Omaha, Neb , Newark, N J ,
and Dayton, Ohio, among them, instruction of
normal school students in library work has been
carried on by the public libraiy

A number of state normal schools have given
courses in library economy in connection with
their summer schools, and in Michigan in-
struction in library work has been given at
teachers* institutes.

Branch Libraries in Schools — The move-
ment to increase and to socialize the use of
school buildings is of great interest to librarians
and suggests the desirability of placing branches
of public libraries in school buildings, more
generally than has been done heretofore This
has already been started in Newark, N.J., and
it has been carried on successfully for several

VOL. IV — C

years past in Grand Rapids, Mich , where-
through cooperation between the Board of
Education and the library regular branches of
the library have been housed in the school
buildings. These are conducted as public, not
as school libraries, being open from 12 30 to
9 p M , and containing books for readers of aM
ages The superintendent of schools said
recently that the greatest educational advance
in recent years was the establishment of branch
libraries in the public schools, as the presence
of a library and a librarian added greatly to the
efficiency of the general school work.

(Canada. — The district school library move-
ment started in New York in 1835 and spread
into Ontario, where an act was passed in 1850
providing for school libraries managed by local
authorities under regulations prepared by the
Council of Public Instruction In accordance
with the law, a classified catalogue was pre-
pared by the Council from which alone selec-
tion could be made. The books were pur-
chased by the Council, and, in addition, books
to the value of the amount raised by the local-
ity were given by the Council to each hbiary
A record of each library was kept by the de-
pal trnent and of the books furnished to it, thu.s
preventing duplication. This law was much
more enlightened than most of the correspond-
ing legislation in the United States, and its
results have been satisfactory

England — Sonnenschem's Cyclopaedia of
Education, 190(), states that in Great Britain
any attempt at the formation of elementary
and secondary school libraries has been due
chiefly to purely voluntary effort, no assistance
being gi\en by the State School libraries
are not mentioned in the Educational Act of
1902 In an article in the Libiary Woild
(1905-1906, p. 173) it is stated that about
9000 schools out of 12,000 are provided with
libraries, the management of which vanes in
different localities The larger number are
entirely under the control of the individual
education committees, while some are managed
by a joint education and library committee
The public libraries of Great Britain ha\e been
too much hampered by restrictive legislation
limiting the amount that could be raised In
rates for library support to cany on work foi
schools like lhat done in the United States A
beginning, however, was made at Cardiff,
Wales, in 1899 The school board raised the
money, and the library committee undertook to
administer the libraries, a joint committee of
management being appointed from 1he two
bodies This has worked veiy successfully.
The example has been followed by several othei
localities, and it indicates the line along which
school binaries an1 likely to develop in the
United Kingdom

In London in 11)08 a scheme was adopted In
the County Council by which any public ele-
meiitnr} school may be supplied with a small
permanent library upon an application to the

17

LIBRARIES

LIBRARIES

libraries' committee by the headmaster or
trustees, who must give surety to the Council
for the safe custody of the books A list of
200 books will be sent to the applicant with a
recommendation that books be selected from it

France — The idea of placing libraries in the
schools dates back to the eia of the Revolution ,
the Decrct HUT Vorganizatwn dex <?ro/<?.s primaircx,
U Dec 1792, directed that there should bo
formed in each school a small collection of books
for the use of the pupils, and that it should be
put in the care of an Instituteur All the sub-
sequent laws relative to elementary education
recognized the importance of school libraries
and dealt with means of introducing them into
the schools. Successive ministries ordered the
distribution of books to the schools, and between
1833 and 1848 more than a million volumes were
distributed But the indifference of the teach-
ers and the laxity of supervision worked even
more disastrously in France than in America,
and 111 1850 the school libraries had completely
disappeared (Buisson's Diction naire dc Peda-
gogic, s v Bibhothequex, 1911 ed )

In 1862 the ministry issued an older directing
the establishment of school libraries in every
public school for boys, and ordering the books
to be placed in a bookcase in a schoolroom
under the care of an instructor No commune
would receive books from the government un-
less it complied with this regulation The State
has since continued its gifts of books to school
libraries, the volumes comprising both works
necessary to the classroom work and instructive
reading foi the scholars and for adult, members
of their families A special commission was
created in 18(55 to pass upon the books to be
bought for school libraries, this commission,
Lc Co mite des bibUotheques dc, Venxeignement
pnmaire, issues catalogues of approved books
from time to time

The development of school libraries has been
continuous since 1862 There are now in the
neighborhood of 50,000 libraries, containing an
average of 160 volumes in each, the regulations
are definite, and the libraries are a branch of the
public service

Germany — There is no geneial school li-
brary law in Germany, and but little mention
of school libraries in the educational legislation
of the separate states Wurttemberg and
Saxony have recognized them, but the laws aie
vague and merely suggestive, and have not had
much influence So, while there are libraries
in most of the higher schools and in many
public schools, the school library has not the
legal status in Germany that it has in France
or Austria The existing school libraries are in
general for the use of teachers and pupils, and
are not for popular use, as in France, though in
country districts the public and school libraries
are sometimes combined

A ustna — The Minister of Religion and Edu-
cation issued an order in 1870 that a librarv
should be established in every communal

school, regulations for the organization of the
libraries were promulgated in 1871 and com-
pleted in 1875 The director of the school is
to be responsible for the library, which is not
only intended for the scholars, but for the
people of the commune The government has
not given the school library movement the sys-
tematic support which it has received in France,
and there are no general statistics of the number
of school libraries obtainable; but there has
been much general interest in the subject, and
private efforts have been organized to extend
and improve school libraries.

School libraries for pupils and their families
are also found in Sweden, Switzerland, and Bel-
gium

Italy — The government has done nothing
for school libraries, but at a library conference
in Milan in 1906 it was reported that a national
society had been organized with headquarters
in Ferrara to promote the establishment of school
libraries Through the efforts of the society
the schools of Ferrara and Leghorn had been
provided with libraries, and the movement was
extending to Pisa, Turin, San Remo, Florence,
and elsewhere The society is doing much, but
it cannot take the place of state action, and until
that is forthcoming Italy will be far behind its
neighbors.

Spam — School libraries were created in
Spain by government decree in 1869. In 1878
the government purchased 100,000 volumes for
distribution to school libraries, but it seemed to
consider the work done for all time, as no pro-
vision was made for subsequent additions

J A. R.

Pedagogical Libraries — Pedagogical libra-
ries in the United States have developed in con-
nection with national, state, and city bureaus of
education, state and city libraries, universities,
and normal schools

The U S Bureau of Education at Washing-
ton, D 0 , established in 1867, has collected
a pedagogical library of more than 100,000
volumes In certain classes of educational lit-
erature, such as state and city school reports,
laws, etc , catalogues and reports of univer-
sities, colleges, and schools, files of educational
periodicals, and transactions of educational
associations, the library is probably the most
complete in the country It has also a large
collection of school and college textbooks
While pnmai ilv a library for the use of the
bureau staff, it is designed to serve also as a
central reference and circulating hbiary foi
educators throughout the country Books
may be borrowed as interhbrary loans, or upon
the guarantee of a responsible school official,
or of a personal deposit, and are transmitted to
the borrower free of charge. The library also
supplies bibliographical information on educa-
tional subjects through its printed publications
and correspondence Its most significant pub-
lications are the Monthly Record of Current
Educational Publication* (No 1, Jan. 15,1912),

LIBRARIES

LIBRA R IKS

cumulated in the annual BMiugiuphy of Edu-
cation, which now covers the period since 1907,
and A Teacher's Professional Libraty Clari-
fied List of 100 title* (Washington, 1909)
Upon request the library also supplies lists of
books and magazine articles on special edu-
cational questions The bibliographical equip-
ment of the library consists of a union catalogue
of educational literature in the government
libraries at Washington in card form, an exten-
sive card index to the contents of current official
reports, society publications, and periodicals
relating to education, and a file of reference lists
in typewritten manuscript foim (W D
Johnston The Library of the Bureau of
Education Educational Review, Vol XXXVI,
pp 452-457, December, 1908 E D Grcenman
The bibliographic Work of the U S Bureau of
Education Library Journal, Vol. XXXVI,
pp. 180-181, April, 1911.)

The state pedagogical libraries are identified
with either the state department of education,
the state library, or the state university Those
of the first class are ordinarily mere office hbia-
nes, but two significant exceptions may be
noted, that of the New York Department of
Instruction, established in 1895, the purpose of
which was the circulation of professional and
related literature among school officials and
teachers throughout the state, and that of the
Rhode Island Department of Education, which
sought instead to promote the establishment of
local collections and with this in view published
a periodical Library Bulletin (1908)

The New York Education Department h-
braiy was in 1904 transferred to the state
libiary In other states, too, the facilities of a
geneial library for the care and distribution of
books have led to the development of a peda-
gogical department of the state hbiniy and tlu
circulation of traveling hbianes foi teachers
either by the state library or state hbiary com-
mission The state universities on the other
hand have supenoi icsources for the biblio-
graphical work pertaining to such service

In California (1889) and New Jersey (1891)
county libiaries for teacheis weie established
In each case, however, the tendency has been to
merge this special service with the general, and
especially to make use of the library lesouices
and equipment of the largest county town

The first city to establish a pedagogical li-
brary was Philadelphia This library, founded
in 1883 upon the accession of Dr James MacAl-
ister to the office of superintendent of schools,
published a catalogue of its collections in 1887,
and again in 1907 (525 pp.) This library still
remains distinct from the public library service
of the city; but in most other cities, as in most
states, the special library service has either
been transferred to the general library or in some
measure made a part of it In Cleveland, for
example, the board of education published
in 1892 Courses of professional reading for
teachers and catalogue of pedagogical and refer-

ence book* of tin Fn'( I'lihlH Johnny In
ProMilence, on the other hand, it was the
public library which first published a catalogue
of local collections of pedagogical literature,
issuing first a list of books in its own collections
(Monthly Bulletin, May, 1897), and a year later
a catalogue of the public school library at the
office of the superintendent of schools The
only other local bibliographical work of signifi-
cance for teachers is that done by public li-
braries, examples of which are the Li*t of text-
books in the Boston Public Library, Monthly
JiulletiH, September, 1900, and the Check /?s< of
i r or kx relating to the ,sr/?Ws and to the educational
history of the city of New York in the New Yoik
Public Libra) //, published in its Jlullctin foi
June, 1901

Of university pedagogical libraries the earliest
and the largest is that of Teacheis College,
Columbia University This library, established
in 1888, was in 1899 coordinated uith the other
libraries of the university, and in 1901 a cata-
logue entitled Books on Education 'in the
Ltbiarics of (Columbia CmvciMti/ (435 pp ) was
published The library now numbers 87,236
volumes and pamphlets, of which (>5,336 relate
to education The latter are distributed as
follows history of education, including docu-
ments, 15,784, higher education, 21,807;
secondary education, 5472, elementary educa-
tion, 1104, training of teachers, 2734, text-
books, 6501, other classes, 11,336.

The libraries reported by 185 public normal
schools in 1910 contained 1,331,705 Aolumes, an
average of 7198 volumes each The largest
library, that of the Indiana Mate normal school,
Tene Haute, contained 50,000 \olumes Fifty-
seven private normal schools reported 189,823
volumes, an average of 3330 volumes each

The principal pedagogical libraries in other
countries are the I'adagoynchc Central- Bib-
liothek(Comenius-Shflung), Leipzig, 152,216 vol-
umes and pamphlets ( Katalog dti padagogi*chc?i
Central- Biblwthck, 2te Aufl 1892-1897, 2 \ ),
the library of the iMuxee Pedagogtqut, Pans,
76,000 volumes (Catalogue, 1886-1889, 3 v),
and the library of the English Board of Edu-
cation (25,000 \olumes) W D J

See MUSEUMS, EDUCATIONAL.

References —

Historical and Gtneral —

American Librarv Association Papers prepared for
the World's Library Congresb held at the Colum-
bian Exposition, i'd b> Mehil DPWP> (Washing-
ton, 1896 )

Paper* ami PuxccJuiV^, 1S76 Appeared in the
Libraiy Journal, and then published as separate
Bulletin*

Handbooks, and Manuals of Library Economy
(Chicago, current )

BOSTWICK, A E The American Public Library.
(New York, 1910 )

BOTFIELD, B Notes on the Cathedral Libraries of
Knglami (London, 1849 )

CLARK, J \\ The Care of Book* (Cambridge, 1909 )

CLARKE, W Rrpcrtorutm Bibliographic urn, or some
Account of thf most cdcbrated British Libraries
(London, 1819 )

19

LIBRARIES

LIBRARIES

EDWARDS, E Memoirs of Libraries (London, 1859 )

FLETCHER, W I Public Libraries in America (Bos-
ton, 1899 )

GARBELLI, F Le Bibliotcche in Italia all Epoca JKomana
(Milan, 1894 )

GARNETT, R Essays in Librananship (London,
1899.)

GAUTIER, J Nos Bibliotheques publiques (Pans,
1903.)

GOTTLIEB, T Uber mittelalterhch^ Bibholheken (Leip-
zig, 1890 )

GREENWOOD, T. Public Libraries (London, 1891 )

HIRSCHING, F K G Versuch einer Beschreibung
sehenswdrdige Bibliotheken Teutschlands (Erlangen,
1786-1791 )

JEWETT, C C Notices of Public Libraries in the United
Slates Fourth Annual Report of the Smithsonian
Institution, Appendix (Washington, 1851 )

KEEP, A B. The New York Society Library (New
York, 1908 )

Library Association of the United Kingdom Trans-
actions and Proceedings, 1878

MUMBY, F A The Romance of Bookselling (Boston,
1911 )

OGLE, J J The Free Library, its History and Present
Condition (New York, 1898 )

PUTNAM, G H Books and their Makers during the
Middle Ages (New York, 1896-1897 )

RAWLINCJH, G. B Story of Books (London, 1901 )

HAYEKS, W. C. B The Children's Library (London,
1912)

SAVAGE, E A The Story of Libraries and Book-
collecting (London, 1908 )
Old English Libraries (London, 1912 )

SrnuLTZE, E Frcic offentlichc Bibliotheken, Volkx-
bibhotheken und Lesehallen (Stettin, 1900 )

SPOFFORD, A A book for all Readers (New York,
1900 )

U S Bur Edu( Public Libraries m the United States

(Washington, 1876)

Index to Rep Com Educ 1867-1907, under Libra-
ries, pp 53-54 (Washington, 1909 )

Periodicals —

Centralblatt fur Bibhothekswesen, 1774-date (Leip-
zig )

Library Assistant, 1898-date (London )
Library Association Record, 1 89()-date (London )
Library Journal, 1876 -date (New York )
Library World, 1898-date (London )
New York (State) Libraries, 1908-date Index No

1911 (Albany)

Public Libraries 1896-date (Chicago )
Rimsta ddh Bibholechc, 1888-date (Florence )
Revue des Bibhotheques, 1891-date (Pans )

Bibliographies ' —

CANNONS, H G T Bibliography of Library Economy

(London, 1910)
Library Work, quarterly Cumulative volumes from

time to time (Minneapolis )
GUTHRIE, A L Library Work Cumulated InHfr,

1905-1911 (Minneapolis 1912 )

Schools and Libraries ~~
B.ivlor University Public

Bul-

School Libra ne
'lehn, Vol VIII, No I (Waco, 1905 )

HROWN, J D The Small Library (London, 1907 )

CARPENTER, F () The Library the Center of the
School Kducatwn, Vol XXVI, 1905, pp 110
114

CRUNDEN, F M Books and Textbooks, the Library
as a Factor in Education Second International
Library Conference Transactions and Proref fl-
ings, 1897, pp 46-54

HOPKINS, F. M Outhntt, for Instruction of High School
Students in UM of Libraru Detroit Central High
School, Detroit. Mich

.JOHNSTON, W I) The Library o»s a Reinforcement of
the School New York University Forty-seventh
annual Convocation, 1909, p 27

Library Journal, 1895 April numbers have been
devoted to School and Library Questions.

20

Library Work, 1905-1911. ( Cumulative Volume an-
nounced See References under High School
Libraries, Libraries and School* , School Libraries

MAC Do WELL, L. J Public School Library System
Educ Rev , Vol XXXIV, 1907, p 374.

MILNER, A V Foundation and Care of School Libra-
ries Illinois State Normal University Normal
School Quarterly, Ser 2, No 8 (Normal, 1903 )

Modern American Library Economy as Illustrated by
the Newark, N J , Free Public Library, 1911. The
School Department Room, Part 5, section 1
School Libraries, Part 5, section 4

National Education Association, Library Department,

Papers and Discussions, 1896-

Renorl of tht Committee on the Relations of Public
Libraries to Public Schools, 1899

WIDDEMER, M Books and Article*} on Children's
Reading a Bibliography, Bulletin of Bibliog-
raphy (Boston), July and October, 1911, Jan-
uary and April, 1912

Man> of the works and periodicals given above fre-
quently contain discussions of questions relating to

schools and libraries

Aids to Selection of School Libraries — -

Buffalo Public Library Class-room Libraries for Public
Schools Listed by Grades, to which is added a List
of Books suggested for School Reference Libraries.
(Buffalo, 1909 )

Carnegie Library, Pittsburgh Catalogue of Books for
Use of First Eight Grades (Pittsburgh, 1907.)

Eastern Illinois State Normal School List of books
in thf Schoolroom Libraries of the First Six Grades
(Charleston, 1909 )

Michigan State Normal College Public School Libra-
ries, fiOO Books and how to buy them (Ypsilanti,
1908 )

New York, Board of Education Catalogue of Books
in the Public School Library (New York, 1910 )

Oregon Library Commission Lit>t of Books for School
Libraries In two parts Published bv the Com-
mission, Salem Part 1 Books for Elementary
SchooK, 1907, Part 2, Books for High Schools,
1910 (Contains suggestions for arrangement
and management of school libraries )

PRENTICL, M H , and POWER, E L A Children's
Library (Cleveland Normal School, 1904 )

Wisconsin Education Department Book* for

Township Librarits Revised frequentl>
List of Boohs for Free High School Libraries, with

Instructions for Cataloguing (Madison, 1909)
The Division of Library Extension of the Alabama

Department of Archives and History is about to issue a

list of books for school libraries, ea( h book in which

hart been examined by the Division staff
See also article on LITERATURE, CHILDREN'^

Manage im nt of Libraries —

New York State Education Department Care of
School Equipment (Albany, 1909)

Oregon Commission School Library Circulars (Sa-
lem, frequently revised )

SALISBURY, G E Library Method* foi School Teachers
(Whitewater, WIH , 1908)

WALTKR, F K Care of School Libraries New York,
Libraries, 1911, Vol II, pp 256-260

Normal School Training in Library Work —
BALDWIN, E fJ Report on Instruction in Library

Administration in Normal Schools Covers the

whole subject of schools and Libraries and contains

full Bibliographies, N E A Proc , 1906
CiiLsoN, MARQKKY L Course of Study for Normal

S(hooJ Puinls on the Use of a Library (Modern

Library Economy, as illustrated by the Newark

Public Library, part 5 )
MKNDKNHALL, I M Library Instruction in Normal

Schools Public Libraries, 1908, Vol XIII, pp

88-40,91-3, 124-125
TOBTTT, EDITH Plan of a Course of Instruction in the

Use of Libraries N K A Proc., 1909, pp

848 852
WARD, G O The Practical Use of Books and Libraries.

(Boston, 1911.)

LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION

LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION

Teaching Outline to accompany above
Foreign School Libraries —
BUISHON, F Dictionuaire dc Pedagogic, s v Bib-

lioth&quct, *STt olan es
FABIETTI, E Manuale per Ic Bibhotheche Popolan

(Milan, 1908 )

PELLIKHUN, M Ley BibliotMque* populaires a V Stranger
ct en Fiance (PuriH, 1906 )

Pedagogical Libraries —

BEEGEH, J Die pfidngogisehen Bibhotheken, Schul-

rnuseen und strtnfligen Lehrrnittclaustellungen dcr

Welt (Leipzig, 1892 )
GREENMAN, E D The bibliographic Woik of the U S

Bureau of Education Library Journal, Vol

XXXVI, pp 180-181
JOHNSTON, W D The Library of the Bureau of

Education Educ Rev Vol XXXVI, pp 452-

457.

LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION OF EDU-
CATIONAL PUBLICATIONS —Tho svs-
toin of classification of books on education
commonly used in public and in some uimer-
sitv and college libraries is the Dewey Deci-
mal System This classification is as follows

370

EDUCATION

Theory of education

109
15

71
72
73
74

Meaning Aim

History of educational theory

Psychology applied to education
Dictionaries Cyclopedias
Essa\ s Addresses
Periodicals

Organizations Conventions
Study of education Institutions and organi-
zations for ti anting teachers

Teacheis1 meetings

Teachers' institutes

Noi mal schools

Edtn otion.il museums
Histoi\. description

Educational biography

Hiatoi v of education in special countries

DISCIPLINE

Professors,

11
13

14

15
16

161
105
2

21
212

213

214

23

25

253

27
28
.3
32
.38
4

421
43

5

52

53

1\CHERS METHODS

Teachers Teaching personnel

masters, instructors
Qualifications Personality
Examination Certificates ( Certified

teachers Licenses
Appointment Organization of teaching

force

Professional status

Salary and promotion Compensation
Amount of seivice
Salaiy

Promotion \dvance in lank
School organization School records
Admission Enrolment Matriculation
Grammar or intermediate school ad-
mission btandards
High school standards
College standards

Terms Vacations Holidays Breaking up
Classes (trades

Length of school courses , c g year

coui ae

Examinations oral, written Cramming
Promotions Degrading
Methods of instruction
Textbooks Recitations
Lal>oratorv work
Systems of education

Educational value

Military organization Military instruc-
tion
Government Discipline Authontv

Attendance Truancy Tardiness Absences
Rewards Prizes Favors Approbation

.54 Punishment Disciplinary penalties

0 School premises and equipment

62 Buildings

623 Labor atones Observatory Machine

shop

624 Gymnasium

63 Furnibhmg and decoration
o31 Furniture

64 Libraries

648 Professional and technical school libra-
ries

65 Museums character and functions

66 Scientific apparatus, laboratory equipment

and supplies

7 School hygiene

71 Health of students Overstudy Fatigue

712 Medical inspection

716 School meals

73 Care of body Gymnastics Calibthcnics
732 Gymnastics Calisthenics

74 Recreations Games, etc Athletics Di-

veisions

8 Student life and customs

87 Student houses Lodgings Dormitories

9 Education of special classes

91 Physically defective
911 Blind

.912 Deaf

913 Blind-deaf

92 Physically defective

93 Morally defective Delinquents

94 Other abnormal classes
945 Exceptional

947 Dependents

974 Freedmen Negroes

975 Indians

372 ELEMENTARY EDUC \TION

2 Kindergarten

3 Observing poweis Object teaching Science

4 Reading Vlphubet Phonics and word

methods

5 Elemental y writing and manual work
,6 Elementan grammar Language lessons

7 Elementary \iithmetic

8 Oth( r studies

373 SECONDARY ACADEMIC PREPARATORY

374 HOME EDUCATION SELF-EDUCA-

TION AND CULTURE

4 Correspondence teaching Manuscript aids

5 Lectures

6 Extension courses Lecture study
8 Continuation schools

375 CURRICULUM

370 EDUCATION OF WOMEN

6 Higher education of women

7 Coeducation Sc gregation Separation

8 College s foi women

9 Special countries and s< hools history, re-

ports, etc

377 RELIGIOUS, ETHICAL AND SECULAR

EDUCATION

1 Religious instruction Bible in public schools

2 Ethical education

8 Church and education

9 Non-Christian religions and education

378 COLLEGES AND UNIVERSITIES

05 Academic periodicals

06 General college associations

1 Organization Government Location Scope,

field

2 Academic1 degree's and costume College

colors

3 Endowment of research Fellowships

Scholarships Student aid

21

LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION

LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION

.4-98 Special countries and colleges History, re-
ports, etc

.99 Professional, technical and other special

schools

379 PUBLIC SCHOOLS RELATION OF STATE
TO EDUCATION

1 Public school system
.13 Local support

.14 School laws and regulations School age

.15 School supervision and control national,

state and local Centralization
.16 Public colleges and universities national,

state and local

17 Secondary schools

171 High schools Academies

18 Primary schools Kindergartens

19 Evening schools

2 Illiteracy Instruction of illiterates

The Library of Congress has m-ently de-
vised a scheme of classification which is now
used by the Bureau of Education and other
governmental departments, as well as in
some other public libraries; and, because of
the exchange of index cards inaugurated by
the Library of Congress, is apt to be used in
many additional libraries This scheme alone
occupies a pamphlet of 168 pages The outline
of this scheme is as follows

General

11-97

101

106

111-791

797-898

901-981

Periodicals, Societies
Yearbooks
Congresses

Documents. Reports
Exhibitions Museums
Directories

LA5-LB15 Encyclopedias
LA- History and description

11-13 General

,31 Ancient history

96 Mediaeval history

106 Renaissance period and early modern

126 Modern history

205 United States

212 Primary or elementary education

222 Secondary education

226 Higher or university education

T ii f Theory of education

\ Principles and practice of teaching
1025 General

1051 Educational psychology

1115 Child study

1137 Plays, games, etc

1141-1547 Kindergarten and primary education
1555 Elementary or common school educa-

tion
1567 Rural schools

Field work School excursions
1570 Curriculum

1573 Reading

1607 Secondary education

High-school fraternities

1629 Curriculum

1630 Languages

1715 Education and training of teachers

1751-55 {Teachers' associations

\ Teachers' institutes, meetings, etc

1763-65 Teachers' examination questions

1771 Certification of teachers

1775-1779 Teaching as a vocation

1805-2151 Normal schools

2283 International exchange of teachers

2321 Higher education

2332 Academic freedom

2334 Salaries and pensions

2341 Supervision and administration

2342 Discipline

2351 College entrance requirements

2353 College examinations

2361 Curriculum

2363 Electives

2365 Special subjects

2371 Graduate work and courses

2381 Degrees

2507 Legislation, laws

2523 United States

2531-2567 Canada, Mexico, Central and South

America

2580-2584 England

2631-2639 Fiance

2805 Administration — a. Supervision and

organization

2842 Teachers' salaries and pensions

2851 School-book question

2861 Centralization of rural schools

2890-2999 Bv countries other than United States

301 1 Administration — 6 Management and

discipline

3025 Rewards and punishment

3033 School hours

3061-3063 Classification and grading

3063 Promotion

3081 Attendance , truancy

3087 Compulsory education

3093 Self-government

3205 School architectuie and equipment

3405 School hygiene

3411 Medical inspection of schools

3483 Contagious diseases

3471 Feeding of school children

3487-3489 Special subjects

3503 School gardens

3517 Playgroundfa

3525-3571 Special days (Arbor Day, Bird Day,

Flag Day, etc )

3604-3615 Student life and customs

LC-Education — Special forms, relations, and applica-
tions
191

201
211

107-120, 351-629
71-188
129-139
251-318
321-951
383-414
588-589
361-368
461-629
1001-1021
1081
1051-1071

1101

1401-2580

1601

2601-2611

2701-2978

3001-3801

4051-4100

4301

4451

4601

4631

4801

5201- 5401

5701-5760

5901-6101

6201-6660

Education and society Citizen-
ship

Education and heredity
Education and crime

Education and the church
Education and the state
Child labor and education
Moral and ethical education
Religious education

Universities

Y M C A

Sunday schools

Denominational schools
Humanistic education
Industrial and trade education
Professional education (professions
and occupations)

Architecture
Education of women
Coeducation
Indians
Negroes
Orientals
The destitute (orphans, outcasts,

paupers, etc )
The blind
The deaf

Backward children
Mentally defective children
Mentally defective — truants, etc
Continuation schools
Vacation schools Summer schools
Correspondence schools
University extension

22

LD-United States

LE- America other than United States

LF-Europe

LG-Asia, Africa, Oceanic

LH -College and school magazines and papers

LIBRARY CLASSIFICATION

LIBRARY METHOD

LJ-College fraternities
LT-Text-booka

The third system of library classification
which has common usage in the United States
is the Cutter Expansive classification The
outline of the educational section as follows*

IK EDUCATION

KC Classical education
KE Home education
KF Female education

KH Early education m general, including infant
education, kindergarten, and primary school
KI 1 nfant education , the mind of the infant
KM Self-education

KP Public education, Popular education, Compul-
sory education
KR Religious education
KS Scientific education
KT Technical, Industrial education

L Mechamc'8 institutes, Mercantile associations,

Apprentices' associations, Lyceums, et<
M Reading clubs, Debating societies, etc
N Correspondence universities, Chautauqua so-
cieties, etc
O University extension

P Pedagogics, Teaching

PC Curriculum

PD Discipline

PDC Corporal punishment

PE Examinations

PII Hour.s of study, vacations, etc.

PI Inspection

PM Marking

PO Organization

R Means of Education

RB Hooks, School

RD Apparatus, School

RK Laboratories, School

RL Libraries, School

RM Museums, School

S Kindergartens, Object teiu lung

SK Kitchen gardens, i c household training for
children

T Primarv sc hools

U Secondary schools, Public schools in general

V Private schools

W Academies, Gymnasia, Public sc hools like Eton,
Rugby, etc

X Universities and Colleges

Y Special schools, methods and history

IZA Blind and deaf and dumb

ZB Blind

ZC Books for the- Blind

ZD Deaf and dumb

ZF Feeble-minded

ZI Indians

ZK Criminals

ZN Negroes, Freedmen

ZP Poor, The

ZW Women, Female education, Sex in education

Anv one of these systems is subject to local
modification, especially in case of large hhia-
ries The third mav he used in combina-
tion with the other two for more detailed
analysis of any one class

References —

CUTTER, C A Expansive Classification (Library

Bureau, 1891 )
DEWKY, MELVIL Decimal Claumjutition, 7th cd

(Librarv Bureau, 11)11 )
Library of Congiess Claamjiuituni, r7a«s L, Kduui-

twn (Gov Printing Office, Washington, 1

23

LIBRARY METHOD — In the teaching
of geography, history, and other school sub-
jects, where the final reliance of the oidman
student is placed upon books, it has become n
well-established practice to supplement the
class text with additional textbooks and other
readings Some teachers have gone further
and required the student to do his reading in
the school or public library under the normal
conditions which \\oiild accompany similar
work m after life The student is trained to
know the probable sources of information, to
consult the proper bibliographies and guides
to leading, to make his own list of references,
to estimate the materials found, and finally to
prepare his work in outline with reference in
good form

The library method represents an extreme
reaction from the slavish use of a class text,
distinctly in the right direction The teachei
who relies largely upon one or more texts is
very likely not to gi\e the student power to in-
vestigate arid develop a subject under the
difficulties which would confront him, once he
is removed from teachers and school facilities
This is true in a slightly lessened degree where
11 large number of books aie used as supple-
mentary or collateral reading Here the stu-
dent knows a larger number of books to \>hich
ho can make appeal, but he may not have
acquired the ability to use a library The
library method bears somewhat the same rela-
tion to the modern humanities as the laboia-
toiv method does to the modern natural sci-
ences, it makes the pupil familiar with the
materials and methods which would be used
in the more thoroughgoing field of research
There is distinct danger, however, that the
method may be earned too far in teaching,
particularly by teachei ,s who are themselves en-
gaged in research, and are instructing students
whose present interest in the subject is gen-
eral and cultural rather than specialized and
investigative The method is slow in accu-
mulating facts for the student, it is a prolonged
matter in which the young student may soon
lose interest, if he does not actually take a
dislike to a subject puisued by a method so
costly of time and energy Its most extended
and complicated use will be found in college and
university, but it ought to be somewhat used in
its less complex forms in the secondary school,
and perhaps even in the highest grades of the
elementary school Such a tendency exists
The growth in approval of the efforts to teach
children the power of independent study is one
of the broader pedagogical sanctions behind a
modified application of the library method to
teaching in grammar and high schools H S

See HISTORY, TE \THING OF, SUPPLEMENTAL
KE \niNr,

Reference : —

( / VNNQN8, H G T Bibliography of Library Kcunomy,
pp 250-250 Relation of Schools and Libraries,
School Libraries (London, 1010 )

LIBRARY SERVICE

LIBRARY SERVICE

LIBRARY SERVICE, TRAINING FOR —

No formal moans of ti tuning for hbi anaiiship
existed in this countiy before 1887 The
library school proper was hinted at as an ulti-
mate desirability in the Libraiy Journal of
May, 1879 Interest in the subject of training
was aroused in 1877 at the International Con-
ference held in London, at which accounts were
given of the Italian practice of admission to
library service4 thiough examinations, and of
the system employed at the Vittono Emanuele
libiarv in Rome The idea of library training
has thus boon borrowed from abioad, but its
development in America has been along lines
somewhat different to that in Europe

It was not until 188(>, howo\or, that plans
\\ere made for a library school In the mean-
time, certain libraries had acquired some
reputation for training their apprentices, chiefly
in cataloguing and classifying But the gen-
eral situation was chaotic In 1886 announce-
ment was made that a School of Library
Economy would be opened at Columbia Col-
lege, in its library on Madison Avenue and
40th Street, New York No entrance exami-
nations were given, and the class of nineteen
or twenty students entering carno from vari-
ous parts of the country, some with experience
m libraries, some without The work con-
sisted largely of lessons in cataloguing and
classifying, other subjects being taught by
lectures, without recitations, piactical woik
was also arranged, but was optional at first
The first class began in January, 1887, and
the course was finished in June In 1880 the
resignation of Melvil Dewey, the librarian of
Columbia College, and his appointment as
State Librarian, led to the removal of this
school from New York to Albany, the title
being changed to the New York State
Library School

In 1800 Pratt Institute of Brooklyn, N Y ,
which had been carrying on a class for the
benefit of its own staff, announced that this
class would be open to applicants not on the
library staff, and twenty-two persons under-
took the course Here also no examinations
were given for the first year, and no tuition fee
was charged In the second year a small fee was
required, and in 1802 entrance examinations
were given. Very soon other than local can-
didates applied and the class became a school,
supplying other libraries with assistants In
1802 Drexel Institute, of Philadelphia, opened,
\\ith a library school among its departments,
and in 1803 Armour Institute, in Chicago,
tried the experiment The two former schools
are still in existence, but the last-named was
removed in September, 1807, to the University of
Illinois, ITrbana, III , where it has remained
In 1807 Syracuse University offered a course
in library economy; in 1004 a school was
opened in connection with Western Reserve
University, Cleveland, in 1005 instruction was
offered by the Carnegie Library of Atlanta

24

• and Winona Institute of Indianapolis, and in
1007 by the Wisconsin Library Commission.
The Carnegie Library of Pittsburg established
a course for children's librarians in 1000, and
Simmons College, Boston, in October, 1002,
made hbraiy science a subject to be studied in
connection with the regular college course
The latest school, now in process of establish-
ment, is that connected with the New York
Public Library

The character of each school is somewhat
dependent on that of the institution with
which it is connected While the same sub-
jects appear in the curricula of all, the
emphasis on certain subjects is stronger in
some schools than in others The practice
which can be offered to students in a college
or umveisity hbtaiy is different in degree and
even in kind from that offeied in a public
circulating library As yet, however, this
has not led to specialization in the schools
as entirely as one would imagine The only
declared attempt at specialization is that
of the school connected with the Carnegie
Library of Pittsburg The Wisconsin Com-
mission's school trains primarily for Wisconsin
libraries, and the school at Atlanta for the
libraries of the South, but no school refuses to
enlarge the field for its graduates, when oppor-
tunity offers The likenesses and differences
of these schools can be discovered only by
an examination of their various hand-books It
is evident that no type school is yet fixed

While there is a difference of opinion among
the schools as to some of the entrance re-
quirements, the majority have an age limit of
twenty years, refusing all applicants under that
age Two schools, those connected with the
New York State Library and Illinois Univer-
sity, now make college graduation an entrance
requirement Some institutions hold a supple-
mentary examination in addition to requiring
college giaduation Others, again, give then
own entrance examination more nearly suitable
to the woik to be taken up, the subjects of
examination cover history, literature, current
events, general information, French, and Ger-
man Schools that began by accepting high
school certificates and diplomas or freshman
requirements have gradually raised their stand-
ards and made tests definitely applicable
to the work to be undertaken A compari-
son of entrance examinations shows that, while
then* is general uniformity in the subjects
required and the passing mark is usually the
same, the difficulty of the examination and
its value as a test vary with different schools
Examinations are very generally exchanged
among the schools, and while there is not
much copying, it is admitted that the practice
has suggestive value Uniformity in entrance
examinations is favorably considered.

In the curricula of the schools stress was
laid originally, not by intention, but of neces-
sity, on those branches of work best exemplified

LIBRARY SERVICE

LIBRARY SK

in college libraries, — cat alogumg, classifica-
tion, reference \voik, and tbe subjects coming
under the head of technical library economy
The schools have modified this preference to
some extent, although the first three subjects
are still the backbone of e\erv course The
introduction into e\ en the small libiaries of the
Library of Congress catalogue caul has made
the importance of cataloguing consist largely
m the study of subject headings rather than in
the writing of the catalogue raid as foimerh,
while the modifications insisted upon by libra-
ries using the best-known systems of clarifica-
tion have led to a moie searching mteiest in
classification itself rather than to the memoriz-
ing of any system As the held of work for
libraries has enlarged, the study of library
extension in its various forms has become a
part of the curriculum of most of the s( hools
The subjects of .instruction may be classed
under foui heads administrative, tech meal,
bibliographic, htenuy, the two first claiming
more attention than the others in the piesent
allotment of houis The following synopsis
lepresents the geneial classification undei these

\tlnnnittratiM — Libiar\ buildings — legislation — -
goyernment — reports — rules, blanks, and forms- - -
accounts — staff — fuimtuie and fittings — pinu iples
of work with children and v\ith othei (lasses of users

Tfihtiual — ( Classification -cataloguing \\oik of
orclei department — a< cessions-work — alphabetmg - —
,shel(-h,sting — !>ook numbers —mechanical prepaiation
ol books for the1 shelves stock-taking loan h\ .stems
— keeping of statistic s -care of supplies piepaiation
for binding

tiihlwyidphic — Trade' bibhographx — gcneial and
subjc c t bibhographs -public documents - book sc lc c -
turn — leferein c work - histoi> of printing — histoiv
of binding — history of libraries

Literal >/ — Appraisal of fiction —appraisal of cui-
jent PCM lodic als ~ modern European literature — studv
of c hildreii's books —technical Fiench — t( clinical
(lerman —technical Italian

A/?xfW/«wfoi/s — JndeMiig — proofreading — t\pe-
writing (optional m most schools) - c nrrcnt topics —
sur\e\ of libran held — libiarv extension

A specific amount of actual pi act ice in one
or more libraries is required bv all library
schools, this differing in value, both as a test
of the student and as a help to the student,
according to the kind of library, the amount,
variety, and character of practice available,
the amount and quality of supervision gi\cn,
and the fullness of reports made of the students'
woik.

At the end of one year the schools gmng a
general course of this duration, ofler a certifi-
cate to the satisfactory student, the schools of
two or more years usually withholding the
highest recognition until the completion of
the course, when a diploma or the degree of
B. L S is bestowed upon the graduate

Within the last ten years the demands made
upon the library schools have increased in
number and complexity Specialization in
libraries has begun and so taken hold of the
imagination of those in commercial and rnanu-

facturing concerns thai tlm laigest of them are
organizing or reorganizing libraries and calling
for trained or experienced librarians to manage
them The schools cannot give specific train-
ing for such work, and can supply only gradu-
ates with a technical library training and
general education, whereas, to make the most
of such libraries, a scientific specialist is
needed Professional libraries, those of medi-
cal, law, and theological institutions, and
libraries of applied science, are in the same
case The schools aie called upon for a lughh
differentiated product, and do not ha\e it to
offer, while having plenty of demand for all
that they do offer In other words, more tram-
ing, and that speciah/ed, is needed Another
detect exists in the small number of librarians
instructed m bibliographical matters Many
are interested, but, owing to the lack of old
and rare books and manuscripts in American
libraries, to the essentially practical American
temperament, and to the lack of any instruc-
tion or opportunity for instruction, few Ameri-
can librarians are sufficiently versed in or suffi-
ciently appreciative of the cultural side of their
A\ork It is still necessary, m the largest
libraries, for those having collections ol raie
and early books or old manuscripts, to call
up ni the foreigner of university education and
scholastic aptitudes to deal with this matenal

The interest in the two fields of special
libianes and of bibliography has led within
the last few years to the formation of the
Special Libianes Association and of the Biblio-
graphical Society of America, and increasing
pressure has since been brought to bear upon
the library schools to extend their curricula in
these directions

The immense and rapid increase of libraries,
the extension of the library held to cover the
work of State Library Commissions, libraries
in schools, grade, high, and normal, rural and
county libraries, libraries in state institutions,
and the sudden rise of municipal and state
legislative reference libraries, and commercial
and technological libraries, call foi a \\ell-
considered and far-sighted scheme of tiainmg
beyond anything that is no\\ offered

The question of rcmuneiation entered into
the question of training \ erv eailv Nuineious
libianans of small libraries, \vlio were without
special schooling in then work and could not
affoid to attend the hbiaiv schools, either
became uneasy in regard to then tenure 01
ambitious to be prepared foi better work 01
better positions, and a demand arose for short
and inexpensive surnrnei courses \\luch could
be pursued within the limits of an obtainable
vacation or leave of absence

For the most part, such courses have been
conducted by State Library Commissions
which have aimed at the raising of the profes-
sional level and not the lowering of it by short
cuts to positions, they have had to face the
fact that it was almost impossible to get

25

LIBRARY SKRVirE

LIGHTING OF Sf'HOOLHOUSES

hbiarians of longei darning at the sa lanes
offered, and have therefore* tried to inspire the
attendants on the short courses with sufficient
interest to come hack for several successive
years until thev acquire the equivalent of a
year's general course

In the same wav the large city libraries,
feeling unable to pav to the lowest grades of
assistants the salaries required by graduates of
the schools, have opened apprentice classes ior
training subordinate members of their staffs
Entrance to these classes is usually bv exami-
nation, and after from six to nine months of in-
struction, combined with practice, the apprentice
is eligible to a paid position In some libianes
promotion also is gained through examinations,
and the qualified apprentice may reach a much
better position The only objection to these
classes, from the point of view of disinterested
care for librananship, arises from the youth of
the average appi entice, who has not had time
for the study and reading desirable in persons
engaged in an educational work and who is
not likely to get time when once engaged in
strenuous daily practice, from the occasional
laxness of those who pass upon admissions, in
regard to the personality of candidates, and
from the reprehensible practice — not generally
followed, however — of giving a general letter
of recommendation to apprentices who can-
not be given employment, thus enabling them
to enter the field of general library work when
then training has been in the methods of one
library only

The work for which the training class of the
large library svstem prepares is so specific a
work that its problems are less complex than
those of the library schools, but as yet it has
failed, with exceptions, to attract the most
desirable local material, owing partly to the
low salaries offered and partly to the fact that
an adequate effort has not been made to set
the work before persons desirable as applicants
with the attractions that it undoubtedly has in
itself and with an appeal to the civic spirit
that exists in many young people M W. P

References: —

American Library Association Committee on Library
Training Reports In Paper* and Proceedings,
1903, pp S3 101, 1905, pp 121 123, 1900, pp
175-177, 1907, pu. 1 OS- 110, 1908, pp 199202,
1909, pp 224 227, 1910, pp (542 643 (From
1903 to 1900 mrlusivp J'apci * nnd Prrxrcdinff* formed
apartof the Librar ijJon i na I From 1M07 to date , they
appear as Bulletins of the Association ) See alno the
folio wing articles in 4 L A Papers and Proceeding*,
Kroeger, A B The Drexel Institute Library
School, 1908, pp 210-213, Oleott, F .1 The
Training of a Children's Libiarian, 1908, pp 213-
216, Plurnmer, M \\ The Evolution of the
Library School Curriculum, 1908, pp 203 205,
The Pratt Institute Library School, 1908, pp 200
210, Wyer, ,1 J , Jr Factors in tin- Development
of the Library School Curriculum, 1908, pp 205-206

BALDWIN, E G Report of the Joint Committee repre-
senting the ALA and the N E A , on Instruction
in Library Administration in Normal Schools *
Proceedings N E 4 , l<)0ti, pp 215 280

C'\N\ON*, 11 <• T Hihltnuraplni nl Lihiarji Economy
Full references are guen on Library Training,
Librarians, Assistants, etr See especially, pp
188-192, and pp 200 213 (London, 1910)

Jjihrary Journal Library Schools and Training Classeu
of the United States, Vol X, pp 296-305, Plum-
mer, M W Value of n Training School foi
Librarians, V7ol XVrI, pp 40-44

Public Libianes Dewey, Mehil Future of Library
Schools, Vol X, pp 435-438, Hardy, E A
Training of Librarians in the Province of Ontano,
Vol XI, pp 143-145, Hopkins, F M Library
Work in High Schools, Vol X, pp 170-171 , Sum-
mer Libraiv Schools, Vol XI, pp 131-134

PUTNAM, H Edu< ation for Libraiy \Voik Independent,
Vol LI1, pp 2778-277(»

LICENSE — See CERTIFICATION OF TEACH-
ERS, TEACHERS, APPOINTMENT OF

LICENSE, TEACHERS. --See CERTIFICA-
TION OF TEACHERS, EXAMINING BOARDS;
TEACHERS, TRAIMNC; OF, TEACHERS, APPOINT-
MENT OF

LICENSES TO TEACH. — See TEACHERS,
APPOINTMENT OF

LIEGE, UNIVERSITY OF — See BELGIUM,

EDUCATION IN

LIFE INSURANCE COMPANIES — See

INSURANCE ( COMPANIES, EDUCATIONAL WORK OF

LIGHTING OF SCHOOLHOUSES — 11 is

now generally established that with proper
orientation and unhindered sky exposure there
should be in every schoolroom from one quarter
to one sixth as much glass surface as floor
space, c g from 128 to 192 square feet of glazing
in a room 32 feet long and 24 feet wide This
standard has been adopted in most progres-
sive countries Variation must, however, he
provided for according to circumstances, less
window space will, for example, be required
where there is a long period of intense sunshine
than where long foggy days of winter or even
the shadow of neighboring buildings must be
guarded against Where the standard propor-
tions are adopted, it is also necessary that the
windows are properly placed and have the
best orientation This is a matter to be
handled by the architect, who must make the
best use of the wall space at Ins disposal, safe-
guard the external appeal ance of the building,
arid observe the hygienic laws affecting the
eye In rooms designed for primary classes the
windows should be at least 3 feet 6 inches from
the floor, and for all upper grades, including
high schools, they should be set 4 feet above the
floor. In all cases care should be taken that
the windows should be higher than the eyes
of the pupils when seated at their desks, and
so prevent the strong light from striking the
retinae The light needed is that reflected into
the eye from the page of the book or work
upon which the pupil is engaged. A strong
light from the wrong direction will tend to

LIGHTING OF SCHOOL HO USES

LIGHTING OF SCHOOLHOUSES

maladjustment of the eyes, to strain of un-
hygienic vision, and fatigue of the ciliary
muscles (See EYE ) In addition to saving
the eye, the necessity of placing the windows
3i or 4 feet from the floor and maintaining a
definitely proportioned area leads to an exten-
sion of the windows nearer to the ceiling, and
one foot of glass surface near the ceiling of a
schoolroom is worth more than two feet at
the bottom of a low window, especially in the
rooms on the ground floor, and allows the
light to be more thoroughly diffused The
upper part of a window properly exposed to
the light carries it farther across the room and
lets it fall more directly on the work on which
the pupils are engaged The introduction of
iron and steel beams in the construction of
buildings permits of the extension of windows
to within six inches of the ceiling without any
danger to the building The top of the glass
surface ought to be at least twelve feet above
the floor, allowing eight feet at least as the
length of each window, without the slightest
detriment to the external appearance of the
building

Unilateral Lighting — Windows of a school-
room should be placed on one side only
Where there are windows on opposite sides of a
room, there can be but one line through the
room along which the light will be equally
strong from both sides, a line, however, which
shifts because of the change in relative light
due to the changing position of the sun and
other less important factors As a result
pupils will suffer the anm>>anee of crosshghts
and be subject to direct rays of light con-
tinually Another defect is the introduction of
wedges of shadow from the walls between the
windows, while the amount of window space
uses up this available room for blackboards
Unilateral lighting always from the left side is
the only efficient type for a schoolroom The
windows should be placed as far to the rear of
the room as possible, with the mulhons as nar-
row as possible, so as not to obstruct the light
arid take up space in the wall Thus a solid
or blind wall of ten feet should be left in front
of the windows No objection can be laised
to this arrangement, since, as was stated above,
the only effective light in a schoolroom is that
reflected from the work with which the pupils
are occupied, and the pupils' desks are rarely
nearer the teacher's end of the room than eight
feet The position of windows here described
concentrates the light and delivers it on the
desks of the pupils

Windows should never be placed facing the
pupils, where they are still found they should
oe covered with opaque curtains so fastened to
the sash that no beams of light can come
through Nor should there be windows in the
rear of a room for purposes of light Where,
as in the south, they are desirable for ventila-
tion, they should be placed about eight feet
from the floor up to the level of the other

windows, with which they should harmonize in
size They should be hinged on the lower side
and fastened above with a spring catch
Stained glass or an opaque shade may be used
with these windows, for the light should be
excluded for the benefit of the teacher If
any attempt is made at decoration, a design
of 'leaded glass will be found most successful;
but the main purpose of these windows is to
allow ventilation, and accordingly they should
be made to open and close easily, and set so as
to prevent rains from beating in

Width of Mulhons — The mullions, it has
just been stated, should be narrow To this
objection has been made that they would not
afford adequate support, a valid objection in
the case of two-story buildings or buildings
of brick or stone construction only A metal
mullion has, however, been devised which
solves this problem. This form of mullion has
been used with success under many conditions
Where walls are not of necessity thick and
heavy, part of the weight may be supported
from above by using a steel lintel in addition
to the narrow mullion The use of the arch
form of lintel which transfers the strain to a
greater or less degree to the main walls in
front and behind the windows is not to be
recommended, because it encroaches on the
window surface on both sides The steel lintel
has been used in many of the largest and most
successful school buikhngs in New York City

The mullion should be wedge-shaped with
the edge turned outward, so that a wider
gathering of light is made possible by reason
of its bevelled form, and much of the shadow
otherwise cast by the mullion is eliminated

Orientation — In the latitude of this coun-
try it is essential for purposes of lighting to
open as many windows as possible toward the
east or west The east light is the best, the
south is most trying and troublesome, the
west is good, and the north should be used
only for rooms designed for art work in its
various forms The advantage of the east
hejht is that a room may be directly purified
by the sunlight almost before school work begins,
while for the rest of the day a clear white light
from the eastern sky can be obtained without
the glare of the direct rays of the sun With
light corning from the south it is almost im-
possible to keep out the direct sunshine and at
the same time get indirect and diffused light
into the room Whatever means may be
used, streaks of light will filter through the
room and tax the accommodative muscles of
the eyes Where the noonday heat is strong,
as in the south, it will be difficult to keep out
the heat, and at the same time not to darken
the room too much, if ventilation depends on
the windows To cut out direct sunshine and
at the same time permit the air to pass un-
hindered is a matter of some difficulty Vene-
tian blinds have been recommended, but have
certain defects, they arc noisy, cut out the

27

LIGHTING OF SOHOOLHOUSES

LIGHTING OF SCHOOLHOUSES

best light, are rarely adjusted to meet the
exact demands and conditions, and, when
rolled up, often admit pencils of light, and
easily get out of order Sliding blinds are, if
anything, even less desirable The difficulty
of providing successful blinds as screens from
the sun has not yet been overcome

For the primary grades schoolrooms receiv-
ing light from the west are often more satis-
factory in hot climates than those leceivmg
light from the east, for the day's sessions of
these classes is usually over before direct sun-
light streams into the room But for the upper
grades lighting from the west is less desirable,
since the rooms are apt in summer to become
uncomfortably warm after two o'clock

As few rooms as possible should have win-
dows placed on the north side unless they are
to be used for art work, or possibly as manual
training rooms and laboratories It is a safe
rule, then, to have as many classrooms as
possible facing the east or west and to utilize
the space on the south for libraries, offices,
physical and biological laboratories, and that
on the north for drawing, manual training, and
chemical laboratories This statement will
sufficiently indicate the importance of consider-
ing the lighting of schoolrooms at the time
of selecting a site for the building (See
ARCHITECTURE, SCHOOL ) Sufficient has been
said to show that in this country it is best
that a schoolhouse should be built with its
main axis running from north to south in
order that the classrooms, as far as possible,
may be supplied with light from the east and
west While a school building facing at an
angle of 45° with the meridian would leceivc
sufficient sunning and light in almost every
room, there are disadvantages connected with
the plan which make it inadvisable, thus with
the mam axis of the building fiom northeast
to southwest those rooms looking toward the
southeast would be troubled by the long ex-
posure to the direct rays of the sun, giving rise
to difficulties already lef erred to, and with the
axis from southeast to northwest the rooms
facing to the southwest would be affected in
the afternoon both by direct sunlight and heat

Ribbed Glass — The pioblem of lighting
rooms too wide for the height of windows, or
those situated where sufficient window surface
could not be obtained, or those too close to
tall buildings, or neighboring trees, has been
greatly simplified in recent vears by the use of
ribbed or prismatic glass It has been used
most extensively in business houses, such as
stores, where deep rooms must get all their
light from a restricted frontage It is not
expensive, and when set high up in a window in-
creases and diffuses the light in a very helpful
way. It is generally not advisable to set-
such glass in the lower part of windows of
schoolrooms, on account of the glare thus pro-
duced. But for basements, dark hallways,
toilet rooms, and closets it is specially valuable

Foi regula.i chissiooms it is most satisfactory
when placed in the upper half of the windows
There are now many dark and gloomy school-
rooms in daily use, which could be easily
transformed into well lighted, cheerful rooms
by the use of ribbed glass, which is com-
paratively inexpensive to substitute for the
ordinary glass

Artificial Lighting — Because of this situa-
tion of the country with reference to latitude,
comparatively few public schools have here-
tofore needed aitificial lighting during the day
session. But as evening schools multiply, arid
as school buildings come to be used more and
more for various social and educational under-
takings, it is lapidly becoming necessary to
give this phase of school equipment more con-
sideration It is highly advisable, therefore,
that all plans for high schools, manual training
schools, and all other school buildings likely to
need either power or light, should have pro-
visions for electric wnmg and such fixtures as
are necessary for immediate use In general
it is good economy to thoroughly wire all
school buildings, where the probability is on
the side of futuie need for it, especially since
this is not an expensive undertaking For the
same reasons gas pipes ought to be installed
for progress is lapid nowadays, and goou
schoolhouses ought to last a hundred years or
more It goes without saying that electric
lighting is much to be preferred to gas, even
though the new methods of handling gas
flames insure good light Electiic lights give
out but little heat, and release no bad odor or
noxious gases They reduce the danger from
fires, are far more easily and quickly lighted,
require less attention, and offer no dangers
from leakage, or contamination of any sort
This cannot be said of gas lights under the
most favorable methods yet devised Clay
gives the following table, prepared by Professor
Lewes, which shows the u Comparative Hygiene
Effect of Illumination per Unit of Light "

Acetylene
Coal gaa, flat flamo
Coal gas, mantle
Petroleum, large lamp

CAR-
BONIC
ACID

E VOL VI- D

MOJM-

TUHK
INVOLVED

OxYGf N
RFMOV^ I)
FROM A IK

HJAT

PRO-
DTK KD

100

100

100

100

480

1470

520

7M5

45

2'<0

62

87

995

700

498

246

(See FELIX CLAY, Modern School Buildings,
London, 1902, p 118)

But electric lights arc hard on the eyes, par-
ticularly when the filaments are visible It is
necessary, therefore, to shield the eyes from
these by ground glass bulbs, or some form of
refractive and dispersing globes surrounding
the bulbs The chief objection to the ground
glass bulb is that it permits only about 50 per
cent of the light to pass through

28

LILLE, UNIVERSITY OF

LIMITS

As the result of some extended experiments for
the Schoolhousc Commission of Boston, it was
found that for direct lighting " the most satis-
factory results were obtained from nine thirty-
six candle power forty-watt Tungsten lamps,
each equipped with the diffusing prismatic
reflector These shades are constructed of
prismatic glass coated on the outer 01 inner
surface with a white enamel "

Various forms of holophanes have been used,
and the best of these give good light dispersion
and at the same time shield the eves fiom
the glare of the globes The chief point, how-
ever, for consideration in preparing plans for
wiring schoolrooms, assembly halls, and other
rooms of like sort, is to see that the wires are
properly placed and that switches are con-
veniently arranged both for power and lights

In villages and country districts riot vet
supplied with electric lighting currents, the
acetylene lighting has proved veiv helpful
This gas, which is made by bringing calcium
carbide into contact with water, gives a
brilliant white light and burns quite tegularlv
It is not expensive to install such plants, and
where1 a comparatively cheap and a verv effec-
tive gas illummant is needed, this foim is to
be recommended It has, however, the dis-
advantages and dangers of all such illunnnaiits

F B D

See AucHiTErTUKE, SCHOOL, and the refer-
ences there given

LILLE, UNIVERSITY OF —Although es-
tablished as a umversitv only as recently as
1896, this institution directly succeeded the old
university at Douai which had been founded by
Papal Bull in 1560 and sanctioned bv Philip II
of Spam in 1562. There weie five faculties of
theologv, civil law, canon law, medicine, and
arts The umversitv was intended to stem
the rise of Protestantism in the Low Coun-
tries The continuity of organization and work
was not broken by the change of the iiileis of
Flanders in the reign of Louis XVI A decline
set in during the eighteenth century, and in 1793
the university was closed by Napoleon, and in
the reorganization of 1806 onlv the faculty of
letters was restored, to be closed again from
1826 until 1854 At the latter date a faculty
of medicine was added, and in 1865 a faculty
of law. In 1875 a faculty of medicine and
pharmacy was established at Lille, whither the
other faculties were transferred in 1887 In
1890 the four i acuities weie lecogimed as a
university The enrollment of students in 1910
was 1675 (law, 567, medicine, 368, pharmacy,
109, science, 335, letters, 296) For the
present organization bee FRANCE, EDUCATION
IN.

LILY, WILLIAM (1468-1522) —The writer
of the authorized Latin grammar which for
many geneiations was to England what for a
thousand years Donatus (qv) was to Europe

Lily was born at Odiham, neai Southampton,
c 1468, and was educated at Magdalen Col-
lege, Oxford, where Grocyn (q v ) lectured on
theology Lily intended to enter the priest-
hood, and took a pilgrimage to Jerusalem; but
became converted from the priesthood of
ecclesiasticisrn to the ministry of learning, and
entered with enthusiasm into the study of
Greek At Rome he studied under Sulpitius
and Pornponius Laetus Sabinus, so as to make
himself a thorough Latmist When Lily re-
turned to London, he was ranked, with Grocyn
and Linacre (yt/v), among the eailiest of
English Renaissance Grecians and Latmists
About 1512 Lily was appointed headmaster
of Colet's foundation of St Paul's School, Lon-
don, an office which he held till his death in
1522 Lily's fame as a schoolmaster is eclipsed
bv his authoritative Latin Giammar For an
account of this sec LATIN LANGUAGE

F W

References : —

Dictionary of National Biography
FEUILLERAT, ALBERT John Lily, Contribution d VHis-

toirv de Ui lleriait*8ance en Anflletene (Cambridge,

1910)

LUPTON, J H Life of Dean Colet (London, 1887 )
Note* and Queries, sixth Series, Vol II, pp 441-442

and 461 -462
MrDoNELL, M F S A History of tit Paul's School

(London, 1909 )
WATSON, FOWTER English Grammar Schools up to

1660, chs xv, xvi, xvn (Cambridge, 1908 )

LIMEN — This term has been introduced
into recent psychological discussions as a sub-
stitute for the earlier term " threshold," \vhich
was employed to indicate that degree of a
sensation which is just peiceptible Thus,
when one begins with a very faint air vibration
which is not perceptible to the ear and grad-
ually increases its intensity, he ultimately
reaches the threshold or lirnen of the sensation
or the point at which a sound is just audible
There aie also hmens of difference, that is,
after a sound has reached a certain intensity,
if it is gradually changed so as to become more
or less intense, the point is reached at which
the difference in intensity is just noticeable
Sound serves as a good example, but all forms
of sensory experience exhibit hmen values in
analogous fashion C H J

Reference : —

TITCHENER, E B Experimental Psychology (New
York, 1905 )

LIMITS — A topic necessarily met in an
elementary way in the study of plane geometry,
and one that forms the subject of scientific
studv m the calculus, in the theory of irrational
numbers, and elsewhere in more advanced
mathematics The term is difficult of simple
definition, but is easily illustrated P'or
example, the length of a circle is, and may be
defined as, the limit of the inscribed or circum-
scribed regular polvgon of n sides, as n increases
indefinitely Similarly, the limit of the sum

29

LINACRE, THOMAS

LINACRE, THOMAS

of the series 1, 4, i, • • , ran easily be
shown to be 2 The following definition has
been suggested by Professor J W Young as
one that i& as simple as can reasonably be
expected- " Let C be any linearly ordered
class, and let the variable x represent any
element of this class A segment of such a
class may be defined as the elements of the
class which he between two given elements of
the class (riven an element a, which need
not be itself an element of the class C, but
which is ordered with reference to C fit may
be an element of a linearly ordered class C'
containing C), a neighborhood or vicinity of a
is defined as any segment of the class C such
that a lies between two elements of this seg-
ment The element a is then said to be a
limit element of the class C, provided every
neighborhood of a contains elements of C "

The practical question for the teacher of
high school mathematics is this where should
the subject be introduced, and how extensively
should it be treated9

In reply, it seems at present to be the feeling
of the great majority of teachers in the United
States that no scientific treatment of limits
should be attempted in the high school In-
commensurable quantities (q v ) are now not
generally recommended for pupils of this
grade, and practically the only need for the
idea of limit is found in the treatment of the
circle and the round solids For this treat-
ment nothing is required beyond the idea of
limit, a strict definition like the one given
above not being necessary. Theorems relat-
ing to limits are usually postponed until the
calculus is reached, when the needs of the
subject arid the maturity of the student demand
arid permit their introduction D E S

LINACRE, THOMAS (14607-1524) — Hu-
manist physician; received his early education
at Canterbury, probably at the school of the
monastery of Christ Church, under William do
Selling, who had visited Italy Linacre then
went to Oxford, and in 1484 was elected
Fellow of All Souls About 1485-1486 Linacre
went with Selling to Italy, and at Florence
was under the instruction of Pohtian and
Demetrius Chalcondylas He met Hermolaus
Barbarus at Rome, and Aldus the printer at
Venice At Padua he stayed long enough to
graduate as Doctor of Medicine It is clear
that he must have remained several years m
Italy He had already begun a translation of
the book on the Sphere of Proclus from Greek
into Latin, and this was completed or revised
in England, and published bv Aldus at Venice
in 1499, being the first work of the Renaissance
influence done by an Englishman Linacre
settled at Oxford, and was incorporated M D
and lectured, probably, on medicine, though
he taught pupils Greek, e g Sir Thomas More
\qv) In 1501 he was tutor to King Henry
VIIFs son Arthur, and removed to London,

and in 1523, together with J L Vives (q.v ),
was Latin tutor and physician to the Princess
Mary, for whom he wrote an elementary Latin
Grammar — the Rudimenta Grommatices (date
not known). Many editions of the Rudimenta
also contain Vives' De Ratio ne Puenh, sugges-
tions for systematic reading and composition
Linacre received a number of ecclesiastical
appointments, though he probablv did no work
in them In 1518 he founded the College of
Physicians, which in the first instance held its
meetings in his house in Knightndcr Street,
London He also bestowed great benefactions
on the University of Oxford

In 1517 he turned his Greek studies to use
for the purposes of his profession of medicine,
and translated from Greek into Latin the first
MX books of Galen's De Sanitate Tuenda (See
GALEN ) In 1519 this was followed by a similar
translation of Galen's Methodus Medendi, a
great undertaking In 1521 he translated
Galen's De Temper a mentis, a work of the first
importance in its historical influence, one of
the bases of the psychology of medieval and
Renaissance times With regard to these trans-
lations from classical medical writers, Dr J F
Payne remarks that, in spite of drawbacks,
the revival of classical medicine led " imme-
diately to the revival of anatomy, of botany,
and of classical medicine as progressive sciences,
and produced results quite comparable to those
ascribed to the Renaissance m other depart-
ments of knowledge " Other medical trans-
lations into Latin from the Greek of Galen
made by Linacre are of less importance In
1524 he published his De Emendata Stnutura
Latini Sermom\ This work was apparently
written at the request of Colet to be used in
St Paul's School, but was found too compre-
hensive and regarded as unsuitable for the
capacities of bovs Colet adopted a brief
grammar (Mditio Coleti) drawn up by himself
and Lily (q v } This incident caused a quarrel
between Lmacrc and Colet, which Erasmus un-
successfully tried to settle The DeEmcndata
Struct ura is not an ordinary grammatical acci-
dence, but an account of Linacre's ingatherings
in the way of illustration from all sources
placed under the headings of the parts of
speech The significance of the work is that
it is the application of the inductive method
to philological and grammatical purposes, and
shows a command over authors and a power
of purposeful multitudinous citation, in both
Latin and Greek, which was entirely new to
England in 1524 In the second part of the
book Linacre enters upon construction in com-
position, and expounds the use, with examples,
of figures of speech. The last section is entirely
given to Greek constructions, and the book,
therefore, marks the first published Greek
study m England F W

References : —

Dictionary of National Biography, art by J F Payne,
containing a bibliographical account of Linacre's

30

LINCOLN, ALMIRA

LINE OF REGARD

Grammars and their relation to the St Paul's

Grammar.
JOHNHON, J N. The Life of Thomat* Liruicrc Ed by

R Graves (London, 1835 )
PAYNE, J F Introduction to the Facsimile Reprint of

Linacre's Translation of Qalen, De Temper ameniis

(Cambridge, 1881 )
SEEBOHM, F. Oxford Reformers (London, 1887 )

LINCOLN, ALMIRA. — Sec PHELPS, AL-
MIRA LINCOLN.

LINCOLN COLLEGE, LINCOLN, ILL —

A coeducational institution chartered in 1865
In 1901 the charter was. amended, making the
college a constituent member of the James
Milhken University (q.v ) Preparatory, eol-
legiate, normal, music, and elocution depart-
ments are maintained. The college confers
the degree of A B , B S , and Ph B , on comple-
tion of the appropriate courses The degrees
of A M and M S are given after one year of
graduate work, of which one semester must
be in residence The faculty consists of
.seventeen members

LINCOLN MEMORIAL UNIVERSITY,
CUMBERLAND GAP, TENN —A coedu-
cational institution founded in 1897 to provide
higher education foi the people of the moun-
tains Preparatory courses and domestic
science, commercial, music, elocution, art,
printing, industrial, agricultural, normal and
collegiate departments are maintained ( /on rses
leading to the degrees of A B , B S , and Mus
B are offered There is a faculty of twenty-
eight members The enrollment of students
in 191 1-191 2 was 301 The Lincoln Memonal
Hospital and the Lincoln Memorial Medical
College, both of Knoxville, are affiliated

LINCOLN UNIVERSITY, CHESTER

CO , PA — An institution for the higher
education of the negro race, chartered m 1854
as Ashmuii Institute, the present title being
adopted in 1866 Collegiate and theological
departments are maintained, the former is
undenominational, the latter is under the con-
trol of the Presbyterian Church The re-
quirements for entrance to the college are
fifteen units of high school work An arts
course is offered, leading to the A.B degree
In the theological department students are
admitted to the regular course if they have
already pursued a college arts course or its
equivalent The degree of STB is granted.
The enrollment of students in 1911-1912 was
134 in the college and forty-three in the theo-
logical seminary. The faculty consists of
thirteen members

LINDNER, GUSTAV ADOLF (1828-1887).

— An Austrian educator , was born at Rozda-
lowitz in Bohemia and studied at the University
of Prague hi 1854 he became a teachri at the
gymnasium of Cilli in Styria, where he \\rote

his Lehrbuch der Psychologic 'fui Mittehschulen
(Textbook of Psychology for Secondaiy Schools,
1858 ) This book, as well as his Logic, which
soon followed, is still largely used in Austrian
schools In 1871 he was appointed directoi
of the Realgymnasmni at Prachatftz in Bo-
hemia, and soon afterwards put in charge of
the Czech teachers' seminary at Kuttenbeig
In this position he published two textbooks on
general methodology and general pedagogy, as
well as his Enzyklopad inches Handbuch der
Erziehiingskande (see ENCYCLOPEDIAS OF EDU-
CATION) He wa>s also the editor of a series
of pedagogic classics, for which he translated
the Didacttca Magna of Comenius In 1878,
when the University of Prague was split into two
institutions, a German and a Czech, he was called
as professor of philosophy and pedagogy to the
Czech university, where he taught until his
death.

Lindner was largely instrumental in intro-
ducing the Herbartian psychology and pedagogy
into Austrian schools Besides the books spoken
of above, he published a number of philosophical
and pedagogic writings, among which may be
mentioned, Introduction to the Study of Philos-
ophy, 1866, The Problem of Happiness, 1868,
and Contributions to Social Psychology (Ideen
zur Psychologic der Gesellschafl als Grundlagc
der Sozialiinsenschafi, 1871) F M

References : —

FmacH, F Biographien bsterrewhischer Schulm&nner

(Vienna, 1897 )
REIN, W EncyklopAdmches Handbuch der PQdagogik

LINDSLEY, PHILIP (1786-1855) — Uni-
versity president ; graduated from Princeton
in 1804 For three years he taught in the
schools of New Jersey He \vas tutor and pro-
fessor at Princeton from 1807 to 1824, and prchi-
dent of the University of Nashville from 1824
to 1850 He was active in the work of the
early American educational associations, and
published numerous articles on educational
subjects He was one of the early advocates
of normal schools for the training of teachers

W S M

LINE FORMATION IN SCHOOL ROOM.

— See SCHOOL MANAGEMENT.

LINE OF REGARD — A single point to
which both eyes are directed is called the fixa-
tion point or the point of regard The line of
regard, is, then, an imaginary line passing from
the center of rotation of the eyeball to the point
of regard The two lines of regard, in any act
of binocular fixation, thus form an angle at the
point of regard The term plane of regard ib
applied to the plane passing through both lines
of regard Both the concepts line and plane
of regard are used in describing or calculating
the possible movements of the eye.

R. P. A.

See EYE

31

LING, PER HENRIK

LITERARY CENSORSHIP

Reference : —

SCHAEFER, E A Tdtbook of Pkytsiology, Vol II, pp.
1030 ff. (New York, 1900 )

LING, PER HENRIK (1770-1839) — The
founder of the Swedish or Ling system of gym-
nastics , wits born in Smaland, one of the
southern provinces of Sweden, Nov 1,">, 1770
He was educated in the higher classical school
at Wexio, where he distinguished himself by
his " mental ability, strong individuality,
firm, unyielding will, and reckless cut ei prise "
He was dismissed from the school, with others
of his comrades, in November, 1792, for some
breach of school discipline Not much is
known legarding his life in the next six years,
except that he was a student at Lund and
Upsala universities, where he studied theology
and modern languages From 1799 to 1804
he studied philology at the University of
( Copenhagen, and engaged in htei ai y work He
wrote in French, German, and Danish, trans-
lated the poem Balder', \ Death by Johannes
Kvald into Swedish, and wrote in Danish a
thiee-act comedy, The Envious Man

During the years of his stay in Copenhagen,
Ling frequented a fencing school conducted
by two Frenchmen, and there acqmied gieat
skill in the art of fencing lie also attended
a private Turnan^tall conducted by Nachtegall,
wheie lie took up gymnastics with great
enthusiasm In 1804 Ling was appointed
fencing master at the University of Lund
Resides fencing, Ling also taught ruling and
\aultmg He remained at Lund until 1S12,
\\hen he was appointed teacher of gymnastics
at the Royal Academy in Karlbeig near
Stockholm Soon after taking up his woik at
Karlbeig, he conceived the idea of founding
in Stockholm a royal Central Institute for
the training of teachers of gymnastics The
Institute was opened in 1814, with Ling as its
director, and is still in existence Ling taught
gymnastics at Kailberg until 1825, and he
retained the post of director of the Royal
Central Institute from its foundation in 1814
until his death in 1839 In 1835 he was
elected to membership in the Swedish Academy,
and was given the honorary title of Professor
and the decoration of the Order of the North
Star by King Charles XIV

Ling believed that gymnastics had a rightful
place in education, medicine, and national
defense lie had studied anatomy and physi-
ology at the University of Lund, and tned to
base his system and teachings upon rational
and scientific foundations He did not leave
any complete treatise of his system of gym-
nastics His chief works are* The General
Principle* of Gymnast /r.s, published in 1840
by his pupils, Liedbeck and Gcorgii, Regula-
tions for Gymna^tte* to be f\-a/ in the Ami if,
published in 1S,%, and In*,ti uctionx in (ii/nina*-
ti<x and Bayonet ftu/nsfs for >SV>A//r/x, pub-
lished in 1838 * (i L M

References —

HARTWKLL, E M Peter Henry Ling, the Swedish
Gvmnasiaroh, American Physical Education Re-
view, Vol I, pp 1-13 (1896 )

LEONARD, F E Per Hennk Ling, and his Successors
at the Stockholm Normal School of Gymnastics,
American Physutd Education Renew, Vol IX,
pp 227-243 (1904)

LIP-READING —Sec DEAF, EDUCATION OF.

LIPPE, PRINCIPALITY OF, EDUCATION

IN — See GERMANY, EDUCATION IN.

LIST SPELLING — See SPELLING

LITERARY CENSORSHIP —Early Period

— The praetiee of supervising, restricting, or
prohibiting the expression of intellectual con-
ceptions or the dissemination of ideas is
as old as the organization of society itself
Some one holding authority or claiming author-
ity was always ready to object to the free
circulation of ideas as threatening danger to
existing institutions, religious or political
The two eaihest authorities recognized by men,
that of the ruler, whether of the family, the clan,
or the Slate, and that of the priest, the represen-
tative of the accepted religion, were equally in-
teiested in retaining contiol over the direction
and the expression of thought In the earlier
communities, political and religious authority
were frequently combined in the same individual
It is probable that in these states the contention
for an authoritative control of opinion lested
chiefly upon the risk that heretical utterances
might interfere with the public peace

The earliest method of publication was in the
form of the lecture 01 recital A censorship
oi control of the utterances of the lecturei
could be exercised by the veiy simple method
of prohibiting the lecture, and, in case of con-
tumacy, of imprisoning or killing the lecturer
The decision of the authorities at Athens in
400 B c that Socrates must be put to death,
is often referred to as possibly the earliest
recorded example of censorship by the State
It is certain that no organized official censor-
ship ever came into existence in Greece The
philosophers and the poets appear to have
lectured and written without hindrance and
without supervision

An early example of the influence of the
Christian Church for the restriction or elimina-
tion of objectionable literature is described in
Acts xix, 10 " Many of them also which
used curious arts brought their books together
and burned them before all men " This was
frequently cited in later centuries by upholders
of the censorship policy of the Church of
Rome Certain of the more artistically printed
editions of the Index (for instance, the first
Roman edition of the Index of 1758) contain,
as a vignette title, a representation of Paul
casting into the flames the books of magic,
and beneath the pi hit the verse from Acts.

,'52

LITERARY CENSORSHIP

LITERARY CENSORSHIP

The whole theoiy of church authority and
of excommunication for disregard of such
authority was a matter of slow development
through the ages that followed the preaching
of St. Paul It was, in fact, not until the
sixteenth century that there came into exist-
ence anything that cou)d he called a censor-
ship policy or any attempt at a general censor-
ship system; but from the earliest periods in the
history of the Church, there are instances of
condemnations of individual writers, and of
prohibitions, under severe penalties, of the
manifolding or of the distribution of particular
works These prohibitions are usually the
result of one of the series of fierce controversies
about dogrna that characterized the earlier
centuries of the Church They emanate for
the most part from councils, but they are
occasionally issued directly by the Pope or by
local bishops In certain cases, they take the
form of an imperial edict, but even in these the
initiative comes from a council It is prob-
able that the influence either of the councils or
of the Emperor in restricting the multiplica-
tion or distribution of writings that had been
condemned was not verv effective The edicts
and decrees must be considered as represent-
ing an expression of opinion connected with
some one of the bitter theological controversies
of the day, rather than as regulations to be
enforced There was, in fact, no machinery
for the enforcement The work of the copv-
ing scribes could not be supervised, as \\as
possible later for the operations of the punters,
and the manuscripts could bo passed from hand
to hand among the sectarians without the
intervention of a bookshop

Roman Empire — There are instances of
liteiaiy eensoiship on the part of the imperial
authorities of Koine before the institution of
the Christian Chuich Thus Tacitus remarks
that Augustus was the first ruler who undei-
took to punish a woid written or spoken, that
is to say, a word unaccompanied by action
The law of the Roman Republic had lecogmzod
as deserving of punishment only cuminal
deeds, but the Empeioi brought the authoiitv
of the law to bear upon writings described j,s
libellous or scandalous (libelh fa mom) He
ordered, for instance, that the \vntmgs ot
Labienus should be publicly burned His
successor Tiberius issued a still stronger regu-
lation for the supervision of undisciplined or
insubordinate wntings Cremulius Cordus
was driven from his occupation and left to die
through poverty for the offense of speaking of
Gams Cassius as the " last Roman " His
writings were ordered to be burned by the
aedile. Tacitus speaks with scorn of those
who, in the possession of a little momentary
power, undertake to crush out opinions not
in accord with their owner to prevent such
opinions from being handed down to posterity
The writings of Verjiiito were prohibited by
Nero. Concerning tins prohibition, Tacitus

VOL. IV — D 33

writes "So long as the possession of these
writings was attended by danger, they were
eagerly sought and read, when there was no
longer any difficulty in securing them, they
fell into oblivion " This statement of literary
conditions under the early Empire shows a
curious resemblance to the results which ob-
tained throughout Europe fourteen centuries
later The books which were formally con-
demned and the titles of which were placed on
the Ina'er obtained an advertisement which
secured for them a decided advantage over
works of the same general character that had
not been fortunate* enough to be picked out
for reprobation ATI edict ascribed to Domi-
tian ordered that the histonan Hermogenes
and any book dealers who assisted in the dis-
tribution of certain writings of his which had
libeled the Emperor should be crucified
Severus and certain other bishops Justinian
deposed from office, because they had been
lax in their supervision of literature and had
peimitted the wide circulation throughout
the realm of prohibited books and of pernicious
writings

Catholic Church — With the development
of the Church of Rome to the ecclesiasti-
cal headship of the cmli/jed world, the chum
for the supervision of literature and for the
control of the productions of authors was
asserted by the Church as the legitimate suc-
cessor of the imperial authority The earliest
and most sweeping censorship of the Christian
Church is piobably that contained in the
Apostolic Constitution*, which purport to have
been written by St Clement of Rome at the
dictation of the Apostles These Constitu-
tions prefigure the Indcr by forbidding the
Christians to read any books of the Gentiles
44 The Scnptures should suffice for the believer "
(Const Apt*t Lih 1, CVII1) This general
prohibition of St Clement (which bore date
about 95 \ D ) is followed by a series of prohi-
bitions issued bv the authorities of the early
Church, mainly under the decision of the
councils Foi instance, in 150, a synod of
bishops of Asia Minoi, meeting at Kphesus,
prohibited the Ada Panh, an histoiical romance
\\ritten a little earlier in the century, and
having for its purpose the clarification of the
life and labois of St Paul

In 325 edicts \\ere issued by the Emperor
Constantino and prohibitions by the Council
of Nicsea, against the \\ntings of Anus and of
Porphviv The Emperor ordered the penalty
of death for any who might conceal copies.
In 399 the Emperor Arcadius issued an edict,
based upon the recommendation of a council
of the Church, ordenng the destruction, under
penalty of death, of all books of rriagic art
The various denunciations of books of magic art
were, under the influence of the ecclesiastics
who might happen to be in control of the pro-
ceedings of the councils, utilized for the
repression of the writings of their theological

LITERARY CENSORSHIP

LITERARY CENSORSHIP

opponents In 399 the Council of Alexandria,
presided over by Bishop Theophilus, issued a
decree forbidding the owning or the reading
of the books of Origen (q v.) The Egyptian
monks protested, and the bishops were obliged
to call in the prefects to enforce the authority
of its edicts In 436 the Emperor Theodosius
issued an edict forbidding the possession and
the reading of the books of the Mamcheans
and ordering the burning of the same In 446
Pope Leo I issued an edict ordering the destruc-
tion of a long series of writings described as not
in accord with the teachings of the synods of
Nicsea, and, therefore, antagonistic to the
Christian religion. The prohibition prescribes
that " Whoever owns or reads these books is
to suffer extreme punishment " In 499 Pope
Gelasms issued what is later referred to as (he
first papal Index. It presents a catalogue of
books prohibited, but the prohibitions have to
do not with private or general, but with public
or official reading, In 496 Gelasius issued a
decree, confirmed later by the Emperor Gratian,
winch specified the patristic writings accepted
and approved by the Church, and which then
proceeded to the condemnation of a long series
of apociyphal and heretical writings and
writers The classification of the writings to
be condemned is curiously general in terms
( Hacc et omnia /us si m ilia, etc )

These condemnations are presented as early
examples of the basis of authority for the
restriction of reading The restrictions
emanated for the most part from the councils,
and were promulgated by the popes, while
their enforcement depended upon the exercise
of imperial authority The Church and the
State worked in unison for the control of expres-
sion of opinion The orthodox opinion was
that which was supported by the majority of
the latest council and which secured the ap-
proval of the Pope A year or two later the ma-
jority might be changed and the Pope replaced
by an ecclesiastic representing a different
school of thought There is no record of any
individual opinion on the part of the Emperor
His edicts were issued and his actions were
taken under the counsel of the ecclesiastics
and for the safety of the State

From the ninth to the fifteenth centimes a
long series of condemnations and prohibitions
of books were ordered by various ecclesiastical
authorities, councils, bishops, and popes
These prohibitions present examples of the
attempts made, in advance of any system of
general indexes, to supervise, control, and
restrict the production and distribution of
literature The penalties placed upon the
writers of books classed as heretical cover
excommunication, imprisonment (sometimes
for life), and, not infrequently, death. The
penalties upon those who continue, after the
issue of the prohibition, to distribute or to
read the heretical writings cover excommuni-
cation and occasionally imprisonment In

869 GoUschalk, a German rnonk, at the in-
stance of Hmcmar, Archbishop of Rheims,
\vas excommunicated and condemned to im-
prisonment for life; he died after twenty years*
confinement. His offense was the publication
"of a treatise opposing certain doctrines of St
Augustine The conclusions arrived at by
Gottsehalk were, curiously enough, substan-
tially in accord with those maintained seven
centuries later by successive popes and by the
" orthodox " Church generally, against the
" heresies " of Jarisen and Quesnel

During the period here in question, 830-1430,
it did not prove possible to secure any consist-
ency of action on the part of the ecclesiastics
undertaking to represent the authority of the
Church The changing personalities of the
successive popes, the average of whose reigns
was less than five years, and the varying points
of view of synods and bishops, speaking from
all parts of Europe, produced a series of uttei-
ances in regard to heresy which naturally
enough were frequently conflicting and which
might have caused serious difficulties to con-
scientious believers who were endeavoring in
good faith to maintain for their teachings and
their studies a consistently orthodox standard

In 1215 the Fourth Synod of the Lateran
condemned a tractate written by the Abbot
Joachim against Peter Lombard The Sen-
tences of Lombard had been accepted by the
Church as presenting the best compact state-
merit of the views of the orthodox Church, and
the book was utilized for instruction in the
several university centers The Lateran decree
reads. "Any one who shall attempt to defend
the heretical utterances of the said Joachim
concerning the Trinity shall be thrust out as
an heretic "

In 1225 the Synod at Sens condemned the
treatise by Scot us Enugena (q.v ) written
about 860, De Diviswne Naturce Pope
Hononus confirmed this condemnation, and
ordered that all persons possessing copies of
the books must, under penalty of excommu-
nication, deliver the same within fifteen days
to the ecclesiastical authorities for burning
Scotus had, during the first century at least
after his writing, been accepted as an orthodox
son of the Church, but his teachings gave rise
later to many controversies In 1231 Pope
Gregory IX wrote to the University of Paris
directing the prohibition of the Libn naturales
of Aristotle, which had already been con-
demned by the Provincial Council, until they
had been freed from heresies During the
greater part of the Middle Ages, the views of
Aristotle had been accepted by the Church as
in accord with orthodox teachings; and as his
writings made their way into Europe they
were generally accepted for instruction in
Montpellier, Paris, and elsewhere.

From time to time, however, some ground
for protest is found on the part either of a
council or a pope. One of the teachers whose

34

LITERARY CENSORSHIP

LITERARY CENSORSHIP

influence was most potent during the middle
of the thirteenth century against the heresies
that were disturbing university circles was the
great schoolman, Thomas Aquinas (qv) He
is credited with having turned the tide of skep-
ticism in Paris The Minorite scholar, Petrus
Johannes Oliva, who died early in the four-
teenth century, is an example of an author
whose writings gave occasion for conflicting
decisions on the part of the highest authorities.
In 1312 John XXII condemned these writings
and ordered them to be destroyed; and the
bones of Oliva were disinterred and were
burned with copies of his books In 1471
Sixtus IV, himself a Minorite, after further
examination of the writings of Oliva, declared
them to be sound in doctrine and removed
the prohibition A similar result obtained m
the case of Raymond Lully, who died in 1315
In 1378 Gregory XI condemned two hundred
propositions selected from Lully's treatises
In 1559 Lully 's name was placed in Class II
of the Roman Index; but in 1564 the Council of
Trent decided that the condemnation was
unwarranted, and freed Lully 's books from
prohibition

In 1387 King Richard II of England prohib-
ited, under penaltv of imprisonment and of
confiscation of property, the sale or purchase of
the heretical writings of Wychf, who had died
three years earlier This is the first instance
in England, and is certainly one of the earliest
in Europe, of a condemnation by royal or by
political authority, which does not even in
form rest upon a decision of the Church In
1408 the Convocation of Canterbury prohibited
the reading of any writings of Wychf or any
writings of the associates of Wvclif until the
same had been expurgated by censors appointed
by the universities of Oxford and Cambridge
In 1415 the Council of Constance condemned as
heretical the writings of Wychf In the same
year the Council took similar action in regard
to the writings of John Hus, copies of which
were publicly burned, and in the year following
the same fate came upon Hus himself

In 1463 Pope Pius II, ^Eneas Sylvius, con-
demned, in a Bull directed to the University
of Cologne, a tractate on the Council of Basel
which had been written by himself before his
elevation to the papacy. He says further to
the university " In case you may find among
writings of mine any that are unsound or are
likely to prove pernicious, these should be
analyzed and condemned " To a friend who
chaffed him in regard to the correction of his
own views, the Pope said very simply: " As
we climb higher, we are able to see more
clearly "

The great impetus given to the distribution
of books by the invention of the printing press
(1450) had as one result a fresh effort at super-
vision and control of literary production on
the part of the Church The first measures
that were put into shape for the enforcement of

35

such control provided for what has been called
preventive censorship, that is, for a require-
ment, before the printed book could be put
into circulation, of an examination and approval
by ecclesiastical authorities It was, however,
not until half a century after Gutenberg had
printed his first book that official cognizance
was taken of the new art in a Papal Bull
And it was nearly half a century later before
the Church undertook, through a system of
expurgatory and prohibitory indexes, to main-
tain a systematic censorship upon literature
The invention of printing had as an immediate
result an enormous increase in the influence
upon the shaping of popular opinion of the
written word, which now became the printed
word, that is, of thought in the form of litera-
ture

It was not until nearly three fourths of a
century after Gutenberg, when the leaders of
the Reformation were utilizing the printing
presses of Wittenberg for the spread of the
Protestant heresies, that the ecclesiastics be-
came aroused to the perils that the new art
was bringing upon the true faith and upon the
authority of the Church If the people were
to be protected against the insidious influence
of the new heresies, it was essential that some
system should be instituted under which the
productions of the printing press could be
supervised and controlled The more active
and far-reaching the operations of the printers,
the greater the necessity for the watchful
supervision of their work, and the greater at
the same time the difficulty in making such
supervision complete and effective The re-
quirement was met by mandates which pro-
hibited any books from reaching the public
that had not been passed upon and approved
bv ecclesiastical examiners appointed for the
purpose The production and the circulation
of any literature not so approved was stamped
as constituting a misdemeanor of the most
serious character, one that might become the
final sin against the light, the offense against
the Holy Ghost

In 1559 the responsibility for the censorship
of literature was assumed directly by the papal
authority through the publication of the
Index Ay dor urn et Librorum Prohibitorwn of
Paul IV, the first of a long series of papal
Indexes, aggregating, up to 1900, forty-two in all.
No Index has been published since that of
Leo XIII, in 1900, although a number of
books have been condemned by separate
prohibitions It does not appear to have
been the intention either of Paul or of his
successors that the responsibility for the system
of censorship should be retained under the
exclusive direction of the papal authorities,
and there is no record of objections having
been raised to the publication of Indexes
prepared by such representatives of the Church
as the theological faculties of the universities
of Louvain and of Pans or by the Inquisition

LITERARY CENSORSHIP

LITERARY CENSORSHIP

of Spain There were, however, very material
differences between the lists as shaped in
Rome of works condemned as heretical and the
similar lists issued within the same period in
Lou vain, Pans, or Valladohd Books of
undoubted heresy included in one Index failed
to find place in another, and it is not possible
to arrive at any consistently applied principle
or policy by which the selections of the chief
compilers were determined It might at first
be assumed from the wording of the prohibi-
tions that any and all of the Indexes published
under the direction of ecclesiastical authorities
such as those specified must have been in-
tended to be equally binding on all the faithful
irrespective of political or ecclesiastical bound-
aries In the majority of cases, however, no
attempt was made to enforce the prohibitions
of an Index outside of the territory of the state
iu which it had been promulgated It is
probable that the Roman Indexes were held
to be in force outside of the immediate terri-
tory of the Church only after they had been
formally accepted and promulgated by the
authoiities ecclesiastical and political of the
individual states, such as Spam, France, the
Empire, etc The first of the series of papal
Indexes was, as stated, issued under Paul IV
in 1559, but as early as 1542 the Inquisition of
Rome had promulgated a special edict pre-
scribing penalties for the reading of heretical
or doubtful books, and in 1545 was published
the first Italian list of prohibited books and
authors Thus is one year earlier than the
date of the Index of Louvain of 1540, which is
usually referred to as constituting the first
of the series of official Indexes of the Church
In 1571 the task of compiling the papal Index
was confided by Pius V to a body orgarn/ed
under the name of the Congregation of the
Index, which is still (1912) eanymg on its woik
These Roman Indexes exercised an important
influence, even in the states in which the papal
prohibitions were not officially published, as
the titles collected for them were largely utilized
by the makers of the Index?* of Spam, France,
and Belgium; and in like manner the material
put into print in Louvain, Pans, and Valladohd
formed the basis of certain of the Roman lists
A more authoritative position in regard to the
work of censorship was taken by the Papacy
through the publication, in 1564, of the Index
of Trent This Index} as well through its
formulation of the rules for censorship as
because of the greater comprehensiveness of
its lists, constituted the most authoritative
guide that had yet been issued The Tnden-
tine Index was promulgated under the authority
of the council and successive popes throughout
all the Catholic states and also in countries in
which the Catholic Church, while no longer
the ruling power, still possessed followers It
was printed in a long series of editions issued
from all the more important publishing centers;
its lists formed the basis of all subsequent

36

.s, while its famous ten rules were
accepted as the guide for future censors and
compilers After the Council of Trent, a
wider and more assured recognition was given
by churchmen throughout the Catholic world,
from which must curiously enough be excepted
Catholic Spain, to the authority of the Papacy
acting through the Congregation of the Index,
to retain the general direction and control of
the business of censorship

In 1758, two centuries after the publication
of the Tndentnie Index, was issued the Index
of Benedict XIV, in which the lists represented
better bibliographical work than had been
previously attempted. This Index is impor-
tant at representing what may be called the
last attempt of the Papacy to maintain any
general censorship of the world's literature
The compilers of the Index since 1758, in-
cluding that of Leo XIII, compiled in 1899
and published in 1900, content themselves
with lepeatmg the general rules 01 principles
by which should be guided the reading of the
faithful, the lists of current publications are,
with a few noteworthy exceptions, limited
to works of Catholic writers and chiefly to
books of a doctrinal character, the teachings
of which are to be found m one respect or
another open to condemnation The pro-
portion of books absolutely prohibited becomes
smaller, the greater number of the works cited
being placed in the lists of Libro.s cxpurgandos,
the reading of which is forbidden only until
certain corrections or eliminations have been
made (donee corngatur). The Index of 1884
and that of 1900 bring forward from the more
important of the preceding papal Indexes
the titles of the most notewoithy of the woiks
condemned in these. No attempt is made,
however, to condemn, excepting under general
rules and principles, the increasing li&ts of mod-
ern Protestant doctrinal books or to charac-
terize or differentiate the great mass of the
world's literature The printing press had out-
grown the machinery of ecclesiastical censor-
ship

The interference during the earlier centuries
of printing on the part of political rulers was
fitful and intermittent, and appears at no
time to have arrived at the dignity of a con-
tinued policy or system In a number of
states, as in Spam, France, and the Holy Roman
Empire, while the rulers continued to claim
for themselves the exclusive control of the
printing press, they were willing to confide to
the ecclesiastics the selections of the books to
be condemned and prohibited The Catholic
work of censorship, at least in the countries
which remained Catholic, fell, therefore, more
and more into the hands of the Church, and was
as a result carried on with reference to the
clerical standard of orthodoxy and morality
and to the clerical theories of what was required
for the welfare of the community

The proportion of works of a purely politic^]

LITERACY CENSORSHIP

LITERARY ( 'KNSOKSHIP

Character that came under condemnation was
small as compared with the long lists of hooks
condemned on doctrinal grounds During the
two centuries in which censorship exerted the
largest influence upon intellectual dexelop-
ment, say from 1550 to 1750, the minds of men
were directed more largely to doctrinal ques-
tions than to political matters It was not the
State, but the Church, whose authority and ex-
istence were assailed, and the contest was fought
out not over political platforms, but over creeds

When, with the beginning of the Reforma-
tion, it become apparent how great a range of
influence was possessed bv the printed sheet,
the problem that confronted the authorities
of the Church was certainly serious m more
wavs than one Foi the space of fifteen
centuries the education of the people; had le-
rnained almost exclusively under the direction
of the Church The faithful had accepted
their entire intellectual sustenance at the
hands of the priests In 1510 the leaders of
the Reformation, in beginning their long con-
test against the Chinch of Rome, prompth
availed themselves of the power of the printing
press While the words spoken in the pulpit
or in the market place could reach at best but
a few hundred of hearers, the tracts poured
forth from the Wittenberg presses, the ll flv-
ing leaves " (Flugxchrifteti), carried to manv
thousands the teachings of Luther and Melanch-
thon, and it was through these " winged words "
(epea pferocnto) that the revolt developed into
a revolution

To the devout adherents of the Church of
Rome, and paiticularly to those to whom had
been given the responsibility for its govern-
ment and for the spiritual guidance of its
members, the situation, not only during these
earlier years of fierce strife against the Pro-
testant heresies, but throughout the succeed-
ing centuries, presented the gravest difficulties
There is something pathetic in the long series
of attempts made by the popes, councils
bishops, congregations, and inquisitors, to
protect the souls of the faithful against
the baneful influence of the ever -increasing
tide of literature that was pouring forth from
the various publication centers, and so much
of which was calculated to lead men astrav
from the true doctrines and to bring them into
risk of everlasting perdition To ecclesiasti-
cal rulers honestly holding such a conviction
there was of course but one dutv They must
use every means in their power to suppress the
heresies and to warn and protect their flocks
The action of the Church was, therefore, not
only logical and reasonable, it was the only
course that was possible for an organization
to which, as its rulers believed, the Almighty
had confided the care of the spiritual wel-
fare of mankind The safety of the soul
depended upon the nature of the intellectual
sustenance, whether this were taken through
the ears or through the eves All literature

or instiuction in any form, spoken, written,
or printed, must, therefore, before reaching
the understanding, be sifted under the au-
thont\ oi an all-wise and infallible Church
The believei must be protected against, harm,
the doubter must be recalled to the true path,
and the heresies and the heretics must alike
be exterminated While it was only after the
active propaganda work of the Reformers had
made clear the perils of the printing press
that any general svstem of censorship was at-
tempted, there had been, as pointed out, rn-
stances of prohibited books centuries before
the time of Gutenberg

From 1450 on was issued a long series of
papal utterances, given mainly in the form
of bulls, in which is asserted the claim of the
Church to the supervision and control of all
literary productions before these are permitted
to be distributed The first of these papal
bulls, dealing generally with the control of
literature, bears date 14S7 It was addressed
by Pope Innocent VIII to seven " govern-
ments," as follows Romana, Curia, Italia,
(lermania, Francia, Hrspania Anglia, and
Scotia The opening paragraph reads " And,
therefore, we who hold on earth the place of
Him who came down from hea\en to enbghten
the minds of men and to disperse the dark-
ness of error, etc "

In 1520, on June 12th, Pope Leo X ordered
a formal bur rung in Rome of the copies within
reach of the writings of Luther , and \\rth these
was burned an effigy of Luther himself This
was four years after the appearance of Luther
at the Diet of Worms

The Bull (1<rn<p Domini, the Bull of the
Lord's Suppei, originally issued by Urban V
in 13f)5, was reissued by successive popes,
with some modification of its provisions, at
different dates up to 1586 It presents a
collection of various excommunications which
had been ordered by successive popes against
certain specific classes of persons The forn.
in use through the period of the Reformation
was given by Julius II in 1511 Julius speci-
fied as under excommunication a number of
heretical sects including the Wvchfhtes or
Hussites The conclusions of the (\isuists in
regard to the effect of the prohibitions in the
Hulld Ca'tHF are summarized as follows In
Ferraris, Libri Piohibitton (n 27) In order that
the reading of a book shall bung upon the de-
linquent the threatened excommunication
(1st) the book must be the production of an
actual heretic not merely of one not baptised,
or of a Catholic who through heedlessness or
ignorance has given utterance to heresy,
(2d) it must contain a heresv, or must have
to do with religious matters, (3d) the reader
must have knowledge that the book is the
work of a heretic and contains heresv or
treats of religion, (4fh) the reading must
have been done without the permission of
the Apostolic Chair (5th) the reading must

37

LITERARY CENSORSHIP

LITERARY CENSORSHIP

be sufficient in amount to constitute a mortal
sin. This amount has naturally been variously
defined, so as to cover the entire work (Sanchez),
or a single page, or two lines (Toletus) (Gret-
ser, De Jure Prohibendi, Opera XIII, 97)

The year 1542 is important in the history
of the censorship of literature. It marks the
beginning of formal regulations framed in
Rome itself for the suppression of heretical
literature and for the supervision and control
of the work of the printers The Inquisition
of Spain, which proved to be by far the most
persistent, the most effective, and the most
terrible of the Inquisition organizations of
the world, dates from 1480 The series of
Indexes, prohibitory or expurgatory, had its
beginning, not in Rome, but in Louvam The
first general catalogue of prohibited books was
printed in Louvam in 1510 The first sched-
ule of prohibited books printed under the
name of an Index was, as far as is at present
known, that issued by the University of Paris
in 1544 The first Index compiled in
Italy was that in Venice in 1543 The first
Index issued under the authority of a papal
Bull was compiled in 1546 by the Theological
Faculty of the University of Louvam under the
instructions of the Emperor Charles V From
this period on there follows a long series of
Indexes issued by the Popes or other ecclesi-
astical authorities or by Catholic princes in
different parts of Europe The first Index
Ex purgatonu^ was issued at Valladohd in 1534
by authority of the Senate of the Inquisition
In this certain books were marked as condemned
until they had been expurgated, and the com-
pilers of the Index themselves prepared edi-
tions of a number of these books According to
Paulo Sarpi of Venice, famous as leader in the
long contest of Venice against the ecclesiastical
authority of Rome, " the Roman authoiities
prohibit as corrupt the text of many valuable
works, particularly of the class that have to do
with political science and the rights of states;
they prohibit many books which have no re-
lation to matters of theology or religion, and
which they are not in fact competent to under-
stand, they contest the right of the Republic
(Venice) to prohibit pernicious books " Thus
an Index issued at Rome under Alexander
VII formally condemned the works of Coperni-
cus and Galileo (qtj v ) arid all other writings
which confirmed the movement of the earth
and the stability of the sun

By the middle of the eighteenth century the
Church authorities were finally prepared to
admit the impracticability with any such means
or examining bodies as could be maintained of
making an individual examination of each
work produced from the printing press Such
a conclusion might with better wisdom have
been arrived at a century earlier The most
direct evidence of the futility of the attempts
on the part of the Congregation of the Index,
of the Roman Inquisition, and of the local

38

inquisitors, to inform themselves intelligently
concerning the nature, the orthodox}', and the
probable influence for good or for bad of the
increasing mass of books brought into print
from year to year, is presented by the Indexes
themselves The work of the compilation
of these Indexes was placed in the hands of
scholarly men, and in the majority of cases of
men whose integrity of purpose and whose
devotion to the higher interests of the Church
need not l>e questioned These devout and
scholarly compilers were, however, willing to
put into print under the authority of an in-
fallible Church, instructions for the reading of
believers which the most faithful of Catholics
must have found difficulty in obeying with any
consistency

The Index lists contain many inaccuracies
The names of the authors, frequently misspelled,
are entered almost at random, sometimes in
the vernacular, sometimes in the Latin forms.
This method, or lack of method, necessarily
resulted in duplicate entries, while the copy-
ists succeeded not infrequently in omitting
altogether in thoir transcripts writers and
books of unquestioned heresy It became
increasingly impossible for the compilers to
secure personal knowledge of the contents of
more than a very small proportion of the
books which were to be passed upon and
classed as either safe or pernicious The
judgment arrived at concerning an unfamiliar
book depended in part on the name of the
author and in part on that of the printer
or the place of publication Certain print-
ing offices and certain publishing centers
came to be associated in the minds of the
Roman censors with heretical opinions The
general policy seems to have been that it
was safer to condemn a few books not assuredly
either pernicious or heretical than to run the
risk of omitting from the lists any single work
which might constitute an influence against
the authority of the Church The selections
were also undoubtedly influenced by doctrinal
issues and by the party prejudices that arose
between the great orders of the Church The
direction of the censorship woik in Rome both
of the Inquisition and of the Congregation
has, since their institution, remained in the
hands of the Dominicans though occasionally,
under the authority of a Jesuit or a Francis-
can, the two latter orders secured representa-
tion on the boards of examiners

France — In France, censorship was re-
tamed under the direct control of the Crown
to an extent paralleled in no country except
England The prohibitions of the papal
Indexes were not accepted as binding unless
confirmed by the rulers of the Gallic Church,
and the French bishops seldom took action
in regard to censorship, excepting under in-
structions emanating from the Crown. The
kings of France, during the two centuries
succeeding the invention of printing, were for

LITERARY CENSORSHIP

LITERARY CENSORSHIP

the most part more keenly interested in fm-
thering the operations of the printer-publishers
than in protecting the doctrines of the Ohureh
and the faith of believers against the risks of
heretical literature The achievements of the
Paris press brought prestige to the rulers
Even in the cases, however, in which a
book might have been placed on the Indci in
Paris, it was likely to be promptly brought
into print m Lyons or in Tours If the
authority of the censors succeeded in stop-
ping the operations of provincial punters, the
presses of Geneva, Cologne, and Amsterdam
were ready to supply the demand that was
certain to continue for a work classed as
heretical or dangerous

The law at present in force in France con-
trolling literary censorship dates from the
institution of the Republic in 1871 The word-
ing of the law is quite voluminous It pro-
vides, in substance, that there must be no
publication containing incitement against pub-
lie order, or anything offensive concerning the
President of the Republic, and no publication,
either in language or in pictures, of talse news
or of material to be classed as obscene Theie
must also be no publication which reflects
upon the honor of any citizen, or is likely to
cause moral damage to citizens

The provisions of the law, however, are at
this time (1912) very rarely enforced, except
in the case of virulent attacks on the Presi-
dent, or on a foreign ruler or diplomatic agent
Such attacks have led to the suppression of
a book, or of a particular number of a journal
Anti-military propaganda ot incitements to
disobey the military law have also led to the
suppression of pamphlets or of specific num-
bers of journals Action is, however, very
rarely taken on the ground of obscenity or of
peisonal defamation of charactei

Netherlands — In the Low Countries, and
particularly in Holland, the operations of the
censors and Index makers of Italy, Spain,
and France constituted a factor of not a little
importance in furthering the development of
the book trade The printer-publishers of
Holland kept themselves promptly informed
of the operations of the censorship authori-
ties Early copies of the Indcrev found their
way, as soon as produced, to Levden, Amstei-
dam, and Utrecht, and were promptly utilized
by the enterprising Dutch publishers as guides
for their publishing undertakings Within
a few months of the time when the censors ol
Rome or Madrid had completed as they sup-
posed, the cancellation of the local editions of
the condemned books, copies of the Holland
issues would begin to find their way more or
less surreptitiously into the hands of the readers
of the country of origin The printer-pub-
lishers of Holland \vere also fortunate during
the two centuries in which censorship was
active in having available the services of
scholars who had been banished from Spam

01 Ital\ 01 France, 01 who had initiated for
the purpose of securing freedom of action

During these centuries there was for Europe
but one literary language, Latin The Hol-
land publishers weie able, with the service of
these scholarly exiles, to produce, at a com
parativelv low cost, for the use of scholarly
readers throughout Europe, original works or
great compilations which could not be under-
taken by publishers in the states m which
censorship was either persistently or even fit-
fully active These Holland publishers were
shrewd enough to utilize1 the censors of Rome,
of Madrid, and of Paris as their literary ad-
visers They could bring into print with cer-
tainty of a remunerative circulation books which
were important enough to have secured con-
demnation by the1 authorities of the Index

It may be concluded, therefore, that outside
of Spain the attempts of the Church to super-
vise and control the production and distribution
of literature were practically without effect
It is doubtless the case that the circulation
and the influence of many books were materially
furthered by the stamp of ecclesiastical con-
demnation

Protestant Censorship — Irrespective of the
censorship initiated by the divines, which had
for its purpose the maintenance of creeds and
the protection of " sound theology," history
gives record of a long series of attempts, which
have in fact continued into the twentieth cen-
tury, to enforce what might be called political
censorship, — that is to sav, the control of
literary pi oduction in the interests of the State
and in support of the authority of the State,
against opinions believed to be inimical to
such authority

The prohibitions to be classed as Protestant,
whether m their origin ecclesiastical or politi-
cal, do not compare favorably with the similar
prohibitions issued under the authority of the
Church of Rome There is fai less consistency
of purpose, and, at least as far as the political
edicts are concerned, there are more examples
of bitter and brutal oppression than can be
found anywhere in the states controlled by the
Roman Church, outside of Spain The list
of books, which duimg the centuries in question
came into condemnation undei Protestant
censorship, was more considerable than the
aggregate of all the lists in the Indexes issued
under the authority of the Roman Church.
The censorship policy of the Protestants rep-
resented more largely the spirit of faction or
personal grievance, while the political censor-
ship was of necessity influenced by the action
of the party which happened at the time to be
in control or of the minister who had for the
moment the ear of the ruler Protestant cen-
sorship may be considered as less defensible
than that of the Church of Rome, but as also
less serious in its final effect upon intellectual
activities

It is not practicable under the conditions

39

LITERARY CENSORSHIP

LITERARY CENSORSHIP

obtaining in modern states and with the active
intercourse between the residents of such states
to repress any literary productions for which
a circle of readers are waiting The books
condemned and prohibited m Berlin come into
print in Leipzig, or, when imperial authority
controlled conditions in Leipzig, such books
were without difficulty purchased in Amster-
dam or Lcyden It proved to be impossible
to prevent books so printed from finding their
way even into the territory in which their
production and distribution had been ab-
solutely forbidden

England — Censorship in England was con-
trolled, as in France, by the authority of the
Crown, and varied of necessity according to
the policies of the successive monarchs The
regulations for the control of heretical publica-
tions were piesented in a series of royal edicts
After the time of Luther, certain regulations
were issued under the sole authority of the
bishops, but these could be enforced onlv when
confirmed by the political authorities The
Crown secured the control of the operations
of the English printers by restricting very
closely the licenses 01 permits for the use of
printing presses For the first century aftei
the introduction of printing, very little print-
ing was done outside of London It did not
prove practicable, however, to prevent the
distribution through England of books of
interest to English readers which were printed
in Holland At the time when political cen-
sorship in England was most severe, the printers
in Holland secured the largest returns from the
book market in England The press law passed
in 1819 imposed a penalty of transportation
on the writers and prmteis of " godless and
revolutionary works " This law was repealed
in 1887, and the legislation of 1869 finally
secured an assured freedom for the pi ess

The most eloquent argument ever presented
in behalf of the freedom of the press was that
published in HvU by John Milton under the
title of Aieopaqitica Milton was protesting
against the claim of Parliament to contiol the
output of the printing presses and to decide
what utterances should be permitted to the
citizens of the day He vvntes " We should
be wary what persecution we raise against the
living labours of pubhck men, how we spill that
seasoned life of Man pieseived and stored up
in Bookes foi Bookes aie not absolutely

dead things, but doe contain in them a potencie
of life to be as active as that Soule was whose
progeny they are; nay, they do preserve as in
a violl the purest efficacie and extraction of
that living intellect that bread them "

Blackstone wrote that " Christianity is part
of the laws of England Offenses against it are
punishable by fine, imprisonment, or other in-
famous corporal punishment "

In 1776, at, the time of the publication of the
first volume of Gibbon's Htttory of the Dechtie
and Fall of the Roman Empire, a writer who,

40

having been educated in the Chustian religion,
brought into print any statements which could
be interpreted as denying the truth of Christian-
ity, was liable to imprisonment for a term of
three years Birkbeck Hill, in his introduction
to Gibbon's Autobiography, points out that this
statutory provision may well have influenced
certain reticences on the part of Gibbon in his
famous fifteenth chapter and in other divisions
of the history having to do with Clmstianity
The law at present in force in Great Britain
covering the supervision of the sale of books,
prints, etc , classed as obscene or as otherwise
objectionable, is that of August, 1857, known
as Lord Campbell's and described as 20 and
21 Viet 83 The House of Lords and the
Chancery Judges are entrusted with the au-
thority to forbid by injunction the publication,
or the continued publication, of publications
which they deem to be contempts of court
Magistrates have the power to order the seizure
and the destruction of books classed as obscene
The judgment in regard to such classification
appears to rest with the magistrates

In February, 1911, an association comprising
peers, prelates, and school masteis was organized
to secure an enactment by Parliament of laws
which would place British literature under an
efficient official censorship, and which would
make impossible the publication of any book
deemed by the censors to be improper or inju-
rious It does not seem probable, however,
that legislation of this character can now be
secured

(rermani/ — The Imperial Statute control
ling the operations of the press in Germany
dates from May 7, 1874 The provisions
covering material printed in periodicals are
fairly strenuous, but comparatively little at-
tempt is made to control by statute the chai-
acter of material printed in books The statute
provides that every book must specify the
name of the author and editor, and the name
and residence of the printer The responsibility
for criminal offenses committed through publi-
cations comprising hbelous 01 scandalous mat-
ter, etc , is cared for under the provisions of
the criminal law A literary production can-
not be confiscated without prior judicial order,
application for which is made either thiough
the police or through the state attorney The
jurisdiction of the court is confined to the tri-
bunal elected at the place of publication. Au-
thority is exercised directly on behalf of the
executive in the enforcement of the provisions
of the law of libel in regard to publications which
are claimed to bring the rulers into disrespect
The offense of disrespectful utterances against
the ruler is described as MajeMtebelcidigung

An example of the operations of German
censorship in the past century is afforded in
the case of the writings of Hemf . By a resolu-
tion of the Bundestag (the general assembly
of the German confederation) of December,
1835, a general interdict was laid upon the

LITERARY CENSORSHIP

LITERARY CENSORSHIP

printing or distribution of all that Heine had
written and of all that he might thereafter
write The initiation for this interdict had
come from the authorities of Prussia, who had
convinced themselves that the peace of the
realm was being interfered with by the political
writings of the poet The curiosity of this
piece of censorship was the absence ot any dis-
crimination The censors found it easier to
take the ground that all of Heine's utterances
should be prohibited or prevented from reach-
ing the German people, than to discriminate
between the articles in the Allgcmenic Zatnng
on political reform and the Book of Snugs
Heine had made his home in Pans, and he
succeeded in reaching some at least of Ins
(ierman readers by means of editions of his
works printed in French The interdict was
finally raised or passed into desuetude, as by
1840 we find Heine's publisher again announc-
ing editions of his author's complete works

United State* — During the Colonial period
a certain measure of censorship was exeicised
in Massachusetts and in Connecticut under the
authority of the orthodox or Congregational
Church, but no attempt was ever made to
formulate a general censorship policy or general
prohibitions

The national government has from tune to
time put into force laws prohibiting the pio-
duction 01 the distribution of ceitain classes
of literature No attempt has been made in
these laws to protect against attacks on dogmas
or theological opinions The general purpose
has been to prevent the cnculation among the
general public of books contra bonov ///o/r,s
A large latitude has been allowed in the litcia-
ture of politics in the matter oi ciiticisin of the
existing government The act now in force
(February, 1911) affecting literature is that
of Feb S, 1905, ch r>r>(), M Stat L tl It
shall be unlawful for any person to deposit
with an express company or other common
carrier for carnage within the territory

of the United States and obscene, lewd, or
lascivious book, pamphlet, paper, letter, writing,
print Any person who shall kruwmgly

take fiom such express company or other c >m-
mon carrier with intent to sell, distribute, or
circulate anv such matter, etc , shall be fined
not more than $,")()()() or imprisoned at hard
labor for not more than five years, or both at
the discretion of the Court "

A further act of Aug 5, 1909, Sec 9, pro-
hibits " All persons from importing into the
United States any obscene book, pamphlet,
paper, writing, or other production of an im-
moral nature Such prohibited articles,
and the package in which they are contained
in the course of importation, shall be detained
by the officer of the Customs, etc" Under
this latter provision, cases of books have been
held up in the Customs because the shipment
included a copy of Boccaccio's Decameron or
of the original edition of Button's Arabian

Night* No one questions the propriety of
preventing or restricting the circulation of
obscene literature The difficulty is, of neces-
sity, to secure any consistent and judicious
authority for determining what literature is to
be so classed and what books are likely to exert
a bad influence upon the morals of the com-
munity

Action in regard to publications classed as
contra bo no? morev is also taken under state law,
the laws of the several states vaiying very
considerably according to the difference in the
standards of feelings of the different communi-
ties In a city like New York such action is
usually investigated under individual effort,
such as that of the Society for the Suppression
of Vice G H P

References : —

BROWN, II V The Venetian Printing Press (London

and New York, 1891 )
DEJOB, OHARLLH JSlnflucme du Concile do Trente sur

la Literature et lex beaux Arts chez lea Peuplex

fatholiquet* (Pans, 1884 )
nELi), P H Books Fatal to their Authors

,

(London, 1895 )
FUUILR, .1 A Bonk** ( 'undent md to be Burnid (Lon-

don and New York, 189G )
(iiUBiN(,s, R The Tart* of tht Apo^tolie Penitentiary

(London, 1872 ) (Reprinted from the Paris ed of

1520 )
UEFELK, HP C J History of tht Councils uf tht Church

(Edinburgh, 1S71 1S72 )
llEK»Eij, II TH Znr (Jes(hi(ht( da Cent>urweienx in

der G( vi It vhaft Jmu (Leipzig, ISM )
HILOKKH, JOSEPH, SJ I)< / Index der wibotentn

Huchu (Freiburg 1904 )
KntrimoM', \ Kt itnuj zui (rfsch drt Entwiekeluny der

C< nsut ix > halfmtit>e (Leipzig, 1880 )
LK\, H C A Hibtotu of tht Inquisition of tipain, Vo\ I

(New Yoik, 1887- )
LKCKY, W 12 H History of lh< RIM and Influenu of

tht «S/mi/ of nationalism in Kuropt (London,

187,5 )
POPPER, \V M The Cenwn>lup of Hebrew Book* (New

\o»k, ISW )
PUTN\M, Cl II Books and thtti Makers during the

Middle An.e* (New ^ oik, 1896 )
The Cin*oiship of the Church ot Romt and its Influence,

upon th< Produttion and Distribution of Liteiatun

A titutlij of the Prohibitory and Kxpuruatoty Indexes,

tor/(th<r with som< Consideration of the Effects of

Piofcvlant Cinsorship and (lie Ctn.sor.ship in thf

titat< (New York and London, 1900 )
Authois and thm Publishers in Aruitnt 7'<//z<s A

tik(t<h of Literal i/ Conditions and of tht Relations

inrth the Pubtu of Lit* ran/ Producer*, from the

K<uhe,st Ttnub to tht Fall of tht Roman Enipirt

(New Yoik, 1<K>1 )
KhUsrH, F H Di< Indices Libronirn Prohibitoruin dcx

stchvzihnfin Jahihundntv (Tubingen, 1886)
Dei Ind( r (hi wihottnen Biu In t EIH Be lirag zur

Kti chm- und LiUi<i(u,r(/ei>chicht<. (Bonn, 1883-

18h5 )
8h\ULL, (i M (Paulist Father ) Plain Facts for Fair

Minds (Vew Yoik, 18% )
SHUIAN, TH •) Ada Pauli (In Catholir University

Bulletin ) (Washington, 1(>04 )
SLKUMEK, ALTIKKT Inder Ronumus, Verzeichniss sdmt-

licher auf dtm ibrmiehen Index stehendcn deutschen

Bileher (Osnahniok, 19()h )
WKLSCHINCJLR, HENRI La Censure sous le premier

Empire (Pans, 18S2 )
WHITE, A P A Hint or \i of tht Wai fare of Seienee with

Theology in Christendom (New York, 1896 )
WIESNER, A DenkwurdigkritcH dfr otbtmeichibchen

Censur vom ZeitaUer da Rejonnation (Stuttgart,

1847)

41

LITERARY SOCIETY

LITERATURE, CHILDREN'S

LITERARY SOCIETY — See STUDENT LIFE.
LITERARY WHOLES. — See READING

LITERATURE, CHILDREN'S — A term
referring mainly 1o books written especially for
children, and including a number of types,
more or less distinct, which will be noticed later
Of the history of such literature before the
eighteenth century little is known But it
seems that such nooks must have been in-
significant both in number and in importance
In primitive times there was probably little
or no difference between the tales told to the
children and those told to adults, in fact, the
naivet^ of the adult mind and that of the child
were much the same

Folklore (qv], consisting mainly of tales,
but including also proverbs and simple verses,
were the common mental entertainment and
instruction for both young and old. Under
folklore may be classed myths, hero stories,
fairy tales, and fables The distinction be-
tween the myth and the fairy stoiy — the
latter being more commonly included in the
term " folk talc " — is not easy to draw In
general the myth is more formal, more digni-
fied, more distinctly infused with instructional
or educational purpose, and likely to be a part
of the religion of the race, and to introduce gods
and demi-gods The fairy tale commonly
deals with humbler motives and characters,
makes a homelier appeal, and seems adapted
to the entertainment of simpler minds Its
delight in the marvelous, and its disregard of
unity and logic are more marked than in the
myth Ab between the myth and the fairv
story, the latter is distinctly more juvenile A
further discussion of this humbler form of
folk talc can be found in Andrew Lang'3 Custom
and Myth, hib Introduction to Grimm's Tales
(Bohn), and his Introduction to Perrault's
Popular Tales (Clarendon Press), in the Ap-
pendix to Steel's Tale* of the Punjab, and in the
publications of the Folk Lore Society

This material has been rescued from its
evanescent oral form in earlier times, partly
bv the use made of it in great classics like
Homer and the Greek dramatists, the Nibelun-
genlicd, and Chaucer, and partly by the labors
of philologists or antiquarians, who have ob-
tained it from the lips of the people, or in
old books like the chap-books and the ballad
collections The most noteworthy services
in this latter field are those of the brothers
Grimm, who collected and fixed the German
folk tales between 1840 and 1850; of La Fon-
taine and Perrault, who retold the French folk
tales in the seventeenth centuiy, and those of
a number of scholars like John Ashton, Profes-
sor Child, and others, uho have within the last
quarter of a centur\ gathered up the remain-
ing bits of lale and verse that could be found
To this type of oial and traditional literature
belong also the nuiheiy ihymes and jingle

Like the myth and fairy story, they are oral
and traditional in their origin, and are the
product not of any one mind, but of many
That is, each of them has probably been changed
or added to in successive repetition Like the
other forms of primitive folklore, they make free
use of the improbable, and seek to give enter-
tainment rather than instruction. In some
of them the appeal is evidently to the child's
sense of intellectual play, — pure nonsense
verse Others bear the marks of historical
events referred to playfully for the amusement
of the nursery. The famous Sing a Song of
Sixpence, for example, seems to point to the
Gunpowder Plot, My Lady Wind to the great
fire of London The latter is, also, like a few
others, clearly instructional and ethical, and
still others belong to the class of riddles In
the publications of the Percy Society (Vol. IV)
is to be found an interesting collection of this
old-fashioned juvenile verse

Another general type of books for children
consists of the classics written for adults, but
coming within the comprehension and the range
of interests of children Prominent among
these are parts of Homer and the Bible, the
Arabian Nights, Robinson Crusoe, Gulliver's
Travels, arid The Pilgrim's Progress In these
the appeal to the child is mainly in the simplicity
and boldness of imagery, in the action, and in
the simple arid heroic elements of character
Whatever they contain of the analytic, the
introspective, or the symbolic is likely to escape
him His enjoyment of Christian's conflict
with Apollyon or of the experiences in the castle
of Giant Despair is quite apart from the theo-
logical meaning involved, nor does it ever occur
to him that the marvels told by Gulliver conceal
a bitter satire against humanity It should
be added that the line between books suitable
for adults and those adapted for children is
further obscured in the case of much fiction
arid poetry Scott and Dickens and Stevenson
become the property of many children after the
age of twelve, and much of the poetry of
Wordsworth, Tennyson, Whittier, Longfellow,
and others can be appreciated by children
at a very early age So that any good collec-
tion of reading made for children will contain
many books not written pnmarily for them

The third general class of children's books
comprises those written primarily for children
This class, whose history is but recent and com-
prises scarce 500 years, has now become the
largest and in some respects the most impor-
tant Interwoven as it is with the changes in
the general attitude toward children, it reflects
both the educational and the social ideals of
the various periods in which the books appeared.
The earliest of these books in England, dating
from the fifteenth century, such as The Babees
Hook, and The Boke of Cmteisie, were devoted
lo instruction in manners and morals, given
in the form of direct and positive precepts
What this type of book was like may be seen

42

LITERATURE, CHILDREN'S

LITERATURE, CHILDREN'S

in the reprint of several of them in the publi-
cations of the Percy Society, Vol. IV A fair
specimen of the popular attempt at writing for
the young may DC seen also in the eighteenth-
century chap-books, small sheets with stories
or verses, generally sensational, and making
the same sort of appeal as our modern " yellow
journals "

Writing for children, however, may bo said
scarcely to have begun until the second half
of the eighteenth century. ^ Indeed, the interest
in childhood seems, as reflected in the literature
of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries,
to have been either non-existent or totally
different from what it is now Children were
of interest, not for themselves, but only bo-
cause they would become men and women
later. Hence much of the teaching addressed
to them, in books at least, regards them as
small mon and women Even Shakespeare,
whose range of view was so wide, seldom makes
use of the love of children at> a motive, and
when he does, in raie instances, introduce a
child into one of his plays, he makes the child
precocious and priggish, — a child playing at
being a man From this something of the
general attitude towaid children in the days
of Elizabeth can be gleaned

Many of the impoitant educational and
social ideas of the nineteenth century had their
roots in the eighteenth. To the eighteenth
century must be assigned the beginnings of
the modern attitude toward children and their
education The writings of Rousseau, Froebel,
Pestalozzi, Basedow (qqv), and others eioated
and leflected a new interest in children, and
the desire to adapt educational methods to their
natures One of the earliest results of tins new
movement was Weisze's Kinderfrcund (Chil-
dren's Friend), a papei foi children published
in Leipzig This same title was taken by Von
Rochow (q v ) for his Primer, a book that was
intended to supply children with reading
matter that should interest arid please as well
as instruct. In its teaching it was moial,
rather than strictly religious, as earlier school-
books had been, and it conveyed its lesson in
tales and songs It was the first true school
reading book Its success was great and im-
mediate It went through many editions,
and was translated into French, Dutch, Danish,
and other languages

The effect of educational ideals and purposes
upon juvenile literature is especially marked in
Germany. Under the influence of the Philan-
thropimsts, Basedow and others, there arose
a type of literature addressed to the undei-
standings of children and uneducated adults
This general movement includes not only the
work of Von Rochow and others mentioned
above, but books like those of Campe and
Salzmann (qq v ), who carried on the traditions
and work of the Philanthropimsts Then
books, addressed to undeveloped minds, con-
veyed both teaching and information in the

form of popular tales. Although they were
of mediocre quality, from a literary point of
view, they are of great interest in the evolution
of juvenile literature. To the same general
movement is to be assigned, in part, the popu-
larity of Robinson Crusoe and of the many trans-
lations and imitations of it Except the Swiss
Family Robinson, by Johann Wyss, few of these
imitations have survived But for a quarter
of a century they constituted a considerable
part of the juvenile and the popular literature;
and, for adults, a vehicle for various kinds of
ethical and political propaganda

The present important place of the folk tales,
or Marchen, was practically secured when the
brothers Grimm issued their famous collection,
based to some extent on the work of Perrault
(sec Lang's edition of PerrauWs Popular Tales,
Oxford, 1888), in the second decade of the nine-
teenth century Since that time the fairy story
and folk story have been almost unchallenged
in the nursery and the school The old mo-
tives, like those of Cinderella, have been used
over and over, and new motives of like interest
have been invented Easily the most distin-
guished successor of the brothers Grimm in this
held is Hans Christian Andersen, whose dis-
tinctive work IH rather that of the imaginative
inventor of tales than of the discoverer of old
and forgotten stories

The attempt to supply interesting reading
for children comes a little later in England, but
by the beginning of the nineteenth century it
is well under way Three or four streams of
influence may be distinctly traced The Rous-
seau influence — and the pedagogic interest
in general — are seen in the works of Thomas
Day (q v ), the author of the long popular and
still well remembered Sandford and Merton;
and in the books of Maria Edge worth (q v )
Her Parent*1 Assistant and other collections of
tales and plays for young people were in their
day very popular They are distinctly in-
structional in character. Their conception
of education was the learning of facts and the
carrying out of iterated moral precepts For
the glamor of the marvelous and impossible,
for the spirit of meie play, they had no place
It is probable that both Miss Edge worth and
her father (see EDGE WORTH, RICHARD LOVELL),
— whose influence determined the character
and aims of her work, — could they have read
Ahce in Wonderland, would have thought it
merely u very silly book She had little real
understanding of the nature of children; or,
if she had, she kept it out of her writing And,
it must be confessed, the children whom she
put into her books are rather tedious little
prigs The same general comments will apply
to Day's Sandford and Merton Both he and
Miss Edgeworth, however, have created a few
scenes which stand out clear and strong. But
for the most part their books and all others of
then school of writing have gone to the limbo
of libraries It is, indeed, inconceivable that

43

LITERATURE, CHILDREN'S

LITERATURE, CHILDREN'S

they could have held their own in competition
with the bright, buoyant, and sympathetic
books for children that came two generations
later.

Another influence of the end of the eighteenth
century, which led to the rise of a definite type
of books, is the Sunday school movement
This movement, begun by Robert Raikes, car-
ried on also by Hannah More and Mrs Trim-
mer (qq v ), is by no means an unimportant factor
in the social history of the tune The leaders
of the movement were not mere religious
fanatics They saw in the Sunday school a
means for a much needed social regeneration
among the poor. Hannah More and Mrs
Trimmer were both women not only of courage
and energy, but of considerable intellectual
power Their books for the voung now seem
stilted in style, much too didactic in their
presentation of morals, too definitely precep-
torial and instructional, and too lehgious
Like most juvenile books of the period, they
make one wondei what depraved voung people
they were intended for But judged bv their
own time and purpose, they weie effective and
good It is rather the host of later imitations,
under the general head of " Sunday school
books," that by their exaggerated sentimcntal-
isrn, their ignorance and their false pictures of
life and false standards, have brought the
verv name of Sunday school into reproach

To the end of the eighteenth and the early
nineteenth centuries must be assigned also the
beginnings of juvenile books of literary stand-
ard The classic Goody Two-Shoe* is now
commonly ascribed to no less a genius than
Goldsmith Charles and Mary Lamb rewrote
the stories of the Odywy and the tales of
Shakespeare's plays for the young readeis, and
composed verses — most of them not very
happy, it must be confessed — for childion
William Blake, himself a gifted and mystical
child in some respects, wrote the Songs of
Innocence, many of which stand in the front
rank of juvenile poetry Wordsworth, though
not in the least intending it, wrote some poems
which have come to belong to the children more
than to their elders Isaac Watts struck out,
among a mass of sententious commonplaces,
a few poems that are now children's classics
Arid the Taylor sisters, Jane and Ann, have
given us a number of things that the wise
teacher would not willingly let die

In America it is customary to trace the rise
of children's books from the introduction of
the famous New England Primer Introduced
about 1670 (a modified form of an earlier
English book, which in turn has been traced
back to a Protestant Primer produced on the
suggestion of King Henry VIII), the New
England Primer was for a hundred years or
more the principal book for young pupils It
was almost entuely religious in its material,
stern and uncompromising in its Puritan spirit
To the modem scientific mind its dogmatism

44

and its sternness seem to have an element
of the grotesque But the historical and
literary mind cannot but see in it something
of the grave dignity and somber imagination
of the old Puritans The long life of this little
book served to make it a good illustration of the
way in which schoolbooks reflect the spirit
of their time For the book gradually became
secularized in successive editions, until, at the
end of the eighteenth century, its exclusively
Puritan material had made place in large part
for other ideas How interesting the life of
this little book was may be seen in Paul Lei-
cester Ford's scholarly work, The History
of the New England Primer

Interesting also is the history of the Mother
Goose collection of folk stuff Mr Montrose J.
Moses, in his excellent work, Children's Books
and Reading, says, " The name Mother Goose
is first heard of in the seventeenth century
During 1697 Perrault published his Hixtoires
ou Contes du Temx Pass6 avec des Morahtez,
with a frontispiece of an old woman telling
stones to an interested group Upon a placard
by her side was lettered the significant title:
CONTES

DE MA

MERE

LOYE

There is no doubt, therefore, that the name was
not of Boston ongin An English edition

appeared at the Hague in 1745 This seems
to be the first introduction into England of
The Mother Goose Fairy Tales " It was John
Newberrv, Goldsmith's publisher, who, about
1760, issued the English nursery rhymes under
the name of Mother Goose Melodies, and it is
supposed that Goldsmith himself assisted in
making the collection Thus it has come about
that m England and America the name Mother
Goose is associated, not as originally with
fairy tales, but with the old English nursery
rhymes

With the gradual change in national ideals,
both schoolbooks and other juvenile books
drew away from the strictly religious type
and reflected other American ideals In the
eaily half of the nineteenth century there ap-
peared many compilations of extracts from
literature adapted to declamation In that
rather flambovant period of our national life
speech-making stood m high repute, and was,
indeed, one of the commonest roads to fame
and fortune In the same period there were
also American books corresponding to those
of the instructional type in England. The most
popular of these were probably the Peter Parley
books, written by Samuel G Goodrich. His-
tory, geography, and other information were
served up in them in simple form The history
was often rather unhistorical, and the science
sadly unscientific But they were better than
nothing, and better than the unwholesome
" Sunday school book " In the same class
are the Hollo books by Jacob Abbott (q.v.).

LITERATURE, CHILDREN'S

LITERATURE, CHILDREN'S

These, which numbered a score 01 more, were
descriptions of travel and of other things, and
were composed mainly of conversations in
which voluminous information was imparted
to Rollo's inquiring mind by " Uncle George "
The information was generally interesting,
though the style was diffuse, and on the whole
the books must be set down as of the better
sort.

About 1850 there arose another genie, the
book of adventure This type may be traced
to Cooper's tales of Indian life and of the sea
His imitators were of course fai below him in
genius But their books weie full of action,
and the thrills of the thousands of boy leaders
were undisturbed by any sense of the wild
improbability of incident or the absurd psy-
chology of the characters These " dime
novels," as they were commonly called,
flourished for more than a quarter of a century
They were issued as complete volumes and also
as serials in weekly or monthly family story
papers They have been largely supplanted
now by the better books, mainly through oui
system of public libraries But they aie not
yet an extinct species, and the crusade against
them is not vet over

It now remains to survey the field as it is
to-day, to attempt an analysis of the influences
at work, and a classification of the kinds of
books available Even a biief survey of the
field impresses one with the wealth of material
Thousands of books are to be had whose ex-
ternal form is attractive, whose style IN good,
and whose material is sound and wholesome
Notable con tiibut ions have been made also
to the ait that port i ays children for childien
from Kate Green a way's work to that of Jessie
Wilcox Smith Instead of the crude drawing
and ill-made woodcuts that once adorned
juvenile books, we now have illustrations, plain
and colored, that are not only adapted to the
child, but that give satisfaction even to the
critical adult Scores of gifted writers, who
in former times would have written only foi
adults, now write also for children There
is a steady stream of them, from Lewis Carroll
and Charles Kingslev to Stockton and Kipling

The first and most obvious cause is the in-
crease in the sympathy and intelligence with
which children are regarded We have come
not only to see the social and economic value
of children, but to care more for them And
so we have come to identify our interests with
theirs, to see things through their eves, in
a way in which our forefathers could not
The kindergarten may often have been over-
sentimental arid even absurd in this, but its
contributions to good children's literature are
undoubted Notable among books showing
this influence are the rhymes of Kmilic Poulsson
and the stories of Kate Douglas Wiggin

In the same direction is the influence of
modern psychology, and especially that branch
of it commonly called " child study " (qv)

45

This has given new dignity to the lives of chil-
dren, has made their thoughts and emotions
not less worthy of literary treatment than
those of adults Modern psychology has also
its literary as well as its scientific side; that is,
our writers as well as our scientists attempt
to analyze the human rnmd truly Such books
as Mrs Martin's Emmy Lou and Hovyells'
A Boy9 s Town would hardly have been possible
in an unpsychological age One of the most
significant kinds of book in this connection is
that winch treats of children, though written
for adults, like Kenneth Grahame's The
Gulden Aye or Gilson's In the Morning Glow

Perhaps the most potent cause of this fullness
of juvenile literature is, however, to be found m
the general temper of the age, in its higher
regard for all human life, its greater tender-
ness, its greater understanding of the weak.
The distance is long between it and the bitter,
somber sternness of Puritan days

Not merely the number but the variety
also of juvenile books makes classification diffi-
cult. Of folklore \ve have many varieties
and many veisions from the Greek and Norse
myths to Joel C 'handler Harris's delightful
negro tales fiom the mouth of Uncle Remus,
fiorn the early tales of ehivahv to the homely
folk stories of almost all the countries of
Europe and Asia

The modern fairy tale, sometimes serious
and sometimes humorous, extends from Lewis
Carroll, through a long series including books
like those of Howard Pvle, Stockton, Kingslev,
(1ollodi (translated from the Italian), Mrs
Ewing, Mrs Cntik, Macdonald, Ruskin, and
Thackeray Stones of child life include books
by Mrs Burnett, Mrs Craik, Mrs Ewing,
Hawthorne, Kipling, Mrs Martin, Ouida,
Mrs Wiggin, Louisa Alcott, Carolyn Wells,
Aldnch, Ho wells, Bovesen, Daudet, Hughes,
Warner, and Trowrbndge Under tales of
adventure there are the Indian story, the sea
tale, the pioneer, and the explorer Here
appear authors like Cooper, Scott, Parknian,
Simms, Stewart Edward White, Dana, Defoe,
Sir S W Baker, Mary Mapes Dodge, Irving,
Kipling, Roosevelt, Stevenson, Schwatka, Bul-
len, ami Clark Russell a plentiful assortment
of fact and fiction", variously mixed

The list of historical tales is long; some of
them, beginning with Scott, aie extremely
good Then there are the books geographically
distinguished books of the Arctic region, of
the tropics, of Asia and Africa and Europe,
and of the South and West of the United States,
and, as a matter of course, of New England,
the first section of our country to develop an
extensive literary consciousness The list of
biographies is long; but not equal as yet in
general literary qualities to other kinds of
books Good biographies for children are yet
needed

Stories of animal life and easy scientific
books on out-of-door life are good, numerous

LITERATURE, CHILDREN'S

LITERATURE, COMPARATIVE

and lapidly increasing in number With these
latter must be classed the books dealing with
invention, discovery, and general science

Among the children's poets Stevenson seems
easily first. Frank Dempster Sherman, Eugene
Field, James Whitcomb Riley, Ceha Thaxter,
and others have written poetry for children
which they love to hear and to read

The list of strictly humorous work is not
long, though good But it must be remembered
that humor is likely to be found now in most
juvenile stories and verses

Finally, a good many anthologies of poetry,
songs set to music, and fairy tales have been
made Whittier published two, one of prose and
one of verse Patrnore, Palgrave, Lang, Kate
Douglas Wiggin, Mary E Burt, K V. Lucas, and
others have made good collections An am-
bitious and successful attempt at collecting a
large mass of children's reading under the title
of The Children's Hour, in ten volumes, has
recently been made by one firm of publishers
Even the school readers might often be cited
as good anthologies of verse and prose Indeed,
the standard is determined far more by the
school and the public library than bv the
home F. T. B

A number of lists of children's readings for the guid-
anee of teachers and parents will he found in the follow-
ing works —

ARNOLD, G W A Mother's List of Book* for Children.

(Chicago, 1909 )
BAKKH, FT A Bibliography of Children's Reading

Teacher* College Record, January and March,

1908 (New York, 1908 )
Brooklyn Public Library The Child's Own Library,

1907
Carnegie Library, Pittsburgh Annotated Catalogut

of Books, 1905
Catalogue of Books in the Children's Department

(1909 )
COLBY, J R Literature and Life in School (Boston,

1906)
C BOTHERS, S M Miss Afuffet's Christmas Party

(Boston, 1902 )
Detroit Public Library Books suitable for young

Children (1903 )
FIELD, E M The Child and his Book some Account

of the History and Progress of Children' t> Literature

in England (London, 1891 )
FIELD, W T Fingerposts to Children's Reading

(Chicago, 1907 )

HALSKY, R V Forgotten Books of the American Nur-
sery (Boston, 1911 )
HEWINS, C M Book* for Boys and Girls. (Hartford

Public Library, 1904 )
LEE, G S The Child and the Book (New York,

1907)
MACCLINTOCK, P L Literature in the Elementary

School (Chicago, 190H )
McMuRRY, CH A special Method in the Reading of

complete English Classics in the Grades of the

Common Schools (New York, 1903 )
MOORE, A C Books recommended for a Children's

Library (Iowa Library Commission )
MOSES, M J Children's Books and Reading (New

York, 1007 )
POTTER, M E Children's Catalogue (Minneapolis,

1910)

More detailed discussion of various points treated
in this article may be found in the following bibliog-
raphy —

See FOLK LORE, MANNERS AND MORALS
EDUCATION IN; MYTHS AND MYTHOLOGY;
NEW ENGLAND PRIMER, NURSERY RHYMES.

References —

ASHTON, J Ctiap Books of the Eighteenth Century.
(London, 1882.)

BRIGGS, T H and COFFMAN, L D. Reading in the
Pubhc Schools (Chicago, 1911.)

BURT, M E Literary Landmarks (Boston, 1893 )

CARPENTER, BAKER, and SCOTT The Teaching of
Engh^h (London, 1902 )

CHUBB, P The Teaching of English (New York,
1902)

EARLE, A M Child Life in Colonial Days. (New
York, 1899 )

FORD, P L History of the New England Pnmer.
(New York, 1897 )

HALL, G S Reading, and How to Teach It (Boston,
1886 )

HALLIWELL-PHILLIPM, J O Nursery Rhymes of Old
England

JOHNSON, CLIFTON Old-time Sehools and School-
books (New York, 1904 )

KEHR, K Geschichte des Volkschultesebuches (Gotha,
1888-1891 )

KOHTER, H L Gcachichtc dcr deutschen Jugendliteratur.
Contains an extensive bibliography of the German
field (Hamburg, 190(> )

LUCAS, E V Old-fashioned Tales and Forgotten Tales
of Long 4go (London, 1905 )

MOSES, J Children'* Book* and Reading (New York,
1907)

PEARSON, E Banbury Chap-books and Toy Book Lit-
erature of the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries
(London, 1S90 )
REEDER, R R Historical Development of the School

Reader (New York, 1900 )
Schoolroom Classics in Fi< tion Liv. Age, Vol

CCXXXIII, pp 385-401

WIDDKMEK, M A Bibliography of Books and Articles
relating to Children's Reading Bulletin of Bib-
liography (Boston), July and October, 1911,
January and April, 1912

WOLUAST, H Das Elend unserer Jugendliteratur
(Leipzig, 1905 )

LITERATURE, COMPARATIVE.— An Eng-
lish equivalent for the foreign term**, Vergletchende
Litcraturgcschi"hle, Lilt^nttwc com par fa, Letteratura
coruparata, coined in apparent analogy with such
expressions as " comparative anatomy " and
" comparative philology " Its use in English
is of fairly recent date, and the word can hardly
be said to have had any wide currency until
1886, when Posnett used it as the title of a book
in the International Science Series, but it SOOB
impressed itself on literary scholarship, and
ten vears later Professor Marsh of Harvard
could say that " the phrase Comparative
Literature is afloat, and indeed seems to be
constantly gaining in currency/'

As early as 1863 the distinguished Italian
critic, Francesco dc Sanctis, had been created
professor of comparative literature in the Uni-
versity of Naples without stipend; but it was
not until 1871, when he was reappointed by
royal decree, that he actually occupied the
chair During four academic years he lectured
at the university with occasional intermissions,
finally resigning on account of his health in
1877 With De Sanctis, therefore, the aca-
demic history of comparative literature begins.
His work was for the most part confined to

46

LITERATURE, COMPARATIVE

LITERATURE, C( )MPARATIVE

Italian literature, but included a course of
lectures on the history of literary criticism
from Aristotle to Hegel, the manuscript of
which has recently been discovered The
remarkable impression he made on his pupils,
among whom were numbered Gasparv and
Torraca, has been recorded by the latter in a
pamphlet, Dal "Libra delta Scuola " di Fran-
cesco de Sanctix, MDCCCLXXIJ (Rome,
1885), and seems to have been due to the
personality of the man as much a,s to the
talents of the scholai and teacher His
aesthetic theory owed much to Hegel and othei
German thinkers, while his ciitical method was
m part derived from Samte-Beuve In mtei-
pretmg literature, more particularly that of his
own country, along these lines, ana in expound-
ing the fundamental principles of literary ait,
he conceived that he was justifying the title of
his chair The effect of his teaching \\jis to
broaden the study of literature in Italy,
liberating it from mere pedantic detail, and
he may be said to have founded a ne\\ Italian
school of aesthetic criticism

The development of comparative litna-
ture during the next decade, however, was not
along the lines set by De Sanctib. The Hege-
lian Carnere carried on a similar ti adit ion
when, in 1884, he repubhshed a work on Die
Pocsie, ihr We sen and ihre For men (which had
first appeared some thirty years before), and
added to its title the phrase, nut Grundzuqen
der vergleichenden Liter atwqeschickte But the
tendency of the decade was toward a more
precise delimitation of the field and a more
scientific treatment of its subject matter
Posnett, in his book on Comparative Litein-
ture (London, 1886), conceived it to be a ngul
science, concerned with the origins of litera-
ture and with the development of set- poetic
themes, a science allied to anthropology and
folklore. In the next year Professor Max Koch
of Breslau founded the Zcitschrift Jiu verg-
leichendc LiteraturgescJuchte, the first journal
devoted exclusively to the advancement of
comparative literature; and the founder in
his announcement of the new venture limited
the field to the scientific study of poetic themes,
of literary sources, of the influence of one litera-
ture on another, and the like During the
nineties the subject received a remarkable
impetus in the universities of Europe and
America, and no less than four chairs weie
founded in this decade Joseph Texte at
Lyons, Louis P Betz at Zurich, Arthur R
Marsh at Harvard University, and George
E. Woodberry at Columbia University, were
the pioneers in their respective countries, in
1900 Fernand Baldensperger succeeded Texte
at Lyons, and in 1902 Francesco Torraca was
appointed to the chair which De Sanctis had
once occupied at Naples

Of the five pioneers enumerated above,
Joseph Texte, though the youngest, was the
first to impress on the study of comparative

liteiatme the special significance which rt has
mainly continued to possess in academic
instruction His study of Rousseau as the
foundei of " literary cosmopolitanism " in
Em ope, and his Etniles de Litter at urc Eu.ro-
pecnne, indicate the general trend of his in-
terest in t lie problems of literary relationship
between the various countries of western
Europe, especially dunng the eighteenth cen-
tury His eaily death in 1900 cut shoit a
brilliant career, just at the moment when a
chair of comparative literature was about to
be founded for him at the University of Pans
His successoi at Lyons, Fernand Baldcn-
speigei, has continued in the same regions of
research, but with a particular interest in the
hteiary iclations of Germany, France, and
England during the romantic period (c g Goethe
en France, 1904) In Switzerland Louis P
Betz cultivated similar studies, investigating
the influence of Poe arid Heine in France, the
origins of hteiary journalism at the end of the
seventeenth century, and a wide rango of
problems of this kind In 1900 he published
a bibliography of the young science to which
lie was devoting his life (La Litterature (oni-
parec, E\*ni biblwgraphiqne) , this compilation,
the first of its kind, limits comparative liter a-
tuie to Qucllcnforxchung, that is, to the inves-
tigation of literary souices and international
influences After his death a second edition
(1904) was brought out by Baldensperger,
with its scope slightly extended

In Germany the opportunities for minute
research which the new Quellcnforschung af-
forded were soon realized by academic teachers;
and a mass of material of this kind, much of it
of slight value, has issued from the German
universities during the last twenty years
In 1887 Professor Max Koch of Breslau founded
the periodical already referred to; and some-
what later Professor W \Vetz, who succeeded
him as editor of that journal, was called to
a chair at Freiburg i B , which he has chiefly
devoted to the teaching of comparative
literature Professor Welz's conception of
his held, as expounded and illustrated in his
Shakespeare and other uorks, is \\idelv diver-
gent from that of most of his German con-
temporaries lie conrenes of it as a compari-
son not of externals, but of essentials, the
comparison of one artistic method with another,
of the genius of Shakespeare, for example,
with that of Corneille or Calderon As yet-
no German chair has been officially devoted to
the subject, but doctoral monographs on com-
parative subjects are now issuing from the de-
partments of modern literature in almost every
German university

The courses of Professor Child of Harvard
on Chaucer and on ballad literature, as well
as those of Longfellow, Lowell, and Norton
on Dante, furnished the initial impulse to
comparative studies at American universi-
ties; and it was at Harvard that the first

47

LITE R AT UK K, ( <OMP ARATI V E

LITERATURE, COMPARATIVE

chair of comparative literature was instituted
Professor Arthur R. Marsh continued mainly
the medieval studies of his predecessors,
coordinating them, however, l>v the fruitful
idea of Weltliteintui 1 1 is academic title was
"assistant ))K)fessoi of compaiative litera-
ture" , and to that title, when he re-Ji^ned from
the university, Jeff ei son H Fletcher succeeded in
1902 At Columbia University the De-pa it men!
of literature, with George K. Woodbury as its
head, had been inaugurated as eailv as 1SOO,
and here, for the first time in any American
institution, the studv of literature \vas .sepa-
rated from all linguistic ot philological detail,
as a division of the field ol learning, and the
whole realm of European culture taken as its
province Professor Jitandei Matthews lec-
tured on the evolution of the novel and the
drama, and Professor Woodberry's lectures
on the gieat monuments of European litera-
ture, on epic poet iv, on the theoiv and prac-
tice of criticism may be read, in revised foim,
in his Hcait of Man (1809), The Tonh (lOOo),
Great Writer* (1907), and other works In
1899 the hrst Department of Compaiatne
Literature in an American university was
inaugurated \n early result was the institu-
tion of a senesof "Columbia University Studies
in Comparative Literatim*," which included
monographs on such varied subjects as J'lato-
jntwt in Knqlt^h Poetry, Romance^ of Roguen),
HpaniNh Liteiatme in the England of the Tudoi*,
A Jli^toiij of Lite) an/ (^ntu'^tn in the Kenai\-
snwfv, The Clascal Hentage of the Middle
Jf/rx, The Italian Henai^ance in Euylaml, and
7m/< Lift tn Irish Fntion The Jotnnal of
Comparative Litnatnre \\asfoundedm 1903, but
discontinued publication at the end of one year
The Ropes Chan of compaiative liteiature at
the umversitv of Cincinnati, founded in 190S,
completes the academic roll-call in this country
At the present time (1910) four scholars ^in tin-
United States, one each in Switzerland, France,
and Italv bear the title of professoi of com-
parative literature, but the number of other
scholars actually carrying on investigations in
this field is not to be estimated merely by this
small array- To say that most of the teachers
of modern hteratuie in European and Ameii-
can universities connect themselves in some
wav with the field, eithei in their teaching or
in their published work, would not be wide of
the mark England is still without a chair of
comparative literature, though the unique
Professorship of Poetry at Oxford continues
to fui rush opportunities for the discussion of
comparative criticism, and such works as
Professor Salisbury's series of Periods of
Euiopeun Literal me, as well as his own His-
tory of (1rittci*m and literary Taxte in Europe,
illustrate the growth of these studies in the
British Isles

Comparative literature has thus been va-
riously conceived as (1) a form of literary anti-
quarianism, involving especially the external

fuels of the influence of one hleralui'e on
another, of the literary sources of books, and
the like, (2) the studv of WelthteiatM, involv-
ing especially the history of literary periods,
rno\emenfs, 1>pes, or themes, and (3) the
{esthetic criticism of literature, with incidental
study of poetic principles, as a protest against
hteraiy antiquariamsm Literary scholars,
from the days of ancient Rome to the end of
the eighteenth century, emploved the coin-
par atne method, in the sense of contrasting
one authoi or one hteratuie with another
Hul the seaich foi a connecting link ol spiritual
or artistic unity in all the literatures of the
\\orld did not begin until the days of Herdei ,
and with Goethe's idea of a Weltliteratiu com-
parative literature was really born (see his
Feinere* ubtr Welthteratin , 1S29, in Samthehe
Weike, Jubilaums-Ausgabe, pp. xxxvm, 202)
Matthew Arnold's dictum that " that cnticism
which alone can much help us for the future is
a criticism which regards Europe as being foi
intellectual and spiritual purposes one gieat
federation bound to a joint action and \\orking
to a common result " is a logical consequence
of (Joethe's idea, though Arnold has nanoued
it from World Literature to Euiopean Litera-
ture This has indeed been the general, though
not the nnariable, practice of scholarship, and
perhaps the unity of literature is more easiK
apprehended when its study is confined to a
single civili/atum like that of Europe Liter-
ary studv, conceived in this spirit, does not
concern itself \\ith each national literature as
a separate and sporadic fact of history, but
rather with the great international movements
01 tvpes of literature, with the great liteiar}
periods, or with the mtenelations of one liteia-
ture with another Academically, this has
tended to break down the barriers which have
separated the departments of English, French,
German, etc, and ultimately the \ery exist-
ence of such separate4 departments is hkelv to
be threatened, \\hen that is brought about,
there will no longer be need for a distinct de-
partment of comparative literature In this
sense, comparative literature has been, not a
special field of research or criticism, but a
method applicable alike to all fields of hteiary
study, and its usefulness as a separate entity
will cease when that method has been um\er-
sallv adopted But its real field is nothing
more or less than the history and criticism of
literature, and though its students may limit,
themselves to some special phase of this wide
subject, the best of them acknowledge the
larger and truer allegiance, when they use the
term ''comparative literature" as a banner
and a battle-civ J« E. S

References : —

BETZ, L P Ln Literature Compfirte, 2d ed. (Strasfl-
burg, 1904) Litrraturvorglpiohuiifi;, Das Literar-
whe Echo (Berlin, Fob 1, 1901)

K, F La Littfruture Kumpe>imef in Revue
> Dcur Monde*, Sept 15, 1WH)

48

LITERATURE, EDUCATIONAL

LITERATURE, ENGLISH

CROCE, B La Lotteratura Comparata, La Cntica.

(Naples, January, 1903)
Problemi di Estetica (Ban, 1910 )

GAYLEY C M What is Comparative Literature9 m
Atlantic Monthly, Vol XCVI, pp 52-68

MARSH, A R Comparative Literature, m Publications
of the Modern Language Association of America,
1896

POSNETT, H M Comparative Literature (London,
1886 )

SMITH, G GREGORY Notes on the Comparative Study
of Literature, Modern Language Rtoivw (Cam-
bridge, October, 1905 ) The Foible of Comparative
Literature, Blackwood's Magazine (Edinburgh,
January, 1901 )

WOODBERRY, <! E Editorial, in Journal of (^tmpara-
tivc Literature (New \ork, January, 1903)

LITERATURE, EDUCATIONAL — See BIB-
LIOGRAPHIES OF EDUCATION, ENCYCLOI-KIHAS
OF EDUCATION, JOURNALS, EDUCATION \L, and
th(3 reference list appended to the vaiious arti-
clcs on education in these volumes

LITERATURE, ENGLISH, TEACHING

OF — As earlv as Plato the fundamental theo-
retical principles which underlie the leaching of
literature were already clearly slated In the
Goigia^ the character who gives the name to this
dialogue maintains that he has elaborated an
art, the art of rhetoric, which is communicable
by teaching and which will assure to thepractr-
t loner of that ait the greatest possible happiness
Plato, on the other hand, if we m.iy assume
that Isocrates expresses Plato's opinions, main-
tains that what (lorgias calls an ait is a ialse
art, is meiely flattery (cf the place which is
assigned to the poet in the Republic], and that
real power has to do only with the perception
of and control over that inner truth which is
each man's possession in varying degrees bv
gift of nature, and that consequently there is
no communicable art of expression based upon
sound moral principles To these two Mews,
both manifestly presented in the extreme,
should be added a thud, set forth in the Ion
This is the doctrine of " secondary inspira-
tion," according to which certain persons
whose spirits are attuned in a peculiar manner
to the writings of some specific master of liter-
ature are thus enabled to put themselves with
respect to these writings into a sympathetic
mood of enthusiasm which is snnilai to the
mood of the author in composing them, and
which in a certain degree is communicable to
others To illustrate this idea, Plato uses the
figure of the magnetic rings The first ring,
representing the original author himself, re-
ceives its power directly from God, the source
of all inspiration The second ring, repre-
senting the interpreter of the author's writings,
hangs from the first ring by means of a magnetic
power derived from the original source through
the medium of the first ring In the same
way a third ring may be attached to the second
ring by means of a magnetic power derived
through the medium of the first and second
rings, and this magnetic power may continue
VOL. iv — »

indefinitely to be thus transmitted so long as it
is strong enough to enable one ring to hold to
another. In the case of a great writer like
Homer, the rings may form a long chain, al-
though by the time we get to the last ring but
little of the original inspiration of Homer is
left. The three principal points, therefore,
which are represented in these twro dialogues,
expressed in terms of modern thought, are, fiist,
the possibility of teaching the technique of an
art of literature; second, the necessity of basing
literature riot upon technique, but upon per-
sonal character, which is not communicable and
consequently not teachable, and third, the
transmission of the elements of personal
character not completely but in an imperfect
manner by means of sympathetic appreciation
or secondary inspiration If we add to these
principles a conception not possible in Plato's
time, the conception of a history or de\elop-
rnerit of literature, v\e shall have all the mam
ideas which underlie the modern teaching of
t lie subject (For t he development of the study
of English literature see VERNACULARS, TEACHING
OF THE )

English Literature in the Elementary and
Secondary Schools — The question of the
advisability of teaching literature in the
modern elementary and secondary schools
appears to have been definitely answered by
actual experience Through the A arums stages
of the elocutionary speaking of " pieces,"
the, use of reading books, and finally the
detailed and formal study of English classics,
the study of literature has gradually taken its
place in the school curriculum, although it is
only within the present generation that exten-
sive and specific provision has been made for
such study The cause and the justification
for the contemporary emphasis placed upon the
study of the English language and literature
are intimately bound up with the democratic
tendencies in general of both language and
literature within the last three generations
English literature, beginning with the reforms
of the late eighteenth and early nineteenth
centuries, has become more and more in its
modem manifestations an expression of gen-
eral social ideas and emotions than it lias CA er
been before, and its range of appeal has conse-
quently become wider. Moreover, the modem
school, in the extraordinary expansion b>
winch it has assumed to itself many different
kinds of aeti\ity, left by the ear her school either
to the limrted instruction of the parent or of
special masters, has at the same time assumed
certain responsibilities, necessarily arising from
the instruction which the school provides m the
elements of these new subjects for the public
at large Thus in teaching practically every
member of the community how to read and
vurte, the school has placed within the reach of
all the elements necessary to the understanding
and the practice of the' literary art Having
provided the general public with the key of
49

LITERATURE, ENGLISH

LITERATURE, ENGLISH

admission to the treasury of English litera-
ture, modern education cannot consistently
abandon the public thereafter to its own un-
disciplined devices A system of universal
popular education logically demands that
attention be given to so influential an clement
as literature in the life of the people, and in
answer to this demand, from the lowest grades
through the secondary school, the college, and
the university, the study of the literature of t he
vernacular has come to occupy an important,
and, on the whole, unquestioned place The
debatable question is no longer whether
English literature shall be taught to English
students, but how and with what varying
degrees of emphasis it shall be taught

Perhaps the most important single result of
modern practical experience has been the turn-
ing aside from matters of information about
authors and literature, as exemplified in the
old-fashioned manuals of the history of htei-
ature, to an attempt at appreciation directly
of the literary monuments themselves It is
now generally recogm/ed that histoiical and
biographical information with respect to litera-
ture is of secondary value, and that it finds its
justification in instruction only when it helps
the student to a truer appreciation of the
literary product The study of literature is
not, therefore, an appendage to the study of
history; and this is especially true in the
elementary teaching of literature The details
of historical and biographical information are
matters of scholarship, whereas the proper
understanding of literature in its simplicity is
not primarily a matter of scholarship, but rather
of sensibility and feeling

At the same time it is recognized that the
teaching of elementary English literature is
not altogether a matter of sensibility and feel-
ing, and that it has elements of a severer in-
tellectual discipline in it In the first place,
all literary expression is made up of words, and
an intelligent understanding of the meanings
and connotations of words is absolutely neces-
sary to any adequate appreciation of literary
monuments The teacher, therefore, must
gauge the capabilities of students with respect
to the vocabulary of the literary expression
under examination in such a way as to make
sure that their understanding is not only clear,
but also in accordance with the normal tra-
ditional usages of the language. It is not
enough that students should have a definite
impression of a work of literature; they must
also have correct impressions In acquiring
this right understanding of words, which, as
Plato has justly said, is the basis of scholarship,
the teacher's most intelligent judgment and
oversight are necessary Obviously the study
of a literary monument the expression of which
is so far beyond the comprehension of the
student that his attention is completely taken
up with details, leaving him no energy for the
synthesis of his impressions, should be deferred

until the student has at his command a wider
range both of vocabulary and of modes of
thought

Another kind of definite fact which the ele-
mentary teacher of literature may not neglect
is that which has to do with certain forms of
phrasing peculiar to the literary style, espe-
cially the use of figurative language These
modes of expression are usually quite outside
the student's natural colloquial experience,
and unless they are specifically analyzed, the
significance of them is not clearly reali/ed,
even when the individual words are intelligible
It is the frequent experience of all teachers of
English literature that even fairly mature
students are unable to see the value of a meta-
phorical expression, an inability which arises
not so much from an inactive intelligence as
it does from unfamiharity with the literary
convention contained in the manner of expres-
sion The study of literary style, as it was
developed in the early manuals of rhetoric,
and as it was based upon the study of the Greek
and Latin classics, limited itself almost exclu-
sively to the analysis and classification of
figures and metaphors The futility of all
such classification merely for the sake of classi-
fication acknowledged, it must be granted also
that, within proper bounds, the analysis of
metaphorical expression is justifiable and nec-
essary

Still a third group of facts to be noted in the
disciplinary study of elementary literature
consists of allusions, proper names, and other
matters of information embodied in the text,
the understanding of which is necessary for
the propei grasping of the writer's intention
Here again it is apparent that woiks such as
some of the satires of Dryden and Pope, in
which the local and contemporary allusions
are so numerous as to absorb all the student's
attention, are hardly appropriate material for
elementary instruction

When stress is placed heavily upon these
details of fact, that is, on vocabulary, figures,
allusions, etc , the result is what is often called
the " philological " method of the study of
literature This kind of literary study, which
arose out of a desire to give the study what
was considered a disciplinary value, was much
more in vogue in a preceding generation than
it is at present The study of figures of
speech, for example, was made a very technical
drill in the classification of the figures under
the heads of an elaborate and pedantic system
of classical terminology In the same way the
study of vocabulary was, and often continues
to be, carried to extremes in the consideration
of the etymological origins of the various
words, or their comparative uses by different
writers, and similar questions The study of
grammar is often combined with the study of
literature, and teachers have been known to
compel students to parse through every word
of In Memoriam under the pretense of a literary

50

LITERATURE, ENGLISH

LITERATURE, ENGLISH

study of that poem. It is perhaps sufficient
to point out here that the philological method
when carried to such extremes does not answer
the requirements of the study of literature,
however valuable it may be as a technical drill
in language. The common-sense conclusion
seems to be that a piece of literature should
not be taken up, at least in elementary or
secondary instruction, when it requires such
elaborate linguistic commentary that the
student's attention and energy are completely
abstracted from the appreciation and enjoy-
ment of the work merely as literature

The more subtle questions of technique,
such as those which have to do with form or
structure in the larger sense, the differentiation
of types, the conventions of individual types,
etc , are usually, and may very well be, dis-
regarded in elementary instruction With
the most mature students the interest of these
questions with respect to literature may be
considered as esoteric, and with younger
students much more limited in power of abstract
thought, the dwelling upon them is merely
confusing There is perhaps somewhat more
justification in dwelling upon historical con-
siderations, c y the period at which a work
was written and the particular contemporary
circumstances of its composition Such details
are often helpful in grasping the meaning of a
work as a whole But it is doubtful if students
should be much troubled with attempts to
group writers into periods, or to appreciate
large general movements, like classicism and
romanticism, in the earlier stages of their
literary training The usual plan of reserving
such considerations for the last year of the
secondary curriculum or for the college seems
to be the wisest

As to the question of transmitting apprecia-
tion for the literary monument itself, after all
matters of technical detail have been disposed
of, apparently little that is of practical value
can be said. It will be generally conceded that
Plato was right when he declared that there
was no communicable technique for the best
aspects of literature, and that a right feeling,
" a secondary inspiration/' will accomplish
more than the most ingenious technical analysis.
And as the Greek rhapsodists gave expression
to this secondary inspiration mainly by recit-
ing the works of the authors who inspired
them, so in elementary instruction intelligent
reading is often more effective than elaborate
commentary

One other aspect of the elementary study of
literature presents itself insistently to the
teacher, and this is the question of the relation
of the study of literature to the study of
morals, ideas, and civilization in general. It
is obvious that the possibilities of correla-
tions of this kind in literary study are almost
illimitable in extent No other kind of expres-
sion has summed up so directly and so com-
pactly as English literature has done the ideas

and forces which have exerted influence upon
the thought of the English people Any ade-
quate study of the monuments of English liter-
ature must consequently and of necessity
lead over into a consideration of moral ideas
The study of The Merchant of Venice, of Silas
Marner, of The Ancient Mariner, to choose a
few examples at random, inevitably raises in
each instance important questions of moral
conduct which are inherent in the very concep-
tion of the works The endeavor to exclude
such discussions by limiting the choice of texts
read to simple narrative, like Scott's narrative
poems, seems hardlv defensible, since it excludes
what must be regarded as the most character-
istic products of English literature Here
again a balanced and common-sense attitude
toward the question of moral instruction in
the teaching of literature seems to be the only
one tenable To make literature merely the
vehicle for the conveyance of moral instruc-
tion, to torture a moral lesson out of every inno-
cent poem or tale, changes the subject from the
study of literature to the study of ethics,
besides frequently destroying for the student
the characteristic charm of the writings under
consideration On the other hand, the moral
and didactic implications of many of the most
important monuments of English literature
cannot be disregarded without slighting what
is after all one of the most persistent and
prominent characteristics of the whole history
of that literature

The question of grading the material used
in literary study mav naturally be answered
variously according to the attendant circum-
stances In general, however, in the early
years of the elementary pupil's development,
the most appropriate material will be found in
fairy tales, folk tales (see FOLKLORE), myths,
and simplified forms of epic narrative The
next stage m the development of popular
narrative, and the one which is most appro-
priate for study in the later years of the ele-
mentary school, is represented by the romantic
tales of chivalry, such as the stories of King
Arthur and other medieval romances, as well
as chivalnc stories from actual history In the
secondary school, on the other hand, con-
siderably more attention is paid, and appro-
priately so, to writings which are specifically
works of literary art, and which consequently
bear the marks of conscious literary artifice,
such, for example, as the list of " English
Classics " prescribed for reading and study in
preparation for entrance into college.

English Literature in the College — In the
American college, the study of English litera-
ture has advanced steadily with the growth in
general of the scope of college instruction.
The subject was given its first strong impulse
through the academic influence of men like
Longfellow, James Russell Lowell, Charles
Eliot Norton, and Professor Child, m New
England, of Henry Reed, professor of English

51

LITERATURE, ENGLISH

LITERATURE, ENGLISH

literature in the University of Pennsylvania
from 1831 to 1854, of Hiram Corson, now
professor emeritus in Cornell University, and
active professor of English literature from
1870 to 1903, and others in various parts of
the country, and now is a recognized and im-
portant part of the instruction in all courses
leading to the bachelor's degree In the Eng-
lish universities the introduction of the subject
came much later and its progress has been
slower At Oxford English liteiature was not
introduced as a separate school of the university
until the last decade of the nineteenth century
" At the first examination, which was in 1890,
two candidates offeied themselves, but as one
scratched befoie the paper woik began and
I ho other as soon as it ended, there was no
class-list In 1897 the names of four men
appeared in the class-list; in I SOS, five, m
1899, foui, in 1900, three, in 1901, two.
People began to complain that the school was
not as productive as they had expected, and
even blamed the University Several

sages declared that the subject was in fault,
and that, as they had said all along, English
was not a subject which could be seriously
studied in an English University " (Firth, The
School of English Language and Literature,
pp 31-35 ) " It was pointed out that while
male candidates could be counted on the ringers
of one hand, women candidates entered for the
school in large numbers, and it was inferred
that the subject was not a suitable subject for
men" (Firth, ibid , p 35) The real expla-
nation, however, seems to have been that,
although the university had provided for
examinations in English literature, neither the
umversitv nor the colleges, except the women's
colleges, had provided foi instruction Tins
defect was in part remedied by the appoint-
ment of Professor Raleigh to the professorship
of English Literature m 1904, and by various
other appointments and changes in adminis-
tration both by the college and the university
before and after thus " But in 1907 and in
1908 the class-list at last revealed signs of
real progress There were in the first year
twelve men and seventeen women, and in the
second year, twelve men and thirteen women
This increase continued, and now, in Hilary
Term, 1909, theie are forty-nine men reading
for the school, and fifty-six women." (Firth,
ibul , p 38 )

The principles which may be assumed to
underlie4 the teaching of literature m courses
leading to the bachelor's degiee differ from
those at the basis of elementary and secondary
instruction less in kind than in the extent to
which they are applied With increased ma-
turity in years the student is capable of study-
ing writings of greater complexity and subtlety
of thought, and of greater difficulty on the
side of expression But in the colleges also
the main purpose of the teaching of literature
is to bring students to a firsthand acquaintance

with and appreciation of that which is regaided
as good in literature In the college, however,
more attention is usually given to the formu-
lation of conscious standards of taste and judg-
ment than the elementary student is capable
of receiving In carrying out this purpose
formal courses in criticism are sometimes given.
Other methods are also employed in the col-
lege for systematizing the material of literary
scholarship These attempts usually take the
form of classifying the vanous monuments of
the literature according to some ordered sys-
tem The simplest and most obvious method
of classification is naturally that which is based
upon chronology It is generally assumed that
a student should be acquainted with the his-
torical sequence of at least the great figures in
the development of English literature from
Beowulf to Browning Even though the
student's backgiound of historical knowledge
is not sufficient to enable him to see that the
writer of any particular period is the inevitable
child of his own age, the chronological classi-
fication serves a useful purpose as providing
a convenient framework which the student can
complete with the fuller knowledge which
gradually accumulates and which alone can
give him any adequate legalization of historical
background and perspective

In the same way attempts are often made
to classify the mass of literary material under
the heading of types General-survey courses
are often given covering all the various types
of English literature, — epic, romance, lyric,
drama, essav, novel, etc , — and, usually in the
later years of the college course, special courses
in the development of particular types
This method of classification manifestly pre-
sents more difficulties than a simple chiono-
logical classification, although in compensation
it may be assumed to have much greater value
in bringing the student into a more intimate
acquaintance \\ith the actual content of litera-
ture and the methods of literary workmanship.
The classification of literature according to
types or genres, however, is obviously a method
of abstract generalization based upon historical
data which is apt to lead the student into a
mistaken notion of types as established by
some immutable dogmatic decree, of a fixed
inherent nature, of which the various represen-
tations of the types are but individual exempli-
fications It is plainly the teacher's duty to
correct this tendency toward an " academic "
attitude in the study of literature, and to pre-
vent the system of classification, whatever it
may be, from obscuring the student's vision of
the actual processes of literary composition.

Still a third method of classification and of
historical explanation of literature employed
in college instruction is that which endeavors
to study so-called developments and move-
ments in literature As a matter of fact, in
the study of English literature, the movement*
are usually limited to two, or at most three.

LITERATURE, ENGLISH

LITERATURE, ENGLISH

The older periods, the Old English before
the Conquest, the Middle English, centering
about Chaucer, and the Elizabethan, centering
about Shakespeare, arc considered as periods
mainly from the chronological point of view
view alone, although sometimes the Elizabethan
period is treated comparatively in connection
with a larger European movement, the Renais-
sance More frequently, however, the study
of movements in college classes in literature is
limited to the study of classicism as represented
in the eighteenth century, and of romanticism,
as exemplified in the writings of Wordsworth
and his contemporaries The attempt to
classify English literature according to move-
ments seldom goes further than this, and after
the discussion of the romantic writers, a return
is usually made to the chronological method in
the study of the writers of the Victorian Period
It may be questioned whether a more analyti-
cal treatment of movements of English litera-
ture is advisable or practicable Perhaps the
reason why further analysis has not generally
commended itself is to be found in the fact that
English literature throughout its history ha*
not fallen into such clearly defined and con-
scious movements and schools as other litera-
tures, notably the French, have done

The question of the relation of the study of
literature to creative hteiary composition,
although it seems to be frequently disregarded,
is one that the college teacher of literature is
legitimately bound to consider It is, however,
in many instances, modestly assumed on the
part of teachers that their function is purely
interpretative, and that any bent toward
literary expression which the student may
have, being part of his natural inheritance and
gift, must be allowed to work out its own des-
tiny. The most the teacher can do, it is uigod,
is to acquaint the student with such technical
details as the practitioners of the art of litera-
ture in the past have shown to be obviously
useful, for example, the elements of versifica-
tion in the writing of poetry, and after that
to lend as sympathetic an ear to the productions
of the student as the wisdom or chanty of the
instructor will permit Many teachers, how-
over, go further than this, and distinctly dis-
courage efforts at original composition on the
part of their students, on the ground that yeiy
few of them have the literary gift, that it is
harmful to them to be supported in the delu-
sions of literary aspiration to which they arc
by nature inclined, and that if a student has
a genuine gift, discouragement and opposi-
tion will not destroy it, but rather strengthen it
Such a defense as this, however, is perhaps
based upon too absolute a conception of what
constitutes literature From the psychological
point of view it certainly seems unjustifiable
that a student's mind should be kept in the
receptive and appreciative attitude throughout
his whole consideration of a subject, especially
»mce he has in his command over language,

developed by natural use to a relatively high
degree, the materials for the exercise of creative
activity in the subject which he is studying.
It would seem, therefore, that the teacher who
discourages literary productivity on the part
of his students merely evades the difficulties
of the situation, and that the really helpful
teacher will encourage creative activity at the
same time that he guards the student from
solf-delusion and conceit On the other hand,
as a result of the increased commercial value
of certain kinds of literature to-day, there are
evidences of a tendency on the part of some col-
lege instructors to place great stress on the
(caching of a practical technique of literature,
of a sophistical art, such as Gorgias defended,
which the student shall be able to put into
practice with the hope of immediate pecuniary
profit Courses are thus given in short-story
wilting, in the novel, in the drama, and in
various other kinds of writing for which there
is at present a heavy commercial demand So
far as those courses really pretend to teach the
art of writing short stories or plays, they fall
obviously under the head of technical rather
than liberal training, arid aside from their im-
mediate practical value would seem to have
little justification as courses in the study of
English literature (See COMPOSITION )

English Literature in the University — In
German and American universities English
literature occupies a definite and recognized
position among graduate studies leading to tho
doctor's degree In Germany courses in lit-
erature for advanced students have usually been
given by the professoi of English philology (q v ),
and until recent years have been mainly con-
corned with the earlier periods, in the investi-
gation of which the study of language naturally
plays a large part But the modern periods
are also being studied now in Germany from
Shakespeare to Kipling, and a contemporary
generation of scholars who give their attention
almost exclusively to literature as distinguished
from linguistics is becoming increasingly active
It is interesting to observe also that a number
of elaborate and in some eases important lit-
erarv studies have been published within the
last decade by students of English literature
in the French universities. In American uni-
versities literary courses form an important
part of the graduate curriculum, and in the
larger universities the faculty always numbers
one or more professors whose entire attention
is directed to questions in this field. A com-
parison of the subjects of doctoral dissertations
in America, issued between the years 1880 and
1895, with those for the years 1895 to the pres-
ent time, shows a marked increase of interest
in what might be called specifically literary
subjects In England, on the other hand, al-
though English literary scholarship has by no
means languished at the universities, the for-
mal organization of courses for literary research
and investigation is of very recent date, and

53

LITERATURE, ENGLISH

LITERATURE, ENGLISH

these universities are consequently better
known to the world at large through the pub-
lications of their distinguished faculties than
through the activities of a body of disciplined
students.

The methods and the purpose of the gradu-
ate study of English literature are many and
various The large proportion of students in
graduate courses who intend to enter the pro-
fession of teaching unavoidably gives direction
to a certain extent to graduate instruction
It is assumed, at least in American universi-
ties, that one important function of the gradu-
ate school is to provide students who enter the
school with such further discipline and infor-
mation as will enable them to present more
adequately the subject of English literature to
college classes This end is not accomplished,
however, by specifically pedagogical instruc-
tion, though logically it would seem that, if
there is a place in colleges for teachers for the
instruction which is usually given the methods
of teaching literature in the elementary and
secondary schools, there should also be a place
for similar instruction for prospective •college
teachers In many American universities there
appears to be a partial tendency m this direction
in the treatment of courses intended for candi-
dates for the degree of Master of Arts, which
ure regarded not primarily as research courses,
but rather as preparatory courses for teachers,
or as preliminary preparation for students who
expect to proceed to the doctor's degree There
results consequently a practically existent, if
not theoretically accepted, distinction in the
kinds of work required of candidates for the
two higher degrees The courses intended for
candidates for the doctorate differ from the
master's courses both m requiring a more ex-
tensive preparation and in an added stress on
the side of investigation and production

As is to be expected, the subjects covered by
advanced graduate courses m English literature
are largely such as come under the general
head of English scholarship Among them
may be noted such subjects as have to do with
the dating, the authorship, or the attendant
circumstances of composition of a particular
work or group of works It will be observed
that the term "literary" is broadly interpreted,
and that often such topics lead into what
might better be called literary antiquariamsm, as
when a monument, in itself apparently insignifi-
cant and uninfluential, is resuscitated merely
to serve as an exhibition of the life of a past
period, or when the biography of an author, or
the literary gossip of his day, is examined apart
from any connection which they may have with
specific writings Many of the topics under-
taken by advanced students of English litera-
ture likewise connect closely with questions of
economic and social development The bor-
rowings of one author from another, as well as
less direct sources and influences, are diligently
examined, a method of investigation which

54

naturally leads over to the comparative study
of literature (qv ). It will be seen, therefore,
that the study of the history of literature, as
this subject is treated in graduate instruction,
is very broadly conceived, ranging from the
determination of simple questions of chronology
and the details of antiquarian scholarship to
the study of large national and international
movements of thought. The study of sources
and of comparative relationships, especially in
the literature of the earlier periods, also con-
nects intimately with such questions of primi-
tive origins and beliefs as fall stnctlv under the
head of folklore (q v ) The origin and de-
velopment of types or genres, as for example
the ballad, pastoral, or drama, are also fre-
quentlv subjects of graduate instruction and
investigation, as well as the consideration of
more specific features in a type, such as the
monologue in drama, or the refrain in ballad
The number of questions similar to these which
may be made the subject of graduate investi-
gation is manifestly unlimited, and the value
of such investigations in clearing away un-
certain or disputed matters of literary scholar-
ship can hardly be questioned On the other
hand, perhaps it is only fair to say that the
modern graduate study of English literature,
paitly because of the demand for scientific
method, is exposed to the danger of resting
content with an and Alexandrian scholarship
which may obscure the student's view of what
he rightly regaids as the chief value of litera-
ture, its power of inspiring and pleasing In
default of any definite and substantial knowl-
edge of the psychology of aesthetics, a knowl-
edge which the literary student can hardly be
expected to furnish to the A\orld, one \\hole
side of the study of literature, except to borne
extent from the historical point of view, is
largely neglected in the graduate school, and
that is the side of literary criticism Moreover,
in the graduate school even moie than in the
college, there are evidences of a disinclination
to encourage or in any way to take account of
original imaginative composition. The gradu-
ate study of English literature, as is quite ob-
vious, is still strongly under the influence of
the methods of study employed in the natural
sciences; and as the botanist does not invent
the plant to analyze, so the student of English
literature need concern himself, as the botanist-
does, only with the data furnished him But
there IH certainly a false parallelism here, and
the conception of the university study of lit-
erature should be broad enough to include the
man of constructive, imaginative temperament
as well as the one of analytic and scientific
bent of mind

Although for the purpose of this survey the
graduate study of English literature has 'been
detached from other branches of English study,
in the actual practice and organization of gradu-
ate schools no such clear separation is made
Students who are candidates for a higher degree

LITERATURE, ENGLISH

LIVERPOOL UNIVERSITY

arc not entered as candidates for a degree in
English literature or English language specifi-
cally, but merely as candidates for a degree in
English. It is assumed that graduate students
will have a comprehensive interest in the whole
subject, and students whose inclinations are
mainly in the direction of hleraiv studies are
requirqd to take a certain amount of work in
the English language, just as students special-
izing in linguistics are requned to take some
courses in English literature In the admin-
istration of details there is natuiallv considci-
able divergence among the various universities
At some places all students, whether then
special work is in language or lit (Mature, aie
required to take comses in (lothic and Old
French, besides courses which deal more di-
rectly with t lie history of the English language
At others, students who intend to devote4 then
time primarily to literature are not icquiicd to
take Gothic and Old Fiench It is mamiesth
coritraiy to the spmt of giaduate studv to
impose a rigid cuinculum upon all studenK
and the effort is usually made to adapt the
formal woik of students to then indmdual
needs and abilities In the admimstiation of
final tests and examinations the gieatest vai iet\
is to be found in the piactice of the dilfeient
universities, such questions being fi cement I \
left to the discretion of the mdmdual depart-
ments In the (Jeiman universities and in
some of the Amenc.in uimersitics no exaimn i-
tions arc held until the candidate is leadv to
stand for his hnals, ])ieliminai\ to the awdiding
of the degree, at which tune the examination
is not on .specific couises, hut on the subject in
geneial Hut sometimes in the Amencaii um-
\eisities course examinations as u ell as iinal
examinations are held and the lequiieinent is
made that students shall do " distinguished
work in then courses before thev shall be pei-
mitted to piocced in their eandidacv foi ,i
degiec This applies especially to the candi-
dates for the master's degree, which is some-
times awaided, as at Harvard l-nnersiU, for
woik of a ceitain giade in a specified number
and grouping of courses Sometimes, ho\\eA ei ,
as in the English department at Columbia
Universitv, in addition to the woik in courses,
the candidate for the master's degiee is le-
quired to piesent an essav which shall embody
the results of a thorough investigation of some
subject earned on in connection \vith one of
his courses Candidates for the doctoi's
degree, on the other hand, are alwavs lequned
to present a dissertation OT thesis, \\hich shall
gne evidence of ability to carry out investiga-
tions with scholarly method, and which also
contributes in some degree to the knowledge
of the subject winch the writer undei takes to
investigate In the German universities this
dissertation must alwavs be printed and ac-
cessible to the public before the degiee is con-
ferred; in some of the American mm ersities,
as at Columbia, Johns Hopkins, and otheis, a

similar regulation is enforced; but at otheis, for
example, Harvard University, the candidate is
not required to print and publish his doctor's
disseitation O P K

See LANGUAGE, ENGLISH, HISTORY OF STUDY
OF, also ANGLO SAXON, COMPOSITION, FOLK
LORE; LITERATURE, COMPARATIVE, PHILOLOGY,
RHETORIC, VERN\ruL\R, STUDY OF

References . —

In Ehmuitiiru and Suondaty Schools —
CvKi'nvTMt, BAKFK .ind SCOTT The Tf aching of Eng-

/M/; (New York, 1'MH )
CHITBH, P The T«uhing of English (Now York,

!<)()!> )
COLBY, ,T Literature and Lift in tichool (Boston,

1900 )
C\>\, J H Literature in th( Common Hchool* (Hobton,

1908 )
MxK'iJNrocK, P L Littiatuic in UK Elemfntan/

Hthool (Chicago, 100S )
SrroDKK, H E Literature in the tfdiools (Boston,

1 SSS )

In College and ('ninet >>ity —

B\iis \HLO 7WA s on UK Studtj of Litciatnit (Bos-
ton, 1(K)7 )

7V///,s <>n Tuiilntm Lttuotnic (Button, l'K)t» )
foitsov, HIHVM Vh( [tnt of Litunnj Study (Nt"W

Voik IV).'))
EKSMVP , Jonv LOnehsh in the College Course, AV/MC

A'*/' \ol XL, Noxombri, 191(1
Fiitm (' H 7 h< Sthool of English Languagt and

LiliHituu ("ontuns further bibliography of dis-

f usmon of (Ins subj<M 1 in lOn^land (Oxford, 101)0 )
JOWFII, B Introduction to his translations of the

J)i<i/of/t«^ of I'i.ito v tillable for their ^cnoi.il

< oiniiKMits on th< subject of htciature and the

t( a< IniiK of it
MORIJ Y, JOHN () n lf« Study of Literatun (London,

IShT )
PHK L, T }{ Laiitfu »««' and Lite idtuit, Edw Kcv ,

Vol XI .Ianuai\, 1S<M>
T/te Xeir Fnnftion of Modern Lannuagi Teaching,

Public ations ol Modern Language AaHOCiation of

Anienoi, Vol X\ 1, pp 77 ff

LITERATURE, INSTRUCTION IN —

Srr (iR \MMAR L\N(JU\(iE, ENGLISH, LlT-
ERVTURE, ClIUA)H10\'s, LITERATURE, CoM-
P\R \T1VE, (iREEK JjANCJUACiK \ND LlTEKATMlE,

LATIN LVNGVVGE VM> LITERATURE, ORIENTAL
L\\(;u\(iE \M> LITERATURE, PHILOLOGY,

lillETORIC, Olc

LITTLE SCHOOLS — Src J>ORT HOY \LKSTS

LIVERPOOL UNIVERSITY, LIVERPOOL,
ENGLAND — Our of tho rm»n1h established
English uinv(Msi1ies, foundefi in 1SS1, as the
I'nnersitv College of Liv(M*])ool, and opened in
the following veai \\ith chairs in the general
nils .ind M'lenee subjects The relations bf4-
t \\een th(* locnl city government and the uni-
Aersitv \\eie strong fioin tho })eginning In
18X2 the citv council purchased lands and
buildings foi the college* In 1883-1884 money
\\as inised to put the college on a university
basis, and the Royal Infirmary School of Medi-
cine became a part of University College.
Hitherto the students were presented for de-
gices before such bodies as held external exam-
inations In 1884 the Umveisity College

LIVERPOOL UNIVERSITY

LOBACHEVSKI

became a constituent part of the Victoria
University, of which Owens College, Man-
chester, and Yorkshire College, Leeds, were the
other members From this period on remark-
able progress was made, due to the generosity
and local interest in the welfare of the institu-
tion Fellowships and scholarships were en-
dowed, laboi atones were provided and
equipped m different departments, an ath-
letic field was presented, 1S91-1892, new build-
ing plans were entered upon in 18X7-1SS8, the
library was extended in 1893-1894 In 1895-
1896 the first principal, Mr (} H Hendall,
retired and was succeeded by Mr R T (ila/e-
brook In 1897 a school of commerce and a
school of hygiene were established In 1898
the school of tropical medicine, and in 1898-
1899 a professorship of education, were added
In 1899 Mr Glazebrook was succeeded by Mr.
A W W Dale, the present Vice-Chancelloi
With the opening of the new century an active
movement was set on foot to separate from the
Victoria University and to establish an inde-
pendent University of Liverpool The plans
met with remarkable enthusiasm among the
citizens, money was quickly raised, the city
council and other local bodies came to the active
assistance, and in 1903 a charter was obtained
to establish the university Since thai time
the institution has made great progress, and
while the other neighboring universities are
developing mainly, perhaps, along scientific
lines, Liveipool has continued to strengthen its
arts faculty and to develop on the cultural side
The following departments may be mentioned
Celtic (with which Professor Kuno Meyer was
until recently connected) , paleography and
diplomatics, social anthropology, ethnology,
archaeology (classical and medieval), civic de-
sign, town planning, etc , local history and
records, school of social science and of tiammg
for social work The total number of faculties
is five: arts, science, law, engineering, and
medicine (including hygiene, dental surgery,
pharmacy, veterinary medicine and surgery,
and tropical medicine) There are also a de-
partment of education and a university tram-
ing college Affiliated with the university are
St Aldan's College, Rirkenhead, Edge' Hill
Training College, arid Mount Pleasant Training
College A strong department of University
Extension, providing general lectures to the
public, and also instruction of a specialized
character, is conducted by the Society for Uni-
versity Extension in Liverpool and District
In connection with the courses in this work
traveling libraries are issued The govern-
ment of the university is in the hands of the
Court, the University Council is the executive
body, the Senate regulates the academic work;
and Convocation is the body representing the
graduates of the university The University
is maintained by endowments, grants from
the Treasury, city council, and other local
bodies, fees, etc There is an active student

66

life, which centers round the Guild of Under-
graduates and numerous sectional societies and
clubs The instructing staff m 1911-1912 num-
bered 219, and the student enrollment was 1078
in day classes and 274 in evening classes

References : —

BKKNNRK, C S Liverpool University J of Educ.

(London ) Vol XXX, pp 172-174
England, Board of Education lit ports from Universities

and Untottsity Collew* (London, 1910)
Liverpool University CollYtfr Calendar, 1902 1903

LLOYD, RICHARD ( 1 595-1659) — A royal-
ist clergyman and master of a private school at
Oxford He matnculated at Oxford from
Onel College and commenced ]i D in lb'2S
As a writer on education Lloyd shows distinct
merit in his long-titled work in one volume
(1) The tichoole-Maxtctk Auxihaiiet* To remove
the Barbarians Siege from Athene, Advanced
under two Guide* The fird, lead nig by Rule
and Reason to read and write English dexter-
ously The second, denoting the Latinc Tongue
in PUM and Verse to its ju*t Inlargcment,
Splendor and Elegancy (London, 1054.) (2)
Arfi\ Poet i cce, Muxarutn Candidate Addi*-
ccndw, formula recent* et dductda (1653 )
Lloyd takes great pains over the letters He
takes pains also in showing the powei of letters,
e q " a the deaf man's answer, b that doth make
the honey/' and so on He pays attention
to anomalies in English spelling, and suggests
rules for right spelling lie advocates short les-
sons, slow and sure progress, care in the begin-
ning of a subject, he requires scholars them-
selves to communicate knowledge to then
fellows, from which masters may themselves
gather hints, he treats of emulation, retri-
bution by way of encouiagement and by
way of discouragement He deals \vith rec-
reation, the correction of evil manners, and
the removal of truants His mles of art in
writing are one of the best accounts of the
teaching of writing in schools at the time
The first part ol the book, teaching to read
and write English dexterously, occupies 54
pages, the Latin grammar which follows con-
tains 153 pages; and the ;l//>.s poctica1 formula,
64 pageh Another edition of the Kchooh-Ma*-
tet s A u ctliai iev was published in 1059 F W

Reference : —

Dictionary of National Bioginphy Vol XXX1I1, p 431

LISBON, UNIVERSITY OF.— ScePoRTUGAL,
EDUCATION IN,

LOBACHEVSKI, NICOLAI IVANOVICH

- A Russian mathematician born at Nijm
Novgorod in 1793, died at Kasan in 1856 He
\vas one of the first to consider the essential
nature of the celebrated fifth postulate of
Euclid, \\luchstates (in substance) that through
a given point only one line can be drawn par-
allel to a given line He showed that it is
possible to create a geometry, perfectly scion-

LOCAL EXAMINATIONS

LOCI

tific in itself, in which this postulate is domed
This gave rise to one of the group oi non-
Euclidean geometries (See PARALLEL LINES )
Lobachevski published several works and
memoirs on geometry and astronomv His
theory of parallels has not influenced the ele-
mentary treatment of geometry, and with Iho
present tendency to make the subject less specu-
lative it is not liable to do so It has had great
influence, however, upon the study of higher
mathematics D E. S

LOCAL EXAMINATIONS, ENGLAND

— See EXAMINATIONS; LEAVING CERTIFIC\TES

LOCAL SIGN — Lotze called attention to
the fact that every point on the skin when
stimulated gives rise to a tactual sensation
which has, in addition to its major quality, a
peculiar characteristic, due to the point of ap-
plication of the stimulus Thus, the same
stimulus when applied to the palm of the hand
and to the back of the hand, gives rise to sen-
sations which are alike in general quality In
the two cases, however, there is a slight quali-
tative character due to the point of applica-
tion This difference due to the point of ap-
plication is known as the local sign It is
important in the development of ideas of
tactual space, such ideas depending pri-
marily on the systematic arrangement of local
Kigns m series The local signs of the
retina have boon descnlx^d very fulh bv
Wundt It is a well-known fact that the
same color stimulus applied to the centei of
the retina and to the periphery will produce
qualitatively different sensations In geneial,
the external portions of the retina are coloi-
blind, and especially sensitive to changes in
brightness In recognizing colored surfaces
these qualitative differences are not recognized
as differences in color, but as differences in
space The surface is seen as uniform in color
and extended The qualitative differences
are thus converted into the percept of exten-
sion Such an interpretation of qualitative
differences into spatial characteristics is full
justification for Lotze's description of local
signs C II J

References : —

LOTZE, R H Medtnrnsche Psychologic (dottiiwn,

1896)
WUNDT, W Outline* of Psychology (New York, 1(M)J )

LOCALIZATION OF FUNCTIONS

See NERVOUS SYSTEM

LOCATION, SENSE OF -- The jib.hU
to recognize directions reaches a ven high
state of development in certain animals, and
m certain human beings, especially those who
arc deprived of the sense of sight Hence^it
has been regarded as a separate sense Ex-
periments with rats that haAe been deprived
>f their senses seem to indicate that these

animals at least are guided in then movements
by a general recognition of direction which is
probably muscular in type That is, they
acquire1 a certain set of muscular adjustments,
and are guided bv these adjustments Certain
animals, such as carrier pigeons, mav make
use of the semicirculai canals (see STATIC
SENSE) which from their structure seem suited
to indicate changes in direction The blind
probably cultivate a high degree of attention
to their muscle sensations, and also to the
minor indications of position through the sense
of touch which normal persons neglect

The general psychological problem of the
recognition of location is discussed under the
topic " space perception," where it is shown
that space-perception is not due to the activity
of a single sense, but to the perceptual fusion
of mariv sensations C. H J

Seo SPACE, PSYCHOLOGY OF.

LOCATUS — A term denoting the assistant
teacher or usher in the schools of the Middle
Ages The word was fonnerly derived from
the Latin locare, to hire, this term \\as, how-
ever, not used of teachers, and the word loca-
tor ex is found by the side of locati in some 01-
dmances It seems, therefore, probable that
the term denoted master or teacher of a sec-
tion or division, locu\, loca, Lokatieji (See
Monumcnta Germanm J'cedagogica, Vol I,
p xliii ) The locati were usually recruited
from among wandering students or bacchants
(qv), or the oldei pupils of a school They
were engaged and were dependent on the Rector,
who was himself engaged in town schools bv
the town council As mav be expected, in
most cases the locati were as shiftless and un-
reliable as most of the members of their class
Some, howevei, seized the opportunities af-
forded by their engagement to study Only
in rare cases did thev hold their positions for
longer than a year

References : —

MONROE, P Thomas Platter (New York, 1904)
REifKh, K Do Lrhrer in der deutscfien Vergangenheit
(Leipzig, 1901 )

LOCI - If a point m a plane is subjected to
a single condition, it may occupy an infinite
nuinbei of positions which follow one another
in general in a continuous manner, and in this
ease then aggregate (ensemble) constitutes the
geometric locus of points satisfying this con-
dition, to the exclusion of all points which do
not satisfy it For example, if the condition
is that a point in a plane shall be two inches
from a fixed point of the plane, the locus is
e\idently a circle (circumference) Similarly
we1 may have loci in space of three dimensions,
a locus in that case being in general a surface

As an educational matter the question arises
as to when the subject of loci should be in-
troduced into geometrv, and how far it should
be carried There have been and still are those

57

LOCKE, JOHN

LOCKE, JOHN

who wish to introduce it early, and there are
others who wish to treat it very extensively

In general, however, it has been recognized
that the subject is one of relatively recent de-
velopment in the history of geometry, and that
it requires relatively greater powers of ab-
straction than the study of the other funda-
mental concepts of the subject, such as the
congruance of triangles. On this account it
is generally placed not earlier than the end of
the first, book of a geometry arranged on the
Euclidean model While it is a very extensive
subject, it is felt that it does not lead to the
definite and usable lesults that, chaiactenze
the geometry that has been mhented from
Euclid and Legendre, arid that therefore the
place for elaborate treatment is in the general
literature that a mathematician should study
rather than in a textbook on the elements
When the student reaches analytic geometry
((j /' ), he necessarily takes up an extended treat-
ment of the subject, since comes are usually
studied at present as loci instead of as sections
of a cone D E 8

LOCKE, JOHN (1632-1704) —Locke came
of Puritan parents andthiough his long life was
associated with the influences making for liber-
ality and tolerance in matters of opinion and
action After six years in Westminster School,
he enteied Oxford in 1652 His onginal inclina-
tion seems to have been toward the Church, but
this he abandoned on account oi his growing
sympathy with free inquiry and his interest in
expeiimcntal studies After a year spent as
secretary to Sir Walter Vane on a mission to the
Elector of Brandenburg, Locke icturned to
Oxford in 1666 and studied medicine, but did
not take a degree His studies, howevei, laid
the foundation for his friendship with Boyle
(q.v) and Sydenham and stimulated his inter-
ests in the experimental method of reseaich
In 1667 he became associated with the iamily
of Lord Ashley, afterwaid the Kail of Shaftes-
bury. Here he acted as physician, confidential
adviser, and tutor The connection afforded
him opportunities to exercise his political
skill and secured for him several important
posts He was involved, however, in the fall
of Shaftesburv and escaped to Holland in 16S3
where he remained for six years After 1601
he resided in the family of Sir Francis Masharn
at Oates in Essex, where he ended his days in
the enjoyment of generous friendship and public
esteem

The complete list of Locke's writings is as
follows: Letters concerning Toleration, 1689,
1690, 1692, 1706 (posthumous), Two Treatw*
on Government, 1690; Eswy concerning Human
Understanding, 1690; Some Thoughts* concern-
ing Education, 1693; The Reasonableness of
Christianity, 1697, Conduct of the Under-
standing, 1706 (posthumous), Some Thoughts
concerning Reading and Study for a Gentleman,
1706; Instructions for the Conduct of a Young

Gentleman, 1706, Of Study, published in L,
King's Life of Locke, 1830, the plan for Work-
ing Schools may be found in H. R. Fox-Bourne's
Life of John Locke, Vol II, pp 377-390.

Locke's chief distinction is as a contributor
to philosophy. His Essay concerning Human
Understanding is one of the significant books
m the development of modern thought In
it the philosophy of empiricism receives its
first important and thoroughgoing statement.
In method and results it was revolutionary.
It proposed an inquiry " into the originals,
certainty, and extent of human knowledge,
together with the grounds and degrees of belief,
opinion, and assent " with a view to discovering
" how far the understanding can extend its
view, how far it has faculties to attain certainty,
and in what cases it can only judge and guess,"
in order that " we may learn to content our-
selves with what is attainable by us in this
state" (Bk I, Oh 1, 4) This inquiry was not
to be based on assumed piinciples but principles
supposed to be innate or the natural possession
of the mind It was to proceed rather under
the supposition that all knowledge whatsoever
is acquired by expeiience, expenence of the
outer world through the senses and of the inner
world oi mind through reflection on what the
senses offer. Knowledge was to be viewed as
an individual acquisition and to be tested and
estimated through the consideration of the way
that knowledge is acquired Thus the genetic,
or us Locke calls it, the " historical, plain,"
method of viewing experience was given its
first important formulation

The results of the inquiry were no less sig-
nificant than the method Since, according
to Locke, the senses mediate between us and
the world, all our knowledge1 finds its originals
in the ideas the senses give us and is conversant
about nothing etae All that we can do is to
reflect on these ideas, compare them, distinguish
them, and combine them Knowledge is thus
limited to the extent of the ideas we have
and to the discoverable relations between
them It extends no farther and can
never carry us beyond the limits set by
the genetic character of experience Yet,
even bo, knowledge, if we mean absolutely
certain knowledge, is inadequate for the con-
cerns of life It must be supplemented by judg-
ment or belief whereby we entertain probable
convictions for our guidance in a world which
we can know only imperfectly^ In all matters
of probability our judgment is influenced by
the conformity of our convictions with our
experience or by the testimony of the experience
of others These ideas are developed in the
Essay with a wealth of detail and suggestion
which have made the book a classic in philo-
sophical literature

Locke's Thoughts on Education, which orig-^
inally consisted of letters addressed to Edward
Clarke advising him about the training of his
son and which do not profess to deal with educa-

58

lytttinut mjhivtor
I ESS d/ munrrm tjGrnam Dll

Ignatius Loyola (1 191-1")(><>)
Src p,ipc ()1 , also Yol III, p ,r) ^

John Lockr (Hi-iJ-lTOO

Joliaiiu Hoinnch IVslalo^zi (1746-1S27)

Soo pjigc G55
A (ikoup OF Kouru'ioN u, HLFOHMLUS.

LOCKE, JOHN

LOCKE, JOHN

tion in general, but only with the education of
a " young gentleman," was not the result of any
extended experience as an educator. It con-
tains rather the reflections of a keen observer
and is influenced as much by Locke's philoso-
phy as by his experience and observation In
a chapter of the Essay, Of the Improvement
of Our Knowledge he writes " 1 think I may
conclude, that morality is the proper science and
business of mankind in general (who are both
concerned and fitted to search out their sum-
sum bonum) as several arts, conversant about
several parts of nature, are the lot and private
talent of particular men, for the common use
of human life, and their own particulai sub-
sistence in this world" (Bk. 4, Ch. 12, 1J)
Similarly in the Thoughts he says that he places
virtue first and most necessary among the
endowments that belong to a man or a gentle-
man (Sec 135) This idea, that u we are
fitted for moral knowledge and natural im-
provements " but not for " an universal or per-
fect comprehension of whatever is," is the
dominant idea " The candle that is set up
in us shines bright enough for all our purposes "
" Our business here is not to know all things but
those which concern our conduct " It in,
therefore, natural to find that Locke legaids
the business ol a tutor to be not so much 1o
teaeh his pupil " ail that is knowable, as 1o
raise in him a love and esteem of knowledge,
and to put him in the right way of knowing
and improving himself when he has a mind to
it " (See 195) Thus, emphasis falls on the
formation of useful habits rather than on the
acquisition of knowledge This emphasis is
reenforeed by Locke's conviction repeatedly
expressed that while a few men attain excel-
lence bv vn tue of their natuial endowments,
most men, nine out of ten, are what thev are
by virtue1 of then education, that is, by virtue
of the ti tuning and discipline they have re-
ceived Furthermore, education appeals
powerless to alter the natural capacity 01
u original tempers." It may mend them a little
and turn them to account and use

It is such ideas that Locke carries through
jn his program for the education of a gentleman
First, a sound basis should be laid bv training
lurn as a child in healthful habits of cleanliness,
exercise, eating, and sleep Childien should
be hardened by robust treatment and not
softened by delicacies and refinements Yet
they should not be harshly managed Severe
punishments and especially " beating " should
be reserved for obstinate disobedience and
untruthfulness To health are to be added
" virtue, wisdom, breeding, and learning "
Virtue is placed first " This is the main point,
and this being provided foi , learning may be had
into the bargain, and that, as I think, at a very
easy rate, by methods that may be thought on "
(Sec. 147) These methods are epitomized
in the following passage from The Conduct of
the Understanding (Sec. 6). " The faculties

of our souls are unproved and made useful to
us, just after the same manner as our bodies
are. Would you have a man write or paint,
dance or fence well, or perform any other man-
ual operation dexterously arid with ease, let
him have never so much vigor and activity,
suppleness and address, naturally, yet nobody
expects this from him unless he has been used
to it, and has employed time and pains in
fashioning and fonning his hand or out waul
parts to these motions Just so it is in the
mind: would you have a man reason well,
you must use him to it betimes, exercise his
mind in observing the connection of ideas, and
following them in train Nothing does this
better than mathematics, which therefore I
think should be taught all those who have the
tune and opportunity, not so much to make
them mathematicians, as to make them reason-
able creatures " It is well also that the young
gentleman should learn a trade, " a manual
trade, nay, two or three, but one more partic-
ularly " and not so much for the trade's
sake as for useful diversion in his leisure houis
Throughout the whole work there is repeated
counsel to consult the interests, taste, inclina-
tion, and capacity of those who are taught,
to treat them with consideration and kind-
ness, and to make their education more of a
natural enjoyment than an unwelcome task
Yet the principal ideas are the training and
discipline of man's natural powers through
the formation ol propei habits, rather than
through the acquisition of knowledge, and
the insistence that man is fitted by his facul-
ties for a life of moial usefulness rather than
for a life of inquisitive research into all that
is knowable

As alieady noted, the Thought* concerns pri-
marily the education of a gentleman, and nearly
all Locke's writing on education has the gentle-
man in mind It is interesting, however, to
discover that while holding the post of Com-
missioner of Trade and Plantations he drafted
a scheme of " Working Schools " for the chil-
dren of paupers The plan was prepared in
order to relieve the burden of maintaining
poor families at public cost, but was never put
into practice JEW.

References —

BALDWIN, J M Dictionary of Philosophy and Psy-
chology, Vol III, pt 1, pp 341-347

BLACKIE, J 8 Thoughts on Education. (London,
1886)

CORWIN, R N Entwicklung und Verglcichung der
Erzu-hungsideal von John Locke und Jean Jaqu.es
Rouleau (Heidelberg, 1894 )

FOWLER, JOHN Locke (London and New York,
1880)

FOX-BOURNE, H E The Life of John Locke (Lon-
don, 1870 )

FRABER, A C , Ed A n Essay concerning Human
Understanding (Oxford, 1894 )

HERTLING, G F v John Locke und die Schule von
Cambridge (Freiburg, 1892 )

KINO, PETER Life and Letters of John Locke (Lon-
don, 1829, New York, 1884.)

59

LOCKERS, SCHOOL

LOGARITHM

LEPZIEN, A. M J 1st Thomas Elyot em Vorganger
John Lockes in der Erziehungmdeal* (Leipzig,
1896)

LOCKE, J. Works, 3 vols (London, 1714 ) 7th ed
with Life by E La\v (London, 1768 )

MARION, HENRI ./ Locke, sa Vie ft son (Euvre.
(Pans, 1879.)

MEHNER, E M Der Einfluss Montaignes auf die
padagogischen Ansichten von John Locke (Leipzig,
1891 )

MONROE, PAUL Textbook in the History of Education
(Now York, 1905 )

QUICK K H , Ed Thoughts concerning Education
(Cam bridge, 1889 )

RUSSELL, J E , Ed The Philosophy of Locke in
Extracts from tht "Essays " (Now York, 1891 )

ST JOHN, ,1 A , Ed The Philosophical Works, in-
cluding The Conduct of the Understanding (Lon-
don, 1843 )

WILKE, G Die Hauptberuhrungs- und Unterschei-
dungapunkte der Erziehungsgedanken John Locker
und . . Rousseaus (Scheirrfeld, 1898 )

LOCKERS, SCHOOL — See ARCHITECTURE,
SCHOOL

LOG COLLEGE — A term frequently ap-
plied to institutions of higher learning erected
on the frontier of American civilization during
the eighteenth arid early nineteenth centuries
Such institutions were usually of academic or
secondary grade, but frequently developed into
institutes of collegiate grade The most not-
able of these was the institution founded by
Reverend William Tenant, a Scotch Presbyterian
divine, at Ncshaming, near Philadelphia, Pa ,
in 1726 The school grew out of the instruc-
tion which Tenant gave his four sons Oppo-
sition from the authorities of the Presbyterian
Church sprang up, when Tenant and his foui
sons became adherents of Whitcfield and the
" New Lights " movement While the " Log
College " ceased to exist at Tenant's death
(1746), the controversy which he initiated and
his sons carried on resulted ultimately in the
founding of Princeton University (q v )

References : —

ALEXANDER, ARCHIBALD, The Log College (Philadel-
phia, 1851 )

MACLEAN, JOHN History of the College of New Jersey
(Philadelphia, 1877 )

LOGARITHM — The common logarithm
of a number is the exponent by which 10 is
affected to produce the number. Thus 10 2 =
100, hence the logarithm of 100 is 2 Simi-
larly, I0oaoi03 = 2, approximately, hence the
logarithm of 2, to five decimal places, is 0 30103
We indicate these relations by the following
symbolism log 100 = 2, log 2 = 030103 In
these cases we have taken 10 as the fixed num-
ber to be affected by the exponent, but we
might take other numbers, and in higher analy-
sis it is more convenient to take a certain one
which is represented by e, and which equals (to
five decimal places) 2 71828 In general,
therefore, the logarithm of a number is the ex-
ponent by which a certain number (called the
base of the system of logarithms) is affected
to produce the number

Use of Logarithms. — Logarithms are de-
signed to aid in numerical calculation. Since
10a- 10*=10a+6, we see that the logarithm of
a product is equal to the sum of the logarithms
of the factors This is evidently true if we
take another base than 10, since ea • e^e41"1"*,
and so for any other number than e. Likewise
we have 10a+10*~10a-6, and (10a)6=10a6.
Hence if we have a table giving the logarithms
of numbers, and the numbers corresponding
to the various logarithms (the antilogarithms,
as they are called), we can reduce the operation
of multiplication to that of addition, division
to that of subtraction, raising to powers to
that of multiplication, and extracting of roots
to that of division In engineering work, and
indeed wherever extensive computation is
needed, logarithms are an important aid The
increase in numerical tables of late years, the
remarkable development of the calculating
machine, and the improvements in graphic
methods, have tended to restrict the use of log-
arithms somewhat

History of Logarithms — The exponential
relation which first suggested logarithms was
doubtless am an=am+n, a relation known
as far back as the time of Archimedes (qv).
Hv the end of the fifteenth century it was
recognized that, in a series like 2, 4, 8, 16, 32

• • the product of the second and third terms
is the fifth (2+3-5) Chuquet (1484) speaks
of it, and says, m his quaint French " En
ceste oonsideracion est manifesto ung segret qui
est es nomvres proporcionalz " The principle
is more clearly stated by Stifel (1544), but it
had already appeared in print in such woikp
as those of Clichtoveus (1510), Grammateus
(1518), Rudolff (1520), and Gemma Frwius
(1540) After Stifel's work appeared, the
significance of the principle, as he elaborated
it, waB noted by several writers, including
Tartagha, Ramus, Schonerus, Suevas, Clavius,
and Peletier Thus the fundamental principle
was known long before the need for logarithms
led to their final realization It was the great
development of trigonometry, beginning with
Regiomontanus in the fifteenth century, that
created the demand that brought about the
invention The necessity for handling the
large numbers found in the series of natural
functions rendered some improvement in cal-
culation necessary, and it was this need that
developed the new system

It is possible that the first idea of a tabular
arrangement may have occurred to Jost BUrgi
(Justus Byrgius), a Swiss mathematician At
least we infer this from a statement made by
Kepler in 1627 He constructed what was
essentially a table of antilogarithms, which was
published some years after John Napier issued
his Mmfici Loganthmorum Canonis Descnptiv
(Edinburgh, 1614). The first mathematician
to recognize the great value of Napier's in-
vention was Henry Briggs, later Savihan pro-
fessor of Geometry at Oxford He visited

60

LOGIC

LOGIC

Napier in 1615, and suggested the practical
value of 10 as a base of a system of logarithms
Napier had not used this base, nor had he used
the base of the so-called hyperbolic (natural,
Napenan) logarithms, which were invented
by John Speidell (New Logarithms , London,
1619) The logarithms of Napier are con-
nected with the latter by the relation

logna=102 log. 102-102 loge",

where lognais the logarithm of a in his system,
arid c is the base of the system invented bv
Speidell

Logarithms immediately attracted wide atten-
tion Vlacq published some extensive tables
at Gouda in 1628; arid these were reprinted
in England in 1631 Faulhaber printed some
tables at Frankfort, in his work on engi-
neering, in 1630; and by 1646 the subject had
found a place in a prominent English arith-
metic (Hart well's edition of ttecorde's Ground
of Artcx).

Logarithms in the School —The practical
use of logarithms is easily taught, and from the
standpoint of difficulty there is no reason why
it should not enter into the curriculum of the
elementary school There is, however, the
question of the need for the subject that mav
be felt by the student Logarithms are means
to rapid approximate calculation, thev are
indispensable to successful work in trigonometry
and its applications, and they are helpful in the
practical computations of mechanics and en-
gineering They are not. however, practically
used in ordinary business life, and the fact that
they require a table renders them unavailable
for mere occasional computations The pupil
does not, therefore, experience a need for
logarithms in the elementary school, at least
as the subjects are arranged in the United
States to-day If computations in physics and
mechanics should enter earlier in the American
high school, the subject could easily be taught
in the first year (the pupil's ninth school year),
and with the growth of industrial classes this
will probably come to be the case For the
high school course in mathematics leading to
advanced work, however, there is at present
no reason for thinking that the subject should
be presented until the need is felt in trigonom-
etry Indeed, for the mdustnal classes the
slide rule (see MECHANICAL CALCULATION) will
probably take the place of logarithms to a large
degree, although, being based upon the latter,
these will need to be taught to some extent in
any case D E S

LOGIC — The science (or art) of correct
thinking All schools of logicians would prob-
ably formally agree in this definition It does
not, however, imply anything concerning the
nature of thinking, and hence nothing con-
cerning the criterion of its correctness Since
modern philosophy has had for one of its chief
points of debate the nature of thought, and the

relation of thought on one hand to existence ana
on the other hand to knowledge, the matter of
the scope, limits, and purpose of logic have been
thrown into the greatest uncertainty, riot to
say confusion By a curious way, this result is
largely the work of Kant, who himself pro-
claimed logic to be the one instance of a per-
fected and completed self -inclosed science By
logic he had m mind formal logic, or the logic
of reasoning resting on the canons of identity,
contradiction, and excluded middle; essentially
as formulated by Aristotle But Kant him-
self introduced the conception of a type of
thinking which was not merely formal, but con-
stitutive in sonic4 respects and regulative in
others, and thus brought the nature of logic
within the region of disputed questions in epis-
temology

Antiquity — Logic was first recognized as a
branch of the higher education at Athens
in the period subsequent to Aristotle The
founding of the philosophical schools in the
fourth century, and the " analytical " in-
quiries of Aristotle, afforded the preconditions,
the one provided the earliest institutional
teaching of academic rank, the other first
gave to logic formal existence as a science But
it was in an altered and much simplified form
that the logic of Aristotle finally became es-
tablished — probabl} during the course of the
second ccnturv — as one of the cucle of studies
(cy/c^cAia TratScta) which every liberally educated
Greek might be presumed to know

A long process of intellectual and educational
differentiation, during which Greek philosophy
reached and passed its zenith, issued in the
gradual detachment of distinct disciplines
The separating out of logic from the common
content exhibits recognizable stages (a) An
implicit logical discipline had lam embedded
even in the ancient " music," which was es-
teemed by the Greeks and defended by Plato
expressly on the ground of its value in organ-
izing and regulating the mental life (b) The
fragrnentarv logical methods practiced, and
probably to some extent formally taught, by
the younger Eleatics, the Meganans, but above
all bv the sophists, rhetors, and by Socrates,
provided instruction and exercise in logical
argumentation, the educational effect of which,
direct and indirect, was undoubtedly great
(c) Mainly through the instrumentality of
Socrates and Plato, the sophistic movement
of the fifth century clarified itself, issuing m
the settled opposition of rhetoric and philos-
ophy, which thereafter remained the staples
of higher education down to the close of the
Graeco-Roman period (d) Latei, at the hands
pinnarily of Aristotle, philosophy received
articulation into the disciplines which have been
permanently recognized The position ac-
corded to logic, that of a propaedeutic to phi-
losophy, on the ground that it deals only with
the form or method of knowledge, was decisive
in determining both its content as a science

61

LOGIC

LOGIC

and its status as a subject of instruction until
well into the modern era With the exception
of the ontological implications of the work on
the Categories arid commentaries thereon, it
consistently excluded metaphysical questions
Its instrumental character, moreover, cooper-
ated with the internal relations of content to
fix its position as one of the group of prepara-
tory formal disciplines, later distinguished as
the trivium (e) With the post- Aristotelian
subdivision of the whole of philosophy into
logic, physics, and ethics, the content tradition-
ally known in modern times as formal logic
became a subordinate part of the first division
under the name of dialectic But the coinci-
dence of formal logic and dialectic was not at
first complete For the Stoics, whose influence
was paramount m further determining the
form m which logic passed into education,
first divided logic into rhetoric and dialectic,
distinguished on purely external grounds as the
arts of continuous discourse and of discussion,
and then divided dialectic into the doctrines
of thought, or meaning, and words (in res,
quae diCAintur, et vocabula, quibus dicuntui, as
Seneca expresses it) The former alone cor-
responds, roughly, with the formal logic of
later times Hence the dialectic of the Stoics
included much which was later assigned to
grammar. Formal logic never quite freed
itself, however, from entanglement with ques-
tions of language, a fact for which Aristotle;
must share the responsibility, since in the De
interpretations, extensively used as a text in
the Middle Ages, he fails clearly to distinguish
between the thought or judgment and its ex-
pression in language Further evidence of
the dominant influence of the Stoics appears in
then important contributions to the termi-
nology of the science (including the name
" logic "), in the permanent retention of a num-
ber of their distinctions and divisions, and
in the instances of historical connection be-
tween the introduction of the study of dialectic
and contact with Stoic philosophers or writings
Two virtually opposed conceptions of the
aims and scope of logic, which profoundly
affected both its future development and its re-
lation to education, were present in germ from
the outset On the one hand, Parmenidcs, in
explicitly recognizing the distinction between
knowledge and opinion, laid the foundation
for the conception of logic as an objective
science embracing the methods of attaining nec-
essary truth, on the other, his follower, Zeno,
in contenting himself with exhibiting the con-
tradictions to which the tenets of their op-
ponents led, inaugurated the treatment of
logic as an instrument of controversy Par-
memdes' principle that what can be thought can
be, i e that truth and reality are to be deter-
mined by consistency or the necessary m
thought, found further development in the
Socratic discovery of the universal element
in knowledge, forming the content of a defini-

tion, in Plato's principle that universal and nec-
essary knowledge presupposes immutable being,
and in Aristotle's formulation of the prin-
ciples of theoretical demonstration (dirdSci&s) ,
Zeno's employment of the principle of contia-
diction with a polemical aim led to the eristic
of the Megarians, to the forensic argumenta-
tion and sophistic dialectic of the sophists
and rhetors, and to the rhetorical logic of later
times

The two conceptions are not as such mutually
exclusive, the factual divergence arises from
the supplanting of the theoretical by some
practical aim, historically they have been on
the whole antagonistic, and have tended to
displace one another Their neaily parallel
development maybe traced, as indicated, down
to the decline of Greek thought in the Mace-
donian period, after which logic as an instru-
ment of the disinterested determination of
truth fell into abeyance until the revival of
learning and the buth of the modern era
Aristotle marks the turning point The cul-
mination in him of the development of logic
as an objective science was followed by its
complete subserviency to practical amis For
while the elder Peripatetics maintained the
distinction between apodictic and dialectic,
it proved to be barren, since they failed to
grasp the distinctive character of logical
thought; and, with the Stoics, who transmitted
logic to the Grceeo-Roman curriculum, even
the distinction disappeared In the Organon
both conceptions receive their just dues
Apodictic (with syllogistic), the method of
strict syllogistic demonstration proceeding froM
proved premisses or from self-evident, first
principles (Prior amd Posterior Analytics),
is fundamental, and is opposed to dialectic
in all its forms Yet dialectic as such is not
to be rejected, but distinguished as legitimate and
illegitimate, and to the foimer is assigned the
place of a subsidiary art In his fiophiti, Aris-
totle credits Zeno with being the "inventor" of
dialectic, meaning thereby " the art of arguing,
not from true premisses, but from premisses ad-
mitted by the other side" (Burnet) Aris-
totle's own treatment of dialectic, in the Topics
and elsewhere, is a comprehensive critical
presentation exhibiting the historical prog-
ress Properly, dialectic is an auxiliary logi-
cal method, viz the critical examination of
the truth of an opinion by means of discussion,
involving the viewing of it from all sides, its
insufficiency arises from its proceeding from
merely probable premisses, or commonly
accepted opinions, instead of from premisses
which have been shown to be true , it therefore
yields at the best only probable conclusions
Sharply distinguished from legitimate dialectic
is the perverted or rhetorical dialectic which
aims, not at discovery of the truth, but merely
at victory over an opponent Still further
removed from the conduct of discussion for
theoretical ends are the degenerate types of

62

LOOK1

LOGIC1

dialectic known as (1) rm//c, which is unduly
contentious and satisfied with the mere sem-
blance of victory, and (2) xoptu^tic, which im-
plies the deceptive use of logical forms, par-
ticularly of concealed fallacies, with a view to
creating the false appeal ance of knowledge,
for the sake either of reputation 01 of pecumaiy
gain

With the decline in theoietical interests and
in constructive powei in the Hellenist i< penod,
the prolonged conflict between plnlosophv and
rhetoric, of which the opposition bet, ween
apodictic and dialectic may be legaided as a
pnncipal phase (the incomplete diffeientiation
is manifest, not without nonv, in the claim of
Isocrates, repeated later by Quintihan, that
ihetoric is philosophy, as well as a complete
education, and gives an adequate insight into
human affairs, while Anstotle, by sharply
distinguishing the two at the same time that
he taught both, prepaied the way foi then
definite separation), culminated so fai as the
Greek schools weie tonceined, jcaxing rhetoin al
logic and the individualistic svstems of rnoials
as the principal representatn es of philosophy
The same dominance of piactKtil ann^ \\lneii
nan owed logic to the <u s <//ss< tenth extolled
bv Cicero, favoied the assembling of the < on-
stituent disciplines oi ''encyclical" 01 general
education in com))endious fonn The lost
work of A aiio, Di^aphttu) tun h(»i nun in,
which apparently eprtoim/ed tlie contents oi
the cunent Greek education, \vas the hist en-
cyclopedic woik in Latin Knc\chcal edu-
cation, the precursor of the cuiiKulum ot the
Seven Liberal Aits (q v ), giaduallv establish* d
itself throughout the Gra»co- Roman woild,
including the pagan and Chiistian schools of
Ylexandna Ky the time of Quintrhnii it
more defimtelv attained the status of a pro-
paedeutic to professional study, whether of
rhetoric, philosophy, medicine, or jurispru-
dence Though the liM of the liberal arts did
not become finally fixed in piemedie\al
times, logic in the foirn of dialectic usually
appeared as one of the disciplines of the enc\ c-
hcal curriculum Both Quintihan, in his
account of orlns die doctruui', and Seneca
( Kp 88) omit it bv name Hut they prob-
ably considered it as merged \vith ihetoric, if
so, the fact is a significant comrnentaiN on
the educational position of logic at the tune

The content of the dialectic of the Gue< o-
Rornan curriculum can be onh conjecturalh
inferred, and with much uncertainty, fiorn (1)
the later Latin manuals, probabh based to
some extent on Greek models, and (2) the cui-
rent logic of the philosophical schools, pai ticu-
larly that of the Stoa It probably included
the principal topics found in later formal logic,
presented in the most elementary arid formal
manner But it should be borne in mind that,
while the constructive study of logic, so long
as it continued, must alwavs ha\e been con-
fined to the esoteric circle, large numbers oi

students in all the universities of the Gra>co-
Roinan world, including, after c 100 B r , the
whole body oi the ephebes, attended less
technical lectures, which, however, provided,
certainly in many cases, a much more adequate
treatment of logical doctrines than did the dia-
lectic of the later pieparatory curriculum

Middle Ages — \Vhen education passed
into the custody ol Christian institutions, the
pnncipal task, next to that of educational or-
ganisation, \\as the appropriation and trans-
mission of an already e\olved educational
content In this process, dialectic, destined
later to become the chief discipline of the
tnvium, was slightly broadened bv the partial
restoration of its Arrstoteliari form Two
modifications made by the Stoics, their treat-
ment of the hypothetical syllogism as typical,
and their reduction oi the categories to four,
tailed to pass into the medieval tradition On
the other hand, the really important labors oi
Theophrastus and Kudemus in developing the
theory of hypothetical and disjunctive svl-
logisrns, bore permanent fruit But this ad-
Nance fell within the Aristotelian framework

The dehnitne inclusion oi dialectic in the
cuniculuin of the Se\ en Liberal Arts insured
it a permanent place in medieval education
(Tntil the middle of the twelfth cent my, its
content remained unaltered as fixed by a
limited number of texts The origin and scope
of these texts rnav be briefly indicated (a) A
less widely known sou ice oi some import ance
was the spurious third book, attached to the
I)c dogtiiatc Platonic of Apuleius, a north
African rhctoiician of the second century, A D ,
entitled DC philosophic intiondltt*, which there
is internal evidence to show was industriously
consulted bv Capella It is a strange rnagma
of Stoic and Peripatetic logic, the discussion
includes categorical and hypothetical judg-
ments, quantito and quality and parts of pro-
positions, their opposition, con\ersion, and
contraposition the predicables (the Aristo-
telian list), the three Figures of syllogism (the
addition of the Fourth Figure was first as-
cribed to Galen, on the authority of Averroes,
in the sixteenth century), the nineteen moods
of Theophrast us, and indirect proof (6) The
influentral I ntnxiiution to th< ('ategonef* of
An^loflc (KtMiyogc) by Porplnrv (232-304),
a Xeoplatonic commentator on Aristotle,
should be assigned to the medieval texts,
since its effect on education fell subsequent to
its tianslation into Latin In Boethnis The
elaborate discussion of the piedicables (qinnqut
roa',^), as tending to equate all logical procedure
with division into points of view, added materi-
ally to the preponderance1 of the Topics and of
the merely formal and dialectical character of
early medieval logic (c) The fragment,
J'tinnpid tltalMtiar, attributed to St Augus-
tine, which formed pait of an unfinished
encyclopedia of the liberal arts founded on
Vano's Diwiphwi and begun in 387, was very

LOGIC1

LOGIC

limited in content, and owed its vogue as a
text mainly to the ecclesiastical prestige of its
author It defines logic as scicntia bcnc div-
putandt, and contributed its shaie to the
rhetorical tendencies of medieval logic The
pseudo-Augustinian text, Categoric dcccw rr
Aiibtotele dcccrpta1, a contemporaneous work,
was conhned to a translation, paraphiasc, and
commentaiv Its educational impoitancc lies
largely in tlie fact that Alcuin borrowed from it
nearly one half of his dialogue on Dialectic
(d) The most extensively used of medieval
texts on logic, and often the only text used,
was the DC dtahctica, forming the fouith hook of
the fantastic allegory of Martumus (1apella,
entitled the Marriage of Mercury and Phi-
lology Written m northern Africa, r 420,
this was the fust encyclopedia of the seven
liberal arts which has been preserved entire
The plan of the work was taken from Vaiio,
while its content was compiled iiom \anous
sources, the part on dialectic being drawn mainly
from Apulems and Vano It presents several
additional featuies familial in latei formal
logic Definition, division, and partition, um-
vocal and equivocal, categorematic and syn-
catcgorcmatic terms, the ten categories of
Aristotle, categorical and conditional syllo-
gisms, the former in nineteen moods, the latter
in the hypothetical and disjunctive forms and
moods With the exception of fallacies, no
chief part of carlv medieval logic is now want-
ing, and, as against the Stoics, theie aie the
minor restorations of Aristotle already indi-
cated (c) Much the most prolific contributor
to the stock of medieval texts on logic was
Boethius (c 480-524), " the last of the learned
Romans," (Sandys) whose numerous translations
and commentaries transmitted to the Middle
Ages the Organan of Aristotle Unfortunately
the versions of the more important treatises, viz
the Prior and Posterior Analt/ticv, the Topics,
and the Sophiutici Elentln, remained unknown
until about the middle of the twelfth century,
while those which early passed into the service
of the schools, because they had been piovided
with cornmentaiies, \iz the versions of the
Categories, the DC niterpictatiom , and the
Etmgogc of Porphyry, together with the cor-
responding continental ics, including that on the
Topica of Cicero, and the original logical trea-
tises of Boethius, all on the whole tended to
accentuate the interest in merely formal dis-
tinctions rather than to broaden the scope of
logical inquiry and instruction There is
one conspicuous exception Porphyry, in the
first paragraph of the Eiwgoge, quite inciden-
tally, be it remarked, raises the logico-meta-
phvsical question respecting the real existence
of genera and species which chanced to pro-
voke the great medieval controversy between
the realists and nominalists as lo I he nature
of unrversals (0 Cassiodorus (< t,S5-r 5SO),
who, after serung the Ostrogotluc dynasty
thirty years, founded two rnonastcnes and

04

devoted the remainder of his long life to Chris-
tianity and to the preservation of pagan learn-
ing, and Isidore (c 570-630), Bishop of Seville,
both produced encyclopedias of the seven
liberal aits which greatly promoted the in-
troduction of the classical disciplines into
Christian education and further determined
their early medieval form One half of the
De artibu.\ (K discipline liberahuw litterarurn of
Cassiodorus, written in 543-555, is devoted to
dialectic, while the De arts dialcctica of Isidore
forms, with rhetoric, Book II of the Ongine*
01 Etyninlogia' the fust encyclopedia in the
modern sense Cassiodorus' DC dialectica is
a confused compilation, deiived principally
from Boethius, Apuleius, and Poiphyry, but
characterized bv the prominence given to
definition, the syllogism, and probable reason-
ing, / ( to the parts of logic most serviceable
in rhetorical argumentation Isidore's trea-
tise, which is mainly a patchwork of verbal
leproductions from Cassiodorus, was laigelv
icspons'blc for transmitting to the medieval
tradition the rhetorical elements in Cassio-
dorus which are not found in Capella

The abo\e body of texts in school logic,
together with the dialogue DC dialcctica of
Alcuin (( 735-X04), the pertinent chapter in
the DC clerical inn in^tituhone of Hrabanus
Main us (c 770-850), and the (lerman trans-
lations of Capella and Boethms by Notker
Labeo (d 1022) of the monastery of St Gall,
constituted throughout the eaily medieval
centuries a relatively fixed apparatus for logical
instruction

From the middle of the sixth century to the
rise of the universities in the twelfth and thir-
teenth centuries the monastic, cathedral, and
college schools were in control of higher educa-
tion Throughout this period dialectic steadily
rose in educational importance Its utility in
the defense of Christian doctrine was early
manifest, and as the great pioblem of organizing
the faith of the Church into a lational system
pressed for solution and diew to itself all the
intellectual energies of the time, logic became
not merely indispensable, it was supreme
Thus a twofold characteristic of the position
of dialectic in the diteco-Iloman period is
repeated it was now the instrument of theol-
ogy, as it had been that of oratory, and now,
as then, it was wholly enlisted IT! the service
of practical aims, since it was devoted to the
organization and defense of a fixed traditional
content, rather than to a disinterested in-
quiry into a body of objective truth It was
natural that in a theological age the artcx ser-
momcaleb of the tnvium should be more highly
esteemed than the arte* reales of the quadnv-
mm (a circumstance possibly not unconnected
with the fact thai Alcuin wrote on the tnvium
only), and within the trivium itself, while
grammar long held undisputedly the first place,
and rhetoric and dialectic contended for the
second, Intel dialectic hist defiruteh triumphed

LOGIC

LOGIC

over rhetoric, and then finally penetrated even
grammar with its own principles, forcing upon
it its tcimmology, MH! eon vci ting it into a
speculative science (litter a sordcscit, logica .win
placet, John of Sahsbuiy) Accordingly, at
leading monastic and cathedral schools, such
as Pans, Tours, Rheinis, Char ties, Fulda,
Reichenau, and St Gall, j)artieularly after the
intellectual awakening which began with the
eleventh century, the study of logic, including
disputation, was prosecuted with much zeal
and enthusiasm, and claimed an ever-increas-
ing allotment of time Aftei the rise of scho-
lasticism, the leaders in the famous controversy
ovei the substantial existence of umversals, —
Enugena, Roscellinus, St Anselm, William of
Champeaux, Abelard, Albert the Great,
Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, and Occam
(qq /> ) were ipso facto immeised in problems
which were at once logical and metaphysical,
yet on the whole the Aiistotehan tiadition
which excluded logic from philosophy lemamed
unshaken Gerbert (r 950-1003), mastei at
Rhcims and at Paris, and latei elevated to the
papal chair, and Gilbert de la Poiree (c 1075-
1154), chancellor at Chart res, aie examples
ot celebrated teachers of logic whose logical
writings (De rattmiahs et ratwne uti and De M'JC
principal respectively) exhibit the prevailing
interest in the ontological implications of logical
problems, and yet evidently are not designed
to mark any departure from the time-honored
separation of logic from philosophy The
latter work, in fact, was later frequently in-
cluded in the earliest Latin editions of the
Organon

Coincident with the intellectual expansion
of the twelfth century, and contributing largely
to it, was the remarkable discoveiy, by the
Western woild, of the remaining woiks ol
Aristotle The Venetian translation by Jaco-
bus Clcncus (1128) apparently did not at once
become generally known Adam du Petit-
Pont discussed the Prior Aiiahjttcs as eailv
as 1132 But it was Theodonc of Chartres
(whose Heptateuchon, completed in 1141, con-
tained all of the Organon except the Posterior
Analytic*, and the second book of the Prior
Analytics) who first introduced the long foi-
gotten logical treatises into the schools This
we know on the authority of John of Salisbury
(Metalogicuv, 1159), who also explains that the
Posterior Analytic* were omitted because of
their difficulty It is clear that he was ac-
quainted with the whole* of the Organon
Gilbert cites the Analytics as generally known,
while his pupil, Otto of Fieising (d 1158),
introduced the recovered tieatises into Ger-
many, possibly in the Boethian veisions
By the middle of the twelfth century, acconl-
ingly, the newly discovered and more important
part of the Organon, consisting of the Topic*,
the Prior and Posterior Analytics, and the
Sophistici Elenchi, had become widely known
Thereafter, for centuries, the two groups of

VOL. IV — F G5

the logical treatises wcie distinguished as ntwa
logica and vetus logtca And on the addition
of the /V/7/Mr,s, Kthic.\t and Metaphysics, about
1200, the " new Aristotle " was recognized
Latin translations from the Arabic (or Arabic
through Synac) versions of the Gieek originals,
which had found then way into Europe on the
Moorish conquest oi Spam, — translations
which weie produced by a college of transla-
tors at Toledo, and included also the extensne
commentaiies oi Avicenna, Avenoes, and
otheis - weie in the hist half of the thnteenth
century a \ en impoitant although not pure
souice of fuithei knowledge of the Aristotelian
writings Latei Latin versions, made direct
from the Gieek, weie rightly icgarded by the
great medieval Aristotelians as the moie
trustworthy

It is not suipiismg that the effect produced
upon the medieval mind of the twelfth and
thirteenth centuries by the " new Aristotle "
was almost startling But the widening of
the intellectual hoiizon, and the fuithei stimu-
lus given to the already o\ei -subtle tendencies
of thought, did not produce a change of atti-
tude Acquaintance with the Aiistotehan
apodictic, with the pnnciples of theoietical
demonstration and of the ultimate self-de-
pendence oi thought, icsulted lather in merely
adding to the resources of theological argument
and in carrying to completion the scholastic
edifice The or gam/at ion of education wit-
nessed, however, one general effect of some
consequence Gradually, in addition to the
traditional liberal arts, philosophy came to
be recognized as providing a second stage in
the prepaiatory training for theology

The founding of the uimcisities (q v )
brought with it the apotheosis of logic The
curriculum of the faculty of aits, latei called
the faculty of philosophy because of the com-
manding position occupied In logic and phi-
losophy, was at the outset a continuation on a
slightly higher plane of the aits cuniculum
of the monastic and cathedial schools The
comparative neglect oi the artes reales, already
noted, on the whole continued, notwithstand-
ing the stirrings of a new scientific interest
manifest in such sporadic phenomena as the
appearance of a Roger Bacon in the thnteenth
cent in v, classical studies, despite the \igoious
defense of the "authors" as against the arts
at Chaities and Oilcans (Heim d'Andeh,
Battle of the Seven Liberal Arts, c 1250), failed
to gain a foothold, rhetoric languished, and
grammai became dialecticized, the lion's share
of the curriculum accordingly fell to logic and
philosophy, and if we considei that the nu-
merous minor Aristotelian tieatises in natural
philosophy were at that time regaided as a
constituent part of philosophy coordinate
with ethics and metaphysics, it would be
hardly too much to say that, for the space of
a century and a half following the triumph
of Aristotle at Paris, as signalized by the um-

LOGIC

LOGIC

vcrsity statutes of 1254, logic and philosophy
between them comprised nearly the whole of
the arts curriculum at the northern univer-
sities. The time allotted to logic, including
disputations (qv), apparently ranged at differ-
ent universities and at different times from a
maximum of about three quarters of the
whole (University of Toulouse, time-table of
1309, exclusive of grammar see Paetow) to
a minimum of about one thud (Leipzig,
time-table of 1519 see Norton) The text-
books on logic pi escribed in the various uni-
versity statutes regulaily included both the
" new " and the "old" logic, the lattei always
embraced the Ewagogc of Porphyn , as well
as the Categories and On Intel prttation of Aris-
lotle, and frequently also the Division s and
Topics of Boethius, and the >S/ 1 Princi/tleb of
Gilbert de la Porree But the difficulty of
these treatises for youths of fourteen called
into existence a large number of adaptations
and abridgments, bv far the most celebrated
of which was the Summuhi' logitale^ of Petius
Hrspanus (d 1277), now known not to have
been a translation from the (ireek of Psellus,
but itself the original of the Greek >S////op,s'/s,
etc , of (icorgros Scholar los (HOO-1464) Tins
work reigned in the schools lor two and a half
centuries, and passed through innumerable
editions The first six tractates summarize
the logical treatises of Aristotle and Boethius,
i e the mam body of logical doctrines known
by the middle of the twelfth century, now
designated as logica anttqua , whereas the
seventh tractate, entitled De tt'tnnnonim />/o-
pnctatibuv (Parva Logicalia), sets forth a group
of modern additions, distinguished from the
foregorng as logica modcrna The content
of the Parva Logicalia offered a premomtoiy
symptom of the coming excesses of scholastic
thought It presented a body of formal
logical distinctions, semi-grammatical in char-
acter, and recalling vividly the Stoic doctrine
of words (see above) When the prestige of
Austotlc began to wane rn the fourteenth cen-
tury, logic yielded something of its position
in the curriculum to other subjects, but the
real loss lay rn the incipient decadence, in the
over-refinement of conceptual distinctions, the
quibbling subtleties which latei brought such
discredit to the schoolmen In the last phase
of medieval logic, accordingly, a pi tori formal-
ism divorced from the test of fact exhibited
those excesses which led to the imnrtable
revulsion

Modern Era — The modern era begins with
the recovery of the self-dependence of thought
The new spirit manifested itself in the rejec-
tion of authority and tradition, in the free
approprration of the treasures of antiquity,
in the new interest in nature, and in the search
for knowledge by direct and disinterested
inquiry. The share of logic in this movement
was not primary, but a consequence of the new
attitude in metaphysics and epistemology

The result was none the less important, the
way was opened to lestore to logic the character
ol a theoretical science, and eventually to
raise it to the position of a constituent part
of philosophy itself Yet these changes came
but slowly, and, down to the eighteenth cen-
tury, they were reflected in academic practice
only after their consummation in the world
oi letters

A distinction should be recognized between
the more elementary instruction in formal
logic, which has been provided foi throughout
the modern period in the curricula of the upper
forms of higher schools (gymnasia, lyeeVs, and
colleges) as well as in universities, and the
larger treatment oi logical problems in advanced
university courses In the former the an-
cient and medieval traditions long maintained
themselves without radical innovations, in the
latter, the development of logical doctrines
followed the main currents of modern philos-
ophy in the rationalistic, empirical, and criti-
cal directions, but produced only an indirect
and very limited effect upon instruction It
should also be remarked that the relative promi-
nence of logic in the modern as compared with
the medieval curriculum has been inevitably
greatly reduced

The lirst reforms were those attempted by
humanists of the early Renaissance Their
attacks were directed against the summulist
logic and in general against the scholastic
Aristotle The character istic levival of classi-
cal authois asssurned in then hands the form
of a restoration of the Roman rhetorical logic
These features are variously exhibited by Valla
(1407-1457), whose textbook, Dialectics e//,s-
putattonc^ contra Anstotehcot, first printed in
1499, is based on Cicero and Quintihan, and
is at once a .xw/<facr rationale et scrrnonicahx ,
by Agncola (1442- 1485), who sought to attain
from Aristotle's own writings a purer Aristote-
liamsm, and whose rhetorical De wventwne
chaledica, drawn from Aristotle, Ciceio, and
Quint ihan, was praised and laid under contribu-
tion by Melanchthon, by Vives (1492-1540),
a true modern, in whose Pseudo-dialektiker
(1519) the sins of the scholastic logic are re-
lentlessly exposed, and whose encyclopedic
work, I)c (liwi ohms (1531), contains a strong
plea for a purely formal logic freed from
metaphysics and based on the nature of
thought, by Ramus (1515-1572), the " Ab6-
lard of French humanism " (Ziegler), whose
Animadversion ex it) dialect team Anstotehs (1534)
sought the reform of logic by taking, not the
Organon, but the innate logic of the human
mind, as the final authority, and whose Insti-
tutwneti dialectica.' (1543), going back to the
Ciceronian ars diiiserendi, merged logic with
rhetoric, and introduced an order of topics
long followed in the handbooks, viz Pt I,
De inventione, treating of the concept and
definition, and Pt II, De judicio, treating of
judgment, syllogism, and method; by Melanch-

LOGIC

LOGIC

thon (1497-1560), who brought Luther to
consent to a new Aristotle in education, who
included the tnvium in the Saxony School
Plan for Latin schools (1528), which laid the
foundation for the modern German gymnasium,
and whose widely used compendia on logic
(int al , De dialectica hbn IV, 1528, Erotemata
dialect ices, 1524) became the basis for many
logical textbooks attempting to reconcile Aris-
totle with the Ramists and humanists It was
perhaps symptomatic of the general antago-
nism to Aristotle that Rarnus' really unim-
portant attempt at a reform of logic enjoyed
BO great vogue The Ramist stronghold was
France, where a long and bitter conflict raged
between the Ramists and Antiramists, but,
favored by Johann Sturm (q v ) , whose care-
fully organized and historically influential
Strassburg curriculum included dialectic in
the two upper forms, Ramism spread into Ger-
many, while among the evidences of its in-
troduction into England are the traces of its
influence on Milton's Tractate on Education
It was not finally displaced until superseded
by Cartesiamsm

The recovery of an objective logic, aiming
solely at determining the truth, came in princi-
ple with Francis Bacon and Descaites With
the former, the emphasis is upon the control
of thought by fact, with tho latter, it is upon
demonstration by the necessary implications
of concepts But the influence of neither upon
instruction in logic was direct or immediate
Bacon's insistence upon observation of the
actual course of nature, his contention that the
syllogism could represent no more truth than
the experiential knowledge contained in its
component ideas, found expression in the
realism of Ratke (method us nova) and Comenius
(Great Didactic, which provided foi logic in
the curriculum of the Latin schools), while
his eloquent advocacy of the primacy of in-
duction, and his services, following upon
Roger Bacon, da Vinci, Telesms, Galilei, and
others, in advancing the formulation of its
principles, were a potent stimulus to the future
development of inductive logic, and contributed
in a quite incalculable degree to the promo-
tion of its study. Descartes' own Di scours
de la m&hode, indeed, appeared in French
secondary curricula after the opening of the
eighteenth century, but of far gi eater nnpor-
tance for logic was the production by two
Cartesians, Arnauld and Nicole, of the cele-
brated Port-Royal La loytquc ou Fart de penscr
(1662), which they based upon a tractate of
Pascal This skilfully written handbook, which
found high favoi in Fiance for neaily a eentuiy
and was translated into sevcial foreign lan-
guages, combined Descartes' rules of method
and views on knowledge with a simplified and
modified Aristotelian logic

Of considerable interest was the methodologi-
cal effort made at this time to deduce the con-
tent of logic from fundamental principles, or,

67

at least, to organize its mateiial under the laws
of thought regarded as postulates The first
example is the Cartesian Geuhncx, who sought
(Logica fundament IK, etc , 1698) to construe
logic by recognizing affirmation as its specific
principle. Leibniz, as is well known, added
to the principle of identity that of sufficient
reason, declaring these to be the highest
principles of knowledge Later, Reirnaius
(Vernuriftlehre, 175C) and Twesten (Logik
Analytik, 1825), among others, made systematic
efforts to exhibit logic as the theoiy of the
application of the principles of identity and
contradiction to concept, judgment, and infer-
ence The laws of thought have come to be
regauled, in a sense not often adequately de-
fined, as the supreme pimoiples of formal logic

The ontological or metaphysical logic of
Kant and his successors, which for the first
time since the Dialectic of Plato exalted logic
to the position of the fundamental philosophical
discipline, was limited in its effect upon in-
struction to the advanced university couises
of the critical idealists and then followers, and
to the remote but not unimportant neo- Hege-
lian movement at Oxfoid, from which issued
Wallace's translation of The Logic of H<gel,
Bradley's Principles of Logic, and Bosanquet 't>
Logic, or the Morphology of Knowledge, woiks
which, dnectly and indirectly, have excited con-
siderable influence upon the content of iccent
English and American unuersity courses and
textbooks

The development of induction through
Newton's Regulcr prefixed to the Prittcipia,
HorschePs Discourse (1832), Whewell's Phi-
losophi/ of the Inductive Sciences (1840), Mill's
A System of Logic (1843), and J even's Pnnci-
pies of Science (1874), led to another line of
influence on academic instruction Conceived
on broader philosophical lines were the im-
portant and educationally influential works,
all entitled Logik, of Lotze (1843), Sigwart
(1873-1878), and Wundt (1880-1883), which
combined with elaborate expositions of the
methodology of scientific research a Ideological
idealism that sought to recover the historical
form of the concept of evolution Philosophi-
cally much less important, but serving as the
model for innumerable English and American
textbooks, was Hamilton's ultra-formal logic
(Lecture*, etc , 1859-1860, followed by Mansel,
Proleg Logica, 1851), which presented the
Aristotelian analytic from the Kantian stand-
point, treated concepts as fixed products to
be mechanically combined and separated by
thought, and proposed the quantification of the
predicate, leading the way to symbolic logic.
The mathematical or symbolic logic intro-
duced by Boole (The Mathematical Analysis
of Logic, 1847), which treated the proposition
as an equation, thus laying the foundation
for a logical calculus similar to the mathematical,
and which was espoused by De Morgan (Formal
Logic, 1847), Jevons (The, Substitution of SUI^L-

LOGICAL METHOD

LOMBARD

Jars, 1869), and Venn (Symbolic Logic, 1881),
has not been academically of great significance
It may be remarked, in conclusion, that the
detached presentation of formal logic in aca-
demic courses is yielding to the inclusion of
the essentials in the larger treatment of the
general principles of knowledge

W S. H
References —
General . —
PRANTL, C Geschichtc der Logik irn Ahendlande

(LoipziK, 1855-1870)

RABUB, L Logik und Metaphysik (Erlungcii, 1868 )
HANDYB, J K A History of Classical Scholarship*

(Cambridge, 1903-1908 )

UEBERWKU, F , and HKINZK, M Geschichtc der Phi-
losophic (Berlin, 1905-1909)

Antiquity —
GIRARI>, P L' Education AtMmcnne au V€ et au lVe

Sieclc aoant J C (Pans, IWi )
CRABBEHUER, L Erziehung und Untemtht im klax-

Hischen Alterthurn, Hoft II and III (Wurzhurg,

1864-1881 )
HERMANN, K F Lehrbuch da gnechi^chen Anti-

quitaten, Hd IV
MONROE, P Source Book of the History of Education.

(New York, 1910 )
VON ARNIM, HANH Lchen und \\erkf des Dw von

Pruaa (Berlin, 1898)
WALDEN, J W H The Universities of Ancient Greece

(New York, 1910 )
ZELLER, E Die JJhilosophie der Gnethcn (London,

1905)

Middle Ages —

ABELBON, P The Seven Liberal Arts (New York,
1906)

APPUHN, A Das Tnviu?rt und Quadnvium in Theone
und Praxis, Pt 1, />«*> Trio turn (Erlangon,
1900)

DK WULF, M History of Medieval Ph iloso phy (Lon-
don, 1909)

KRDMANN, J E History of Philosophy, Vol 1 (Lon-
don, 1890 )

KAUFMANN, G Die Geschichte der dcutmlun I1 mver-
sitalen (Stuttgart, 1888-1896 )

MULLINOER, J B University of (\jni bridge from the
Earliest Times (Cambndgo, 187.^ 1911 )

NORTON, A O Headings in tht History of Education
Mediaeval Universities (Cambridge, Muse , 1909 )

PAETOW, L J Thi Arts Courm at Midurval Um-
veisities (Urbana, 1910 )

KABHDALL, H Universities of Europe in the Middle
Ages (Oxford, 1895 )

SPECHT, F A Geschichte des Unterrichtawebtns in
Deutschland von den aeltesten Zeittn, etc (Stutt-
gart, 1885)

WEST, A F Alcuin and the Rise of the Christian
Schools. (New York, 1901 )

Modern Era

BAUMEISTER, Handbiith der Erziehung und UnUi-
richtslehre, Bd III, 1 Haelfte, Seet VII, pp 131 If

FARRINGTON, F K French Secondary Schools, 1910

PAULSEN, F Geschichte des yeUhiten Linlirrichfb auf
den Deutschen tichulen und Untverbitfiten (Leip-
zig, 1896)

German Education Paxt and Piesent (New York,
1908)

ZIEGLEK, T. GoHchichte der Padagogik, in Haumeirtter'H
Handbuch der Erzieh u Unternchtslehn . (Munich,
1909.)

LOGICAL METHOD — The plan of pro-
cedure in developing school subjects may follow
the sequence characteristic of an adult's think-
ing, in which case current pedagogical theory
denominates it a logical method, or it may

proceed by the more rudimentary and tentative
units of a child's comprehension, in which case
it becomes a psychological method. For ex-
ample, m the subject of primary arithmetic
the child may first master the topic of notation
and numeration, then addition, subtraction,
multiplication, division, and fractions in the or-
der named , or he may learn as much of any or
all of these topics as his immediate needs de-
termine in the first attack, taking up the same
topics again more thoroughly with each recur-
ring presentation until each topic is thoroughly
comprehended In both types of treatment
the final outcome is the same, the peda-
gogical distinction arising out of the differing
modes of approach Strictly speaking, a
psychological plan is rational from the Child's
point of view, and a logical method is psy-
chologically natural to an adult The pupil's
last view of the subject through the psycho-
logical plan of attack ought-, then, to correspond
with the adult's logical way of viewing the
field.

Young children should at first be taught
through a psychological procedure, one that
adjusts to their own outlook and experience
Instruction will then be more vital, but the
teacher needs constantly to keep in mind that
the final point of arrival should bring the child
to see his experience in the perfected logical
arrangement of a mature scientific mind which
takes account of all the facts and classifies
accordingly The traditional plan of schools
is to proceed by the logical order, pedagogical
reform lays emphasis on the psychological
order, the actual effect in current practice is
a modified psychological order It is not always
easy for the individual teacher to keep in mind
what has been covered by a strictly psychologi-
cal plan, it is still more difficult for the co-
operating teachers of a graded system to know
what a given instructor has accomplished for
the child In consequence there is a tendency,
after several special treatments of a topic, to
assign the thorough mastery of u topic to a
given grade in order that responsibility for
thorough work may be fixed at a given place,
arid that the tendency toward scattering and
fragmentary results which accompanies a
strictly psychological arrangement of the course
of study may be overcome Such a more
manageable, mixed order is, however, domi-
nantly psychological in its progression H S.
Sec TEACHING, METHOD OF; METHOD

LOGISTICA.

See ARITHMETIC, UISTOIIY

68

LOLLARDS' SCHOOLS. — See DISSENTERS
AND EDUCATION.

LOMBARD COLLEGE, GALESBURG, ILL

— A coeducational institution chartered in 1851
as the Illinois Liberal Institute The present
title was adopted in 1899 Preparatory, col-

LOMBARD, PETER THE

legiate, theological, and music departments are
maintained The entrance requirements are
fifteen units The courses in the college are
divided into four groups, classical, modern,
social science, and philosophy, leading to the A.H
degree, and science, leading to the BS The
Divinity School confers the degree of B D
The faculty consists of fourteen members
The enrollment in 1911-1912 was 92

LOMBARD, PETER THE. — See PETER

THE L()MR\RD

LONDON DAY TRAINING COLLEGE.—

See LONDON, UNIVERSITY OF J D

LONDON, EDUCATION IN. — Historical

— The history of London education ior four
hundred years is succinctly summarized in one
of the earliest documents relating to it (c 1118),
the introduction to the Life of Becket, written
by Fitzstephen, one of his clerks, who became a
judge shortly after Becket 's death " In London
the three principal churches have famous schools
privileged and of ancient preeminence, though
sometimes through personal favoi to some one
noted as philosopher more schools aie al-
lowed " The three principal churches to
which these three schools were attached were
St Paul's Cathedral, St Martin Vic-Grand
Collegiate Church (now the General Post
Office), and St Maiv-le-Bow Church, in Cheap-
side, to be born in hearing of the bells of which
constituted, till these modern days of dm which
drown all bells, the true differentia of a " cock-
ney "or Londonei-born Many othei churches
have been queried as being those meant by
Fitzstephen, the great Elizabethan antiquuiv,
Stow, in his Kuivcy going so absuidly wiong as
to include St Petei 's school, Westminster, when
there is no trace of any school before 1380,
and St Saviour's Abbey, Bermondsey, where
no grammar or public school existed at all Be-
sides, each of these places was about two miles
from London Fortunatelv a cotitemporaiv
document still extant at St Paul's puts beyond
doubt what the three schools were This is
a writ of King Stephen's brother, Henry of
Blois, Bishop of Winchester, and acting Bishop
of London duiing a vacancy of the see fiom
1138 to 1140, to the chaptei of St Paul's
Cathedral and the Archdeacon of London com-
manding them by their obedience that after
three warnings they launch the sentence of
excommunication against those who without
a license from Henry the Schoolmastei pre-
sume to teach anywhere in the whole city
of London, except those who teach the schools
of St Mary of the Arch (or " bow ") and St
Martin's the Great (or Grand) Just as the
Chancellor of Notre Dame Cathedral at Pans
always gave license to teach school, even when
the School of Pans had grown into the Univer-
sity with its many schools, so the schoolmaster,
afterwards called Chancellor of St Paul's,

LONDON, EDUCATION IN

was the licensing authority (see ,

LICENSING OF) for schools throughout London
St Martin's-le-Grand was exempt because this
was a collegiate church of canons like St Paul's
itself, founded before the Conquest, and en-
joyed as all such collegiate churches of early
foundation did, the right to keep a school,
probably by special Papal arid episcopal privi-
lege The church of St Mary-le-Bow, be-
longing to the Archbishop of Canterbury, was
exempt as such from the jurisdiction of his
suffragan and subordinate, the Bishop of Lon-
don, and was, in fact, the seat of Archbishop's
•Court, the Supreme Ecclesiastical Court of
Great Britain, still called the Court of the
Arches, from having been held among the
arches on which (probably) the Church of
the Arches or St Mary-le-Bow was built

St Paul's school was, however, undoubtedly
the oldest, as it was also the first in London
There can be little doubt that it was originally
founded as part of the cathedral in 604 when
King Ethelbert built "the church of St Paul
the Apostle, in which Melhtus and his successois
might have their Episcopal see," and ''added
lands and possessions for the use of those who
were the bishops " But London underwent at
least two, if not more, lapses into paganism,
and whether we can date the continuous exist-
ence of St Paul's either as church or school any
earlier than 886, when King Alfred ' settled
the borough of London," and all the English
turned to him, is doubtful The earliest known
reference to the school is in a document of about
the year 1111, by which the bishop of London
informed the dean and chapter that he had
granted to Hugh the schoolmaster to hold by
\ irtue of the dignity of his mastership the house
of his predecessor, Mastei Durand of the Chuich
of the Belltower, and also the custody of the
cathedral library, with the keys of the cup-
boards by the altar which the bishop had
ordered to be made for the books Ol St
Martm's-le-Grand school the only specific
mention apart from its appearance in connec-
tion with the other two is in a city letter-book,
on Thursday before 24 August 1295, when a
cap or hat-maker of Fleet Street entered into
a recognizance to pay €5 to Master Hugh oi
VVytington, schoolmaster of St Martrn's-
le-Grand, which recognizance was afterwards
discharged when Hugh's brother and executoi,
Master John of Whittington, acknowledged
payment of the debt Nearly as scanty is the
evidence as to St Mary-le-Bow school, consist-
ing of three entries as to the appointment of
its master in the Archbishop's registers (1309,
1353, 1399)

Fitzstephen's account of these three schools
shows that they were of the highest grade, and
indeed some authors have inferred from his
account that they constituted a London Uni-
versity It is evident that the boys began with
the elements of grammar, studied the classics,
learnt to make verses, including epigrams;

69

LONDON, EDUCATION IN

LONDON, EDUCATION IN

Jien proceeded to rhetoric as in the rhetoric
schools of Greece and Rome, and to logic, which
was destined in the Universities almost to
quench the classics altogether. At St Paul's
school, the City School par excellence, Thomas
Becket as a boy and youth learnt the elements
of rhetoric and logic which he perfected as a
young man at Pans University (aruns igitur
mfantwB (under 7), pucntias (7 to 14), et
pubertatix (14 to 18), doun pater nae et nt wholifi
urbitt decursiit, Thomas adolewmt factu* xtuduit
Parittin) Not only are we told what they
learnt in school, but what their games were
On Shrove Tuesday, the Carnival, the boys
brought their fighting cocks to the school, and
the whole morning was given up to watching
them fight In the afternoon they went to
Smithfield, then a "suburban" open space, and
played football, each school having its own
game, and the elders and magnates looking on
got as excited as they do nowadays over the
games When it froze they skated, and in
summer evenings they walked out to those
famous wells, Holy well, Clerkenwell, and St
Clement's Danes

Unfortunately, we have no such illuminating
document as this about St Paul's or any other
London school from the days of Becket to the
days of Colet We know that about 1198 the
endowment of the school, which seems to have
consisted of nothing but a school and the
master's house given to Mastei Hugh, Becket 's
master who had succeeded Master Durand, who
had been master at least from 1098, four acres
of land at Fulham and the tithes of Eahng and
Madeley, was largely increased Bishop Rich-
ard FitzNcal found, when he became bishop
in 1189, that the mastership enjoyed almost an
empty name, with no, or, at least a very mod-
erate, endowment, and so he added some two
hundred acres of land and the tithes of Hoisel
In 1205 a change took place which reacted un-
favorably on the school The canon-school-
master changed his title to that of Chancclloi,
and in accordance with a decree of a Laterari
Council, thenceforth devoted himself to the-
ological teaching and the Chancellors theo-
logical school, taking the endowment for that
purpose. (See CHANCELLOR'S SCHOOLS ) The
school proper, the grammar school, was rele-
gated to a deputy appointed by him, called no
longer simply schoolmaster, but the grammar
schoolmaster, who was also a canon arid ap-
pears to have had no endowment beyond the
school and house, except probably a payment of
only £2 or £3 a year from the Chancellor
The cathedral statutes codified about 1294
mention only that the " Chancellor appointed
a Master of Arts to the grammar school and is
bound to keep the school in repair " He must,
therefore, have been dependent almost entirely
on tuition fees. This accounts for an interest-
ing entry in the register of the almoner of St.
Paul's, who had the charge of the choristers
who were boarded in a house on the north side

of the cathedral and attended the grammar
school for their literary, as they did the song
school for their musical, training The almoner
writes in 1345 that " If the almoner does not
keep a clerk to teach the choristers grammar,
the schoolmaster of St Paul's claims 5s a year
for teaching them, though he ought to ask noth-
ing, because he keeps the school from them as
the treasurer once alleged before the Dean and
chapter is to be found in ancient deeds" —
an entire mistake on the treasurer's part
The choristers at all events received a good
education, as an almoner in 1329 gave them by
will his books, including his best " Hugucio and
the big and little Pnscian, Isidore's Etymology,
all his grammar books, and in addition his
books on Dialectic and Natural History, in
order that they might be lent to boys apt for
learning (ad xcolashzandum) when they leave
the almonry", also books upon medicine and
civil law So, too, in 1313 and c 1405 bene-
factors gave sums of money "to the pooje
choristers of Paules towards their exhibition
in the University "

In the absence of cathedral documents, de-
stroyed paitly in the fire of London, but more
by the carelessness of the custodians, we learn
little about the school In 1394 we find the
three old privileged schools asking the king to
prevent the Lord Mayor and aldermen from
supporting " certain outsiders, pretending to
be masters in grammar but having no sufficient
knowledge in that faculty, who taught general
(1 e public) grammar schools in the city in
deceit and fraud of the children, to the great
prejudice of the King's lieges and the juris-
diction of Holy Church " As in the case in
the Common Pleas about Gloucester Grammar
School in 1410 it was stated as a matter of
common knowledge that the schoolmaster
of St Paul's claimed a monopoly of school-
keeping in London, they no doubt obtained
what they wanted We find, however, in 1419
a payment ordered by the Treasurer of the
Exchequer of £4 11. 6| to the master of the
grammar school at Cornhill for the board,
teaching, and maintenance of a royal ward
By Fcb 1, 1425, John Seward " scolemaister "
wrote a book of the muniments of the parish
of St Peter's, Cornhill, a copy of which is in the
Gildhall A need for more schools than the
three must have been felt, as in 1441 the
Bishop of London, the chief authority over
St Paul's school, sanctioned the appropriation
to the Hospital of St Anthony in Thread-
needle Street of the church of St Benet Frnk,
which stood next door to the hospital, for the
endowment of a free grammar school, free from
tuition fees, in the hospital A little later
it was connected with the University by the
grant to Oriel College of lands for exhibitions
there of boys from the school In 1446 further
competition of unlicensed grammar school-
masters had taken place, persons not suffi-
ciently instructed, presuming to hold " com-

70

LONDON, EDUCATION IN

LONDON, EDUCATION IN

mune gramor scoles " in great, deceit of their
scholars as also of the friends that put thorn to
school So the King directed the Archbishop
and Bishop of London to provide a remedy,
which they did by directing that there should
be five schools only, the three ancient ones,
one in St. Dunstan's-m-the-East, and St An-
thony's

The opponents of monopoly, however, met
this by a petition to Parliament next veai pre-
sented in the names of the four parsons of All
Hallows the Great, St Andrew's at Hoi born,
St Peter's, Cornhill and St Mary Colechuich,
the latter being schoolmastci of the Hospital
of St. Thomas of Aeon (St Thomas a Becket)
kt The full wise and discreet Commons " were
asked "to consider how London was the com-
mon concourse of the land wherein is gieat
multitude of young people not only natives
but from many other parts ol the land some
for lack of schoolmasters in their own country
for to be informed of grammar theie, some for
the great alms of lords, merchants, and others
Therefore, it was expedient that in London were
a sufficient number of schools and good in-
formers in grammai, and not ioi the singular
avail of two or three persons gncvously to
hurt the multitude of young people of all this
land For where there is great numbei of
learners and few teachers and all the learneis
be compelled to go to the same few teachers
and to no other, the masters wax nch in money
and the learners poor in learning as experience
openly showeth against all virtue and order ol
wele publik," the Commonwealth So the four
asked that each of them might set up a k< scole
in the same science ol gramei " in his paiish,
the master to be appointed and icmoved In
the parson and his successors The petition
was granted " The King wille that it be do
as it is desired," but so that it be done bv the
advice of the Ordinary (the1 Judge of piimarv
ecclesiastical jurisdiction, / c the Bishop of
London, or the Archbishop of Cantcibuiv)
The saving clause was probably fatal There
is no evidence of any of the four schools, except
St Peter's, Cornhill, above mentioned One
of the parsons, that of St Andrew's, Holborn,
died next year, another, the parson of All
Hallows, the year after St Thomas' Hos-
pital was surrendered to Henrv V11I in 1538
It was bought by the Mercers' Company,
the richest of the London City Companies,
whose hall stood next door, three yeais after-
wards in 1541. The King sold it ior £969 subject
to the condition that the Company should keep
three chaplains to pray foi Ins soul, and a free
grammar school with a sufficient mastei to
teach twenty-five children and scholars freely
(i e. without tuition fees) forever The Mer-
cers' Hall now stands on the site and the school
is still maintained But the fact of Henry's
making it a condition, i c imposing a trust
to keep the school in 1541 is the only circum-
stance known from which it can be inferred

that- an\ school existed in the hospital befoie
its dissolution As there is no trace of a
school in the extant hospital registers the prob-
abilities against any school having been set
up before 1541 are very great The absence
of four schools wholly supported and entirely
under the rule of four parish parsons cannot
be supposed to have been a great loss to learn-
ing That St Paul's School continued to
flouiish appears from its master James Carnon
being given the degree of Mastei in Grammar at
Oxford in 1449, and fiom a mot of its '' Schole-
mayster " on the sudden beheading of Hastings
by Richard III in 1453 being reported by the
chromclei Hollingshead Hut it is evident that
St Anthony's was a serious rival and probably
a superior rival In 1472 we find the learned
Selling, Piior of Canterbury, getting as head-
master of Canterbury School one who had
lately taught grammar at Winchester and St
Anthony's, London, and Windiest ei was then
facile princeps of English schools Stow, who
seems to have been himself a boy at St An-
thony's, mentions as of his own lemembrance
among its scions Sn Thomas More, the authoi
oi Utopia, Lord Chancelloi and peisecutoi ol
Piotcstants, now beatified as a Roman maitvi,
who would have been there1 about 1485 The
" Master Nicholas " who was master there in
1194-1495 was probably Nicholas Holt, one
of the most famous schoolmasters of his day
Nicholas Heath, aft ei wards Bishop of Worces-
ter, Archbishop of York, and Loid Chancelloi
under Queen Mary, was there about 1509
John Whitgilt, Archbishop of Canteibury and
founder of the veiy flourishing school at Croy-
don, a contemporary of Stow's, went their
about 1537

Meanwhile John Colet, who is said, though
not on any fiist-hand authority, to have him-
self been a boy at St Anthony's, lefounded and
ic-endowed St Paul's School (See foi more
detailed statement COLET, JOHN ) The chief
novelty in the new school was the large
number of boys to be taught and the gieat
increase in the salaries of the masters, the high
master being gn en £34 13 4 as against the
£10 given bv Wykeham to the Headmastei
of Winchester in 1382 and the £16 provided for
the Headmastei s of Eton and of St Anthony's
in 1443 and 1446 respectively Also it was the
first school, not in which Creek was taught,
but in which the statutes mention it Among
the earlv pupils of the "nc\\e scole of Poules"
were Leland, the first and one of the most famous
of English antiquaries, William Paget, who man-
aged to remain in favor and power as secretary
of state under Henry VIII, Edward VI, and
Queen Mary, and as Lord Paget of Beaudesert
was the ancestor of the Marquis of Anglesey
But the school does not seem to have kept
up its reputation after Lily's successor and
son-in-law Thomas Righteous, or RightwiKe
as it was commonly spelled, took ovei the
school in 1532 Stow, who went to St An-

71

LONDON, EDUCATION IN

LONDON, EDUCATION IN

Ihony's about thai year, recalls how the dis-
putations of the London scholars, which we
saw took place in Bcckcl 's day and which weir
expressly directed by a fourteenth eeritun
statute of St Paul's School to be held "in
logic and philosophy at St Bartholomew's
on St Bartholomew's day and io be determined
at Holy Trinity Priory " still continued in his
time

Education suffered no loss at all events in
London, as is too often represented, by the dis-
solution of monasteries The only school we
know of in connection with any monastery, and
that not for monks or taught by monks, was
in the monastery, now the Almonry Gram-
mar School at Westminster (see WESTMINSTER
SCHOOL), and that so far from suffering from
the dissolution, was put on a much larger and
better basis in consequence of it After, but
not because of, the dissolution we find two
joint foundations of schools and alrnshouses,
founded, one by Sir George Monoux, a Lord
Mayor, at Walthamstow, anothci, specially
praised by Stow, at Ratchffe, then on a country
road which under the name of Ratchffe High-
way, became a byword as a dangerous slum
The dissolution of the monasteries, however,
led indirectly to the foundation of that which
became one of the largest and richest schools
in London, Christ's Hospital (see undei HOS-
PITAL SCHOOLS) in 1553, and half a eentuiy later
of Charterhouse (qv). The school disputa-
tions were, according to Stow, renewed in
King Edward's day m the cloister of Chnst's
Hospital, " where the best scholars, still of St
Anthony's School," says the patriotic Stow,
" were rewarded by bows and arrows of sihei
given to them by Sir Martin Bowes, gold-
smith " The revival, however, could not have
taken place under Edward VI, as Christ's
Hospital was only legally founded on June 20,
1552, and was only entered on in Novembei,
1552, arid Edward died in January, 1558 It
more probably took place under Mary Any-
how it failed, owing to the quarrels between the
boys, those of St Paul's calling the St Anthony
boys pigs, and St Anthony's calling the Paul-
ines pigeons, and " proceeding to questions in
grammar they usually fell from words to blows
with their satchels full of books many tunes
in great heaps So finally they were restrained
with the decay of St Anthony's School " But
in another place Stow attributes this decay
to the Hospital being " spoiled " when one
Johnson, the schoolmaster, became prebendary
of Windsor But in both, Stow's memory was
at fault. Under Edmund Johnson, in the first
years of Elizabeth, St Anthony's was at the
height of prosperity On Sept 15, 1562,
" there set out from Mile End 200 children of
St. Anthony's School, all well beseen and so
through Aldgate down Cornhill . . to the
Friars Austin " (next door to St Anthony's)
" with streamers and flags and drums beating,"
very much like the famous Montem at Eton

(q v ) This too in spite of an edict by the Lord
Mayoi in 1561 " for the staying of all school-
masters and teachers of youth within this city
from making of any more musters or open shows
of their scholars . in rich apparel or other-
wise, either on horseback 01 on foot, on pain of
imprisonment " Johnson, who was a scholar
of Winchester, only became a canon of Windsor
in 1560, and died in 1562

What caused the decay of St Anthony's
School was not its masters, but the setting up
on a far larger site and in much better buildings
and with larger endowments of Merchant
Taylors' School, by the Merchant Taylors'
Company, whose hall was on the opposite
side of the street to St Anthony's. (See
MERCHANT TAYLORS' SCHOOL )

Almost at the same time, 1560, the impetus
given to Westminster School by the icfounda-
tion of the Collegiate Church, and its new
statutes given by Queen Elizabeth, in which
the school was connected with Christ's Church,
Oxford, and Trinity, Cambridge, almost as
Winchester and Eton with New College, Ox-
ford, and King's, Cambridge, cut into the aris-
tocratic elements of St Anthony's and St
Paul's. St Saviour's Grammar School, South-
wark, set up by the parishioners in connec-
tion with the old Priorv church of St Mttiy
Overy, also in 1560, which also adapted Coin's
St Paul's school statutes, cut oft a suburban
source of supply, while a patent was granted
for a grammar school at St Dunstan's in the
west in 1562, though it had no endowment
Outer London was now being endowed with a
ring of grammar schools Kingston-on-Thames
obtained a new charter ior its ancient but per-
haps decayed grammar school on March 1,
1561 St Olave's, South war k, set up a sep-
arate grammar school of a lower kind on July
29, 1561 llighgate Grammar School was
founded by Sir Roger Cholmeley, chief Barorr
of the Exchequer, under a patent of May 6,
1565 Through the master being also in-
cumbent of Highgate Chapel the school had
in 1819 fallen into a purely elemental}' school
taught by the sexton. It was revived in 1832
and is now one of the great schools of London
with 455 boys, of whom 86 aie boarders Har-
row (q v ) was founded in 1571 In 1574 at
St Peter's, Cornhill, the parishioners paid £20
a year to the parson to provide a curate and
also to pay for kl 8 poore chyldren to be taught
I rely in the gramrner Skole called the Ly-
brary " At Croydon a school and almshouse
foundation was founded by Archbishop Whit-
gift in 1599 and flourished considerably up to
1750 when it, too, fell into piactical abeyance.
It was revived by the Endowed Schools Com-
missioners in 1875 arid is now divided into a
Grammar School with 290 arid a Middle School
with 310 boys

The Elizabethan era in London schools was
more particularly distinguished by the effort
made for elementary education That there

72

LONDON, EDUCATION IN

LONDON, EDUCATION IN

was a great- deal of elemental y education in
the city parishes before the Reformation is un-
doubted Chantry priests and parish eleiks
taught schools like that described by Chaueei
in the Prioress' Tale, which, though attributed
to a city in Asia, is obviously drawn from a
London street, in which the "little clergeon "
and his " fclavi " learned to sing and " could but
small gramane " But the parish lecords
have disappeaied At St Marv-at-Hill, wheie
pre- Reformation ( >hurchwai dens' accounts
have been pieserved, we find John Northfolke,
who icceived (is Sr/ for keeping the " quere "
(choir) and the organs all the twehe days in
Christmas, had a " skole house " ])io\ided foi
linn in the Abbot's Inn, and was given 3,s 4d
for him " and his companv and the children
when Mastei parson gave to them a playing
week, to make merry " In 1517 a Welsh school-
mastei was paid £8 10 a yeai foi teaching the4
children then* So at St Maiv Woolnoth,
.mother Welshman, named Jones, was paid
1*6 10 1 01 teaching the singing children In
1542 Edmund Bonner, the subsequent perse-
cutor of Protestants, issued injunctions direct-
ing every parson and chantrv priest in London
'Mo instruct, teach, and bring up in leainmg,
the best ye can, all such children of your parish-
ioners as shall come to you for the same, or at
the least teach them to read English, taking
moderately oi then friends that may be able
to pav " But it was not till Elizabeth's reign
that any organized efforts were made We then
find in 156S a schoolmaster in St Lawrence
Jewry being ordoiod to "avoid his school"
and after that payments for a schoolmaster
The school was often in the belfry Thus at
St Ethelburga's in 1589 ''received of Smythe,
the schoolmaster, for one year's allowance for
keeping school in the belfry 10-s " At St
Margaret's New Fish Street, in 1595, " Mr
Philip Manheld, M A , to have the belfry to
teach children in by consent of Parson Alton
and the parishioners " In 1604 the parson him-
self was to keep a school in the bellry and make
satisfaction, if there be any hurt by any dis-
order of his scholars At St Peter's, Cornhill,
in 1609, the Parish Clerk was allowed to teach
in the belfry At St Botolph's, Aldgate, in
]f>96 the schoolmaster, " using also the tiade
of a chandler," was chosen church waulen
At St. John Zachery in 1600 " paid out about one
Edward Laurence a schoolmaster 7s 2d "

The reign of James 1 was signalized by a fresh
outburst of school founding in London, Charter-
house (q v ) being founded in 1611, followed by
Dame Alice Owen's School at Islington in 1613,
said to have been founded in thanksgiving for
a narrow escape from being shot by an arrow,
Cainberwell Grammar School in 1615, Strat-
ford-le-Bow in 1617, and (lodsgift College at
Dulwich, a belated mutation of Winchester
and Eton by Edward Alloyn (iy v \ a suecesMul
actor in 1619 This was the most ambitious
of all and might have been then what it even-

tually became through the growth of London,
oiK1 of the first schools in London, but the
founder rnairied a second and young wife
before the endowment was completed and its
prosperity was delayed till reorganized in 1865
and 1882 Now it maintains four schools,
two for boys and one for girls, the former with
673 boys, of whom 150 are boarders, and is
among the first of the university scholarship
winning schools in England Alleyn's School
has also 600 boys

The Civil War almost stopped the growth
of endowed schools in London and the neigh-
borhood But Colfe's School at Lewisham
dates from the Protectorate of Oliver Cromwell
in 1656 The fiic of London finally ended St
Anthony's Hospital School, which was never
rebuilt after it Thenceforth there is little or
no addition to the London secondary endowed
schools An era of private schools, some of
them extremely prosperous, began with the
Civil War, notably that of Farnaby (q v ) arid
one John Milton, poet, also that of Thomas
Singleton, expelled headmaster of Eton, who
is said to have had 350 boys in a school in
St Mary Axe parish

With the eighteenth century came the char-
ity schools (q v), which were particularly
successful, as they were particularly needed in
London In that century nearly all the old
schools suffered eclipse, save Westminster (q v )
St. Paul's in 1748 had fallen to thirty-five boys
Not until they were refoundecl by the Endowed
Schools and the Charity Commissioner under
the Endowed Schools Act, 1869, did St Paul's,
St Olave's, Highgate, Croydon, Dulwich, or
(-amberwell recover the prosperity of the
sixteenth centuiy Now St Paul's, with its
600 boys in its new and spacious realm at Ham-
mersmith, can regard itself as efficient as when
it trained that brilliant controversialist, Thomas
a Beckct, or gave John Milton his bent to high
themes of poetry A F L

Sec ARCHES, SCHOOL OF THE, CATHEDRAL
SCHOOLS, GRAMMAR SCHOOLS, HOSPITAL
SCHOOLS

Present Position — The history of educa-
tion in London during the last century coin-
cides with the development of education in
England generally, and will be found treated
in the article on ENGLAND, EDUCATION IN
Until 1903 education in the London area was
administered by the London School Board
In 1903 a special act was passed extending
the provisions of the 1902 Education Act
to the London County Council, a body which
had been established in 1888 under the Local
Government Act In 1889 the London County
Council, like the othei county councils, under
the Technical Instruction Act of that year,
was allowed to share m the local adminis-
tration of technical education and established
technical institutes and schools of art of its
own and aided the polytechnics and the other
institutions providing technical education which

LONDON, EDUCATION IN

LONDON, EDUCATION IN

had been established by voluntary agencies or
by public subscriptions and which were under
semi-public management Further, the Lon-
don County Council through the Technical
Education Board aided the newly established
" teaching university " of London and also the
endowed and other secondary schools within
the county. The aid given was restricted to
subjects coming within the statutoiy definition
of technical education Thus, the London
County Council had to a small extent taken part
in educational administration before the acts
of 1902-1903 came into force on May I, 1904,
and unified local administration by transfeinng
to the London County Council the powers and
duties of the London School Hoard

Powers and Duties of London County Coun-
cil — The London County Council was estab-
lished by the Local Government Act of 1S88
The administrative county covers an area of
120 squaie miles This area includes the citv of
London, whose ancient privileges letam their
historic character and power arid whose admin-
istrative system has been lurgelv left untouched
The county area also includes the ar eas of twentv-
eight metropolitan boroughs But the count v
area does not include a considerable number oi
local authorities, whose aieas, together with that
of the London County Council, are popularlv
known as Greater London The London Count v
Council is the local education authontv through-
out the whole of the administrative area of 120
square miles The city of London and the
metropolitan boroughs appoint two thuds of
the managers of the elementary schools within
their areas, but they have no other duties or
powers in respect of education

The London County Council consists of a
chairman, nineteen aldermen, and 118 council-
lors (three ladies) The councillors are elected
tnenmallv bv fifty-eight electoral divisions
one division, the city of London, ha\mg four
members The Council's powers, duties, and
liabilities include finance, main drainage, paikh,
highwavs, housing of the working classes, asy-
lums, licenses for music, dancing, and theaters,
public health, local pensions, shop hours and
shop seats, arid a great variety of others, as well
as those of the local education authontv The
Council bv statute has also rights of represen-
tation on the Metropolitan Water Board and
numerous other authorities of a specific charac-
ter The Council delegates nianv ol its powers
and duties to committees whose 4< orders of
reference " are parti v executive and partly ad-
visory The magnitude of the Council's opera-
tions mav be gathered from two facts — -it-
spends annually £10,000,000 sterling and em-
ploys 45,000 servants and officers of all kinds
The Education Committee, the only com-
mittee of the Council which sits in public, con-
sists of fifty members (thirty-eight councillors
and twelve coopted)

All matters relating to the exercise of the
Council's powers under the education acts,

74

except the power of raising a late or borrowing
money, stand referred by statute to the Edu-
cation Committee of the Council, and the
Council, before exercising any such powers,
unless in their opinion the matter is urgent,
receives and considers the report of that com-
mittee with respect to the matter in question.
The Council may delegate to the education
committee any of its powers under the Educa-
tion Acts except the power of raising a rate
or borrowing money A large part of the powers
and duties of the education committee are dis-
tributed among the following subcommittees
accommodation and attendance, books and
apparatus, buildings, children's care, elemen-
tarv education, general purposes, higher edu-
cation, special schools, and teaching staff sub-
committees It is assisted in the administration
of elementary education by 18J statutory bodies
of managers for provided (council) schools and
355 for non-provided (voluntary) schools, and
in the management of its own secondary schools,
training colleges, technical institutes, and schools
of art bv advisory or local subcommittees
The Council also appoints representatives to
serve upon the governing bodies of all schools
and institutions to which it makes grants In
the various branches of higher education the
Council is associated with several other authori-
ties, such as the University of London, the city
companies, the governing bodies oi endowed
secondary schools, and the governing bodies oi
polytechnics and technical institutes.

The Council spends annually about six mil-
lions sterling on education — about £5,000,000
on elementary and £1,000,000 on higher As
the receipts irom government grants amount to
about £1,000,000, an education rate of l,s. 9}r/
in the pound has to be levied The local edu-
cation authontv thus bears over 70 per cent
of the cost of education, the national exchequer
bear rug less than HO per cent

The administrative staff of the Council for
education consists of about 1000 officers, includ-
ing over 100 inspectors and organizers There
are four- divisional inspectors for higher educa-
tion and twelve district inspectors for elemen-
tary education, as well as organizers of domestic
economy and needlework, manual training,
drawing, singing, trade schools, and children's
caie work

The Countv of London is for administrate e
purposes (education) divided into twehe areas,
to each of which there are attached, with their
assistants one district inspector, one divisional
correspondent, who conducts the business of the
local bodies of managers and associations of
children's care committees, one divisional su-
perintendent, who deals with questions of school
attendance, employment of children, and the
assessment of charges for meals and medical
treatment; one district organizer of care com-
mittees

Elementary Education — Of the public ele-
mentary schools, 550 schools are provided and

LONDON, EDUCATION IN

LONDON, EDUCATION IN

maintained by the London County Council,
and 365 schools provided as to fabric bv religious
and other organizations, but maintained by the
London County Council The accommodation
provided amounts to 711,000 places, and there
are 650,000 children in average attendance
The schools are open more than 400 half days
per year, and the percentage of attendance on
roll averages 89.5 per cent throughout the year
Attendance at school is compulsory between
the ages of five and fourteen The education
given in both classes ot schools is the same As
a rule, the schools are organized in three depart-
ments, for infants, boys, and gnls There are
a certain number of mixed departments Each
department has its own headmaster or head-
mistress

In addition to the ordinary elementary schools,
there are some forty central schools decently
established) giving a superior elementary edu-
cation for selected children who can leinam at
school up to the ag< of fifteen The pupils are
selected from the ordinary schools between the
ages of eleven and twelve, and in a limited num-
ber of cases in which financial aid is necessary
bursaries will be awarded fioni the age of
fouiteen to fifteen and one half years (Sec
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION )

Open-air schools have been conducted on a
small scale during the spring, summer, and au-
tumn months for pupils likely to benefit liom
open-air treatment A number of playground
classes have also been established in some of the
poorest and most crowded districts of London

Curriculum — The elementary school cui-
nculum, like that oi elemental y schools else-
where, has been framed with the object of de-
veloping the general intelligence, character, and
adaptability of the children, and includes, in
addition to English, arithmetic, history, and
geography such subjects as moral instruction,
nature study, physical exercises, oigamzed
games, swimming, domestic economy, and
needlework for girls, and manual tiaining for
boys Subject to a few geneial i emulations,
each head teacher frames her (or his) own cin-
riculum In the cential schools the curriculum
has an industrial or commercial bias

Teaching Staff — The teaching staff num-
bers about 20,000 (men and women as three to
seven), some 14,000 of whom aie trained as well
as certificated teachers. To fill the vacancies
which occur throughout the year in London
County Council schools there is formed annually
a list of students specially selected from those
who will leave the training colleges at mid-
summer The teachers on the list are appointed
permanently, and arc allocated to particular
schools as vacancies arise

Teachers in non-provided schools are ap-
pointed by the managers of the schools, the
appointment being subject to the consent of the
Council, which may be refused on educational
(not religious) grounds Their salaries are
paid by the London County Council With re-

gard to salaries, security of tenure, etc , they aie
in the same position as teachers in Council
schools

Promotion to the post of head teachei is
made from the ranks of the assistant teachers
within the service, and for this purpose a pro-
motion list is formed Applicants for a place on
this list must satisfy certain conditions as to
service and qualifications

The salaries paid aie set out below —

A< t OMMO-

MtNl-

ANNUAL

IVU\j-

DATION

MUM

INCRBMKNI

MTM

Head-

- 200

X1501

£7. 10*

£210

masters .

201-400

200

10 0

3(K)

401-

300

10 0

400

Head-

-200

1251

4

100

mistresses

201-400

150

8

225

401-

225

8

300

Assistant

Masters

100

5 7 10

200

Assistant

Mistresses

90

4

150

1 Salai\ as assistant f- £10 with minimum of

hooka and Apparatus — Head teachei s aie
supplied annually with lists containing par-
ticulars of all the articles which appear suitable
for school use All books and school material
aie supplied from the Council's stoies on requisi-
tion by a head teachei which as a mle is made
twice a year School lending hbraiies are also
provided by the Council for the encouragement
of home reading

Social Welfare —The welfaie of the child
engages much attention Caie committees
have been foimed in connection with eveiy ele-
mentary school in London, and the membeis oi
these committees (some five 01 six thousand
voluntary woikeis) devote much personal
seivice to the caie of the ehildien Meals aie
provided from the lates foi every necessitous
child at an annual expenditure of £80,000
The number of cluldien on the necessitous list
averages foi the whole year some 40,000 The
average nmnbci of meals per child per week is
4 S, and the aveiage cost of the meal ib 2 18d
(food and pieparaticm). (Sec* FOOD AND FEED-
ING OF SCHOOL CHILDREN ) A laige medical
staff and service is employed by the Council foi
the medical inspection of school children, and
arrangements have been made with hospitals
and with local associations of doctors for the
medical treatmert of children suffering from
aliments of the eyes, ears, nose, tin oat, and from
ringworm The medical stafT also deals with
the cleansing of verminous school ehildien.
Medical inspection is systematic, and some
225,000 cluldien are inspected annually, the
medical treatment scheme is yet incomplete
So far some 25,000 children annually are treated
at the expense of the rates (See MEDICAL
INSPECTION )
75

LONDON, EDUCATION IN

LONDON, EDUCATION IN

The Council also aids various voluntary agen-
cies which provide recreative facilities for chil-
dren out of school houis and during holidays
Local juvenile advisory committees have been
established in vaiious parts of London, with the
object of finding suitable employment for chil-
dren when they leave school and of looking after
them and their interests when they obtain it
Efforts are being made to organize on a sys-
tematic basis the various voluntary agencies
which have hitherto been engaged in finding
employment for children on leaving school and
to secure cooperation between the school caic
committees and the juvenile labor exchanges
established by the government Large pro-
vision is made in special schools for defective
children of all kinds, — the blind, the deaf, the
physically and mentally defective, and juvenile
offenders

Secondary Education — Organization — The
County Council maintains twenty secondary
schools, with an attendance of 4500 pupils at a
gross cost of £80,000 a year It also makes
annual grants amounting to £80,000 to forty-
two secondary endowed schools with an attend-
ance of 15,000 pupils In addition to these
two classes of schools there are forty-five public
or sennpublie secondary schools neither main-
tained nor aided by the Council which provide
for 12,500 pupils, and at least some 9000 pupils
are known to be in attendance at schools con-
ducted by individuals for private profit.

The pupils in the majority of the public sec-
ondary schools are of two classes, fee-paying and
(in practice) scholarship holders, one of the
conditions attached to the receipt of grants by
secondary schools from the Board of Education
being that 25 per cent of the school places must-
be reserved for free education for elementary
school pupils The fees charged range from
£4 13 6 to £12 a year in the county secondary
schools and from £2 10 0 to £31 *10 0 in the
aided and non-aided secondary schools

The curriculum in the county secondary
schools is designed to give a good general edu-
cation to pupils up to the age of eighteen The
teaching staff consists in the majority of cases
of specialists in the subjects taught The
salaries paid in the Council's schools to head-
masters vary according to the size of the school
from £400 to £800, and to headmistresses £300
to £600 according to the size of the schools
Assistant masters receive £150 to £300 (in
some cases £350), and assistant mistresses
£120 to £220 (in some cases £250)

Scholarships — The scholarship system may
be divided into three classes, county scholarships
for pupils desiring a good general education with,
as an objective in many cases, a university 01
technical college education, technical and trade
scholarships for pupils who desire an industrial
training in substitution for the old appren-
ticeship system as a prepaiation foi employment
in skilled trades, and scholarships for students
intending to become teachers The mainte-

nance grants accompanying scholarships depend
in all cases on the income of the parents or
guardians of the scholar

Junior county scholarships are awarded to
children between the ages of eleven and twelve,
and are tenable for three and in some cases five
years They cover free education at an ap-
proved secondary school and in most cases main-
tenance grants varying from £6 to £15 a year.
Every eligible pupil m the London elementary
schools numbering annually some 23,000 pupils,
must compete foi these scholarships The num-
ber of scholarships awarded annually is about
1700 In principle these scholarships mean that
the Council does not provide free secondary edu-
cation for all who desire it, but only for those
who can take full advantage of it Interme-
diate county scholarships, 300 in number, aie
open to candidates between sixteen and seven-
teen years of age and cover free education at a
secondary school or other institution for higher
education up to the age of eighteen The
maintenance grants attached to these scholai-
ships vary from £10 to £25 a yeai Senior
county scholarships are awarded to candi-
dates eighteen years of age and upwards in-
tending to pursue a course of study at an in-
stitution of university rank Fifty are awarded
annually, varying in value according to the
financial circumstances of the candidates arid
the course of study they have in view The
technical and trade scholarships awarded by
the Council vary considerably in conditions
Some provide free instruction in applied science
or art with maintenance grants of £50 foi day
students, others provide free evening mstiuction
with maintenance grants of £3 for artisans
engaged in certain definite callings In addi-
tion to these there aie trade scholarships for
boys and gnls of fourteen years of age who wish
to enter such occupations as book production,
furniture and cabinetmaking, dressmaking,
millinery, etc Free tuition and maintenance
grants varying from £6 to £15 a year are
provided

The scholarships for the preliminary educa-
tion of teachers consist of bursaries followed
by student teacherships, each tenable for one
year Bursaries are awarded at the age of
sixteen to pupils who have attended a second-
ary school for three years, and are tenable foi
another year at the same school At the expi-
ration of this period the student is awarded a
student teachership tenable for one year, dur-
ing which period he receives training at an ele-
mentary school in the art of teaching prior to
entering a training college

Training of Teachers — The Council main-
tains seven training colleges with accommoda-
tion for 1660 students The scheme of work,
which covers a period of two years, provides a
general education as well as instruction in the
theory and practice of teaching

One of the colleges (the London Day Train-
ing College) which is recognized as a school of

70

LONDON, EDUCATION IN

LONDON, KDUCATION IN

London University provides a foui years' course
with a view to the students, who are specially
selected, obtaining a degree of the university in
addition to the special professional training

University Education — The University of
London (q v ) consists of three classes of tench-
ing institutions (1) three colleges incorporated
in the university, (2) twenty-nine institutions,
including medical, theological, and law schools
designated " Schools of the University," which
are under separate governing bodies, (3) thirty
other institutions at which certain teachers are
recognized as teachers of, and certain courses
are approved by the university The London
County Council works in close cooperation with
the university and makes annual grants both to
the university and to several of the constituent
schools of the university, including the Imperial
College of Science and Technology The whole
question of university education in London is
at present under the consideration of a royal
commission

Technical Education — The most advanced
work in technical education is done in the in-
stitutions of university rank, but in addition to
this a very large amount of technical, commer-
cial, and general instruction is given in poly-
technics, technical institutes, schools of art, and
evening schools The instruction given in these
institutions coveis a wide range of subjects,
and as the students in attendance are drawn to
a very large extent from those actually engaged
during the daytime in industrial employment,
the bulk of the work is done in the evening
Some 200,000 evening students are enrolled year
bv year.

Trade Schools — In order to provide some
approach to a substitute foi the apprenticeship
system, which has now practically disappeared,
a number of trade schools have been established
to provide a training for those boys and girls
who arc prepared to enter certain skilled occu-
pations The boys' schools provide in some
cases a technical training for groups of trades,
eg woodworking, building trade, engineering,
and in others foi specific trades, such as silver-
smithing, tailoring, cooking and bakery In the
case of the girls' schools the preparation is for
particular trades, such as dressmaking, milli-
nery, corset making, upholstery, arid laundry
The trade schools in London number seven-
teen, of which the Council maintains eight ior
boys with an attendance of 000, and four at-
tended by 400 girls In addition to these there
are five trade schools in polytechnics, attended
by 250 boys and 450 girls The course of in-
struction in these schools is designed to turn
out intelligent workers able to use their hands
and their brains to the best ad vant age when they
enter the workshops The trade teaching is in
the hands of teachers with first-class trade expe-
rience, and trade methods and standards of
work are adopted

Cost of Education — Some idea of the rela-
tive importance and magnitude of the various

dmsions in the Council's educational work
may be gathered from some of the heads of the
estimated expenditure for 1011-1912 (Capital
and Maintenance), winch are set out in round
figures elementary education, £2,740,000,
secondary and university education, £390,000,
technical and evening school education,
£320,000, special school education, £200,000,
social welfare of children, £125,000, main-
tenance of buildings, 1740,000, books and
apparatus, £140,000, total maintenance ex-
penditure, £5,000,000; total capital expendi-
ture on sites and buildings, £730,000.

System of Administration. — It has already
been stated that the Council operates by means
of committees partly executive and partly ad-
visory Where powers are delegated by the
Council to the committee, that committee deals
with the subject matter in the name of t he Coun-
cil and within the limits of the Council's statu-
tory or other authority; in other cases the
committee considers and repoits on proposals
for the Council's decision. The business of
education is distributed among subcommittees,
who in a like manner " deal with "or " consider
and report on " according to the powers and
duties intrusted to them by the education
committee The administration of the various
services is conducted by departments At the
head of each department is a chief ofheei who
may be called upon by any committee or its
subcommittees to report to it on matters
within the scope of his duties or their orders of
reference For example, the education officer
conducts the business of the education com-
mittee, and is the principal executive officer in
respect of education, but the clerk of the Coun-
cil is the final authority on rules of procedure,
and, foi purposes of coordination, reports on
the general effect of staff proposals (except in
the case of teaching staff), the comptroller
submits a criticism on the financial effect of the
education committee's schemes and proposals,
and in respect of education is also the account-
ant, paymaster, and audit officei , the solicitor
reports on legal matters, the medical officer
is an advisory and administrative officei in
respect of medical inspection, medical treat-
ment, cleansing, and so on, of school children,
and the educational advisei, who has no execu-
tive or administrative duties, reports generally,
presenting criticism or advice on the largei
schemes or proposals which have been submitted
to the subcommittees The education officer's
department is divided into six large branches,
and the staff of these branches, subject to the
general supervision and direction of the educa-
tion officei, carry out the education committee's
instructions and act as clerks or secretaries of
committees of all kinds (central or local) con-
cerned with education

The education acts of 1902-1903, which
brought into being a vast educational organiza-
tion, have profoundly affected the quantiU
and quality of public education in England

LONDON, EDUCATION IN

LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS

The London County Council has effected great
reforms in every part of the educational held,
and has developed and supplemented higher
secondary and technical education into a fairly
complete and coordinated system One great
reform remains A Royal Commission on
University Education in London has been at
work since 1909 It is expected that the
conclusions of this commission will have a
powerful and far-reaching influence ovei (lie
future of university education, and in the
growth and development of an ordered system
of institutions of university lank the London
County Council as the local education authoi-
ity is intimately concerned Theie is one im-
portant difference between the powers and duties
of the London County Council as local education
authority and that of the board of education
of a great American city hi England the
State, while intrusting certain powers to and
imposing certain duties on the local education
authority, intrusts the general administration of
its education acts to the Hoard of Education —
a state (not a municipal) depaitment, and
the State enables the boaid, under Parliament
and by means of giants in aid, to secure general
control and direction of education throughout
the whole of England and Wales The grants
in aid and the contiol an* not always commen-
surate It will thus be seen thai, while an
American city bears the whole cost of its edu-
cational system, it enjoys greatei independence
than the corresponding municipal authority m
Knghind R B

References —

Historical —

CARLISLE, N Endowed (Urammar School* in Enolnnd

and Wah'H (London, IMS )

HAfKLrr, MAHIA Cornspondenn and EPH/<HU rc-
tpichng the ancient Collegiak School altathtd to
tit I'uuVs Cathedral (n p , JS.'i2 )
LEMJH, A V KtlucationtU Chariot, (( \ttiibi uifco,

1<U1 )

English Schools at the Rt formation (London, 1S% )
London Schools In Bcsunt, Sir W Ilmtori/ of

London, Tin ("iff/ (London, 1MOK )
St Paul's School l><»foif and after ( 'olot ArcJur-

oloyia, 1910

Victoua County Hmtori/ of Surrey, Vol II (Lon-
don, 1<K)2-101 1 )
St Paul's School ./ of Kduc (London), July and

September, 1909

LUPTON, J H Lifi of John Colet (London, 1887)
MACDONU-D, M F .J Th< Hixtonj of St Pauls

School (London, 1909 )
MoNTMoitENrr, J E G DL Stat( Intervention in

English Education (Cambridge, 1902 )
STOW, J Survey of London Kd by Whoatlev, II H
(London, 1912 )

Prex( nt Position —

London County Council Report of th< Education
Committee ttuhntittitif/ the Report of the Education
Office (London, annual )

Handbook aimny detailed Arran(jcment$ for the central
Examination fo) Junior County Scholarships
(London, 1905 )

Handbook gnnnff Particular* of the Councils Scholar-
ships and other Scholarships open to London Chil-
dren, together with a List of London Secondary
Schools (London, 1905 ^

78

Medical Treatment of Children attending Elementary

Schools (London, 1909 )
Minutes of the Proceedings of the Education Committee,

issued weekly, when committee is in session.
Organisation of Education in London (London, 1908 )
Many other Reports on different educational topics.
Jteport for 1910, Vol IV, gives an account of the

origin and work of the L C C in education
PHILPOTT, H H London at School, the Story of the

School Board, 1870-1904 (London, 1904.)
WEUB, S London Education (London, 1904)

LONDON SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS
AND POLITICAL SCIENCE. —An institu-
tion founded in 1895 and since 1900 a school oi
the University of London in the faculty of
economics and political science (including
commerce and industry) It was incorporated
in 1901, among other purposes " to organize,
promote, and supply courses of education spe-
cially adapted to the needs of persons who are,
oi who intend to be, engaged in any kind of
administration, including the service of any
government, local authority, i ail ways, and
shipping, banking and insuiance, international
trade, and any of the highei branches oi com-
merce and industry and also the profession oi
teaching any such subjects " The work is
arranged under the following heads eco-
nomics and statistics, politics and public ad-
ministration, history, economic and political,
including paleography, law, geography, so-
ciology, commerce and industry, accounting
and business methods, banking, transport,
librarianship In connection with the Wai
Office a special course in administrative sub-
jects has been arranged foj a nuinbci of army
officers, to equip them foi the administrative
staff of the army The courses in transport
are attended largely by students engaged in
railway administration Most of the courses
are recognized by the University of London ioi
its degrees The school IH, however, attended
largely by special and postgraduate students
engaged in research, by persons engaged in
banking, insurance, accounting, railway admin-
istration, etc , and by administrative officers
in the service of the government, central or
local Students working foi degrees must
satisfy the entrance requirements oi the Uni-
versity of London The school has power to
grant certificates in geography, medieval his-
tory, including paleography and diplomatic,
and in commerce The school possesses a val-
uable library of some 60,000 volumes and 70,000
pamphlets bearing on its special work The1
school issues its own series of Studies in Eco-
nomics ami Political Science, and the Clare Mar-
ket Review, the students' magazine, publishes
some results of the research work The stu-
dents are drawn from all parts of the world,
and about 20 per cent are already graduates
of some university Grants are given to the
school by the Treasury, by the London County
Council, and several public and private bodies,
which also maintain scholarships and prizes
at the school The number of students, men

LONDON TKAPHERS ASSOCIATION

LONDON, UNIVERSITY OF

and women, enrolled in 1910 \vns MVJ(> undei u
faculty of 62 members.

References : —

England, Board of Education, Repttrtk fioni Universities

and University Colleges (London, annual )
Special Reports on Educational Subjects, Vol II,
pp. 70-98. (London, 1898 )

LONDON TEACHERS ASSOCIATION,
LONDON, ENGLAND — -\ professional as-
sociation of teachers engaged in .schools aided
or maintained bv the London Education
\ssoeiation It was organized in 1X72 as the
Metropolitan Board Teachers Association, and
has gradually increased its membership and
scope of activity until it has become the largest
association of its kind in the British Empire
It aims to secure the recognition of teaching
as a profession, and has stood in the front in the
struggle for professional freedom on such
questions as tests for teaeheis, salaries,
questions of coiporal punishment, abolition oi
extraneous duties, inspection ZV/M/S examina-
tion, superannuation schemes, size of classes,
and freedom fiom outside mteifeienee The
government is in the hands of a general com-
mittee of one hundred members, and sectional
interests ate supervised bv subcommittees,
including mistresses, teachers in non-provided
schools, teachers in higher education institu-
tions, in cential and higher grade schools, in
evening schools, handicraft inst motors, and
domestic science instructresses At the offices
of the association members may receive advice
on matters of professional clifhculty such as,
tenure, compensation, salary, sick pax allow-
ances, unfair report, promotion, superannua-
tion, breakdown allowances The Association
also secures to its members some important
material benefits in the wav of cooper Mti\e
teaching, reduced rates of subscriptions, bene\ -
olerit funds, and guidance and direction for
holidays The Association has also been fro-
quently called upon to act as host to groups of
foreign visiting teachers from the United States,
Canada, Russia, and elsewhere, and is ready to
give any information on education within the
London area The organ of the Association
is the London Teacher and London tfchoolx
Review, which appears monthly The mem-
bership in 1909-1910 numbered over 17,000
The General Secretary is Mr. T. Gautrev, who
is an elected member of the London County
Council, and has a seat on the London Educa-
tion Commit toe.

Reference : —

Annual Report* and Handbooks

LONDON, UNIVERSITY OF —A body
carrying on teaching functions in London and
within a radius of thirty miles, and examining
functions throughout the British Empire As
a teaching body it has relations of three kinds
with the teaching and research institutions

connected with it, it is entirely reponsible for
the finance and management of the u incorpo-
rated " institutions, University College, King's
College, and King's College for Women, arid
certain smaller institutions, it has vi&itorial
powers in regard to the " Schools of the Uni-
versity/' thirty in number, at which it " ap-
proves " courses by teachers appointed bv the
schools who may or may not have been indi-
vidually recognized bv the university, and it
approves courses also at other "public educa-
tional institutions," thirty in number, delivered
by certain teacher's who have been individ-
ually " recognized " by the university The
history of the university as a whole involves
the history not only oi the central body, but of
the sixty teaching institutions whose relations
with it art those described above The oldest
university institutions are the medical schools
which have grown up within the great hospitals
For many of these it is difficult to fix a precise
date of inundation St Bartholomew's Hos-
pital, the oldest of the hospitals, was iounded
in 1123, and in lb'02 medical and surgical stu-
dents attended its wards The creation oi ihe
University of London, as it at present exists, is
traceable to a letter from Thomas Campbell,
the poet, to Lord Brougham, published in the
Ttmc\ of Fob 9, 1825, pleading for the es-
tablishment oi a " great London University "
to provide education for the class between
" mechanics " and the " enormously rich."

The college erected in (lower Street, as the
result of the appeal, ^as entitled the " Unr-
versitv of London," and was opened in 1S28 as
a proprietary institution In 1820 a charter
was granted to King's College (opened in LS,'41)
of which the educational objects were generally
the same as University College, but which vas
established specifically as a Church of England
institution The efforts of the Cower Street
College to obtain a charter of incorporation
were unsuccessful, but in 1830 charters \\cre
simultaneously granted to a new body under the
title " University of London " and to the Cower
Street College under the title u University
College, London " The foundation oi Uni-
versity College and of the University of Lon-
don for the fust time made umversrt ^ education
in England free horn religious tests and acces-
sible without scholar ships to students of moder-
ate mopns The university, consisting of a
senate nominated by the Crown (including
among its first members Brougham, T Arnold,
and Faraday), was directed " to hold forth to
all classes and denominations . an encour-
agement for pursuing a regular and liberal
course of education," and was empowered to
give degrees to students who had studied at
University College, King's College, or other-
colleges to be affiliated later The senate had
no power to rnspoct affiliated colleges or rn-
quire into their methods of teaching; its sole
means of control was through its examinations
A large number of institutions were affiliated,

79

LONDON, UNIVERSITY OF

LONDON, UNIVERSITY OF

sonic of them secondary schools, and affiliation
soon ceased to have any significance

By the Charter of 1858 the senate weic cm-
powered to dispense with certificates of stu-
dentship in the faculties of arts and laws,
for medical degrees certificates of attendance
and clinical practice at a recognized institution
were still required, and under this charter the
degrees of the University in arts and laws (and
later in all other facilities* except medicine)
were thrown open, without inquiry into then-
previous education, to all comers, not only in
England, but in the British dominions overseas,
where examinations were held in specially 01-
gamzed centers The university became thus
an examining body pure and simple, except in
the case of medicine Its examinations won a
high reputation for their standard and their
fairness; the examiners were almost invariably
men of great distinction, arid criticisms of the
external system of examinations have nearly
always been criticisms of the system rather
than of the way in which it was carried out by
the senate The charter of 1858 first gave the
graduates a status in the university by the
constitution of a body of graduates of prescribed
seniority called Convocation, with certain im-
portant though limited powers In 1860 the
degrees of Bachelor and Doctor of Science weie
first established, science subjects having been
included previously in the arts curriculum In
1807 a supplementary charter conferred on the
university the right to hold examinations for
women, and in the same year the university was
granted the right to send a representative to
Parliament The senate and convocation
agreed in 1878 to accept from the Crown a
supplemental charter making every degree,
honor, and prize awarded by the university ac-
cessible to students of both sexes on perfectly
equal terms, it was the first university in the
United Kingdom to admit women to degrees
The example of London led the oldei univer-
sities to offer greater facilities to women, and
all the universities founded since 1878 in the
United Kingdom have given women equal
lights with men

The complete dissociation of examining
from teaching (except in regard to medicine)
left the institutions foi higher education in
London unconnected with the unhersity, and
led to great dissatisfaction In 1884 an associa-
tion, presided ovei by Lord Reay, was founded
to promote the establishment of a teaching
university A royal commission on the ic-
organization of the university, which was
appointed in 1888, and reported in 1889, sug-
gested that the existing university should ask
for a charter to enable it to become a teaching
university for London, as well as an examining
body, but the report led to no result A sec-
ond commission, appointed in 1892, reported in
1894, its recommendations were enforced by
Act of Parliament in 1898, and statutes made
thereunder carne into operation in 1900. The

80

new and complex constitution under whicli
the university became a teaching university,
but continued also the external examina-
tion system, though marking a great ad-
vance, proved inadequate to the needs of
London By two fresh acts of Parliament, first
University College was incorporated in the
university as from Jan J, 1907, and then
King's College, as from Jan 1, 1910 A
further proposal to incorporate the Imperial
College of Science and Technology, an institu-
tion itself of a very complex character, proved
contentious, and led the senate to ask govern-
ment to appoint a royal commission to con-
sider the matter The commission was ap-
pointed in 1909 under the chairmanship of
Mr (now Lord) Haldarie, with a reference much
wider than the senate had asked, and was
authorized to inquire into the whole question
of higher education in London The evidence
given before the commission shows divergency
of opinion on many important points, and it is
impossible to predict the results to which it
will lead The commission have, so far (Janu-
ary, 1912), issued only a single recommendation,
dealing with the site of the central buildings oi
the university, which was first housed in Som-
erset House, removed in 1870 to Burlington
Gardens, and again in 1901 to South Kensing-
ton, where it was allotted quarters in a build-
ing once occupied entirely by the Imperial
Institute. The commissioners appeal for aid
from public bodies and private generosity to
provide a site and buildings in the center of
London It is anticipated that their final report-
will not be issued until 1913 or 1914

The university is governed by a senate,
rncludmg the Chancellor (Lord Roscbery), the
Chairman of Convocation (both elected by
convocation), and fifty-four other members, of
whom sixteen are elected by university teach-
ers, sixteen by the graduates, and the remainder
are appointed by the Crown and various public
bodies The senate alone has executive power,
but cannot act m matters relating to the teach-
ing side without report from the Academic
Council, of which four fifths consist of repre-
sentatives of the teachers, nor in regard to
specific subjects without reports from boards oi
studies also consisting mainly of teacheis deal-
ing with those subjects. In regard to external
examinations, it can only act after leport from
the Council for External Students, mainly
composed of representatives of the graduates,
and in regard to university extension (q v),
after report from the special 'board dealing with
this matter There are eight faculties theol-
ogy, arts, laws, music, medicine, science (in-
cluding veterinary science and agriculture),
economics and political science (including com-
merce and industry), and engineering The
faculties were designed mainly as bodies to elect
teaching representatives to the senate; but
they are frequently consulted for the purpose of
coordinating reports from the boards of studies.

LONDON, UNIVKRSITY OF

LONDON, UNIVKRSITY OF

There is a general feeling among university
teachers that their powers should be increased
in future. The boards of studies, thirty-four in
number, include, in addition to teachers of the
university, distinguished specialists not con-
nected with the university The teachers of
f he university are either appointed and paid
l>v the senate, or " iccognizcd," but some of the
teaching work in schools of the umveisity is
earned on by teachers appointed by the schools
who do not receive the title of teachers of the
university A university pi ofcssonate is gradu-
ally being built up, but the scheme adopted by
the senate has not yet been fully carried into
effect, and some of the most distinguished
teachers do riot at present possess the title of
44 university professor " or " university readei "

The university, through its university exten-
sion board, besides conducting local lectures,
undertakes the inspection and examination of
secondary schools, and holds holiday courses for
foreigners

The incorporated colleges of the university
are as follows University College (opened
1828), King's College (opened 1831), King's
College for Women (1881) The following
institutions also form an integral part of the
university the Brown Animal Sanatory In-
stitution (established in 1871), the Physiological
Laboratory at South Kensington (established
in 1902), the Francis Galton Laboratory for
National Eugenics (established in 1904), and the
Goldsmiths' College (established in 1891, re-
constituted in 1904), which includes a depart-
ment for the training of teachers and classes
of a " polythecmc " character

The following schools are unincorporated —

ESTMII IHIll L>

Imperial College of Science

1907 Science and

and Technology in- Engineering

eluding

Royal College of

Science

Royal School of Mines

1851

City dud Guilds Col-

1878

lege

Uo\iil Hollowav College 188,1- (>

Science and

(for Women)

Arts

Bedford College for 1849

Science and

\\ OllK 11

Arts, also

training

depart-

ment and

art school

East London College , 1841

Arts, Sci-

Reconstituted

1 882 and 18 2

ence and

Engineer-

ing

London School of Eco-

1895

Economics

nomics and Political

Science

South-Eastern Agricul- ! 1894 Science (Ae-

tural Collego, Wyo,

iinilture)

Kent

Weatfield College (for 1882 Arts

womon)

London Day Training

1902 Arth (Perl-

College

agogy)

ESTABLISH* D

FACULTIK

Now College
Reconstituted

1096
1S80

Theology

Hacknev < College (( 'ongrc-

1803

Theology

gationol)

Regents' Park ( /oil ego
(Buptibt)

1810

Theology

King's College, Theologi-

1847

Theology

cal Department

Wesley an College, Rich-

1843

Theology

mond

St John's Hall, Highbury
St Bartholomew 's Hospi-

I8t>3
1123

Theology
Medicine

tal Medieal Sehool

St Thomas's Hospital

r 1J(M)

Medicine

Medieal Sehool

\Vestnnnstei Hospital

1715

Medicine

Medieal S< hool

Guy's Hospital Medieal

1724

Medicine

School

St George's Hospital

17.i4

Medu me

Medieal Sehool

London Hospital Medical

1740

Medicine

College

Middlesex Hobpital Medi-

1745

Medicine

eal Sehool

Charing Cross Hospital

1818

Medicine

Medical Sehool

London School of Medi-

1874

Medu UK

cine for Women

University College Hospi-

1828 J

Medicine

tal Medical School

King's College Hospital

1839

MediciiK

Medical Sr hool

St Mary's Hospital Medi-

181*

Medicine

cal School

London School of Tropical

1898

Medicine

Medicine

Lister Institute of Preven-

1901

Medicine

tive Medicine

Royal Army Medical

1902

Medicine

College

VOL IV G

81

NOTE In the case of the medical schools the date
given is that of the, foundation of the hospital mentioned

The number of legistered internal students
in 1910-1911 was 4400, but the actual numbei
attending approved couises is probablv about
three times as great In the calendai year
ending April, 1912, there were conferred 561).
degrees on internal students and 674 degrees
on external students The teachers' diploma,
established in 1883, was in the same vear con-
ferred on sixty-nine internal and twenty-hve
external students P J ' H

References —
ALLTHIN, Sin L H An At count of th< Itcionstt uctwn

ofthi ( mix rmty of London, Part I (London, 1 905 )
It \RN4itD, H Amtrvon Journal of Education, Vol

XX VI II, pp 549-5f>8
LirTLMt, SiuK D M Uim ersitj of London London

['nwtibity Magazuu, lsf>u. Vol I, pp 257, 445
London lTm\ersit\ Returns to an Address of the

Hounf of Common* dattsf 19 May, 1840 (Parlia-
mentary Papers including Minutes of the Senate,

etr )
Faculties of Arts and Science Notts for the

Hilton/ of (>mvcrsity Colle(j< (London, 1898 )
Calendar (London, annual )
Medtcal Education m London issued in connection

with tht Fran co- British Exhibition. (London, 1908.)
SLOHHON, E E l^niversitv of London Independent,

January 1911, Vol LXX, pp 18-31
TH\VING, C F Viuvatsitics of the World, pp 22-,'M

(Nc\v York, 1911 )

LONDON, WILLIAM

LORINS10R

The ReconHtitutc'd UmveiHitv of London Educ Kan ,
Vol. XXV, pp 200-210, from the Spectator.
(London )

LO N DON, WILLIAM (fl 1658) —Publisher,
bookseller, and author, of Newcastle-upon-
Tvnc, England In 1058 he published in Lon-
don A Catalogue of the most vendible Books in
England, ordcily and Alphabetically digested,
under the Heads of Divinity, Histouj, /'////.s/r-s,
Chi/ruryen/, Law, Aiithmetick, Geometty, A^tiol-
ogi/, Dialling, Measuring, Land and Timber,
Gayeing, Navigation, Atchitectine, Horsemanship,
Faulconnj, Merchandise, Lininutq, Militaiy D/.s-
ciplinr, ffcialdri/, Fortification and Fneiroih^,
ffudmtnhy, Gardening, Romances, Pocm\, Plai/s,
etc, with Jlcbiew, Creek, and Latin Books Jot
Schools and Scholais The like Woik never yet pet-
fonned by any Vauetas dcledat London,
runted in the year 1658 London intended to
a dd annual supplements of the year's publication,
but only two appeared (1057-1058, and 1000)
In the history of education too little attention
has been paid to the question of (he distubution
of books, and in this respect London's book is
remarkable The Catalogue oi 1058 contained
30% titles, distnbuted as follows Divinity,
1 (>,'J2 , History, 408 , Physics and ( 'hyrui gei y, 1 45 ,
La\v, 140, Mathematics 227; Romances, 57,
Plays, 103 (See (iiowoll, A Thiee Centum s
'>/ the English Book Tiade BiblioyuipJni, p 40,
\e\v York, 1903 ) Between two and three
hundred books aie included in the schoolbookhst
(Hebrew, (ireek, and Latin), which added to
Hoole's (q v ) list arranged accoiding to forms in
his New Di^corci ij, piachcally gives a complete
sehoolbook bibliography for the period 1640-
1060 London's Catalogue contains an " In-
troduction to the Use of Books in a short
Kssav upon the Value and Benefits of Learning
and Knowledge," written in an eloquent style
which ins been compared with that of Sir
Thomas Browne, and Richard de Bury (f/r),
author of the Philohiblon (1173) (See Dib-
dm, T F ,111 Ins edition of Sir Thomas More's
Utopia, London, 1808) F W

Reference • —
Dictionary of National Biography

LONGFELLOW, HENRY WADSWORTH

(1807-1882)- Poet and teachei , graduated
fjom Bowdoin College in 1825, and subsequently
studied modem languages and hteiature at
sex eral Euiopean universities lie \vas ])rofessor
in Bowdoin College horn 1820 to 1835, and in
Harvard College fioin 1830 to 1850 Author
of a modem language textbook W S M

Reference —

LONGFELLOW, 8., Life of Htni y W Longfellow (Boston,
1886)

LONGITUDE AND TIME — A subject
formerly occupying considerable attention in
elementary arithmetic, and still taught in many
schools as part of tins subject Tt entered
into the curriculum through the influence of

navigation upon commeicial arithmetic It
concerns the finding of the difference in longi-
tude between two places when the difference1
in tune is known, or, conversely, the difference
in time when the difference in longitude is
known Its practical use to the average
citizen is confined almost entirely to a ue\\
phase of the subject, namely, Standard Time1
(q v ) It is probable that the older tieatment
will give way to the discussion of this phase of
the subject When taught in the schools, it
properly correlates with the work in geography,
and, indeed, it may even better be treated as a
topic in the latter field There are no diffi-
culties that stand in the way of an elementary
presentation of the subject at any time in the
sixth, seventh, or eighth school years Most
American courses of study omit it entnelv at
present, some require it in the seventh school
year, and others in the sixth or eighth Under
any circumstances the points that merit most
attention aie (1) the prime meridian, (2) the
date line, and (3) standard time In special
schools foi navigators it would, naturally, be
treated much more extensively, as is the case
in Europe, wlieie these schools aie moie highly
developed than in America D E S

LOOMIS, ELIAS (1811-1889) —Textbook
author and college piofessor, graduated from
Yah4 College in 1830, and was tutor there from
1833 to 1836 He was piofessor in Western
Keserve College (1837-1844), Neu York Uni-
versity (1844-1848), Princeton College (1848-
1849), and Yale College (1800-1889) He was
the author of fifteen textbooks on the mathe-
matical and physical sciences W S M

LORD, ASA D (J<S16-187,">) — Normal
school principal and ciU supenntendent, edu-
cated in the district schools of New York and
at the Potsdam Academy He taught for
several years in Ohio, and in 1839 he organized
the Western Reserve Teachers* Seminal v
During the eight years that lie was at the head
of the seminary, 800 teachers weie under his
instruction He was superintendent of the
schools of Columbus fiom 1847 to 1856, super-
intendent of the Ohio School for the Blind,
1856' to 1868, and superintendent of the New
Yoik School foi the Blind at Bat a via, 1868
to 1875 W S M

LORD, NATHAN (1792-1870) —Sixth
president of Dartmouth College, giaduated
from Bowdoin in 1809 and the Amlover Theo-
logical Seminary in 181 5 He was engaged in
teaching and preaching, and was president of
Dartmouth College fiom 1828 to 1862 He
wrote several theological works. W. S. M

LORDOSIS — See SPINAL CURVYTURK.

LORINSER, KARL IGNAZ (1796-1853) —
A German physician, born in Nimes, Bohemia,
studied at the um\ersitieh of Prague and Berlin

82

LOTZK, RUDOLPH HERMANN

LOTZE, RUDOLPH HERMANN

In 1822 he was appointed a member of the gov-
ernment medical board in Stettin, and in 1824
promoted to a medical inspect 01 ship in Koslm,
and later in Oppcln Tn 1829-1830 he under-
took a journey to eastern and southern Austnu
for the purpose of investigating the plague
which was then i aging in those count lies He
became noted thiough an attack on the hygienic
conditions of the Prussian schools, which he
severely criticized in a pamphlet, Zum Sthutzc
der Gcsundheit in den Schuten (For the Ptotcction
of Health in ttie School*, Berlin, 1836) This
work gave rise to a heated controversy, known
as Dri Loi inset sche tichulstreit, in which many
physicians and schoolmen took pait, and winch
was largely instuimcntal in bunging about
reforms affecting the health of the pupils of
the higher schools, particularly with regard to
physical training and the question of over-
pressure

He also published a nurnbei of medical works
and wiote an autobiography in two volumes,
which was edited by his son (Regensbuig,
1864) F M

Reference -

BECK, K Dr Kail Ignaz Lontuter, nei,n Leben und
seine Vcrdienste urn das Turnen, (Oppeln, 1896 )

LOTZE, RUDOLPH HERMANN (IS 17-

1881 ) — Philosopher, born in Bautzen, Saxorn ,
the son of a physician, he determined in earlv
vouth to follow his father's profession In
March, 1838, he leceived the degree* of Doctor
of Philosophy fiom Leipzig University, and in
July of the same year t hat of Doctor of Medicine
In 1839 he became a member of the Faculties of
Medicine and of Philosophy at Leipzig, where
he remained until called in 1844 to Gottingen
to succeed Ilcibart In 1881 Lotzc accepted
a call to Berlin He had but entered upon his
work there when his death occurred in July
of that year His life was uneventful in inci-
dent, and his activities were always in some
measure restricted by ill-health

Lotze's liteiary career may be divided into
three periods (1) Scientific and eaily philosoph-
ical period (1840-1852) The works of this
period are chiefly scientific, pertaining to
biology, physiology, and medicine Even in
these scientific writings, however, there is
obvious a tendency to reach down to the
philosophical principles underlying science
To this period belongs the Mcdidin^chc PSIJ-
rhologic odcr Physiologic der Seek (1852), a
pioneer work of the new psychology (2)
The penod of the Mikrokosmus, Idcen zur
Naturgc^chichte und Ge&chirhtc der Men^chheit
(3 vols. 1856-1861; Eng tr by Hamilton and
Jones), the aim of which is to reconcile the
mechanical and the teleological views of tho
world (3) The period of the System der Phi-
losophie, in which Lotze purposed to present
his philosophical views in comprehensive and
systematic completeness The first two parts
only of the projected work were completed, the

LogiL (1874, Eng tr ed by Bosanquet) and
the Mvlaphyxik (1879, Eng ' tr ed by Bosan-
quet) The third part, treating ol moiahtv,
aesthetics, and religion, was left unfinished at
lus death Several little volumes compiled
from his lectuic notes in pait make good this
deficiency The most important of these are
Outliws of 2$s///r//f s, Piudical Philosophy, and
Philosophy of Jfeligton (En g ti by G T Ladd)
To this period also belongs the Gcschichte dei
JSsthctiL in DC Highland (1868)

As a philosophical wiitei Lotzc is notable
for elegance of hteiarv style, foi discretion in
metaphysical speculation, for the breadth ol
knowledge and wealth of cultuie manifest in
all his works His general philosophical posi-
tion may be defined as that of teleological
idealism Three chief conceptions underlie
his metaphysics, — the conceptions of unity,
of teleology, and of personality The unity of
all things in the World-Ground is the central
doctrine of his metaphysics The pi oof by
which this is established is a negative one,
resting upon the disproof of the possibility of
reciprocal action between things conceived a>s
independent and unrelated Lotze's discus-
sion of causation, in this connection, is one of
the most, chaiactenstic and valuable fcatuies
of his metaphysical theory His conclusion
is that all so-called transeunt action is in reality
immanent action, that causal action is possible
only because all things are immanent in the
World-Ground HaMng .shown that cosmo-
logical speculation leads inevitably to the
positing of one Infinite Being a,s the Ground
of all that is, Lotze proceeds to identify this
Absolute with the religious conception of God
By three distinct line* of argument Lotze seeks
to establish the personality of God The In-
finite must be a Person in order to be the ground
of finite personality, the souice and ground
of the moral order and moral ideals must be
sought in a personality, and finally, reality
can be predicated only of that which exists
as personality The argument that to ascribe
personality to the Absolute* is to limit that
Being, Lotze meets by a counter assertion,
namely, that the Absolute is the onh complete
personality, of which human personality is but
the finite and imperfect copy The idea of
teleology is also implicit in Lotze's funda-
mental conception, for the Good is an active
principle which realizes itself in all reality
To justify his belief in a final purpose which
prescribes the course of the world is the chief
aim of Lotze's philosophical undertaking His
discussion of the teleological explanation of
the world or der, as contrasted with the mechani-
cal, is characteristic and luminous The express
aim of the Microcosm us is to show " how ab-
solutely universal is the extent and at the same
time how completely subordinate the signifi-
cance of the mission which mechanism has to
fulfill rn the structure of the world/' His
insistence upon the universal validity of the

83

LOTZE, RUDOLPH HERMANN

LOUISIANA, STATE OF

mechanical principle rightly understood, the
clearness with which he shows forth the in-
adequacy of a mere external mechanism and
the incompleteness of mechanism as a final ex-
planation, and his noble attempt to prove a
teleological principle active in the world
through the instrumentality of a universal
mechanism, are all features which give this
discussion great and lasting value

Lotzc's contributions to both psychology and
logic have been important The Medici ru^cfic
Psychologic extends the principle of mechanism
to explain the relation of mind and body and
lays the foundation of that branch of modern
psychology known as psycho-physics Lotze
ih notable for his local sign theory, according
to which non-spatial sense attributes, varying
according to the locality of the sense organ
stimulated, afford the original data out of
which our space knowledge is built. The
fundamental tenet of Lotze's logical theory
is Ins belief that the mind is essentially active,
contributory, in all elements of knowledge
For though the mind cannot act until it is
acted upon, vet the matter of its responses
is its own, it reacts upon every impression in
its own characteristic manner All our knowl-
edge rests ultimately upon certain universal
propositions, or axioms, which are in reality
the products of certain habits of action native
to the human mind Oui hope of mastciing
the course of events in the real world rests on
three things (1) Some given reality which
thought cannot create (2) The universality
)f law in the real world, ultimately a matter
of faith (3) Synthetic judgments a pi ton as
the basis of our knowledge of particular laws

Lot/e's influence upon education has been
general rather than specific, the influence of
an idealistic philosophy with a strongly religious
and ethical bent, and reflecting at every point
the broad cult me and lofty ideals of the man
whose system of thought it is We find in his
writings many of the ideas and principles that
are vital in educational theory at the present-
day The emphasis upon activity and develop-
ment would seem to ally him with the psy-
chological tendency in modern education,
his positive contributions to science and his
estimate of the importance of scientific knowl-
edge ally him with the scientific tendency,
while hih sense of the value of the finite per-
sonality, the significance of the aspirations
and religious faiths of mankind, arid the im-
portance of the study of human institutions
arid human progress, are in accord with the
moral and sociological ideals of the foremost
educational thought and effort of to-day

V. F. M

References : —

HA.KTBLH, Fit Pfldai/ogiwfu Paycholoyie nnck Hermann
Lofzr in ihnr Anwettdnng auf die Schutirr(ucin und
auf the Kixifhiina MIMUV, 1891)

JOVF;H, H A Critical Ai count of the Philosophy of
Lotzi the Doctrine of Thought (New Yoik, 1895 )

84

MOOKK, V F Th( Ethical As pet I of Lotzf\ Mcta-

physic* (New York, 1901 )
PFLEIDEREK, E Lotee's philot>ophutchc Weltanschauung

nach ihren Grundzuyen (Boston, 1884 )
ROBFNH, E P Some Problems of Lotze's Theory of

Knowledge (New York, 1900 )

LOUIS AGASSIZ SUMMER SCHOOL.—

See SUMMER SCHOOLS

LOUISIANA, STATE OF. — Originally
a part of the French territory of Louisiana,
obtained by purchase from France m 1803
The present state of Louisiana was first or-
ganized as the Territory of Orleans in 1804,
and was admitted to the Union in 1812 as the
eighteenth state It LS located in the South
Central Division, and has a land area of 45,420
square miles In size it is about the same area
as Pennsylvania For administrative purposes
it is divided into fiftv-nme parishes, a term
corresponding to county elsewhere, and these
are in turn divided into police jury wards,
the number varying from five to ten, except
in the parish of Orleans, which has seventeen
wards In 1910 Louisiana had a population
of 1,656,388 and a density of population of
36 5 per square mile

Educational History — The first school in
the territory was established by a company of
Ursulme nuns, who opened a chanty hospital
school for girls in New Orleans in 1727 A
Capuchin school for boys was also opened
about the same time After the Spanish oc-
cupation, several Spanish teachers weie sent
over, in 1772, to attempt to change the lan-
guage of the people, but. their schools wen1 very
poorly attended They are reported as not
having had moie than thirty pupils at ariv
time, while eight Fiench schools, which were
then in existence, em oiled about 400 In 1805
the University of New Orleans was founded,
a very ambitious project, on the plan of the
University of France Thit> was to include
schools of all grades, an academy and a public
library in every parish, and a University in
New Orleans The project received aid until
1826, when it was definitely given up

In 1806 a free school law was enacted, but
was repealed in 1808 In 1811 the sum of
$2000 for buildings and an annual grant of $500
was made to each parish for an academy The
first constitution of the state, framed in 1812,
contained no mention of education A few
primary schools were established in the dif-
ferent parishes, and in 1819 the police juries
of the parishes were directed to supervise and
care for such schools In 1821 the law was
changed so that the police juries were directed
to appoint five resident landowners as trustees.
Tn the same year an appropriation of $800 was
made to each parish for the benefit of an academy
in return for the instruction of eight pupils free.
A parish tax of $1000 annually wan also au-
thorized Grants of various kinds were made
during the next twenty-five years to the parish

LOUISIANA, STATE OF

LOUISIANA, STATE OF

and parochial schools, and to academies and
colleges, in return for the free instruction of
a certain number of indigent pupils This
has well been called " the beneficiarv period "
It began about 1811, and lasted until the final
adoption of the free public- school principle in
1845 In 1827 it was enacted that the state
might give $2 02J monthly for each student
educated in the parish schools up to $1350 per
paush, and it was provided that all indigent
children must be received in the parish schools
By 1834, 1175 indigent, children were being
educated in the state

In 1833 the Secretary of State was made rr
officw Superintendent of Education Dunng
the next ten years a numbci of governors and
educational committees recommended Ihe en-
tire abolition of the subsidized parochial sys-
tem, and the substitution of a free public
school svstem in its place In 1SJ1 New
Orleans was permitted l>v special act to estab-
lish a free public school svstem, to employ a
superintendent of schools, and to raise money
for schools by local taxation The example
of this city, which in a few years compaied
favorably in school attendance with the larger
cities of the North, exercised a good influence
in shaping public opinion for free schools in the
state In 1845 a commission of five was ap-
pointed to extend the public school system,
and the new state constitution of 1845 put an
end to the old system of subsidized pnvate
.schools, and provided definitely for a system
of public education

The legislature was directed " to establish
free public schools throughout the state " and
" to provide means for their suppoit by taxa-
tion on piopertv, or otherwise'' , the office of
Superintendent of Public Instruction was
created, the common school fund and the
seminal y fund weie defined and declared to be
perpetual funds upon which the state was to
pay 6 per cent interest, and a University of
Louisiana in New Orleans was provided foi
The constitution of 1852 practically lepeated
the provisions of the constitution of 1845, but
changed the supermtendencv of public instruc-
tion from appointment to election, and gave
the General Assembly power to abolish the
office when " no longer necessary " The free
school law of 1847 earned the mandates of the
constitution into effect, created the office of
parish superintendent, abolished two years later,
levied a one-mill state tax for schools, cleaily
defined and definitely provided for the creation
of a permanent state school fund by the con-
solidation of all land giants and donations,
and provided for the distribution of the income
to the parishes on a census basis (in 1852 the
constitution was amended to insure this),
declared the schools open to all white children
between six and sixteen, and insured every
white under twenty-one two years of tuition
free, gave the control of the schools in each
district to three directors, and a ut homed dis-

trict taxes for school buildings The Uni-
versity of Louisiana was established, and con-
tinued to exist until its absoiption by Tulane
University in 1884 In 1S52 a State 'institute
for the Deaf and Dumb was established In
1859 a normal school was established by the
legislature in New Orleans, and in 1800 the
State Seminary of Learning was opened at
Alexandria In 1855 a poll tax of $1 was
levied for schools in addition to the above
By 1852 one half of the educable children of
the state were reported as in attendance at the
public schools Even yet the schools were not
entirely free for the entile term, as one sixth
of the revenue in 1850 and one eighth in I860
still came from tuition fees Schools continued
dining the early pait of the Civil War period,
the legislature of 1862 appropriating 1485,000
for free public schools, but the wai piactically
put an end to this eaily school svstem

In 1801 a new constitution was adopted,
laigely as a war measure, by General Banks,
which retained most of the provisions of the
preceding constitutions, but omitted the census
basis for the distribution of school money,
omitted all mention of the senunaiy fund,
provided for a foiu-year teim for the State
Superintendent and a salary of $4000 per
year, and oidered that all schools should be
taught in the English language The recon-
struction constitution of 1808 retained the pro-
visions of the preceding constitution, laiscd the
salary of the State Supeimtendent to $5000,
ordered a public school in every paush, and
f 01 bade any distinction as to " lace, color, or
pievious condition," or any appropnation 01
subsidy to any private school or teachei

The law of 1809 carried these constitutional
provisions into effect The state was divided
into six districts, and for each of these a dis-
trict superintendent, reporting to the State
Superintendent, was provided To an ap-
pointed State Board of Education was given
the control of all state institutions arid the
appointment of all local boards of education
The state tax was increased to two nulls, and
local district taxes up to five mills were au-
thorized In 1870 a parish tax of two mills
was also authoiized The effect of these new
provisions was unduly to centialize and in-
crease the cost of administration, and to turn
the schools over almost cntnely to the colored
i ace, except in the rural parishes, wheie sepa-
rate schools for the whites were maintained in
defiance of the law Little progress was made
in general education in the state until 1887,
when separate schools for the two races weie
established By 1875-1870 the total school
enrollment was only 74,840 out of a school
population of 274,088 In 1870 the State
Seminary of Leannng was conveited into the
University of Louisiana, and moved to Baton
Rouge, and in 1872 the Land Grant College
was consolidated with it In 1871 the State
Institution for the Blind was established In

85

LOUISIANA, STATE OF

LOUISIANA, STATE OF

1872 the legislature, to obtain money for sal-
aries arid mileage, confiscated the permanent
school fund

In 1879 a now constitution was adopted,
which changed the form of administration and
materially reduced the expense for this item
The office of State Superintendent of Public
Education wan continued, but only $3000 was
allowed for his salary and the expense of his
office, district state superintendents were
abolished, and parish boards were permitted to
appoint a parish superintendent, but at a salary
of not over $200 a year, instruction in the
French language and separate schools for the
two races were made possible; the legislature
was directed to establish a university at New
Orleans for negroes and to appropriate not less
than $5000 nor more than $10,000 a year for
its maintenance; and the debt of the state to
the free school fund, confiscated by the legis-
lature of 1872, to the seminary fund, and to the
agricultural and mechanical college fund, was
determined and declared a perpetual obligation,
but the interest on these debts was lowered and
was to be paid from the annual appropriations
for schools The new constitution of 1898
contains similar provisions to those of the
constitution of 1879, but amplified and made
somewhat more definite A school census was
ordered, the debt to the school fund was di-
rected to be paid out of the state's revenues
and not out of the annual school appropria-
tions, the restrictions as to the salaries of
parish superintendents were removed; and
the prohibition of aid to sectarian schools was
extended to private schools as well

In 1881 the Southern University for Colored
Students was opened, in 1884 a state normal
school was established, and 'opened the next
year at Natchitoch.es; in 1884 the old Uni-
versity of Louisiana, established in 1847, was
absorbed by the new Tulane University, and
Tulane University became a semi-public; in-
stitution, in 1888 the State Board of Educa-
tion was directed to advertise for bids for a
uniform system of schoolbooks for the schools
of the state, to be adopted on four-year con-
tracts, in 1896 teachers' examinations were
systematized and made uniform throughout
Ihe state, in 1894 the Louisiana Industrial
Institute, a literary and industrial school of
secondary grade for whites, was established at
Ruston, and in 1898 the South Western Louisi-
ana Institute, a similar school also for whites,
was established at Lafayette In 1898 a State
Biologic Station, for investigation and for the
training of teachers in biological sciences, was
established at the mouth of Calcasieu Pass,
near the Gulf of Mexico In 1902 special tax
districts, with local taxes, were permitted In
1904 a $600 minimum salary for parish super-
intendents was fixed by law

In 1906 credentials were accepted from state
institutions for teachers' certificates In 1908
the state constitution was amended so as to

80

increase the salary of the State Superintendent
from $2000 to $5000, parish (county) super-
intendents were made school treasurers ex
offiao, the limit of local tax was raised from
1} to 3 miles, and a child labor law was enacted.
In 1910 the parish school boards were given the
right to levy taxes, independent of the county
authorities, a state textbook commission was
created, and the period for adoptions extended
from four to six years; monthly teachers insti-
tutes and the study of agriculture were re-
quired.

Present School System — At the head of
the school system is a State Board of Education
and a State Superintendent of Public Educa-
tion The State Board of Education is com-
posed of the Governor, the Superintendent of
Public Instruction, and the Attorney-General,
together with seven citizens appointed by the
Governor, one from each congressional district
of the state Appointed members receive the
same pay as members of the legislature. Sub-
ject only to the legislature, this body is the
supreme authority in the state in educational
matters Appeals from the decisions of t the
State Superintendent may be made to it for
final settlement; its suits are given preference
in courts of law, and bond and security are not
required, it approves all requests 'for per-
mission to establish high schools in the state,
it is empowered to adopt a uniform course of
study for the schools of the State; it outlines
the courses of study for all teachers' training
schools, and provides all rules and regulations
for the examination of teachers, the quadrennial
school census is sent to it by the parish asses-
sors for approval , it has power to ask for special
reports from the parish superintendents, and
may make rules and regulations foi the govern-
ment of the schools of the state, not forbidden
by law The Superintendent of Public Educa-
tion is elected by popular election for four-year
terms, arid receives a salary of $5000 per' an-
num, with an appropriation for office expenses
He is er officw a member of the State Board of
Education, and also acts as its secretary and its
executive officer lie is also a member of the
Boards of Supervisors of the State Schools, of
the Board of Institute Managers, and of the
State Board of Examiners He has the general
supervision of the schools of the state, decides
disputes sent to him on appeal, subject to final
approval of the State Boaid of Education, may
call conventions of school officers for consulta-
tion, apportions the school fund to the parishes,
and calls meetings and publishes the proceedings
of the State Board of Education In addition
to the State Board of Education, there is a
State Board of Examiners, consisting of the
State Superintendent, the president of the
Louisiana State University, and the president
of the Louisiana State Normal School, which is
empowered to adopt rules and regulations for
the examination of teachers for state certifi-
cates, and also a Board of State Institute

LOUISIANA, STATE OF

LOUISIANA, STATE OF

Managers, consisting of the State Superintend-
ent and the president of the State Normal
School, who have control of the summer normal
schools of the state and select the institute
conductors A State Textbook Commission
adopts uniform texts for the state and is in-
structed by law to show a preference for Louisi-
ana books.

For each parish (county) there is a pa rush
board of school directors and a parish super-
intendent of public education The parish
boards are elected by the qualified electors of
each police jury ward of the parishes, one from
each ward, and for four-year terms Teachers
are not eligible for membership on these boards
Members of parish boaids may be lemoved
from office by the Governor, if the State Board
of Education approves Each parish board
elects a parish superintendent of public edu-
cation for a four-year term, who serves as sec-
retary of the board and as its executive ofhcei
Parish superintendents must hold a certificate
of eligibility from the State Boaid of Educa-
tion, and the revocation of this certificate va-
cates the office Palish boards have geneial
supervision of the schools of the parish, elect-
all teachers for the schools on the nomination
of the parish superintendents, appoint two
teachers to assist the parish superintendent in
examining teachers, are charged with the caie
and preservation of the school property of the
parish, on the recommendation of the parish
superintendent, locate and change the location
of schools; estimate the amount of school
money needed each year, may issue bonds for
school purposes, may appoint auxiliary visiting
trustees for each ward, or school district, or
school in the palish, and must make detailed
reports to the State Board of Education as to
the conditions of the schools and the work of
the school officials

The parish superintendent is required to
devote his entire time to the woik of super-
vision, conducts examinations foi teachers'
certificates; nominates teachers for election
by the parish boards, signs all contracts, may
remove teachers for cause, must visit each
school at least once each veai , must hold
monthly teachers' institutes on Saturdays, is
treasurer for the parish school funds, makes
quarterly reports to the State Supenntendent
on the condition of the funds, pays out all
money on the order of the president and sec-
retary of the parish board, has chaige of the
sale and preservation of any sixteenth-section
lands, and must make quarterly reports to the
parish board, and annual reports to the State
Superintendent, and reports as called for to
the State Board of Education

The Parish of Orleans, whose boundaries are
the same as those of the city of New Orleans,
receives larger liberty and special privileges in
the matter of school government and school
taxation, being governed, in part, by special
legislation

87

School Support — Louisiana originally re-
ceived 786,04-4 acres of land in the sixteenth-
section grants Much of this was so located as
to be of little value, and some of it is still on
hand The annual interest, on this fund is
apportioned to the townships to which the land
originally belonged The state also received
its share of the United States Deposit Fund,
distributed in 1837 This was devoted to in-
ternal improvements at the time, but the m-
teiest on the fund ($28,795 14) is now devoted,
according to the provisions of the constitution
of 1808, to the support of common schools
The state also received two townships (46,080
acres) of land foi a seminary of learning, and
210,000 acres for an agricultural and mechani-
cal college The funds were largely lost during
the war or squandered dining the Reconstruc-
tion peiiod, and remain to-day as " perpetual
obligations," for which the state taxes itself
to pay the annual interest due on the several
funds

The constitution requires that not less than
one and one fourth mills of the six-mill state
tax shall be applied to the support of schools
The State School Fund is apportioned chiecth
to the parishes on the basis of the imrnbei (if
children in each between the ages of six and
eighteen, as determined by a quadrennial cen-
sus The proceeds of the state inheritance
tax are also added to the annual school fund
The police juries of each parish must levy a
palish tax for schools of not less than three nor
more than six mills Councilrnen or trustees
in cities, towns, or villages, and the people of
school districts, may vote (since J902) special
taxes for additional school facilities In 1907
there were 509 such special tax districts, as
against 389 in 1906, 272 in 1905, 199 m 1904,
and 153 in 1903 A poll tax of $1, fines, and
foi felted bonds, remain m the parishes where
collected, and are added to the current school
funds Special school taxes may also be voted
for buildings, improvements, or support, by
petition, election, and an affirmative vote The
old " fuel tax " is still levied in Louisiana,
parish boards still having " authority to assess
and collect $] pei annum on each family "
sending a child 01 children to school

Educational Conditions — Of the total popu-
lation nearly one half are negioes, and ovci 90
per cent are native4 born But two states,
Mississippi and South Carolina, contained a
largei proportion of negroes In thirty-one
of the fifty-nine parishes the negroes outnumber
the whites, in seventeen parishes they out-
number the whites two or more to one, in
two parishes they outnumber them six to one,
in two others, eleven to one, and in one sixteen
to one Of the total population of the state,
one fifth live in the city of New Orleans, and
of the remaining four fifths, about 73 per cent
live m rural districts There are but two other
cities in the state, Baton Rouge and Shreves-
port, which have 8000 inhabitants. The state

LOUISIANA, STATE OF

LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY

is essentially a lural and agncultural state, with
one large commercial city

The percentage of illiteracy is still very high,
notwithstanding recent large deductions. A
child labor law has Ixjen enacted recently, but
the state has as yet no compulsory attendance
law, or means of enforcing attendance Only
62 per cent of the schoolhouses are owned by
the parishes, but (>9 pe? cent of the school-
houses are listed as being provided with black-
boards; but 70 per cent as having anv means of
heating the building, but 65 per cent as being
provided with patent school desks, but 58
per cent as having charts and maps, and but
22 per cent as having a globe The average
value of all forms of school properlv, the city
of New Orleans included, is about $2000 per
school Little beyond the regular common
school branches is taught m any of the elemen-
tary schools Graded schools, containing the
upper grammar school grades, are to be found
in most of the towns, and may be established,
where necessary, by the parish boards Man-
ual training is provided in very few school
systems Elementary schools may also be
taught in the French language, where French is
spoken Uniform textbooks for the schools of
the state are adopted by the State Textbook
Commission on six-year contracts

Teachers and Training — For the training
of teachers the state maintains the Louisiana
State Normal School, at Nat chit oches, and the
Parish of Orleans maintains the New Orleans
Normal and Training School The state also
provides a State Institute Conductor, who is
appointed bv the Hoard of State Institute
Manageis (Supeimtcndent of Public Educa-
tion and president of the Normal School),
receives a salary of $2500 and traveling ex-
penses, and has charge of the summer normal
schools, one-week institutes, and parish teachers'
association meetings To meet the expenses
of these, the state appropnates $12,500 an-
nually, the Peabody Fund gives .$2000, and all
persons taking an examination for a teacher's
certificate pay a fee of $1 each The summer
normal schools are graded, and are held at
various points in the state Ten of the sum-
mer normal schools were for white teachers
arid four for colored teachers The term vanes
from three to eight weeks The conductor also
holds one-week institutes and directs the work
of the Teachers' Association Meetings in the
parishes The latter involved reading circle
work, and the outline of work called foi seven
meetings in each parish during the year
About one third of the teachers attended the
one- week institutes, and about two thirds wen*
members of the Parish Teachers' Associations
and Reading Circles Luther College, a Lu-
theran College in New Orleans, conducts a
normal department for colored teachers of
both sexes

Secondary Education - A high school sys-
tem for the state is yet to be developed Most

88

of the secondary schools of the state are in part
secondary and in part elementary, and few
reach the standard of a regular high school
The two Industrial Institutes maintained by
the state are in effect tec finical secondary
schools of a good grade Excepting in the
Parish of Orleans, high schools can only be
established with the consent of the State Board
of Education, and no school can be opened
without its sanction, or established unless a
site and buildings are provided free of any
expense* to the school fund

Higher and Other Education — The Louisi-
ana State* University and Agricultural and
Mechanical College, at Baton Rouge, stands as
the nominal head of the state school system of
Louisiana Tulane University, in New Or-
leans, however, has been recognized by law
(1884) and by vote of the people (1888) as the
successor, in interest, of the old University of
Louisiana, opened in 1834, and receives one
student free of tuition from each senatorial
and representative district in the state The
state also maintains the Southern University
at New Orleans for colored students, appropri-
ating (190!)) $10,750 for its support In ad-
dition to the above institutions, eight de-
nominational colleges, three of which are foi
the colored race, supplement the secondary
and higher instruction provided by the state

Special Institutions. — The state maintains
the Louisiana State School for the Blind and the
Louisiana State School for the Deaf at Baton
Houge, the Louisiana Industrial Institute at
Ruston, the South Westein Louisiana Indus-
trial Institute at Lafayette, and the State Bio-
logic Station on the Clulf of Mexico The two
industrial institutes offei good secondary in-
struction to the whites of both sexes in both the
academic nnd industrial courses K. P. (\

References : —
B\KN\R]>, 11 Condition of the Common Schools of

Louisiana in 18,5.5, American Journal of Educa-
tion, Vol Li, pp 257 259
Compilation of (hi Law* of Louisiana Relating to Public

*SV/oo/,s, 190S edition, and supplements.
Constitution* of the State of Louisiana, 1812, 1845,

1H52, 1864, 1868, 1879, 1898
FAY, E W History of Kducation in Louisiana, Cirr

Inf r ,S Hur Kduc , No 1, 1898, bibliography

(Washington, 1898 )

LfcN. J R History of the Publu School System

of Louisiana m Kept V *S Com Educ , 1894-1895,

Vol II, pp 1297-1305
MAYO, A D The Common School in Louisiana, 1830-

18b'0, \i\Rcpt V ,S7 Cow Educ , 1901, Vol I. pp.

357 373
Reports of Stale Superintendent of Public Education

\nnual, 1848-1879, Biennial, 1881 date

LOUISIANA STATE UNIVERSITY AND
AGRICULTURAL AND MECHANICAL
COLLEGE, BATON ROUGE, LA. — A

coeducational institution which had its origin
m grants of land made by the United States
government "for the use of a seminary of
leaining" In 1853 the Louisiana State Sem-
inary of Learning and Military Academy was

LOUISVILLE

LOVETT

founded near Alexandria, opened in 1860, and
was removed to Baton Houge in IH(>() The
Agricultural and Mechanical College was estab-
lished in 1873 at New Orleans to carry out the
purposes of the Land Grant Act of 1862 The
two institutions were united and located at
Baton Rouge in 1877, and are maintained by
the state. The institution is located on the
grounds of the old military garrison, overlook-
ing the Mississippi River and covering nearly
210 acres in extent The university is an
essential part of the state school system It,
embraces a College of Arts and Sciences, a ( Col-
lege of Agriculture, a College of Engineering,
the Audubon Sugar School, the law school,
the teachers' college, and the graduate depart-
ment Four experiment stations are maintained
in Baton Rouge, in New Orleans, at Crowley,
Acadia Parish, and at Calhoun, Ouaehita Par-
ish Students are admitted to the university
bv examination, certificate, or diploma The
entrance requirements are fourteen units A
three years' course in agriculture is also pio-
vided based on common school branches The
Audubon Sugar School aims to prepare men as
experts in sugar growing and manufacture, and
gives a live-year course of work in both en-
gineering and agricultuie, with practical instruc-
tion at the Sugar Expeiiment Station, Audubon
Park, New Orleans The Law School gives the
degree of LL B aftei a three yeais' course
Master's degrees are also conferred In 1()11
1912 the enrollment of students was as follows
academic schools and colleges, 600, school of
agnculture, X6, law school. 53, sunimei school,
595, total, 1334 The faculty consists of sixty-
one members

LOUISVILLE, UNIVERSITY OF, LOUIS-
VILLE, KY — A coeducational institution,
founded by decree of the city council in 1S37
and opened with a medical college A law
college was added in 1846, and an academic
department and the college of liberal arts in
1907. The entrance requirements are based
on the work of a standard high school Courses
are offered leading to the A B and B S and
the corresponding graduate courses leading to
the master's degrees The medical department
of the university was reorganized in 1908, and
consists of the former medical department, the
Kentucky School of Medicine (1850), the Louis-
ville Medical College (1869), the Hospital College
of Medicine (1873), and the Medical Depart-
ment of Kentucky University (1898) The en-
trance requirements to the medical department
are those of the Association of American Medical
Colleges The entrance requirements to the
law college are high school graduation.

LOUVAIN, UNIVERSITY OF — See BEL-
GIUM, EDUC \TION IN

LOVELL, JAMES E (1795-1892) —Apos-
tle of Joseph Lancaster (q v ) and organizer

of the first monitorial schools in the Tinted
States, born at Colne, Lancashire, England,
and educated in a boarding school at St Ives
lie was tutor in the family of the Duke of Bed-
ford and teacher in monitorial schools con-
ducted by Joseph Lancaster in London and
Woburn He was induced by Lancaster to
come to the United States, where he established
Lancastenan schools at Philadelphia, Amherst,
and New Haven He was principal of the
Lancastenan School at New Haven fiom 1830
to 1853 He was the authoi of several text-
books W. S M.

See LANCASTER, JOSEPH, MONITORIAL
SCHOOLS

LOVETT, WILLIAM (1800-1877). — The
English chartist who took a prominent part
in the early movement for cooperation and
association among workingmen and later
joined the Radical movement for reconciling
the reformers of the middle classes with the
working classes It was while he was in War-
wick (Jaol (1S40) that he with John Collins
wrote rhaihxtn, a new Organization of the
People, cmbiacing a Plan for the Education
and Improvement of the Peoples, politically
and socially, much of which is devoted to a
plea for better educational facilities Suspi-
cious of government control, the authors recom-
mend local management of schools with finan-
cial assistance from the central authority
The organization of a National Association of
the United Kingdom foi promoting the po-
litical and social improvement of the people
was proposed, which in addition to political
aims was to establish " public halls as schools
for the people," which were to be used as
infant, preparatory, and high schools (taking
pupils from three to twelve or thirteen yeais
of age), and as social centers for adults Play-
grounds and school gardens were to be annexed.
Circulating libraries, public lectures, discus-
sions, readings, and baths were to be organized
in connection with the district hall The or-
phans of members were to be educated in agri-
cultural and industrial schools The end of
education was to be the physical, mental, moral,
and political training of children Beginning
with the rudiments, the curriculum was to
be gradually broadened to include geography,
physical and natural phenomena, elements
of applied chemistry, design, geology, and
mineralogy, " the first principles of the most
useful trades and occupations," horticulture
and gardening The objective methods were to
be used in teaching all the subjects of the
* school, especially in the lower grades " The
equal and judicious development of all the
faculties, and not the mere culture of the intel-
lect," was to be the aim of instruction The
teachers were to be trained in normal schools,
and in time only those who were certificated
by the association were to be employed ; and
to attract men of genius the teachers were to
89

LOWE

LOWELL INSTITUTE

1>e well paid and honored in their communi-
ties Many of the suggestions for the general
organization of education show a broad grasp
of its social importance, and the details of
methods display a knowledge of Pestalozzi and
Lancaster, and a genuine desire for improve-
ment In 1837 in At) Address from the Work-
ing Men's Association to the Working Classes
on the Subject of National Education, Lovett
advocated an educational .system to include
infant schools (for children from thiee to six),
preparatory schools (six to nine), high schools
(nine to twelve), and colleges 01 finishing
schools (foi all above thirteen) to be used also
as social centers State training colleges were
to be established, and no unqualified teacher
was to be appointed Local schools were to be
under the control of school committees, while
at the head of the system there was to be a
Committee of Public Instruction, selected bv
Parliament, to have charge only of the financial
administration About 1S49, when he retired
from political work, Lovett taught anatomy
and physiology, which he had studied himself,
first in the district school of the association,
and later m several other schools In 1852 he
wrote Social and Political Morality, an Essai/
regarding the Extension of Education, in which
he develops the above scheme with greatei full-
ness and again insists on local rather than
national administration He wrote an Elemen-
tary Anatomy and Physiology for Schools (1X51)
Lovett's Autobiography (entitled Life and
Struggles of William Lovett in his Pursuit of
Bread, Knowledge, and Freedom, 1876) forms a
valuable source of information on the move-
ment, in which he is recognized to have been
one of the ablest leaders.

Reference —

Dictionary of National Biography

LOWE, ROBERT, VISCOUNT SHER-

BROOKE (1811-1892) —British statesman,
born at Bmgham, and educated at Winchester
and Oxford (University College) He gradu-
ated in 1833, was fellow of Magdalen College,
and for some time private tutor, and was called
to the bar in 1842 From 1843 to 1 850 he lived
in Sydney, Australia, and took a prominent
part in the politics of New South Wales In
1844 he carried a resolution for a select commit-
tee to inquire into educational conditions, and
in 1846 a resolution in favor of the establish-
ment of a board of education (See AUSTRALIA,
EDUCATION IN ) On his return to England lie
entered Parliament on the Liberal side, and
there attained a prominent position, on several
occasions serving in the ministry In 1868
he was elected the first member of the Univer-
sity of London He retired from active poli-
tics in 1880 Lowe is an important figure m
the history of English education, for it was as
Vice-President of the Committee of Council
on Education (1859-1864) that he introduced

90

the famous Revised Code (1861) which estab-
lished the system of payment by results
Lowe had a strong belief in the superiority
of examinations over inspection, denied that
a science of education was possible, arid
aimed at an economical and mechanical sys-
tem of education rather than a thoroughgoing
reform The system of payment by results
continued until 1890, and it is due to Lowe
that the evil pedagogical traditions from which
English elementary education is just emerg-
ing weie mtioduced, although from the admin-
istrative standpoint something was gained m
establishing standards and laying the founda-
tions of a national system But how sincere
Lowe was in his endeavors to promote public
education, and how much faith he had in the
Revised Code, may be seen in his address on
Prrmanj and Classical Education, delivered
before the Philosophical Institution of Edin-
burgh (1867), in which the influence of Spencer
is very strongly marked, more particularly
in his attack on classical studies The address
carries the more conviction since Lowe was
himself regarded as a good classical scholar.

See ENGLAND, EDUCATION IN, EXAMINA-
TIONS, PAYMENT BY RESULTS

References —

Dictionary of National Hiography

HOLMAN, 11 Enahxh \afional Education (London.

1XQS)
MoNTMOHEKry, J E G Dk Piogrcxx of Education in

Enolami (London, ]<H)4 )

LOWELL, JAMES RUSSELL (1819-
1891) — Poet, critic, and teacher, graduated
from Harvaid College in 1838 and the Hai-
vard Law School in 1840 He was professor
in Harvard University from 1855 to 1880 and
Lord-Rector ol the University of St Andrews,
Scotland, 1884-1885 He was editor of the
Atlantic Monthly (1857-1862) and the North
American Review (1863-1872) W S M.

Reference —

S( UDDER, 11 E Biography of Jamen Russell Lowell
(Boston, 1901 )

LOWELL, JOHN (1799-1836) — Founder
of the Lowell Institute (q v ) , studied in
the schools of Edinburgh, Scotland, and Bos-
ton and at Harvard College; engaged in mer-
cantile pursuits and traveled extensively
At his death he left one half of his estate
($250,000) for the organization of free lecture
courses in Boston in philosophy, natural his-
tory, arts, and science W S. M

References —

BARNARD, H American Journal of Education, Vol V,

pp 427-440
SMITH, HARRIET K History of the Lowell Institute.

(Boston, 189H)

LOWELL INSTITUTE, BOSTON, MASS

— An organization founded upon the bequest
of John Lowell, Jr., for " the maintenance and

LOWELL INSTITUTE

LUBINUS

support of public lectures, to be delivered in
Boston, upon philosophy, natural history,
the arts and sciences, or any of them, as the
trustees shall, from time to time, deem expe-
dient for the promotion of the moral, and intel-
lectual, and physical instruction and education
of th'» citizens of Boston " The amount of
the bequest was $250,000, and as a provision
was made that 10 per cent of the income was
to be added annually to the principal, the In-
stitute has always had a great amount of wealth
at its disposal By the terms of the bequest
one trustee is to be responsible foi the general
management and he is to be a member of the
Lowell family, so far as possible The first
trustee was John Amory Lowell who was as-
sisted by Dr Jeffries Wyman as curator with
charge of the details of the work The opening
lecture was delivered by Edward Everett on
December 31, 1839 The Institute has alwavs
been able to command the services of the most
eminent scholars m their held, not only in this
but in other countries Among the lecturers
the following may be mentioned in science,
Silliman, Agassiz, Tyndall, Wallace, Geikie, G.
H Darwin, on religious subjects, Lyman Ab-
bott, Mark Hopkins, Henry Drummond, in lit-
erature, philosophy, art, history, and education,
Edward Everett, J R Lowell, Child, Norton,
Barnard, Channing, Hale, Holmes, Lanciani,
Fiske, Bryce, Eliot, Mahaffy, Fenero. Agassiz,
in fact, remained in this countiv as a result of
his successful course at the Institute which
led to the foundation of the Lawrence Scientific
School In addition to the general courses,
special classes have been held in dra \ving fiom
1850 to 1879; and in science for school teachers
in connection with the Boston Society for
Natural History Courses have also been given
for workingmen under the auspices of the
Wells Memorial Woikmgmei/s Institute In
1872 the Lowell School of Practical Design
was instituted for the promotion of industrial
art Free tuition is given in drawing and
weaving in a course of three vears The courses
are at present (1912) arranged in the following
series: I Free Public Lectures in Huntington
Hall, II Free Evening School for Industrial
Foremen (applied science), III. Teachers'
School of Science (in connection with the
Boston Society of Natural History), IV Col-
legiate Courses, V Free Lectures in King's
Chapel on Current Topics in Theology, VI.
Free Lectures on Local Natural History Series
III and IV are part of the University Extension
Courses given by a combination of all the col-
leges in and about Boston The present
trustee is President A Lawrence Lowell, and
the curator is William T Sedgwick

References —

BARNARD, H American Journal of Education, Vol V,

pp 427-440
SMITH, H K. History of the Lowell Institute. (Boston,

1898.)

LOWELL LECTURE COURSE. — See LEC-
TURE SYSTEMS

LOYOLA — See JESUS, SOCIETY OF, EDUCA-
TIONAL WORK OF.

LOYOLA COLLEGE, BALTIMORE, MD

— See JESUS, SOCIETY OF, EDUCATIONAL
WORK OF.

LOYOLA UNIVERSITY, CHICAGO, ILL

— See JESUS, SOCIETY OF, EDUCATIONAL
WORK OF

LUBECK, FREE TOWN OF, EDUCA-
TION IN. — See GERMANY, EDUCATION IN

LUBEN, AUGUST (1804-1874) —German
schoolman; was born in Golzow, near Kustrin,
Pomerama, and educated at the Seminary of
Neuzelle. In 1822 he was called as assistant
teacher to the seminary of Weissenfels, where
he was greatly influenced in his pedagogic de-
velopment by Barmsch (qv). In 1825 he took
charge of a village school in the province oi
Saxony, in connection with which he managed
a very successful training class for teachers, in
1829 he became the principal of a larger school
in Ascherslebcn, and in 1849 he was appointed
to a still more important position in Merseburg.
In 1858 he was called as director of the newly
established Tcachcis' Semmaiy in Bicmen,
where he remained until his death He pub-
lished a laige number of pedagogic writings, and
deserves especial cicdit for his improvement in
the teaching of nature study and of the mother
tongue His reader foi Burycrschulcn, published
in 1851 in collaboration with Xacke, was very
widely used From 1857 until the time of his
death, he edited the Padagogischer Jahrexbcncht
(Educational Annual), as well as fiom 1861 on,
the pedagogic magazine Der prakti^che 8chul-
inarm (The Practical Schoolman) Among his
works may be mentioned also his Anwcmimg zu
cinem method* when Untemcht in dcr Pflanzen-
kunde (Methods of Teaching Botany, Halle, 1832),
followed by a similar work for zoology and an-
thmpology (1836), and his Enifuhrunq in die
dcutsche Literal ur (Introduction into German Lit-
erature), the tenth volume of which ^vas pub-
lished in thiee volumes in Leipzig, 1892-1896

F. M.

LUBINUS, EILHARD, or EILERT LU-
BEN (1565-1621) — A German scholar and
educationist, son of a pastor in the duchy of
Oldenburg, who studied at Leipzig and other
universities, and in 1595 became Professor of
Poetry m the University of Rostock In 1605
he transferred to the Chair of Theology in the
same university, and died in 1621 (See
AUcgenieme Dcutsche Bwg , Band XIX, p.
331 ) Lubmus published many works, includ-
ing editions of the Epistolas of Apollonius, the
DC Varntate Miindi of Bernard, the Greek An-
thology, the Epistolce of Hippocrates the works

91

LUCA DE BORGO SAN SEPOLCRO

LUNCHES AND LUNCHROOMS

of Horace and Juvenal, the Dionij*iaca of Non-
nus, Persius, the Eftistolw of Phalans He
wrote a Clavis Grcecce Linguce cam tientrntnu
(rrcecis Latme explicate, an edition of which
was published by the London Stationers' Com-
pany in 1620. The Medulla Linguce (/racce
was published in London as late as 174.")

As an educationist, however, Lubinus is now
chiefly remembered for his remarkable epis-
tolary Discourse, prefixed to his edition of the
New Testament (1614). This was punted in
English by Samuel Hart lib in his small collec-
tion of tiacts on The True and Rcadic Watj
to leatne ike Latme Tongue, 1654 (See HART-
LIB, SAMUEL ) It was in this Discourse, that
realistic education of the seventeenth century re-
ceived its earliest, clearest statement; and, as
Mr Quick suggested, Comemus probably took
from it the idea of an illustrated Orbis pictm
(Quick, R. H, Educational Refoirncix, p 166)
Lubinus savs that living creatures ought to
be painted and shown to children, and only
those known to children should at first be given
the Latin names (See also KINNER, CYPRIAN )
All terms or words, he furthei says, of things
which can be seen and painted can be taken
from the Nomenclator of Hadnanus Junius
(qv), provided those are first chosen which
are already known by the child Lubinus is
thus the father of systematic pictoiial illus-
1 ration as an educational method F. W.

Reference : —

LAUKIE, S S John Amos Comenius (Cambridge,
1887)

LUCA DE BORGO SAN SEPOLCRO —

See PACIUOLO

LUCIAN OF ANTIOCH.— Pieshyter and

martyr, holds a place in the history of peda-
gogy, not as formulating pedagogical pimciplcs,
but as giving the characteristic tendencv of what
is known as the School of Antioch The first
known teacher of that school was Malchion,
who seems to have combined general education
with specifically theological instruction, and who
confuted Paul of Samosata, Bishop of Antioch,
and brought about his deposition Whether
Lucian shared the opinions of Paul at the time
cannot be determined A creed written by
Lucian, or attributed to him, shows little re-
semblance to the teachings of Paul It is
highly probable that he left the communion of
the Church about the time Paul was deposed,
and remained out of communion under the next
successors of that prelate, or from about 275
A D. to 303 But m spite of his highly equiv-
ocal ecclesiastical position, he became head of
the local theological school. His great contri-
bution to the work of that institution was
insistence upon what are now recognized as the
fundamental principles of scientific exegesis,
or the literal and grammatical interpretation
as opposed to the allegorical method at that

92

time geneially in vogue in the Church This
spirit of scientific exegesis makes the work of
the Antiochian exegetes of permanent worth
In speculative theology Lucian 's efforts were
by no means so fortunate. Anus, Eusebius
of Nicomedia, and several other early leaders
of Ariamsrn were trained by Lucian. Of the
works of this great teacher only fragments re-
main His edition of the Scptuagitd was long
widely used in the churches of Constanti-
nople, Asia Minor, and Antioch It does not
exist to-day as a whole, and its reconstruction
is a task yet unperformed Of his exegetical
work only fragments remain, but his principles
are abundantly illustrated in the still valuable
commentaries of Chrysostom and Theodore
of Mopsuestia Lucian died as a martyr in
Nicomedia, Jan 7, 312

The material for the life of Lucian is singularly
scanty About all that is known has been
gathered by A Harnack in his article m the
Realencyclopaedie fur protcvtanti&chc Theologic
Accounts may be found in the various histories
of the Christian Church His literary le-
mains are to be found in Routh, ReliquiCR
xacrce, Vol IV J C. A., Ji

LUDER, PETER (c 1415-r 1474) —Gor-
man humanist, chiefly worthy of note as the
first humanist lecturer in any German univer-
sity He had himself studied at the University
of Heidelberg He had spent much time in
Italy as a student at Ferrara under Guanno,
had made a vovage to Gieece, and had studied
medicine at Padua In 1456 he was appointed
Professor of Poetry and Rhetoric at Heidelberg,
and delivered an inaugural address in praise
of the humanistic studies, defending them
against charges of immoral tendencies He
met \\ith opposition both of the students and
the clergv He next appeared at Erfurt in
H60, and in 1402 at Leipzig After a short
time at Hasel (1464), he is lost sight of in the
retinue of Duke Sigismund of Austria

Reference : —

PAULHKN, Fit Geschichte des gelehrten Untemchta.
(Leipzig, 1896 )

LUDIMAGISTER (Ludi-Mogisler, master of
a school) — The term used in Rome for the
teacher of an elementary school (Indus), also
called litcrator Only the rudiments of reading,
writing, and calculation were taught here The
term appears again in the English schools of the
sixteenth centuiy, when lucfimagistcr is synony-
mous with archididascidux and Headmaster.
In Germany the term ludirector is found at
the same period

See ROMAN EDUCATION

LUNCHES AND LUNCHROOMS IN
SCHOOLS — (See also FOOD AND FEEDING OF
SCHOOL CHILDREN for the dietetic aspect of the
subject ) The need of school lunches is now

LUNCHES AND LUNCHROOMS

LlirSET

so generally recognized that fe\\ large high
schools are without them, and the elementary
schools are beginning to take up the problem
in earnest When the distance between home
and school makes the noon luncheon at home
impossible for the child, there is scaicely a
justifiable argument against its pio\ision at
school Too little care is given to lunch earned
by the children even from the better homes,
its daily preparation being iimvei sally conceded
to be the most irksome of all household duties,
and the carrying of it so disagreeable to the
child that no lunch at all is preferable If
money is given to buy lunch with unguided
choice, it is spent at alluring push-carts for
unwholesome, even poisonous, hot meat sand-
wiches and for ice-cream cones and pickles
It is wise and often necessarv to make outside
purchase impossible, as has been done in many
schools

High Schools — The problem of providing
high school lunches has been met in most
schools in the following way the Board of
Education provides the rooms and permanent
equipment, — chairs, tables, ranges, hot water,
gas, etc , — and either awards the concession
to some individual or club, thus receiving a
suitable per cent on the investment, as Chicago
does in her nineteen high schools, or appoints
at a salarv a woman who takes charge of it as
of anv other department of the school, and
works out intelligently the problem of providing
at minimum cost the best of food in hygienic
and appetizing variety This method is fol-
lowed in St Louis and Indianapolis With
the first method the profit goes to an individual
or club, and carries with it the temptation to
sacrifice quality for gam With the second,
the profit that accrues is used for unproved
equipment and facilities, or allowed to grov\ as
a school fund for whatever use the Board may
specify, or is taken periodically as the basis for
reduction in puces charged A combination
of the first and last ways has been used in the
Manual Training High School of Indianapolis,
until in two years the tableware was greatly
improved, with an astonishing effect upon the
mariners of the children at table, and the price
of luncheon was reduced almost half The
medium of exchange in use theie is an alumi-
num check of three-cent value This htivs any
of six or eight kinds of sandwiches, geneious
in size and of excellent quality, salad, sauce, or
iiesh fruit, a large bowl of soup with fiesh
toast, any hot vegetable, coffee, cocoa, milk,
pie, or ice-cream Two of these checks buv
hot roast, dressing and gravv, finer salads with
wafers, or an ample howl of shredded wheat
and cream In St Louis a five-cent check
buys a combination, such as sandwich and
milk, salad and wafers, individual baked beans
with bread and butter, etc Nine or ten cents
at these places buys a much better luncheon
than most children ever bring from home In
the Englewood (111) high school, which is

excellently conducted by a woman's club, the
average cost of luncheon to the child is twelve
cents In these schools every article of food
is of superior quality, and the cooking and
cleanliness are above reproach The general
plan for getting the work done is to employ
competent women at good wages in the kitchen,
and let students assist in serving, with pay
according to time given Each person eating
gets his own dishes and food, paving for the
latter as he takes it, and after eating carries
his dishes and any paper or refuse to receptacles
for these, and the bare tables are washed for
the second sitting Nowhere is the buying of
food compulsory Children may bring all or
part of their luncheon and use tables and dishes
without charge; but in ordei to make it suc-
cessful it is well to have some restriction upon
outside buying by avoiding the open noon
hour and making the lunchroom attractive
and the quality of food 11 resistible The fre-
quent requests for pickles, bakers' pastries, etc ,
soon die out, and the absence of headaches
and afternoon languor is acknowledged

Elementary Schools — The problem of
school lunches is only beginning to be solved
m elementary schools, where the longer icces.s
and shorter distance tend to make it less
serious During the present year (1911) the
Board of Education of Chicago has begun an
experiment to provide suitable noonday lunch-
eons for children uhose mothers aie away from
home during the dav The plan is being tiled
in three centers Foi one cent the child is
prcnided with (1) a sandwich of bread and
jam or bread and svrup, and a glass of milk, 01
(2) a bowl of bean or pea soup with biead A
woman is employed to prepare and serve this,
and whatever cost exceeds the sum bi ought bv
the children is borne by the Board of Education
One school in the poorer distucts of Indian-
apolis has successfully furnished a bowl of
soup and toast at one cent A woman living
near does the cooking, friends give dishes, and
the children do the serving under direction of
teachers Jt makes a social hour, and nnpiove-
ment is noticeable in the manners, the physical
appearance of the children, and in then ability
to do the afternoon work. K. K. (\

LUND, UNIVERSITY OF. — See SWEDEN,
EDUCATION IN

LUPSET, THOMAS (r 149S-1530) —
Scholar and prot6g6 of Dean Colet (qv), who
placed him in St Paul's School and later
maintained him at Pembroke Hall, Cambridge
In 1515 Lupset went to Italy and on his return
graduated BA at Pans Settling at Oxford
in 1521, he lectured on Caidmal Wolsey's
foundation on the humanities and Greek.
From 1526 onwards he held several rectories
Lupset belonged to the circle which included
Colet, Moie, Erasmus, and Linacie He
prepared and corrected work foi the press of

93

LUTHER COLLEGE

Erasmus, Linacre (Galen), and More ( Utopia,
2d ed ) In a letter to Colet (1512) Erasmus
says of him, "Thomas Lupset, your true pupil,
is both useful and agreeable to me by his daily
companionship, and the assistance he lends me
in these corrections "

References : —

Dictionary of National Biography

NICHOLS, F M The Epistles of Erasmus, Vol. II.
(London, 1904 )

LUTHER COLLEGE, DECORAH, IA —

Opened in 1861 near La Crosse, Wis , and
moved to its present location in 1862 It is
under the control of the Norwegian Lutheran
Synod A four-year preparatory department
is maintained in addition to the college. Can-
didates are admitted on completion of a four-
year preparatory course The degree of A B
is conferred The faculty consists of sixteen
members

LUTHER, MARTIN (1483-1546) —The
great German Protestant reformer and advo-
cate of the development of an organization of
schools and the reformation of school subjects
and school work He was born at Kislebcn,
and brought up at Mansfield in Saxony In
1497 he went to school at Magdeburg, and then
to Eisenach He went to the University of
Erfurt in 1501 In 1505 he entered the Augus-
tinian Monastery at Erfurt In 1508 Luther
was called to become a professor in the newly
established University of Wittenberg, where
his duties were to lecture on the Dialectics and
Physics of Aristotle In 1509 he became a
Bachelor of Theology, and thus was entitled to
lecture on the text of the Holy Scriptures;
and in the same year he was invited to Erfurt
to lecture to higher students in theology In

1511 Luther went to Rome on a mission con-
nected with Erfurt, arid the experiences derived
from this journey were highly educative In

1512 he became sub-prior of the monastery
at Wittenberg, and in the same year he took
the degree of Doctor of Theology in the Univer-
sity of Wittenberg, and became professor of
theology — then devoting his whole mind to
scriptural studies — first to the Psalms, then
to the Epistle to the Romans, learning Greek for
that purpose He read much of Augustine,
and of the recent writers, especially Taulcr
In 1517 he issued his Ninety-Five Theses with
regard to Indulgences These were placed on
the door of the Castle Church at Wittenberg,
this act being regarded as the starting-point of
the Reformation. In 1520 a Bull was issued
against Luther, and in 1521, at the Diet of
Worms, he was called upon to recant He
refused to do anything against conscience
Called upon, accordingly, to help to build anew
the Church, Luther set upon the work of
translating the whole of the Scriptures into
German The New Testament was published
in 1522, the canonical books of the Old

94

LUTHER, MARTIN

Testament were finished in 1532, and the
Apocrypha in 1534, in which year the transla-
tion of the whole Bible into the vernacular
first appeared

Revolutions in Church doctrine and govern-
ment have usually been accompanied by
changes in educational systems. Luther saw
the necessity of a reformation of schools, as
soon as he became conscious of the need for a
reformation of the Church, since the religious
instruction of the child in the family and in the
school was the very basis for the continuity of
the new faith After his translation of the
New Testament, he prepared his Larger and
Smaller Catechwnix, which were issued in 1529
(Sec CATECHISM ) He was made miserable by
the fact that "the common people know
nothing at all of Christian doctrines, and many
pastors are well-nigh unskilled and incapable
of teaching " In his preface to the Larger
Catechism he insists that it is the duty of the
father of each household at least once a week to
question his childien and servants in this
Catechism Luther thus is the pioneer of
Protestant household instruction in lehgious
subjects Luther's Hymns, in the collection
known as Geixtliches Gewngbuch (1525), con-
taining thirty-two hymns, of which twenty-
four were by Luthei , was composed for the use
of schoolboys as choristers. His hymn begin-
ning Em feste Buig ist anscr Gott is a Christian
classic for both children and adults Luther
is of profound significance in his insistence on
the educational and religious possibilities of
family life, and the idea of the good housewife
and good men of the house, and good house
government with Protestant religious training
has sunk into the German consciousness as
one of the great traditions of Lutheran influence
Luther's pimcipal woiks bearing directly on
schools and education are the Letter to the
Manois and Aldermen of all the Cities nt BehalJ
of Christian Schools (1524), and the Sermon on
the Duty of Sending Children to School (1530)
Pie advocates the necessity of schools foi
religion and for supplying preachers, jurists,
scribes, physicians, schoolmasters, as well as
rulers But he would have all children, boys
and girls, go to school for an hour or two a
day, and still leave them time to learn to
do business work and housework as well
So necessary is schooling that Luther advocated
compulsion " For if magistrates may com-
pel their sturdy subjects to handle musket and
pike in war, how much more should they compel
subjects to keep their children at school. For
there is a worse war to be waged with the devil,
who is busied secretly thus to impoverish towns
and principality through the absence of edu-
cation " Therefore magistrates should be
warned to keep all suitable boys at school
" To give money for this purpose is, rightly
speaking, to give money to churches. This
is not releasing souls from purgatory, it is
wiling souls from going anywhere but to

LUTHER, MARTIN

LUTHERAN CHURCH

heaven " But Luther does not only base his
arguments for the need of schools on religious
grounds, for he says, " Were there neither soul,
nor heaven, nor hell, it would be still necessary
to have schools for the sake of affairs here
below," and again, " The highest welfare,
safety and power of a city consists in able,
learned, wise, upright, cultivated citizens, who
can secure, preserve and utilize every treasure
and advantage " Education, accordingly, was
conceived by him as an essential preparation
for the ordinary duties of life in the home, voca-
tion, civic life, and the church It is not sur-
prising, then, to find how highly Luther appre-
ciates the services of the teacher In one
of his sermons he says : " A diligent devoted
school-teachei, who faith fully trains arid teaches
boys can never receive an adequate reward,
and no money is sufficient to pay the debt you
owe him " He says elsewhere, " If I were not
a preacher, there is no other calling on earth I
would have rather than that of schoolmaster
We must not consider how the world esteems
it and rewards it, but how God looks upon it "
Luther recognizes the disciplinary value of
teaching on the schoolmaster himself, and SHVS
he would wish to see all preachers go through
the experience of schoolmastermg before tak-
ing up that office " When one has taught
about ten years, then he can give up teaching
with a good conscience"

Luther advocates the learning of the classical
languages God has not caused the Scriptures
to be written in Hebrew and Greek in vain
Where these languages flourish, the power of
the prince of darkness will be destroyed, and the
glosses of scholastics become useless Lan-
guages are best learned by practice We learn
the vernacular from oral speech at home, in
the market, and in the4 pulpit better than
through books Grammatical knowledge is
important, but the knowledge of subject
matter is essential, arid particulaily in the
teacher Mathematics should be taught at
the university stage. Luther combated as-
trology, pointing out that Esau and Jacob were
born under the same constellation, and yet
were so dissimilar in disposition History is
an important study, teaching us through
examples and illustrations What philosophy,
founded on reason, discloses as helpful to noble
living, history shows forth in living example
Out of stories and histories, nearly all laws, arts,
and examples of wisdom, comfort, fear, strength,
courage, instruction arise Luther urges the
study of dialectic, as showing order and
reason, and the grounds of forming judgments
Rhetoric should be studied, so that we may be
effective in putting points to others Dialectic,
he says, is proper to the reason; rhetoric as an
influence on the will Music is a beautiful,
noble gift of God, near in its educative position
to theology " Unless a schoolmaster sings,"
says Luther, " I think little of him" It has
been claimed for Luther that he suppoitcd

nature study For he argued that "now we
look forward to attain the knowledge' again of
the created world, which was lost by Adam's
Fall Now we regard more rightly the crea-
tures of God than we did in the old religion "
As to physical exercises, Luther says " These
two exercises and pastimes please me best of
all, viz music arid the tournament with fenc-
ing, wrestling, etc The former drives away
anxiety from the heart, and gloomy thoughts
The latter renders the limbs of the body
elegant, fit, and well-proportioned, and keeps
it in health and elasticity, etc "

Luther thus touches on many points of edu-
cational theory and practice All his education
is subordinate to the religious motif, vet it
includes the greatest questions, religious teach-
ing, family education, the vernacular As the
translator of the Sciiptures into Geiman, the
writer of the German Catechism, the writer of
German hymns, and, in puisuance of these aims,
the teacher and trainer of his own children,
Luther stands out as the Prophet of German
popular education, and the inspirer of princes
and magistrates in the erection of popular
schools His sympathetic attraction to teach-
ing is shown bv his words " Let no man
think himself so intelligent that he can despise
children's play When Christ wished to teach
man, He had to become a man If we are to
tram children, then we must become children
with them " P. W.

References : —

BESTE, A W. F Lathers Kinderzucht in Lehren und

Lehciu>bt,lduno dargv&ttltt (Brunswick, 1S46 )
BUCHWALD, O Mfirtin Luther Em Lebcn^bild fur dd\

dcutxrhe Haux (Leipzig und Berlin, 1902 )
BKUHTLEIN, J Jjutheis Einjlu&t, auf da* Volks^thnl-

uvsen und d< n Reliuion*>unttmchl (Jena, 1802)
DITTEK, Fit Geschichtc dcr Erzi(hung und de& lrnta-

richts (Leipzig, 1890 )
FROBOHE D> Martin Luthcr\ ernnte kraftiyt Wort< an

Eltcin und Erztrhet (Gottingen, 1822 )
GEDIKL, F Luthcr.\ Padagogik odir Gidanhin nh< i

Krzuhung und Schulwcsrn aut> Luffur^ S<hnft<n

Oesannnelt (Berlin, 171)2 )
HKINKMANN, L Luther ah Padagogc (Braunschweig,

188.S )

JACOBS, H E Martin Luther, The Hero of tht Rt for-
mation (New York, 1898 )
KEFERHTLIN. H Martin Lutfiers Padagouischc Sthrif-

tcn and Au^erungen (Langensalza, 1888 )
KOSTLIN, J Martin Luther, his Lift and H orl (New

York, 1898 )
PAINTLR, F V \T Jjuftia on Edmation (Philadelphia,

1889)
SCHILLER, M Luthci uher thrixtluhi Kinderzucht

2d erl (Frankfort-a.-M , 185-4 )
S( HMii), K V (Icf>(hithl( d<r Krznhung, Vol II, Pt 2

(Stuttgait, 1880 )
SCHUMANN, ,1 C G Martin Luther* Pddagogischc

SchrifUn Contains an Introduction. (Wien und

Leipzig, 1884 )
WACE, HENRY, and BUCHHKIM, C A Luttier's Primary

Work* (London, 1896)

LUTHERAN CHURCH AND EDUCATION
IN THE UNITED STATES —Certain eccle-
siastical bodies, because of thpir attitude toward
public education and their belief in parochial
.systems oi .schools, deserve special notice.

9.5

LUTHERAN CHURCH

LUTHERAN CHURCH

Among the Protestant denominations, the
Lutheran is the most conspicuous of these.

Historical Development — When the Ger-
mans began to settle in America in larger num-
bers during the eighteenth century, they at once
provided for the schooling of their children
Every German sect hud its parochial schools
Wherever a community erected a house of wor-
ship, it immediately also established a school
The ministers were frequently the school teach-
ers. Some schools had professional teachers,
who had come over from Europe, and some of
these weie men of a superior education, who
soon became the leading spirits of their colonies,
as John Ulmer in Maine, who led the German
soldiers in the siege of Louisburg. The Palatine
schoolmaster, John Thomas Schley, who was the
mainstay of school, church, and community in
Frederick, Md., Holzklo in Virginia, Arndt m
North Carolina, and above all Franz Daniel
Pastorius, the scholar and leader of German-
town, weie other eminent pioneer teachers
The Swedish Lutheran congregation at Chns-
tuinia in 1699 had a school and a teachei In the
instructions given in 1749 to M Acrelius, as
" Propst " oi the Swedish Lutheran Church in
America, he was on joined As soon after his
arrival in America as he might familiarize him-
self with conditions there, he should endeavor
to institute a school for children in each con-
gregation

The activities of the Luthemn and of other
German religious bodies is summarized in the
historical sections of the article on Pennsyl-
vania (See also GERMAN INFLUENCE ON
AMERICAN EDUCATION ) The Lutheran was
the most import-ant of these German sects
Their activity has been continuous H M
Muehlenberg and Schlatter, Kunsse, Helmut h,
and Schmidt, who had onee been students of
Francke at Halle, did much to impiovo the
cause of parochial schools At the first meet-
ing of the Miiiistenum of Pennsylvania (1748),
Brunnholtz made a full leport on "The Condi-
tion of the Schools " In 1750 flourishing
schools are reported m all the congregations
except one. In 1796 the steps taken by the
Assembly toward the introduction of " free
schools v aroused the feais of the Mmistpriiirn
that its parochial schools might suffer injury
thereby, and a committee was appointed to
address a petition to the Assembly on the
subject In 1S04, 26 congregations repoit 89
schools, 111 1X13, 164 schools are* reported
by 52 pastors, in 1820, 206 parochial schools
in 84 congregations The American public
school system in course of time gradually
absorbed the parochial schools of the older
German churches in the East Still, up to
the third quarter of the century, many
excellent parochial schools are found in the
Ministerium of Pennsylvania and New York
The mother congregation, St Michael's and
Zion's, in Philadelphia, was particular! v active
in this field In 1744 John F Vigeia, an excel-

lent teacher, is mentioned as its schoolmaster.
In 1761 the schoolhousc on Cherry Street was
opened In 1800 the congregation had four
schools, with 250 children. In 1870 the con-
gregation had about 1000 children in its paro-
chial schools in different parts of the city
Among the schoolmasters were Schmauk, Haas,
Lang, Schnabel In the New York Mmis-
teriuin the number of parochial schools is
considerably larger in proportion than in Penn-
sylvania The serious difficulty with which
the parochial school system had to contend in
these two oldest synods is the lack of a teachers'
seminary In 1871 a society was organized in
New York for the founding of such an institu-
tion, but the plan finally failed from lack of
proper support.

Development of Present System — The
Lutheran parochial school system reached its
greatest development in America in the North
Central states within the congregations affili-
ated with the Lutheran synods of Missouri,
Wisconsin, Ohio, and Iowa A twofold purpose
actuated the members of this church in found-
ing and maintaining parochial schools first,
the desire to bring up their children in the
faith of then church, and second, the wish to
maintain and transmit their mother tongue
and German cultuie Schools were therefore
organized, if possible, in every congregation or
parish, and it was considered a function incum-
bent on the pastor to lead in the establishment
of schools within his parish, and not only to
superintend, but also, circumstances not allow-
ing the appointment of a professional teacher,
to impart instruction himself

The individual congregation owns its paro-
chial school and controls it through a school
boaicl elected by the congiegation, of which
the pastor as a rule is an ex officio member
The teachers aie usually called by the congiega-
tions without a time limit and with a fixed
salary They also serve as organists and musi-
cal dnectors of the congregation The finan-
cial expenses of the school are covered by fixed
and graded tuition out of the congregation treas-
ury or by voluntary contribution. The school
year comprises from thirty-hve to forty-eight
weeks, with holidays and summer vacations In
schools where several teachers are employed,
the curriculum follows as far as possible that
of the public schools, the aim being to equal the
course of the seventh grade in the public schools.
Male teachers aie employed almost exclusively.
In some schools the primary department is in
charge of a lady teacher Some congregations
maintain a parochial school during the summer
months or only on Saturdays, instruction being
given as a rule only in lehgion and German, the
children attending the public schools during the
remainder of the school year. Courses of study
for the different grades have been published,
comprising instruction in religion, English,
German, arithmetic, history, geography, sing-
ing, drawing The teachers of each synodical

LUTHERAN CHURCH

LITHKRAN CHURCH

district hold regular monthly 01 quarterly con-
ferences or institutes, and also a yearly general
teachers' meeting

Since 1866 the Missouri synod publishes the
Lutherische Schulblatt, a monthly, edited hv the
faculty of the Addison Teachers' Seminary and
published at St Louis, Mo In 1876 the Wis-
consin synod began to publish the Lutheiischc
Rchulzeitung, edited by Dr F W A Not/,
Watertown, Wis , till 1894, and by the faculty
of the Martin Luther College, New Him, Minn ,
till 1905

In order to supply well educated and trained
teachers who should be in close touch with the
interests of the Lutheran Church, Lutheran
normal schools were established Pioneer work
along this line was done by the Missouri synod
As the number of parochial schools and interest
in good schools grew, several Lutheian synods
established and maintained normal schools,
either independent of or in connection with
other educational institutions These "teach-
ers' seminaries " combine certain features of
the German type of Lehrerwuitntir with the
educational system obtaining in 0111 Ameiican
noi mal schools The full course in the piepaia-
loiy and in the seminary depaitments embiaces
hye or six years

In 1890 the parochial school question became
a leading political issue in Wisconsin and in
Illinois The legislature of Wisconsin at the
session in 188() enacted the so-called " Bennett
Law " (so named iiom the member who intro-
duced the bill), ch 519 of the L.iws of Wis-
consin, which had been passed without the
knowledge of those most interested against
it The chief provisions were Coinpulsoiv
attendance of the child foi a peiiod not less
than twelve noi more than twenty-four weeks
in each year, to be fixed annually, in advance
of Sept 1, by the school board in each
district or city, that such attendance should
be consecutive during such portion of the com-
pulsory period as the board should determine,
while excuse for non-attendance was required
to be made out to the satisfaction of that
board as the sole and final judge, and con-
cluded these provisions with the following
section " No school shall be regarded as a
school under this act, unless there shall be
taught therein as part of the elementary educa-
tion of children, reading, writing, arithmetic, and
United States history in the English language "
Here the statute confessedly denounced as no
school within its purview any private school
which did not conform to these requirements
This legislation asserted as fundamental doc-
trine, first, the right of a public authority to
prescribe the course and subjects of instruction
in schools maintained as purely private estab-
lishments, without public cost, by parents who
seek to educate their children after the dic-
tates of conscience, and, secondly, the right
of the State to intervene between any parent
and child, and, tn loco parent urn, to assume and

contiol the education of all ehildien A bit-
tei political controversy arose The Lutheians,
who had 380 parochial schools with 20,000
pupils in Wisconsin, and the Roman Catholics,
with equally large interests involved, vigorously
protested against this law as interfering with
parental relation, personal liberty, and matters
of conscience In the election of 1892 the
party that had passed the law was oveiwhelrn-
mgly defeated and the law was repealed A
compulsory attendance law was then brought
forth, which has since given general satisfac-
tion (Lutherische tidinlznt-ung, Vol XII ff,
and Thv Fmum, Vol XII, No' 2; W F Vilas.
The Bennett Law in Wisconsin )

At the World's Fair at St Louis 460 male
and 37 female teachers of the Missouri
synod made an exhibit of the work of their
parochial school pupils in English language,
United States history, geography, arithmetic,
religion, German language, physiology, zoology,
botany, gcneial history, penmanship in Kng-
lish and German, drawing The exhibit was
awarded a gold medal The members of
the jury foi elementary school work stated
that the written work in this synodical exhibit
was unsurpassed As woithv of special merit
the Geiman language work was mentioned,
and the manner in which the two parallel lan-
guages, Knghsh and German, were successfully
taught and the difficulties overcome The
growth and development of the parochial
schools within the Missouri synod was as
follows —

INSTRUCTORS

T( a c hers ] Pupils

5 50K
51 4/)74
22,087
251 25,300

Lutheran pastors who went to Ohio in 1805
and in the following years began at once to or-
ganize parochial schools In 1815 there were
t went v-one parish schools in that state, in 1817,
forty-eight, in 1810, fifty-seven

Present Status — In the year 1910 the pa-
rochial school work of the Evangelical Lutheran
Church in America comprised 4802 parish
s( hools, 3492 teachers, 244,198 pupils, which
were distributed among the following synods
synodical confeience 2055 parish schools,
1386 teacheis, 132,927 pupils, general council1
594 parish schools, 748 teacheis, 26,588 pupils,
general synod 36 parish schools, 3 teachers,
1 100 pupils, independent synods 1577 parish
schools, 1355 teachers, 85,583 pupils

There are several normal schools main-
tained bv Lutheran synods in the United States.
In 1854 the Missouri synod founded a teach-
ers' seminary in Milwaukee, Wis , which was
transferred to Addison, 111 , in 1864 During

YFAR

$< HOOLH

P \HTORH

1H4S

14

9

1NOS
1S7J

475

171
224

VOL IV H

97

LUTHERAN CHURCH

LUTHERAN CHURCH

the past twenty years, 710 teachers have been
educated there Following are the Lutheran
normal schools in America Teachers' Semi-
nary, Addison, 111, 11 instructors, 175
students, 6 classes, Teachers' Seminary,
Seward, Neb, 8 instructors, 117 students,
Martin Luther College, New Uhn, Minn , 8
professors, 118 students, Lutheran Normal
School, Sioux Falls, S D , 8 instructors, 147
students; Lutheran Normal School, Madison,
Minn, 182 students, 6 teachers, Teachers'
Seminary, Woodville, Ohio, 71 students, 5
teachers, Wartburg Teachers' Seminary, Wa-
verly, la , 84 students, 5 teachers

Higher Education — No other church, in
pioportiou to its membership and lesoureeb,
has established so many colleges and semi-
naries in the United States as the Lutheran
Church The Lutheran educational institu-
tions number 126, having property valued
at $9,667,800, endowments amounting to
$3,104,200, with 505,110 volumes in their
libraries, employing 1049 professors, having
16,731 students

Theological fiemtnanex, 26, with property
valued at $2,196,300, endowments amounting
to $1,100,100, having 163,420 volumes in their
libraries, employing 92 professors, and having
1144 students

Academies, 53, value of property, $1,907,000;
amounts of endowment, $96,500 , volumes in li-
braries, 59,610, professors, 382, students, 6730.

Indies' Colleges and Seminaries, 8, value of prop-
erty, $760,000, amount of endowment, $1000;
volumes in libraries, 4850, professors, 104, stu-
dents, 927

Colleges, 39, with property valued at $4,804,500 ,
amount of endowments, $1,906,000; volumes in
libraries, 277,230, employing 471 professors and
having 4950 students in college departments and
2980 students in other departments The major-
ity of the colleges are open to both sexes But
there are a few institutions devoted exclusively
to the higher education of women The two old-
est Lutheran Colleges in America are Pennsyl-
vania College, Gettysburg, Pa , founded in 1832,
and Concordia College, Ft Wayne, Ind., founded
in 1839 * W. N.

LUTHERAN COLLEGES, 1910-1911

(Colleges marked with an asterisk give courses based on twelve to fifteen units of entrance requirements and leading

to degrees)

* \ugustaria (co]

I860

Rock Island, 111

Rex G A Andrews, Ph.D

25

557

*Custavus Adolphus (eo]

1862

St Peter, Mum

Rev J P Uhler, Ph D

20

373

* Muhlenberg

1867

Allentown, Pa

Rev ,1 A Haas, D D

15

132

* Thiel (eo)

1870

Greenville, Pa

Rev C Theodoie Bcrizc

jl

112

* Bethany (co)

1881

Lindsborg, Kan

Rev E F Pihlblad, D D

46

886

Wagner Memorial

1883

Rochestei, N ^

Rev H I) Krueling

5

42

Luther (oo)

1883

Wahoo, Neb

Rev O J Johnson, H D

15

290

* Upsala (eo)

1893

Kcinl worth, N J

Prof. A R Wallm, A M

14

163

Wndnei Institute (eo)

1900

Mulberry Ind

Rev A H Arbaugh, A B

. 7

30

Yugsburg

1869

Minneapolis, Minn

Vacant

8

161

Augustana (eo)

1860

C'aiiton, S D

Rev Anthony G Tuve

11

250

Capital University

1850

Columbus, ()

Rev .1 H Schuh, Ph D

11

118

* ( "arthage (eo)

1870

Carthage, 111

Rev H D Hoover, Ph D

15

163

California Concordia

1906

East Oakland, Cal

Prof Th. Brohm

2

18

Concordia

1839

Fort Wavne, Ind

Rev M Luccke

11

230

Corieordia

1881

Milwaukee, Wis

Rev M J F Albrecht

8

1JH

Concord la (eo)

1881

Couovei, N C

Rev Geo A Rornoser

4

52

Concordia

1881

Bronxville, N Y

Rev H Feth

7

101

Coneoidia (eo)

1891

Moorehead, Mmri

Rev H O Shurson

25

470

Concordia

1893

St Paul, Minn

Rex Theo Buenger

9

156

Concordia (co)

1904

New Oi leans, La

Rev Chas Niermann

4

28

Concordia,

1905

Portland, Ore

Prof F W J Sylvester

2

15

Dana

1886

Blair, Neb

Rev C X Hansen

5

158

Imrnanuel Lutheran

1903

Greensboro, N C

Rev F Berg

7

200

Lenoir (co)

1891

Hickory, N C

Rev R L Fritz, A M

15

225

Luther (co)

1903

New Orleans, La

Prof R A Wilde

2

27

Lutheran

1861

Decorah, la

Rev C K Preus

13

200

Luther Prosemmary

St Paul, Minn

Rev H Ernst, D D

5

70

Midland . (co)

1887

Atchison, Kan

Rev M F Troxell, D D

12

172

New berry

1856

New berry, S C

Rev J H Harms

15

242

Northwestein Univ (co)

1864

Watertown, Ww

Prof A F Ernst

12

275

* Park R'-gion Luther (co)

1892

Fergus Fallh, Minn

Rev D C} Ristad

13

200

* Pennsylvania (co)

1832

Gettysburg, Pa

Prof W A Granville, Ph D

19

304

Red Wmg Seminary

1879

Red Wing, Minn

Rev Edw W Schmidt

9

152

* Roanoke

1852

Salem, Va

Rev J A Moorehead, D D.

14

206

St John's Luth (oo)

1893

Wmheld, Kan

Rev A W Meyer

9

93

*St Olaf (oo)

1874

Noithficld, Minn

Rev John N Kildahl

30

496

St Paul's

1884

Con cord la. Mo

Rev J H C Kappel

8

142

Suonii (oo)

1896

Hancock, Mich

Rev .1 K Nikander

10

100

*Susquehanna Univ (co)

1858

Sehnsgrove, Pa

Rev Chas R. Aikens, D D

22

258

Wartburg

1868

Clinton, Iowa

Rev J Fntschel

7

84

* Wittenberg (co)

1845

Springfield, O

Rev Chas G Heekert, D.D

16

703

LUXEMBURG

LUXEMBURG

References : —

Lutheran Church Almanac, Philadelphia, Pa

Lutheran Cyclopedia

Special Report of the Census Bureau on Religious Bodies,
1906 (Washington, Government printing office
1910), pp 354, 35K, 360, 363, 367, 370, 372, 381,
386, 391, 395

LUXEMBURG, EDUCATION IN — The

Grand Duchy of Luxemburg comprises an area
of about 1000 square miles on the east side of
the Rhine, and a population of 246,500 (1905)
The religion of the state is Roman Catholic,
but liberty of conscience is respected, and the
few dissentients, about 2269 Protestants, 1200
Jews, and 240 members of other sects, are pro-
tected in all rights and privileges In the
eleventh century a county or earldom within
the German Empire, Luxemburg was con-
stituted a giand duchy in 1354, and during the
five centuries following, the sovereignty ovei
the state was determined by the course of
empire in central and western Europe In the
latter part of the fifteenth century Luxemburg
was a possession of the House of Austria, after
the death of Charles V the country was ceded
to Spam, it came again under Austrian do-
minion at the beginning of the eighteenth cen-
tury, and during the wars of the Revolution was
annexed to France The congress of Vienna
assigned the grand duchy to the King of
the Netherlands, a i elation broken up bv the
revolt of 1830, but restored in 1839, finally by
the treaty of London, 1867, the grand duchy
was declared neutral territory, and at the death
of the King of the Netherlands in 1890, by
reason of tiie Salic law its control passed to
Adolph, Duke of Nassau

The educational history of the country pnor
to 1839 is identified with that of the states
with which it has been successively united

By the constitution of the grand duchy
(beaimg date Oct 17, 1868), public educa-
tion is placed under the geneial supervision of
the government, and is regulated by legislative
acts and by official decrees emanating fiom
the Grand Duke Primary education forms a
department in the Mimstiy of the In tenor
under the charge of a Director-General, who is
assisted by a Council of Public Instruction and a
permanent committee formed from the members
of the council

The system of primary education is based
upon the law of July 26, 1843 Subsequent
modifying laws are the laws of July 20, 1869,
July 6, 1876, Jan 2, 1879, providing better
conditions for teachers, the law of Apr 23,
1878, pertaining to the establishment of higher
primary schools, and laws of Apr 20, 1881, and
of July 6, 1898, applicable to the entire system

Every commune (city or rural) is required
to establish one 01 moie schools according to
the population, and provide the suitable sites
and buildings From the first the State has
borne part of the current expenses of the
schools, and by ducal order of May 23, 1907,

the minimum amount of this aid is placed at
40 per cent oi the salaiy assured to a teacher
by the commune The law oi 1881 made
primary instruction obligatoiy for all childien
from the ages of six to twelve years Under
certain conditions exemption may be claimed
for a child at ten years of age, and communes
may also extend the compulsory period to
thirteen years of age The primary schools are
not free, the local expense for their maintenance
being borne by the communal treasury and
tuition fees in fixed proportion; the fees are,
however, remitted in case of need and the
amount met by increase in the communal ap-
propriation

The course of stud}^ foi primary schools pre-
scribed by law includes religion and morals,
German language and French language, arith-
metic, with the system of weights and meas-
ures, elements of geography and of natural
history, singing, and for girls, needlework
This program may be extended to include ele-
mentary sciences, physical and natural, linear
drawing, bookkeeping, and gymnastics

The law of 1843 required that the religious
instruction in the schools should be given by the
clergy of the respective denominations, but sub-
sequent laws provide that the subject may be
taught bv the regular teachers with the con-
sent of the local authorities and under the
diiection of the clergy

The Director-General of primary education is
appointed by the Grand Duke, as are all the chief
officials of the service The advisory council
consists of the bishop, thiee appointed members,
the inspectors of pumaiy schools, and the
director of the normal school The government
inspectors for this service are a principal in-
spector and one inspector for each of the six
divisions (arrondiwmcut*} of the duchy The
salary of the principal inspectors ranges from
5360* to 5650 fr& ($1072 to $1130), that of the
subordinate inspectors fiom 3526 to 3825 frs
($705 to $765) The local supervision of
schools is intrusted to committees consisting
in each case of the bouiqewentre (mayor), the
cure", and one or more mcmbeis of the civil
council (elective) accoidmg to the population

Teachers are appointed by the communal
authorities, acting in concert with the inspector
and with the approval of the Director-General
Candidates for appointment must have a
teacher 's certificate (brevet de capacitt) from
the Council of Public Instruction, and testi-
monials of character from the local authorities
The certificate of the lowest order entitles the
holdei to temporary appointment, permanent
appointment can only be obtained after five
yeais' experience and special examination.
The teaching force is classified in four grades
with salaries for lay teachers ranging by regular
increments from 1200 to 2100 frs ($240 to
$420) for men, from 1000 to 1500 frs ($200 to
$300) for women Lay teachers may also have
the right to a residence or a money equivalent,

99

LUXEMBURG

LUXEMBURG

at least 250 frs annually After five years'
service male teachers receive an additional sum
of 100 frs from the State, which rises by periodi-
cal increases to a maximum of 800 frs after
thirty years' service. The salaries of women
teachers are supplemented in the same way by
increments ranging from 75 frs to 600 frs

Communes are authorized to establish higher
primary schools to which pupils may be admitted
at twelve years of age for a course of two or
three years' duration The teachers of the
higher primary schools must be graduates of a
secondary school, i e gymnasium or the higher
industrial and commercial school Communes
may also maintain infant schools (school
gardens) for children under school age and con-
tinuation schools (held in the evening or on
Sunday) for adults

The department of primary education includes
the state normal school, which was established
m 1817 It is organized in two separate sec-
tions, one for young men, the other for young
women; the former are day students only.
The government offers thirty scholarships for
young men and fifteen for young women, which
cover the expense in this institution The
number of primary schools is adequate for the
needs of the population, and practically all
children in the grand duchy receive elementary
instruction The latest statistics pertaining
to this department are as follows —

STATISTICS OF PUBLIC PRIMARY SCHOOLS,

1908

1

PUPllM

TufHLHH

m
u.

Female

SCHOOLS

0

Jij

05
A

3

"3

a

o

"3

S

H

%

C*

H

^

>,

a

3

0

X

•3

y<

Higher

primary
schools

«>'>

S27

498

329

11' 8

Ordinary

1

primary
schools

802

33,885

17,338

10,547

805

459

222

184

Infant

schools .

32

1,001

32

—

11

21

Schools for

I

adults

SOO1

10,709 4,998

5,711

. _

i

..

-

According to the latest official statistics
(1908), the annual expenditure for primary
education amounted to 1,771,824 francs
($354,36480) Of this total 1,548,318 francs
($309,663 60), or 87J per cent, was for the
oidinary primary schools

In addition to the schools above considered,

1 Of this total 440 were for men, 360 for women
They are evening and Sabbath day classes, lasting about
five months in the year, in the case of the classes for
women the courses pertain very generally to the domes-
tic arts, in those for men, drawing is almost always
a pronounced feature

the State maintains an institute for deaf-mutes,
an institute for the blind at Berbourg, and one
for the feeble-minded at Betzdorf

Higher Education. — The institutions for
higher education in Luxemburg date from a
law of July 23, 1848, but have been modified
by subsequent laws The most important of
these institutions is the Atheneum of Luxem-
burg, comprising a gymnasium (classical school)
and a school of commerce and industry. The
latter, which was originally a section of the
gymnasium, was separately organized by a law
of Mar 28, 1892 There are also gymnasia at
Diekirch and Echternach, which were formerly
of inferior grade (progynmasia), but received
complete organization by law of 1900, which
provided also for the addition of industrial
sections

The gymnasia are classical schools following
German models , a law of 1 908 pi ovided foi dual
courses of instruction after the second year,
allowing choice between the classical course
and a modern course comprisingliving language*
and science Pupils are admitted to the lowest
class of the gymnasia pioper or to the industrial
sections at twelve years oi age The course of
instruction occupies six years

For technical education there is a school of
commerce and industry at Ksch-sui-1'Alzette,
dating from a law of June 16, 1901, and a
school for aitisans authorized by a law of
Mar 14, 1896, also a school of agri culture
with an experiment station at Ettelbruck,
created by law of Feb 28, 1883

The charge for tuition in the gymnasia ranges
from forty francs to sixtv francs per annum
In the school for aitisans fees are limited to
forty francs a vear, and are often remitted

The state appropriations for these higher
institutions are administered by the director-
general of finances, and their internal affairs by
special committees, appointed, as are the direc-
tors and professors, by the Grand Duke

The Luxemburg Atheneum in 1908 registered
493 students in the gymnasium and 406 in the
industrial school, the gymnasium of Diekirch
the same year had 159 students in the classical,
and 50 in the modern section

The course of instruction in the gymnasium
prepares for the examination leading to the
diploma for professors of secondary education,
and also for matriculation in the universities
of neighboring countries, Luxemburg having
no university In 1910-1911 there were fifty-
nine students from the grand duchy legistered
in French universities, and sixty-one in those of
Germany The fine arts are fostered by the
reigning family, and the Conservatory of Music
at Luxemburg is celebrated A. T. S.

References —

Annuairc ofliciel du Grand Duch& de Luxembourg pour-

1910, 1911 (Luxemburg )
BAEDEKER Belgium and Holland including the Grand

Duchy of Luxemburg (Leipzig, 1910.)
BUISBON, F Dictionnaire de Pedagogic (1911), a v.

Luxembourg

100

MurvLvon (1797 -1849)
St-c> page 101

Bertha von Mtircnholtz-Bulow (1MO-1893).
See page 13 ).

Alice Freeman Piilmei (1S55-1')02)
8co page 596

Hannah More (1715-1833)
SOP page 317

A GROITP OF WOMEN P]DUCATIONAL LEADEKS

LYOEE

LYON

Kupltort gtn&ral sur la Situation rt( rinvlruchon ]nnnai><>
dans Ic Grand Duch6 de LuxtmbourQ funfiant
V Annie, scolaire, 1^07-1908, 1908-lfK)<)

LYCEE — See FRANCE, EDUCTION IN ,
LYCEUM, GYMNASIUM

LYCEUM MOVEMENT IN THE UNITED
STATES — Josiah Holbrook (q v ), who started
the lyceuin movement at Mill bury, Mass., m
1826', stated its purposes as follows (1) The
improvement of the common schools, (2) the
formation of lecture courses and the establish-
ment of classes for the education of adulth, and
(3) the organization of libraries and museums
The first purpose became the chief feature of
the American Lyceum Association (</ v } The
chief outcome of the lyceum movement pei M
was the organization of lecture couises in many
cities and towns and the establishment oi li-
braries Bv 1831 there were 900 towns in the
United States with local lyceum organizations
Between 1825 and 1850 'most of the public
lectures in the country were under such local
organizations, and this feature of the lyceuin
movement continued prominent down to 1880
Wendell Phillips, one oi the early lyceum lectui-
ers, is said to have given his lecture on " The
Lost Arts " two thousand times before lyceuin
audiences Lowell Institute (q v ) in Boston
and the Brooklyn Institute (qv ), both of which
grew out of the lyceum movement, are still in
existence

Many town libianes were also formed by
local lyceum associations The Mercantile
Library Association of Boston, composed of
merchants and clerks in a local lyceum associa-
tion, as well as the libraries of the mechanics
institutes in many American cities, and the
societies for the diffusion of useful knowledge
interested in lecture courses and the establish-
ment of libraries and museums, were organized
and directed by the men connected with the
American Lyceum Association In iccent times
this movement has been replaced by the Chau-
tauqua movement and the University Extension
(qq r ) In some respects public lecturing has be-
come more closely allied with public amusement
than with education At present in the United
States there are about 12,000 towns and cihes
organized as lyceum centers More than 40
lyceum bureaus furnish specialists who devote all
or part of their time to this purpose, more than
750 of whom are organized with the International
Lyceum Association. W. 8 M.

LYCURGUS —The Spartan lawgivei to
whom is attributed the rigorous Spartan con-
stitution He is reputed to have lived in the
ninth century B c It is, however, generally
accepted now that the Spartan code was the
result of laws and customs which had accu-
mulated during centuries, and that, Lycurgus
was a mythical personage It is clear that. 1ho
constitution was not attributed to him until

the end oi the fifth century. Noi does the
Spartan poet, Tvrtams, make mention of him
It seems probable that Lycurgus was a local
hero 01 deity worshiped as the protector
against wolves (Li/ko-vorgos, wolf-repeller), and
that the code was attributed to him on the
analogy of the lawgivers of later times

See GREECE, ANCIENT

Reference : —
BURY, ,T B History of Greece (London, 1909.)

LYON, MARY (1797- 1849) —Founder of
Mount liolyokc College and a pioneer in the
cause of the lughei education of women in the
Tinted States Bom at Buckland, Mass , she
was hugely self-educated, as there were few
opportunities in her girlhood for the secondary
and higher education of women This lack,
together with a keen sense of the need, influ-
enced her life and started her upon a career of
educational reform that has given her rank
among the greatest women America has pro-
duced She attended the district schools in
luuil Massachusetts, and by the age of seven-
teen she was teaching m a common school near
Shelburne Falls at a wage of seventy- five cents
a week M with board " At the age of twenty
she entered the Sanderson Academy at Ash-
field, and during the next four years she alter-
nately taught in the common schools and con-
tinued her studies at the Sanderson and
Arnherst academies In 1821 she enteied the
higher school for girls conducted by Joseph
Emerson (q v } at By field, and the next year she
was an assistant teacher in Sanderson Academy
During 1S24 and 1825 she taught part of each
year in Adams Academy at Derry, N H , and
pursued courses of study for the remainder of
the time at Amherst College and the Rensselaei
Institute

From 1820 to 1828 she continued her teach-
ing during the winter at Sanderson Acadernv
anol during the summer at Adams Academy,
which at this time was under the direction oi
Mrs Zilpah Grant Banister (q v ), one of Miss
Lyon's teachers m Joseph Emerson's school
at Bvheld In 1828 Mrs. Banister organized
a seminary at Ipswich, Mass, and during the
next two years Miss Lyon taught in the
Ipswich Seminary during the summer and took
charge of a " select school " at Buckland,
Mass , during the winter She became vice-
pnneipal of the Ipswich Seminary in 1S30,
and during the next four years gave all her
time to this institution

The " select " winter school at Buckland
was m a sense the germ of Mount Holyoke
Her school was the resort of many girls who
had been, or who expected to become, teachers
Expenses were made as low as possible Tui-
tion \vas $:* a quarter, and board was ob-
tained at rates ranging from $ I to $1.25 a
week The philanthropic side of the work
appealed strongly to Miss Lyon; and when in

101

LYONS

McCOSH

1834 the Ipswich Seminary failed in its efforts
to secure an endowment, she decided to enlist
the interest of public-spirited people in the
endowment of a seminary for the higher edu-
cation of women She secured the coopera-
tion of a committee of prominent men, and a
call was issued asking for one thousand dollars
to finance the raising of the funds for the 01-
ganiaation and endowment of the seminary
Miss Lyon undertook to secure this fund from
women Within two months the thousand
dollars had been secured. Her former students,
many of whom were now teachers, contributed
a fourth of the sum, and the women in and
about Ipswich the rest Mount Holyokc was
chartered in 1836 and opened the next year.
(See MOUNT HOLYOKE COLLEGE )

During the twelve years (1837-1849) that
Miss Lyon was president of the seminary, her
work was distinctly that of a pioneer Her
institution was ridiculed and caricatured by
the secular press of the country as " a rib-
factory," " Protestant nunnery," etc But
she had faith in her mission, and her appeal
to " the common sense, the intelligence, and
the spirit of fair play," ultimately triumphed
As one of her biographers writes, " Mary Lyoii
viewed Mount Holyoke as a plant for devel-
opment, not of intellectual gymnasts, but
of enlightened, useful women " Cooperative
housework was made a feature of the sommarv,
arid the life of the institution was made thor-
oughly democratic Sixty dollars a year
covered board and tuition, exclusive of charges
for fuel and light She died at South Hadloy,
Mass , on March 5, 1849, and her remains
wore buried on the grounds of tho institution
which she had founded Beyond a pamphlet
on Female Education (1839), and the cimilars
stating the purpose and character of Mount
Hoi yoke Seminary, Miss Lyon left no educa-
tional publications W. S. M.

See also MOUNT HOLYOKE COLLEGE, WOMEN,
HIGHER EDUCATION OF, IN THE UNITED STATES

References : —

GILCHRIST, BETH BRADFORD. The Life of Mary Lyon
(Boston, 1910 )

HITCHCOCK, E Power of Christian Benevolence illus-
trated in the Life and Labors of Mary Lyon (North-
ampton, 1852 )

STOW, SARAH D History of Mount Holyoke Seminary
during the First Half Century (Springfield, 18H7 )

LYONS, UNIVERSITY OF —One of the
most recently established universities in France
Although departments and faculties arose dur-
ing the nineteenth century, they were riot con-
solidated into a university until 1890 The*
claim that a stud mm generate existed at Lyons
in the thirteenth century is denied by Rashclall
( Universities of Europe in the Middle Ages), al-
though there were undoubtedly very important
schools there Faculties of science and letters
were established in 1808, but were again closed
in 1816 The different faculties owed their
origin in large measure to the public support and

interest of public bodies. In 1834 the faculty of
science was established, and in 1838 the faculty
of letters A chair in law was founded by the
municipal council an<J the chamber of com-
merce; in 1867 the Ecole libre de Droit was
established, and became a faculty in 1875
Medical courses were given, in connection with
the hospitals of the town in 1820, and in 1834
the Ecole Itbre de Medecine was, founded, and in
1841 this was followed by the Ecole preparatoire
de Medecine et de Pharmacie. The faculty was
organized in 1877. The University of Lyons
has always adapted itself to the needs and de-
mands of a commercial and industrial city,
which on its side has always been ready with
its financial support. There are now four fac-
ulties: law, science, letters, medicine and
pharmacy; and two schools* Ecole de Chwnc
industnelle and Ecole de Tannene The enroll-
ment in 1910 was 2922 (law, 853; medicine,
953, pharmacy, 148, science, 511; letters, 436).
For the organization sec FRANCE, EDUCATION
IN

MacVICAR, MALCOLM (1829-1904) —Nor-
mal school principal , educated at Knox College
and the University of Rochester, ho graduated
from the latter institution in 1859 He was prin-
cipal of the Brockport Collegiate Institute, which
afterwards became the Brockport Normal School ,
principal of the* New York State Normal School
at Potsdam, and principal of the Michigan State
Normal School at Ypsilanti In 1888 he became
the first chancellor of MacMaster University
Ho was the inventor of the Mac Vicar tellurian
globe and tho author of a popular sonos of text-
books on arithmetic W. S M

McCORMICK THEOLOGICAL SEMI-
NARY, CHICAGO, ILL. — An institution for
tho training of candidates for the ministry under
the Presbytarian Church in the US A , founded
originally in 1830 as a branch of Hanover College,
removed to New Albany in 1840, and 1859 to
Chicago The present name was adopted in
1886 Students are admitted on completing a
regular college course The Seminary offers two
three-year courses leading to a diploma or the
B D degree.

McCOSH, JAMES (1811-1894) -"-Philoso-
pher and educator, born in Ayrshire, arid edu-
cated at Glasgow and Edinburgh universities
In 1834 he became a minister, and assisted in
establishing the Free Church of Scotland In
1850 he published The Method of Divine Gov-
ernment, physical and moral, which led to his
appointment as professor of logic and meta-
phvsics at Queen's 1 Ini vcrsity, Belfast. Here he
remained until 1868, playing an important part,
in the social and philanthropic work of the town
In 1868 he was invited to become president of
Princeton College (qv), an office which he
held until 1888, when he still continued his
connection with the college as professor of

102

McELLIGOTT

McMASTER UNIVERSITY

philosophy McCosh wrote numerous .phil-
osophical works, including Institution* of
the Mind inductively investigated (I860), An A7r-
amination of Mill's Philosophy (I860) , Scottish
Philosophy, Bibliographical and Critical (1874),
Psychology of the Cognitive Powers (1886);
Psychology of the Motive Powers (1889), Realis-
tic Philosophy defended (1887) Dr McCosli
lived at Princeton until his death on Nov 16,
1894

References —

ORMOND, A T , and HAMILTON, S M McCosh an u
Toaohor of Philoaophy Educ Rev , Vol IX, pp
122-134

SLOANE, W M. Life of James Me Cosh (New Yoik,
1896)

McELLIGOTT, JAMES NAPOLEON

(1812-1866) — Textbook author He studied
at New York University and was principal of
the School of Mechanics and Tradesmen in
New York, became president of the New Yoik
Teachers' Association in 1849 and was editoi
of the Teachers' Advocate He published many
textbooks on spelling, reading, grammar, elo-
cution, and Latin W S M

McGILL COLLEGE AND UNIVERSITY,
MONTREAL, CANADA — Founded by the
will of the Hon James McCiill (<l 1813) and
chartered in 1821 Work was begun in 1829
with faculties of arts and medicine and was
carried on for some time under great difficulties
In 1852 through the efforts of some citizens of
Montreal an amended charter was seemed,
a faculty of law was added in 1852, a farull y of
applied science was organized in 1878, although
engineering had been taught since 1850,
the faculty of agncultuie was established in
1907 The supreme authority of the umvei-
sity is vested in the Crown with the (ioveinor-
general of Canada as visitoi The governors
of the university are the members of the
royal institution for the advancement of learn-
ing and the president of the governors is rr
officio Chancelloi of the University The chief
academic and administrative officer is the Pim-
cipal With McGill are affiliated a numbei of
other institutions, c g Macdonald College (</ v ),
McGill University College of British Columbia,
Vancouver, B C , and Victoria, B C , Mount
Allison and Acadia universities, and several
theological colleges Students in the affiliated
institutions may pursue their studies either
wholly there or in part in the affiliated colleges
and in part at McGill, and receive their degrees
on passing the examinations of McClill In
1899 the Royal Victoria College foi Women
was established, providing opportunities foi
residence and college life foi women, who aie
admitted only to the arts courses at McGill
This institution offers courses in arts and pure
science, given by professors and lecturers of
the university The students of this college
are students of the university. All the usual

103

university degrees are confened b> McGill
on properly matriculated students who have
completed the requirements of then couises
The total enrollment of students in 1911-1912
in McGill University and the affiliated colleges
in British Columbia was 2484

McGUFFEY, WILLIAM HOLMES (1800-
1873 ) — Textbook author He was graduated
from Washington College, Pa, in 1826, was
professor in Miami University (1826-1836),
president of Cincinnati College (1836-1839),
president of Ohio University (J 839-1843), and
professor in the University of Virginia (1843-
1873) He was the author of the widely used
" Eclectic " readers and other schoolbooks.

W. 8. M.

McKEEN, JOSEPH (1757-1807) —First
president of Bowdoni College He was grad-
uated from Dartmouth College in 1774, taught
eight years m the schools of New Hampshire
and three years in the academy at Aridover,
Mass He was pastor of a church at Beverly,
Mass , ior seventeen years, and president of
Bowdom College from' 1801 to 1807 He ad-
vocated the introduction of scientific studies
into the college course W S. M.

See BOWDOIN COLLEGE

McKEEN, JOSEPH (1791-1856) — School
superintendent For many years he was en-
gaged in public and private school woik in New
York City For ten 3'ears (1844-1854) he was
superintendent of the schools of New York
City and for two years was associated with
S S Randall (q v ) as assistant superintendent
He edited for some years the Teacher*' Advocate
and was one of the organizers of the New Y^oik
Teachers' Association, and its president in
1846 W S M

McKENDREE COLLEGE, LEBANON,

ILL — A coeducational institution founded
in 1828, and maintaining academic, collegiate,
domestic science, agriculture, expression, and
music departments Students are admitted
from accredited high schools or by examination
The degrees of A B , B S , and B Mus are
conferred bv the institution The enrolln ent in
1910-1911 was 279 in all departments There
is a teaching staff of seventeen members

McLEAN, JOHN (1800-1886) —College
president He was graduated from Princeton
in 1816 and two years later from the Princeton
Theological Seminary He was a professor at
Princeton (1822-1854) and president of the in-
stitution (1854-1868) He wrote School Sys-
tem of New Jersey (1829) and History of the
College of New Jersey (187*7) W. S. M.

McMASTER UNIVERSITY, TORONTO,

ONT — A coeducational institution organized
in 1887 under the auspices of the Baptist

McMINNVILLE COLLEGE

MAOLURE

churches of Ontario and Quebec The follow-
ing courses leading to their respective degrees
are offered, arts, science, and theology Stu-
dents are admitted on passing the matriculation
examination The enrollment in 1911-1912
was 300 The faculty consists of twenty-three
members

McMINNVILLE COLLEGE, McMINN-
VILLE, ORE — A coeducational institution
under the auspices of the Baptist denomination,
chartered in 1858 Preparatory, collegiate,
music, and commercial departments are main-
tained Students are admitted to the College
from four-year high schools Classical, philo-
sophical, and scientific courses are offered, lead-
ing to the degrees of A B , B Ph , and B S In
1910-1911 the enrollment in the college proper
was forty students The faculty consists of
fifteen members.

McMURTRIE, HENRY (1793-1865) —
Author of science textbooks He was grad-
uated from the University of Pennsylvania
in 1814. and for many years was a professor in
the medical department of that institution He
wrote textbooks in physiology, botany, zoology,
hygiene, astronomy, and physics W S. M.

McPHERSON COLLEGE, McPHERSON,
KANS. — A coeducational institution main-
tained by the Church of the Brethren with
academic, collegiate, bible, education, and fine
arts departments The entrance requirements
are fifteen units The A.B. and B S degrees
are conferred Pre-medical and pre-engrneer-
ing courses are also offered The enrollment
in the collegiate department in 1909-1910 was
forty-five There is a teaching staff of twenty-
seven members

MACALESTER COLLEGE, ST. PAUL,
MINN — A coeducational institution, the out-
growth of Baldwin School, established in 18,>3,
opened as a college under the Synod of the
Presbyterian Church of Minnesota in 1885
A preparatory school and college of liberal arts,
requiring fifteen units of high school work for
entrance, are maintained The degrees of
A B and B S arc granted on completion of
appropriate courses In 1911-1912 there were
190 students in the college proper, and the fac-
ulty numbered twenty members

MACDONALD COLLEGE (McGILL UNI-
VERSITY), ST ANNE DE BELLEVUE, QUE

— A constituent body of McGill University
founded and endowed by Sir William C Mac-
donald for the advancement of education and
research with special reference to rural prob-
lems, and for the training of teachers for rural
districts. The work is distributed between the
school of agriculture, school for teachers, and
school of household science. In the school of
agriculture the degree of B S A. is conferred

104

on the completion of a foui-yeai course. The
faculty consists of fifty-five members, and tin*
enrollment of students in 1911-1912 was 478.

MACDONALD MOVEMENT. — See CAN-
ADA, EDUCATION IN.

MACERATA ROYAL UNIVERSITY,
ITALY — See ITALY, EDUCATION IN

MACKEY, JOHN (1765-1831) — Authoi of
school arithmetics He was educated as a
physician and practiced medicine a few yeais
From 1817 to the time of his death he was en-
gaged in teaching He wrote the American
Teacher'* Aswbtant and Self Instructor'* Guide
(1826), a textbook in arithmetic that was
widely used W S. M.

MACLURE, WILLIAM (1763-1840) —
First American disciple of Pestalozzianism.
He was born at Ayr, Scotland, and engaged in
coniineneal pursuits Having acquired a com-
petence, he retired from business in 1803 and
took up his residence in Philadelphia Soon
after he was sent to Paris by President Jefferson
as a member of the commission to settle the
claims of American citizens against the French
government for spoliations committed during
the French revolution While in Europe he
began 1he collection of objects for a museum
of natural history for the United States,
and made an extensive study of educational
systems in the old world Having visited
Pestalozzi at Yverdon and Fellenberg (q v )
at Hofwyl, he induced Joseph Neef (q v ),
one of Pestalox/i's former associates, to come to
America and establish schools after the pattern
of the Swiss reformer

The first accounts of Pestalozzi's labors pub-
lished in the Tinted States were from the pen of
Mi Maclure After his return to America in
1806, he began at his own expense a geological
survey of the United States Returning 1o
Europe again in 1819 to study the industrial
and educational schemes of Robert Owen (<j r )
at New Lanark, Scotland, he organized in the
next year an industrial and agricultural school
at Alicante, Spain The overthrow of Un-
constitutional government in 1824 and the con-
fiscation of his property compelled him to give
up his scheme for industrial education in Spain
Returning to the United States, he joined
Robert Owen (q.v.) and his Utopian colony at
New Harmony, Ind Maclure invested
$150,000 in the New Harmony experiment, and
aimed to make it the center of Pestalozzianism
in America Joseph Neef was placed at the
head of the schools of the colony, and manual
training and elementary science were made
important features of the school course With
the failure of the colony in 1826 Mr. Maclure
continued to live at New Harmony, engaged in
literary and scientific labors He was the mov-
ing spirit in the organization of the Academy

MADAGASCAR

MAGIC

of Natural Sciences at Philadelphia in 1812,
and its president from 1817 to the time of his
death, and he was the virtual founder and the
first president of the American Geological
Society (out of which grew the American Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science) in
1828 His Opinions on Various Subjects (New
Harmony, 1831) contains twenty essays on
education W S M.

See PESTALOZZIANISM IN AMERICA

References —

MONROE, WILL S History of the Ptstalozzuui Move-
ment in the United States (Syranwe, 1907 )

MORTON, SAMUEL G Memon of William Marlure,
Esq American Journal of Science and Arts
October, 1844 Vol XL VII

MADAGASCAR.

EDUCATION IN

• See FRENCH COLONIES,

MADISON, JAMES (1749-1812) —Col-
lege president and bishop, graduated at Wil-
liam and Mary College, 1768, studied law and
was admitted to the bar He held a professor-
ship at William and Mary College from 1773
1o 1777, and was president of the college from
1777 to 1812 He advocated elective studies
in collegiate institutions, and shared many of
the views of Thomas Jefferson (q v ) on higher
education W S M

MADISON, JAMES (1751-1833) —Presi-
dent of the United States, was educated at
Princeton, tutored for a time in his father's
family, was long a trustee of William and Mai v
College, succeeded Thomas Jefferson as rector
of the University of Virginia, having previously
been a member of the board of trustees Presi-
dent Madison was active in the mo\oment for
the establishment of public school systems,
and shared the views of Jefferson (q v }

W S M

MADRAS SYSTEM — See MONITORIAL
SYSTEM, BELL, ANDREW, LANCASTER

MADRAS, UNIVERSITY OF — See INDIA,
EDUCATION IN

MADRID, UNIVERSITY OF, SPAIN —

See SPUN, EDUCATION IN

MAGER, KARL WILHELM (1810-185S)
— A prominent German educatoi, was born
in Grafrath, near Solmgen, in the Rhine piov-
irice. From 1828 to 1830 he studied philolo^
and philosophy at the university of Bonn and
then went to Paris, where he devoted three
years to a thorough study of French literature
Returning to Berlin, he made the acquaintance
of Alexander von Humboldt and accompanied
him on a scientific journey to Russia (1835)
In Berlin he also came in contact with Diester-
weg (qv], with whom he spent much time in
discussing problems of education In 1X37

he was called as professor of German to the
College at Geneva, but a nervous trouble and
the desire for more leisure to do literary work
induced him to give up his position (1839)
He returned to Germany and started (1840)
the P&dagogische Revite, to which his own contri-
butions, written in a brilliant style, soon
brought a large following In 1841 he was
called as professor of French literature to
Aarau in Switzerland, but he left this position
in 1844, because he found again that it took too
much time away from his literary activity.
In 1848 he was offered the principalship of the
Realgymnasium at Eisenach, and accepted
the call But this new attempt to enter into
the regular school seivice was also destined
to be of short duration

Mager's claim to a permanent place in the
history of German education rests chiefly on his
book, Die deutsche Burgerschule (Stuttgart,
1840), which forms an epoch in the history of
realistic institutions in Germany It formu-
lates the idea of a school with a modern educa-
tion, which should meet the demands of the
broad educated middle class of the people
With a firm hand Mager traces the outlines
of the whole oigamzation of such a school, and
one may say that the modern educational insti-
tutions of the realistic type, such as the "Ober-
realschule," are piactically a realization of his
plans

Another impoitant woik of Mager is his
Genctische Methodt <7e.s bchulmbssigen Unter-
nchts in frcmdcn Spiachen und LUeraturen
(Genetic method of school instruction in foreign
languages and literatures, Zurich, 1840), which
had considerable influence on the teaching of
languages, both foreign and the mother tongue

P M.

References --
EUKHHARD, M Mayers deutache Burgerschult (Lan-

gensal/H, 1888 )

LANGBMN. \\ Mager'« Ltben (Stettin, 1859 )
REIN, W EtuyMopadi8(.h(.s Handbuck des 1'adagogik,

HV Mager, Karl WUhelm

MAGIC — The art of controlling events by
means of secret 01 supernatural formulae 01
agencies The history of magic LS of interest
to the student of education and of psychology
because magic is an early stage of science and
lohgion When men were ignorant of the laws
oi nature, any one who could bring about un-
familiar occurrences was looked upon with
wonder Thus the early pii(\sts were undoubt-
edly familial with some of the simple principles
of optics and they weie able to produce by
means of concave reflecting surfaces illusions
now so familiar through the use of projection
lanterns of all kinds This command of optics
was so far beyond the knowledge of the ordi-
nary people that it gave the priests extraor-
dinary influence over the ignorant observers,
who regarded the phenomena as supernatural
Indeed, it may be doubted whether the priest?
themselves were altogether free fiom eupersti-

lOfj

MAGIC LANTERNS IN SCHOOL

MAIDWELL

tious fear in the presence of the forces which
they only partially understood and controlled
The usual belief of the spectator in these cases
was that the phenomena were due to a spirit
of some kind Gradually, as science developed,
natural forces came to be recognized as causes
of the processes and the possibilities of magic
disappeared

Whatever may have been the attitude of the
earlier masters of magic, there grew up in every
tribe a band of professional magicians These
were more or less closely related to the priests
At first they were priests, but gradually relig-
ion and magic separated The magician con-
sciously extended his personal control over na-
ture, and hid his operations from hit> fellows In
many respects, the magician under the various
forms in which he appeared was the teacher of
primitive peoples Very frcquentlv he used
his special knowledge for baneful purposes
The magician came to be a person to be shunned
and hated He was indeed sought and em-
ployed in emergencies, but for the most part,
he was an outcast He cultivated, howevei,
in a crude way, a knowledge of nature, and thus
laid the foundations for our modern sciences
Alchemy and the practices of the medicine
man arc conspicuous examples of magic which
have developed into sciences

On the psychological side, belief in magic is
a clear mark of general ignorance Man when
ignorant of the real forces back of phenomena
imagines mysterious forces, and thus satisfies
his need for explanation As explanation
grows more complete and systematic, belief in
magic is reduced C H J

See PRIMITIVE PEOPLEH, EDUCATION AMONG.
References —

FKAZER, J G The Golden Bough. (London, 1900-

1911 )

LANG, A Magic and Religion (London, 1901 )
LEHMANN, A Aberglaube arid Zauherei von dui
altesten Zeiten an bis in die Genenwart (Stuttgart.

1808 )
TYLOR, E B Encyclopedia Britanmca, IXth eel , s v

Magu

Primitive Culture (London, 1903 )
Researches into the Early History of MatiKind.
(Leipzig, 1897 )

MAGIC LANTERNS IN SCHOOL. — See

VISUAL AIDS TO TEACHER

MAGILL, EDWARD HICKS (1825-1907).
— College president and textbook author. He
was graduated from Brown University in 1852;
was head of the classical depaitment of the
Providence High School (1852-1859), sub-
master of the Boston Latin School (1859-1867),
and headmaster of the preparatory depart-
ment of Swarthrnore College in 1871 and held
this post for eighteen years From 1889
to 1900 he was professor of French at
Swarthmore His published writings include
Coeducation of the /sVxc.s (1867), Methods of
Teaching Modern Language* (1871), Htvtory

IOC)

of Education in the Society of Friends (1884)
and a series of French textbooks. W. S. M. '
See SWARTHMORE COLLEGE.

MAGISTER SCHOLARUM —See BISH-
OP'S SCHOOLS; CATHEDRAL SCHOOLS; CHURCH
SCHOOLS, MASTER, SCHOOL

MAGNETISM, ANIMAL. — See MESMER-
ISM

MAHAN, ADRIAN (1800-1889) — Col-
lege president. He was graduated from Ham-
ilton College in 1824, and three years later from
the Andover Theological Seminary. He was
ordained to the ministry of the Congregational
church in 1829, and served as a pastor for six
years Becoming the first president of Oberlin
College in 1835, he held this position for fifteen
years He was president of Cleveland Uni-
versity from 1850 to 1854, and professor and
president of Adrian College from 1857 to 1871.
He wrote several works on mental philosophy,
ethics, theology, and numerous articles in
educational and religious journals W. S. M.

Sec OBERLIN COLLEGE

MAHAN, DENNIS HART (1802-1871) —
Author of mathematical and scientific books.
He was graduated from the United States
Military Academy in 1824, and later studied at
the Military School of Engineers and Artillery
at Metz, France He was pi ofessor of engineer-
ing and mathematics at the Military Academy
at West Point from 1825 to 1871 His pub-
lished works include treatises on geometry,
engineering, and military science. W. S M.

MAHAVIRARCAYA — One of the four great
mathematical teachers of India He probably
lived in the court of one of the old Rashtrakuta
monarchs who ruled over what is now the king-
dom of Mysore, and whose name is given as
Amoghavarsha Nnpatunga This king reigned
in the first half of the ninth century, so that the
date of Mahavlrarcaya's treatise is about
850 A.D The work is entitled Gamta-Sara-
Sangraha, and consists of nine chapters, chiefly
on algebra, but containing some arithmetic,
a little mensuration, and the rudiments of a
crude trigonometry D. E. S.

MAIDWELL, LEWIS — An educational
projector of academies and schools from 1700
to 1705 He was educated at Westminster
School under Busby, and at St John's Col-
lege, Cambridge, graduating BA in 1671.
He was a private tutor for five years. In 1700
Maidwell presented a scheme to the House of
Commons for an academy for forty scholars,
sons of gentlemen from thirteen to seventeen,
to have a free education in languages, arts, and
physical exercises. He offered his house in
Westminster for the purpose. The subjects
were to be Latin, Greek, French, Arithmetic, and

MAIMONIDES

MAINE, STATE OF

the use of the globes He offered £300 a year for
four fellowships to be held at the universities
besides schemes for scholarships tenable at the
University or on board his Majesty's ships of
war, to be instructed in navigation Maid well
did not succeed in obtaining support for this
scheme which was remodelled so as to suggest
a school instead of an academy, but without
success. In 1705 he wrote An Essay upon the
Necessity and Excellency of Education, with
an Account of Erecting the Royal Mathematical
School, in which he urges the establishment of
a system of naval education and draws up a
scheme to promote the art of navigation

In 1707 Maid well published his Nova Gram-
matices Expenmenta, or Some New Essays of a
Natural and Artificial Grammar, which first
demonstrates the Natural Rudiment* of All
Languages, and then by an Artificial Method,
Facilitates the Perfect Knowledge of the English
and Latin Tongues, without the Taedious Per-
plexitys of Common Grammar This is intro-
duced with a poem by the poet laureate, Nahum
Tate It is a glorification (on the pretext of
writing a Grammar) of Queen Anne arid the
Lord Godolphin, Lord High Treasurer, for
whose grandson the curious book is written

F. W.

See ACADEMY

Reference —

JAOKHON, T. W Dr Walks' Letter against Maidwell,
1700 In Oxford Historical Society's Collectanea,
Firht Senoa, (Oxford, 1885 )

MAIMONIDES, MOSES BEN (1 135-1204)
— The most eminent Jewish labbi and phi-
losopher of the Middle Ages, born in Cordova,
Spain, and died in Cairo, Egypt His unusual
training in medicine, philosophy, and theology
was possible owing to the Arabian icvnal of
learning in southwestern Europe The Mo-
hammedan persecution of Jews finally drove out
his family, which took flight to Egypt Here
Maimomdes became influential, and eventually
physician to the Sultan He was an active
author, writing in both Hebrew and Arabic
His greatest rabbinical book is the Mi^hneh
Torah or Yad ha-Hazakah, containing a com-
plete presentation of Talmudic Judaism It-
has been the center of much controversy, and
has lived through many editions, paits of it
having been translated into Latin arid English
His most important philosophical work is the
Guide to the Perplexed (Morch Nebukuti),
written originally in Arabic In this book he
made the effort to expound the principles of
Judaism and those of Greek philosophy, chiefly
the Aristotelian, so as to justify the former by
the latter E F B

See JEWISH EDUCATION.

References —
BKNisrn, A Two Lecturt'H on the Life and Writings

of Mai ni unities (London, 1847 )
EISLER, M Vorlesungen uher die Jtldische Philosophic

den MittclaHerx, '.i vols (Vienna, 1 870-18X4 )

107

FHIEDLANDER, M Introduction to the Guide to the

Perplexed (London, 1905 )
GROHHMAN, 1 Maimonides (Vienna, 1892 )
Jewish Encyclopedia, a v Moses ben Maimon
YLLLIN, D , and ABRAHAMS, I Maimonides Contains

bibliography , and an account of the influence of

Maimomdes on later philosophy (Philadelphia,

1903 )

MAINE DE BIRAN (1766-1824) —Re-
garded by Victor Cousin as the greatest
French metaphysician since Malebranche
Early in life he abandoned politics and the army
for philosophy and won a prize from the Insti-
tute by his Essai xur I' habitude He was a
determined opponent of eighteenth century
philosophy He passed through three stages
of belief, first belonging to the sensational
school of Condillac, he later developed a sys-
tem of his own, based upon internal reflection
as the only legitimate method in philosophy.
Finally he abandoned the standpoint of psy-
chological experience for that of mystical mtiii-
tion^ in which the life of sensation and volition
is absorbed in a life of love and communion with
God His literary style is heavy and his
writings have been slow in securing the atten-
tion which they merit W. H

References —

BALDWIN, J M Dichojiary of Philosophy and Psychol-

ogy, Vol III, pt 1, ,359

COUSIN, V Worlcs of Maine de Biran (Pans, 1833 )
NAVILL*,, E Life and Works of Maine de Biran.

(Paris, 1877)

MAINE, STATE OF — A part of Massachu-
setts up to 1820, when it was admitted to the
Union as the twerit v-thn d state It is in the
North Atlantic Division, and the most north-
easterly of the states It has a land area of
29,895 square miles, being almost as large as the
other five New England states combined For
administrative purposes, the state is divided into
sixteen counties, and these in turn into towns
The county is of practically no educational
importance, the state dealing directly with the
towns in educational matters In 1910 Maine
had a population of 742,371, and a density of
population of 24 8 per square mile

Educational History — The first record of a
school in what is now; the state of Maine was
m the town of York in 1701, when Nathaniel
Freeman was employed as a teacher. The
town of Wells opened the second school in 1716
In 1725 the first public schoolhouse in the terri-
tory was built at York Other early schools
were opened at Portland m 1728, Buxton in
1761, New Gloucester in 1764, Machiasm 1774;
Canaar in 1778, Norndgewock in 1779, Union
in 1785, and Castme in 1796 The first gram-
mar school was opened in Portland in 1738
The Massachusetts laws of 1642 and 1647 (see
MASSACHUSETTS) had applied to the territory of
Maine as well, but had been difficult of enforce-
ment there Situated on the frontier, with
constant trouble with the Indians, schools and
education made but slow progress, and many

MAINE, STATE OF

MAINE, STATE OF

towns were " presented " for failure to comply
with the law By 1800 there were 161 organ-
ized towns, with grammar schools in seven

On the admission of Maine into the Union
us a separate state in 1820, tho constitution
then adopted required the towns to make suit-
able provision for the support of schools, and
safeguarded the interests of Bowdoin College
This constitution is still in force The distiict
system, established by the Massachusetts
law of 1789, was fixed, and remained for a little
more than a century before it was abolished

The new state school law of 1821 organized
tho system It provided that every town and
plantation must raise forty cents pei inhabitant
loi schools, directed that competent masters
should be employed, but permitted one third
of the funds to be spent for a schoolmistress,
directed every town to choose a superintending
school committee of from three to seven to
examine teachers, visit schools, dismiss in-
competent teachers, determine the studies,
and select the textbooks, provided foi an agent
in each school district to hire teachers and to
provide fuel, declared each school district a
body corporate, with power to locate school
buildings and levy taxes, and for the division
of the town school money among the districts
on the basis of the number of children in the
district, four to twentv-one years of age In
1822 the town of Portland was permitted to
organize under a special law, which permitted
it to abolish the district organization and estab-
lished a graded school Bath in 1828 and
Barigor in 1832 received similar permission
In this same legislature that granted town
organization to Portland, the districts made an
unsuccessful attempt to secure the power to
appoint their own district agents, and thus
make them practically independent, of the
towns

A new law in 1825 made the selection of a
superintending school committee mandatory,
under fine for failure; gave the committee
power to expel unruly scholars, required them
to visit schools twice each year, ordered a
school census to be taken each year, and school
statistics to be reported once in three years, arid
allowed an expenditure of 10 per cent of the
school money for fuel and repairs In 1827 union
town schools were authorized, and the begin-
nings of a system of grading made by allowing
committees to determine what scholars should
attend the master's and what the mistress'
school In 1834 the laws were revised and
reenacted as one school code The maximum
number constituting a school committee was
cut from seven to five, the committees were
required to report to an annual school meeting,
and permission was given to any town to
abolish districts and organize itself under the
town system

Up to this time the development had been
town and district development only In 1843
and again in 1845 unsuccessful efforts were

made to unify the system, but it was not until
1893 that this was accomplished by the aboli-
tion of the district system. In 1846 a State
Hoard of Education was created, consisting of
one representative from each county, elected
by the town school committees This Board
was to elect a secretary, whose duties were
much the same as those of the Secretary of the
Massachusetts State Board The next year
the first reasonably accurate statistics were
collected The year following, teachers' insti-
tutes were established in every county; school
committees reduced from five to three, one
to be elected each year, union district graded
schools permitted, by-laws against tiuancy
authorized, requirements for teachers' cer-
tificates increased, and the powers and duties
of town and school committees enlarged In
1852 this State Board and the office of Secretary
were abolished, chiefly because the Board was
not politically useful County school commis-
sioners, to be appointed by the Governor for
one-year terms, were created instead, each to
give hftv days of service annually, and to make
an annual report to the legislature This
proving unsatisfactory, the legislature of 1854
abolished the county commissions and created
the office of State Superintendent of Public
Instruction, the Governor and Council to ap-
point, for three-year terms This method of
state supervision has continued to the picsent
time County supervision was again estab-
lished in 1869 by the creation of county super-
visors of schools, but they were abolished in
1872 and have not since been re-created To the
new Superintendent was assigned about the
same duties as given formerly to the Secretary
of the State Board The new Superintend-
ent was required to hold a county teachers'
convention in each county each year, and
$2000 was appropriated as aid to this end In

1858 a teachers' institute in each county and a
state teachers' convention were ordered In

1859 the first State Teachers' Association to
form a permanent organization met at Water-
villc

In 1828 the beginnings of a school fund were
made Twenty townships were set aside to
constitute a school fund, in 1834 these were
sold for $110,000, and in 1848 the interest on
this sum, at 6 per cent, was distributed to the
towns In 1856 twenty-four and one half
townships were set aside for the same purpose;
in 1864 the timber on ten additional townships
of land; and in 1903 the money arising from the
sale of timber and grass, or from trespasses on
reserved lands, were added to the school fund.
A bank tax of 1 per cent for educational pur-
poses was levied in 1833, to be apportioned to
the towns on census In 1865, because of the
decrease in the revenue from the bank tax, due
to the establishment of national banks, the
town tax was raised from forty cents to seventy-
five cents, and, in 1868, to a dollar per inhabit-
ant At the same time, a state tax of one mill

108

MAINK, STATE OF

MAINK, STATE OF

was ordered for the bench! of schools, the in-
come to be distributed to the towns on census
This was increased to one and one half mills,
and in 1909 an additional state tax of one and
one half mills, one third to be divided on census
and two thirds on valuation, was ordered and
an equalization fund of $20,000 was se! aside
In 1872 !he town !ax was reduced from a dollar
to eighty cents, and in 1909 to fifty-five cents

In 1860 state aid was given to eighteen acad-
emies for the training of teachers, but was
withdrawn in 1862 as unsatisfactory Teach-
ers' institutes were also abolished at the same
time, and were not revived until 1869 In 1868
the University of Maine was opened at Orono
In 1863 the first two state noimal schools
were established, the one at Fannmgton being
opened in 1864, and at Oastme in 1867 A
third was opened at Gorham in 1879, a fourth
at Presque Isle in 1905, and a fifth was author-
ized in 1909, and opened in 1911 at Ma chins
The Madawaska Training School at Fort Kent,
in the extieme northern part of the stale, was
established in 1887 State summci schools
for teachers were established in 1895, and in
1901 $2500 aid was given for the maintenance
of four such schools In 1873 a new high
school law was enacted, whereby state aid up
to a maximum of $500 was gi anted to free high
schools Seventy-one academies and higher
institutions had been chartered up to this tune,
but the new law caused many of these institu-
tions to transfer themselves to public control
In 1879 the law was suspended for one year ,
in 1880 the state aid was reduced to $250 and
the teaching of ancient languages at state
expense forbidden, and in 1909 a graded s\ s-
tem of state aid for high schools, varying from
$450 to $850, with state inspection, was sub-
stituted for the 1880 law State aid to acad-
emies, up to $250, was also granted for instruc-
tion in manual training, domestic science, and
agriculture

In 1875 a compulsory education law, which
required three months' attendance of all children,
9-15 years of age, was enacted The require-
ments have been increased since then to include
all children from 6-17 In 1909 a combined
compulsory education and child labor law was
enacted, similar to such laws in the other New
England States In 1892 the constitution of
the state was amended so as to grant the right
of suffrage only to those who are able to read
the constitution of the state in the English
language and to write their names In 1895
a system of state examinations for teachers'
certificates was established In 1897 a state
school for the deaf and a state school for the
•feeble- minded were established In 1909 school
physicians were provided for, the State Super-
intendent was instructed to furnish plans and
specifications for all school buildings of not over
four rooms, and other measures of importance,
mentioned above, were enacted In 1911 the
State Superintendent was instructed to investi-

gate the needs for industrial education, special
courses were provided for in the state normal
schools, and state aid was provided for high
schools and industrial schools offering such
instruction — $500 to high schools and $2000
to industrial schools

Present School System — At the head of the
present school system is a State Superintend-
ent of Public Instruction, appointed by the
Governor with the concurrence of the Council,
for three-year terms He receives a salary of
$2500 and traveling expenses There is no
State Board of Education or analogous body
The Superintendent has general supervision
over the schools of the state, conducts county
and summer training schools, prescribes the
studies to be taught in the common schools,
furnishes blanks, forms, and record books to
the town school authorities, holds examinations
for state teachers' certificates, prescribes the
tests, issues t he certificates, and keeps a record
of those passing for the information of school
authorities, grants certificates of qualification
to town superintendents, assumes control of
schools founded as the result of public bequests ,
approves unions of towns to employ a super-
intendent of schools, appoints school agents for
unorganized territory, prepares directions for
testing the sight and hearing of the school
children of the state, issues such circulars of
information as lie deems desirable, examines
all high schools, in person or by deputy, for
grants of state aid, is an ex offino member of
the State Board of Normal School Trustees,
which controls the five4 normal schools of the
state and the Madawaska Training School,
determines the conditions for admission to these
schools, receives the census and school leports
from all the towns, and makes an annual report
to the Governor and Council

There are no county school authorities in
Maine, the next unit below the state being the
town The schools of each town are under the
control of a town school committee of three,
one chosen by ballot each year a\ the annual
meeting for a three-year term Cities operating
under special charters select boards of educa-
tion, as provided for by the charter It is the
duty of the school committee to approve the
course and subjects of instruction, with liberty
to add to the studies prescribed by the Slate
Superintendent, to select textbooks foi five-
year periods, furnish them to the schools, and
contract with publishers as to the sale price
for those sold to parents who wish to provide
their own books, to dismiss teachers and to
expel pupils for cause, to exclude urivaccinated
children; to classify scholars, to determine the
rates of tuition for those living outside the town ;
and to make rules and regulations for the gov-
ernment of the schools All towns must pro-
vide free textbooks , must raise money for build-
ings and repairs; must provide a term of
twenty-six weeks in all schools, may levy a
tax for evening elementary schools; may

109

MAINE, STATE OF

MAINE, STATE OF

provide for instruction in manual training and
industrial and mechanical drawing. Two or
more towns may unite to maintain a union
elementary school, the towns paying in pro-
portion to census On recommendation of the
school committee, towns, in annual meeting,
may abolish or change schools Schools of
less than eight in average attendance may be
suspended, and transportation and boaid may
be paid for the pupils to attend elscwheie
Plantations have the same liability as towns for
schools The State Superintendent must ap-
point an agent for all unorganized territory, and,
if there are two or more children in any un-
organized teiritory, he shall arrange for their
schooling there, or elsewhere

Each school committee must annually elect
a superintendent of schools, who acts foi the
committee in many matters which used to be
attended to by the committees He acts as
secretary to the committee, employs all teach-
ers, subject to the approval of the committee,
oversees the annual school census, examines the
schools and pupils at least twice each term,
and makes a written report to the annual town
meeting Two or more towns, employing a
total of twenty to fifty teachers, mav unite
to employ a superintendent, apportioning the
expense in proportion to the aeivice lendered
the town For such unions, the state will grant
aid for the salary of the superintendent of
twice the amount raised by the towns, with a
maximum of $800. To towns and cities em-
ploying more than fiity teachers, the state will
grant as aid two thirds of the amount laiscd,
up to $800 All superintendents receiving
such state aid must hold a state certificate for
supervision

School Support — The Maine school fund,
derived from the sources enumerated above,
under Educational History, now amounts to
about half a million dollars, and produces about
1 per cent of the total revenue for schools
A state tax of one mill on all propertv was
levied in 1808, and in 1907 this was raised
to one and one half mills In 1909 an addi-
tional state tax of one and one half mills, and
an equalization fund of $20,000 each year, were
added, while at the same time the required
local town tax was reduced from eighty cents
to fifty-five cents per inhabitant This will
shift somewhat the burden of support from the
towns to the state, and will tend to provide a
greater equalization of educational burdens and
opportunities In 1911 the equalization fund
was increased to $27,500 Of the state tax
two thirds is distributed on the basis of the
school census, five to twenty-one, and the
remaining third on the basis of the valuation
of the towns To all towns that raise4 a tax of
over four mills for schools, one tenth additional
shall be added from the equalization fund The
remainder of all school money comes from local
(town) taxation State aid is also given to
schools and towns providing industrial training.

The total amount expended for schools dur-
ing the last year for which reports are available
was $1,875,605, or a per capita of the total
population expenditure of $2 52.

Educational Conditions. — Of the total pop-
ulation in 1910, 486 per cent lived in rural
districts and 26 3 per cent in cities of over
SOOO inhabitants The illiteracy in 1900 was
5 1 pei cent, while 99 7 per cent of the total
population were of the white race, and 86 6 per
cent were native born In northern Maine,
there are large areas which are very spaisely
inhabited, and 59 unorganized townships, con-
taining an average of less than fourteen
children of school age in each, were reported in
1910 For such children, the law requires
that the State Superintendent shall provide a
teacher, transport them daily to another school,
or bring them to a school and board them while
attending $1708 was expended for the board
and transportation of such pupils in 1909-
1910 Much has also been done in recent years
in the consolidation of schools and the trans-
portation of pupils, nearly 800 schools having
been closed since 1900, and, in 1909-1910,
6051 pupils weie transported and $114,795 was
expended for tiansportation

More than one half of the schools are un-
graded, and one fifth of the schools weie
reported as not using a course of study A
little more than one school in six has a school
libraiy.

The state has good compulsory education ard
child labor laws, and the towns employed 862
tiuant officers to enforce the law All children,
seven to fourteen, must attend some school
during the time the public schools are in ses-
sion The tiuant officer is to visit business
establishments, look after truancy, and bring
to trial those who violate the law The state
also provides medical inspection for the schools,
and examines all pupils for common defects

Teachers and Training — The state en -
ployed 6905 teachers in 1909-1910 Of this
number 17 per cent were beginners; 24 per
cent were graduates of normal schools; and
22 per cent held state certificates The remain-
ing 78 per cent were certificated by the local
town authorities The average annual salaries
for men teachers are about $300 and for women
teachers about $230 These figures, and the
conditions of state aid to teachers' institutes
and high schools, indicate a low standard of
pay for educational service

For the training of teachers in service, the
state provides that thirty or more teachers in
any county may form an association and hold
an annual convention, under the supervision
of the State Superintendent. Teachers may.
receive pay for two days' attendance. The
state agrees to pay all expenses, but the sum of
$1000 only is appropriated to pay for all the
institutes in the state each year Four sum-
mer normals for teachers are also provided by
the state, for which the sum of $2500 is appro-

110

MAINE, STATE OF

MATNTENON

priated. Five hundred and sixty-eight teachers
attended these summer schools in 1910 Attend-
ance at all institutes and associations is optional

For the training of new teachers, the state
maintains five regular normal schools, located
at Farmington, Castine, Gorham, Presque Isle,
and Machias. The state also maintains the
Madawaska Training School at Fort Kent, in
the extreme northern part of the state, for
eight months each year, for the training of
teachers to teach in the Madawaska District
of northern Maine These schools are under
the control of a board of nine trustees, consist-
ing of the Governor, State Superintendent of
Public Instruction, and seven others appointed
by the Governor

Secondary Education — By the new law of
1909 all free high schools are to be classified
into three divisions as follows A At least
one 4 year course, a 36 week term, proper
laboratory equipment, at least two teachers
employed, and a total taxation cost foi main-
tenance of at least $850 B At least one
2 year course, a 36 week term, proper labora-
tory equipment, and a total taxation cost for
maintenance of at least $500 Tuition to be
paid for pupils elsewhere foi lemaining two
years C At least one 4 year course, foi 30
weeks, and a total taxation cost foi main-
tenance of at least $450 All schools me to
be inspected for approval by the State Supet-
mtendent, with state aid of two thirds of the
amount paid for instruction, up to a maximum
state grant of $500

Academies giving instruction equivalent to
high schools, of which then1 were forty-eight on
the accepted list, may receive aid, as follows —

For an approved EiiRlwh ooursr, $ 500

Foi an approved College Prepnintoij < ourse, in addi-

tion, $ 750
For an approved Teac-hers' Training course, in addi-

tion, $ 1,000
If academy's income is over $1,000, the maximum

grant is $500
If academy's income IH over $1,600, no aid (an he

granted.

There were 552 teacheis in the free high
schools of the state in 1910, and 219 in the
accredited academies

Higher and Other Education —The Uni-
versity of Maine, at Orono (q v ), opened in
1868, offering instruction to both sexes in agri-
culture, English, education, and general scien-
tific and literary studies, stands at the head of
the school system of the state This institu-
tion, however, has in the past received little
support from the state The instruction given
is supplemented by that given in three other
institutions, as follows. —

Bowdoin College, Brunswick, 1802, non-sectarian

Men
Bates College, Lewiston, 1863, non-sectarian.

Both sexes.
Colby College, Waterville, 1818, Baptist. Both

sexes.

The state also maintains th( Maine Indus-
trial (Reformatory) School ior Girls, at Hal-
lowell, the Maine State (Reformatory) School
for Boys, at Poitland, the Maine State School
for the Deaf, at Portland, the Maine State
School for the Feeble-Minded (established in
1907); and the Bath Military and Naval
Orphan Asylum The state also pays foi
the education of its blind at the Perkins Insti-
tute for the Blind, in Boston E P C

References —

Annual Ri ports of tht State Board of Education, 1847-
1852

Annual Repoitt* vf the State Superintendent of Public
Sihooh of Maine, 1855 to date

HALL, K W History of Higher Education in Maine,
Circ Inf U S Bui Educ , No 3, 1903 (Wash-
ington, 1903 )

Laws of Maine relating to Public Schools, 1911 ed

MAINE, UNIVERSITY OF, ORONO,

ME — A coeducational institution, founded as
a result of the land grants of 1862 as a State
College of Agncultuie and the Mechanic Arts
The name was changed in 1897 to the Univer-
sity of Maine, as an integral part of the public
educational svstem of the state The umver-
sitv is maintained from the income of the
seveial grants from Congress, the annual state
appropriations, and student fees The unr-
veisity is divided into the following colleges
aits and sciences, agiiculture, technology,
law, and an agricultural experiment station
is maintained The entiance requirements
are fourteen units, except in the college
of law The university grants in the various
departments of the college the degrees of B A ,
B S , LL B , Ph C1 (Phaimaeeutical Chemist),
and master's degrees Short courses are offered
ior fanners, teacheis, arid pharmacists The
emollment in 1911-1912 was 896, distributed as
follows arts and science, 196, agriculture,
294, technology, 29S, law, 108 The faculty
numbers 106 members

MAINTENON (MME DE), FRANQOISE
D'AUBIGNE, MARQUISE DE MAINTENON

(1035-1719) —The second wrfc oi Lours XIV
(1685) In the interval between the death of
her hrst husband, Scar ion, the poet, and her
marriage to the king, she was installed as gov-
erness over the children of Mine de Montcspan
and Louis XIV Tins made it possible for
her to buy the estate of Mamtenon, later rarsed
to a marqursate She exercised a quiet, whole-
some influence at a time when the French court
hfe was anything but blameless Inspired bv
an intense interest in children, she started a
small establishment for poor girls, which sub-
sequently grew into the school of Saint-Cyr
(1686), destined for the education of daughters
of impecunious noblemen, and one of the
earliest attempts in France at the serious public
education of girls Racine's Athahc and Esther
were written expressly for dramatic presenta-
tion by the girls of this institution, F E F.

in

MAINZ

MAKIN

References —

CADET, F , ct DA KIN

Lcttrcx, Entretu
GERARD, O Modo
LettiCb, AVIH,
d'une Introdiuh
LAVALLEE Histoi
MAINTENON, MMK

Kituctition ct Morale, Chour rl<
"t Instruct! on» (Pans, ISSO )
ilt Mainlenon, Mxfraitx d( ic*
Vn1nticnti, ('onoewtionn, jni'trflf*
i (Paris, 1884 )
He 8amt-Cyr
DE Councils ft Instructions aur

Demoiselles pour leiir Conduit daws /< Monde
(Pans, 1857.)

SEE, CAMILLE. L' l?nwcrsitf et Mme de Maintetiun
(Pans, 1894 )

MAINZ, UNIVERSITY OF, GERMANY

— A university was founded at Mainz bv a
Bull of Pope Sixtus TV granted in 1476 A
charter was given in 1477 by the Archbishop
of Mainz, who had petitioned for the establish-
ment of the university. A century later the
university came under the control of the
Jesuits, who remained there until the suppres-
sion of the Order in 1773 A reorganization
took place in the same year, the university
was endowed anew, and the teaching stuff
was increased and strengthened The French
aggression, however, put an end to these efforts,
and the university was closed in 1798

MAITTAIRE, MICHEL (1667-1747) — Ed-
ucationist and author, was born in 1667 in
France, of Huguenot parents The father was
naturali/ed in England in 1682, and the son
was sent to Westmmstei School, undei Di
Busby With Dr South as patron, Maittane
was preferred to a studentship of Christ Church,
Oxford From 1695 to 1699, Maittane was
second master in his old school of Westminster
In 1699 he resigned his mastership and devoted
himself entirely to literature, particularly under-
taking bibliographical and philological reseaiches
and the editing of the classics with notes and
indexes (among others the Cheek text of Anac-
reon, with translations into Latin verse and
prose) His native country was proud of Ins
fame, and gave him a passport to prosecute Ins
researches in Paris He corresponded with
all the savants of Europe, by whom he was
respected for his erudition, character, and excel-
lent temper and love of truth Tn 1706 he
published a book on the Greek dialects in MS//W
Scholce Wcvtwonaitenenxw, dedicated to the
school In 1709 appeared his Stephanorum
Hivtoria, an account of the lives and books
issued by the old French Huguenot printers, the
Estiennes In 1712 was issued Maittaire's
well-known English Grammar, written to afford
a good training in English before beginning
Latin studies In 1717 he wrote Histoua
typographorum aliquot Pans? en mum, and in
1719 began his valuable Annales Typographici
ab Artm inventce onginc, the final volume of
which was completed in 1741 In 1719 Mait-
tairc published by subscription Miscellanw
Grcecorum aliquot Scriptorum carmina In
1732 he had edited and annotated a new
edition of Selden's Marmora Arundelhana In
1742 he published a collection of his own Latin

poems under the title Ncnilm He published
an enormous number of editions of the classics,
so that it is said his name began to be used in
titles of books which he had not edited

F. W.
Reference -

AGNBW, D C A. Protestant Exiles from France,
Vol II, p. 275 (Edinburgh, 1886 )

MAKIN, MRS BATHSUA —The author
of the earliest treatise on women's education
in England, written by a woman teacher
She was appointed, about 1641, teacher of
Charles Fs daughter, Elizabeth, then a child
of six years of age It is said that by eight
years of age the child read and wrote in French,
Italian, Latin, Greek, and Hebrew Mrs
Makin appears to have conducted a school at
Putney, and afterwards, in 1673, she established
a girls' school at Tottenham High Cross, within
four miles of London

In the prospectus of this school, which is
appended as a postscript to the Ex,\ay — prob-
ably the earliest extant prospectus of a girls'
lugh school in England, she proposes to teach
" all things ordinarily taught in other schools,7'
vi/ work of all sorts, needlework, dancing,
music, singing, writing, keeping accounts,
to take up half the school time, the other half
time is for teaching the Latin and French
tongues Those that please may also learn Greek
and Hebrew, Italian and Spanish u In all
which," adds the authoress, " this Gentle-
woman (the announcement is throughout in the
third person) hath a competent knowledge "
Girls (" gentlewomen ") may be instructed at
eight or nine at this school in a year or two
(according to their abilities) in Latin and
French The Rules for the foreign languages
wrll be accommodated to the grammar of the
English language " Repositories for Visi-
bles," i c collections of specimens, shall be
prepared She had learned (from C'omemus
probably) that from " beholding the things 7>
it will be more easy for gentlewomen to learn
the names, natures, value and use of herbs,
shrubs, trees, mineral juices, metals, and stones.
Those that please may learn hinmng (draw-
ing), preserving, pastry, and cookery. Those
that will allow longer time may obtain some
general knowledge in astronomy, geography,
but especially in arithmetic and history.
Girls aie to take experimental philosophy, " and
as to the other things named, more 01 fewer
as they incline "

The prospectus is added to Mrs Makin 's
single publication: An Essay to Revive the
Ancient Education of Gentlewomen, 167t3 This
is a noteworthy tractate, showing that in for-
mer ages women have been educated in the
arts and the sciences, and citing historical
instances Her tractate, especially in the
logical treatment, is founded on a logical dis-
sertation of Anna Maria Schurmann, of Utrecht,
translated into English in 1659 by C BM

112

MALAY ARCHIPELAGO

MALTA

entitled " The learned Maid, or whether a
Maid may be a Scholar," a decidedly clever
brochure (See Una Birch, Anna Van Schur-
mann London, 1909 ) F. W.

References ~

Dictionary of National Biography

WATSON, FOSTER Mrs BathHiia Makm and thr Edu-
cation of Gentlewomen Atalanta, July, 1895

MALAY ARCHIPELAGO, EDUCATION

IN — See NETHERLANDS, COLONIES OF, EDUCA-
TION IN THE

MALCOLM, HOWARD (1799-1879) —
College president He studied at Dickinson
College and the Princeton Theological Semi-
nary He was president of Georgetown Col-
lege, Kentucky (1849-1851), and Bucknell
University, at Lewisburg, Pa (1851-1857), and
for some years was secretary of the Ameiiran
Sunday School Union He was the authoi of
adictionaiy of the Bible and numerous icligi-
ous works W S M.

MALE TEACHERS — See TEACHERS, SEX

OF

MALEBRANCHE, NICOLAS (1G:J8-J7J5)
— One of the greatest French philosophers,
who expected to enter the Church as his hie
work Suffering fiom a weak constitution, and
having a retiring disposition, he declined, after
completing his studies at the Sor bonne, to
become upon invitation a canon at Notre Dame
in Pans Instead lie became a member of the
Congregation of the Oratory of Jesus, an oidei
that was opposed by the Society of JCMIS His
talents lay dormant seveial years, while he \vas
making ineffectual efforts with church hist or v
and Biblical criticism Upon leading one of
the woiks of Des Caites (the Tmite de
rilomme], which came to his hands bv accident,
he found his true calling It is said that the
Cartesian ideas so completely seized him that
the leading had to be interrupted by leason of
violent palpitation of the heart In the couise
of a decade he wrote his chief work, the famous
De la Recherche dc la Vfritt (1674) This
and his other important woiks, Chribhnti and
Metaphysical Meditation (1683) and DJ.ST//.S-
swnx on Metaphysics and Religion (1688),
were devoted to the completion of the develop-
ment of Cartesianism which Malebranche's
thinking accomplished The interaction be-
tween mind and bodies was an unsolved piob-
lem left by Des Cartes Malebianche soh ed
it by applying the principle that " we see all
things in God " God is known directly and
immediately, as he is also the place of spirits
Things are in Him m archetypal form, which
we perceive as ideas Malebranche struggled
against pantheism, and held to the freedom of
man The acute psychological analyses, which
led to the support of his" doctrine, especially
in his first book, were also contributions (o
VOL. iv — I 1

educational theoiy, quite as much as the rulee
(sixth book) which should be observed in the
seaich of truth may be applied to the work of
teaching As a philosopher and an Oratorian,
Malebranche aided greatly in extending the
geneial educational benefits of the work of
Des Cartes (q v ) E. F B.

References —

BALDWIN,,! M Dictionary of Philosophy and Pnychol-

Wf/, Vol III, pt II, pp 360-361
COMPARYE, (i Hibtoru crdwrut des Dottnnet* de

Vfiducatwn en France, Vol 1 (Pariw, 18H5 )
SIMON, J (Euvres dc Malcbranckc (Pans, 1884 )

MALIM, WILLIAM (1533-1594) — Head-
mastei of Eton College and of St Paul's School,
London , probably was a native of Canterbury
He went to Eton College and King's College,
Cambridge, where he graduated B A 1553, and
M A in 1556 On entering on his duties at
Eton (1561), he drew up in Latin a Comuctudi-
nanum, which stated the rules and observances
kept in the college at the beginning of the
reign of Queen Elizabeth, the document is
still extant at Corpus Chnsti College, Cam-
bridge The Conbuetudwanitm contains in the
fiist part the special arid exceptional customs
observed at different parts of the year, and in
the second a record of the daily routine of
school life (See ETON ) The incident of the
flogging of the scholars at Eton, on hearing of
which Ascham (r/ v ) was prompted to write the
ficholcwaxtei , took place in the rule of Mahm,
who continued the flogging tradition of the
former head, Nicholas Udall (q v ) Mahm
lemamed at Eton until 1571 In 1573 he be-
came headmaster of St Paul's school, where
he remained till 1581, and he is stated to have
lived, after retirement, till 1594 Besides the
Con^uetudinauum, he edited the De Repubhca
Angloi urn Instauranda (1579) of Sir Thomas
Chaloner and wrote a number of commenda-
tory Latin verses or letters to the literary work
of fr rends F. W.

See ETON COLLEGE

References —

lh<ttou<ny of National Biography

LYTL, Slit H M Hiktoiy of Eton Colkijt 4th ed.
(London, 1(>11 )

MALTA, EDUCATION IN Malta, with
the adjacent island of Gozo, comprises an area
of 117 square miles and a population of 215,879,
chiefly Italian The island was taken by the
British in 1SOO and formally ceded to Great
Britain in 1804 The modern system of educa-
tion may be said to date from 1835, when a
roval commission was appointed to inquire
into the existing provision for the education
of the native population Three elementary
schools were in operation at the time, supported
bv the government, one at Valletta, the chief
town, one at Senglea, and one at Gozo. About
720 childien ucr em attendance, and the annual
expenditure for the schools was £400 ($2000).

MALTA

MAN

Ten new schools, comprising two departments
each, one for boys, the other for girls, were
opened, and an appropriation of £850 per an-
num was made for their support At the
time the rector of the university was charged
with the control of primary schools In 1844
this relation ceased by the creation of the
office of Director of Primary Education Sub-
sequently the office was extended to include all
departments of education, and a special serv-
ice of inspection was created for elementary
schools This service has been well maintained,
and as regards number the provision of schools
is quite adequate According to the official
report for 1910, there were thirty-eight ele-
mentary schools for boys, thnty-two for girls,
and nine for infants (boys and girls) The en-
rollment was 19,360, or very nearly 9 pei cent
of the population, the teaching staff numbered
739, and the expenditure for the schools
amounted to £27,532 ($133,805), borne by the
government

The schools are regularly inspected and an
annual examination made of all pupils Par-
ents and guardians are allowed to make choice of
either English or Italian as the language of collo-
quial instruction for their children in the infant
and the elementary schools up to Giade Three
The choice for 1910 gave preference to English
in respect to 96 3 per cent of all pupils Draw-
ing, modeling, and woodcarving arc included
in the program of studies, and needlework in
schools for girls The catechism of the Roman
Catholic Church is also taught in defeience to
the religious convictions of 90 per cent of the
families represented in the schools In addi-
tion to the regular day schools, one public
Sunday school for secular instruction and
thirty-three night schools were leported for
1910-1911 In the principal towns night
drawing classes arc supported, arid many pupils
from these classes enter as candidates for the
South Kensington examinations

There are two public secondary schools, one
for girls at Valletta, having about 250 pupils,
and the second for boys at Gozo, with an en-
rollment of sixty students The former oilers
modern languages and the usual literary
branches, the latter, a Latin scientific course
The Lyceum is a secondary school of the
highest order, having a full classical course
Students are admitted by examination and
prepare for the university faculties The
Lyceum enrolls generally between four and five
hundred students (470 in 1909) There arc
also five private secondary schools with
courses of instruction leading to the university,
a school of marine engineering, with twenty-
four students, and a school of electrical engi-
neering with thirty-eight students

The University of Malta was established in
1769 by Grand Master Pmto in the buildings
previously occupied by a college founded by
the Jesuits in 1602. The present organization
if the university dates from a statute of 1898

which placed it under the direction of a rector
assisted by a council in which the government
and the university faculties are represented.
There are four faculties, among which the
students were distributed as follows in 1909
theology, 17, law, 38, medicine, 15, literature
and science, 88, total, 158 The university
is an important center for meteorological
observations, the returns of which are daily
interchanged with those of the other Med-
iterranean stations and constant interchange
maintained, also, with the chief stations of
Europe The Argotti Botanical Gardens also
form an important scientific adjunct of the
university

The government expenditure for secondary
and university education in 1909-1910 was
£10,236, which, with the appropriation for ele-
mentary schools and £1442 for the office
expenses, gave a total of £39,210 ($190,560)

A. T. S
References --

Colonial Reports (London, annual )
Kngland, Boaid of Education, Special Reports on Eduta-

tunml Huhn'tto, Vol V, pp 817-838 The System

of Education in Malta
Mnltu Department of Public Instruction Annual

72</*>/fA, latest 190K, 1909, 1910 (Malta, 1910 )

MALVERN COLLEGE —See GKAMMAH
SCHOOL, COLLEGE, COLLEGE, ENGLISH, PUB-
LIC SCHOOLS

MAN, ISLE OF, EDUCATION IN —

From eaily times there existed in the Isle
of Man, as elsewhere, paiochial church schools;
but the island is chiefly remarkable for the
earliest educational experiment in compulsory
education At the very time that education
in England was falling into its worst penod,
the Manx clergy and the King of Man (hold
Derby) ga\e the island a statutory system of
education This act was first passed in the
shape of articles at a convocation of the
clergy at Bishop's Court on Feb. 3, 1703-
1704, it was approved at a Tynwald Court
the next day, and confirmed by Lord Derby,
and on June 6, 1704, was publicly proclaimed
upon the Tynwald Hill according to ancient
form and custom It was a compulsory act
"all persons shall be obliged to send their
children as soon as they are capable of receiv-
ing instruction to some petty school, and to
continue them there until the said children
can read English distinctly " The parents
who neglected the duty were subject to fine,
if duly " presented " for neglect by the minister,
churchwardens, or Chapter Quest, moreover,
the fine was to be inflicted if the children were
not sent regularly The fees were sixpence
quarterly, if only reading were taught, and
ninepcnce, if writing were included The fees
could be recovered by regular process But
the education was to be free, if the parents
or relations were duly certified as poor persons.
Exception as to regular attendance was made,

114

MANAGEMENT

MANCHESTER

if the children were needed at home in harvest
time It is interesting to note this provision
was followed in the English Elementary Edu-
cation Act of 1876 (Section 9) Children so
allowed leave of absence had to receive special
Sunday instruction every third Sunday at the
parish church from the schoolmaster at least
an hour before evening service. The act
provided for efficient schoolmasters and for the
quarterly inspection of the schools It proved
efficient, but it was found necessary by an act
of 1813 to increase the fees to 2s lid a quarter
for every child that learned English only, while
3s (}d was charged for each scholar taught to
read and write The lower scale was ' alto-
gether inadequate in the present day " Soon
aftei this the National Society (q v ) began
to make giants to the schools, and nine school
building grants were made by the English
Treasury between 1835 and 1840 The Manx
legislature in 1881 passed a further act to make
better provision for schoolmasters and school
management By an act of 1872 an education
board and school committees were formed,
and the principles of the English act of 1870
were adopted An act of 1878 made education
compulsory under the new system, and further
acts were passed in 1881 and 1884 The law
was amended and consolidated by an act of
1803, which defined the term "elementary edu-
cation " This act was amended in 1898, and by
an act of 1899 the present Council of Educa-
tion assumed control The Manx authorities in
many ways have offend an hi.stoiical object
lesson in education to modem educational
areas J E G de M

Reference —

MONTMURENCY, J E G DE State Intervention in
English Education (Cambridge, 1902 )

MANAGEMENT, CLASS —See SCHOOL
and CLASS MANAGEMENT

MANAGEMENT, SCHOOL. — Sec SCHOOL
and CL\SS MANAGEMENT

MANCHESTER COLLEGE, NORTH
MANCHESTER, IND — A coeducational in-
stitution founded in 1889 undei the control of
the Church of the Brethren Academic, Bible,
collegiate, normal, music, and business depart-
ments are maintained Students are admitted
on completion of a high school course The
A B degree is conferred The teaching staff
consists of twenty membeis

MANCHESTER, UNIVERSITY OF, MAN-
CHESTER, ENGLAND — One of the recently
founded English universities It was estab-
lished in 1851 by will of John Owens as the
Owens College for the purpose of " providing
or aiding the means of instructing and improv-
ing young persons of the male sex (and being
of an age not less than fourteen years) in such
brandies of learning and science as arc now, and

may be hereafter, usually taught in the Eng-
lish universities " Another object of the foun-
dation was to furnish an institution of learning
free from denominational tests and subscrip-
tions, to which Owens was opposed At the
time there was no place except the University
College, London, which satisfied these require-
ments Thus the college marked the begin-
ning of a new era in higher education in Eng-
land, and paved the way for some twelve other
similar institutions established in populous
commercial and mdustiial centers Work was
begun in Quay Street, in a house which was
formerly the residence of Richard Cobden, in
1851 with A J Scott as the first principal,
assisted by four professors and two teachers
The first scholarships (Victoria and Wellington)
were established in 1852 In 1853 a chair of
history was founded and filled by R Copley
Christie, who also^ taught political economy
and jurisprudence For several years it seemed
that the college could not succeed But in the
sixties marked progress was made, and has
been maintained ever since In 1870 the age
of entrance was raised to sixteen In 1872
the Manchester Royal School of Medicine,
founded in 1824, in which John Dal ton taught
chemistry, was incorporated with the college
The requirements had already outgrown the
existing accommodations, so a new site was ac-
quired, and new buildings were opened in 1873,
and additions have been made continually (Whit-
worth Engineering Laboratory, 1887 and 1909,
Manchester Museum, 1887; Christie Library,
1898, Whitworth Hall, 1902, chemistry lab-
oratories, 1895 and 1905, physical labora-
tories, 1908, Students' Union and gymnasium,
1909, botanical laboratories, 1911) The chair
of organic chemistry, the first of its kind in
the country, was founded in 1874, and in the
same year the chair in geology, filled by Pio-
fessor W Boyd Dawkins, was established In
1874 a course of lectures was given to women,
but they were not admitted to the regular
classes The goveinois were opposed to mixed
classes, and in 1877 icfused to sanction their
admission In that year the College of Women
was opened in close proximity to the college
and was taken over in 1883 Women are now
admitted to all classes except cngineeiing
In 1880 the Owens College became the first
constituent part of the Victoria University, and
was soon joined by University College, Livei-
pool, and Yorkshire College, Leeds In 1889
Professor A W Ward was appointed principal
in succession to Principal J. G. Greenwood
(1857-1889), and in the same yeai the first
parliamentary grant was icceived and scholai-
ships were founded by local authorities A
Day Training Department for Men was
opened in 1890, and was followed two years
later by a similar department for women
Principal Ward was succeeded in 1897 by Mr ,
now Sir, Alfred Hopkinson, the present vice-
chancellor

MANCINUS

MANDEVILLE

In 1903 Owens College became by charter
the Victoria University of Manchester, with
power to grant degrees, diplomas, and other
distinctions. Local interest was stimulated
by this step, and many local authorities make
annual grants to the university, while numer-
ous private bequests have recently been made
The aim of the university is so far as possible
to meet the requirements and needs of the
community The university was one of the
first to grant a degree in commercial subjects.
In addition to its reputation in the scientific
branches (chemistry, physics, engineering, geol-
ogv), the university has strong depaitments
in history, English literature, and education,
while the medical department, which has always
enjoyed a high rank, has been considerably
strengthened by the propinquity of the new
Royal Infirmary The university works in
conjunction with other institutions in main-
taining several departments music with the
Royal Manchester College of Music, technology
with the Manchester Municipal School of
Technology, and theology with several local
theological colleges Some of the courses at
these institutions are recognized for degrees
in the university In the same wav the
medical department has obtained clinical facil-
ities in many of the local hospitals The uni-
versity by its powei of inspecting and examining
schools plays an important part in promot-
ing and supervising secondary education, and
it also has representatives on numerous local
education committees Degrees are granted
in the following faculties, arts, science, law,
music, commerce, medicine, theology, and
technology The governing body consists of
the chancellor (m 1912 Lord Morley), the
vice-chancellor, the court, the council, the
senate, and the boaids of faculties The uni-
versity is maintained by income from endow-
ments and invested funds, fees, and grants
from the local and central authorities There
is a strong student activity, which centers
round the Students' Union, housed in an excel-
lent building opened in 1909, the Students'
Representative Council, numerous clubs and
societies, and the Athletic Union, for which a
large athletic field was acquired in 1901. The
enrollment in 1911-12 was 1557 day students.
The teaching staff numbers 242 members.

References —

England, Board of Education Reports from Univer-
sities and University College (London, 1910 )

Record of the Jubilee Celebration at Owens College, Man-
chester (MaiH-hchtor, 1902 )

SLOSSON, E E University of Manchester Independ-
ent, Vol LXX, pp 234-245

THOMPSON, J The Owens College, its Foundation and
Growth (Manchester, 1886 )

MANCINUS, DOMINIC — Writer of the
Liber de quattuor virtutibus et omnibus officiis ad
bene beateque vivendum pertinentibus (Leipzig,
1505 (35 leaves), also 1512, 1516) He wrote
approved little works in which his fame was far

spread. Tritheim in his Catalogus Scriptorum
Ecclesiastic orurn (1493) states that Mancinus, of
whom he speaks very highly, was a contempo-
rary A translation of the work was made into
English prose, entitled The englysche of Mancyne
upon the foure cardynal vertues, published by Pyn-
son (c 1520) This anonymous rendering con-
tains a preface in which the translator shows how
the book may be used for double translation.
About 1523 Mancinus's book was translated
into English verse by Alexander Barclay under
the title of The Mirrour of good Maners (also
published by R Pynson). In 1568 George
Turbevile translated the same book into
English verse, with the title a plaine Path to
perfect Virtue The object of the Latin verses
of Mancinus is to inculcate in the most pleasant
form the four cardinal virtues, which he names
as Prudence, Justice, Magnanimity, and Tem-
perance The book was very popular and in
use in English schools at any rate till the first
half of the seventeenth centuiy, when it was
on the list of books of which the Stationers'
Company retained the privilege of publishing
Barclay in his Prologue states that the book is
to be used to teach " maidens of tender age "
as well as boys Mancinus also wrote in Latin
verse another well-known book De Passtone
do mini nostri Jcsu Christy c 1490. F. W.

MANDEVILLE, BERNARD (1670?-! 733).
— Author of the Fable of the Bees, or Private
Vices Public Benefits, which first appeared in
1705 under the title of The Grumbling Hive or
Knaves turned Honest, a doggerel poem giving
an allegorical account of the prosperity of a
hive in a reign of vice and its decline; under the
rule of virtue The woik as well as the later
additions made to it (notes, an Inquiry into
the On gin of Moial Virtue, Essays on Chanty
and Charity Schools, and a Search into the Na-
ture of Society), because of the satirical and
cynical tone caused considerable criticism
Here it is only necessary to refer to Mandcville's
interesting arguments against charity schools,
arguments which have been levied frequently
against the spread of elementary schools. The
precept and the example of good parents has
much more influence than education Cloth-
ing and educating children relieves the parents
from responsibility and pauperizes them Edu-
cation does not dimmish crime, which is fostered
by circumstances rather than vice in nature
Those who establish charity schools are dimin-
utive patriots and interfering meddlers In
any case education is bad for the poor, for it
trains them to ease and idleness, and makes
them discontented with their lot; " the knowl-
edge of the working poor should be confined
within the verge of their occupations " Edu-
cation " incapacitates them (children of the
poor) ever after for downright labor, which is
their proper province, and in every civil so-
ciety a portion they ought not to repine or
grumble at, if exacted from them with discretion

116

MANHATTAN ( XJLLEG E

MANITOBA SCHOOL CASE

and humanity " Sn James Fitzstcphen Ste-
phen remarks of this essay that it is " perhaps
the first specimen of a way of writing about
popular education which prevailed down to our
own times "

References —

Dictionary of National Biography

STEPHEN, SIR JAMES F Horw Sabbatic®, Second

Series, pp 193-210 (London 1892 )
For Mandoville's philosophy Bee references given 111

Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psuckoloau,

Vol III, Pt I, p 363

MANHATTAN COLLEGE, NEW YORK
CITY — See CHRISTIAN BROTHERS, SCHOOLS
OF

MANIA — A symptom in a number of dis-
eases,— paresis (q v ), dementia precox (qv),
epilepsy (qv), hysteria (q v ), and senile con-
ditions,— including moloi excitation, evidenced
usually by speech, and mental excitement, or
a disease condition, the excited form of manic-
depressive insanity (see CIRCULAR INSANITY)
The disease is manifested by motoi unrest 01
excitement, by emotional exhilaration, by
loquaciousness and by apparent ease in think-
ing In a mild form the maniacal state is evi-
denced by a distractibihtv, viz a constant
flitting of the attention from one thing to
another The flighty chaiacter is one supposed
to result by exaggeration in maniacal excite-
ments In the acute form of the disease Ihe
excitement is manliest ed by great activity,
motor and mental, bv false ideas of power
and bv exorbitant exhilaration On account
of the prominence of the exaggerated ideas
of powei the patient is led to peiiorm eeitain
acts which he would not do undei normal
conditions The exaggerated feeling of well-
being and power leads to ideas of wealth and
superiority, and these at times attain an absuid
character like those in paresis The mental
exhilaration often leads to the enunciation of
words corresponding with the course of ideas,
with little or no apparent connection, and in
extreme cases there may result an apparent
verbal confusion or incoherence similar to that
in dementia precox

Since mania is only one form of manic-de-
pressive insanity, it sometimes alternates with
melancholia (q v ), and at times the symptoms
are complex, including the principal ones of
mama and others usually associated with melan-
cholic states Thus we find forms of mixed
mania, which are called maniacal stupor and
unproductive mania The disease is believed
to arise from an hereditary taint, but is cuiable
or recoverable On the other hand, it is recur-
rent, attacks appearing throughout the life
of the individual at more or less regular inter-
vals It may alternate with the depressed
form of manic-depressive insanity, and result
in the circular types (see CIRCULAR INSANITY)
From the psychological and pedagogical

side, this diseased condition is of inteiest for
two reasons Fust, it commonly begins in
childhood or in the adolescent period, the first
attack being ol short duration As a rule, in
the later successive attacks the duration is in-
creased Secondly, the symptoms are consid-
ered to be typical exaggeiations of the normal
reactions of the individual The early begin-
ning is at times correlated with the stresses
of school life, the attacks (although the statistics
are meager in this point) beginning more fre-
quently during the second half of the school
year The excitement is considered by some
authors, with good reason, to be simply exag-
gerations of the normal excitability of the in-
dividual It is believed that the child who is
normally excitable will, under stress, develop
maniacal symptoms, while the usually morose
and depressed child will develop the depressive
symptoms when he or she becomes abnormal
The curative methods employed are those of
rest, etc , and these must be kept in mind by
the teacher 8. I. F.

See INSANITY

References —

Bom ON, ,J S Manir-dopressivp Insanity Brain,

1908, Vol XXXI, pp 301-320
HHUCK, L (" The $ymptom& and Etiology of Mama

Edinburgh Mcd Jour , 1908, Vol XXIII, pp 103
KutuY, G H The Mixed Foima of Manic-Depressive

Insanity #<r of freurol and Psychiat , 1910,

Vol VIII, pp K 125

KRAEPELIN, E Psychwtne (Leipzig, 1904 )
ZIEBEN, TH Psychiatrie (Berlin, 1902 )

MANILA, UNIVERSITY OF SANTO
TOMAS — See PHILIPPINES, EDUCATION IN

MANITOBA, EDUCATION IN. — See

CANADA, EDUCATION IN

MANITOBA SCHOOL CASE —A legal
and constitutional case of great importance in
the history of the struggle between denomi-
national and public schools Under § 22, 1,
of the Manitoba Act educational affairs were
left to the Manitoba Provincial Legislature,
provisos being added for the safeguarding of
denominational interests, for an appeal in case
of dispute to the Governor-General in Council,
and finally for control by the Dominion Parlia-
ment through remedial laws From 1871 to
1889 a system of denominational education
existed bv which Catholics and Protestants
maintained then own schools But as in
course of time the character and distribution
of the population changed so that there were
many denominations entirely unprovided with
schools, and as it was felt that a homogeneous
educational system was desirable, a law was
passed in 1890 establishing a government
Department of Education, and Advisory Board
with full control over state and rate-aided public
schools; books and religious exercises were to
be ordained by the Advisory Board, and relig-
ious exercises were to be nonsectarian and

117

MANITOBA, UNIVERSITY OF

MANN, HORACE

optional. This law was at once attacked by the
Catholics as a violation of their rights and
privileges under §22, 1, of the Manitoba Act
A test case, the Barrett case, was brought to
court and carried through to the Judicial Com-
mittee of the Privy Council in England in
1893, but the decision was against the Catholics
on the ground that no denominational or other
schools had existed before the Act In the
meantime a petition was drawn up by the
Catholics appealing to the Governor-General
to protect their rights and privileges acquired
since 1870, and complaining of the injustice of
taxing Catholics to maintain what to all intents
and pui poses were Protestant schools This
appeal became the subject of litigation, arid in
1895 the Judicial Committee of the Privy
Council in England decided that an appeal lay
to the Governor-General in whose jurisdiction
it was to make some remedial order. A
Remedial Order was issued in 1895 by which
Catholics were permitted to maintain their
own schools, were to share in any public grant
to education, and were to be exempted from
supporting any other schools The piovmce
refused to obey the order, and the Dominion
government took up the matter, but without
taking any decisive action At the general
elections in 1896 the Liberals were returned in
a large majority, the separate schools question
forming an important part in the struggle. A
compromise was put forward by Sir Wilfrid,
then Mi , Launer, Dominion Premier, and Mr
Greenway, Premier of Manitoba, by which a
clergyman or authorized religious* teacher was
to be given access to Catholic schools to give
religious instruction, and where the nurnbeis
permitted a Catholic teacher might be em-
ployed The Catholics refused to accept
any arrangement which did not give them their
own school The Pope was invited to send an
Apostolic Delegate to consider the situation,
but the Manitoba Government legalized the
Laurier-Greenway compromise before he ar-
rived This law (the Public Schools Act,
1897) is the basis of the present system.
See CANADA, EDUCATION IN.

References —

Canada, Parliament Proceedings in the Manitoba
School Case heard before Her Majesty's Privy
Council for Canada (Ottawa, 1895 )
Manitoba School Case (1894) Judgment of the Lords
of the Judicial Committee of the Imperial Privy
Council together with the Imperial Order in Couneil
and the Remedial Order in Council (Ottawa, 1895 )
Papers in reference to the Manitoba School Case
(Ottawa, 1895 )

England, Board of Education Special Reports on
Ed ucational Subjects, Vol I, pp 658-688 The His-
tory of tho Manitoba Srhool System and the Issues
of tho recent Controversy. (London, 1897 )

Manitoba, Department of Education. Report for 1908.
(Winnipeg, 1909 )

MANITOBA, UNIVERSITY OF, WINNI-
PEG, MAN. — A provincial university estab-
lished by the Manitoba legislature in 1877.

us

Six colleges are affiliated with the university.
Courses are offered in arts, medicine, engineer-
ing, law, pharmacy, and commerce, all but the
last leading to their respective degrees. The
enrollment in 1910-1911 was 744 The faculty
consists of twenty-three members

MANN, HORACE (1796-1859) — Ameri-
can educator and statesman He was born at
Franklin, Mass , the 4th of May, 1796, and
received the rudiments of his education in the
dust net schools, being prepared for college by
an itinerant schoolmaster. He entered Brown
University in 1816, and was graduated thiee
years latei He was two years tutor at Brown,
when he took up the study of law at Litehficld,
Conn In 1823 he was admitted to the bai of
Norfolk County, Mass , and during the next
fourteen years he was engaged in the practice
of law and in legislative labors He was for six
years a member of the house of representatives
of Massachusetts and three years a member
of the state senate In the latter body he was
directly responsible for the enactment of four
important acts (1) a law against the use of
alcoholic beverages, (2) against the tiaffic in
lottery tickets, (3) the establishment of state
hospitals for the insane, and (4) an act creating
the State Board of Education.

The new board was given power to select a
secretary who should have the general oversight
of the schools of the commonwealth It was
through the persuasions of his fi lends Edwin
D wight and Governor Edward Everett (q v )
that Mr Mann was induced to give up the pro-
fession of law and undertake the reorganization
of the Massachusetts school system His task
was by no means an easy one The growth of
the district school system and the extension of
private schools had greatlv weakened the
efficiency and influence of the public schools
He entered upon his new duties in June, 1837
He wrote to a friend: " My law books are for
sale. My office is to let. The bai is no longer
my forum I have abandoned jurisprudence,
and betaken myself to the larger sphere of
mind and morals. "

As secretary of the State Board of Education,
Mr. Mann's first effort was to educate public
opinion with reference to the needs and pur-
poses of public education. The lyceum move-
ment (q v } had made public lectures popular,
and he laid under tribute brilliant clergymen,
distinguished lawyers, prominent men of letters,
and well-known college professors as speaker*
at the hundreds of public meetings held
throughout the commonwealth Through these
public meetings he literally stirred the thoughts
and feelings of the entire state, and made pos-
sible subsequent legislation which led to the
reestablishment of a common school system
in Massachusetts.

His next important reform was the improve-
ment of the teaching force of the state, and
this ho accomplished by the organization of

\\illmni Marlure 0703 -ISM)
Sec page 104

Hoi tier Mann (171)0 JS5D)
See page 118

Lowell Mason (1702-1872) Francis W. Paiker (18J1-19U2).

See page 14(> See pug(> G06.

A GEUUP OF AMERICAN EDUCATORS.

MANN, HORACE

MANN, HORACE

teachers' institutes (q v ) and the establishment
of state "normal schools For his institutes
he secured the best available instiuctors of
subjects taught in the common schools, as well
as lecturers on the art of teaching and the
professional aspects of education But ho
early recognized the need of more extended
training for teachers, and through the gener-
osity of his friend Edmund Dwight lie was
enabled to make the experiment of special
schools for this purpose Two normal schools
were accordingly organized — at Lexington
(now Frammgham) and Barre (now West held)
— before the end of his second year, and dining
his third year another school was opened at
Bndgewater Through these normal schools,
and similar institutions subsequently organized,
Mr Mann demonstrated to the people of
Massachusetts the value of better trained
teachers, and the state assumed the entire
responsibility of the normal schools

Another important feature of Mr Mann's
labors was the collection and diffusion of infor-
mation concerning the actual condition of pub-
lic education A law of 1826 had required of
the school committees in the different towns of
the commonwealth annual statements concern-
ing school attendance, expenditures, etc ,
but little use had been made of such returns
In Mr Mann's hands they became " powerful
instruments in educating the public," and the\
formed the framework of the twelve reports
that he issurd during the period of his secre-
taryship of the Massachusetts State Hoard of
Education These reports were issued as pub-
he documents and widely distributed and
more recently Mr Mann's son has issued an
abridged and edited edition of the same in
four volumes (Boston, 1X91)

The twelve reports on the condition of educa-
tion in Massachusetts and elsewhere, together
with his discussions of the aims, purposes, and
means of education, occupy a commanding
place in the history of American education
The first report deals with the construction
and hygiene of schools — ventilation, heating,
seating, and playgrounds — and the physical
factors in school life, the duties and responsi-
bilities of school committees, the enforcement
of school attendance laws, and the needs of
higher standards in the teaching force The
second report is devoted largely to the course
of study and to a discussion and criticism of
the current methods of teaching reading, spell-
ing, and composition. Mr. Mann was strongly
opposed to the alphabetic method (q v ) of
teaching reading, and he warmly endorsed
the word method. The question of child
labor (q.v.) and the dangers of employing young
children in factories formed an important part
of the third report. In the same report he
discussed the importance of school libraries
and the formation of reading tastes during the
school course. The district system (qv),
" entrenched behind statutory rights and im-

119

memorial usage," was the burden of the fourth
report Mr Mann was convinced that "no
substantial and general progress could be made
so long as the district system existed ", and
during his remaining eight years in office he
*' kept up a continuous fire of argument, en-
treaty, fact, philosophy, statistics, and testi-
mony " But it required thirty yeais more to
complete the work of reform in this direction

The fifth repoit is essentially a pedagogic
document Mr Mann discusses the teacher,
normal schools, pedagogical books, educational
journals, school management, corporal punish-
ment, and the relation of the State1 to education
One of his biographers holds that in his fifth
report Mr Mann reached the climax of his
power and success and that it was received at
home and abroad in the spirit of highest appre-
ciation (Hubbell) He established in 1838
the Common School Journal, ten volumes of
which were issued during his secretaiyship,
and after his retirement William B Fowle (q v )
became its editor and publisher The sixth
report reverts to the course of study and more
particularly to its enrichment, and it contains
one of the earliest exhaustive American dis-
cussions of the educational value of the study
of physiology and hygiene

Tn Mav, 1843, Mr Mann went to Europe,
where he spent five months in the study of
educational conditions in Great Britain, Bel-
gium, Holland, France, Germany, arid Switzer-
land His seventh report embodied the results
of his educational toui abroad, and it was the
pretext for an attack upon Mr Mann by the
schoolmasters of Boston His praise of Euro-
pean schools, and particularly his commenda-
tion of oral instruction, the word method in
teaching reading, and the abolition of corporal
punishment in Germany, wounded the sensi-
bilities of the Boston schoolmasters, and a bitter
contro\ersy ensued, during which time twenty-
live1 pamphlets were printed attacking and
defending Mr Mann As Mr. Hinsdale re-
marks, "The controveisy attracted much
attention, and made a deep impression on the
public mind It had much to do with fixing
Horace Mann's place in educational history
The champion of the new regime had met the
champions of the old and overthrown them in
the arena of public debate "

Tn his eighth report Mr Mann discusses the
value of local and county educational associa-
tions, the value of vocal music in the elemen-
tary schools, arid the use of the Bible in schools
It will be recalled that it was through the aid
given Lowell Mason (q v ) by Mr Mann that
singing was made a feature of public school
work The ninth report urges the employment
of women teachers in the primary schools, the
value of teachers' institutes, and the place of
moral instruction in public education. The
tenth report is a history of the Massachusetts
school system. The eleventh report discusses
the relation of education and crime, and the

MANN, MARY PKABODY

MANNERS AND MORALS

twelfth report — prepared after Mann had re-
signed his secretaryship — reviews the changes
in education in Massachusetts during the past
twelve years, and discusses the problem of
education for defective and dependent children

In 1848 Mr Mann was chosen a inernbei of
Congress fiom Massachusetts to succeed John
Quincy Adams He served in this capacity for
five years, full of eventful history In 1853
he became the first president of Antioch Col-
lege (q v ), which position he filled until his
death on Aug 2, 1859 His educational
wiitmgs include the twelve repoits as secretary
of the Board of Education of Massachusetts
(Boston, 1838-1849), editorials and articles
in the Common School Journal (1838-1848),
Lectures on Education (1848), and numerous
papers in Barnard's American Journal of Edu-
cation and the Proceeding* of 1he American
Institute of Instruction Extracts fiom his
reports and addresses have been published by
his son, George Combe Mann (Boston, 1891,
4 vols ) No American educator has been
more widely discussed than Horace Mann
Five different works dealing with Ins life have
been published in the United States, three in
France, two in Spanish countries, and one in
Italy W 8. M

See MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

References —

HINHDALK, B A Horace Mann and tht Common
tichool Revival in the Uinttd titaten (New York,

HTIBBELL, GEORGE A Horau Mann, Kdutalor, Pa-

triot, and Reformer (Philadelphia, 1<)J<) )
M\NN, MARY PEA BODY Lift of Horau Mann (Bos-

ton, 1S91 )
MARTIN, GEORGE H Evolution of th< Ma*>*>(uhuxcttb

School System (Now Yoik, 1S<)4 )
U S Bureau of Education Rep (\>m Ed , lH<r> 1MIO,

pp X<)7-()27, given Bibliography
WINMHIP, ALBERT E Horaa Mann, Educator (Bos-

ton, 1 896 )

There i!» a large and valuable penodic al litenttme of
the life and woik of Hoiaee Mann See Barnard's
American Journal of Education, December, 1S58 (Vol
V) , North Anuncan Remrw, January, 1M1, and Jan-
uary, 1845 (Vols CII and CX) , Littell's Linny Ag< ,
May, 184df and July, 1850 (Vois X and XXIV) , Mm-
buruh Review, Julv, J811 (Vol XXIII), Print eton Re-
view, 188(> (Vol XXXVIII, ChambtrJ Journal, Ma> ,
1840 (Vol V), Educational Renew, Ma\ , IS'M, and
June and September, 189(> (VolH V and Xll) South-
ern Quarterly Review, January, 1845 (Vol VII), and
Revue Pedagoaiquc, December, 1885, and March, 1887
(Vols X and XII)

MANN, MARY PEABODY (1X06-1887) —
Wife of Horace Mann, was privately educated
She was associated with her husband in his
public school reforms, and with her sistei, Eliza-
beth Palmer Peabody (q v ), in the organization
of kindergartens in Boston She wiote Life
of Horace Mann (Boston, 1865, repubhshed
1891), and was joint author with Miss Peabody
of Culture of Infancy (Boston, 1863)

W S M

MANNERS AND MORALS, EDUCATION

IN - A tmn nf peculiar si£mfic?iiice in

J

Renaissance and post-Renaissance education,
when there was formed a combination of chiv-
alnc and formal literary education Then
a dnect training in manners and formal mo-
rality became an essential part of the dominant
education The impoitance of conduct had
been stressed in educational thought and prac-
tice from earliest times Oiiental education,
in its various types, is largely training in
foimal conduct, often having little or no rela-
tion to moral principles of fundamental im-
portance With both the ({recks and Romans
conduct was the essential pioduct of education,
and within the scope oi conduct striven for by
formal education was much which could be
included under manners During the middle
ages a sharp division existed between the lit-
erary education of monks and ecclesiastics,
and the education in conduct and manners of
the nobles and gentry With the Renais-
sance these two types were fused, with the
lestilt that the gentry aspired to a literary edu-
cation, which indeed in time came to be the
test of gentility, and on the other hand the
Church insisted on broadening the scope of
moral* to include formal manrieih Still, while
many of the treatises on manneis were written
by churchmen, most oi them found then in-
spiration in the traditions of chivalrv, and the
earlier works weie direct, contiibutions to chiv-
alnc education (See CHIVALRIC EDUCATION,

(iENTH\ \M) NOHLES, EDUCATION OF, RENAIS-
SANCE, EDUCATION DURING THE, SOCIAL REAL-
ISM )

The baiomal system developed the plan of
education in noblemen's houses (see CHIVALKIC
KDUCATION), ('specially in the houses of the
(MiHiicelloih of the Kings, in whose hands the
court patronage lay In this training the cul-
tivation ol manners and morals took a prom-
inent place The late l)r Fur in vail bi ought
together in the Bobec* Hook (Early English
Text Society) the following manuals The
Babee^ Book 01 a " Lijtyl Repot tc " of Hoir
Youtiy People should behave, c 1475 A D ,
The A B C of Aristotle, < 1430 A D , Uiban-
itux, c 1460 A D , the JjytuUe Childten* Lytil
Bok(, c 1480 \D, the Young Children'*
Book, c 1500 A D , the fitanb Puerad Mmxam,
attributed to John Lidgate, ( 1400 AD,
II ow the (rood Wife tdughte hei Douyhlei , c
1430, How the WiM' Alan taught ///.s Son, <
1-130 More comprehensive treatises aie the
following (1) The Boke of Nurture, 01 tidiool
of </ood manners, for men, servant*, and children
iieecwiry Joi all youth and children by Hugh
Rhodes of the Kmges Chappell, 1577. (2)
The Boke of Nurture followyng Englondis gise
By one, John Russell once usher of the chamber
and marshal in hall to Humphry Duke of
Gloucester (3) The Boke of Keruynge, printed
by Wvnkvn de Worde, 1513 (4) The Bookc
of Dftneanoi ond the AUnirance, and DtMillow-
<tnc< of uilaiH M i\dmn nnoin s in (*ompanic
Cljiken honi Richard Wcstc's Sr/ionlc of \ nluc,
20

MANNERS AND MORALS

MANNERS AND MORALS

1619). (5) The Boke of Curtastjc, c. 1430 A.D
Sloane Ms., 1986, Brit. Mus (6) Bishop
Grossetest/s Household Statutes, c 1450 (7)
The Schoole of Virtue and booke of good Nonrtun
for children and youth to leanie theyr dutie by.
Newly Augmented by the author F S [eager],
1557 (8) A Series of Latin Giaces

Further, Dr Furmvall enriched Ins book with
a collection of French and Latin poems on
Manners and Meals An Italian series of
Hooks of Courtesy was edited by W M Hossetti
PI 1869 The most finished of all these Cour-
tesy books was Baldassare Castighone's (q v )
(Jortegiano in 152(S Miss A T Drain1 (Chris-
tian Schools and Scholars, 1881) gives an account
of English Education in the fourteenth cen-
tury, and quotes the rules for the household
drawn up by Elzear de Sabran, in Puv-Michel
in Provence, anticipating the training in morals
and mariners of a household like that of Sir
Thomas More at Chelsea With regard to
schools, we have the classical maxim of William
of Wykcham in founding Winchester College
(1893) that " Manners maketh Man " In the
directions issued to the Master oi the Henx-
men, who had the training of the young gentle-
men of the Couit of Edward IV, he was le-
quired 4t to shew the schools of urbamlie and
nourture of England to have all courtesy

in words, deeds arid degrees,11 and diligently
to keep them in all rules of precedence, and it
was his special business to sit with them in hall,
and 4t have lespeet to their de-meanings "
Esquires weie appointed to keep the voung
henxrnen (/ c the children sent to the King's
court for training) " honest company in

t alking of Kings and other policies " This talk-
ing arid telling oi tales, though the medieval
i omance was condemned by writers like Erasmus
and Vives, in whose time it had become a souice
oi corruption, was a recognized method oi moial
culture, in accordance with the idea of the
times, eg one of Caxton's productions was, in
1484, " the translation of Geoffrey de la Tour
Landry's Book of Fay re ErmatHple* and theti-
si/ngementys and techyny of his doughtei* ong-
inally written in 1371 The stories aie com-
posed with the idea of inciting to good conduct,
and are taken, some from the Scriptures, some
irom the lives of Saints, others from popular
tales They show the idea of the moral train-
ing of the women in the age

It is interesting to note here and refer for
furthei details to the article on JEWISH EDU-
CATION that a large number of Hebrew books
of morals appeared in the eleventh, twelfth, and
later centuries dealing as much with the man-
ners in general intercourse and table manners as
with the conduct of the religious man

Turning to the Renaissance textbooks of
manners and morals, the subject claimed the
attention of Juan Luis Vivcs (q v } in his Intro-
duetto ad Sapientia?n, his Satellitium, and his
two epistles De Ratwnc Studii puenhs, all
published oi Louvain in 1524 Pictar Itterata,

a title which has been appropiiated as the aim
of Sturm, eeitamly was as marked in Vives.
As Sir Richard Moryson, the English translator
(1,540) of the Juttoductoo ad Sapientnnn says,
the collection of precepts therein contained are
calculated to root the love and desire of vntue
in the pupil's heart, " extirping from it all
manner of vice " It is, in fact, a treatise of
Christian morals, for the young pupil, consist-
ing of maxims or aphorisms The Satellitnnn,
which Vives dedicated to Princess Mary, daugh-
ter of King Henry VIII and Catherine of Ara-
gon, was to be a " body guaid," not like that
of the old emperors, against attacks on the
body, but his symbolical maxims (some 200
in number) would pieserve the princess child,
bv admonitions, from all vices and faults In
the De Ration?, Studii pucnlis, Vives requires
the pupil to learn the Distich* ol Cato, the Minn
of Pubhhus Syrus, the Sentence* of the Seven
IF/se Men, as edited by Erasmus (1513) The
child is bidden to take pleasure in stories which
teach " the art " of life — such as those oi the
bov in Aulus Gelhus, Joseph in the Holy hooks,
of Lucretia in Livy, Gnselda, and so on The
authors to be read are chiefly medieval Chris-
tian poets such as Puulentius The use of
medieval Christian moralist poets was en-
joined by Colet's Statutes (1518) foi St Paul's
School, and by the Statutes (1583) for St hees
School Right on from Chaucer to Vives it
should be possible to be said of the pastor and
teacher — as Chaucer said of the Clerk of
Oxenford, " Souninge in moral virtu was his
speche "

Of the many foreign books of moral maxims,
a typical one mav be named, printed at Lyons
in 1576 in French and Italian, entitled Tresor
dc Vertu () Trexoro di Vertu, in which are con-
tained all the noble and excellent sentences
and instructions of all the first authors, Hebrew,
Greek, and Latin, to lead each one to a good
and honorable life

Wider in circulation than Vives' Introductio ad
Sapient HIM was the De Civihtate Morumpuer ilium
(1526) of Erasmus. He states in the Preface
that the first element in the instruction of chil-
dren is the awakening of the child to piety, the
second, to learning, the thud, to the duties of
life, and fourth, to be cultivated fiom the earliest
age, in the rules of civility It is becoming for
a man to control his deportment, his gestures,
his clothing, as well as his intelligence. Those
who represent the cause of learning must, be
noble, and ought therefoie to show the fruits of
courtesy and good breeding. Eiasmus proceeds
in detail to describe the essential characteristics ol
good manners and morals in chapters on graceful
bearing, clothing, behavior in church, at meals,
in meeting others, at games, and on going to bed.
Erasmus points out that we cannot choose our
fatherland, or our parents, but every one can
acquire good qualities and manners Led by
Vives and Erasmus, the Renaissance writers
endeavored to win manners and morals, for

121

MANNERS AND MORALS

MANNERS AND MORALS

the young scholar, not away fiom, hut MS com-
mon ground with, the nobles and genti y. Thus
Lawrence Humfrey (q v ) in the Noble*, 1560,
requires the reading of Erasmus's DC Civihtnte by
the young nobles, while in 1568 Dean No well's
Statutes at Bangor prescribed the same book of
Erasmus for the Third Form There is an in-
stance in 1588 of the Headmaster of the King's
School, Canterbury, Anthony Short, being
admonished by the Dean and Chapter *' to
have a greater care and to be more diligent than
he hath been, that his scholars may better
profit in learning as well a,s good manners and
civility than late they have (lone."

Erasmus's book was widely circulated abroad,
and was translated into English and published
in 1532, by Robert Whittyngton, poot laureate,
as .1 lytil Booke of good matters for children. In
England, however, William Lily's lines on
Manners and Morals (De Mori bit*) were read,
and ordinarily learned by pupils in the author-
ized grammai Manners and morals lormed
an important element in the Colloquies and in
other textbooks, as, eg. in Cootes's English
Schoolmaster, 1596 In 1633 John Clarke of
Lincoln Grammar School wrote his Dux Guam-
maticuv, in which is curiously included a treatise
on manners, which he regards as an indispen-
sable part of grammar school training, so that
the boy shall perform his religious duties, his
duty to his fellows and to himself, in the house,
at. table, to visitors, and to superiors ot all
kinds One of the well-known books of the
Jesuits was on this subject, viz. Youths Be-
haviour, or Decency in Conversation amongst
Men. Composed in French . . noiv turned
intu English by Francis Hawkins, Nephew to
Sir Thomas Hawkins, translator of Cans sin's
Holy Court 4th ed , 1646. This book is
said to have been translated by the child at
eight years of age The original was bv La
Fleche: Biens6ance de la Conversation entte
les hommes, IMfi, and had been translated into
Latin, 1617, by Leonard P6nn. (See GENTRY
AND NOBLES, EDUCATION OF) Charles Hoole
(q v ) recommends the book as well as Eiasmus'
De Civilitate, for he explains that in a school
the " sweet and oiderly behaviour of children "
brings more credit than even sound teaching,
" because this speaketh to eveiy one that the
child is well taught, even if he learn" but little
else

In addition to the requirement of the teach-
ing of Manners and Morals by the private tutor
in the nobleman's family, and in the private as
well as in the public grammar schools, the still
more important teaching in the ordinary home
and household must be borne in mind In
1537 Richard Whitford wrote A Worke for
Householders in which the full details are given
especially in connection with morals, to be in-
culcated into the household adult, child, family,
and servants, and a treatment is given of lying,
oaths, conduct at church, on the Sunday, and
of due reverence and respect to parents

Whitfoid was a Roman Catholic, but the same
type of textbook was sanctioned by the Protes-
tant Puritans, e g by Robert Cleaver and John
Dod in 1612, giving full details as to the duties
of husbands and wives, parents and children,
masters and servants William Gouge, in his Of
Domesticall Duties, 3d ed , 1634, takes the high-
est ground for the inculcation of good manners
in the child, viz. that "not only heathen men,
but also the Holy Ghost Himself hath pre-
scribed many rules of good manners.7' Still
more interesting is the treatise of Hezekiah
Woodward -1 Child's Patrimony laid out upon
the Good Culture or Tilling over his Whole Man
(1640), one of the most interesting educational
works of the seventeenth century especially
from the moral side. The Gentleman's Calling,
c 1660, and the Ladies' Calling (c. 1673), and
Clement Ellis 's Gentile Sinner (1660) abound
in the treatment of the training of Manners and
Morals, and substantially all the writers on
educational theory and practice in the seven-
teenth and eighteenth centuries deal with the
subject It will be recalled that Daniel
Defoe ((/ v ) wrote a book which had enormous
circulation in the eighteenth century, called the
Fa mill/ Instructor, continuing the series of
manuals for practical treatment of the relations
of fathers and children, masters and servants,
husbands and wives. Throughout this class
of book the Bible is the basis, for a great mass
of practical household treatises are founded on
the Ten Commandments

Otherwise the sources from which the1 manuals
for manners and morals were drawn were
mainly detached sayings of Solon, Pythagoras,
Theogms, Phocvhdes, Cicero, Cato, Seneca,
and of course, Plutarch, Plato, and Aristotle.
(Golding made his translation of Seneca's
Benejteia in 1577 ) The permeating influence
of Aristotle's Ethics joined with the Christian
view can be best seen in the noble plan of the
Faene Queenc of Edmund Spenser (q v.),
1590-1596, which " is disposed into twelve
books, fashioning XII morall virtues," of which
he only wrote on six, viz. holiness, temperance,
chastity, fidelity, justice, and courtesy Sub-
stantially, the Faerie Queene is an educational
moral treatise Nor were suggestions for prac-
tical training in manners and morals wanting
In another less known Utopian romance, the
Nova Soli/ ma, 1648, first translated into Eng-
lish by Walter Begley in 1902, the father in
placing his son with the best of tutors says he
will not only be made proficient in the liberal
arts, but also in the " true moral virtues/'
and to become a " good man " is the " greatest
blessing you can have " The methods of
training are described. Pupils are required to
practice letter- writing to men of various ranks,
to study the best word and gesture in ordinary
intercourse, and the most appropriate language
for disputing, joking, rebuking, etc " They
have to go through all this in character as on the
stage " George Snell in the Right Teaching of

122

MANNHEIM SYSTEM

MANUAL LABOR INSTITUTIONS

Useful Knowledge (1649) suggests thtit the child
should be trained to act the taking of messages
courteously, the making of an obeisance, and the
going through of what is required in their child-
ish duties in preparation for the right perform-
ance of the actual duty itself The religious
sanctions for manners and morals in the Sab-
bath observances, long sermons, catechismgs,
learning by heart of Scriptures, exercise of
parental and pastoral authority, made Puri-
tanic training in morals practical, the eight-
eenth and early nineteenth century moral
stories and goody-goody tales weie the literary
survival of an older, stern, and unceasing
discipline in school and home This aspect
oi the subject is treated further under LITERA-
TURE, CHILDREN'S, while the modern status
of the entire subject is considered under MORAL
EDUCATION F. W.

References —
HONNKAU, A La Civihte pu6nle, par Erat*me de

Rotterdam Prectdec d'um Notice sur lea Livres

dc CivUitt depuis le XVI Stlcl<> (Puns, 1877 )
FUUNIVALL, F J The Babt'i'8 Book Early English

Text Society (London, 18N8 )
LONDON, W List of the most Vendible Rook* (16GO),

for list of catechisms in tho Section of Divinity
MAUNSKL, A Catalogue of Books, 15U5, for Libt of Cate-

chisms up to that date

, W Gedajikerniber Furatencrzichuna (Munich,

HOHHETTI, W M Italian and German Books of Cour-
tesy Early English Text Society Extra series,
Vol VIII (London, 18G<) )

W \TSON, F English Ciramniar Schools up to 1660,
(Chapter VI Teaching of Manners and Morals,
with a Hihhograph> on the Subject, and Notes
on Statuteh of Schools proscribing Manners and
Morals of Schoolmasters and of Scholars (Cam-
bridge, 1908)

MANNHEIM SYSTEM

P^DUCATION IN

• See GERMANY,

MANNING, JAMES (1738-1791) —First
president of Brown University He studied at
Hopkins Academy, and was graduated from
the College of New Jersey (now Princeton) in
1762 After spending a brief period as a tiavel-
ing evangelist, he opened a Latin school at
Warren, R I , which in 1765 became Brown
University Five years later it was removed to
Providence Manning served as president of
the institution until his death in 1791 At the
same time he was pastor of the Baptist church
in Providence that had been founded by Roger
Williams He was a delegate to the Continen-
tal Congress in 1785-1786, and he led the move-
ment which secured the adoption of the con-
stitution by Rhode Island He was also active
in the movement looking toward the establish-
ment of a public school system, and his most
important educational publication is Report in
Favor of the Establishment of Free Public
Schools in the Town of Providence W. S. M.

Reference —

GUILD, R A. Life, Times, and Correspondence of
James Manning (Boston, 1864 )

123

MANSFIELD, JARED (1759-1830) -
Textbook author lie was graduated from
Yale College in 1777, and taught for many
years in New Haven and in the Friends'
Academy at Philadelphia He was also in-
structor in the military academy at West Point
(1802-1828) He wrote a series of mathe-
matical textbooks W. S. M.

MANTUA. — See VITTORINO DA FELTRE.

MANTUANUS, BAPTISTA SPAGNUOLI

(1448-1516) — Humanist author of Latin
poems which for a time seem to have had a
greater vogue than the classical woiks His
chief work was Bwolica seu Adolescentia
(1502), of which numerous editions soon ap-
peared abroad and in England Though
styled eclogues, only two of the poems deal
with rural life The work early became a
popular school textbook, and editions were
issued giving parallel passages from the clas-
sics The eclogues were imitated in English
as early as 1514 by Alexander Barclay; they
were tiaitelated by Turberville in 1567, and
imitated again by Spenser in Shepherd's Cal-
endar (1587) It was recommended for
school use by Colet, and was prescribed by
statute in several schools Spagnuoh is the
" good old Mantuan " quoted by Holofernes
in Shakespeare's Love's Labour's Lost, IV, n,
95

References —
BAYNEH, T S Sttakexpeare1 s Studies and other Essays.

(London, 1896 )
WATHON, F The English Grammar Schools to 1660.

(Cambridge, 1908)

MANUAL ARTS —-See MANUAL TRAIN-
ING, also INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, TECHNICAL
EDUCATION

MANUAL LABOR INSTITUTIONS AND
THE MANUAL LABOR SOCIETY — The

movement for the organization of manual labor
schools in the United States began about 1825,
and drew its inspiration chiefly from the work
of Fellenberg (q v ) Such schools were 01-
gamzed in Connecticut in 1819, in Maine in
1821, in Massachusetts in 1824, in New Yoik
in 1827, and in New Jersey in 1830 The pur-
pose was to unite training in agricultural and
mechanical pursuits with the ordinal y school
studies (Sec AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION )
The Oneida Manual Labor Institute, at Whites-
boro, N Y , was in existence from 1827 to
1834 A part of the day was devoted to work
in shops and fields, and the remainder of the day
to classroom work in the English branches.
George W. Gale (q v ), the director of the insti-
tute, aimed to make his institution largely self-
supporting through the results of the 'boys'
labors

The Manual Labor Society for Promoting
Manual Labor in Literary Institutions was

MANUAL TRAINING

MANUAL TRAINING

organized in New York in 1831 for the purpose
of " collecting and diffusing information calcu-
lated to promote the establishment and pros-
perity of manual labor schools and seminaries
in the United States, arid for introducing the
system of manual labor into institutions now
established without diminishing the standard of
literary and scientific attainments " Zacha-
riah Lewis was the first president, and Theodore
Frelinghuysen and Jeremiah Day were the
vice-presidents Theodore F Weld, who had
been connected with the Oneida Manual Labor
Institute, was engaged as field agent

The arguments in favor of manual labor
schools, as opposed to purely literary institu-
tions, were thus stated by the society (1)
they provide a system of education that is
natural; (2) they interest the mind, (3) they
have good moral effects; (4) they train in
habits of industry, independence of character,
and originality; (5) they render prominent all
the manlier features of character, (6) they
give power for acquiring a knowledge of human
nature; (7) they greatly diminish the cost of
education; (8) they increase the wealth of the
country, and (9) they tend to do away with
absurd distinctions in society The first an-
nual report of the society was published in 1831
(120 pp ). This, however, was the last, for the
society soon disbanded on account of lack of
interest in the movement and the opposition
of existing literary institutions Thus the
manual training movement in the United States
was deferred for a half century (See MANUAL
TRAINING ) The society was also active in the
matter of gymnastics in schools, and in no small
measure the credit for the early recognition
of this form of physical training in American
schools is due to the Manual Labor Society
(See GYMNASTICS ) W S M

See AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, FELLEN-
BERG, MANUAL TRAINING.

MANUAL TRAINING. — In spite of many
objections, the term " manual training " has
come to be generally applied to all forms of
constructive handwork when used as an agent
in general education When used in the
broadest sense, instruction in domestic art
and science, and constructive work in various
materials in the lower grades are included In
a narrower conception, the term is restricted
to work with mechanical tools given to boys
The tendency in American usuage is to dis-
tinguish sharply between manual training as
a feature of general education and specialized
tool instruction given to selected groups foi
purely vocational ends

Place of Manual Training in the various
National Systems — Manual training was first-
recognized as a valuable feature of school work
in European countries. As early as 1858 Otto
Cygnaeus, who later organized the public
schools of Finland (q.v ) on a modern basis, out-
lined a plan of handwork for the primary

schools of that country, arid in 1866 some
form of manual work was made compulsory
in all primary schools for boys in country
districts as well as in the training colleges for
male teachers

It was Sweden, however, that took the most
active part in the early development of manual
training In 1872 the government reached
the conclusion that schools for instruction in
sloyd were necessary to restore the waning
physical and moral health of the nation due
to the tendency towards concentration in
cities, and the decline of the old home indus-
tries The schools first established dealt
with various lines of the old Hus Slojd occu-
pations, such as carpentry, turning, wood
carving, brush making, bookbinding, coopers'
and wheelwright woik, and exhibited more of
an industrial than a cultural plan This
was gradually changed, however, as the move-
ment gamed headway, until a well-organized
scheme of educational tool work for boys
between twelve and fifteen years of age, aimed
mainly at the production of domestic utensils,
was developed into a recognized school sloyd
system In 1877 the work was introduced into
the Folk Schools as a voluntary subject, and
government aid was granted in support of
the instiuction A slovd school was estab-
lished at Naiis in 1872 for teaching boys and
young men Three years later a second school,
known as the Sloyd Seminarium, was organized
under the direction of Herr Otto Salomon for
the framing of teachers This institution has
been a very active and stimulating foice in
the development of manual training in Sweden,
and particulaily through its summer courses
for teachers it has exercised a strong influence
upon the thought and practice of other coun-
tries At the present time, sloyd instruction
is given in all regular normal schools of the
country.

Interest in the principle of manual trailing
developed early in France. In 1873 the Ecole
Salicis was established at Paris, in which con-
structive work in various forms was made an
important feature of the curriculum Manual
training was made compulsory in the elemen-
tary primary schools of the country by a law
in 1882, but the provisions of this law are, even
at the present time, only partially realized
because of the failure of the communes to
provide workshops Almost from the first,
French educators developed a system of in-
struction for every grade of the elementary
schools Such schemes have been character-
ized by variety of materials and processes, by
their close dependence upon drawing, and by a
precise mathematical and rather formal quality.
A distinctive feature in the French shopwprk
of the upper grades is that the theoretical
instruction is given by the classroom teacher
while the practical instruction is given by
artisan teachers The largest development of
manual training in the elementary school is

124

MANUAL TRAINING

MANUAL TRAINING

to be found in the city of Pans, where nearly
200 schools are equipped either with wood-
working shops or with metal-working shops

In Germany an active propaganda in manual
training has been maintained for many years,
but as yet comparatively little has been ac-
complished towards mcorpoiating manual
training into the work of the common schools
A large number of workshops have been es-
tablished in various parts of the Empire,
which are in many cases supported by in-
dividuals or societies Instruction in these
shops is in most cases given outside of school
hours on an optional basis In a few cases, as
in Munich, the work is given duimg the regulai
school day and is obligatory The ministries
of several of the German states make annual
contributions in aid of manual instruction,
but the work still depends to a considerable
extent upon private or corporate support
Manual work for girls in the form of needle-
woik, on the other hand, has for a long time
been compulsory in the common schools of
Germany Work in cookery for the older
girls is now appearing in a number of places.
Courses in paper, cardboard, and pasteboard, as
well as in wood and metal, are features of
the German scheme of manual work, arid the
making of simple apparatus for scientific
instruction is common The Manual Training
Seminary at Leipzig, founded in 1887 bv the
Association for Manual Training for Boys,
under the leadership of Dr Waldemar Goetze,
is the active center of the movement in Ger-
many. This seminary is the main institution
for the training of teachers, and a large propor-
tion of those teaching shopwork in Germany
have attended its summer courses.

In England the development of manual
training dates from about 1887, when ccntcia
of shopwork were established in the London
schools The Board of Education for England
and Wales awards special grants for manual
training instruction given to boys and girls at
least eleven years old Teachers are re-
quired to possess certificates either of the City
and Guilds of London Institute or of the
Educational Handwork Association Teachers'
certificates issued by the former body are
accepted as a qualification for teaching
shopwork by the Board of Education of Eng-
land and Wales, by the Scottish Education
Department, and by the Department of Agri-
cultural and Technical Instruction for Ireland
In the years 1892-1911 the institute granted
certificates to 5240 teachers of woodwork
and to 501 teachers of metal work. English
manual training in the elementary schools
is generally a reflection cither of the Swedish
sloyd or an exercise and project system de-
veloped by teachers who have received prac-
tical training in the trades At the present
time, manual training is represented as a
compulsory feature in the schools of almost
Jill the large cities of England In London

in 1910 there were 240 centers at which in-
struction was afforded to some 60,000 boys

In the United States, manual tiaming came
into being partly as the expression of a new
educational philosophy and partly from dissatis-
faction on the part of the public with the
results of the purely bookish curriculum of the
schools. The first appearance of constructive
work for clearly definite cultural purposes
appears to have been in connection with the
classes of the Workingmeri's School founded
in 1878 by the Ethical Culture Society of
New York This institution comprised a
kindergarten and elementary school in which
manual work from the first formed a vital
arid important part of the educational pro-
gram It was, however, in the secondary
school that manual training first gained
serious attention in American education
In 1880, through the efforts of Dr. Calvin
A Woodward, the St Louis Manual Train-
ing School was opened in connection with
Washington University This school was a
completely equipped high school, giving in-
structon in various lines of shopwork and in
mechanical drafting, as well as in the regular
secondary school subjects, with exception
of the classics The work of this school
attracted wide attention, and the success
with which mechanic arts instruction had
been incorporated in the curriculum led to
the rapid organization of similar schools
in othei large cities In Chicago, Toledo,
Cleveland, and Cincinnati privately sup-
ported schools were organized from 1884 to
1886, and public manual training schools
were established in Baltimore in 1884, Phila-
delphia 1885, and Omaha 1886 The first
provision for gills' work in these schools was
made in the case of the Toledo Manual Train-
ing School, and included sewing, dressmak-
ing, millinery, and cooking The shopwork
instruction given in these institutions com-
prised joinery, turning, pattern-making, forg-
ing, and machine work, and sometimes foundry
practice and tinsmithing The character of
this work has been very similar in different
schools, and until late years has been almost
uniformly based upon the principles of the
" Russian System," so called because the
ideas involved first gained recognition in
the United States through the exhibit of the
Imperial Technical School of St Petersburg
at the Centennial Exhibition in 1876. The
central idea of this system of shopwork in-
struction which was developed in a technical
school for the instruction of engineers, is
the analysis of a craft into its fundamental
processes and typical constructions, and the
presentation of these elements in an or-
derly and sequential scheme as separate
exercises

The rapid development of this type of
secondary school, which has continued stead-
ily since its inception, has resulted in an

125

MANUAL TRAINING

MANUAL TRAINING

institution peculiarly American In other
countries the introduction and spread of
manual training has been confined to the
elementary school, and no institution exists
in Europe of a purely educational character
that represents any parallel to the compre-
hensive and costly equipment of these schools,
nor, it should be said, to their rather vague
and indefinite educational status Estab-
lished with the double purpose of affording
a more liberal and realistic training for boys
of secondary school age, and of developing
capacities for industrial careers, the iccords
show that apart from the large number that go
forward into engineering schools, only a trivial
percentage of graduates from manual training
high schools enter directly into industrial work,
and that this small number go almost wholly
into the " white shirt " occupations of drafts-
man or administrative assistant Of late
years a tendency has become apparent to in-
tensify the industrial side of the curncu-
lum in such schools, and to transform them
into technical schools with a definite voca-
tional basis (Sec INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION )

It was not until between the vcars 1887
and 1890 that manual training reached
the public elementary school Experimental
classes in carpentry, the expense of which
was borne by Mrs Qumcy A Shaw, were
conducted at the Dwight School in Bos-
ton in 1882 These were taken under
the care of the city and transferred to
temporary quarteis in the English High
School building in 1884, but the work was
not given a place in the course of study until
1888 In Springfield, Mass , sowing was
introduced in the schools in 1884, and in
1886 a manual training school was estab-
lished, at which pupils coming voluntarily
from the elementary schools wore given in-
struction in kmfework In 1885 the Legis-
lature of New Jersey passed a law providing
that the state would duplicate any amount
between $500, and $5000 raised by a city
or town for instruction in manual training
This led to the early introduction of the
work in a number of places in various parts
of the state, first of all in Montclair In
New York City the Industrial Education
Association was established in 1886 for the
purpose of providing instruction in manual
training for boys and girls in voluntary classes,
and two years later was organized as a college
for the training of instructors to undertake
the task of supplying teachers for the new
field In 1888 the city of New York began
the introduction in the public schools of a
manual training course of study, including
drawing, sewing, cooking, and woodwork

Content of Course — The early work in
manual training in the elementary school
was almost uniformly limited to the two or
three upper grades, and consisted of shop-
work for bovs and sewing and cooking foi

girls From these grades handwork slowly
made its way downward, and at the present
time such work, dealing with a variety of
materials, is given in all grades in many of
the larger cities The report of the Com-
missioner of Education for 1910 states that
in more than seven hundred cities of the
United kStates, public schools have manual
training in several years of the course, genei-
ally in the elementary grades, but frequently
in all the years from kindergarten through
the high school

Educational Value. Underlying Theory — In
the early agitation for the introduction
of manual training in the eighties, the claims
put forwaid foi the new subject as evidenced
in the discussions of the National Education
Association, and particularly in the meeting
of the Department of Supeimtondence in
1888, were in the main based on the concep-
tion of formal discipline Manual training
was entitled to a place in the school because
it exercised the observation, trained the
reasoning powers, arid strengthened the will
Although it is doubtless true that public
support of the new movement was due to
a vague but sincere conviction that the in-
troduction of handwork stood for industrial
training, educators as a rule most carefully
refrained from advancing a claim for utilita-
rian value in the work, and all utterances
were for the most part expressed strictly in
terms of the prevailing faculty psychology

The early practice of manual training in
the elementary school was experimental and
formal The type exercise was the universal
form in which handwork appeared, and it
was not until the influence emanating from
the Sloyd School of Boston (established in
1888) began to be felt that tool work for boys
assumed a more invigorating form. The
fundamental principle of sloyd, which places
emphasis on the value of working for a use-
ful end, and so enlisting the interest of the
worker, soon found acceptance in the general
practice in the elementary school, and to
a certain extent modified the methods of the
manual training high school

About this same period, the doctrine of
formal discipline began to lose its place as the
cornerstone of manual training philosophy
By the beginning of the present century the
conviction had developed that constructive
work comes into natural relations with the
worker only when he contributes something
of his own thought to attain the end placed
before him Out of this attitude, aided by
a deeper study of the thought of such educa-
tional leaders as Froebel, Pestalozzi, and
Herbart, and clarified by the emphasis of
the psychologists on the unity of the mental
processes, has developed the conception of
manual training as a means of expression,
a means of expression in terms of form, color,
materials, muscular activity, and concrete

126

MANUAL TRAINING

MANUAL TRAINING

ends, a means of expression peculiarly adapted
to child life

During the last seven or eight years, the
growing emphasis placed upon the social
meaning of education has caused attention
to be turned more and more to the subject
matter or content side of manual training,
and the conception of manual training, at
least in the elementary school, has come
more and more to be that of an educational
instrument interpreting the fields of art
and industry in terms adapted to child life
and the limitations of the school

All of this development in the philosophy of
manual training has tended away fiom the
employment of self-contained, fonnal courses
towards the use of handwork as a medium
of social experiences leading to the acquisi-
tion of knowledge One of the most complete
expressions of this idea is the employment
of constructive activities in the lower grades
in the form of social occupations, which
serve as centers for instruction in other
branches This type of work was developed
to 11 notable extent in the University Elemen-
tary School conducted by Professor John
Dowry from 1896 to 1005 in connection with
the University of Chicago

Vocational Education and Manual Train-
ing — With the attention given to indus-
trial education in the United States of late
years, manual training has undoubtedly lost
something of its importance in the public
mind It is probable, however, that this
attitude is only temporary, for all thought-
ful consideration agrees that manual tram-
ing in elementary schools constitutes an
invaluable basis, and, under the peculiarly
unsettling influences of American life, a most
necessary foundation for an effective system
of industrial education On the other hand,
it seems probable, from many experiments
now being conducted, that a semi-vocational
or a pre-vocational type of manual tiaimng
is likely to assume importance in large cities,
which 'will afford to boys and girls com-
pelled to leave school at the compulsory age
limit, an elective opportunity for one or two
years before that time to acquire some measure of
industrial intelligence and to learn from a
number of industrial experiences the general
field for which they may be best fitted C R

References —

BALDWIN, W A Industrial Social Education

CLARKE, I E Education in Firu and Industrial Art
in the United States U S Bureau of Education
4 vols. (Washington, 1885-1808 )

DBWEY, JOHN. The School and Society (Chicago,
1899)

Council of Supervisors of the Manual Arts Year Books
(1903-1809 )

DOPP, KATHAKTNB The Place of Industries in Ele-
mentary Education

Educational Monographs New York College for the
Training of Teat-hew (New York, 1888-1890)

OOETZE, WALDEMVR Hand and Ei/c Trnnnno
(London, 1894.)

HAM, C H Manual TiainiHt/ (New York, 1886 )
Ireland, Report* and Minutes of Evidence of the Com-
mission on Manual and Pradual Instruction in

Primary School* undei tht Boaid of Education in.

7 vols (London, 1897 )

Manual Training Magazine (Peona, 189()-)
National Education Annotation Various* Papers.

Proceedings, 18S4-
Riport of Corn nu ttee on Pltuc* of Indutttru'b in Public

Education, 1910
Teachers College liecoid The Elementary School

Curriculum (New ^ ork, 1908)

SALOMON OTTO Thfory of Educational Sloyd (Bos-
ton, 1896 )
SCHMITT, E La Pedayog.it du Travail Manuel (Paris,

1895)
IT 8 Bureau of Education Reports (Washington,

3SS7-)
WOODWARD, C M Th< Manual Training School.

(Boston, 1SS7 )
Educational Value of Manual Training (Boston,

1890)
Manual Training in Education (New York, 1891 )

MANUAL TRAINING, HYGIENE OF —

Manual training when given under proper
conditions is an occupation distinctly favorable
to health It is important, however, that cer-
tain hygienic rules should be observed. First
of all are certain obvious matters The room
should be large, well lighted, and well venti-
lated, 01, better still, when conditions permit,
the work should be out of doors There should
be suitable benches, ample in size, and adjusted
in height to the pupil's woik Cleanliness in
the room, the work, and the pupils should be
rigorously demanded The pupils should not
work for long periods without change and
recreation Fine and delicate work, like cer-
tain forms of woodcarvmg, where there is a
confusion of lines, should be omitted, at least
in the eai her grades As a i ule exei cises should
be chosen which can be done standing, and the
pupils should be taught to take a concert pos-
ture Frequent change of position is desirable.
Kxemses which permit many movements of
the body are pieferable to those that require
only a few, and exorcises which especially
hinder the circulation and retard breathing
should be avoided The muscles on both sides
of the body should be exercised Pupils should
be taught not to press the tools against the body.
Dust, poisonous colors, and the like, should be
avoided

Woodwork at the carpenter's bench is one of
the most healthful kinds of manual exercise
It permits many movements, different postures
of the body, and fosters all-round develop-
ment The lighter forms of woodwork are
especially good for younger children Wood-
carving has its disadvantages on account of
the fine work often required and the tendency
to a bad posture. Scroll work is unhygienic,
because the position of the body is likely to be
bad, fine sawdust is often inhaled, and the strain
on the eye is considerable Tooled leather
work, cut* leather work, and the like, are also
in many respects bad

In all forms of manual training the hygiene
of the eye should be considered There should

J27

MANUAL TRAINING

MANUAL TRAINING

always be sufficient light, at least ten-meter
candles at each desk on the darkest days, and
the work so arranged that no pupils will face
the source of light The hours for work may
well be in the early afternoon In the case of
the finer work, especially for gills, the instruc-
tion should be omitted in dull weather when
the light is insufficient

Manual work for gnls deserves special con-
sideration from the hygienic point of view
The work must not be too fine and difficult,
it should he kept at a proper distance from the
eyes, and a proper posture should be maintained
The rules given by Cohn and Weber may be
taken as norms " T have classified hand-
occupations," says Cohn, " m four divisions,
according as the degree of fineness of the
meshes and stitches lets the work be seen with
greater or less difficulty, 01 not at all, at a
distance of one foot All those coarse kinds
of work in which the meshes and stitches
can be clearly distinguished at aim's length by
a healthy eye are not mjuiious Such are
knitting, crocheting with wool, netting, coarse
darning, and ordinary making of gai merits
The second kind of work has to do with meshes
and stitches which a healthy eye* can only see
with a great effort at a distance of one foot and
at an angle of one minute To this class belong
fine darning, apphqu£ of muslin on not ior cur-
tains, embroidery in colors, the old German IIol-
bein embroidery (so called), mignardise crochet,
and the favorite filet-guipure The third class
includes fine white needlework, Knglish and
French embroidery, button-holing, satin-stitch,
and marking This kind of work, by its greater
minuteness, leads very frequently to myopia or
asthenopia The fourth class, that of super-
latively fine needlework — point lace, petit-
points, fine pearl embroidery, and genuine
lace work — is absolutely injurious There is,
moreover, a special reason for avoiding satm-
stitch in schools, namely, that this woik is
stretched on a frame, which cannot be brought
near the eye like the other kinds of work, but
the eye has to be brought near to it "

In some of the occupations for girls care
should be taken to avoid strain of vision on ac-
count of the colors used Black on black or
white on white cause strain because of lack of
contrast On fine work the pupils should work
for but a short period, ten minutes or so con-
tinuously, and then the eye should be relieved
by a short pause and exercises in looking at
objects at a distance According to Cohn
manual work should never be done by artificial
light unless it be the electric light Children
with serious eye defects should be excluded
from the work

In regard to the question when manual train-
ing should begin, the answer is that it may be
begun at an early age provided it is of the right-
kind Kindergarten children, for example, can
use a hammer in driving a nail, and it forms
a healthful exercise, but they should not attempt

the finer and more complex occupations like
fine weaving and sewing

Certain general principles apply to manual
training and to all forms of motor training.
The exercises at first should involve the large
muscles, and those requiring finer and nroie
complex coordinations should come later The
work should be given in right sequence, that
in the earlier years being propaedeutic to what
comes at a later period And it is important
from the point of view of hygiene as well as
pedagogy that there should be mdrvidualiza-
tion, adaptation to the physiological and psy-
chological age, or the stage of development,
and an appeal to the interests of children
Manual training is often especially valuable
for those children who are in some way defec-
tive Not only are the defects likely to be dis-
covered in the manual work, but this often
furnishes a wholesome form of activity that
is prophylactic against disease Psychiatrists
often use various forms of manual work, espe-
cially agriculture, as a means of cure in ner-
vous breakdown, such exercises are perhaps
equally important for the prevention of
nervous disease

The deeper meaning of manual training, as of
all forms of motor training, is not without im-
portance for hygiene It is only by exercise
of the peripheral organs that proper stimulation
is furnished for the development of the brain
Even consciousness itself is apparently condi-
tioned by stimulation from the peripheral sense
organs It is noteworthy that the nervous
system is developed in the embryo from the epi-
blast, the outside germ layer, not from the
rneso-blast, and then it is folded in Thus,
genetically, the nervous system is developed by
contact with the external world, and its latei
and higher developments are dependent upon
peripheral stimulation The importance of
this is shown in large letters in the training of
defectives, as in the classic case of Segum's
boy, where an idiotic hand, incapable of coordi-
nated movements and control, by systematic
exercises beginning with the larger muscles of
the shoulder and arm, was educated in a yeai
or two so that it could execute such highly co-
ordinated acts as catching a ball, buttoning a
coat, and the like

Thus the brain and the nervous system are
conditioned in their development by motor
exercise, arid manual training represents in an
important way a group of habits that are among
the alphabets of health Again, the habits of
attention, accuracy, self-reliance, and self-
control that are fostered by manual training
are of vital significance in mental hygiene.
And, finally, manual training furnishes oppor-
tunity for the development of normal reactions
toward others, emphasizing important social
relations, and this work is allied with the posi-
tive, creative, productive, and cooperative
activities that are of vital significance in social
hygiene W. H. B.

MANUALS

MA? OK MATES

References —

HVIJJKT, THOM\H M Manual Training ith Educa-
tional Value Anui Phyt* Edui Rtv , Septem-
ber, Drc-embei, 18%, Vol 1, pp b()-7f>

BUUNHAM, WM II Mntoi Ability in ('hildicn ])<•-
\rlopnicrit and Tiaming /'roc Atria In^t oj
Inttrmhori Boston, 1X94, pp \27 MO

(1onN, H Hy(jif?u of tin l<]y( ifi tfdiool* (London,
ISM) )

GOETZK, WOLDLMVU lUuMliat<(1 Manual of Hnnd and
ttyc Truitnny (London, 1SCM )

HALL, G KT\NLF,Y Adohwncf Vol I, Chap i
(New Yoik, 1904 )

HvN(OCK, JOHN A A Piehniinarv Stud\ of Motoi
Vbiht\ Pt'd Mrtn , Oetober, 1894 Vol 111
pp 9-29

J\NKE, OTTO Die Hyui<n< dt-i Knahuihandarhut
(HAinbuiK, 1893 )

Manual Ti anting ("harts E and G Beijers Bokfoi-
LigsaktirholaK Hto< k hoi in

OPPKNHEIMI-R, E Der Handarbeithiinternolit voin
.tugrnarzUir lien Stundpimkt Z< itwhrift fur tfchul-
U^nndht itipjl<>gt, 1903, Ni 4, pp Jll J17

SIM.UIN, E The Psvoho-Pli\ aioloKit'ul Training of an
IdiotK Hand \ichn)p,\ of JdedtutH , Vol II pp
149-1.%

VASCHIDK, NICOLAS Eatai aur La I'vycholoyu </< la
Main (Pans, 1909 )

WEIIMER, R Enzykhptlduithc* Handbuch dcr Hchul-
hygieru, s v Haiidarbeitsuntcrru ht

MANUALS, TEACHERS' —The trim
" manual " originally meant an abridgment of
a subject It was so used by the Greeks
(Enchiridion], and this use of the term is
rathei general to-day In France, since the
peiiod of the Revolution, and in our own coun-
try, since about IS.'-JO, the tenn lias had special
educational significance, in that it has been
made to cover only such helps as were of special
value to teachers in the development of sub-
jects of study Such manuals, however, were
prepared as early as the time of Comonms
(qv) During the six years (1642-1048)
that he was in the service of the Swedish
government, the great Moravian educator
prepared a large number of manuals on an-
cient and modern languages, morals, science,
and the arts for the use of Swedish school-
masters Soon after the French Revolution,
manuals as helps to teachers in moral and
physical sciences were published in France The
great educational movement of the first quaitei
of the nineteenth century in the United States
gave birth to numerous teachers' manuals
The earliest American manuals, dating fiom
the year 1880, pertain to subjects not previously
taught in the schools, such as physiology,
music, and calisthenics Somewhat later the
introduction of drawing in the schools led to
the publication of numerous manuals on art
instruction With the spread of the Oswego
movement (qv), a demand was created foi
manuals on common objects The Grube
method, the phonetic method, and scores of
other specific methods of giving instruction in
definite branches of study have likewise con-
tributed to the literature of teachers' manuals
in the United States The Instructor's Manual,
published by Samuel R Hall, in 1852, covers
the entire field of education Many of the

recent teacheis1 manuals have aimed to give
definite suggestions foi canying out the course
of study Such is the aim of the three volumes
published by James MacAllister in Philadel-
phia in 1887 (Manuals of the Gnided Couise of
Instruction in th( Philadelphia Public Schools)
More recently the teim has been used to cover
the helps prepared by authors of textbooks in
the use of then particular books, as Zucht-
mann's Teacher,^ Manual of the American
Music tfi/bteM (1893) and Frye's Teachers'
Manual of (Jco(/iu/)hy W S M

Reference

BlIISHON, I4'

\uuv(au Uictionnaure de Pedagogic, sv
(Pans, 1911 )

VOL IV K

129

MANY-SIDED INTEREST —In the article
on Interest (q v ) it is noted that the term
" interest " is used in an objective sense to de-
note the typically important concerns ot hie —
science, politics, religion, art, etc Horbait
defined the aim of education as t he development
of many-sided interest — that is, of regaid for
all of these significant human values The
term "interest " obviously designates theactne
and aleit identification of the self with.the.se
concerns, the term ''many-sided" denotes the
need of non-one-sided susceptibility The no-
tion was the counteipait, from the realistic
side, of the current idealistic conception of
complete and haimomous development of all
the individual's poweis 01 faculties as the aim
of education ,J D.

MAP or MAPES, WALTER (fl 1200) —
English ecclesiastic, author, and satirist He
was born on the border of \\ales., probably in
Herefordshire, of a noble famih He studied
at Pans betueen 1 150 and 1 H)0 for he mentions
(Jirard la Pucelle as one of his teachers By
1 162 he was back at the Knghsh court, ^here he
acted as secretary and itinerant justice Pie
traveled frequently \vith and on behalf of the
King, Henry II, and attended the Lateian
Council In 1 17(> he became canon of St Paul's
and precentor of Lincoln After 119(>, when he
\\as archdeacon of Oxford, nothing more is
heard of him Map \vas for long definitely
kno\ui as the author of De A nqi\ Cuittiltuni, a
gossiping and vutty account of the life of the
times as seen by a member of the court

A number of poems attributed to Bishop
(Johas indicating the excesses and licentiousness
of monks and ecclesiastics are mn\ thought to
have been wntten by Map In addition to
many shorter poems, the most famous in this
series are the Apofalupbe of (Joliav and the
Con few on of (ioha* From the latter of
these are drawn, not from the same context,
the lines of the famous drinking song —

Mourn rst propositum in taberna mon
Vmum sit appositum mnrientit* on,
Vt diciint furn vcnormt aiiRelorum chon
" Dons nit propitius huic potatori "

MAPS

MAPS

While there are certain difficulties in the
way of accepting Map as the author of all
Goliardic poems and of the large number of
Arthurian legends (Lancelot of the Lake, the
Quest of the Holy Grail, and the Death of
Arthur) attributed to him, all that can be said
is that his name has been attached to them bv
long tradition. The poems and the De Nugis
afford valuable first-hand evidence of the life
and thought of the time from one who by his
position and experience was able to draw an
entertaining picture

See GOLIARDB, and references there given

References* —

BARDOUX, J De Waltcno Mappw (Pans, 1900)

Dictionary of Biography

GRIMM, J Gedichte des Mittelalters auf Komg Fricde-

nch I den Staufer In Philologische und historischc

Abhandlungen der kbnuglichen Akadcmu zu Berlin,

1843 (Berlin, 1845 )
MORLEY, H English Writers, Vol III (London,

1893)
WRIGHT, T Bwgraphia Britanmca Literal ia. Vol.

II, p. 2%
GuaUen Mape* dr Nugw Curialium (London,

1850 )
Latin Poems attributed to Walter Man (London.

1H41.)

MAPS, CHARTS, GLOBES, AND AT-
LASES — Of the several means winch have
been devised to represent the surface of the
earth and indicate the form, size, and distubu-
tion of geographic features, as well as the geo-
graphic distribution of a wide range oi facts
and phenomena, the map and chart aie best
known arid most generallv used The dis-
tinction between map and chart based on
common English usage is that the lepiesenta-
tion on a reduced scale and a flat surface of the
whole or a part of the earth's suiface is a mop,
while the representation under similai condi-
tions of the facts and phenomena relating to
the sea is a chart As the surface of the earth
is nearly spherical, a sphere or a section of a
sphere furnishes a much more accurate ground
for the construction of maps than a flat surface,
but the difficulty of handling and housing
large globes greatly limits their use A globe
three feet in diameter is very unusual, the
majority being eighteen inches or less When
maps of different parts of the earth's surface
are gathered together in a single volume, it is
called an atlas As the maps must be printed
on pages of the same size, and as the areas
represented differ greatly in size, they are
necessarily drawn to different scales ' The
common type of atlas is one in which the maps
are for the greater pait political in charactei
Other types of atlases will be mentioned later
Maps. — The use of maps among civilized
people is almost universal Every schoolboy
who has studied his geography knows some-
thing about them, and travelers, students, and
the general public turn to them instinctively
when in need of certain kinds of information
They are of such value in engineering and com-

130

merce and in such general use foi scientific,
military, political, and educational purposed
that it is rather remarkable that they are so
little understood or appreciated. They make
use of a symbolism which in late years has
developed to the proportions of a language
To the trained explorer, engineer, and naviga-
tor this language is as easily read as a printed
page and conveys even more exact ideas. For
the majorilv of users, however, maps are con-
sulted because they show approximately the
form of natural and political divisions, furnish a
means of tracing routes of exploration, travel,
and trade, and show the location of places
in reference to each othei. The layman usu-
ally lacks the ability to read maps and knows
no hing of the great variety of facts shown or
of the scientific accuracy of their presentation
Classification of Maps — A classification of
maps may be made according to (1) the area
represented, (2) the facts shown, (3) the
scale employed, and (4) the purpose for which
they are to be used In aiea represented, dis-
tinction is generally made between (a) the earth
as a whole, shown on a " world map," which
pictures the entire surface of the earth in a
single map, or on a "hemispheie ma])," which
shows the surface in two hemispheres, and (b)
paits of the earth, as shown on a "general
map " for a continent or large political division,
or a " map sheet " of a topographic or similai
survey

Fact* tihawn. — Classified according to the
facts shown, there are. (1) Political map*,
which show primarily the location of settle-
ments arid the division of continents into coun-
tries, and countries into smaller political and
administrative divisions The map base upon
which such facts are represented generally
shows certain physical facts as well, especially
the natural boundaries and the chief drainage
lines (2) Physical maps, which may show
the physical features and conditions of a given
region in detail, or the distribution over the
whole or a part of the earth of certain physical
facts or phenomena such as the average rain-
fall or the location of the ocean currents

(3) Industrial and Commercial maps, which
show such facts as the distribution of popula-
tion according to density, the distribution of
industries in which the people are engaged,
the location of important commercial and trade
routes, the position of commercial and indus-
trial cities, and trunk lines of communication

(4) Geological maps, constructed to show the
rock formation underlying the surface cover-
ing of the earth, the geologic age to which
thev belong, or their economic importance.

(5) Ethnological maps, to show the distribu-
tion of people according to race, religion,
color, speech, or custom. (6) Historical Maps,
in great variety, used to show the conditions
as they were in some part of the world at some
previous time in the world's history, or used
in a senes to show how conditions have changed

RELIEF

Wash

WATER

Spring Salt maibh Fienh marsh Submerged Tidal flat

CULTURE

City or
village

and Pi i\ ate or Metaled luadb

bet ondtilN load (duttnguulud on

re^tnt map* »n/j/)

Tiall

Electric railroad
in roadway

_J

Fold

Dam

Locks U S township and State line
section lines

B.M.V

Boundary Benchmark Church or Coke OA ens

UIUIIUIIIOJIL

Oil w ells

Tunnel

Fc 1 1 >

Wharves Breakwater Diav\ bridges Biidges

ReserNatlon Land giant City, Milage, or Park or Trmugulation V &. mineral

line line borough line cemetery line btutlon monument

r

V--

A

i

1'

-

1 CEM , \

Shaft

Mine tunnel

Mine tunnel

Light-ship Lighthouse

Life saving Cemetei ies

(«Vwin<; direction) (direction unknown)

s now brmKishurci 1)\ the United States (ieological

MAPS

MAPS

or developed from time to time during the
lapse of years

Scale — In considering the classification
of maps according to scale, it must be borne
in mind that, based upon the system of linear
measurement in use, a decimal system may
be adopted, as among the French and German
map makers, or a more arbitrary scale such as
is frequently used by British and American
map makers Under this classification, there
are —

(1 ) Maps on a scale from 1 500 to 1 10,000,
usually referred to as plain or detail maps.
Included in tins group arc the maps prepared
by engineers having in charge the construc-
tion of canals, railways, systems of irrigation,
and the plans of cities and villages Most
objects may be shown in their correct form
and true to scale

(2) Maps on a scale from 1 10,000 to
1 150,000 The most important maps in
this group are the topographic maps which
are now being made, or which have aheady
been made by practically all of the groat
governments of the world These maps are
necessarily drawn and printed in sheets of
convenient size for handling, the number of
•sheets running into hundreds for small coun-
tries and thousands for large countries In the
European countries especially they are re-
garded as of the utmost importance for the
war departments, and foi that reason in many
countries their execution has boon inti listed
to such a department In other countucs, spe-
cial bureaus or departments are maintained
for the work These maps have also been
found of importance to agriculture arid com-
merce, in works of internal improvement, for
recording geological researches or the classifica-
tion of soils, and in many other ways On
them it is usually possible to show many objects
tnie to scale, although others, such as rivers,
and loads, are necessarily very much exagger-
ated

The sheets of the topographic map of the
United States are published in three scales
(1) 1 62,500, which is approximately ono mile
to one inch, used for densely settled and indus-
trially important parts of the country (2) An
intermediate scale of 1 125,000 used for the
greater part of the country (3) 1 250,000,
or about four miles to one inch used for the
desert regions of the west The sheets on
the largest scale show an aiea of fifteen
minutes of longitude by fifteen minutes
of latitude, the intermediate scale thirty
minutes by thirty minutes, and the smallest
scale one degree by one degree The execu-
tion of the work is by the Geological Survey
of the Department of the Interior The
topographic map of the United Kingdom
on a scale of one inch to a mile was completed
in 1890, and consists of 697 sheets (488 of the
new series) It is published (a) in outline with
contours in black, (b) with vertical hachures

in brown or black, and (c) in five colors The
topographic map of the German Empire is on
a scale of 1 : 100,000 It was completed in 1909
in 674 sheets The sheets issued since 1901
have been printed in color

There are several excellent topographic
maps of France in existence, one on a scale
of 1. 80,000, another on a scale of ] 1,000,-
000, and a third on a scale of 1 200,000; the
last two are based on the first Still another
is in preparation on a scale of 1 . 50,000 Each
sheet is bounded by parallels and meridians,
and their relief is shown in contours of ten-
meter intervals printed m brown

(3) Maps on a scale from 1 15,000 to
1 1,000,000 and smaller These include the
general maps of continents and countries and
their larger divisions In maps drawn on these
smaller scales it is impossible to show all
geographic features or to show even the selected
ones in their correct form The first difficulty
is avoided through the careful selection of
facts to be shown, and the second by the use
of symbols.

Use — In any classification according to use,
the school map must be distinguished from all
others Whether in the form of a wall, text,
or atlas map, it includes but fow details and
is usually designed to furnish clear and definite
information concerning features and places
discussed in the school textbooks

Collecting the Data — Before the prepara-
tion of a map can be undertaken, it is necessary
to assemble the facts which are to br shown
when it is completed First of all, it is neces-
sary to knowthe position, form, and dimensions
of all the objects which are to be represented
The position of a point on the earth's surface
is usually stated in terms of its latitude and
longitude Its latitude is its distance north
or south of the equator, — the equator being
the zero of latitude, — and its longitude is its
distance east or west of a selected prime or
zero meridian There is, therefore, a north
or south latitude and an east and west
longitude. Each circle is divided into 360
degrees, each degree into sixty minutes, and
each minute into sixty seconds. The poles of
the earth air m latitude ninety degrees, while
the meridian, halfway around the earth, from
the prime meridian, is both 180 degrees east
and 180 degrees west longitude The division
of the circle into 360 degrees was introduced
among the Greeks chiefly by Hipparchus
(about 180-125 B r ), and to him also has been
given the credit of originating the idea of fixing
the position of places on the earth by means
of their latitude and longitude As the posi-
tion of certain points on the earth's surface
has been determined by astronomical means
with great exactness, the position of other
points and objects are usually determined with
reference to those. It is quite as important,
although less customary, to indicate the third
dement of position, viz the height of a place

131

MAPS

MAPS

above, or its depth below, an ideal plane of
reference, called sea level. This is usually
mean tidal height as determined at some
selected station from a series of observations
extending over a long period of time

Projections — When the necessary data has
been collected, the map is drawn. As already

Orthographic Polar

Stcreographir Polar

FIG A — The left-hand half of the above figure
shows the orthographic polar projection The half circle
is divided into ten-degree arcs, LA-AB-BC arid Ga-ah
~bc~ etc As the eye in the projection is assumed to
he at an infinite distance, these points are piojected
upon the line PN at the points numbered S, 7, (>, 5,
etc , by parallel lines drawn at right angles to PA7 The
parallels are drawn as concentric ciicles passing through
the points thus determined, and the m< ndinns are
drawn as straight lines from the circumference to the
pole at ten-degree intervals The right-hand half of the
figure shows the stereographic polai projection The
half circle is again di\ ided into ten-degiee arcs The
eye is assumed to be at O. Points a, b, c, d, etc , are
projected upon line PM at 8, 7, 6, 5, etc The purallelh
are drawn as concentric circles passing through these
points and the meridians as straight lines from the cir-
cumference to the pole and at ten-degree intervals The
two shaded spots 1234 and / II III IV represent the
projection of exactly the same part of a sphere and show
how and where this part would appear in the two pro-
jections

pointed out, this can be done with the greatest
accuracy on the surface of a sphere The
equator, poles and prime meridian are first
located, and the surface of the sphere is then
covered with a network of parallels and merid-
ians By means of this net, the outlines of
continents and islands, the boundaries of states
and nations, and the form an,d position of
geographic features may be correctly shown
A representation of any part of the earth's
surface must therefore, if kept true to scale,
be developed upon a sphere or a part of a
sphere In practice, however, this is utterly
impossible The uses to which maps are put
make it necessarv that they should be on some
flat surface, such as paper or cloth, in ordei

that they may be rolled, folded, or bound to-
gether, and carried about easily

The network of parallels and meridians is,
however, as necessary for the flat map as it is for
the globe. It is of course possible to make use
of a perfectly arbitrary net, such as is made by
equally spaced lines ciossmg each other at right
angles. Maps constructed on this projection
are known as plain maps (or charts) and were
originated by Mannus of Tyre, who lived about
100 AD He is regarded as the founder of
mathematical geography Many forms of pro-
jection have been devised, as mathematicians
and astronomers have, since ancient times,
sought to make the unavoidable errors as small
as possible, and to devise forms of projection
adapted for special uses Five forms of
projection, or modifications of them, are in
very common use These are the orthographic
the stereographic, the globular, the conical, and
M creator's Briefly, the chaiactenstics of these
projections are (1) Orthographic In this
projection the circles of the sphere are supposed

Orthographir Equatorial Stereographs Equatorial

FIG B — The left-hand half of this figure shows the
orthographic equatorial projection The crowding of
parallels and meridians toward the outer edge is char-
acteristic of this projection After the distance between
the parallels has been determined (as shown in Fig. A)
they are drawn as straight lines, as the eye is at an
infinite distance and on a level with all planes The
spaces between the meridians on the equator are deter-
mined in the same way, and the meridians are fre-
quently drawn as the arcs of circles, although other
methods of di awing them are also in use

The right-hand half of the figure shows the stereo-
graphic equatorial projection In this the meridians
and parallels are crowded near the center

to be seen by an eye placed at an infinite dis-
tance and projected upon a plane which passes
through the center of the sphere and perpendic-
ular to the line of sight The meridians and
parallels are crowded toward the outer edge
of the map (2) Stereographic By this

132

CXf.

Area, I S(|UMIC
Scale 1 20,000

Arm 1() sqinu kilometers
Scale 1 100,000

Art1, i 400 square kilometers
Scale 1 500,000.

An i 1»i()0 s(|U,in kilometers
ttcalt 1 1,000,000

An i 1(HM)Os(|ii,m kilometcirt
Scale 1 U, 500,000,

An i 11)0,000 scju, in kiloiiukrs
Sc.ih 1 l(UMK),nw

ARM (>40,000 mjnan kilometers
S( dk- 1 20,000,000

Sni.ill imps of Berlin and M< init\ on various sralos as indicated The :in-:iH roprcbcniod vnn from 1 Mjuure
kilometer to (>40,(K)l) bquaic kilunutcis Tb«-bt liiapb bliov\ th(^ gone rai.zutiun necessary when the; scale of u map
IB reduced.

MAPS

MAPS

method the center of piojeetion is in the sur-
face of the sphere, while the projection is made
upon a plane at a right angle to the diameter
which passes through the center of the projec-

Fm C — The globular equatorial projection shown
above IH developed from the smaller circle whose < enter
m at B on the line 90-90 drawn tangent to the smaller
circle at 0 This tangent line becomes the polar diarne-
tei of the larger circle, and to determine the 10-degree
intervals on this diameter the following method 11? used
The equatorial diameter of the smaller circle is prolonged
beyond its circumference to A, a distance equal to tin*
line CD, which is one half the chord of a ^0° arc From
A through 90'~80'-70'-ete , marking off 10-degree intei-
val> on the circumference of the smaller circle, lines
are drawn which intersect the polar diameter of the
larger circle at 90-KO-70-ete These measurements are
then transferred to the equatorial diameter, and in
this way three points are located for each parallel and
mendian As both parallels and meridians are arcs of
circles, it onlv remnms to find the centers of these circles
by the usual methods and to complete the projection
The 10-degree intervals found by this method are ap-
proximatelv equal, and the projection is often con-
structed arbitrarily and called the arbitrary projection

tiori Tn this projection the meridians and
parallels are crowded toward the center of the
map (3) Globulai A foim of projection in
which the surface of a hemisphere is projected

Fio. D — This shows the globular polar projection.
The 10-degree intervals are determined as for Fig C
above The parallels are concentric circles, and the me-
ridians are drawn as straight lines from the circumfer-
ence to the pole.

upon a plane which is parallel to the base of the
hemisphere. The center of projection is in

the axis produced beyond the surface of the
other hemisphere, a distance equal to one half
the chord of a ninety-degree arc This projec-
tion was designed to overcome the crowding of
the parallels and meridians shown in the ortho-
graphic near the edge, and in the stereographic
near the center As a result, the parallels and
meridians are about equally spaced, and the map

Flu E — In this diagram the forty-fifth paiallel has
been selected as the center of the area to be mapped, and
the cone is tangent to the surface of the sphere at that
parallel The position of the other parallels being detei-
mined, they are drawn as concentric circles with the poll
as a center The meridians are straight lines radiating
from the pole and at equal distances on any parallel

is often arbitrarily drawn in that way (4) Coni-
cal In this projection the surface of the
sphere is projected upon the surface of a cone
tangent to the sphere The point of sight is
at the center of the sphere (.5) M creator's*.
This form of projection shows the meridians
as parallel to each othei, and the parallels as
straight lines crossing the meridians at right
angles It has many variations but in the best the
meridians and parallels are so spaced that, at all

FIG

Conic Projection of the World

places, the degrees ol latitude and longitude have
1he same ratio to each other as on the sphere

Filling In — After the net of parallels and
meridians has been drawn, it is a compara-
livelv easy matter to fill in the outlines of
countries, including the coast line, rivers, roads,
and railroads, and to indicate the positions of
cities and villages In the nature of things
maps will often fail to show all the facts of
nature No map can show all of the irregu-
larities of a coast line or all the windings of a
river, and the smaller the scale of the map,

133

MAPS

MAPS

the more these and other facts must be general-
ized. On some coasts tidal changes affect the
position of the actual coast line, from hour to
hour, and the best that can be done is to show
on large-scale maps the extent of land alter-
nately covered and exposed. On the smaller

Fio G — In this modified form of M creator's pro-
jection the distances between the parallels which are
here drawn at fifteen-degree intervals are determined by
dropping a line perpendicular to OF and parallel to
A'L from the end of each radius to the next radius.
AK - A'K', BN - K'N', CV = N'M', etc The merid-
ians are parallel and equidiJtant, their distance apart
being the same as that between the equator and the first
parallel

scale maps even the dots and othei symbols
used to indicate the position of cities cover
much too great an area, as do also the lines for
the rivers and the roads

Methods of showing Relief — It was not
until toward the close of the eighteenth cen-

FIG H — Mercator's Projection

tury that scientific methods were developed
for showing accurately the surface features of
the earth Up to that time, map makers had
been content to indicate the position and gen-
eral direction of the large or important ele-
vations by means of molehills and serrated
ridges, which gave little idea as to their extent
and none as to their form and the steepness
of their slopes Two methods are now in
general use which may be said to satisfy

scientific requirements One of these is by
the use of contours, and the other is by the use
of hachures In the contour maps each con-
tour passes through points at the same dis-
tance above sea level If the area to be
mapped includes a bit of seacoast, the coast
line itself may be taken as the first contour and
the zero of elevation The remaining contours
will then be drawn at such intervals as to
show clearly the character of the relief A
contour which is ten feet above sea level is
drawn where the coast line would be if the
land was depressed by that amount What-
ever the interval chosen, the contours are
farther apart on gentle than on steep slopes,
although crowded contours drawn at an inter-
val of ten feet may indicate a much gentler
slope than more widely spaced contours drawn
at much greater intervals Contours are used
on the topographic sheets now being issued

134

FIG I — The sketch shows a river valley with ter-
races and a high hill and steep cliff s The map shows
how these features are expressed by the use of contours

by the Geological Survey of the United States
government The way in which contours
show relief is well brought out in the ideal
sketch and corresponding contour map (Fig
I) which is used by the Survey to ex-
plain their meaning Contours were first used
in 1728 by M S Cruquius in his chart of the
Merwede

While contoured maps show the height
of the land and furnish sufficient data to
determine in a general way the steepness of
mountain slopes, they fail to show the model-
ing of the earth's surface as clearly as do
hachures. This method makes use of lines
which vary in thickness and in distance apart
according to the steepness of the slope repre-
sented They are drawn in the direction
which would be taken by flowing water, and

MAPS

MAPS

when contour lines arc used on the same map,
they cross the contours at right angles The
method was first given scientific form by Major
J. G. Lehmann, although proposed at a some-
what earlier date by Ludwig Muller The
scheme as outlined by Lehmann assumed
vertical illumination and a consequent varia-
tion in the amount of shade from nothing for
a horizontal surface, to absolute darkness foi
a vertical surface He suggested, however,
that its use be limited to regions in which
the slopes did not exceed forty-live degrees,
assuming that steeper slopes would be, in
a military sense, practically impassable This

Lehmann 'a
Method.

Muffling
Method.

Austrian
Method.

FIG. J. — This figure shows the three hachure sys-
tems described in the text The Austrian method rep-
resents the highest development of this method of show-
ing relief.

resulted in white for horizontal surfaces,
black for slopes of forty-five degrees, and foi
intermediate slopes at five-degree intervals, a
proportion of white and black determined bv
the formula W B * (45 - n) n in which n
represents the slope for which the proportion
is sought If the slope is twenty degiees, the
proportion will work out

W B = (45 - 20) 20 = 25 20 - 5 4

The full scale is shown in Fig J, with the
proportion of black and white indicated for
each interval The svstem has had verv
wide application, and changes have been
made from time to time in various countries,
either for the purposes of securing greater

clearness, as in the Muffling system, which
uses dotted and wavy lines and alternating
thick and thin lines for this purpose, or to pro-
vide for steeper slopes, as in the Austrian
system, which reserves solid black for slopes
of eighty degrees In large general maps
upon which contours are drawn at consider-
able and frequently irregular intervals, the
strata are usually shown by several colors or by
tints and shades of one color In the map of
the world on a scale of 1 1 ,000,000 proposed by
Professor Penck and now under construction
by several governments the colors to be used
arc blue for the sea, green for lowlands to 300
meters, yellow between 300 and 500 meters,
and reddish tints for greater elevations The
use of the mezzotint shading instead of the line
shading is sometimes resorted to, and in con-
tour maps the results are often excellent
Maps shaded upon the assumption of an
obliquely lighted surface are often very artistic
in appearance, but they lose m scientific accu-
racy

All maps employ some symbols, and the
details shown in the topographic surveys have
led to the use of a very considerable number
The facts shown on the topographic sheets
of the United States may be divided into three
classes (1) relief, printed in brown, (2) drain-
age, printed in blue, and (3) culture, printed
in black The full-page illustration shows the
symbols used on these maps

In the placing of names on a map there is
no uniformity of practice, but in the matter
of orthography uniformity is being rapidly
introduced through governmental and other
boards on the spelling of geographical names

Relief Map.s — Many attempts have been
made to make relief maps, chiefly for school
use It has been urged with reason that
by their use the children may be given more
accurate notions concerning the surface of the
earth and the effect of relief upon climate,
the distribution of life, the location of settle-
ments, and the development of routes of trade
itnd communication The best relief maps are
1 hose which are constructed on a lai ge enough
scale to permit the showing of elevation true
to scale This cannot be done, however, on
small-scale maps In these the heights are
greatly exaggerated, the slopes absurdly steep,
and the generalization of the surface features
veiy considerable, but even these when prop-
er lv constructed are undoubtedly valuable,
although it mav be questioned whether children
.gain much of value when they attempt to make
crude maps of this soit out of sand, clay, putty,
papier-mache*, etc

Printing — After the map has been drawn,
it still remains to be printed In the early
davs this was done from wood blocks or from
copper plates on which the map had been
engraved Wood engraving for maps was
abandoned many years ago, but copper en-
graving, especially when combined with etch-

135

MAPS

MAPS

mg, is still in use Other quicker and cheaper
processes have been discovered such as lithog-
raphy, zincography, algraphy, and hehog-
raphy, and these give very satisfactory results
Charts. — The surface of the earth measures
approximately 196,940,000 square miles, of
which 145,054,000, or nearly three fourths, is
sea Over much of this vast surface ships cai rv
goods and passengers Some of them are
tramps, trading from port to port as contracts
offer, but for the most part they follow well-
defined routes and enter and leave then-
regular ports at stated intervals It is of the
greatest importance that they should be able
to do this without undue danger or delay, and,
to make this possible, every maritime nation has
made or is making extensive and accurate sur-
\eys of its coasts and harbors In some in-
stances, notably in the case of Great Britain,
colonial interests have led nations to extend
their surveys to the coasts and harbors of othei
countries whose governments aie less able
to undertake them or less interested in so
doing In spite of all that has been done, theie
are long stretches of coast and large ocean
areas which have never been accurately sur-
veyed and charted

Charts arc essentially maps foi the use of
navigators As such they must include depth
curves and characteristic soundings, show the
nature of the bottom, and indicate the position
of buoys, lighthouses, and other aids to navi-
gation, as well as the position of the coast
line at high and low water Currents are
shown by arrows and described in notes, as
is also the range of tides On the large-
scale charts channel lines and ranges are
given, and life-saving stations, ports showing
storm warnings and time balls, are indicated
Forbidden anchorages are also shown Most
charts show enough of the coast to indicate
its character and mark clearly every promi-
nent feature or fact of interest to the navigator ,
especially if it may serve him as a landmark.

Collecting the Data — As in the construc-
tion of a map, so with the chart, the first step
is the collection of the data to be shown on the
completed chart The position of the area to
be charted is obtained by astronomical ob-
servations and by reference to points whose
positions have already been determined and a
net of parallels and meridians is then diawn
Such topographical features as are deemed im-
portant arc next located These always in-
clude high and low water lines, offshore rocks,
lighthouses, and streams of all sizes, and usually
include many other features of importance
The survey of the sea bottom is especially im-
portant, as it is only by this means that
sunken rocks, reefs, shoals, sand bars, and
other dangers may be located. This work is
done by sounding The soundings are made
in a series of lines, from a boat whose position
is accurately determined at short intervals,
over the entire area to be charted In shal-

low water the soundings may be taken In
hand by casting the lead overboard and
noting the depth indicated when the lead
reaches the bottom and the line is vertical
For greater depths machines are used At
best this method of determining the configura-
tion of the sea bottom is unsatisfactory, as there
exists no means of ascertaining depths between
soundings Near the shore and in harbors
and about their entrances soundings are there-
fore close together After all of the soundings
have been compiled, the characteristic ones
are selected and plotted on the original sheet,
the depth curves are drawn, and shoals, bars,
anchorages, arid channel depths located In
harbors in which sediment is being constantly
deposited and wherever the sand bars are
being shifted by the action of waves and
ocean currents, new soundings must be tre-
quently taken and the charts corrected The
constant increase in the size of vessels mak-
ing use of harbors make frequent surveys nec-
essary. Usually, however, surveys are made
only at considerable intervals, but changes
and corrections are being made constantly
as new dangers are drscovered and as changes
are made in buoys and lights

Scale — Harboi and channel charts are
published on scales varying from 1 5000 to
I 60,000, coast charts on a scale of 1 . 80,000,
general coast charts on a scale of 1 400,000,
and general sailing charts on a scale oi
1 1,200,000

Projection* — The Mercator projection is
used for nearly all general sailing charts Its
characteristics have already been briefly stated
The three othei projections chiefly used in the
construction oi charts are the polycomc, gno-
momc, and globular The polycomc is simi-
lar to the conic already described, except that
instead of a single tangent cone several are
used, each parallel being the base of a right
cone which is tangent to the sphere along that
parallel The radii increase in length as the
distance from the pole increases, and the
parallels are therefore not the arcs of concen-
tric circles and are not strictly parallel The
division of each parallel into degrees of longi-
tude is coned, and the meridians are there-
fore more and more curved as the distance
from the central meridian increases The
latitude scale is correct on the central meridian
only In the gnomonic projection the eye
is at the center oi the earth, and the projection
is upon a plane tangent to the earth's surface
The globular projection has already been de-
scribed

Globes — The advantages and disadvan-
tages of maps and charts drawn on the surface
of a sphere have already been pointed out
They are of the utmost importance in geo-
graphical instruction, as it is only by their use
that children gain correct ideas as to the form,
size, and position of the great land and water
bodies and their chief divisions

136

MARBLE

MARBURG

The Manufacture of Globes — In the manu-
facture of globes a core or matrix is first
covered with many layers of paper pasted
together; this covering is then cut apart, the
core removed, and the two hemispheres at
once joined together along the line of the
equator The sphere is then mounted on an
axis and coated with whiting, which is
smoothed and allowed to harden The paper
gores upon which the map has already been
printed are then mounted with the greatest
CM re so as to adapt them to the surface of the
sphere The number of gores used varies
fiom twelve to twenty-four. Nearly all globes
JUT mounted upon standards in such a wav
that the axis is inclined approximately 23 J
degrees out of the perpendicular

Atlases — The practice of showing the
geographical distribution of all sorts of facts
and phenomena has become very common m
lecent years and has resulted in the publica-
tion of many special atlases of which the
i olio wing are characteristic: (1) atlas of
geology, (2) atlas of hydrography, (3) at-
las of meteorology; (4) atlas of commeice
and statistics, (5) atlas of plant distribu-
tion, (6) colonial atlas; (7) school atlases
of Aarious sorts, (8) arid historical atlases In
each type special methods and symbols have
been developed in order to show the facts as
clearly, accurately, and completely as possible

For the place of the subject in the study
oi geography and the general question of teach-
ing method, see GEOGR\PHY, TEACHING OF,
and the references there given C T. Me F

References : —

RRKUKINU, A Das Verenen dcr Kuffdoberflache

(LfipziR, 1892)
(iMtMAiN, A Tiaite c/o projections dc* caites gc<>-

nrnphiquex (Pans. 1866 )
H VMMER, E Vber du geographisch wuhtigtitfn Kai-

tenprojektionen (Stuttgart, 1889)
H \HZEK, PAUL Vbt r geographic he Otisbt^timmungi n

ohnc a^trononnschc Instrumcnte Erg -Heft Nr 12*

zu Petormanns Mitteilungrn (Gotha, 18(.)S )
Lei f fade n fur den UnUrrirht in der Fddknndc (Borhn,

LKLKWKL, J , GSogiaphie du moyt n-ag( (BruxollcM,

1852) , Epilogue (BruxollpH, 1857 )
PEHCHEL, O Geschichte der Eidkutuh bi^ auf Al(jc-

andci von Humboldt und Cart Ritt<i, 2 Aufl

(Mtmchon, 1877 )
V\N ORNUM, J L Topographical Purveys, thfir method*

and value (Madwon, Wisoonhin, 1890 )
YON NORDENSKIOLD, A E Pcnplus an Eway on the

early history of Charts and Sailing Dirtction^

(Stockholm 1807 )
ZUNDERVVN, H. Allgemeine Kartenkundt (Loipzig,

1901 )

MARBLE, ALBERT PRESCOTT (1836-
1906) — School superintendent. He was edu-
cated at Bowdom College and Colby Univer-
sity, graduating at the latter institution in 1861
He taught in the public schools of Maine and
Wisconsin; was pnncipal of the Worcester Acad-
emy (1866-1868), superintendent of schools
lit ' Worcestei (1868 -1894) and at Omaha
(1894 -1S<W), and fioin 1890 until his death

he was assistant superintendent of schools in
New York City He was active in the councils
of the National Education Association and
the Massachusetts Teachers' Association His
publications include Sanitary Condition oj
School Houses and numerous articles in edu-
cational journals W 8. M

MARBURG, ROYAL PRUSSIAN UNIVER-
SITY OF, GERMANY — The first Protestant
University in Germany, established in 1527
by Philip of Hesse as a center for the propa-
gation and support of Lutheranism. A Pada-
gogium or preparatoiy school was established
at the same time Imperial recognition was not
obtained until 1541, but degrees were granted
before that date, the privilege being granted
by a local ruler for the first time Among the
early humanistic teachers were Buschius, Eo-
banus Hessus, and Schuppius The university
was well attended, and in 1600 there were about
1000 students The introduction of Calvinism
in 1608 by the Landgrave Maurice drove many
teachers and students away, and for them the
Landgiave of Hesse-Dai mstadt founded the
University of Giessen (g v ) The two univer-
sities were combined in 1625 at Marbuig, but
only for a few years The Thirty Years' War
almost led to the extinction of the university,
which was recreated in 1753 as the University
of Hesse-Cassel It was for a long time strongly
denominational under the Reformed Church, an
exception being made only for Christian Wolf
(1723-1740) This attitude tended to disappear
during the period of Enlightenment, and even
the theological faculty admitted Lutherans by
1821 The university, however, at no time
during this period attained great standing,
the medical-scientific faculty was weakened
by the development of the Collegium Carolinum
nt Cassel, transferred to Marburg in 1786. A
few chairs were added at the end of the eight-
eenth century, but the endowment was still
small until under the Kingdom of Westphalia
(1806-1813) the funds of the institutions at
Rmteln and Helmstedt were tiansf erred to
Marburg In the middle of the last century
the university suffered largely through politi-
eal complications, and progress was so slow that
for a time a proposal was in the air to amalga-
mate again with Giessen The union of Hesse
with Prussia in 1866 marked the beginning of a
new era in the history of the university The
government treated the institution generously
The development of new chairs, seminars, in-
stitutes, and equipment has been very rapid
Special emphasis has been laid on the provision
of facilities for the study of modern languages
and philology. A strong summer school is
maintained and is well attended by foreign
students The following faculties are main-
tained theology, law, medicine, philosophy
(philosophy, history, and natural science sec-
tions) The enrollment in the summer semes-
leu ot 1912 was 2014 students.

MARCEL, CLAUDE

MARCUS AURELIUS

References - -

JUSTI, K W (frundzuijc eintr (rctxhichlr der Umver-

sitat zu Ma) bury (Marburg, 1S27 )
LEXJH, W £>a& llntnnchfawuten im dtutschtu, Rtitht

Vol I, pp 429-443 (Berlin, 1904 )

MARCEL, CLAUDE (1793-1876) —Edu-
cationist and Fiench consul at Cork From
1825 to 1865 ho lived away fioin France, and
thus came to take an interest in other languages
and the teaching of them His chief book was
entitled Language as a Mean* of Mental
Vulture and International Communication, or
Manual of the Teacher and Learner of Languages,
two \olumes, London, 1853 Of this woik Mai-
cel published an abstract in French, Premier*
P) t na pet< d1 E ducat w n avec le u r A pphcati o n
ti phialc cl I1 Etude des Langues (Pans, 1855)
Mai eel investigates thoroughly and comprehen-
sively the whole field of education, and attempts
thus to place language teaching in its true per-
spective He treats of physical, moral, and
intellectual education in his first book, of the
signs of our ideas and importance of their
acquisition in various languages in the second
book, the three great agents of education
(parents, teacheis, methods) in the third
book, the native tongue in the fourth book,
order and relative importance of the different
blanches of a language, in the fifth book; of
grammar, in the sixth book; then in successive
books, of words, of reading, hearing, speaking,
writing; and the time for learning a foreign
language He reduces his principles to twenty
" logical" axioms His methods were adapted
to Italian bv M .lean Damiani, and to German
arid Latin by M G Theodore. The gist of
Marcel's most valuable treatment of the teach-
ing of modern languages is a recommendation
of the duect 01 natural method Marcel, in
1867, wrote a translation of part of tus laige
book into Fiench, under the title of Etude des
Langues nimenee a MS ven tables Prmcipes, oit
V Art de pcnset dans une Langue etrangere (trans-
lated and published in New York, 1869) and
a small pamphlet Methode rationelle sutvant
pas d pas laMarche de la Nature pour apprendie
les Lang ues ttrangeres, avec ou sans Maltre (trans-
lated and published in New York, 1875).

F. W.

References —

BUIHHON, F Dictionnaire de Pedagogic, s v Marcel
QUICK, R H Essays on Educational Reformers
(Now York, 1<)07 )

MARCH, ANDREW FRANCIS (1825-1911)
— Philologist and leader in the American move-
ment for spelling reform (q v ) ; graduated at
Amherst College in 1845 He taught in the
public schools for four years, and then took up
the study of law In 1856 he accepted the
post of professor of English language and com-
parative philology at Lafayette College, which
lie occupied for forty years He was one of the
earliest advocates of simplified spelling in the
United States, and was president of the Aineri-

138

can Spelling Reform Association from 1876 to
1905 He wrote numerous pamphlets on the
subject His other educational writings in-
clude Method of Philological Study, Parser and
Analyzer for Beginners, Comparative Grammar
of the Anglo-Saxon Language, Anglo-Saxon
Reader, The ABC BooK , and many articles on
philological subjects He was editor-in-chief
of the Standard Dictionary and the American
editor of the Ojcfotd Dictionary W. S M.
See SPELLING KEFOIIM MOVEMENT

Reference —

STEARNS, FOSTER W Two Amhcrat Philologists.
Amherst Graduates' Quarterly, January, 1912

MARCUS AURELIUS — Roman Emperor
from 161 to 180 A D , — a wise ruler, a brave
general, a just and temperate man. His reign
was marked by several great misfortunes a
plague, a famine, and successive inroads of
the barbarians along the northern and eastern
borders of the Empire Though the barbarians
were in the end successfully checked, they were
a source of anxiety to the Emperor through-
out his reign The most serious impeachment
of Marcus's good judgment was his persecution
of the Christians

The significance of Marcus Aurehus in the
history of education lies in the fact that he
established at Athens certain chairs of aca-
demic study with endowment from the imperial
funds, and, bv thus virtually creating what has
been called the University of Athens, advanced
the cause of education throughout the Empire
(Yi tain steps had been taken by the previous
Emperor, Antoninus Piub, looking toward the
establishment of academic studies on a formal
basis under the direction of the central gov-
ernment, but not before Marcus was anything
like organization of the educational forces of
Athens undertaken. Marcus was from his
youth a friend and companion of Greek philos-
opheis and at all times an admirer of Greek
learning Even after he became Emperor, he
attended the lectures of the famous sophist,
Herodes Atticus In the second half of his
reign he established at Athens, by the side of
the chair of rhetoric, established in the reign
of his predecessor, a second chair of greater
dignity than the former The higher salary
which went with it was to be paid from the
imperial funds, and the appointment to the
chan was to be made by the Emperor Later,
pi obably in 176, he endowed at Athens two chairs
in each of the four principal schools of phi-
losophy — the Academic, the Peripatetic, the
Stoic, and the Epicurean. The appointments
to these chairs were to be made, after examina-
tion of the candidates, by Herodes Atticus
The holder of the chair of oratory ranked, at
least in dignity, above the other professors
Marcus aimed to make of the city a real uni-
veisity center, as Dio Cassius says, " he gave
to the whole world teachers at Athens, with

MARENHOLTZ-BULOW

MARJA THERESA

annual salaries, in every branch of literary
study."

The Meditations or Thoughts (TO. cts lavrov) of
Marcus Aurelius in twelve books are a collec-
tion of moral reflections and ethical maxims
written in the spirit of the Stoic philosophy.
The first section deals with his own education,
and is a document of great value in revealing
the character of Roman education under Stoic
ideals J W II W

See STOICS.

References —

BDSHELL, F W Marcus Aurelius and the later Stoics
(London, 1H<)4 )

FAKRAK, F W Seekers after God, pp 257-336)
(London, 1SSX )

W \LDEN, J W H The Universities of Ancient Greece
(New York, 1909 )

WATSON, P B Marcus Aurdius Antoninus (Lou-
don, 1884 )

MARENHOLTZ - BULOW - WENDHAU -
SEN, BERTHA VON (1810-1893) —The friend
and admirer of Froebel (qv ), who contiibuted
more than any other person to make his work
public Of her early life it is not necessaiv to
say anything here She met Froebel in 1841),
and at once appreciated the aims of the man
who had been mentioned to her as " an old fool "
She helped to introduce the unworldly teacher
to others who could assist in bringing him into
public notice The chief among these was
Diesterweg (q v ) But her own efforts were
considerable Entering on her propaganda
work in 1851, she did not relax her efioits
until her death in 1893 In 1851 she lectuied
to a group of women in Berlin, explaining the
Mutter- und Koseheder With Diesterweg's help
she founded a kmdergaiten at Pankow, but the
poiiod was unfavorable foi any new educational
ventures In 1851 the establishment of kinder-
gartens was f 01 bidden in Prussia After Froe-
bel's death, which was a great blow to her, she
devoted herself to the idea of founding an in-
ternational Froebehan Society She went to
London in 1854, where she attracted attention
She lectured on Froebel and the kindergarten,
and gave practical illustrations of this woik in
ragged schools (q v ) Dickens noticed her in
the Household Words, and an account appeared
in the Times and Alhemvum While in London
she published Women's Educational Missions,
being an Explanation of FroebeVs System of
Infant Gardens In 1855 she went to Paris,
where she did similar work, was noticed in the
press, and wrote Manuel des Jar dins d'Enfants
She carried her propaganda into Belgium arid
Switzerland In 1861 she returned to Germany,
and with the help of a women's society founded
a kindergarten in Berlin (1863), the prohibition
having been removed in 1860 Then she estab-
lished, with the cooperation of Karl Schmidt,
Professor Virchow, and others, Erziehung der
Gegenwart, an educational magazine In 1870
she settled in Dresden, where she founded the
Froebelstiftung with a kindergarten, a training

college foi kindeigaitners, and a home for
kindergartners and governesses In 1872 she
succeeded in bringing into existence the Allge-
rnctne Erziehungwerein Her zeal for the work
took her to Italy, wheie she aroused interest
in the kindergarten in Florence, Rome, Naples,
and Venice Many of her works have been
translated into English and include the follow-
ing among others Die Albeit und die neuc
Eiziehung (Handwork and Headwork), 1864,
The Child, It* Nature and Relations, 1872, The
Child and Child Nature (London, 1906),
The Kindergarten and the Importance of Chil-
dren's Play, 1882, Rrmimwnces of Fnedrich
Froebel (Boston, 1887), Theoretisches und
Praktiwhes Handbuch der Froebelschen Erzie-
htuigslehre (Cassel, 1886-1887)

See FROEBEL, FUIEDRICH, KINDERGARTEN

References —

MARENHOLTZ-BULOW, BERTHA VON Lift of Baronvs*

Bertha Marenholtz-Bulow (by her niece) (No*

York, 1901 )
SHIRKPF, EMTLY A Baroness von Marenholtz-Bulo^

Journal of Education (London) Vol XV, 1893,

pp 250-252

MARGARITA PHILOSOPHICA — See

ENCYCLOPEDIAS, ENCYCLOPEDISM

MARIA THERESA (1717-1780) —Queen
of Hungary und Bohemia, archduchess of
Austria, and wife of the Holy Roman Emperor,
Francis I Interested as Maria Theresa was in
securing the welfare of her country, she devoted
considerable attention to education, not only in
her immediate dominions, but also in Belgium
Dui ing her reign the control of the clerical party
was diminished, the Jesuits expelled, and a
general system of education introduced under
the control by a Board of Studies (Studirn-
hofkommission), in which the secular power was
uppermost She gathered around her the most
capable educators of the day, eg Felbiger
(qv), Kinderraann (qv), and Van Swieten
The new law was promulgated in 1774, and its
introduction, " we have observed that the

education of both sexes, the basis of the real
happiness of nations, requiies our especial
care," shows hei deep concern for reform She
had also encouraged the first university lectures
in Vienna on experimental physics (1745) and
mechanics (1757) In 1749 she had founded a
military school at Wiener-Neustadt, in which
" shall be formed men only and of them soldiers.
In Belgium she had also reorganized the second-
ary school system, after expelling the Jesuits.
A board of studies was appointed, classics were
edited, corporal punishment was abolished, and
public examinations were introduced To sup-
plv the need, new schools, Theresian Colleges,
were added The reorganization of schools of
art, design, and architecture was also encour-
aged by her

See AUSTRIA, EDUCATION IN.

139

MARIETTA COLLEGE

MARTINEAU

References —

ARNETH, A VON. Gcsckichte Maria Theresias (Vi-
enna, 1863-1879 )

BARNARD, H. American Journal of Education, Vols
XX, p 452, XXI, pp 37 and 038, XXII, p.
879, XXVII, p 510.

BRIGHT, J F Maria Theresa (London, 1897 )

STRAKOSCH-GRASHMANN, G Oeschichte des osterreich-
ischen Untei richtswenena (Vienna, 1905 )

WOLKE, K Oeatcrreichische Schulwesen im Zeitalter
Maria Theresias In Monumenta Oermanice PCB-
dagogita, Vol XXX (Berlin, 1905 )

MARIETTA COLLEGE, MARIETTA, OHIO

• — A coeducational institution founded in 1830
as the Institute of Education, and chartered in
1832 A collegiate department only is main-
tained The entrance requirements are fifteen
units The degrees of A B and A M are
conferred The total enrollment in 1911-1912
was 152 There is a teaching staff of eighteen
members

MARION, HENRI (1846-1896) —French
educator who exercised a decisive influence on
the real trend of educational methods in the
University of France He was active in the
organization of secondary education for girls
He gave the first course of Educational Psy-
chology and Morals at the Normal School of
Fontenay-aux-Roses The chair of Science of
Education at the Sorbonne was established for
him. and was occupied by him with great dis-
t motion until his death Marion was the author
of Devoirs el Droits de I'Hommc (1879); Lemons
dc Psychologic appbqme a I? Education (1881);
Locke, in the portrayal of whom he gives, ac-
cording to M Boutroux, a picture of himself;
La Solidarity morale, in which he points out to
what extent determinism, which leads to
freedom, in realizing itself binds the individual
to his own past by habit and to the racial past
hv heredity and education Mouvcment des
Idee^ pedagogiques en France (1889); Instructions
,sw la Discipline (1890), which brought about
a transformation of the discipline in French
education by substituting order as willed by
the, pupils for order imposed from the outside,
LJ Education dans VUnwersite (1892), and,
posthumous, VEdacatwn des jeunes Filles;
la Psychologic de la Femme (1900) Endowed
with great charm, an excellent teacher, a man
of good sense, a steadfast character, of fine and
sensitive feeling, Marion exercised a decisive
influence on several generations of teachers
His principle was that all means of the educative
process ought to lead to the formation of a moral
person (morahsme), and that national educa-
tion well directed ought to improve the race
and bring humanity to a better state (mehor-
isme). J. P.

References —

BUISSON, F Dictwnnaire de Pedagogic.
La Grand* Encyclopedic

and conducted by the Marist Fathers. Gram-
mar grades, high school, and college departments
are maintained. Students are admitted by cer-
tification from high schools. The A.B. degree
is conferred

MARIST FATHERS, THE, SOCIETY
OF MARY. — See TEACHING ORDERS OF THE
CATHOLIC CHURCH.

MARIST SCHOOL BROTHERS, THE —

See TEACHING ORDERS OF THE CATHOLIC
CHURCH

MARKINGS —See SCHOOL MANAGEMENT;
also RECORDS AND REPORTS.

MARLBOROUGH COLLEGE — See GRAM-
MAR SCHOOL, COLLEGE, COLLEGE, ENGLISH;
PUBLIC SCHOOLS

MARQUETTE UNIVERSITY, MILWAU-
KEE, WIS -— See JESUS, SOCIETY OF, EDUCA-
TIONAL WORK OF

MARSEILLES,

AIX-MARHEILLES,
EDUCATION IN

UNIVERSITY OF. — See

UNIVERSITY OF; FRANCE,

MARIST COLLEGE, ATLANTA, GA —

A Catholic institution incorporated in 1902

140

MARTHA WASHINGTON COLLEGE,
ABINGDON, VA — A college for women, es-
tablished in 1853 and now controlled by the
Methodist Episcopal Church, South Prepara-
tory, collegiate, and music departments are
maintained Fourteen points of high school
work are required for admission to the college,
which confers the degrees of A B and B S In
1911-1912 the teaching staff consisted of nine-
teen members, and the student body of 145

MARTHA'S VINEYARD SUMMER
SCHOOL — See SUMMER SCHOOLS

MARTIANUS, MINEUS FELIX CAPELLA.

— See CAPELLA, MARTIANUS MINEUS FELIX

MARTIN OF BRAGA, or BRACARA (r

520-580) — Bishop of Dumio in northwestern
Spain, where he was the leader in the conver-
sion of the Suevi to the Catholic faith He is the
author of a little work on moral training, For-
mula vita' honestcBj also known as DC differ en-
tus (juatuor virtutum, which enjoyed great
popularity in the Middle Ages In this and
other works of a moral and ascetic character
he is largely dependent upon Seneca.

Reference • —

Catholic Encyclopedia, s.v. Martin of Braga.

MARTINEAU, JAMES (1805-1900). —Eng-
lish philosopher and divine, brother of Harriet
Marti neau, was educated at Manchester Col-
lege, and became a Unitarian minister. He
was for forty-five years professor of mental and

MARTINIQUE

MARYLAND

moral philosophy at Manchester New College,
London. He exerted a wide influence as a
preacher, and won a high reputation as a writer
on religion and philosophy This was some-
what injured by his radical criticism of Spinoza
and his idealistic theory of the Church, which
was of an academic and impracticable character
and fell still-born In philosophy he was an
intuitionalist, holding that men have a power
of conscience by which they can estimate
moral values without the help of experience
His best work was done as a teacher of ethics
and a defender of fundamental truths against
the attacks of atheism, skepticism, material-
ism, and other negative tendencies in the nine-
teenth century He wrote many volumes of
sermons and essays for the periodical press
His<;hief works are the Types of Ethical Theory,
the Study of Religion, arid the Seat of Authority
in Religion These contain his best teaching in
its final form W R

References —
DRUMMOND, J , and UPTON, C B Life and Letters of

Dr Martineau (London, 1901 )
JACKSON, A W James Martineau, a Biography and

Study (Boston, 1900)

MARTINIQUE —See FRENCH COLONIES,
EDUCATION IN

MARWEDEL, EMMA (1817-1893) — Kin-
dergartner She was educated in the schools of
Germany, and for six years was connected
with the kindergarten training department of
the Industrial Art School for Women at Ham-
burg (1865-1871) Through the efforts of
Elizabeth P Peabody (q v ) she was induced
to come to America and engage in the work
of training kindergartners She conducted
training schools for kindergartners at Wash-
ington from 1872 to 1876, and at Los Angeles
and San Francisco from 1876 to 1890 Among
prominent American kindergartners trained
by Miss Marwedel are Kate Douglas Wiggin
and Norn A Smith Her published writings
include Conscious Motherhood, or the Earliest
Unfolding of the Child (Boston, 1889), and
The Connecting Link to Continue the Threefold
Development of the Child from the Kindergarten
to the Manual Labor School (San Francisco,
1890) W. S M

Reference : —

MONROE, WILL S Emma Marwedel and the Kinder-
garten Education, February, 1904

MARYLAND AGRICULTURE COLLEGE,
COLLEGE PARK, MD - - A state institution
established by legislature in 1856 and opened
in 1859 The following departments are main-
tained: agriculture, botany and vegetable
pathology, chemistry, civil, electrical, and me-
chanical engineering, physics, English and
civics, entomology and zoology, horticulture,
languages, mathematics, military service, ora-

141

tory, physical cultuie, veterinary, and preparn-
tory Students are admitted by special exam-
ination The degrees of B S , MS, AM,
M E , and C E are conferred The enroll-
ment in 1910-1911 was 416 The teaching
staff consists of thirty members

MARYLAND COLLEGE FOR WOMEN,
LUTHERVILLE, MD — Chartered in 1853
and 1895 as an institution for the higher educa-
tion of young women Preparatory, collegiate,
and music departments are maintained High
school graduates are admitted to the junior
class The degrees of A M and B L are
conferred The teaching staff consists of
eighteen members

MARYLAND, STATE OF —One of the
original thirteen states It is located in the
South Atlantic Division, and has a land area
of 9860 square miles In size it is about the
same as New Hampshire or Vermont Foi
administrative purposes the state is divided
into twenty-four counties, and these in turn
into school' districts In 1910 Maryland had a
population of 1,295,346, and a density of popu-
lation of 130 3 per square mile

Educational History — The original colonial
charter made no mention of education In
1695 the colonial assembly passed two acts, one
for the encouragement of learning, and the other
a supplicatory petition for the erection of free
schools The first was repealed in 1704, and
the second in 1696, and neither resulted in any
action In 1796 a "petitionary act for fiee
schools " was passed, looking to the erection
of free schools of a higher grade in each county.
As a result of this, King William's School was
founded at Annapolis as a preparatory school
for William and Marv College The plan
inaugurated at this time, of founding one free
higher school in each county, directed the edu-
cational efforts of Maryland for a century and
a half, and IN still to be seen in the annual ap-
propriations to certain schools and academies,
in consideration of the free instruction of a cer-
tain number of pupils In 1723 a fund for the
erection and support of a free higher school in
each county was begun, by an import tax on
pitch, pork, and tar, and trustees, called visi-
tors, were appointed for each county, to manage
the fund for each county, establish and maintain
the school, and to have perpetual succession
as a body In 1728 the visitors were directed
to see that the masters of each higher school
taught as many poor pupils gratis as the visitors
might direct A county system of higher
schools, or academies, was thus definitely
established, and the principle of charity school
education for the children of the poor became a
fixed policy What had been intended to be
free schools, due to lack of funds with which to
maintain them, were gradually transformed
into pay schools with a fixed number of poorer
pupils Almost no mention of education occurs

MARYLAND

MARYLAND

in the laws from this time on until after the
close of the Revolution The schools lan-
guished for want of funds, and a number gave
up their funds for other purposes

The first state constitution, adopted in 1770,
was amended twelve times during the next
seventy years, but without any mention of the
subject of education. The constitution of 1851
was similarly silent, except for the one provision
forbidding ministers, teachers, and religious
orders and sects from leceivmg property left
as a legacy or gift for their support The first
mention of education occurs in the constitution
of 1864

In 1 782 Washington College was established
at Chestertown, on the east shore, and in 1784
St. John's College was established at Annapolis,
on the west shore Annual legislative grants
forever, of £1250 and £1750 respectively, were
promised, and the two institutions together
were to constitute the University of Maryland
In 1798 the policy of dispersion, which has
wrought such havoc in education in Maryland,
was begun, when the annual grant to Washing-
ton College was reduced £500 and the sum
spent in making grants of £100 each to five
academies, two of which had just been chai-
tered In 1805 the University of Maryland act
was repealed, and the money ordered to remain
in the treasury until otherwise disposed of, and
in 1811 the sum was ordered to be distributed
to a number of schools and academics In
1827, and again in 1831, unsuccessful attempts
were made to divert the academy funds to
elementary education; and in 1831 the academv
grant was equalized to $800 for each county
This system icmains to the present time, the
state virtually supporting two systems of
secondary education In 1823 each academy
was ordered to receive at least one poor child
for every $100 of public money received, and
this proportion has since been increased The
Maryland school law ol to-day defines in detail
the number and method of selection of the
free pupils foi these schools In 1812 a new
charter was granted to the College of Medicine
in Maryland, and it was allowed to affiliate
with jt schools of law, divinity, and the liberal
arts The law and medicine faculties still
survive, as departments of a so-called Univer-
sity of Mai viand

In 1799 the Benevolent Society of the City
of Baltimoie was organized to provide elemen-
tary education for the female children of the
poor In 1805 St Peter's School for poor
children was established. Between 1801 and
1817 many academies and higher schools were
incorporated and aided, and during these years
the lottery, as a means of aiding education,
reached its height In 1812 a school fund had
been begun by a tax on banks, which in 1813
was changed to a rate of taxation on bank stock
In 1814 the unclaimed estates of persons dv-
ing intestate were added in Baltimore. In 1817
a lottery to raise $50,000 a year for five years

was ordered, the proceeds to be added to the
fund In 1825 certain interest received from
the United States was ordered added, and, in
1839, some railway stock was substituted for a
portion of the Surplus Revenue previously
added

In 1816 the first direct tax, a tax on the prop-
erty of five counties to provide schooling for
the poor children of those counties, was levied,
and later in the same year this tax was extended
to all the counties of the state The tax was
to aid rather than to provide, and the children
benefited were a class and not all

In 1826 the first general school law for Mary-
land was enacted, but the uniformity of its
action was nullified by the provision that the
law could go into effect in any county only after
its adoption by popular vote in the county.
A Superintendent of Public Instruction for
the state was to be appointed by the Governor,
the justices of the levy courts in each county
were to appoint a board of nine county com-
missioners, and eighteen additional inspectors
of primary schools, who were to visit the schools
once each quarter, and to report as to then-
condition Counties were to be divided into
school districts, and three district trustees,
a district clerk, and a district collector, were
to be elected for each All teachers were re-
quired to hold teachers' certificates, issued on
examination by the Inspectors The income
from the state school fund was to be appor-
tioned to the counties and to the districts on
the school census, and all additional funds were
to be raised bv district taxation The act was
to apply to the citv of Baltimore, if within five
yeais the city did not establish a system of
schools The law was so far in advance of
public sentiment that it could not be put
into operation, and the close of the Civil War
found Maryland without anv effective system of
public instruction beyond the limits of the citv
and county of Baltimore (See BALTIMORE,
CITY OF.) From this time on no further
attempt was made to establish a state school
svstcm

The state constitution of 1804 was the first
to mention education This, and the law of
1865 based upon it, provided for a centralized
and an effective system of administration, with
a State Superintendent of Public Instruction,
an ex officw State Board of Education, county
school commissioners appointed by the State
Board of Education, a state school tax of not
less than ten cents on the $100, and an addi-
tional tax of five cents to build up a permanent
school fund of $6,000,000. The State Super-
intendent was to report to the next legislature
a plan which would provide for a uniform sys-
tem of free public schools for six months each
year in each school district of the state A
normal school was established in Baltimore by
the legislature of 1865

In 1867 a new constitution was adopted,
which is still in force, and in 1868 a new school

142

MARYLAND

MARYLAND

law was adopted as provided for in tho con-
stitution This was more in harmony with tho
strong feeling of local liberty in tho state, and
has remained as the basis of the present system
The State Board of Education and the state
supermtendency were abolished, but some of
the functions of the State Board were given to
the board of trustees of the state normal school,
and the principal of the normal sehool was made
an ex officio superintendent The board of
county school commissioners was to be elected
by the people instead of being appointed by
the State Board An elected " board of school-
house district trustees " was created to appoint
the teachers and manage the property of each
sehool district The school term was increased
to ten months, and county taxation was au-
thorized to supplement the state school money
No provision was made for the education of
colored people, except to provide that taxes
paid by them should be spent on their schools
This law was much more popular than that of
1865, and much greater progress was made
under it

In 1870 the 1868 law was repealed arid re-
enacted with some changes The State Board
of Education was restored, under the name of
State School Commissioners, and made to con-
sist of the principal of the normal school and
four others, appointed by the Governor fiom
among the presidents and examiners of the
county boards of school commissioners
County boards were, in turn, to be appointed
bv the judges of the eiieuit court, instead of
elected, and school district boards were made
to consist of three trustees, appointed annually
by the county boards, instead of being elected
Life teachers' certificates were provided for foi
the first tune In 1872 provision was made for
the establishment of schools for colored chil-
dren in each county, and a state appropnation
was made therefor In 1874 the Governor
was added to the State Board of Education
(name changed in 1872), and the Board was
given some legislative powers The election
of teachers bv district boards of school trustees
was made subject to the appioval of the county
boards In 1904 the State Boaid of Education,
arid in 1906 the county boards of school com-
missioners, were reconstructed and given their
present form

In 1896 a normal department was organized
at Washington College, Chesteitown, and in
1898 a second state normal sehool was pro-
vided for at Frost burg In 1908 a third state
normal school was provided for colored teachers,
to be located in Baltimore, and college courses
in pedagogy were allowed to be approved by
the State Board of Education for state certifi-
cates In 1908 aid for high schools providing
manual training courses was first given by the
state, and in the same year state grants for
commercial courses in high schools were also
provided In 1904 provision was made for an
annual state grant of $150,000, to be distributed

to the counties and to the city of Baltimore, on
school census, to provide free textbooks In
the same year a law was enacted, providing
for a minimum salary of from $300 to $450 per
year for white teachers, and in 1908 this law
was amended so as to provide higher minimum
salaries for teachers of experience A state pen-
sion law was also enacted in 1908, and an
educational commission appointed In 1910 the
high schools weie classified and standardized,
and definite aid extended to them out of the
state school fund

Present School System — The educational
affairs of the state are under the care and super-
vision of a State Boaid of Education, consisting
of the Governor, the State Superintendent of
Public Education, and six citizens appointed
by the Governor for six-year terms, two of whom
must be of the minority political party The
principals of the state normal schools and the
head of the normal department of any state
schools are ex officio members, but without the
right to vote It is the duty of the State Board
to carry out the school law, and in doing so
they may make rules and regulations having the
effect of law, they are to interpret the school law,
deride disputes, and their decisions are final,
to issue uniform blanks and to icquire uniform
accounts and repoits, to examine candidates for
the office of county superintendent, and thev
may suspend or dismiss county superintendents
for cause, to grant professional certificates to
teachers of long and successful experience, and
to act, ex officio, as a Board of Tiustees for the
state normal schools, and to approve a pedagogi-
cal course for colleges wishing to be pel nutted
to grant teachers' certificates to their graduates

The State Superintendent of Public Educa-
tion is also appointed bv the Governor, for a
four-year term, and may be removed from
office by the State Board of Education by a
two thirds vote His salary is fixed by the
State Board. He is ex officio a member of this
body, and its secretary and executive officei
It is his work to inform himself as to the con-
dition oi education in Maryland, to woik to
impKHC educational conditions, to receive and
examine all reports from county boards, to
endorse normal school diplomas from other
states, to arrange dates for teachers' insti-
tutes, and to help in the preparation of the
program, to print and distribute the laws, an
Arbor Day pamphlet, an Institute Manual,
the Proceedings of the Maryland Teacheis1
Association, and such circulars as may be
needed, to serve er officio as a member of the
State Library Commission, with the principal
and one of the facultv of a state normal school
to examine the high schools of the state and to
report the results to the State Board of Educa-
tion, and personally to inspect the manual
training courses in the high schools of the state,
and to approve them for state aid.

For each county there is a board of county
school commissioners, also appointed by the

143

MARYLAND

MARYLAND

Governor. In six of the larger counties the
board consists of six members, in the remain-
ing counties, of three The term of office is
six years, one third appointed every two years,
and one third being of the minority political
party. No teacher is eligible, and the Gov-
ernor may remove any member for cause This
board elects the county superintendent of
public education, who also acts as treasurer
and secretary of the board The county board
has general supervision and control of the
schools of the county, and may make rules and
regulations, not contrary to law, for that pm-
pose, may select sites, build, repair, and fur-
nish schoolhouses; is to adopt, purchase, and
distribute the textbooks to be furnished,
must approve the appointment of the principal
teachers for all schools, and appoint all assist-
ant teachers, on the advice of the principal,
may consolidate schools and transport pupils,
may determine the amount of county school tax
to be levied; may change the boundaries oi
districts as seems desirable; hears all charges
against teachers, and settles all disputes wit Inn
the county subject to appeal to the State Board ,
must maintain one or more free schools for col-
ored children in, every election district, must
maintain a high school when presented with a,
high school building by any election district
or districts; and must make a report annually
to the State Board of Education and to the
people of the county

The county superintendent of public educa-
tion, elected by the county board, acts as its
executive officer. He examines all candidates
for county teachers' certificates, and grants
certificates to those who pass; must visit each
school in the county from one to three tunes
each year, depending upon the number of
schools in his county, attends all meetings of
the board, and may speak, but has no vote,
prepares an annual report for the State Board ,
and must devote his entire time to the work of
supervision His salary is fixed by the county
board.

For each school district a board of district
school trustees is appointed each year by the
county boards Each district board is allowed,
on approval by the county board, to elect its
principal teacher, who thereupon becomes
ex officio secretary of the district board
These boards have the care and repair of the
schoolhouse and furniture of the district,
may make repairs, if approved by the county
board; may exercise general supervision ovei
the school, subject to the rules and regulations
of the county board; may admit, suspend, or
expel pupils and may levy additional distuct
taxation to provide a longer term of school
The city of Baltimore is a district operated
under a special charter (See B \LTIMORE,
CITY OF )

School Support — Maryland received no
school lands, and the permanent school fund,
including the Surplus Revenue fund, which has

but a nominal existence, is about one million
dollars, and yields about $50,000 a year, or
about 1 5 per cent of all revenue raised The
annual state school tax of sixteen and one eighth
cents on the $100 produces about 40 per cent
of all money raised The remainder comes from
the free school fund, and grants for secondary
education The annual state grant of $150,000
for free textbooks now comes out of the general
state school tax About 58 per cent comes from
a county school tax of fifteen cents, which, by
agreement between the county school board and
the county commissioners, may exceed fifteen
cents The total amount expended for educa-
tion in 1909-1910 was $4,060,341, of which
44 per cent was expended by the city of Balti-
more

Educational Conditions — Of the popula-
tion of 1910, about 20 per cent were negroes, and
about 90 per cent were native born. Of the foi-
eign born, one half were Germans and one
sixth Irish Only in three counties do the ne-
groes equal the whites in number It is ncces-
saiy to maintain two school systems for the
two races Aside from the city of Baltimore,
which contains 42 8 per cent of the total popu-
lation of the state, the state is essentially u
nual state, as 49 2 pei cent live in rtiial dis-
tricts

The law requires a school term of ten months
" if possible '' The average length of term
for eleven counties and the city oi Baltimore
was ten months, for eleven counties it was nine
months In respect to length of term piovided,
Maryland ranks with the New England states
The attendance, however, is poor, being but an
average of 102 9 days foi each pupil enrolled
in 1909 Twenty-one per cent of the total
enrollment and 22 per cent of the teachers
were in the colored schools, which is more than
their percentage of the total population The
state has no geneial compulsory education law,
which accounts for these low figures Balti-
more city and Allegheny County enforce at-
tendance Of the total population of 1900, ten
years of age or over, 111 per cent were ilhtei-
ate. Of the two races, 5 2 per cent of the
whites and 35 1 per cent of the colored nice
could not read or write. The average value of
all the schoolhouses in the state, including the
city of Baltimore, is but about $1600. In the
rural districts, and particularly in the negro
districts, many of the school buildings ore of
small value

Teachers and Training — The state1 em-
ployed 5414 teachers in 1910, 3730 being out-
side of the city of Baltimore. Of this number
823, or 22 per cent, were employed in the
colored schools, 212 being in the city of Balti-
more No statistics are available to show the
kind and amount of training which these
teachers have had. Two grades of county
teachers' certificates are issued on examination,
the difference being in the subjects examined
on A very meritorious provision is that each

144

MARYLAND

MARYLAND

certificate is valid for six mouths aftei obtain-
ing a school, after which, if the Superintendent's
inspection warrants, the ccitihcute is made
valid for five years County superintendents
must hold a certificate issued f>v the State Board
of Education, which also issues, without exam-
ination, life diplomas for seven yours of suc-
cessful teaching, five of which must have been
in Maryland Normal school diplomas from
outside of the state may be accepted by the
State Superintendent, and the diplomas of
1 ho three state normal schools and the normal
department of Washington College arc also
accepted in any county

SCHOOL

Maryland State Nor-
mal School

Maryland State Nor-
mal School

Normal Department
Washington College

Mankind State Nor-
mal S< hool No 3

The salaries of teachers are fixed by the
county board, at the time of employment,
except that no white teacher can be paid less
than $300 a ycai, and no white teacher of three
years' experience less than $350 a year If the
teacher holds a first-class certificate and has
taught in Maryland five years, the minimum is
$400, and if eight years, $450 Any incapaci-
tated 01 indigent teacher of sixty veais of age
or more, who has taught twenty-five years in
the schools of Mai viand, may be letired on an
annual pension of $200

LOCATION

Foi<
MAIN-

TKVANCL

FOH

Baltimore

$20,000

Whites

Frostburg

7,000

Whites

Chestertown

4,500

Whites

Baltimore

5,000

Colored

The Maryland Teachers' Reading Circle was
established in 1890, for the improvement of
teachers in service4, and the law requires that
this shall be encomaged by the State Board of
Education A teachers' institute, of at least
five days, must be held in each county, and
teachers are required to attend The state now
maintains four normal schools (see above table)
For each of these, county and city boards of
school commissioners are to select candidates
for admission and grant a certain number of
scholarships for the course

Secondary Education — The state at present
maintains a double-headed system of secondary
education, and, as a result, few good public
high schools, outside of Baltimore, have been
developed in the state. Many of the old
academics have surrendered to the state and
become public secondary schools, but seventeen
of the old incorporated academies and schools
still receive state grants of from $150 to $3000
The law of 1910 attempted to classify and stan-
dardize the high schools of the state, provided
definite state aid for approved schools, to be
paid from the state school fund instead of by
special appropriations, and made the approval
of both the County and the State Board of
Education necessaiy foi the Establishment of
new schools This new law will do much to
give Maryland a good system of secondary
education The county agricultural high schools,
provided for in 1912, will also prove a very im-
portant feature.

Higher and Special Education — The same
policy of dispersion of aid which characterizes
secondary education also applies to higher and
special education The University of Mary-
land consists only of medical and law depart-
ments, first opened in 1807 and 1814 respec-
tively The Maryland State Agncultuuil

iNHIITUriON

Chailottc Hall Academy .
Washington College . . .

St John's College
Medical Pcpuitment of Umvrersity (

Maryland

Mt St Marv \s College
Luv\ School, University of Maryland
New Windsor College
St Mm>'s Female Colleg(
M»Donough Institute

St John's Literary Institu

te

Mai \lund Institute

U S Naval Academy

Loyola College

Kee Mar College

Maiyland College for Women

Rock Hill College

Maryland Agricultuial College .

Morgan College

Western Maryland College

College of Physicians and Surgeons

Johns Hopkins University

Baltimore Medical College

Woman's College of

Woni.m's College

Lo( ATION

OPENED

COKT.OL \ ^

Fon

Charlotte Hall

1774

$ 6,000

Males

Chcstertown

1783

Non-sect

13,275

Both Sexes

Annapolis

1789

Non-sect.

14,200 Males

Baltimore

1807

4,000

Males

Einimtslmrg

1808

R C

Males

Baltimore

1814

I Males

New Windsor

1843

Presby. 1 i Both Sexes

St Mao 'H City

! (>.000 ( Women

Lu Plata

5,000 Both Sexes

Frederick

i 400 Males

Baltimore

' 10,000

Both Sexes

Annapoh.s

1845

Nation

Males

Baltimore

1852

R C

Males

Hiigerstown

1852

Non-sect

Women

Luther villc

1853

Lnth

Women

Klheott Citv

]857

R C

Males

College Park

1859

Statt 15,000

Malea

Baltimore

1867

M E

Both Sexes

Westminster

1867

Meth Prot 15,800

Both Sexes

Baltimore

1872

4,000

Males

Baltimore

1870

Non-sect

25,000

Males

Baltimore

1881

i 4,000

Males

Baltimon

1888

M K Women

Fred en civ

189.*

Reform ! Women

U5

MARYVILLE COLLEGE

MASSACHUSETTS COLLEGE

College, at College Park, was opened in 1859
Some state aid has from time to time been,
extended to Johns Hopkins University. In 1912
a state school of technology was established in
connection with the university, with a state tax
of } cent annual revenue Tins will produce
$50,000 each year. The dispersion of educa-
tional effort may be seen from the table of
colleges in the state on previous page.

The state maintains the Maryland School for
the Deaf and Dumb, at Frederick, and grants
state aid to St Mary's Industrial School (for
bovs) and St Petei Olaver's School, both at
Baltimore The Maryland (reform) School
for Boys, at Baltimore, and the House of Refor-
mation, for boys, at Cheltenham, arc sup-
ported by public funds E P V

References —

Annual Report* of th? State Board of Education of Mary-
land, I860 to date

Public School Law of Maryland, 190H edition and sup-
plement

STEKLE, / P History of Education in Caroline Co ,
Md , and Sources of Revenue foi Schools, in 44th
An Kept of the Mate Bd of Ednc , 1910, pp 182-
201

STEINBH, it C History of Education in Maryland
Circ Inform , No. 2, 1894, U S Bur Educ ,
331 pp

MARYVILLE COLLEGE, MARYVILLE,

TENN — A coeducational institution founded
in 1819 Preparatory, collegiate, education,
music, and art departments aie maintained
The entrance requirements are fifteen units
The degree of A B is granted by the institu-
tion The total enrollment in 1911-1912 was
('49 The teaching staff consists of thirty-nine
members

MASON, LOWELL (1792-1872) — Firsi,
apostle of public school music in the United
{States He was born at Medfield, Mass , and
received the rudiments of an elemental y edu-
cation in the common schools After seveial
years of teaching in the district schools of
Massachusetts, he went to Georgia, where he
taught music and conducted choirs and singing
societies Returning to Boston in 1827, he or-
ganized the Boston Academy of Music with the
aid of William James Webb (q t>). Through
William 0 Woodbridge (q v ) he became inter-
ested in the Pestalozzian movement and went
to Switzerland to study the work of Nageh (q r )
and Pfeiffer He brought back with him a col-
lection of SWISH and German schoolbooks con-
taming class music and songs

Failing in his efforts to induce the city of
Boston to include music as one of the required
studies of the elementary schools, he organized
classes of children on Wednesday and Saturday
afternoons and taught gratuitously from h'v"
to six hundred children for several years The
juvenile concerts that he gave from time to
time convinced the people of the value of his
work, and music was made one of the required
subjects in the course of study.

In addition to his work with the children and
the Boston Academy of Music, he was president
of the Handel and Haydn Society, and in a
variety of ways he sought to improve and ex-
tend musical taste in New England through the
giving of concerts, the formation of singing
societies, the organization of church choirs, and
the establishment of lecture courses on musical
subjects In 1837 he became associated with
Horace Mann (q v ), and during the next twelve
years he gave much of his time to the training
of teachers of common school music in the in-
stitutes and normal schools of Massachusetts
" His long continued work as a practical teachei ,
his rare tact in developing the vital principles
of instruction, his sympathy with youth and
childhood, and the perfect simplicity and ele-
mentary chaiactcr of his tea clung gave him an
indescribable power over his audiences "

His influence was likewise great through his
published works His Juvenile Psalmist was
published in 1829 It was one of the first
music books ever published for Sunday schools,
and it was widely used During the next few
years he published fourteen music books for
children He also published many works foi
glee clubs, church choirs, and singing societies,
and his A mcncan Tune Book, six hundred thou-
sand copies of which had been sold before his
death, greatly enriched American hymnology
As a creative tone artist, he limited his efforts
to church tunes, but many of these are highly
creditable productions His contributions to
the pedagogy of music may be found in the
Proceeding* of the American Institute of In-
struction and the educational journals of his
dav W. 8 M.

See Music

References --

BARNUID Educational LahorH of Lowell Mason
Harnard\ American Journal of Education, Vol IV,
pp 141-148

MONROE, WILL S Hwtory of the Peatalozzian Move-
ment in tht United Stale* (Syracuse, 1007 )

MASON, LUTHER WHITING (1821-1896).
— Music educator and author He was self-
educated, became supervisor of music in the
schools of Kentucky arid Ohio (1853-1861), and
during the Civil War served as a drum major.
From 1865 to 1880 he was connected with the
public schools of Boston as supervisor of music
The next three years (1880-1883) he spent
in Japan as organizer of public school courses
of music in thai kingdom He wrote a series
of music textbooks widely used in the United
States. W. S. M.

MASSACHUSETTS AGRICULTURAL
COLLEGE, AMHERST, MASS. —A coedu-
cational institution established under the
Mornll Land Act of 1862 and opened in 1867
In 1882 the state experiment station was
located at and later incorporated with the
college All instruction is free to citizens of

146

MASSACHUSETTS COMMISSION

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

Massachusetts, to candidates who meet the en-
trance requirements — fourteen units of high
school work The following departments are
maintained, agriculture, horticulture, botany,
entomology, plant and animal chemrstry,
veterinary science, mathematics, social science^,
and humanities Extension work is conduct e< I
by the college, and provides short courses, lec-
ture courses, and correspondence courses The
degrees of B.S., M S , and Ph D are conferred
by the college. The enrollment in 1911-1912
was 520 The faculty consists of sixtv mem-
bers

MASSACHUSETTS COMMISSION OF
INDUSTRIAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCA-
TION — See COMMISSIONS, EDUCATIONAL

MASSACHUSETTS INDUSTRIAL COM-
MISSION — See COMMISSIONS, EDUCATIONAL

MASSACHUSETTS INSTITUTE OF
TECHNOLOGY, BOSTON, MASS —An in-
stitution incorporated in 1861 for the purpose
of "aiding generally by suitable means the ad-
vancement, development, and practical appli-
cation of science " It was not until 1865 that
it was possible to make an actual beginning
even with the most modest equipment in leased
rooms of a building in Summer Street, Boston
The equipment in men, however, was stiong
from the beginning, the best known of the
original faculty of ten being Rogers, the
founder and first president, and Eliot, after-
wards president of Harvaid The courses in
these early days were espenallv designed 1o
prepare men for mechanical and nvil engineer-
ing and for the professions of the architect and
the chemist In 1881 President Rogers was
succeeded by General Francis A Walker, under
whose guidance the number of students in-
creased fiom 300 to 1200 and the number of
the instructing staff from 39 to 153 Following
General Walker were * James M Crafts (1897-
1900), Henry M Pntchett (1900-1907), and
Richard C Maclaunn (1909- )

The Institute is one of the land grant col-
leges, and in addition to the income that this
position secures, it receives an annual grant of
$100,000 from the legislature of Massachu-
setts Its tuition fee is $250, and its budget
for 1911 was $615,571 The government is
vested in a Corporation, consisting of five
vjc offino members, thirty-five life members, and
fifteen members elected for terms of five years
from a group of candidates nominated by the
alumni The Corporation conducts much of
its business through an Executive Committee
consisting of the president, treasurer, and five
other members The instructing staff m 1911
consisted of 245 members, of whom 91 were of
professorial grade These professors constitute
the faculty, which has the immediate super-
vision of all matters relating to the courses of in-
struction and to the admission and conduct of

students Exclusive of the summer .school, the
number of students in 1911-1912 was 1566, of
whom 399 were from other colleges, and 212
were college graduates representing 112 colleges.
Over a, hundred came directly from foreign coun-
tries and almost every state rn the Union was
represented There were only seven women,
although women are admitted to any of the
courses The regular course of undergraduate
study runs between the end of September and
the beginning of June foi four vears, and
leads to the degree in any one of the fol-
lowing fourteen branches cnrl engineering,
meehamcal engineering, mining engineering and
metallurgy, architecture, ehemistrv, electrical
engineering, biology and public health, phys-
ics, general science, chemical engineering, jsani-
tarv engineering, geologv and geodesy, naval
architecture and marine4 engineering, and elec-
trochemistry In each of these courses a large
proportion of work of a literary and scientific
character is insisted upon, and a serious effort
is made to break down the barriers between
professional and cultural studies Opportuni-
ties are also afforded for study and research
loading to the ad va need degrees of MS,
Ph D , and Doctor of Engineering Although
research is carried on in all departments, there
are laboratories especially designed for pur-
poses of research in physical chemistry, applied
chemistry, arid public health, and contributions
from these laboratories are published periodi-
cally by the research departments R C M

References —

HOLMAN, S W MasBathiiHi'ttH Institute of Tech-
nology, m Historv of Highei Kducation in Ma.hna-
ohusettR U S Bur Kdnr Contribution^ ((t A tun -
lean Educational Ih^torj/, No Jtf, pp -2M) 31()
(Washington, 1H91 )

MuNROfc, J P Tho Beginning of the MHKSIK hiihetts
Institute of Tefhnolog\ Tt'chnvlony Quaittrly,
M.-n, 1S88

The MaHNaehiiHetts Inntitute of Technology A <'?/>
England Magazine, October, 1902

ROGERH, W B Lif< and Lift*™ (Boston, IS'Hi )

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF — One of

the most important states, educationally, in
the Union The first permanent settlement
in New England was made at Plymouth, in
1020 Salem was settled in 1028, and Boston,
Chariest own, Newt own (Cambridge), Roxbury,
Dorchester, and Watertown were settled by
the Massachusetts Bay Company in 1630
The Massachusetts Bay Colony at once be-
came the leading colony, and in 1691 Plym-
outh Colony was united to it by the
new charter granted by William and Mary,
which remained in force until the Revolu-
tion In 1788 Massachusetts entered the
Union, as one of the thirteen original states.
In srze the state has but 8039 square miles,
berng fifth from the smallest state, but in popu-
lation it ranked sixth from the largest in 1910,
and the densrty of population, 418 8 per square
mile, is only exceeded by that of Rhode Island.

147

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

Its population in 1910 was 3,366,416 For ad-
ministrative purposes the state is divided into
33 cities and 321 towns The towns are small,
being somewhat analogous to a Western town-
ship The cities aie towns which have incor-
porated under a city form of government, 01 a
segregated area so incorporated There are
also fourteen county divisions, but these are
little used

Educational History — Education began in
Massachusetts under most favorable auspices
The colonists who settled in the Massachusetts
Bay and Plymouth colonies were men of broad
and liberal education, who had come to the
new world for conscience' sake The popula-
tion of our country has never been so highly
educated since as it was during; the first fifty
years of Massachusetts history Many had
been educated in the endowed grammar schools
of England, and one man in every 250 was a
graduate of an English university Almost
all had been conspicuous in Church and State
in the mother country before coming to the
new world Their religion called for a knowl-
edge of God's word, and this in turn called for
education They early set up schools, pat-
terned closely after those they had known at
home Fearing that education arid religion
might die with the first generation, they pro-
vided at once for institutions to perpetuate
both.

The beginnings of education in Massachu-
setts were made at Boston, in 1635, when the
town, then five years old, requested Brother
Philemon Purpont to become schoolmaster.
The Boston Latin School traces its history back
to this time (See BOSTON, CITY OF ) The
next year the General Court of the colony
voted an appropriation of " £400 toward a
school 01 college," which was located at New-
town in 1637 In 1638 John Harvard, dying,
bequeathed his library and half his property
to the new college, arid the name of Harvard
College was given to the new institution, and
the town where it was located was renamed
Cambridge, in loving memory of the alma mater
of so many of the early colonists. The grant
made by the court for the new college was a
most important one, and was equal to the entire
colony tax for a year

Other towns also established schools at an
early date Oharlestown arranged with William
Witherell in 1636 " to keep a schoole for 12
month, to begin the 8 day of August, and to
have C40 this year " In 1637 flev John
Fiske opened a school in Salem Dorchester
opened a public tax-supported school in 1639
Newbury granted ten acres of land to Anthony
Somerby in 1639 " for his encouragement to
keep a school one year " Schools were opened
in Ipswich in 1641, Cambridge in 1642, and
Roxbury in 1645 In 1641 the General Court
appealed to the elders of the church to prepare
" a catechism for the instruction of youth in
the grounds of religion " In 1642 the court

enacted the first school law of the colony, which
was an attempt to provide generally what a
few towns had so far provided individually.

By this law the court, m view of the neglect
of many parents and guardians in the training
of their children " in learning and labor . . .
profitable to the commonwealth," ordered the
selectmen of the towns to take account of all
parents and masters as to their children's edu-
cation and employment They were to divide
the towns so that each should have the over-
sight of a certain number of families, and they
were to see that the children could read and
understand the capital laws of the country,
and that they were also put to some useful
work Parents or masters refusing to give
proper accounts were to be fined, and their
children might be taken away from them The
civil authonties might be called upon by the
selectmen to secure the enforcement of the
law This law laid down certain principles of
fundamental importance in the matter of public
education Education was by it declared to be
necessary for the welfare of the colony, the
obligation to furnish it was placed upon the
parent , and the right of the colony to compel
parents to furnish it was asserted

Five years later, in 1647, the colony in a new
law went still further, and required the towns to
furnish a school or schools This law of 1647,
commonly known as " that old deluder Satan
law," is the real foundation of the Massachu-
setts school system, and has often been called
the mother of all of our school laws A college
had been established, and elementary schools
and grammar schools were now ordered estab-
lished in all towns Every town of fifty families
must appoint a schoolmaster to teach the chil-
dren of the town to read and to wnto The
wages of the schoolmaster were to be paid by
the parents, or by the town, as the majority
might order Every town of 100 families
must also provide a grammar school, the master
of which was to be able to instruct the youths
sufficiently to enable them to enter the uni-
versity In 1654 the court ordered that all
teachers must be sound in the faith and free
from scandal in their lives, on pain of dismissal.
Plymouth Colony also attempted somewhat
similar legislation, though somewhat later, and
on the union of Plymouth Colony with that
of Massachusetts Bay in 1691, the law of 1647,
with its various amendments, became the com-
mon school law for the entire united colony
In this new law the colony laid down still further
fundamental principles. Towns were now to
be compelled to provide schools; a standard of
instruction was fixed by the colony; public
taxation could now be resorted to to provide
what the colony required; and higher educa-
tion, leading to the university, also must be
provided, and might be provided at public
expense The law of 1654 declared the right
of the colony to examine and certificate all
teachers. These principles were so fundamen-

148

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

tal in their nature that we have acted along
these lines ever since, while they were at the
same time so far m advance of the people that
it was found difficult to enforce the laws, and
even Massachusetts has not fully caught up
with them yet

The fine for failure to comply with this law
was at first fixed at £5 A supplementary
law of 1683 further icquired all towns of 500
families to maintain two grammar schools and
two writing schools, and in the re-enactment of
the laws in 1692, under the new province
charter of 1691, the penalty for neglect to
maintain the required schools was raised to
£10. In 1701 the Massachusetts Court com-
plained that the law was " shamefully neglected
by divers towns, and the penalty thereof not
required " At the same time the penalty was
increased to £20, and a law was enacted
whereby the master of the grammar school must
be approved by the minister of the town and
by the minister* of the two nearest towns, or by
any two of them, and providing that no minister
could be accepted as the schoolmaster of his
town

The grammar schools of Massachusetts did
much, during the seventeenth century, to con-
tribute to the fame of the colony as an educa-
tional center The woik of Ezekiel Chcever
(q»)i and of Elijah Corletl, who taught the
school at Cambridge for forty-three years, are
especially noteworthy Other towns founded
grammar schools during the seventeenth cen-
tury, many of which were locally famous
Many grants in aid of schools, such as the grant
of Thompson's Island to the town of Dorchester
in 1636, the grant of 1000 acres of land by the
( renei al Court m Cambridge in 1 659, for the sup-
port of a grammar school, the will of Thomas
Bell in 1671, granting 200 acres of land to sup-
port a school for the children of the poor in
Iloxbury, and the income from the Cape Cod
fisheries, granted by Plymouth in 1670, were
made during the seventeenth century for the
support of schools

In the eighteenth centurv conditions changed
The early fervor for schools and learning in
large part died out It was a period of warfare
and invasion, on the one hand, and of the
founding of new settlements and towns, with
a westward movement of the population, on
the other Between 1700 and 1760, 123 new
towns were founded, and in the next ten years
forty-five more, nearly all of which were
west of the Connecticut River Schoolmasters
were becoming scarce, even by the end of the
seventeenth century, due largely to the unwill-
ingness of the towns to bear the financial burden
of the schools, and special favors began to be
granted to them in lieu of proper wages. In
1692, as an inducement to enter the work,
teachers were exempted from taxes; in 1693
they were exempted from militia duty, and
in 1699 they were exempted from the watch.
Women teachers, too, became more common,

149

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

and the dame schools were gradually absorbed
into the town school system The " moving
school " (q v ) became common in the newer
and more sparsely settled towns Towns
which felt themselves too poor to provide a
sufficient number of schoolmasters employed
one and sent him aiound among the districts,
and he gave instruction m each in proportion
to the contribution of each toward his support
The support of the required grammar school,
too, became a grievous burden, and many towns
were indicted for failme to comply with the
law In a few towns it, too, became a moving
school The school spirit declined, arid the
school decayed

The constitution of 1789 and the school law
enacted by the new state embodied into law
the practices as well as the principles of the
past 150 years The old laws had contained
requirements so high that they could not be
enforced While retaining the old principles,
the new law set requirements capable of being
enforced The district system was legalized
Towns of fifty families were to support an
English school for six months, instead of the
whole year as before, and the school might be
split up into any number of sessions Towns
of 100 families were to continue such a school
for an aggregate of twelve months in each year
Towns of 150 families were to maintain an
English school for twelve months, and a gram-
mar school for six months, though such schools
might be held in any number of places during
the required time Towns of 200 families
were to maintain both schools for an aggregate
of twelve months The old law had lequired
a grammar school in eveiv town of 100 families,
while the new law freed 120 towns from the
old obligation In 1824 another law freed all
but seven towns, all of them commeicial towns,
from the ancient obligation With the rise
of the privately endowed academy having a
more modern course of study the old grammai
schools died out, and in many towns almost
faded from memory

All teachers in the higher schools were le-
quired by the law of 1789 to be college grad-
uates, though, instead, a certificate from " a
learned mimstei, well skilled in the Latin and
Greek languages, settled in a town where the
school are proposed to be kept/' or from two
equally well qualified ministers in near-by
towns, would answer as well Teachers in
more elementary schools must also obtain a
certificate, and the effects of the War of the
Revolution are shown in the new requirement
that only citizens of the United States could be
employed as teachers, under penalty of a fine
of 20s. a month Ministers, selectmen, and
other persons were enjoined to " use their best
endeavors " that all should attend the schools,
and the ministers and selectmen were appointed
a visiting committee to look after the schools

The decline in the desire for schools and
learning, which set in in the eighteenth cen-

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

tury, continued and became more marked, and
the first fifty years of the existence of Massa-
chusetts as a state was a period during which the
town schools reached their lowest level The
moving school and the district system (q v )
destroyed the efficiency of the common schools,
and the rise of the academy undermined the
old town grammar schools.

For the purpose of locating the districts in
which the moving school should be held, the
towns had been laid off into districts By
the law of 1789 the division into districts was
legalized and the district system established,
and in 1800 the power to levy a local tax was
granted This meant the breaking up of the
town into school districts, each with its own
school, or fraction of a moving school With
the disintegration of the towns the old gram-
mar schools disappeared In 1817 these school
districts were given full corporate powers, and
in 1827 the full culmination of the district
system was reached when the towns were
required to appoint a prudential committeeman
for each school distnct to care for the school
property of the district and to select and ap-
point the teacher for the school Towns might
allow districts to select their own committee-
men, and this procedure was the one usually
followed As Mr Martin has so well expressed
it, " the year 1827 marks the high- water mark
of modern democracy, and the low-water mark
of the Massachusetts public school system "
Horace Mann termed this legislation the most
unfortunate over enacted for the schools of
Massachusetts

The first of the endowed academies was
opened in Newbury in 1763. William Dummer,
dying in Boston in 1761, left his mansion house
and farm at Newbury to found and endow a
school, to be maintained on the estate In
1782 its name was changed to Dummer Acad-
emy. In 1778 Phillips Academy was estab-
lished at Andover, in 1784 Leicester Academy
was founded, and in rapid succession other
academies were opened at Derby, Bristol, Mar-
blehead, Westford, Westfieid, Plymouth, and
New Salem To three of these state aid was
granted in the form of Maine lands Numbers
of petitions for similar aid and charters now
came in, and in 1797 a legislative committee
was appointed to determine the future policy
of the state toward these institutions The
report favored the continuance of the policy
of aiding, by means of grants of land, these
privately endowed academies, and by 1840
as many as 112 acts of incorporation had been
granted for academies to be located in eighty-
eight towns, and in every county of the state
These institutions were intended to prepare
boys for the colleges Their curriculum was
more modern than the old grammar schools had
provided, and many able students were at-
tracted to them A few took first rank; many
others possessed only a local reputation They
upheld a higher standard of education and

teaching than the grammar schools had done
Under their influence Harvard College was
able materially to increase its entrance require-
ments On the other hand, the academies fos-
tered the idea of private education, and thus
acted injuriously on the public school idea.
The wealthier patronized the tuition schools,
and the poorer were left to get what they could
from the free town schools. The limited and
inefficient town schools led to the founding and
endowing of the academies, and the more the
academies succeeded and prospered, the poorer
the town schools became At about the same
time that the district system became supreme
the academies reached their greatest develop-
ment These were dark days for the public
school idea Boston made the beginnings of a
new movement by the establishment of the
English High School in 1821, the first public
high school m Amenca, a high school for girls
in 1825, and the first evening high school in
1836

Against this condition of apathy and indif-
ference a number of public-spirited men began
an energetic campaign Mr Jamos G Carter
(q v ) was the leader of the movement Begin-
ning in 1820, as a young college graduate, ho
devoted his energies for seventeen years to tho
building up of a sentiment for public education
which finally culminated in the establishment
of the Massachusetts Board of Education in
1837 With his voice and his pen he depicted
the low state of education in Massachusetts,
and aroused the state to action Largely as a
result of his efforts a number of laws of the first
importance were soon enacted.

The first was a law which put a slight check
on the district system, by differentiating school
interests and instituting supervision The law
of 1789 had first required a form of supervision,
through the medium of the ministers and the
selectmen, or by a committee especially chosen
for the purpose Many towns took advan-
tage of this and appointed school committees
School committee records in Newburyport date
back to 1790; in Boston to 1792, and in Hmg-
ham to 1794 A law passed in 1826 made
the appointment of a school committee com-
pulsory, and gave to them charge and super-
intendence of the schools of the town They
could also determine the textbooks to be used,
and were to examine and certificate all teachers.
The districts objected most vigorously to this
law, and the next year it was so modified as to
virtually nullify it in many towns

In 1827 another new law was passed, which,
for the first time in the history of the state,
made the entire support of the schools by taxa-
tion compulsory Since 1647 support by taxa-
tion had been permissive and voluntary, and
the schools of many towns had been so sup-

Cprted. In others fees had been charged, rate
ills levied, voluntary contributions made, and
various forms of maintenance employed. The
law of 1827 made taxation compulsory on all

150

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

towns, and put into effect, after 180 years, the
principles enunciated in the law of 1647

In 1834 another bill of importance provided
for the creation of a school fund, not to exceed
one million of dollars The Manic lands were
to be the chief source of the fund, and, profiting
by the experience of New York and Connecti-
cut, the distribution of the income of the fund
to the towns was made contingent on the rais-
ing by the towns of at least $1 for each child of
school age (four to sixteen years) and in addi-
tion making the school returns required by law

In 1836 the first law relating to child labor
was enacted By it the employment of chil-
dren under fifteen years of age was forbidden,
unless they had attended school for three
months during the school year

In 1837 the act of the greatest importance
of all was passed, creating the Massachusetts
State Board of Education, to be composed of the
Governor, Lieutenant Governor, and eight mem-
bers to be appointed by the Governor, for eight-
year terms, one to retire each year They were
to choose as their executive officer a secretary,
and it was made his duty "to collect informa-
tion of the actual condition and efficiency of
the common schools and other means of populai
education, and to diffuse as widely as possible
throughout every part of the commonwealth,
information of the most approved and suitable
methods of arranging the studies and of con-
ducting the education of the young " The
board was without authority to enforce Its
work was to study conditions, publish results,
and to persuade communities to take pioper
action. It was also to appoint assistants to
the Secretary, known as agents, who weie to
travel about the state studying conditions At
one time the board had six of these in the field,
examining schools, advising committees, and
stimulating communities to action

On June 29, 1837, Horace Mann (q v } was
elected as the first secretary, and was reflected
annually for twelve years With him began
the great revival in education, not only in
Massachusetts, but in New England, and its
influence was felt in every Northern state The
history of this important- period is largely the
history of the work of Horace Mann himself
A new school system was created by his
efforts; uniformity was introduced, a new in-
terest in public education was awakened,
and the new system virtually created was ac-
cepted by the legislature and the people, and
has continued and developed ever since The
influence of his work extended to every North-
ern state, and the period of his labors is known
in history as that of the great educational
revival.

In 1838 the first public normal schools in the
United States were established, partly by the
legislature and partly by private support,
two being opened at Barre and Lexington in
1 839, and a third at Plymouth in 1840 In 1842
these schools were definitely adopted by the

state and named state normal schools A fourth
state normal school was established at Salem
in 1854, a state normal art school at Boston
in 1870, a sixth normal school at Worcester
in 1874, and four additional schools were
established in 1894 In 1847 the Lyman Indus-
trial School for boys was established at, West-
borough, and in 1856 a similar school foi girls
was established at Lancaster In 1847 the
legislature authorized the towns to provide
supplementary schools foi adults, and ten years
later such schools were made an integral part
of the school system In 1883 the support of
such schools was made compulsory on all
towns having a population of 10,000 or over,
and in 1886 the support of an evening high
school was also made compulsory on all towns
of 50,000 inhabitants or ovei 'in 1848 state
grants of aid for teachers' associations were
made for the first time

In 1850 the first truancy law was enacted,
the towns being permitted to enact by-laws
to remedy the evil. As this proved ineffective,
and as the number of persons in the state who
could not read and write was rapidly increasing,
due to foreign immigration, and as such persons
have always boon looked upon with distrust by
the state, the legislature enacted, in 1852, the
first compulsory attendance law in the Union
By the terms of this law parents were required
to send all children between eight and fourteen
to school for at least twelve weeks each year,
unless excused from attendance on account of
poverty, or because otherwise instructed The
school committee was to notify the town treas-
urer of violations, and he was to enforce the law
The exemptions and indirect provisions for en-
forcement practically nullified the law. In 1862
the towns were required to make by-laws
against truancy, and in 1873 they were also
required to appoint truant officers, and the
appointment was given to the school commit-
tee instead of to the town authorities Later
the twelve weeks were changed to twenty
weeks, and then to thirty weeks, and in 1898
all children seven to fourteen yeais of age
were required to attend school during all of the
time the public schools are in session The
poveity excuse was removed, and, latei, the
option of attending private schools was to be
allowed only after the private schools had been
approved by the school authorities

In the early fifties a stiong demand was made
by the churches, in a number of states, for a
division of the school money, and in 1853 the
demand was made in Massachusetts Not
only was the demand refused, but the legisla-
tures of 1854 and 1855 in succession approved
of an amendment to the state constitution
forever prohibiting such a division of funds.
This was ratified at once by the people, and at
the same time the daily reading of the English
Bible in the schools, which up to this time had
been voluntary, was made compulsory. Sub-
sequent acts have so modified the law that the

151

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

children of parents who object may be exempted
from attendance.

The first superintendent of schools in Massa-
chusetts was employed by Springfield m 1840;
but it was not until after Boston, in 1861,
employed a superintendent that supervision
became an important feature of the school
system of the state The commercial and
manufacturing cities adopted the idea first,
and from those centers it has extended to the
whole state, — every child and teacher in the
state now having the benefit of close and pro-
fessional supervision In 1888 the union of
towns to employ a superintendent of schools was
authorized, and the plan of aiding small towns
t-o employ a superintendent of schools was be-
gun, and in 1900 the formation of unions and
the employment of a superintendent was made
compulsory on all towns after July 1, 1902
Aid was also given to the poorer unions for the
salaries of their teachers, where a superintend-
ent is employed and receives state aid.

The law of 1647 had required instruction in
reading and writing, and to this the law of
1789 had added English language, orthography,
arithmetic, and decent behavior. In 1826
geography was added, and in 1857 the history
of the United States In 1858 drawing was
made an optional subject, and in 1870 it was
added to the list of regular studies In 1885
instruction m temperance physiology and hy-
giene was added to the list, and in 1908 instruc-
tion as to tuberculosis and its prevention.
In 1869 the consolidation of schools was author-
ized, and much has been done since 1885 in
this work In 1872 towns were authorized
to support free industrial schools, but little
was done in this direction until quite recently
In 1873 towns were permitted to furnish free
textbooks and supplies to pupils, and in 1884
this was made a compulsory requnement In
1893 school committees were authorized to
provide evening lectures In 1894 every town
of 20,000 inhabitants was lequired to provide
instruction in manual training as a regular
part of its course of instruction In the same
year a law was passed providing for the inau-
guration of a state system of examination and
certification of teachers, but no appropriation
to carry the law into effect was made, and after
remaining a dead letter for a number of years,
it was repealed In 1895 a high school tuition
law was passed by which small towns were to
be reimbursed for all or part of the tuition paid
for the attendance of their pupils in other
towns, and in 1898 the high school law was
reenacted and made quite definite in the matter
of its requirements on the towns. In 1898
the term of school required of small towns
was increased from six to eight months In
1899 the support of vacation schools was author-
ized. In 1906 the State Board of Education
was directed to establish a state registry bureau
for the employment of teachers Medical
inspection, made permissive at first, was re-

quired of cities and towns in 1906, the bill
requiring the appointment of school physicians
m each town or city, and making an annual
examination of each school child compulsory.
In 1908 an act was passed requiring all towns
of over 10,000 inhabitants, not provided with
proper playgrounds, to vote at the next elec-
tion on the question of providing such. One
playground was required for the first 10,000
inhabitants, and one for every additional
20,000 Of the twenty-five cities voting,
twenty-three accepted the law. In 1908 a
law authorized cities and towns to establish a
pension law

In 1905, on the recommendation of Governor
Douglas, a Commission on Technical arid Indus-
trial Education was appointed This commis-
sion made a very valuable report in 1906, and
among other things recommended the creation
of a Commission on Industrial Education of five
to consider and plan for a comprehensive
system of industrial and technical education
for the state This was done, the commission
being created for Ihrec years, and being inde-
pendent of the State Board of Education In
1909 the legislature reconstructed the State
Boaid of Education by abolishing both it and
the Industrial Commission, and creating a new
State Board of Education to consist of one
member of the Industrial Commission, four
membeih of Ihe old state board, arid four
additional members, all to be appointed by
the Governor and to serve for three-year terms,
after the first appointments, to secure a retir-
ing one third each year The appointments
were made during the eaily part of 1909, and
the old State Board of Education, created in
1837, gave way to a new and a somewhat simi-
lar body, created to secure greater initiative
and a more progressive policy The old office
of Secretary was abolished, and a Commis-
sioner of Education was appointed instead
This is the most important change made in
the Massachusetts school system in decades

Present School System — The new State
Board of Education, created by the act of
1909, appoints as its executive officer a Com-
missioner of Education, and two Deputy
Commissioners The Commissioner is appointed
for five-year terms, but may be removed from
office at any time by a two-thirds vote of the
Board The board is free to go anywhere to
secure these men

The State Board of Education acts as a
trustee for any funds created or donated for
educational purposes; has control of the dis-
tribution of the income from the school fund
to the towns, subject to the authority of the
legislature; has charge and supervision of the
normal schools of the state, acting as a board
of regents, or trustees, for the ten schools;
prescribes the form of all census returns, regis-
ters, and reports; requires all public schools,
and all private schools, reform schools, and
almshouses to report to it in full each year a,s

132

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

to their work and finances; has charge of the
education of the deaf and blind of the state m
institutions, since 1906 has conducted a teach-
ers' registry bureau, arranges for teachers'
institutes, and grants state aid to those prop-
erly organized, approves (certificates) super -
intendents of schools for such supervisory
unions as receive state aid, and may form and
readjust such unions so as to provide supervi-
sion for stranded towns Succeeding to the
powers of the Industrial Commission, it will
have power to investigate the need foi and
to extend industrial education, to provide
lectures on the subject, to visit and report on
all such schools; to initiate and superintend
the establishment and maintenance of such
schools, with the coopeiation and consent of
the municipality involved, and to expend
all state money appropriated for the pur-
pose of aiding such schools The board is
required to make a detailed annual report to
the legislature, showing the condition of edu-
cation m the state and the woik done by it and
its executive officers The seventy-five annual
reports so fai made by the board aie of very
great value, and might serve1 as models foi
other states The board possesses little real
power or authority, and most of its acts in the
past have been performed through its secretary,
or its agents This will doubtless continue
to be the case with the new board and its
commissioners

Each city and town has control of the schools
within its boundaries Cities, except as pro-
vided m their charters, operate under the gen-
eral school law A school committee, elected
by the city or town, has chaige of the schools
in each A number of cities operate under
special charters or laws, and have different
forma of organization, but all conform to the
general school law in most particulars (See
articles on BOSTON, CAMBRIDGE ) Each city
or town is free to outline arid prescribe its own
studies, there being no state course of study or
state requirements beyond the list of statutory
school subjects and certain requirements as to
types of schools which must be maintained by
the larger towns Each city or town of 10,000
inhabitants must provide evening schools for
the instruction of those over fourteen yeais of
age, every city or town of 20,000 inhabitants
must provide instruction in manual training,
as a part of its elementary and high school
courses, every city and town of 50, 000 inhabit-
ants must provide an evening high school,
if there are fifty children over fourteen years of
age desiring to attend; every town of 500
families must maintain a four years' high school
for forty weeks each year, and every town of
less than 500 families must either maintain such
a school or provide free tuition in the high
school of some neighboring town. Other cities
and towns may provide such instruction, and
any town may provide playgrounds, vacation
schools, evening schools, evening lectures,

kindergartens, and instruction in agriculture,
sewing, and cooking

Each town school committee is to have full
charge of the schools under its jurisdiction;
must appoint a secretary, selects and examines
teachers for the schools, but may accept Massa-
chusetts state normal school diplomas m
lieu of an examination, may dismiss teachers,
as it deems best, and, aftei one year of service
in the city 01 town, may employ them at its
pleasuie, may consolidate the schools and
transport the pupils at public expense, must
prescribe the course of study and the text-
books to be used and must furnish textbooks
and supplies free to all pupils in all the schools;
may supervise and contiol all athletic organiza-
tions in connection with the schools, and may
employ a superintendent of schools Two or
more towns may unite to form a supervisory
union and employ a superintendent, for one-yeai
terms If such a union raised $750 above the
average paid during the past three years foi the
salary of the superintendent, the state will grant
an additional $750 for the same puipose, and in
addition $500 to increase the salaries of the
teachers within the union Towns having a
valuation of over $2,500,000 cannot shaie in
these benefits Such unions must last at least
three years, and at the time of formation the
aggregate number of teachers should not be less
than twenty-five noi more than fifty

Every town must provide a sufficient number
of schoolhouses, and foi failure to do so a fine
of from $500 to $1000 may be exacted, and if
a town fails 01 refuses to raise4 money for the
support of schools it may be hned twice the
highest amount evei before raised for schools
Three fourths of such fines shall go to the town
paying it, to be used for schools, while the re-
maining one fourth is to be forfeited to the
county and to be used for county purposes All
teacheis must keep a state school register, and
the secretary of each school committee must-
make the proper returns, including a school
census of all children five to fifteen years of age,
and towns failing to report may be hned from
10 per cent to 100 per cent of their share in the
school fund, or, if not entitled to a share of the
school fund, may be fined $200, the income from
such fines to be added to the principal of the
state school fund

All schools must be kept equally open to all
children, without reference to race, color, or
religion Vaccination must be insisted upon
by the towns Every city or town must ap-
point one or more physicians for medical inspec-
tion, arid provide them with proper facilities
for their work Pupils, janitors, teachers, and
buildings must be examined. In cities tins
may be done by the Board of Health. Sick
children must be sent home, and both the
parents and the Board of Health notified
Tests of sight and hearing must be made
at least once each year, the State Board of
Health prescribing the nature of the tests and

153

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

furnishing the material for the test* to the
teachers.

The Massachusetts system of school manage-
ment is peculiar among the states Much is
left to the towns, arid little has been given
to the central authority Only within recent
years has the state shown a tendency to increase
the power of the central authority and to make
prescriptions in its laws The state oversight
has been that of advice rather than direction,
suggestion rather than compulsion School
legislation in Massachusetts has been chai-
actenzed by an exceeding tenderness for the
feelings of the towns, and the intense individual-
ity of the towns and cities has been unduly
considered and respected As a result a
diversity of practices is still retained, such as
varying fiscal years, and different methods of
calculating the cost of the schools, such as
would not be permitted in any state west of
the Alleghany Mountains Nearly all progres-
sive legislation hafc had to go through certain
stages in its evolution The first has been the
permissive, or voluntary stage, marked by an
adoption of the measure by the more progres-
sive cities and towns, and a determined resist-
ance to it by a residue of rather unyielding
conservatism. Finally, after a long and rather
slow process of education, the legislature has
been induced to order the resisting towns to
comply This is in part made necessary by
the peculiar methods of school support in use
in the state Not, for example, until all but
forty-seven towns had voluntarily extended then-
schools to eight, nine, and ten months, did the
legislature pass the eight-month school bill
Not until all but thirty-nine towns had volunta-
rily abandoned tho district system, did the legis-
lature finally abolish it Educational progress
in Massachusetts is a process of the education
of the people, results are reached somewhat
slowly, but they are likely to be permanent when
finally attained

School Support — The state school fund,
created in 1834, has been slowly increased until
it reached the sum of $5,000,000 in 1908 In
1894, when the principal of the fund was
$3,770,548, the legislature directed that $100,000
be added from the general treasury each year
until the fund reached $5,000,000 Being one
of the original states, Massachusetts never
received any school lands from Congress, and
the Surplus Revenue of 1837 given to it was
spent for general purposes by the state The
income from the present fund, which is about
$220,000 at present each year, is distributed
only to the smaller and poorer towns, all towns
haying an assessed valuation of over $2,500,000
being deprived of any share in the fund. The
basis of distribution is a combined and a
sliding one, varying with both the assessed
wealth of the town and the percentage of the
town's taxes spent for schools The state also
makes certain small appropriations for super-
intendents' salaries (mentioned above), and

foi high school tuition and teachers' institutes.
All of these, together with the income from the
state school fund, constitute 2.18 per cent of the
total expense for education in the state Cer-
tain local funds, tuition charges, and gifts
constituted 3 43 per cent more, and the re-
mainder, 94 39 per cent, comes from local taxa-
tion. In the cities and the larger towns, the
entire income for schools comes from local taxa-
tion alone Massachusetts stands almost alone
in this particular, and the burden of local taxa-
tion and the resulting school facilities provided
exhibit very great inequalities What some
towns can provide with ease, others can provide
only with the greatest effort, and still others
cannot provide at all and never will be able to
provide

The total amount expended for education
during the last year for which reports are avail-
able (1910) was approximately $20,000,000
Based on the total population of the state, this
was equal to a per capita expenditure of about
$6 a year as against $5 54 for the North At-
lantic division, and $4 27 for the country as a
whole

Educational Conditions — Of the popula-
tion of 1910, 98 8 per cent were white, and but
1 2 per cent colored , 69 8 per cent were native
born, and 302 per cent foreign born; 222
per cent were estimated as being between the
ages of five arid eighteen , and but 48 7 per cent
were males While the population averaged
over the state is dense (418 8 per square mile),
ma;iy towns have but a small population
Only 7 2 per cent of the total population live
in country districts, and 80 per cent live in
cities of 8000 or over The state is essentially
a commercial and a manufacturing state, with
many important manufacturing towns

In material conditions the schools of the state
make an excellent showing Most of the city
school buildings are among the best of their
kind, and the average value of all the school
buildings of the state was a little over $15,000
in 1910 Of the total expenditures each year
for education, only about 60 per cent is spent
for salaries, about 21 per cent being spent for
new and better school buildings.

In instruction the schools offer much that is
commendable Manual training is taught in
all but the smaller towns Domestic science is
to be found in the curriculum of most of the
cities and many of the towns Agricultural
instruction is offered in a few places. Draw-
ing, long a required subject, has been carefully
supervised by the state since 1871, and excel-
lent work has been done in the subject. Text-
books and supplies are furnished free in all
schools Medical inspection is general Kin-
dergartens, evening high schools, evening draw-
ing and technical schools, public playgrounds,
and vacation schools are maintained by the
larger cities and towns A few industrial
schools have also been established recently.

The state presents many educational inequal-

154

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

ities, due to the great inequalities of the towns
in taxing power In some of the smaller
and poorer towns the schools naturally are far
below the standard of the schools elsewhere in
the state, and below what schools anywhere
ought to be. As some of the towns are stead-
ily growing poorer while the cost of education is
constantly increasing, this will always be so
so long as the state insists on each town carry-
ing so largely the burden of local support
While the enlarged school fund has been of
much service to the poor towns, there is still
need of further aid looking toward a much
greater equalization of the burdens and the
advantages of education As it is to-day,
good schools not infrequently go with the
lighter tax and poor schools with the heavier
tax

The average length of term provided in Mas-
sachusetts was 170 days in 1910, and in but a
very few cases fell below 160 days The larger
towns and cities provide approximately 200
days of school In the matter of school attend-
ance the state is very strict Every child
seven to fourteen years of age, and every child
under sixteen years of age who cannot road and
write, must attend some school, taught in the
English language, every day it is in session If
the child is absent five davs in six months,
without proper excuse, parents may be fined
$20 A private school may be approved for
attendance only if it teaches all of the required
studies and in the English language, and if the
school committee is satisfied that it is as thor-
ough and efficient as the public school -The
bad physical condition of the child is not ac-
cepted as an excuse, unless effoits arc being
made or have been made to cure the child
Every town and city must appoint truant
officers, though two or more towns may unite
in making such an appointment These offi-
cers may apprehend children without a warrant,
and take them to school Each count v, either
by itself or in union with another county, is
required to maintain a County Training (Tru-
ant) School, for the confinement of habitual
truants, absentees, and school offenders Vi-
cious inmates may bo sent to the Lvman School
for boys, if under fifteen, or to the Massachu-
setts Reformatory for boys, if over fifteen
Girls may be sent to the State Industrial School
for (lirls Parents, if able, may be compelled
to pay for the support of such children while
in the schools

The state is equally vigilant in the matter
of child labor No child under fourteen can be
employed in any kind of labor during the hours
that the public schools are in session, nor at
other times before 6AM or after 7 P M Satur-
day work in mercantile establishments is al-
lowed No child under sixteen can be em-
ployed without a work certificate, to be issued
by the school authorities, and only to the proper
persons To be eligible, all such persons under
the age of sixteen must be able to read and

155

write the English language, the standard for
this test being that of admission to the fourth
grade of the public schools Every factory
employing such children must keep the work
certificates on file arid keep a list of such
children posted in the factory Factory in-
spectors and truant officers are to seek out all
cases of illegal employment and good fines are
inflicted for violation of the law All illiterate
minors over sixteen must attend evening
schools, and a record of attendance must be
filed each week with the employer Towns
may license bootblacks and other occupations
in which minors engage, and may control the
admission of children to places of amusement.
These laws have been made necessary by the
great influx of uneducated foreigners into the
mill towns and manufacturing cities of the state
The illiteracy among the native whites was but
0 8 per cent in 1910, but among the foreign
whites it was 14 6 per cent, while for the state
as a whole the average was 5 9 per cent

The development of the private and paio-
chial school in Massachusetts has been one of
the marked features of the school work of the
state during recent years Nowhere are the
parochial schools better organized or strongei
than in southern New England, and the Roman
Catholic Church has there made a strong effort
to gather the children of the foreign immigrants
into its parochial schools, so long as it is able to
provide for them The fact that Massachu-
setts has better attendance laws than most
states, and insists upon all schools being taught
in the English language, and upon private
schools being as good as public schools, is
largely because of this condition.

Teachers and Training — The state em-
ployed 15,278 teachers in 1910, 923 per cent
of whom were women Of this number, 13 7
per cent were graduates of colleges, and 50 4
per cent were graduates of normal schools
Of the total number of teachers employed, 143
per cent were in high schools, and 9 7 per cent
in evening schools

The certification of teachers is still in the
hands of the town school committees, except
that the legislature of 1911 provided for the
certification of teachers in state-aided high
schools by the State Board of Education. In
the larger cities and in some of the towns, this
is done in a very satisfactory manner, in many
towns it is done only indifferently, and, in a
few towns, according to reports made in recent
years, the examination of teachers is conducted
m a very perfunctory manner or neglected
entirely The law demands that the school
committee " shall require full and satisfactory
evidence " of the moral character of teachers,
and " shall ascertain, bv personal examination,
their qualifications for teaching arid their ca-
pacity for the government of schools " Mas-
sachusetts normal school diplomas may be
accepted in place of an examination The law
is so lax that the way is open for any form of

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

abuse, and no general cei tin* cation standards
are possible under it. Only in the larger cities
and towns do any real standards exist No
other form of certificates are issued, except by
the larger cities, and no provisions exist in the
law for the recognition of any form of certifi-
cation from outside the state

The state maintains nine normal schools,
as follows. Bndgcwater, Fitchburg, P>ammg-
ham (formerly at Lexington), Hyanms, Lowell,
North Adams, Salem, Westfield (formerly at
Barre), and Worcester In addition, the state
also maintains the Boston Normal Art School
The cities of Boston arid Lowell also maintain
city normal schools All of these schools rest
upon the high schools in the matter of admis-
sion requirements.

Secondary Education — There were 230
public high schools in the state in 1910, em-
ploying 2210 teachers and enrolling about
55,000 students Boston maintains fourteen
day and six evening high schools, and Boston,
Cambridge, arid Springfield maintain technical
high schools in addition to the regular type of
high schools Besides the public high schools,
there were ninety-one private high schools
employing 725 teachers and enrolling approxi-
mately 6400 students

All cities and towns of 500 families are re-
quired to maintain a high school, and all towns
of less than 500 families are required to provide
high school tuition for their pupils in neighbor-
ing high schools Jf the valuation of the town
is less than $750,000, the state reimburses the
town for all of the tuition paid; and, if over
$750,000, the state pays one half In 1910 the
state granted aid to ninety-seven towns for
1114 pupils, at a total cost of $38,80843 If
any town of less than 500 families maintains a
high school, the state grants it $500 in aid
(forty-four towns in 1908) All high schools
must have a four-year course, and be main-
tained forty weeks each year Two adjacent
towns, each having less than 500 families, may
vote to unite to form a union high school.

The work done in the high schools of the state
is of good grade, and the standards maintained
by the Massachusetts colleges insure a good
quality of work along traditional lines.

Higher and Technical Work — The Massa-
chusetts Agncultural College, at Amherst,
opened in 1867, is the only institution of
higher learning maintained by the state. It
offers courses only in agriculture, and enrolls
about 250 students, practically all men. There
has been agitation in Massachusetts within
recent years looking toward the establish-
ment of a state university, but the large cost
seems to be a strong factor against the plan.
For some years the state has provided forty
scholarships for boys in the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology and a like number
in the Worcester Polytechnic Institute, and
an alternative proposition has been made to
increase these So great has been the demand
for these scholarships that the state has for
a number of years divided most of them
into half scholarships, and the number has been
increased recently The legislature of 1911
voted $100,000 annually for ten years to the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology in
return for free scholarships Harvard Univer-
sity was originally founded by the colony, and
for 150 yeais was, in part, supported by it, but
it is no longer connected with the state Until
after the Re\olutiori, money for the salaries of
the faculty was voted annually by the General
Court, and the election of president and pro-
fessors was under its jurisdiction, and until
1865 the chief officcis of the commonwealth
were members of the governing board of the
university Since 1865 all connection with
the state has been severed The State Board
of Education was instructed by the legislature
in 191 1 to consider the whole question of state-
aided higher education, and to report its find-
ings at a subsequent session.

The different institutions of higher learning
in the state, not including strictly professional
schools, are —

INSTITUTION

LOCATION

OPENED

CONTROL

FOR

Harvard University

Cambridge

1638

Nonseet

Men

Williams College . .

Wilhamstown

1793

Nonseet

Men

Amherst College

Amherst

1821

Nonseet

Men

Mount Holyoke College

South Iladloy

1837

Nouseet

Women

College of the Holy Cross

Worcester

1843

EC

Men

Lasell Seminary

Auburndale

1851

Nonseet

Women

Tufts College

Tufts College

1854

Nonsect

Both sexes

Massachusetts Institute of

Technology

Boston

1865

Nonsect

Both sexes

Massachusetts Agricultu-

ral College .

Amherst

1867

State

Both sexes

Worcester Polytechnic In-

stitute

Worcester

1868

Nonsect.

Men

Boston University .

Boston

1873

ME

Both sexes

Smith College ....

Northampton

1875

Nonseot

Women

Wellesley College

Wellesley

1875

Nonsect

Women

Radchffe College .

Cambridge

1879

Nonsect

Women

Clark University . .

Worcester

1889

Nonaect.

Both sexes

Simmons College

Boston

1902

Nonsect

Both sexes

156

MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF

MASTER OR MAGISTER

Special Institutions —The commonwealth
provides for the education of children whose
physical or mental defects forbid their attend-
ance upon the public day schools, by giving
the Governor power, on the recommendation of
the State Board of Education, to place all such
defective children in special institutions and
to pay part or all of the expense of their main-
tenance and instruction Such children are
under the care of the State Board of Education
until discharged. The institutions approved
are : —

The American School for the Deaf, at Hartford, Con-
necticut

* The Clark School for the Deaf, at Northampton
The Horace Mann School for the Deaf, at Boston
The Sarah Fuller Home for Little Deaf Children, at

Medford

* The New England Industrial School for Deaf Mutes, at

Beverly
The Boston School for the Deaf, at Randolph

* The Perkins Institute and Massachusetts School for

the Blind, at Boston

* The Massachusetts School for the Feeble Minded, at

Waltham
The Boston Nursery for Blind Babies, at Roxbury

(Those prefixed by * are maintained by the state )

The state also maintains an Industrial School
for Girls, at Lancastei, the Lyman Industrial
School for Boys, at Westboro, and a Reformatory
School for Boys at Shirley. The state also assists
in the maintenance of large and well equipped
textile schools at New Bedford and Lowell, and
the law creating the Industrial Commihsion in
1906 provided for state aid to any town or
towns of from one fifth to one half uf the total
cost of maintenance for industrial schools for
the instruction of children over fourteen years
of age in the principles of agriculture and do-
mestic and mechanical arts The law also pro-
vides for a Board of Commissioners of thiec, to
be appointed by the Governor, who are to main-
tain, from state appropriations, the Massa-
chusetts Nautical Training School, to pro-
vide a ship and all necessary books and
materials, and to arrange for a six months'
cruise each year in or near Boston Bay

E> C.
References —

Annual Reports of the Massachusetts State Board of
Education and tlt> Secretary, 1837-1909 Very
valuable documents containing many historical
articles The 7()th Repoit contains a very full
index of Vols I to LXX Annual Reports of the
State Board of Education, 1910 date
BUSH, GEO G Hibloiy of Higher Education in Massa-
chusetts Cirr of Inf , No 0, 1891, of V 8 Bur
of Kduc History of the Colleges (Washington,
1891.)
HARRIS, C. A. A Rapid Sunny of the, Massachusetts

Educational Systrm (Holhston, Mass , 1910 )
HINSDALK, B A Massachusetts Legislation, 1636-
1789, in Documents Illustrative of American Eauca-
twnal History, in Rcpt U 8 Com Educ., 1892-
1893, pp 1226-1239
Horace Mann and the Common School Revival in

the United States (New York, 1898 )
INOLIS, A J The Rist of the High School in Massa-
chusetts (New York, 1911 )

JACKSON, G L Tin Dtprlopment of School Support in
Colonial Mawachuvetts (New York, 1909 )

MARTIN, GEO H The Evolution of the Massachusetts
Public School System (New York, 1894 )

Revised Laws of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts
relating to Public Instruction

BUZZALLO, HENRY The Rue of Local School Super-
vision in Massachusetts (New York, 1906 )

UPDEGRAFF, H The Origin of the Moving School in
Massachusetts (New York, 1908 )

MASSACHUSETTS TEACHER.— See JOUK-
NALISM, EDUCATIONAL

MASTER or MAGISTER —The word
appears to mean nothing more than chief
(Magis-ter), and the original sense of the word
appears to be best preserved in such phrases
as "master-cook," "master-mason," arid the
like Perhaps its earliest use is in the title
of the Magister eqmtum, or " master of the
horse," the chief of the cavalry, appointed by
the Roman dictator as magister popuh, or chief
of the whole people In this sense it was
always used as it is used to-day.

But already in classical times it had ac-
quired a special connotation as meaning
schoolmaster or teacher. Cicero m the De
Oratore not only speaks of masters simphcitcr —
to mean teachers of boys, but also uses the
medieval sounding phrase " masters of the
liberal arts " Juvenal uses ludimagixter and
magister as equivalent terms In medieval
times this became its general and almost
exclusive use, and from this use it had devel-
oped into a title of honor, which has now
become our universal "mister" so universal
that there is no one probably to whom it is
not applied, except to a criminal in the dock
Alcum in his poem, c 770, On the Bishops ami
Saints of the Church of York, in his catalogue
of the Library speaks of " Bedu magister,"
" Beda the master," or " Master Bede," as if
it was as much his recognized title, derived
from his office of teaching the young monks,
as in later days the " Venerable Bede," became
Alcum also describes his own master Albert
as having been made proclaimed " rnastei in
the city," when he was made master of the
school of York Jt is probably from the
date of the n&o of universities at the end of
the eleventh arid the early part of the twelfth
centuries, from c 1090 and perhaps first in
connection with the Doctor of Laws at Bologna
that the term Magister becomes used as a
regular title ; Magister Inenus, Magister Abe-
lardus It then became restricted, and from
being used of any who taught school came to
mean one who had taught school at one of the
Studio, generaha, a regent master of the schools
of a university. At Bologna, however, the
title " master," which was exactly equivalent
to " doctor " or teacher, — Alcum describes
Egbert of York when teaching the school as
Egregius doctor, — was dropped in the faculty
of law for that of doctor At Pans and Oxford,
too, the title of " doctor," began to be more
usually restricted to the theological masters,
nnd at Salerno and elsewhere to the medical

157

MATERIALISM

MATHEMATICS

masters, by whom it has now in common par-
lance been almost entirely annexed. But in
theory always there was no distinction, and the
Master of Arts was the teacher and held the
highest degree in his faculty as much as the
Doctor of Theology in his But as it became
usual and eventually necessary to take the
course in arts arid become a regent master of
arts before passing on to the faculty of theology,
which was the mistress of all the sciences, it
came about that in later days doctor was
esteemed as a higher title

Perhaps the most curious thing about it was
that the title of magister among the ecclesias-
tics completely eclipsed the title of dommus,
or lord, so that eventually those who had not
" risen to the height of the mastership/' but
had stopped short as bachelors, — at first a kind
of pupil teachers, a sort of apprentices in the
arts and the art of teaching, — became known
as Domini in distinction from those who had be-
come regent masters; and shared the title with
the " inferior clergy " who had never been to
the University at/ all, arid the lay lords of
manors and of Parliament The height of
the title of master was perhaps reached
when it was bestowed upon the simple layman,
Thomas Cromwell, when he was Privy Seal,
and " Prime Minister " in the State and wielded,
as Vicar-General of Henry VIII, papal powers
in the Church; in contrast with William of
Wykeham, who, when he occupied a similar
position under Edward III, is called by Froissart
simply " Dommus," "SirWiccan" Its grad-
ual spread to every one of any position at all
was due to the rise of the middle classes and the
increase in the numbers of the peerage, to the
invention of the order of baronets by James I,
and the increase of the knighthood A. F. L

The general usage was transferred to the
American colonies, where the term was applied
to both Latin grammar and elementary school
teachers, the former at first termed masters and
the latter school masters, though the distinction
was not clear nor the usage fixed.

See DEGREES, TEACHING AS A PROFESSION;
UNIVERSITIES

MATERIALISM — The theory that matter
is the sole ultimate existence, and that all
mental phenomena are in reality effects of
matter, so that, if our knowledge of matter
were complete, we could deduce from its laws
and conditions so-called mental phenomena
with the same certainty as phenomena of heat
or electricity The atomic school of antiquity
represented by Democntus and Leucippus is
generally regarded as the founder of philosophic
materialism These tenets were taken up by
the Epicureans and find a classic expression in
the De Rerum Natura of Lucretius The athe-
istic character of this school brought material-
ism into ill repute, and among the many heresies
of the Middle Ages few are frankly materialistic
in character The Epicureans, however, de-

fended the liberty of the will, as they found it
necessary to introduce chance and spontaneous
variation of direction of motion into matter
Some of the modern materialists have been
strong theists, as Joseph Priestley (q.v.).

The modern interest in the problem of knowl-
edge and in consciousness (see IDEALISM) has
tended to reduce the importance of materialism,
if not actually to eliminate it The objective
idealist has claimed that " matter " itself is
ultimately but a " category " of thought or
spirit in its determination of an objectively
knowable world Subjective idealists have
claimed that conscious facts are the only ones
directly known, and that " matter " is at most
but a dubious inference from mental phenom-
ena Others have claimed that the principles
of the conservation of energy contradict ma-
terialism, since the circuit of tiansformations
of energy is complete on the physical side alone
The seeming dependence of mental phenomena
upon brain changes is in reality but the con-
comitance of two independent series — a doc-
trine that under the name of Parallelism (q v ),
has given a turn to the Leibnitzian conception
of Preestabhshed Harmony which has been
very popular Others, like Spencer and Hux-
ley, have held that from one point of view
mental phenomena are resolvable into physical;
from another, physical into mental Hence,
the conclusion that both series are but sym-
bolic manifestations of some ultimate unknown
and unknowable reality Even those writers,
who, like Haeckel, have more openly main-
tained a materialistic monism, have generally
endowed " matter " with some primitive in-
choate psychical impulses and feelings and have
thus approximated panpsychism or the doc-
trine that the world and mind are both arrange-
ments of a more basic " mind stuff " J D

Reference --

BALDWIN, J M Dictionary of Philosophy and Psy-
chology, Vol III, Pt 11, pp 620-626

MATERNITY. — See PARENTHOOD, EDUCA-
TION FOR

MATHEMATICS —Attempts to define so
broad a subject as mathematics have not been
very successful Benjamin Peirce, one of the
best of the American-trained mathematicians,
said that " mathematics is the science that
draws necessary conclusions " Such a defi-
nition trespasses upon the domain of logic,
but there are many who would relate logic
and mathematics, as sciences, more closely than
is commonly done Professor B6cher has sug-
gested a basis of definition* " We may seek
some hidden resemblance in the various objects
of mathematical investigation, and, having
found an aspect common to them all, we may
fix on this as the one true object of mathe-
matical study. Or we may abandon the
attempt to characterize mathematics by means
of its object* of study, and seek in its methods

158

MATHEMATICS

MATHEMATICS

its distinguishing characteristic Finally there
is the possibility of combining these two points
of view " When, however, we attempt to
define the science with respect to its objects,
we are confronted by so many difficulties that
there seems but little hope of success There
seerns more chance of favorable results in
attempting to define the science by means of
methods, and numerous efforts in this direction
have been made Professor .1 W Young has
recently suggested the defining of " abstract
mathematical system " as a system of symbols
devoid of content except such as is implied in
the assumptions concerning them, and then
saying that " mathematics as a whole might
then be defined as consisting of all such abstract
mathematical systems together with all their
concrete applications tr These attempts at defin-
ing the science serve at least to show the broad-
ening of the subject from century to century

With this broadening of the science itself
has come not merely the difficulty of definition,
but also the difficulty of stating in concise terms
the certain reasons for studying the subject
We may set forth certain reasons for studying
this phase or that, but for studying a science
that is so broad that we can hardly define it,
and so far-reaching in its applications, it is
manifestly well-nigh impossible

In the elementary portions of the geneial
held it is possible to assign some reasons for
studying the science Among these, utility
stands out prominently, and indeed there aie
few parts of mathematics that have not verv
definite applications to some other line of sci-
ence or to some of the arts Not only is there
the definite application of the present to be
considered, but there is potential application
Vo one thought when complex numbers were
first suggested that they would in our day play
a part in the theory of electricity, for example,
nor did the Egyptians and Greeks see in then-
shadow reckoning the forerunner of the trigo-
nometry that uses the slide rule and logarithms
in its computations, as at present Certain
of the reasons for the study of mathematics aic
set forth under the various branches considered
in this work

There is no well-defined basis for the satis-
factory classification of the branches of mathe-
matics Indeed, the modern ten dene v is
toward the uniting of these branches rather
than their differentiation In element aiy
mathematics this tendency shows itself in the
use of the simple equation and the introduction
of mensuration in arithmetic, in the use of the
facts of mensuration thus learned in algebra,
in the use of algebra in the elementary course
in geometry; and in the use of both algebra
and geometry to a greater extent than formerly
m trigonometry Many would like to see the
union of elementary mathematics made still
more close, and it is probable that the mtei-
i elation of algebra and geometiv will become
more and more piouounced 1). E S

For a further study of the subject see the
articles on the various branches of mathematics,
including ALGEBRA, ANALYTIC GEOMETRY,
ARITHMETIC, CALCULUS, ELEMENTARY MATH-
EMATICS, FUNCTION, GEOMETRY, TRIGONOM-
ETRY

MATHEMATICS, HISTORY OF — Sec

ALGEBRA, ANALYTIC GEOMETRY, ARITHME-
TIC, OALCULUH, COMPUTUS, CONICS, FRAC-
TIONS, GEOMETRY, NOTATION, PROJECTIVE
GEOMETRY, TRIGONOMETRY

MATHEMATICS, LABORATORY METH

ODS IN — At various times it has been sought
to present elementary mathematics somewhat
after the laboratory method of the natural and
physical sciences The movement has been
fostered by those who see in algebra and geom-
etry a powerful adjunct to physics, as well
as by those who wish to make mathematics as
concrete as possible Within reasonable limits
the spirit of such a movement is one that is
approved by many teachers Whenever it is
possible to show the concrete applications ot
mathematics in such a wav that the interest
aroused thereby outweighs the loss m the
theory that is occasioned by the time expended,
the result is salutary There have, however,
been extremists who have abused the spirit
of the movement, and have gone to the labora-
tory to illustrate, by tedious means, principles
that are substantially axiomatic to the normal
mind, thus sacrificing valuable time and even
dulling the interest This is seen in the labori-
ous devices often employed for explaining the
axioms of algebra, when a ruler balanced on
a book answers the purposes much bettei
It is also seen in the great expenditure of time
sometimes involved in graphic work that has
little bearing upon the subject in hand, and
particularly in the tendency that is sometimes
observed to turn the class in mathematics into
one in mechanics 01 general physics

The result of the efforts has been valuable in
the industrial schools, where the aim is not
mathematics as a science, but the study of the
relatively few types of application that aie
needed in the lower lines of mechanical work
Here the laboiatory, with its practical measure-
ments, its making of working drawings, and it*
use of such instruments as the slide rule, ha,s
a definite place In the non-technical high
school the spirit of the laboratory may profit-
ably show itself in the use of concrete illus-
trations whenever such use elucidates the
mathematical processes, and in making the sub-
ject as real as possible But to devote any con-
siderable amount of time to this effort has not,
in general, been thought wise. There is a large
field of pure mathematics that is and should be
developed for its own sake, just as literature is
developed, and it would be unfortunate to
neglect thi.s for the benefit of those who are
ubnonmill} unable to appreciate it

159

MATHER

MAURICE

The equipment for laboratory work includes
drawing boards and instruments for graphic
illustration and for the making of working
drawings; the slide rule, logarithmic tables,
and, if possible, one of the more elaborate
forms of computing machines, measuring
instruments, including cahpcis, scales foi
weight, diagonal scales, steel tapes, and units of
capacity, in both the common and mctiic sys-
tems; sets of geometric solids, a transit and
surveying rods, a blackboard ruled lor co-
ordinate graphs, a spherical blackboaid, and
similar material Indeed, a considerable
amount of this material should find place in
every high school, even where the narrow type
of laboratory work is introduced D E S.

MATHER, INCREASE (1639-1723) —Sixth
president of Harvard College He was grad-
uated from Harvard in 1656, and subsequently
studied at Trinity College, Dublin, where he
took his A M degree in 1658 Returning to
Ainenca in 1661 he became pastor of a church in
Boston He became a stirring figure in the life
of the colony, opposed the aggressions of King
Charles II, and in 1688 was sent to England
to procure redress of the grievances of the
colony He was acting president of Harvard
m 1681 (after the death of President Cakes), but
he declined at that time to become the perma-
nent head of the institution He succeeded
President Rogers as president of Harvard on
June 11, 1685, and held the post until Sept 6,
1701 Through his efforts the college was
authorized to create bachelors and doctors of
theology. " As president he was careful not
only to give the students direction in their
literary pursuits, but also to impart to them
religious instruction He frequently called
them one by one into the library, and there,
with the affection of a parent and the fidelity
of a minister of the gospel, he would confer with
them respecting the salvation of their souls "
It was largely through the efforts of Mather
that the Presbyterian and Congregationahst
bodies in New England were united His
writings include a history of the troubles of
the English settlers with the Indians, and
numerous religious works W S M

See HARVARD UNIVERSITY.

MATHEWS, JAMES MACFARLANE

(1785-1870) —First chancellor of New York
University He was graduated fiom Union
College in 1803, engaged in the work oi the
ministry, and was one of the leaders in the
organization of New York University (then
University of the City of New York) and its
first president (1830-1838). He was the author
of works on religion and travel. W. S. M.

MATURITY TESTS —The difference be-
tween a child's general physiological develop-
ment and his mental development has been
emphasized by calling attention to the fact

that the child's mental age may be different
from his physiological age. In an extreme case
an imbecile may be twelve years of age and yet
have the mental development of a child of two
years of age In order to ascertain the degree
of mental maturity which a child has attained,
senes of tests may be applied to discover his
relative ability in visual recognition, in lan«
guage, in imagination, in power to deal witih
numbers, etc C. H J.

See GROWTH; TESTS, PSYCHOPHYSICAL.

MAUGER, CLAUDIUS 0/Z. 1650). — Teacher
of French in London, a native of Blois, who had
left France on account of religious persecution.
He was apparently a teacher in France before
he came to England, and obtained a living in
London by private and school teaching, par-
ticularly in the girls' school of Mrs Margaret
Kelvert In 1652 he published the True Ad-
vancement of the French Tongue, and in 1656
he issued the second edition of a French Gram-
mar, in which a Latin as well as an English
version is given, that points to the probability
that the hist edition was a French-Latin work
published in France with the English added
foi the second edition as published in London.

See MODERN LANGUAGES IN THE SCHOOLS

MAURICE, JOHN FREDERICK DENISON

(1805-1872) — Divine and educational re-
former, born at Normanston, near Lowestoft,
England, the fifth child of Michael Maurice,
who at the time of his son's birth was educating
private pupils at Normaiiston Manoi House
Frederick was educated by his father in Puritan
principles He was a precocious child In-
tended by his father for the Umtanan ministry,
he revolted against Unitanamsm and the nar-
row outlook of English noncoiifoiimst cncles
in his time With a view to becoming a bai-
nster he entered Trinity College, Cambridge,
in 1823, that university being chosen as it
imposed no religious test upon students at ma-
triculation At Cambridge, Maurice was one
of the founders of the Apostles' Club, and
became an intimate friend of John Sterling
While still at Cambridge he was coeditor of
the Metropolitan Quarterly Magazine, in which
he declared hih admiration for Coleridge and
attacked Bent ham In 1828 he joined the
dobiitmg society founded by John Stuart Mill,
MacCulloch, Chailes Austin, Ronnlly, and
others, and is mentioned by J S Mill (Auto-
biography, p 128) as a Colendgian, and, with
Sterling, representative of "a second Liberal,
and even Radical, Party, on totally different
grounds from Benthamism and vehemently
opposed to it, bringing into these discussions
the general doctrines and modes of thought of
the European reaction against the philosophy
of the eighteenth century " This became Mau-
rice's habitual standpoint. He was opposed
both to the Benthamites and to the Tories
For a short period he was editor of the Athe-

160

MAURICE

MAURITIUS

His mind gradually turned toward
taking holy orders, and ho resolved to go to
Oxford, where he entered Exeter College in
1830 In 1831 he entered the Church of Eng-
land After a curacy near Leamington he
became, in 1836, chaplain to Guy's Hospital,
givme lectures to the students on moral phi-
losophy twice a week In 1837 he married the
sister of Sterling's wife In 1839 he became
editor of the Educational Magazine, and deliv-
ered a course of lectures on the subject, //a.s the
State 01 the Church Power to educate the Nation'/
In these lectures he protested against the theory
that, the secular State should take over the
whole of national education out of the hands of
the religious bodies. In 1840 Maurice was
appointed Professor of English Literature and
History at King's College, London, and in
1840, one of the professors in the theological
department of the college and also chaplain of
Lincoln's Inn. Among his congregation at the
latter were Thomas Hughes (q v ), J M Lud-
low, and the nucleus of the Christian Socialist
Party They and Charles Kmgsley (q v )
became the devoted friends of Maurice In
1844 he founded Queen's College, the first of the
collegiate institutions in England for the higher
education of women He had been lod to take
an interest in this subject by the experience of
his sistei, Maiy, who had established a school
at Southampton. The profound movement
in political and economic thought which stirred
England and Europe from 1842 onwards led to
the establishment (first in Sheffield, 1842) of
people's colleges formed by the voluntary effort
of workingrnen students for self-improvement
and instruction. The idea of the Sheffield
People's College suggested to F D Maurice
and his friends in 1853 the foundation of a
similar institution in London, and this led to
the establishment of the Working Men's Col-
lege, the most famous and influential of all
efforts to promote the higher education of
working people The founders of this college
laid stress upon the need for brotheilmess and
fellowship in all higher education, upon the
fact that in its true form such education is
mutual education and that teachers and taught
must meet as human beings, with full confidence
in one another and without reserve The hist
of the fundamental principles of the college
ran as follows " Our position as membeis oi
a society which affirms the operation of tiade
and industry to be under a moial law (a law
concerning the relations of men to each other)
obliges us to regard social, political, and human
studies as the primary part of our education "
The teaching staff *of the Working Men's
College included Ruskin, F J Furmvall,
T Hughes, Professor Westlake, Dante Gabriel
Rossetti, Lowes Dickinson, E Vansittart Neale,
Grant Duff, Thomas Woolner, Charles Kings-
ley, Ford Madox Brown, Frederic Harrison, and
Edward Boweri The lectures which intro-
duced the idea of the Working Men's College

to the British public weie subsequently pub-
lished in 1855 by F D Maunce, under tho
title Learning and Working

In 1853 a bitter theological controversy had
severed Maurice's connection with King's
College In I860 he was appointed to the
charge of St Petei's Chapel, Vere Street,
London, and as a pieacher had great influence
on the most thoughtful men and women of his
time He died Apnl 1, 1872, and is buried at
Highgate

Maurice is one of the most levered figures
in the intellectual and spiritual life of England
during the Victonan eia As to the validity
and permanent significance of his contiibutions
to the intellectual thought of his time opinions
have always varied A large circle found guid-
ance in his teaching, lankmg him with S T
Coleridge among English thinkers. Frederic
Harrison, on the other hand, and others in-
clining to the Posit ivist standpoint, speak of
him as muddle-headed (see Frederic Hainson,
Autobiographic Memoim, 1911) Fiorn the
educational point of view, Maurice's personal
influence was of historic importance He and
his friends were the first to touch the older Eng-
lish universities with a sense of direct personal
responsibility for the adult education of the
working classes M. E S.

References ~

Dutionary of National Biography
M \HTERMAN, C V O Fndfrick Dcnwon Maurice

(London, 1W7 )
MAURICE, F Life of Freda icK Demson Maunet

(London, 1SS4 )

MAURICE, F D Has tht C'hurch or the State Pvwtr
to Educate fht Nation * (London, 183°-)

Learmny and Worktny Six loeture.s delivered in

London, 1S54 (rmnbndKe, 1S55 )

SADLEK, M K Continuation tfch<tolx in England and
Elsewhere Ac-count of the foundation of thr
Working Men's Colleger (Manchester, 1907 )

MAURITIUS, EDUCATION IN — The

small island of Mauritius has been under British
control for a century, having been acquired by
conquest in 1810 and formally ceded to that
power by the Treaty of Paris, 1814 The
island, which has an area of 705 square miles,
supports a population of 378,000, of this
number two thirds are natives of African origin,
Chinese, mixed peoples, and white settlers In
religion, according to the census of 1901,
200,000 were Hindus, and above 40,000 Mo-
hammedans The Roman Catholic Church
claimed 1 13,224 and the Protestants, 6644 A
dual system of free schools, government and de-
nominational, is maintained, both aided from the
public treasury In t he government schools 8634
pupils were enrolled in 1909, with an average
attendance of 5433 In the state-aided denom-
inational schools the enrollment was 10,631,
and average attendance, 7234 Secondary and
higher education are provided by the Royal
College and its affiliated schools The total
government expenditure for education in 1909
was £40,394 ($196,315). ATS

VOL. IV -

161

MAXCY

MAYO

References

England, Board of Education Special Report* on
Educational Suhjects, Vol XIII, pp 199-264

MAURITICH Annual Reports of the Director of Public
Instruction

MAXCY, JONATHAN (1768-1820) —
College president He was educated at Provi-
dence and engaged in the ministry of the Bap-
tist Church He was president of Brown
University (1792-1802), Union College (1802-
1804), and the College of South Carolina (1804-
1820) He published several pamphlets on
leligious and educational subjects.

W. S. M.

Reference —

ELTON Literary Remains and Memoir of Dr Maxcy
(1S44)

MAXIMUS PLEANDES — A celebrated
scholar and writer who lived in the fourteenth
century He was a Greek monk, and spent the
greater part of his life at Constantinople, where*
he pursued the study of theology, rhetoric,
history, mathematics, and poetry Little is
known of his history except that he was sent
as an ambassador to Venice, and that he was
still living in 1352 Numerous works of his are
extant, one of the most important being a work
on arithmetic, based on tho Hindu numerals.

D. E. S

MAY, SAMUEL JOSEPH (179771871) —
Normal school principal Graduating from
Harvard College in 1817, ho taught for manv
years in the schools of Massachusetts He was
principal of the Frannngham (Mass ) State
Normal School (1842-1845), and was active
in the American Institute of Instruction (q v )
His educational writings include Education of the
Faculties, Revival of Education, and numerous
articles in educational journals W. S M.

MAYNOOTH UNIVERSITY, DUBLIN —

See IRELAND, EDUCATION IN

MAYO, AMORY DWIGHT (1823-1907) —
Educational author He studied at Deerfield
Academy and Amherst College After teach-
ing in the public schools of Massachusetts for
five years, he entered the ministry, and for
twenty- five years was pastor of UniversaliHl
and Unitarian churches, and for several yeais
lecturer at the Meadville Theological School
He led the so-called Christian amendment
movement which sought to incorporate in the
constitution of the United States the right to
use the Bible in the public schools From 1880
to 1885 he was one of the associate editors of
the New England Journal of Education, and
during his closing years was engaged by the
Bureau of Education of the United States in
the study of educational problems His pub-
lished writings include Religion in the Common
School* (1869), Industrial Education in the

South (1885), and a series of aiticleb on the
history of American common schools, published
in the annual Reports of the Commissioner of
Education of the United States W. S M.

MAYO, CHARLES (1792-1846) —English
educator, born in London and educated at
Merchant Taylors' School and St John's
College, Oxford, where he graduated in 1814.
He was ordained in 1817, when already head-
master of the grammar school at Bridgnorth,
Shropshire. In 1819, whether it was through
the influence of Mr Synge of Glanmore Castle,
Wicklow, or whether he was persuaded by
friends to take charge of some English boys at
Yverdun, he joined Pestalozzi Js establishment
as its chaplain Here he remained until
1822, when he returned to England and opened
a school on Pestalozzian principles at Epsom ,
soon after (1826) he removed to Cheam His
work was strongly imbued with an intense
moral and religious purpose He met with
great success, and intending pupils were placed
on the waiting list years before they could be
admitted Hermann Krusi, Jr , taught here
for a time Through Mr J S Reynolds,
Mayo and his sister helped to found the Home
and Colonial School Society (q v ) and the train-
ing college for teachers connected with it.
Mayo's great service to English education was
to call attention to the Pestalozzian principles,
although in introducing them generally to the
schools he diverged widely from their spirit
bv formalizing them in model lessons and text-
books Ho lectured on Pestalozzi before the
Royal Institution in 1820 and collaborated with
his sistei in soveial schoolbooks and a memoir
on Pestalozzi Among his works may be men-
tioned Obm rvalions on the Establishment and
Direction of Infant Schooh (1827), Practical
Remarks on Early Education (1837), frequently
reprinted by the Home and Colonial School
Society, a lecture on Pestalozzi's life prefixed
to Miss Mayo's Pestalozzi and his Principles.

References —

Dictionary of National Biography

MONROE, W S Peatalozzian Movement in the United

State* (Syracuse*, 1907 )
SALMON, D , and HINDBHAW, W Infant Schools, their

History and Theory (London, 1904 )

MAYO, ELIZABETH (1793-1865). — Eng-
lish Pestalozzian, sister of Charles Mayo, whom
she assisted from 1822 to 1834 In 1843 she
became associated with the work of the Home
and Colonial Society (q v ), and had charge
of the criticism and professional training at the
society's training college, duties which she
exercised with great skill She collaborated
with her brother in several Pestalozzian text-
books, which formalized and in a large measure
stultified the spirit of the work. Her own
works enjoyed great popularity, and include:
Lessons on Objects (1831); Lessons on Shells
(1832); Lessons on Scripture Prints (1840);

162

MEAN

MEASLES

On Religious Instruction (1849); Model Lessons
for Infant Schools (1848-1850)

See MAYO, CHARLES, and the references there
given.

MEAN. — See STATISTICAL METHOD.

MEANING —This term has come into
common use in psychology to refer to that
phase of experience which goes beyond the
impression. Thus, as one looks at a word, the
impression consists of certain black and white
spaces The word, however, calls up a whole
series of ideas which give meaning to the im-
pression The meaning which attaches to an
experience may be more or less complex Thus
the meaning which the student of constitutional
history attaches to the date 1776 and the
meaning which a child in the elementary school
attaches to the same date will differ vastly in
complexity

The term " meaning " serves one very impor-
tant function in psychological discussions Tt
draws attention to the fact that the additions
which we make to impressions are not commonly
in the form of full explicit memory images Thus,
the first time that the child learns the meaning
of the word " dog " he sees the animal, thus add-
ing a visual image to the sound The second
time he may call up an image of the dog, or
he may see a second animal to add to his inter-
preting experience The third and fourth
times his experience continues to develop, until
finally the word " dog " has a very full sig-
nificance Psychological analysis of this last
stage reveals the fact that the meaning added
to the word is riot a mere series of reproductions
of that which the child saw the first, second,
third, and subsequent times It is rather an
epitomized and thoroughly assimilated resid-
uum of all that has gone before. It may eon-
tain very little visual imagery It may be for
the most part a thrill of friendly emotion with
a vague visual or tactual image In any case,
the meaning is a digest of the experiences
rather than a tram of images

Teachers who insist on too much memory
work will find a corrective for their methods
in a careful study of the psychology of mean-
ings C. H J

References —
JUDD, C H Genetic Psychology for Teachers (Now

York, 1903 )
STOUT, G F. Manual of Psychology. (New York,

1899)

MEASLES — Measles is a highly contagious
disease due, probably, to a bacillus haernophilus
similar to Pfciffer's influenza bacillus. This
bacillus is frequently found in the secretions of
the conjunctiva, the nose, and the respiratory
tract

The initial symptoms are similar to those of
a cold, and the characteristic symptoms are
an eruption of small red spots especially on the

forehead and the back of the neck, and in most
cases a white spot, the so-called Kophc spot,
on the mucous membrane of the inner surface
of the mouth or on the conjunctiva The dis-
ease usually remains at its height for a day or
two and then gradually subsides, and, if there
are no complications, in a fortnight or less,
the patient has usually recovered In many
cases, however, seiious complications, especially
bronchitis, pneumonia, 01 tuberculosis, result
The period of incubation is from eight to sixteen
days, sometimes still lorigei, arid the patient
may be a source of infection for other children
three days before the disease can be diagnosed
by ordinary methods It is spread chiefly if
not entirely by personal contact, apparently
seldom if ever carried by a well person, only
rarely does an individual have the disease twice
The eruption is probably due to the formation
of antibodies in the organism to combat with
the disease, a view in harmony with the popular
idea that a generous breaking out is a good
symptom

In regard to the disease many erroneous
ideas are prevalent It is not ordinarily con-
sidered a serious disease, it is supposed that
every one must have it, and apparently many
think that the sooner a child has it, the better,
and even physicians are apt to think it is
uncontrollable On the contrary, measles is
often a fatal disease with young children. It
is especially serious for weak and anaemic chil-
dren, those who have latent tuberculosis, and
those who have a tendency to certain diseases,
such as disease of the ear, the heart, and the
respiratory organs According to Dr Kerr,
under whose supervision the extensive London
investigations have been made, " measles is
the most fatal disease of childhood and the one
that plays the most havoc with school attend-
ance" (Kerr Report of the Medical Officer,
London, 1905, p 30) While not as serious
in this country as in England, investigations
in many countries have shown the great mor-
tality where the disease occurs in the early
years before the age of six The total number
of deaths from measles in the registration area
covered by the U S Census for the year 1908
was 4611 In Prussia for the year 1906 it was
9107, and it is estimated that every year there
are about 15,000 deaths from this disease in
the United Kingdom

The aim of hygiene is to postpone the disease
to as late an age as possible. It should be kept
out of the kindergarten at whatever cost to
school work The postponement of the disease
even to the elementary grades means that a
smaller number of children will have it at an
early age And the aim is also to make the
time between epidemics as long as possible,
for this again means that fewer young children
will have the disease In the view of some it
is an uncontrollable disease, and thus we had
better allow it to exist in chronic form than try
to combat it and have periodic epidemics.

163

MEASLES

MECHANICAL CALCULATION

Modern studies, however, indicate that in the
school at least it can be in large measure con-
trolled

The scientific method of managing measles
based upon the facts just mentioned consists
of four things, first, a complete registry of all
cases kept by the board of health, so that as
soon as a case occurs in any school it will be
possible to see just how many of the children
have already had the disease Second, in case
of a kindergarten or primary class where a
considerable part of the children are susceptible,
closure of the class when measles becomes epi-
demic in the city, whether a case has occurred
in this particular kindergarten or not, or else
notification of all parents warning them to
watch their children carefully in case of colds
or the like Third, whenever a case of measles
appears in a class, exclusion of all children of
the same family who have not had the disease,
and, eight days after the first case appears in
any class, exclusion of those susceptible for a
period of eight days so that the second crop of
cases will occur while the children are at home,
together with notification of all parents to
watch their children Fourth, careful instruc-
tions of both parents and teachers in regard to
necessary precautions

The great difficulty in treating measles is
that of detecting the first case at a sufficiently
early period to prevent infection The success,
however, of Dr Eberstaller's method, and the
probability that an earlier diagnosis of the
disease will soon be possible, give good hope that
soon it may be controlled at least to such an
extent that it can be kept out of the kinder-
garten and the primary grades The Kophe
spots, although not present in all cases, arc a
sign of measles, and this often rendeis possible
an earlier diagnosis than the general symp-
toms Moreover, recent studies by Hcckcr
show that there are important changes in the
blood which perhaps will soon permit a diag-
nosis of the disease several days earlier than has
hitherto been possible Probably before the
community is educated to the proper care as
regards measles, it will be quite possible to
diagnose the disease at the time when it first
becomes contagious

Children who have measles should be kept
out of school for a period of three or four weeks,
and brothers or sisters who have not had the
disease should be excluded from school; but
the consensus of the best authorities seems to
l>e that it is an unnecessary and wasteful pre-
caution to exclude other members of the family
who have already had the disease Frequently
a great injustice is done in the higher classes
by such unnecessary exclusion. School closure
on account of measles is apt to occur after it
becomes unnecessary and useless; for the
children have been exposed to the disease,
and the only good of closure is to appease the
alarm of excited parents Closure to be
effective must occur when the first case occurs

164

Whenever a case of measles appears, whether
the school be closed or not, parents of unpro-
tected children should be notified

The general adoption of a scientific method of
managing measles would probably result in
the saving of many lives, much chronic illness,
and great interference with school work

W H B

See CONTAGIOUS DISEASES, INFECTIOUS DIS-
EASES; MEDICAL INSPECTION

References —

BUTLER, W The influence of School Attendance upon
the Spread of Non-notifiable Infectious Diseases
2d International Congress on School Hygiene,
London, 1907, Vol II, pp 62K-G30

DAVIEH, S The Contiol of Measles and the Results
of an Enquiry into the Benefits of Early School
Closure 2d International Congress on School
Hygiene, London, 1907, Vol 11, pp 638-044

EBERBTALLER Maseru und Schule Inter Arch f
Schulhygiene, 1907, Vol II, pp 1-19

HECKER, R Oytologischc und klinische Beobacht-
ungen \vahronrl der Mufecrmnku nation Zeit f
Kinderhidkunde, 1911, Vol II, pp 77-110

HOGARTH, A H Measles and Public Elementary
Schools School Hygiene, 1911, Vol II pp
375-381

MOUTON, J M C 1st es moghch die Mortahtat infolge
von Masern durch gesetzhche Bestmimungen
herabzudrucken? Zeit f Sehulgemndhtitspflege,
1900, No 7, pp 374-379

PACHIONI, D , and FRANCIONI, C Baktenologische
Untersuchungen an Masern Jahr f Kinder-
heilkunde, 1908, Vol XVIII, pp 391-409

THOMAS, C J Measles 2d International Cojigress
on School Hygiene, 1907, Vol II, pp 645-666

Yearly Reports of the London Medical Officer London,
especially 1909

MEASURE — See MUSICAL NOTATION

MEASUREMENT —See ABILITY, PSY-
CHOLOGY, EXPERIMENTAL; STATISTICAL METH-
ODS, TESTS, PSYCHOPHYSICAL.

MEASURES —See DENOMINATE NUM-
BERS; METRIC SYSTEM.

MECHANIC ARTS SCHOOLS. — A term
of indefinite connotation, applied occasionally
to institutions of technical or industrial educa-
tion of higher or secondary grade Its widest
use was in the Merrill Act of 1862. For these
institutions see AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION,
TECHNICAL EDUCATION It is also occasion-
ally applied to Manual Training High Schools
See MANUAL TRAINING

MECHANICAL CALCULATION — The

methods of calculation by means of the Hindu-
Arabic numerals taught in our schools to-day
are comparatively modern, and are not as
generally used throughout the world as is often
supposed Up to the sixteenth century calcu-
lations were performed mechanically by all
peoples on some form of the abacus (q ?;.) ,
this was due to the fact that our present system
of Hindu-Arabic numerals with its symbol for
zero and the important feature known as place
value had not been developed until this period.

MECHANICAL CALCULATION

MECHANICS' INSTITUTES

Our present methods of written computation
were not possible earlier, for they depend upon
a more perfect notation than the Roman, such,
for example, as the Hindu-Arabic This sit-
uation is readily appreciated when one at-
tempts to add a column of figures expressed
in the Roman notation The Romans never
used their numerals for calculation, but merely
to record results obtained mechanically on the
abacus

Though the sixteenth centuiy developed this
new method of computation, the majority of
people continued to compute mechanically,
and even to-day Japan, China, Russia, and a
number of smaller countries do all computing
on the xwanpan or sotoban, or on some similai
form of abacus In the banks in any* of these
countries one is surprised to find exchange
computed as rapidly and accurately on these
little counting frames as it would be by an
expert accountant in this country

Dunng the last twenty-five years a part of
the civilized world is rapidly returning to
mechanical calculation, substituting for the
abacus the modern calculating machine This
new development has gone so far in the United
States that most large accounting rooms and
banks are now using from one to two hundred
such machines, and m some of the laiger de-
partment stores all of the bookkeeping is done
by machinery Even the familial cash register
seen everywhere in small as well as large shops
is, in addition to a money drawei, an adding
machine which automatically adds the sales
as they are made and gives a grand total at the
end of the day

Modern calculating machinery is divided
into two large classes: (1) adding machines,
and (2) multiplying and di viding machines
Adding machines are usually operated by keys
like a typewriter, some of them, like the Bur-
roughs Adding Machine, print each item added,
while others, like the Comptometer, give only
the results without printing The latest de-
velopment is a combination of the adding
machine and the typewriter, an arrangement
which makes possible a complete system of
mechanical bookkeeping The Elliott-Fisher
is a representative machine of this type All
the machines above mentioned are used very
extensively in banks and business houses

Multiplying and dividing machines are di-
vided into two classes (1) those which multiply
by continued addition, and (2) those which mul-
tiply directly The former machine is the
simpler and was originally conceived in 1608
by Leibnitz, the great mathematician In its
modern form it is known as the Thomas Arith-
mometer. The Unitas, the Brunsviga, and the
Tnumphator are other modern machines of
this type Of the machines which multiply
directly the Millionaire is a representative
On all these machines, which are operated by
hand or electricity, long multiplications and
divisions are performed with absolute accuracy

in a few seconds These machines are exten
sivcly used by insurance companies and large
manufacturing companies

For appioximate calculation a simple me-
chanical device known as the slide rule is much
used by engineers It consists of two strips
of wood, each about ten inches long, which
slide on each othei and which are marked with
a graphic logarithmic scale, thus making it pos-
sible to perform mechanically simple multipli-
cations and divisions, as well as to find poweis-
and roots

The use of modem calculating machinery is
rapidly extending, and will in all probability
have some slight influence on the future teach-
ing of arithmetic Although the machine
will never do away with the teaching of this
subject, it will put a piennuin upon accuracy
and will lesson the necessity of teaching rapid
calculation C. B II

References —
B\LL, W W R The History of Mathematics (Ne\v

Yoik, 1901 )

D'OCAUNK, M Lc Calnd HimplijiC* (Paris, 1905 )
Enoyklopadit1 dor Mathenuitischon WiHsenschaftcn,
Band I, Toil II, Article on Nunitnsdif* Rechncn
by R Mchiiiko

Kncyclopodie des Sciences Math6matujuc», Tome 1
Vol 4 \rticleon Calcula numeriquik b> Mehinke and

D'Ocagne

FINK Th< History of Mathematics (Chicago, 1^(M )
SMITH-KARPINHKI The Hindu- Aiabtc Numerals (Bos-
ton, 1911 )

THOMPSON, ERVMN W Bookknping by Machinery
(New York, 190G )

MECHANICAL DRAWING — See DKAW-
INU, INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION, TECHNICAL
EDUCATION

MECHANICAL ENGINEERING. — See

TECHNICAL EDUCATION

MECHANICS' INSTITUTES —England

— Associations of artisans and workmgmen
which sprang up under the rising influence and
importance of the industrial occupations at the
end of the eighteenth and the beginning of the
nineteenth century Their aim was mutual
improvement and study of the sciences as they
applied to industries at a time when school
facilities were practically nonexistent for the
lower classes Addresses by teachers of sci-
ence, lectures bv members, discussions, experi-
mental work, provision of libraries, evening
classes, and dav schools were among the ac-
tivities in which many of the mechanics'
institutions engaged Societies for mutual
improvement began to make their appearance
in the seventeenth century, e.g the Society
for the Reformation of Manners, m which Defoe
was interested, was founded in 1690. The
history of mechanics' institutions, however, is
usually traced back to two sources — Birming-
ham and Glasgow At Birmingham there was
organized in 1789 a Sunday society for the
purpose of keeping the members of the Sunday

165

MECHANICS' INSTITUTES

MECHANICS' INSTITUTES

together, lectures were arranged in
mechanics and physical science. In 1796 this
society became the Birmingham Brotherly
Society, which was joined by the Birmingham
Artisans' Library (f 1797) More important,
however, was the influence of John Anderson
and Dr. Birkbeck (qq v ) At Anderson's
University, founded by the former, Birkbeck was
able to get into touch with the artisan class,
and gave courses to meet their needs In 1823
the Glasgow Mechanics' Institute was estab-
lished by former members of Anderson's Insti-
tution Meanwhile a strong appeal was made
in 1814 in the Monthly Magazine for the estab-
lishment of literary and philosophical societies
for the middle and lower classes; suggestions
were here advanced for the arrangement of
mechanics' institutes. In 1821 Mr Leonard
Home, a merchant and geologist, founded the
Edinburgh School of Arts The London Me-
chanics' Institution was founded in 1823, with
Dr Birkbeck as its president, arid with the
strong support of Lord Brougham It was
through the influence of the latter that the
Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge
(q v ) was established in 1825, with the needs of
mechanics' institutions and popular libraries
in view The institution included a library,
circulating and reference, and a reading room,'
a museum of machines, models, minerals, and
natural history, a workshop and laboratory,
classes for arithmetic, algebra, geometry, and
their applications, and provided lectures to its
members on natural and experimental science,
mechanics, astronomy, chemistry, literature,
and the arts The majority of the managing
committee consisted of workmen, a common
feature in most successful mechanics' institutes
In the same year the Mechanics' and Appren-
tices' Library was founded in Liverpool, which
was influenced by the New York Mechanics'
Institution The equipment and provision of
classes and lectures followed the same lines
as of the preceding A feature of the instruc-
tion here given was the distribution of prizes
A day school for boys is also maintained as a
preparation for the higher work of the even-
ing schools The Manchester Mechanics' Insti-
tution, founded in 1824, has played an im-
portant part in the development of technical
education in Manchester It was established
" to enable artisans of whatever trade they may
be to become acquainted with such branches
of science and art as are of practical applica-
tion in their trade " The building had special
accommodations for work m science Lectures
were given twice a week on natural philosophy,
natural history, literature, and the useful arts
Classes were held for instruction in writing,
grammar, elocution, and composition, arith-
metic, algebra, and geometry, architectural
and mechanical drawing, vocal music, French,
Latin, German, and chemistry. A large library
and day schools for boys and girls were also
maintained. The institution emphasized more

arid more technological instruction, and made
rapid progress after the members came to it
with better preparatory equipment. In 1880
its title was changed to technical school, and
in 1892 it was taken over by the Corporation,
which has erected for its school of technology
one of the best equipped buildings of its kind
in the world. Mechanics' institutions spread
rapidly up to 1830, and met with more or less
success Of considerable interest are the few
successful institutions which arose m rural
centers, e.g Lewes, Chichester, Lincoln, Hast-
ings, and St Leonards', with circulating boxes
of books, traveling lecturers, and local branches
among the neighboring villages and hamlets.
But the chief centers were London, Lanca-
shire, and Yorkshire In 1839 a Metropolitan
Association of Mechanics' Institutions was
formed, following the example of the Union
of Mechanics' and other Literary and Scientific
Institutions m the West Riding of Yorkshire
and m 1747 the Lancashire and Cheshire
Union and m 1848 the Yorkshire Union (with
eighty-six institutions) came into existence
According to Sadler, m 1850-1851 there
were 610 literary and mechanics' institutions
with a membership of 1 02,000, following a state-
ment of the Earl of Carlisle m 1846, one m fifty-
four of the population in Yorkshire belonged to
a mechanics' institution, and m some places one
in seventeen

While the mechanics' institutions were to a
certain extent successful, it has been doubted
whether they attracted the class of people for
whom they were intended The artisan and
lower classes had not the educational founda-
tions to profit by the institutions, and in many
cases the fees for membership, classes, and
schools appears too high The educational
work of the institutions declined during the
class struggles of 1848, but were again stimu-
lated by the grants of the Department of Arts
and Science (1859) With their schools of
design and scientific instruction, the institu-
tion laid the foundation for the development
of technical schools

In the early part of the nineteenth century a
number of such institutes were founded in the
cities of the United States, and formed an
important factor m the developing interest in
public education The institutes of New York,
Rochester, and some other cities yet exist The
movement for the establishment of such insti-
tutions was connected with the Lyceum move-
ment (q v.).
See ADULT EDUCATION

References —

BAKEK, C Mechanics' Institutions and Libraries In

Central Society of Education Papers, Vol. I. (Lon-

don, 1S37 )
CARLISLE, EARL OF Lectures and Addresses in Aid

of Popular Education (London 1852 )
HUDSON, J W. History of Adult Education (Lon-

don, 1851 )
SADLER, M. E Continuation Schools. (Manchester,

166

MEOKLENBURG-SCHWERIN

MEDICAL EDUCATION

MECKXENBURG-SCHWERIN, GRAND
DUCHY OF, EDUCATION IN. - See GER-
MAN EMPIRE, EDUCATION IN

MEDIEVAL EDUCATION. — See MIDDLE
AGES, EDUCATION IN.

MEDIAN — See CURVE, GRAPHIC; STATIS-
TICAL METHOD

MEDICAL EDUCATION — History — In

the sense in which the terms are now used
medical education has a brief history, for scien-
tific laboratories are even in Germany less than
a century old and organized clinical teaching
even more recent. Nevertheless, on the con-
tinent of Europe, medicine has been for
centuries one of the four learned faculties con-
stituting the university At Salerno, Mont-
pellier, Paris, and other medieval universities
the subject was taught canonical! y Hippoc-
rates, Galen, and other authorities were ex-
pounded to students by professors, each of
whom was capable of teaching every branch
The development of anatomy and the physical
sciences toward the close of the Middle Ages
affected medical thought rather than medical
education, for the universities lacked the facil-
ities and the spirit requisite to the adaptation
of educational methods to scientific advance
In consequence the most important part of the
student's training was obtained after he left
the university, and as hospital or physician's
apprentice he procured a limited amount of
concrete experience Medical education began
to lose its medieval character in Germany caily
in the nineteenth century, when university
laboratories and subsequently university clin-
ics began to be established Its most rapid
strides have been made since 1856, at which
date Virchow enunciated his cellular pathol-
ogy,— the most fruitful single contribution
ever made alike to medical education and to
medical science

In Great Britain medical education has fol-
lowed a different line of evolution It began
in the hospitals, not in the universities Hence
it has been from the first consistently practical
Originally each hospital physician had his
own students who, having paid him for the
privilege, " walked the wards" in his company
Anatomical and other instruction they procured
at private establishments outside the hospitals
In the course of the nineteenth century the
various elements were brought together to
form hospital schools: the tcaehers joined to
form a faculty, their separate apprentices,
brought together, formed the student body;
the necessary laboratories were one by one
built in close proximity to the hospitals

Latterly, the marked development of labora-
tory teaching has tended to force the medical
schools into the universities The hospital
schools have been unendowed private ventures,
relying on fees For many years they were

highly piohtable, but I lie needs of laboratory
instruction now absorb all fees and call for addi-
tional support The future of medical educa-
tion in Great Britain lies with universities
which, whether endowed or state-supported,
will be in position to develop medical labora-
tories arid clnuch of modern type

America practically repeats British experi-
ence The reader is referred for additional
details to the account of medical education in
America given below

Medical education aims to bring a number of
sciences and a considerable body of knowledge
acquired through experience to bear in the
treatment of disease Modern medical educa-
tion differs from all previous forms of the same
discipline in the increased scope and importance
of the recognized sciences and the consequent
limitation of the part played by mere clinical
experience

In former times, despite the fact that theo-
retical exposition of traditional medical doctrine
consumed a considerable part of the student's
time, his actual training was procured practi-
cally as an apprentice in hospitals or in the
private practice of his preceptor With the
development of the underlying sciences the
range of theoretical exposition has been greatly
contracted and the apprenticeship has itself
fallen into disuse, as it has become necessary
and possible to substitute for it more systematic
training in medical schools and hospitals con-
nected with them At the present time the
details of medical education vary greatly from
country to country As it is impossible to
describe fully the methods pursued in all
civilized lands, the present article will restrict
itself to four representative countries, namely,
Germany, Great Britain, France, and the
United States

For further details concerning medical his-
tory, see GALEN, HIPPOCRATES, UNIVERSI-
TIES, MIDDLE AGES

Germany and Austria — Medical education
in Germany and the Teutonic countries in
general is, and has long been, exclusively and
entirely a university affair, the medical faculty
being one of the four traditional faculties
constituting the complete Geiman university
This has proved a most fortunate circumstance,
for in consequence of the connection of medi-
cine with the university all modern develop-
ments in the underlying sciences have been at
once brought to bcai in the solution of clinical
problems, since the hospitals have been
throughout the last century under university
control The ideals of the university, which
combined research with teaching on a high
plane, have been the ideals of medical educa-
tion in Germany The profession has there-
fore always been an educated profession and the
German physician an educated man Matric-
ulation in the medical faculty has been limited
to graduates of the German gymnasium pre-
cisely as matriculation in any other university

167

MEDICAL EDUCATION

MEDICAL EDUCATION

faculty Up to 1900 this privilege was con-
fined to graduates of the classical gymnasium.
Since that day it has been extended on equal
terms to graduates of the Realgymnasium and
the higher Realschulc, with the single additional
requirement that graduates of the last-named
school must demonstrate an elementary ac-
quaintance with Latin, which subject is not
included in the program of the higher Real-
schule Despite the lengthy tradition favor-
able to the classical gymnasium as the basis of
all university study, the two scientific secondary
schools are gradually making inroads and the
proportion of medical students from them is
likely m the future to grow steadily. The
following table shows the situation in this
respect in three recent semesters: —

SEMESTER

1908 (Summer)

1909 (Summer)
1910-11 (Winter)

2,780,2, J7f) (8r>3%)
3,069 12,877 (78 4%)
35362,832 (80 1(

I

Discussion is still in progress as to which of the
three permissible secondary schools constitutes
the fittest discipline preliminary to a medical
education The overcrowding of the medical
curriculum, partly because of the necessary
providing for all the sciences, partly because of
the expansion of the medical field itself, is one
of several factors responsible for the gradual
veering of opinion in the direction of the scien-
tific gyrnnasien

The medical curriculum of the university
may be divided into three parts, the first con-
taining the sciences which are not in them-
selves strictly medical, but are essential to a
thorough mastery of the medical sciences
proper The sciences in question are chemistry,
physics, and biology, including botany The
second division includes the medical sciences
proper; namely, anatomy, physiology, pharma-
cology, pathology, bacteriology, and legal medi-
cine The third group contains the clinical
subjects, medicine, surgery, obstetrics, gyne-
cology, pediatrics, ophthalmology, dermatology,
etc The sciences of the first group — chem-
istry, physics, and biology — do not, properly
speaking, belong to the medical curriculum,
and are indeed, as a rule, taught by the philo-
sophical faculty Only the traditional domi-
nation of the classical gymnasium could have
kept these sciences so long in the medical cur-
riculum. In consequence of the heavy burden
which the student of medicine carries, his studv
of the preliminary sciences is hurried arid
unsatisfactory He is instructed in them
almost altogether by lectures, illustrated by

168

professorial demonstration In chemistry alone
is he actually required to take a practical
course His overwhelmingly theoretical train-
ing in these f unda mental branches is an obstacle
from which the average German student of med-
icine does riot in most cases recover, for, though
the teaching is as concrete as illustration can
make it, the student does not himself master
the chemical and physical manipulations upon
which his subsequent studies so largely pre-
sume

The instruction in anatomy is both practical
and theoretical The student is required to
proem e thoiough training in dissection and
in practical histology In addition he attends
lectures on general and special anatomy, and
toward the close of his medical course is re-
quired once more to review the subject by follow-
ing a course in topographical anatomy In
physiology likewise his instruction is both
theoretical and practical, but the lectures are
more heavily emphasized than the practical
course, which may or may not closely accom-
pany them Pharmacology and hygiene are
presented theoretically with demonstrations
The course in pathology is, like that in anat-
omy, both theoretical and practical The stu-
dent attends lectures on the principles of
pathology, on general pathology, and special
pathology, all of which are abundantly illus-
trated with fresh und preserved specimens In
addition he must, in order to pass his exami-
nation, himself take part in autopsy work
Bacteriology is assigned to hygiene

Kach of the subjects which have been men-
tioned in the preceding sketch has in the Ger-
man university its own institute, or laboratory,
as we should call it The institutes are organ-
ized and equipped on substantially similar
lines. The head, called the director, is the
professor, devoting himself entirely to his
specialty He has a few assistants, the pre-
cise number varying with the size of the insti-
tute, the number of students, and the numbei
of subdivisions the institute contains For
example, the institute of anatomy invariably
contains two subdivisions — gross and micro-
scopical, the institute of physiology has, as
a rule, separate subdivisions for chemical,
physical, and operative work; the institute of
pathology, when completely developed, as at
Berlin, contains divisions for gross pathologj^
pathological histology, experimental pathology,
chemical pathology, and bacteriology It-
happens not infrequently that one or more of
the subdivisions mentioned may be missing, now
on account of lack of funds, again, because
a suitable incumbent may not at the moment be
available In the long run, these defects are
of no consequence to the student, for in the
course of his wanderings — the German student
being given to migrating during his medical
studies — he will find at one university what
he may have omitted at another

The arrangement and equipment of the insti-

MEDICAL EDUCATION

MEDICAL EDUCATION

tute invariably take thought for both teaching
and research, for the German university pro-
fessor, in the medical faculty as elsewhere, is
at one and the same time instructor and pro-
ducer The institute contains lecture halls,
classrooms, and separate suites for the investi-
gative work of the professor, his assistants, and
research students Laboratory facilities differ
m extent, but not in type, in the different
universities. They are large at Berlin, Vienna,
Leipzig, and Munich, — the anatomical insti-
tute at Munich being a palatial structure;
they are small and more modest in appearance
at Greifswald, Wurzburg, Graz, and other
universities But in essential character and
equipment all take thought for teaching and
research at the same high level This uniform-
ity is due in no small degree to the custom of
" calling" professors from one institution to
anothei Obviously, to induce a rising scien-
tist to leave one post for another, as good or
better facilities must be offered to him

The Gciman student is required to complete
his work in all the sciences already named
except pathology and bacteriology, before
undertaking clinical study To these sciences
he is required to devote at least five semesters
Geiman teaching of these subjects has obvious
points of stiength as well as weakness The
student is taught by progressive scientists in
active laboratories He woiks, therefore, in a
highly stimulating atmosphere, Abundant op-
portunities are given to him to do more than the
required minimum in any subject in which he
develops interest or capacity Having satisfied
the examination requirement, he may enter one
of the many advanced courses offered in all
institutes or he may as undergraduate volun-
teer (Famulus) make himself piactically a
part of the organization of the laboratory
during vacation time, 01, having passed the
necessarv examinations, he may pause long
enough to undertake a piece of original research
under the direction of the professor How
large a proportion of the German medical stu-
dents actually take advantage of the oppor-
tunities thus afforded it is difficult to say, but
the German system of university instruction
is explicitly designed to favor these more
active and energetic individuals The weak-
ness of the instruction lies in the excessively
demonstrative character of the required teach-
ing In all subjects a large part of the student 's
time is consumed in attending lectures and wit-
nessing demonstrations, — even in anatomy,
where, however, there is no lack of practical
instruction besides The unambitious student,
who contents himself with doing only what he
is by the letter of the law compelled to do,
receives an education which is far too theo-
retical and passive The practice of medicine
involves the actual application of the sciences
to clinical problems, but this application can
be made only by students who have acquired
a practical scientific technique On the tech-

nical side, however, German medical education
is weak unless strongly reenforced by volun-
tary activity on the student's part While the
best German students can get a rich, varied,
and concrete training, the average student
and the poorer student may escape with inferior
practical training

Germany is perhaps the only great country
in which clinical education is on precisely the
same footing as that of the underlying sciences
The German professor of medicine and surgery
is a university professor selected for capacity
only As the clinical blanches are under
complete university control precisely as any
other subject, the state seeks its clinical teach-
ers wherever it can find them Professors of
medicine and surgery are therefore called from
one university to another like professors of
mathematics, philosophy, or chemistry

There is a common notion that the German
government is enabled to choose clinical pro-
fessors in this fashion because the state, or,
what is the same thing, the university, actually
owns the hospitals in which clinical instruction
is given It is supposed that these hospitals
have been created simply for the purpose of
furnishing the proper opportunities for clinical
instruction As a mattei of fact, this is by
no means universally the case In Prussia and
in Wurttcmberg the hospitals in which the
universities cariy on then clinical teaching are
state institutions in which, therefore, the uni-
versity enjoys complete privileges, but in prin-
ciple the case is not otheiwise in other states
in which the hospitals aie riot state institutions
In Leipzig, for example, where the State of
Saxony maintains its university, the clinical
teaching of the university is carried on in the
wards of a municipal hospital The same
situation exists in Munich, wheic the Bavarian
government procures the icquisitc medical
chines for its university by making a contract
with the municipality At Strassburg the
Empne makes a sirmlai anangement for cer-
tain wards with an endowed hospital, as does
the Austrian state in Vienna In Graz a pro-
vincial hospital is utilized, in Wurzburg a
hospital supported by a religious endowment
In all these instances alike the state enjoye
essentially the same privileges It has the
right to appoint piofessors, who in vntue of
their appointment to university chairs become
physicians and surgeons to the hospitals in
question, and the university professor whose
clinic is situated in a municipal or endowed
institution has the same rights and privileges
as are enjoyed by the university professor in
Prussia who teaches in a university hospital.
These different arrangements work smoothly
for two reasons In the first place the univer-
sity professor, who is also a hospital physician,
receives a salary His university and hospital
work constitute, therefore, the first claim on his
time and attention In the next place execu-
tive responsibility and medical care are sharply

109

MEDICAL EDUCATION

MEDICAL EDUCATION

differentiated The hospital authorities, who-
ever they may be, appoint a hospital administra-
tor who looks after everything that pertains to
housekeeping It is his duty to attend to all
details involving supplies, repairs, nursing, etc
Equally complete is the authority of the hos-
pital physicians and surgeons in reference to
the medical and surgical conduct of the wards
Superintendent and physicians are not account-
able to each other, but both arc accountable to
the higher authority Thus all friction is avoided
As these arrangements obtain in all hospitals
ahkf, there is no essential difference between
university and non-university institutions

The clinic differs from the scientific institute
previously described in having to care for
patients, it resembles the scientific institutes
in having also to provide for both teaching and
research Its equipment and organization
reflect the three purposes for which it exists.
The staff consists of the professor, known as the
director of the clinic, assistants varying in
number according to the size of the clinic, and
advanced and voluntary workers who come into
the clinic for the purpose of following the work
of the staff or engaging in original research
The equipment consists essentially of the wards,
lecture halls always equipped for complete
clinical demonstrations, classrooms for the
conduct of undergraduate courses, research
laboratories for the work of the professor and
his immediate assistants The research labor-
atories vary in character with the interest of
the professor They are, as a rule, equipped
for investigation on the chemical, physiological,
or bacteriological side of clinical problems As
a rule, the professor is in general charge of the
clinics and the laboratories Each assistant
has a separate ward to look after, and, as a rule,
is at the same time in immediate charge of one
of the laboratories. While the entire staff
is often engaged together on some large prob-
lem, the individual members of the staff are
usually occupied with their own problems
besides The required clinical teaching takes
the form of clinical or surgical demonstration
The undergraduate students assemble daily in
the amphitheater connected with the clinic
to witness a clinical demonstration by the pro-
fessor Two, sometimes three, cases are shown
each day. The professor describes in great
detail all the significant features of the case,
explains the various alternative diagnoses,
gives the considerations which determine his
judgment in favor of one as against the others,
and thereupon launches into a scientific dis-
cussion of the disease in question from all its
different aspects, pointing out how it is to be
distinguished from other similar affections, the
course it runs, the treatment to be applied, and
the outcome to be expected For these lectures
thorough preparations have been made in ad-
vance, and it is not too much to say that, as a
rule, they represent a very high order of demon-
strative performance.

A medical education largely made up of
demonstrative lectures is obviously open to
the objection already pointed out in connection
with laboratory teaching; namely, that it IK
too theoretical and too passive By way of
meeting this criticism various devices are
resorted to First, the professor is required
to call down into the arena from the amphi-
theater every student at least twice in the
course of a semester This student, who is
known as a Praktikant, is expected to examine
the patient, to make a diagnosis, and to offer
suggestions as to treatment. The professor
quizzes him and requires him to defend his
propositions The device cannot be regarded
as a great success The students are nervous,
timid, and unequal to the responsibility of
making and defending a diagnosis on short
notice, for they have had no previous oppor-
tunity to examine the patient exhibited More-
over, the moment the professor devotes himself
closely to the Prakttkant the rest of his au-
dience becomes inattentive Most professors,
therefore, attend mainly to the audience, the
part of the Praktikani becoming very often
almost nominal In the smaller universities
the device works more satisfactorily because,
the class being small, greater informality is
possible

2 A second corrective is found in the prac-
tical courses in physical diagnosis and clinical
microscopy given bv the assistants in the clinic
The professor, who has complete control of the
material and facilities of the clinic, encourages
his assistants to offer special courses designed
to train small groups of students in the arts
of percussion, auscultation, and palpation, and
in the microscopic and chemical examination of
urine, sputum, etc These courses are offered
in large numbers, and as abundant material is
at hand in the clinics and out-patient depart-
ments, the student gets an excellent training
Similar courses are offered in surgery, where
dressing, bandaging, and diagnosis are thus
taught, and in the woman's clinic, where the
student learns the important obstetrical manip-
ulations

3 As in the laboratory branches, and more
commonly than in the laboratory branches,
students are invited to enter the clinic infor-
mally, chiefly during vacation time, as Famuli,
or undergraduate volunteers They are thus
privileged to follow as closely as they will all
the activities of the clinic

4 At the conclusion of the student's course,
after he has passed all his examinations, he is
required to spend a so-called practical year in
an approved hospital As a rule, at least one
half of this period must be spent in ward work

In addition to the required work, above dealt
with, the clinics, like the scientific institutes,
offer a great variety of courses and a great
variety of optional opportunities for the benefit
of graduates and undergraduates who are
eager to do more than is required of them. On

170

MEDICAL EDUCATION

MEDICAL EDUCATION

the clinical side, as on the laboratory side,
everything is done to encourage the unusual
student. The average and poor students can
undoubtedly get along with very little practical
exertion on their part, but no student who is
eager to do something above the minimum ever
lacks abundant opportunity and encourage-
ment These optional opportunities are so
extensive and so largely utilized that they must
fairly be considered the very essence of the
German system of medical education De-
spite its defects, it is therefore probable that
the German profession is more scientifically
trained than that of any other modern nation
Beyond question this is true of the leaders,
namely, the professors and their assistants
Nowhere else, indeed, is there to be found
anything that is equivalent to the German as-
sistant who, attaching himself to a laboratory or
clinical chief, remains in scientific service for
a long period of years, sharing the productive
work of his superior, carrying on his own inves-
tigations, and coming into close contact with a
large body of students From the assistants,
division chiefs and piofessors are almost inva-
riably selected The piolonged activity of the
assistants in the fundamental sciences prepares
them to carry on clinical and surgical work on
a thoroughly scientific basis

In the actual arrangement of his course of
study the German student has very considerable
leeway He is controlled only by certain restric-
tions imposed by the examination ordinance
It is required that he pass all examinations
in the scientific branches as far as pathology
before he can obtain time credit in any of
the clinical subjects The eumculum is thus
divided into two mutually exclusive parts, the
first containing physics, chomistiy, biology,
botany, anatomy, and physiology, the second
pathology, hygiene, and all the clinical
branches No fixed order is proscribed for
these subjects on either side of the dividing line
This looseness of structure enables students
to migrate freely from one institution to the
other, an admirable feature, since every stu-
dent can thus procure for himself the conditions
of study which he prefcis and the instruction
of any teacher whom he especially dosiios to
follow On the other hand, it is not without
its disadvantages, for not infrequently the
natural sequence of subjects is disarranged, to
the unmistakable disadvantage of the student
Chemistry and physics, for example, should
undoubtedly precede physiology, which em-
ploys them both Nevertheless, it happens
that a student will complete his required work
in physiology before completing either or both
of the subsidiary sciences In the clinical divi-
sion sequence is in general less material There
are, however, certain principles of order which
cannot be safely neglected Before entering
a medical clinic the student requires to under-
stand the more common pathological terms and
phenomena, and he must obuously know how

to procure and how to interpret common
physical signs, he ought, therefore, to have
followed a course in percussion, auscultation,
and palpation Before entering the surgical
clinic he should have followed an elementary
course in surgical diagnosis and should have
learned bandaging, dressing, etc Obstetrics
in the same way presupposes proper training
with the manikin These fundamental corre-
lations having been enforced, it makes little
difference in what order the student obtains his
clinical training The student is recommended
by a plan of studies put forth by the different
faculties to procure for himself at the proper
time the fundamental training just described
Nevertheless, he is not requnccl to do so He
may enter any of the various clinics without
the proper preliminary discipline, and he not
infrequently does. In some cases the technical
training is acquired subsequently by following
the practical courses above described Other
students procure it by serving as Famuli or
volunteers in the various clinics prior to their
examinations Others pick up fragments in
different ways and trust largely to good fortune
The same result already mentioned thus re-
appears. The minimum training may be de-
cidedly unsatisfactory Meanwhile there is
hardly any limit to the training that can be
procured by earnest and capable students.

It might be supposed that the examinations
for the license to practice would interpose so
as to cut off those students who have slighted
their duties This is the case in theory, but
not in practice The real guarantee of the
competency of the Gcnnan doctor is not so
much the examination now about to be de-
scribed as the high entrance basis already
touched on Before admission to the umvcisity
the German student must have passed through
a severe educational discipline which rejects
the 'feeble and trains to severe habits of appli-
cation the more competent While in the
early semesters of university life there is doubt-
less some reaction from the gymnasial disci-
pline, it is nevertheless true that the German
student has a trained mind He is capable of
and accustomed to hard work, and in this fact
is found perhaps the most significant factor
in connection with the high level of German
medical education.

Two examinations are conducted in Ger-
many, one for the title of practical physician
(praktischer Arzt), the other foi the degree of
Doctor of Medicine We may consider the
latter first The degree of M D is an academic
title, and gives the holder the right to teach
As the examinations leading to it are held sub-
sequently to those which give the title of prac-
tical physician, they are largely matters of
form The student is required to prepare a
thesis, to submit to a brief interrogation by a
committee of the faculty, arid to pay certain
heavy fees

The examination for the license to piactice

171

MEDICAL EDUCATION

MEDICAL EDUCATION

is a much more serious affan It is known as
the state examination, as distinguished from
the degree examination, which is a concern of
the university as a teaching body The state
appoints an examination commission at each
university, made up almost entirely of profes-
sors These commissions delegate the exami-
nations in the different branches to the pio-
fessors immediately concerned Examinations
take place almost continuously throughout the
semester, students being examined singly or
in small groups The examination ordinance
prescribes in great detail how the various tests
are to be carried on The first examination
la^ts four days, of which anatomy consumes
two, physiology one, and the remaining sub-
jects one The regulations specify that in
anatomy each candidate must describe a
designated part, make a dissection, answering
questions as he proceeds, and prepare two
microscopical preparations The examination
in physiology covers general physiology, in-
cluding physiological chemistry, and requires
both oral and practical work The examina-
tions in physics and chemistry are oral only and
are meant to keep in view the needs of the fu-
ture physician In zoology, comparative anat-
omv and physiology are to be emphasized,
m botany, the anatomy and physiology of
plants, especially those with medicinal proper-
ties Should the student fail to pass in any
subject, he is allowed two more trials from
two to twelve months later If he fails a third
time, he is denied any further chance to
retrieve As a matter of fact, examiners are
so reluctant to deprive a student of his career
that those who come up for the third time are
invariably passed

The clinical examination, which is considei-
ably more complicated, begins with pathologv
divided into two parts, pathological anatomy
and general pathology, occupying one examiner
two days The candidate must do part of a
post mortem, writing the protocol He must
make several microscopic preparations, ex-
pounding at least one, and finally must be
subjected to an oral quiz on the principles of
the science. The medical examination falls
into two parts, and lasts almost a week In
the first part, conducted by two examiners in the
medical wards or out-patient department, the
candidate must examine two patients, making
diagnoses, suggesting treatment, and giving
a prognosis At home he must write a critical
account to be handed in next day. Thereafter
daily for four days he must visit the patient
once a day or oftener and report his observa-
tions to his examiners The second part con-
sists of a written examination in prescription
writing and an oral examination in pharma-
cology and toxicology

The surgical examination embraces four parts,
and also lasts about a week. The student must
handle two cases on much the same lines laid
down for medicine, must be examined practi-

cally in bandaging, setting of fractures, etc.,
and must operate on the cadaver Obstetrics,
ophthalmology, and psychiatry are handled in
the same fashion A single day is devoted to
oral examination in hygiene and bacteriology
As a rule, the subjects are arranged at intervals
of six weeks The student must pass in every
subject before he can begin his practical year

The merits of the examination are undoubt-
edly great Its general tendency is to force
the student to acquire practical skill. The
foreknowledge that to pass anatomy he must
dissect, to pass in medicine he must make a
physical examination and diagnosis, to pass in
obstetrics he must participate in a delivery,
cannot but exert a favorable influence on the
course of his studies Moreover, the moral
and practical influence of meeting his teachers
face to face is marked. On the other hand, it
must be confessed that examiners are fre-
quently lax The mere fact that examinations
spread through the entire semester conduces
to leniency, for, as the professor has all his other
engagements to attend to, he is, especially in
the larger universities, tempted to huiry, and
haste is more apt to result in laxity than in
severity Moreover, though many weak stu-
dents drop out before the third trial, those who
peisist can count confidently on being passed
In Austria students are sometimes rejected at
the third trial, but on application the Emperor
grants further opportunity, so that as a matter
of fact, in Austria as in the German Empire, the
student who persists will ultimately be success-
ful.

The cost of a medical education is heavy,
varying less than one would be disposed to
think as between large and small towns.
About 300 marks usually are required for tuition
fees, books, etc ; living expenses, exclusive of
clothing, are estimated at about 1200 marks
for the two semesters, 7500-8000 marks make
the minimum for the entire course, and leave
the student without allowance for examination
fees or vacations Twenty years have made
no material change in this respect.

The lot of the needy stuo!ent is, however,
variously relieved. The payment of fees is
after all a private matter in the hands of the
professor he is free to waive his rights entirely
or to grant a respite, if he pleases. At certain
universities, committees are appointed, who,
evidence of pecuniary incapacity being shown,
grant a delay of six years, at the close of which
period the proper officials endeavor to collect
the debt; further postponement is common.
Scholarship funds also exist, the income of
which is annually distributed. In the two
semesters 1905-1906, out of a total attendance
of 40,509 in Prussian universities 5023 en-
joyed fee-exemption; 8435 (many of course
already counted among those exempted from
fees) received additional aid; among them
966,720 marks were distributed.

Great Britain — Medical education in Great

172

MEDICAL EDUCATION

MEDICAL EDUCATION

Britain is not, as in Germany, controlled by the
government, but practically control has been
delegated by the government to certain corpor-
ations; namely, the royal colleges of physi-
cians and surgeons to be found in London,
Edinburgh, Glasgow, and Dublin, to univer-
sities possessing medical departments, and to
the General Medical Council, a representative
body consisting of delegates chosen by all the
corporations above mentioned and the regis-
tered profession at large Each of these cor-
porations, with the exception of the General
Medical Council, conducts examinations which
admit to practice, and each has in theory com-
plete freedom to conduct such examinations as
it will. As a matter of fact, however, all con-
form to something like the same standard, a
consequence partly of corporate pride, partly
of professional solidarity, partly of the influ-
ence of the General Medical Council. The
General Medical Council was created by statute
in 1858 for the purpose of publishing annually
an accurate register of authonzed practitioners
in order that the public might be enabled to
discriminate the trained from the uritiained
The Council was also given the right to inspect
arid to criticize the qualifying, or, as we should
say, licensing examinations This pnvilege
has been skillfully cultivated so as to increase
greatly the importance of the Council It has,
as a matter of fact, no coeicive powei over
medical education It cannot visit a medical
school, it cannot dictate the curriculum, it
cannot refuse to register a candidate who pre-
sents the qualification of one of the above-
named corporations, even though it should hold
the qualifying examinations to have been unsat-
isfactory It can at most protest to the quali-
fying body itself, and in the event that the
offending body fails to meet the objections
raised by the council through its representa-
tives it can carry its protest to the Privy Coun-
cil, which has large powers of action As a
matter of fact, extreme measures have not been
necessary. Publicity arid constant hammering
on the part of the council have succeeded
in bringing the less conscientious and advanced
examining bodies up to the standard regarded
by the General Medical Council as satisfactory
The situation in Great Britain is much com-
plicated by the fact that medical education
was originally altogether in private hands,
where it still rests in large measure The Eng-
lish doctor originally got hie education as an
apprentice, attaching himself to a hospital
physician, whom he accompanied on his rounds
and sometimes on his visits. His fundamental
training in anatomy he got in the private
classes which flourished in London, Edinburgh,
Glasgow, Dublin, etc. As students increased
in number and hospitals increased in size, the
apprentices were brought together to form a
school and the hospital physicians and sur-
geons formed a teaching faculty These con-
ditions prevailed generally up to very recent

times. The student fees foimcd a substantial
source of income to their teachers, who also
profited subsequently by acting as consultants
to their students when the latter went out into
practice

This proprietary order is now in process of
destruction The necessity of providing the
student with training in the fundamental labor-
atory branches has eaten up the profits of the
proprietary medical school Almost every-
where practicing physicians have ceased to
teach chemistry, physics, anatomy, physiology,
and other laboratory branches. As far as these
subjects are concerned the British medical
school is lapidly approaching the German plan
of organization In the Scottish universities,
at Oxford and Cambridge, in the provincial
universities, and in the King's and University
colleges in London the scientific branches
belong to the universities and are handled
like othei university subjects They are taught
by specialists, in laboi atones equipped, as far
as financial resources permit, for teaching and
research But nowhcio as yet in Gieat Britain
does a university really control its clinical
facilities Clinical teaching, therefore, ioniums
as formerly in the hands of the visiting staffs
of the local hospitals At Glasgow, Edinburgh,
and Manchester the local universities have
procured some limited privileges in respect to
the designation of teachers of medicine and
surgery, but in general the clinical branches in
Great Britain are taught incidentally by the
practicing physicians who form the unpaid
staffs of hospitals maintained by volunteoi
subscription To this point we will leour in
giving an account of tho methods of clinical
teaching

No legal minimum is established in Great
Britain in respect to general education which
must precede the study of medicine. The
various bodies dealing with the subject concui,
however, in enforcing a requirement which
includes English, Latin, arithmetic, algebia,
and plane geometry A student is admitted
to a medical school on presenting a -satisfactory
certificate showing that ho has passed the
required examinations in those subjects This
standard is indisputably low It can bo mot
by an ordinary boy of fifteen 01 sixteen years of
age Students are, in fact, considerably older,
the discrepancy bomg clue to tho unorganized
condition of secondary education in England.
(See EXAMINATIONS )

The medical curriculum must be five years
in length, and is on the average considerably
longer Its first year is devoted to instruction
in the basic sciences — physics, chemistry, and
biology Anatomy and physiology take up the
next eighteen months Tho rest of the time is
devoted to clinical studies, in which pathology
is included. The teaching methods are much
more concrete and practical than in Germany
Though systematic lectures are held in all sub-
jects, the mam emphasis in instruction falls

173

MEDICAL EDUCATION

MEDICAL EDUCATION

on the practical exorcises, which arc well
developed Conditions are less satisfactory
in chemistry, physics, and biology, because
these subjects cannot be satisfactorily handled
when crowded into a single year, but in anat-
omy and physiology theoretic instruction is
distinctly subsidiary. In physiology espe-
cially the English excel. The laboratories in
this subject have practically without exception
individual equipment for every student, ena-
bling him under direction to carry out all the
important simpler experiments for himself
Around this experimental course all instruction
in the subject centers An important obstacle,
however, arises from the stringent laws gov-
erning vivisection The student's own work
is limited to pitted frogs.

The equipment and scope of the scientific
laboratories m Great Britain are, except in
physiology, generally inferior to those in Ger-
many, because medical schools lack adequate
financial support The university regime has
not yet completely established itself, in conse-
quence of which university departments of
medicine often rely largely upon student fees
which are necessarily inadequate to support
teaching and research laboratories While
everywhere interested individuals are found
engaged in research at one point or another,
research is not yet characteristic of the English
laboratory as it is of the German In many
schools anatomy is limited to dissecting, the
head of the department being assisted by young
physicians waiting for practice Physiology is
in general much better, some of the London
laboratories and the laboratories in Edinburgh,
Glasgow, Liverpool, Cambridge, and Oxford
being fully up to the best continental standard
Pharmacology and hygiene are quite unde-
veloped as separate laboratories of an expen-
mental character. As a rule, the activitv of
the laboratory departments expends itself
largely in routine teaching The low standard
on which students are admitted, the scant
resources which the various institutions com-
mand, and the lack of development of scien-
tific ideals combine to keep teaching to an ele-
mentary level This tendency is assisted bv
the existence of the variety of qualifications
and the discrepancies between them The pro-
prietary school depends for its success on pass-
ing its students As the schools have no re-
sources but fees, they must bend every effort
to promote the success of their students in the
qualifying examinations Courses are there-
fore arranged to comply strictly with the exam-
ination requirements which each student has in
view No student is encouraged to do more
than he needs During his spare time he is
assiduously coached by his instructor, who, being
used up in drill work and piactice, has neither
time nor energy to engage in investigation

Pathology is the connecting link in England,
as in Germany, between the laboratory branches
and the hospital Material is in general abun-

174

dant, but pathological laboratories have been
unable to develop on modern lines because of
the strong prejudice against vivisection. In
the London hospital schools pathology is
limited to teaching in the dead house on mor-
phological lines In the universities the path-
ological department of the hospital is used for
morphological work, while the professor some-
times maintains a separate experimental labo-
ratory on the university grounds. At Glasgow
alone does the university possess a modern
laboratory of pathology in which morphological
and experimental lines are combined The
hospital pathologist LS now usually a specialist.
His assistants are, however, generally young
physicians and surgeons The subject is
taught with reference to its diagnostic use in
medicine and surgery rather than as an inde-
pendent scientific discipline The students
receive a course of instruction in the dead house,
and are subsequently drilled in the museum to
understand and to interpret pathological lesions
as found in preserved specimens.

The English student gets his clinical educa-
tion bv attending the practice of the visiting
physicians of a voluntary hospital The quality
of the instruction depends, therefore, alto-
gether upon the character of the English hos-
pital staff Unlike Germany, where clinical
professors are first of all teachers and are called
to their posts aftei achieving distinction in
inferior stations, the English hospital physician
is a consultant who has in most cases attained
his present appointment on the basis of sen-
iority Education and investigation are there-
fore secondary considerations The hospitals
lack the means and the attending staff lacks the
time to engage freely in clinical investigation
The British student is, therefore, trained to be
a practical doctor He becomes quite expoit
on the technical side, but he does riot leceive
the scientific discipline which is the distinguish-
ing mark of modern medicine

While British medicine suffers severely from
the limitations just mentioned, it is neverthe-
less true that in respect to the student's contact
with clinical material nowhere else in the world
are conditions so favorable In our discussion
of Germany we pointed out that its clinical
instruction was overwhelmingly demonstrative
In England, on the other hand, it is over-
whelmingly practical The British student has
the freest access to the wards, which contain
material enough for continuous participative
instruction Actual and continuous participa-
tion of the student in the care of the sick is thus
the backbone of British clinical training The
student receives bv way of instruction a prac-
tical discipline in noting and interpreting
physical signs At the conclusion of a fort-
night he begins to " clerk " A physician, his
assistant physician, and his house physician
receive an assignment of perhaps six or eight
students The students are first taught the
systematic taking of notes, whereupon the

MEDICAL EDUCATION

MEDICAL EDUCATION

house physician escorts the little group on its
first ward walk, allotting to each student or
" clerk," as he is called, a certain n urn her of
cases for which he is to be held individually
responsible. Each clerk is required to obtain
the complete history and description of each of
his cases and to make the requisite chemical
and microscopic examinations He has all
necessary freedom and facilities, entering the
wards without ceremony and readily procuring
such material as he may request His notes
become, as a rule, part of the hospital records
of the case. The house physician makes
rounds daily with the clerks between 9 30 and
noon Twice or thrice weekly in the afternoon
the senior physician conducts the same group
over the same ground, quizzing both house
physicians and clerks as they move from cot to
cot As each case is reached, the clerk respon-
sible for it steps forward, reads his notes, and
defends his findings, his proposed diagnosis,
and suggested treatment in reply to the interro-
gations of the chief Every student is therefore
sharply questioned on his own case, and wit-
nesses at close range the cases belonging to
other students in his group When a case
terminates fatally, the teaching group repairs
to the dead house to witness the autopsy.
This concrete routine continues during about
six months It is supplemented by systematic
lectures covering the entire subject A similar
procedure is followed in surgery The student
gets in the first place six weeks of preliminary
training in surgical dressing in the out-patient
department, where he is taught to dress cuts,
to apply bandages, splints, etc The surgical
teaching unit is composed of the surgeon in
chief, the assistant surgeon, the house surgeon,
and five or six students who follow the daily
practical routine for a period of six months.
In the operations, which take place four times
weekly, the dresser, as the student is now called,
is next to the house surgeon first assistant in
his own case* On the occasion of a bedside
consultation between a physician and surgeon
the students of both attend

In midwifery every student serves as in-
patient clerk to the obstetric physicians for at
least six weeks, during which period he takes
histories, conducts pelvic examinations under
the control of the resident obstetrician, and
serves as second assistant at operations For
a fortnight he is on duty in the out-patient
maternity Cases are assigned in rotation
On a clerk's first cases he is accompanied by the
junior resident obstetrician Later he acts
alone under distinct restrictions as to seeking
aid if difficulties arise Material is so plenti-
ful that, though twenty cases are required, a
student may easily procure from thirty to fifty
English clinical teaching, therefore, amounts
essentially to a series of posts or appointments,
each charactenzed by the active participation
of the student incumbent The English clerk
and dresser are trained by going through all

175

the motions which as physicians and surgeons
they will h;ne to perform At the same time
they work under such constant supervision
and control that the interest of the patient is
never imperiled

The arrangement of the English curriculum
is not wholly unlike that of the German It
is divided into two parts, though the precau-
tions to prevent overlapping are less stringent
than in Germany In general, however, the
student gives his first year to the basic sciences,
the next year and a half or two years to the
medical sciences, and the remainder of his tune
to clinical subjects The specifications of the
different examining bodies as to what he must
do in each subject are very minute He is
required by the Conjoint Board in London to
devote 180 hours to chemistry, 120 to physics,
120 to biology. The precise period which he
must spend on anatomy, physiology, pathology,
and each of the clinical subjects is likewise
specified in the regulations London Univer-
sity requires somewhat more, the Apothe-
caries' Society of London and the Triple Board
of Scotland somewhat less

The examinations follow instruction in em-
phasizing the practical and concrete Much
the most popular of the various qualifying
bodies is the Conjoint Board of the Royal Col-
leges of Physicians and Surgeons in London,
whose examination may be described as typi-
cal Up to 1884 the two colleges conducted
separate examinations In that year they
combined to form a Joint Board conferring a
single diploma uniting both qualifications.
The Board is managed by a joint committee
who appoint as examiners teachers from the
London and provincial schools Though the
examinations are wholly conducted by teachers,
no teacher ever examines his own students

The examinations m chemistry, physics,
and biology, conducted by two examiners in
each subject, are both written and practical.
The practical and the written marks are com-
bined to determine the student's grade. In
anatomy and physiology four examiners each
take part They work in pairs, all being
continuously engaged Neither subject is
counted without the other. In anatomy the
oral test is conducted on a freshly dissected
subject, dissected specimens in alcohol, arid the
bones A living model is used for surface
anatomy In physiology no experiments are
performed, but apparatus must be demon-
strated, histological slides are employed as a
basis for questioning Simple experiments
in physiological chemistry must, however, be
carried out Eight examiners officiate in medi-
cine, acting in pairs Two written papers
are set, to be answered on consecutive days.
The clinical examination takes place in an ,
examination hall temporarily converted into a
hospital ward Each of the examiners sends
from his hospital at least three patients.
Every candidate is questioned on one " long "

MEDIC \L EDUCATION

MEDICAL EDUCATION

and Iwo 01 three " shoit " eases Tho candi-
date studios tho long ease for ton minutes,
,-iftor which ho is questioned on it Thereafter
lie is questioned more briefly on the short cases
In the evening of the same day he is orally
examined in mediemo and chemical pathology,
including tho examination of urine, pathological
slides, and gross pathological specimens, fresh
and preserved Tho surgical examination,
similarly conducted, consists of a written papei,
clinical or practical work, surgical anatomy,
and surgical pathology Othei subjects aio
disposed of in the same fashion

Tho examiners serve foi periods of foui or
five years The service roqunos seveial days
at a time twice or thrice a year For it the
ablest and busiest men in the kingdom aio
obtained Tho General Medical Council has
the privilege of sending its visitors to inspect
tho examinations Through tho circulation
of examiners and visitors a fairly uniform stand-
ard has been generally procured

Tho examinations thus just described aio in
point of principle perhaps tho best to be found
anywhere They permit interaction between
the schools and the profession, and they demon-
strate the feasibility of giving a piactical tost
to largo numbers of students annually by the
combined action of teachers and practitioners
Such defects as may be pointed out in the
English examinations are attributable to the
conditions under which medical education in
England is carried on, and have nothing to do
with tho principle on which the examinations
are conducted

Tho effort to keep insufficiently endowed
medical schools above water has led to a steady
increase of tuition foes, which have thus
doubled in the last half century About 1870
the total cost of an education at a laige London
school was 95 guineas; in 1880, 132; at pres-
ent, 180 Tho smaller metropolitan and the
provincial schools are slightly cheaper, —
Liverpool costing about £150 * The expense
vanes somewhat with the choice of tho quali-
fying agencies it costs perhaps £10 loss to pre-
pare for the Conjoint Board than for a univers-
ity degree Scotland has not yet adopted the
composition or combined fee.* at Glasgow the
sum total of separate fees amounts to £150
Adding in tho expense of living, we may esti-
mate the total cost involved at £250-300

France — Medical education in Franco is, as
in Germany, a university affair, but the med-
ical faculty is only imperfectly developed on
university lines The professors in the medical
department, in the laboratory as well as in
the clinical branches, are practicing physicians,
excepting only the anatomist at the larger
universities The appointments are made,
with rare exceptions, from the local profession.
Despite the association of medical teaching in
France with the universities, the essential
conditions resemble closely the proprietary
arrangements characteristic of England.

Tn order to enter upon medical study tho
student must have achieved the baccalaureate
that marks the termination of the lycte; in
addition, he is required to pass a year in the
study of the preliminary sciences. A bacca-
laureate course of secondary instruction plus
a certificate covering the study of physics,
chemistry, and biology, issued by the faculty
of science, constitutes the basis of medical
education thioughout France

Tho baccalaureate course takes any one of
several fonns, all loading to the same degree
Since the far-reaching secondary school reforms
of 1902, complete parity has prevailed as re-
spects the classics, the sciences, modem lan-
guages, arid mathematics A four-year pri-
mary course constitutes the uniform basis,
seven years of secondary instruction follow,
divided into two parts, four and three years in
length respectively In the first part, tho stu-
dent elects between the classics, omitting Greek
if ho desires, and a modern course largely
scientific in content; in the second, ho chooses
one of four groups — the classic languages,
Latin and modern languages, Latin and science,
modern languages and science The lycta*
of largo cities are largo and flexible enough to
contain all tho alternatives; at smaller places
tho authorities select with regard as far as
possible to local conditions

The French, like the German, boy is thus
systematically trained with a clear view to a
possible professional superstructure The bac-
calaureate basis boars everywhere the same
value The teachers, who are shortly to begin
training men to law, medicine, or what not,
know exactly on what they have to build It
is true that, consistently with the Napoleonic
origin of the system, the spirit of the lycfe is
loss individual than the range of selection that
it allows, but not improbably this is in part a
survival from the former regime under which
all wore put through tho same grind Mean-
while, Franco has gone farther than any other
country in stipulating that medical education
shall repose not only on a sufficiently high and
entirely uniform basis, but that this basis mupt
be determined or supplemented by tho specific
requirements of modern medicine

French medical education is overwhelmingly
clinical in charactei The French student is
supposed to devote his mornings to hospital
work All laboratory instruction and all lec-
tures on non clinical topics are relegated to the
afternoons During the first year hospital
attendance is optional The afternoons of the
first year are devoted to dissection For this
work the arrangements are still more or less
crude and tho teaching is confined almost
wholly to dissection The other sciences which
occupy the afternoons of the subsequent years
are demonstratively presented. Physiology is
the only one which, oven so, is adequately
incorporated in the curriculum

The clinical instruction of tho French univer-

176

MEDICAL EDUCATION

MEDICAL EDUCATION

sities ib conducted in municipal hospitals, in
which certain privileges have been granted by
contract to the State In Pans, for example,
the university controls eighteen services in
hospitals scattered through the city The
heads of these various services, being univer-
sity professors, are selected by the State from
among those who have previously won in
competition the position of associate pro-
fessor (agrege) As the university services are
incapable of accommodating the number of
students engaged in clinical study in Pans, the
university recognizes the teaching of other in-
cumbents of hospital posts To each teacher,
whether a mcmbci of the university faculty or
merely a recognized hospital physician 01 sur-
geon, students are assigned in groups of twenty
for terms of four months The instruction is
of a highly practical character It begins and
ends with the exhibition, examination, and
observation of cases, arid that too without pre-
liminaries There are no introductory or
special classes in physical diagnosis or clinical
microscopy To acquire facility with the
stethoscope, to leain peicussion and palpation,
a student is left to his own devices In laryn-
gologv and otology alone are practical couiscs
in technique conducted at the medical school

The French student in general, the Pans
student in particular, enjoys practically un-
restncted oppoitumty to gam thorough famil-
iarity with disease Twenty students daily
accompany a teacher through the wards Each
student receives by allotment two or three
bods His appointment runs for foui months,
during which period he has unobstructed access
to his cases He is expected to see them daily
before the arrival of the chief At the foot of
each cot hangs a card bearing the names of
those in charge They are, to employ the
English phraseology, clerks, to whom on
reaching the case the teacher at once turns for a
statement covering history, physical examina-
tion, etc In the course of his two-hour clinic
the instructor will exhaustively discuss three
or four cases Students other than those in
personal charge of a case are free to interpolate
questions or suggestions, and, the condition of
the patient permitting, to verify by examina-
tion points of special note Instruction in
surgery and gynaecology is largely limited to
diagnosis It proceeds on much the same lines
as instruction in medicine Students arc at
work in the wards examining patients by nine
o'clock. An hour later the professor ontois
The patient having been selected, the student
in charge reads his report, the piofcssor com-
menting as he proceeds On a small black-
board close by, professoi or student sketches
in order to show the size and relation of the
parts in question or to depict a proposed opera-
tion. Toward the close of his studies the
student is eligible to the position of externe,
or assistant in the out-patient department,
to obtain which post ho must successfully com-

pete in examination At the tei mmation of
the externeship ho is eligible to an mterne&hip,
also after competitive examination

The foregoing description shows at once the
strength and the weakness of French medical
teaching It is woak in so far as laboratory
instruction remains in an undeveloped condi-
tion The only laboratory branch which the
student has a chance to follow thoroughly is
anatomy Cn the other hand, as fai a& a
physician can be made by clinical experience,
the French student is admirably situated, par-
ticularly if ho is fortunate enough to obtain the
posts of extern c and interne In the latter,
which lasts four years, he is in position to uti-
lize, subject of course to the control of his chief,
the almost unlimited clinical resources of the*
Fiench hospitals

The general arrangement of the Fiench med-
ical school does not favor investigation on mod-
ern lines The laboratory branches are dom-
iciled in the medical school in one part of the
city, the clinical teaching is carried on in
scattered hospitals else whore The French
medical schools, therefore, are lacking in organic
character There is little intercourse, social
or scientific, between men occupied in the lab-
oratories and those occupied in the dimes

The arrangement of the French curriculum
is very simple The preliminary sciences —
chemistry, physics, and biology — claim the
first year, anatomy occupies the afternoons of
tho second Banishment of the other medical
sciences to the afternoon of the clinical year
keeps them in a largely theoretical and dis-
tinctly subsidiary form The clinical assign-
ments, which constitute the main part of all
French medical education, come in no fixed
order In general, medicine and surgery
occupy the third and fourth years, obstetrics,
psychiatry, and other branches, the fifth year

The four years forming the medical curric-
ulum proper are divided into sixteen "in-
scriptions," the five examinations being fixed
in reference thereto The first, devoted to a
practical dissection and an oral in topograph-
ical anatomy, may come at the student's
option between the sixth and the eighth msciip-
tions, the second, viva vocc in histology, physi-
ology, and physiological chemistry, between
tho eighth and tenth, the third, practical tests
in operative medicine, topographical anatomy,
and pathological anatomy, and oral in topo-
graphical anatomy, general pathology, parasi-
tology, and obstetrics, between tho thirteenth
and sixteenth, at any time after the sixteenth,
the fourth and fifth, including therapeutics,
hygiene, legal medicine, rnateria medica,
pharmacology, surgery, medicine, and obstet-
rics. Finally, the student must submit an
acceptable thesis.

America — Medical education in the United
States and Canada lacks the uniformity char-
acteristic of medical education in Germany and
Franco and tho comparative uniformity which

VOL. IV — N

177

MEDICAL EDUCATION

MEDICAL EDUCATION

prevails in Great Britain During the first
four fifths of the nineteenth century medical
education in America was wholly propnetary
in character The so-called medical depart-
ments belonging to universities were nominal
in their relationship The rapid settlement of
the country called for a large number of phy-
sicians much more rapidly than they could be
effectively trained What happened was this
Groups of physicians in different places banded
themselves together to form so-called medical
schools These schools had in the first place
neither resources nor facilities They were
practically establishments for didactic teach-
ing of descriptive anatorn}' and for the inculca-
tion of textbook knowledge of medicine,
•surgery, and obstetrics They had originally
no hospital connections whatsoever. In time
wretched dissecting rooms, carelessly conducted
by busy practitioners, were added, and clinical
instruction was improved by the exhibition of
an occasional patient from the dispensary

A step in advance was taken when the gioup
of men constituting the medical school hap-
pened to be the staff of a hospital These men
had, it is true, little interest in education, but it
paid them to teach, because, in the first place,
they received the fees of their students, and in
the second place their students sent them
frequent consultations after they engaged m
practice The hospital connection led to the
building of amphitheaters in proximity to the
wards and to the occasional exhibition of
patients in them; but the teaching was for
the most part of didactic charactei, and the
student was without any effective contact with
disease. The schools were thus nothing more
than money-making ventures unrestrained by
the law A school that began in October would
graduate a class the next spiing No educa-
tional requirement was made for entrance.
Any applicant who could pay his fees was
accepted As state boards weie not in exist-
ence, the school diploma was itself a license
to practice. A student for whom a majonty of
the professors voted passed Educating medi-
cal students thus became so piofitablc a busi-
ness that chairs in medical schools became val-
uable pieces of property and were freely tiaded
in First and last, the United States and
Canada have in a little more than a century
produced 457 medical schools Of these about
130 still survive. Illinois has produced 39,
Missouri 42, New York State 43, Indiana 27,
Pennsylvania 20, Tennessee 18 The city of
Cincinnati brought forth 20, the city of Louis-
ville 11.

Against these demoralizing conditions pro-
tests were raised from time to time, but little
progress was made until the early eighties Since
that day the course of study has been grad-
ually lengthened until it is now eveiywheie
four years, though a year may still vary from
six to nine months The course of study has
also been generally, though not universally,

graded Almost without exception American
medical schools all furnish some clinical teach-
ing, though as yet only a few are adequately
equipped in this respect More progress has
been made on the laboratory side, and it is
almost universally conceded that the prospec-
tive student of medicine should possess some
definite preliminary general education. The
most important single event in the reconstruc-
tion of American medical education was the
establishment in 1893 of the Johns Hopkins
Medical School, entrance to which was limited
to holders of a bachelor's degree

In reference to their entrance requirements
the medical schools of the United States and
Canada now fall into three divisions. The first
includes those that require two or more years
of college woik foi entrance, the second those
that demand actual graduation from a four-
year high school or its approximate equivalent,
the third those that ask little or nothing more
than the rudiments of a common school educa-
tion, pei haps not all of that

About twenty institutions belong to the first
class, all of them university departments sup-
ported and admimsteied as actual paitb of
their respective universities —

UrnversiU of California
University of Chicago
Columbia University
Cornell University
Harvai cl Um versit>
University of Indiana
University of lo\va
Johns Hopkins University
University of Kansas
Leland Stanford Junior

University

University of Michigan
University of Minnesota
University of Missouri

Da-

University of Nebraska
University of North D,-i

knta
University of Pennsj 1

vania
University of South

kota

Syracuse University
University of Utah
Wake Forest Colh»K<
Western Reserve Umve:

sitv
Yale University

Something like fifty medical schools constitute
the second division Great divcisity exists
in the quality of the student body of these
institutions The legents' certificates in New
York, state board supervision in Michigan,
control of admission to their medical depart-
ments by the academic authorities of some uni-
versities insure a fairly capable and homogene-
ous emollment in some medical schools.
Others — some of them university departments,
some of them proprietary institutions — are
quite lax in the interpretation of what con-
stitutes a high school education The reader
must be warned that the assertions of the
school catalogues and the requirements of the
state boards cannot in general be relied on
Careful investigation alone can determine
whether an institution that represents itself
as on a high school basis really enforces its
alleged standard. The third division contains
schools that are practically without any ade-
quate entrance standard at all While these
schools are most numerous in the South, they
are to be found in almost all other sections of
the country.

178

MEDICAL EDUCATION

MEDICAL EDUCATION

In their external aspect the curricula of
American medical schools follow a certain
general type The first and second years are
devoted to the laboratory branches and the
third and fourth to the clinical branches. The
laboratory branches are developed on some-
thing like the German model in the schools
included in the first division above mentioned.
These institutions have at least four separate
laboratories, — anatomy, physiology, and bio-
chemistry, pharmacology, pathology, and bac-
teriology. Hygiene is more or less piomment,
especially at some of the state universities
In some schools increasing facilities are offered
in all branches for both teaching and research
Most of the institutions here in question oiler
the entire medical course, but a few of thorn
offer the laboratory branches in one place,
the clinical in another — an arrangement
greatly to be deplored, since both sides suffer
seriously when isolated from one another.
Six of these schools are so-called half schools,
offering only the work of the first and second
years This airangcment involves perhaps no
serious difficulty, as far as the teaching of
anatomy and physiology is concerned, but un-
less, as at Oxford and Cambridge, a small hos-
pital is at hand, pathology must be taught
from museum specimens, models, and micro-
scopic mounts, all of which have serious limita-
tions Tho schools of the second division move
within narrower limits Most of them live on
fees The best of them develop highly a
department or two. The other departments
arc necessarily restricted The quality of the
student body likewise imposes limitations.
Pioper laboratory courses are impossible to
boys whose preliminary education is defective.
The best of the American medical schools on a
high school basis endeavor, by careful selection
of students and extraordinary pains in teaching
them, to make the most of their situation.
Less intelligently conducted institutions, con-
tent to operate on a lower plane, are commercially
effective. Not a few are frankly meiccnary

There yet remains for our consideration the
third division; namely, schools practically
without any entrance requirements whatso-
ever. The conditions which prevail in these
institutions are altogether scandalous It is
indeed stretching terms to speak of laboratory
teaching in connection with them at all
Schools of this description may be found in the
South without a dollar's worth of apparatus of
any description whatsoever. In others the
so-called laboratories prove to be dirty and dis-
orderly rooms practically without equipment.
Some of them have no dissecting rooms worthy
the name. At others the dissecting room is
filthy beyond description. Almost all make
a pretense to teach chemistry, but schools can
be found in which not even a complete set of
reagents is at hancl for the entire class

In respect to facilities for teaching the clinical
branches, conditions in America are even less

satisfactory than we have found them to be on
the laboratory side In order to teach clinical
medicine, surgery, and obstetrics, a medical
school requires adequate hospitals properly
equipped with laboratories in charge of phy-
sicians and surgeons selected by the medical
school on the basis of their fitness to teach and
investigate These fundamental requisites aie
met by very few of the medical schools in the
United States and Canada The University of
Michigan, the Johns Hopkins Medical School,
and the University of Pennsylvania are the
most prominent examples of medical schools
which are in complete control of hospitals of
fair size, that of the Johns Hopkins Medical
School having been recently inci eased by the
addition of certain pieviously missing clinics -
Of the three institutions named, however, only
the Johns Hopkins Medical School has freely
selected its clinical teachers from other insti-
tutions. A few other medical departments
might be mentioned which are closely affiliated
with certain hospitals, enjoying considerable
influence in the selection of the hospital staff,
which thereupon becomes their own medical
faculty.

More generally, even those schools which
under existing conditions are regarded as pos-
sessing fairly satisfactory clinical facilities
have practically no voice in the appointment
of the hospital physicians and surgeons who
arc their clinical teachers In order to get
teaching facilities at all medical schools have
founol it necessary to appoint to professorships
individuals who happen already to possess
hospital staff appointments These individ-
uals are rarely interested in teaching for its
own sake, and still less commonly devoted to
research. Teaching is with them a side issue
to which they give a certain amount of time
and energy, not so much because any imme-
diate remuneration is attached theieto as be-
cause it leads to consultation business in the
future To make matters still worse, hospital
appointments in America rarely involve con-
tinuous service. America has devised the
so-called rotating system under which physi-
cians and surgeons serve their hospitals for
terms varying from two to four months, at the
conclusion of which period a new staff comes on
duty. In order, therefore, to enjoy teaching
facilities throughout the year the medical
schools are required to appoint to professor-
ships all the successful incumbents of a hospital
service, or, more commonly still, to piece to-
gether facilities acquired in different hospitals.
These hospital appointments are made for
personal or political, rarely for professional or
scientific, reasons The fact that they are
unpaid and discontinuous is of itself fatal to
serious endeavor. It need not surprise us,
then, to learn that American hospitals are pro-
vided, as a rule, with no facilities for research.
With few exceptions their laboratories are
limited to routine. The pathological depart-

179

MEDICAL EDUCATION

MEDICAL EDUCATION

ment is a dead house, and often not even
that

Even under such circumstances the amount
of material that is available for instruction is
almost invariably below what is regarded as
satisfactory in Great Britain or on the Conti-
nent. The best of American medical schools
controls only a few hundred beds A very large
proportion of those that are fairly well equipped
have access only to some 100 or 150 beds
Proper facilities in infectious diseases and
obstetrics are almost never found

In all sections of the country schools can still
be found that are practically without hospital
connections of any kind whatsoever In
Massachusetts, Now York, California, Illinois,
Mississippi, Nebraska, Oregon, and other
states, institutions with no, or almost no, clin-
ical connections still confer the degree of M D.

Methods of teaching medicine and surgery
must under these circumstances vary greatly.
In the Johns Hopkins Medical School a highly
successful effort has been made to combine the
best points of the English and German methods.
German university ideals and the English
clerkship and dressership have been united to
form a highly effective pedagogic method
Following the successful experiment there made,
the English clerkship has been introduced by
other schools, whenever indeed hospital man-
agers have been willing to receive students on
an intimate footing in their wards Less
favorably situated schools have had to rely
on amphitheater demonstrations, resembling
the demonstrative clinics given in Germany.
The inferior institutions cling to didactic text-
book instruction

The cost of medical education in the United
States varies greatly. It has long been alleged
that the inferior medical schools are maintained
for the benefit of poor boys who could not other-
wise procure a professional education. The
hollowness of this pretense is exposed by the
fact that a four-year medical education in the
feeblest schools of Chicago, Philadelphia, or
Baltimore costs in tuition fees and board about
$1500, for which sum a student could get two
years of college work in a state university fol-
lowed by four years in its medical department.

All chartered medical schools in the United
States and Canada have the right to confer the
degree of M.D , but this degree does not carry
with it in America, as it does in Great Britain,
the right to practice The abuses in medical
education led different states to create boards
for the examination of those applying for the
license to practice The powers given to these
bodies vary from state to state. In general,
the state boards have the right to refuse an
examination to students coming from low-
grade educational establishments, but thus far
this power has not been vigorously utilized.
In addition, state boards are commonly author-
ized to refuse to recognize a medical education
which has not been preceded by an adequate

general education, but as to this also the state
boards have been very slow to assert their
powers. The real secret of the failure of the
state boards, however, to eliminate incompe-
tent institutions is traceable to the almost
universal employment of written examinations.
The only sort of licensing test that will suppress
schools without adequate laboratory and clin-
ical facilities is a practical examination such as
obtains in Great Britain and in Germany.
Proprietors of feeble medical schools have long
since found out that they can effectively meet
the state board tests by drilling their students
in the various compends that have been pre-
pared with a view to meet the exigencies of the
state board examinations In consequence of
universal laws forbidding teachers of medicine
to be members of these boards, the examina-
tions in question are conducted by men who
have no touch with education and are conse-
quently often decidedly unsuitable. The par-
ticipation of teachers and the introduction of
the practical examination would go far to assist
in the rehabilitation of all medical education
in America

Medical Sects. — No special provision is
made in Europe for sectarian education in
medicine Every intending practitioner is
required to conform to the law. He must
meet the requirements as to preliminary edu-
cation He must follow the regular course of
medical instruction, and he must pass the
requisite examinations. Having done so, he
is free to call himself any kind of doctor that
he chooses. As a matter of fact, it is found
that, having complied with the usual require-
ments, only a negligible fraction prefer a
sectarian designation.

Very diffeient is the situation in the United
States in this respect There are in the United
States some thirty sectarian institutions, about
a dozen of them homeopathic, half a dozen
eclectic, and the rest osteopathic. These
schools have low entrance requirements, poor
laboratory facilities, and almost without excep-
tion feeble clinical facilities. In general, the
eclectic and the osteopathic schools are more
wretched than the homeopathic. For the
benefit of these institutions separate state
boards are at times created, and their graduates
are enabled to enter the practice of medicine
on easier terms than are applied to the grad-
uates of regular schools. Despite the fact that
the laws deal with them favorably, sectarian
schools are on the decline.

Postgraduate Instruction. — The rapid prog-
iess of medicine in recent years makes it ad-
visable for men engaged in practice to make
some systematic effort to keep in touch with
recent development from time to time. This
has led to the institution of postgraduate in-
struction in almost all parts of the world.
In Germany postgraduate instruction takes
one of several forms. The so-called Central
Committee for postgraduate medical education,

180

MEDICAL EDUCATION

MEDICAL EDUCATION

established in 1900, organizes lecture and
laboratory courses in all the leading German
cities annually. These are meant for the
benefit of practitioners who cannot leave home
in order to engage in study elsewhere The
local courses are free of charge and are con-
ducted partly by local physicians, partly by
lecturers from other towns The courses vary
in character. Sometimes successive weekly
addresses on different topics are given by dif-
ferent lecturers; again weekly clinics may be
held, again practical courses ate instituted,
requiring two or three hours weekly and lasting
two or three months In the university towns
the university instructors often offer contin-
uation courses four weeks in length, dealing
with all the newer topics likelv to interest the
practitioner At Koln and Dusseld6rf acad-
emies of practical medicine have been created,
though they have thus far amounted to little
more than the local establishments previously
described In addition to these more or less
organized opportunities, postgraduate work can
be procured in every German and Austrian
universitv Many courses are announced in
the catalogues, but not infrequently practi-
tioners, native and foreign, combine to request
particular courses, arrangements for which can
always be easily made Little special provision
for this sort of graduate study is made in Great
Britain or France, though visitors are always
welcome to the climes in both countries In
Pans especially the rounds of well-known phy-
sicians are daily followed throughout the year
by throngs of visitors In London a Post-
graduate Association has been formed which
sells a composition ticket admitting to all
clinics, clinical lectures, operations, and autop-
sies of the constituent hospitals The most
active seats of postgraduate training in Eng-
land are the schools of tropical medicine in
Liverpool and London

In America the postgraduate school may be
characterized as a compensatory adjustment
It is an effort to mend a machine that was
predestined to break down The more con-
scientious and intelligent men trained in the
American medical schools above described
were bound to become aware of their unfitness
for the responsibilities of medical practice
The postgraduate school was therefore estab-
lished to do what the medical school had failed
to accomplish Thirteen such institutions
exist in the United States, of which those in
New York and Philadelphia command good
teaching hospitals Their instruction is imme-
diately practical in character, and has little to
offer the well trained undergraduate student,
who will do better to resort to a university
for such additional opportunity as he wishes
It seems not improbable that the improvement
of medical education in America may cut the
ground out from under the postgraduate school
as it has been here developed.

Medical Education of Women — Access to

the medical faculty on the same terms enjoyed
by men was granted to women by the Swiss
universities in 1876 The constituent states of
the German Empire one by one adopted the
same policy Women have been admitted to
the medical faculty of the Prussian universities
on the same terms as men since 1908 The
numbei of women students of medicine in
Germany is, however, still small (241 in the
summer semester of 1910), the reason being that
secondary school facilities have not yet been
provided in sufficient abundance. In Great
Britain a medical school for women was estab-
lished in London in 1874, — the London School
of Medicine for Women, through which
nearly one thousand students have passed since
its opening The other hospital schools of
London exclude women Of the provincial
universities Durham, Manchester, Liverpool,
Birmingham, Leeds, arid Bristol are coeduca-
tional, as are Aberdeen and Dundee in Scot-
land Edinburgh examines, but does not
teach, women students of medicine Glasgow
teaches them in a separate establishment In
the United States both women's medical schools
and coeducational medical schools exist. There
were in 1909, 91 medical schools admitting
both men and women, three admitting women
alone Of 921 women students in that year
752 attended coeducational institutions; 169
attended women's medical schools

Medical Education of the Negro — The
medical education of the negro is, particularly
in the southern part of the United States, a
matter of urgent impoitance The relations of
the two races are such that both buffer in point
of health if either is neglected A considerable
supply of well trained negro physicians needs,
therefore, to be procured For this purpose
there exist now in the United States six medical
schools foi negroes, but of these six only two —
one at Howard University, Washington, D C.,
the other Meharry Medical College at Nash-
ville - are in position to give a fair training in
medicine A F

For existing conditions in medical education
in other countries, sec the articles on education
in the respective countries; eg BELGIUM,
EDUCATION IN , NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION XN ;
etc

References —

KICKEL, A Wu studiert man Medizinf (Stuttgart,
1900 )

BILLROTH, T Uber das Lehren und Lernen der medi-
zirnschen W issenschaften (Wien, 1876 )

KVANH, W Medical Science of To-day (London.
1()11 )

FLEXNER, ABRAHAM Medical Education in Europe*
Bulletin No (j, Carnegie Foundation for the Ad-
vancement of Teaching (New York, 1912 )
Medical Education in the United States and Canada.
Bulletin No 4, CurncKie Foundation for the Ad-
vancement of Teaching. (New York, 1910 )

MUMFORD, J G Medicine in America (Philadel-
phia, 1903 )

PA GEL, J Emfdhrung in das Ntudium der Medizvn.
(Berlin, 1899 )

181

MEDICAL INSPECTION

MEDICAL INSPECTION

PRBVOST, A. La Facidtt de Medecine de Paris. (Paris,

1900 )
Guide- Programme des Etudes Medicale*> (Paris,

1011.)
PUBCHMANN, T History of Medical Education, tr by

Evan H Hare (London, 1891 )
STRIGGE, S S Medicine and the Public (London,

1905)
Same considerations of Medical Education. (London,

1910 )
STRUTHERS, J Historical Sketch of the Edinburgh

Anatornical School (Edinburgh, 1867 )
WITHINQTON, E T Medical History from the Earliest
Times (London, 1894 )

Information as to current work in medical
schools is obtainable from the following
sources —

Germany and Austria — From the Vorlesungs-Ver-
zeuhmsse der U nivertntdten von Deutschlaiid, Ocsterrfich
uiui der Schweiz, published twice yearly by the Aha-
flemischer Verlag, Mtinchen This publication includes
the announced courses of all universities Each univer-
sity also publishes its own catalogues Vorlesuny-Ver-
zeichniHH (lectures) and Personal-Verzeichnitm (list of
professors and students). Physicians desiring post
graduate opportunities should consult the program of
the Dozenten-Veremigung of Berlin, the publications of
the Kaisenn Fnednch Haus, Luisenplatz, Berlin, and
the Anglo-American Medical Association, Berlin, and
one of the following —

Karger, Dot, Medizinische Berlin ; G Mamlock, Weg-
weiser filr Aerzte, J Pagel, Aerztefuhrer durch Berlin
As to Vienna see Aerztlirhe Fortbildungkurst, published
by Urban and Schwarzenberg

Great Britain — The two leading London medical
journals, The Lancet and the British Medical Journal,
publish annually in August or September " Educational
Numbers," containing full information respecting all
Bntibh medical schools, examinations, etc. Every
school issues a calendar

France — An English Handbook to the Pans Med-
ical School bv A. A Warden (London, 1903)

Livret de VEtudiant UUnwersite de Paris — obtain-
able from the Bureau des Renseignements a la Sorbonne,
47 Rue des Ecoles, Paris

Programmet>-Gen£raux des Cours et Conferences.
Imprimcne Chaix, Boulevard St Michel

Every umveisity issues its own Livret de V Etudiant

Amenca — The Journal of the Ameucan Medical
Association (Chicago) publishes annually in August an
"Educational Number," giving full information re-
specting all American medical schools The Council on
Education of the American Medical Association
(Chicago) also publishes a large number of pamphlets
dealings with the same topic. Every medical school
it.au CH a catalogue.

MEDICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS.

— Medical inspection is an extension of the
activities of the school in which the educator
and the physician join hands to insure for each
child such conditions of health and vitality
as will best enable him to take full advantage
of the free education offered by the State. Its
object is to improve health conditions among
school children, safeguard them from disease,
and render them healthier, happier, and more
vigorous It is founded on a recognition of the
intimate relationship between the physical
and mental conditions of the children and the
consequent dependence of education on health
conditions Systems of medical inspection
have been in existence for some eighty years,
but it is during the past quarter of a century
that its rapid and world-wide spread has taken

182

place. It is now a movement, national in
scope, in most of the important countries of
the world It is found in all of the continents,
and the extent of its development in different
countries is, in some measure, proportionate to
their educational enlightenment.

Status in Different Countries. — France. —
The first work seems to have been done in
France, where the law of 1833 and the Royal
Ordinance of 1837 charged school authorities
with the duty of providing for the sanitary
condition of school premises and supervising
the health of school children A few years
later, m 1842 and 1843, decrees were pro-
mulgated directing that every public school
should be regularly inspected by a physician
Despite these early beginnings, genuine med-
ical inspection, in the modern sense of the
term, was not begun in France until 1879, when
the work was organized in Paris. Eight years
later medical and sanitary inspection were
made obligatory in all French schools, public
and private

At the present time, medical inspection in
Paris is carried on by a corps of 210 school
physicians, who are selected by competitive
examinations, and each of whom hab super-
vision over not more than 1000 children At
least twice each month these doctors visit each
school and make careful examinations of the
sanitary conditions of the premises, giving
special attention to lighting, ventilation, cleanli-
ness, and water supply. After this, a visit
is made to each classroom, and the children are
selected who appear to need special attention
After this general inspection, individual ex-
aminations of children are conducted in the
inspector's private room. Three classes of
children are examined, first, those whom the
doctor has selected as appearing to need
special attention; second, thohe referred to
him by the teachers and masters, and, third,
those who have returned to school after ab-
sence from unknown cause. Each child is
given a thorough physical examination dur-
ing the first months of school life, and a
complete record of the results is entered on an
individual record sheet, which follows the child
through his subsequent school career. Meas-
urements of height and weight are made every
six months, and entered on these sheets, to-
gether with records of illnesses and the results
of physical examinations Parents are in-
formed of any defects or diseases discovered,
and urged to secure remedial treatment In
the other cities of France the systems followed
are based on that of Pans, but are in general less
thorough, and in the smaller places are mostly
restricted to measures for the prevention of
contagious diseases.

Germany. — Dresden began work in 1867,
when vision tests were instituted. Frankfort-
on-the-Main appointed a school doctor in
1888, and the example was rapidly followed
by other cities, . Wiesbaden soon developed a

MEDICAL INSPECTION

MEDICAL INSPECTION

plan that was widely copied and became a model
tor the work throughout the empire The
procedure followed by the school doctor on his
monthly visits to each school closely resembles
that already described as followed in Pans
General inspections of premises and classrooms
arc first made, followed by individual examina-
tions of selected pupils Each child is given
a physical examination before first entering
school, and subsequent ones in the second,
fourth, sixth, and eighth veais of school life
A record sheet is kept for each child, and paicnts
are notified of the Jesuits of the examinations

There is wide variation in the thoroughness
of medical inspection in different paits of the
empire Thoroughly organi/ed systems undei
state regulation exist onlv in Saxe-Memmgen
and Hesse-Dai mstadt, wheie every school,
both public and private, in the count iv as well
as in the city, is provided with a state-appointed
doctor In other stat.es, the school doctors aie
appointed by and woik undei the municipal
Magistral, the local board of education, 01 the
board of health Tn 1908 some 400 towns and
cities had systems of medical school inspection,
employing about 1000 physicians Tluec pLms
of employing and i enumerating these school
doctors aie common Under the lust, the
physician is employed on full time, and is paid
a salai v i angmgf i om!!M 750to*275() pei annum,
and has the right to a pension Undei tin-
second plan, a salaiv of from $150 to $250 a
year is paid foi part-tune services, and the woik
is usually earned on in addition to other public
health sei vices, foi which separate payment is
made The third plan is to pay on a pei capita
basis according to the nuinbei of childien
inspected, and the scale of payment ranges
from six cents to fifteen cents per child per veai,
the average being about twelve cents Pa\-
ment is also sometimes made at the rate of
sixty cents to one dollar for each class examined
As yet there are onlv a few school nurses in
Germany, Charlottenburg and Stuttgart being
the onlv cities which employ them Oth-r
movements, however, closely allied to medical
inspection, such as school feeding (q v ) and
the provision of special classes for exceptional
children, have made notable progress (See
GERMANY, EDUCATION IN )

Great Bjitnni The medical inspection of
schools and scholars is carried on undei the
provision of the Education Act of 1907, \vhich
is mandatory in its nature and applies to the
schools of England and Wales In Scotland it
is carried on undei the Education Act of 190X,
which went into force at the beginning of 1909,
and conferred on school boards powers necessary
for a universal system of medical inspection
In Ireland compulsory medical inspection does
not exist Such as is carried on, is mainly
performed by the school inspectors of the
National Board, who are not medical men
The object of medical inspection in Great Brit-
ain, as stated in the Mcmonnidnm of the Board

183

of Education, is " to secure for every child,
normal or defective, conditions of health com-
patible with that full and effective development
of its organic functions, its special senses, and
its mental powers, which constitutes true edu-
cation "

Although London began medical inspection
111 England bv the appointment of a school
physician in 1891, the movement was only spo-
radic in its development up to the passage of
the act of 1907, making it universal and com-
pulsorv The details of organization are in
the mam left in the hands of the local authori-
ties, although some minimum requirements
are laid down bv the Memorandum of the Board
of Education These provisions include the
physical examination of each child at the time
of its entrance to a public elementary school,
and at least three subsequent examinations
The first of these takes place during the third
year of school life, or about the seventh year of
age, the second during the sixth year of school
life, or about the tenth year of age, and the
third at the time the child is about to leave
school and go to work

School nurses were first employed in England,
wheie their work in London dates back as far
as 1X87 The first school nurses, in the newer
acceptance of the term, were appointed in 1901
bv the London School Board, and their em-
ployment is now becoming general in other
cities

Other Conntnc* — In Norway, the move-
ment has progressed steadily since 1885, when
Home localities supported regular school phy-
sicians Permissive regulations were passed
in 1S89, and two years later obligatory ones
weie adopted Sweden is probably the coun-
try where the teim "school physician" was
fust employed in its modern sense As fai
back as 1868, medical officers weie attached
to the staff of each large school Their duties
and spheres of activity have been greath
extended, beginning first with the higher,
and since 1895 including the primary schools
Denmark has no regular system of medical
inspection, nor any legislation directly pro-
viding for it There is, however, a certain
amount of work carried on in the elementary
and secondary schools of the larger towns and
cities Austria was the hrst country to enact
effective legislation covering inspection in
elernentan schools This was done through
the ministerial decree of 1873, providing for
the regulai employment of school physicians
In Hungary, the act of 1885 established the
office of school physician In Switzerland, the
medical examination of children is recom-
mended by the Federal government, but not
enforced Nevertheless some thirteen cantons
carry out the recommended inspection, and in
some cities very thorough work is done by the
school doctors Russia has made provision
foi medical inspection since 1871, but with the
exception of a fe\v cases it has not extended

MEDICAL INSPECTION

MKDIOAL INSPECTION

beyond the secondaiy and higher schools Tn
Bulgaria organized work dates from 1904,
while in Roumama adequate legislation has
existed since 1890

In Belgium, medical inspection is the mle in
the more important municipalities, and Brussels
is credited with establishing the first system
of medical inspection, in the full modern sense
of the term, in 1874, when school physicians
were appointed who inspected each school three
times a month Fiom its inception the system
was remarkably successful, and was copied in
other Belgian cities and served as a model for
systems in Switzerland Some of the em best
work of school dentists and oculists was done
in Brussels

A number of countries in America, outside
the United States, have more or less well
developed systems of medical inspection In
Canada, Montreal began work in 1906, when
fiftv school physicians wcie appointed This
was followed by work undertaken in Halifax
and Vancouver in 1907 Some work is being
done in all of the provinces, and theic is legis-
lation providing fni its existence in Ontano,
Manitoba, and Alberta Medical Inspection
in Mexico dates from 1896, when the Depart-
ment of Medical Inspection and School Hygiene
was orgam/ed undei the Director-General of
Elementary Instruction, and a few doctors
were appointed Since that time theie have
been numerous icorgamzations, and a constant
extension of the system, until it is now very
complete and notablv efficient in the city of
Mexico and its subuibs The work has spread
until it is fully organized in the state of (1hi-
huahua, and partly so in Guanajuato and San
Luis Potosi

In South America, the Argentine Republic
and Chile both began medical inspection of
schools in 1 888, and in both republics the
systems are very thoroughly developed The
woik in Australia, Tasmania, and New Zealand
dates fiom 1906, and includes not only pre-
ventive measuies, but much scientific study
of the results of the examinations This
renders the reports from these states unusually
valuable In Japan, medical inspection has
been compulsory and universal since 1898
Only small towns and country districts are
exempted In Cairo, Egypt, the first school
physician was appointed in 1882, and the sys-
tem has been continued evei since

United States —Boston was the first city
rn the United States to establish a regulai
system of medical inspection This was in the
year 1894, and came as a result of a series of
epidemics among the school children New
York City followed in 1897, when 134 school
physicians were appointed Chicago and Phil-
adelphia began work in 1895 and 1898, respec-
tively In all of these instances medical
inspection had in its inception the sole object
of reducing the number of cases of contagious
diseases among the pupils

From the greater cities, the movement
rapidly spread to the smaller ones, the first
step in most cases being taken by a local medical
society offering to carry on volunteer work for
a limited time to demonstrate its desirability

'Otf '09 '10 '11

Nuiiiboi of Titles in the United Stairs tuning SvHteniH
of Medical Inspection (1890-1911)

Dunng the school year 10 10-191 1 an extensive
study undei taken by the Russell Sage1 Founda-
tion, and covering 1038 cities, including nearly
90 per cent of the municipalities having regu-
larly organized systems of public schools under
superintendents, showed that in 44,3 cities
then4 were systems of medical inspection in
force In other words, legularlv organized
•systems of medical inspection constitute an

Medical Inspection Laws in

SiatcH having umndutoiy lawn, in blink ,
Those having permissive laws, m rrouM hatch ,
Those hav ing no laws, in outline

integral feature of the school systems in 43 per
cent of the cities of the United States. The
preceding chart represents graphically the num-
ber of cities having systems of medical inspec-
tion each year since 1894, and shows how the
growth of the movement has been at first-
slow and gradual, and, in the last few years,
increasingly rapid It presents the facts for

184

MEDICAL INSPECTION

MEDICAL INSPECTION

the 411 cities, from which it was possible
to secure information as to the date of begin-
ning medical inspection

The tabulated returns of the study above
referred to show that the adoption of 'medical
inspection of schools has been more4 general
in the cities of the North Atlantic and Western
than in the Central and Southern states In
the North Atlantic states 58 per cent of the cities
have systems of medical inspection, in the
South Atlantic group 31 per cent, in the South
Central states 35 per cent, in the Noith (Vn-
tial division only 29 per cent, and in the
Western states 57 per cent In compiling
these data the states have been grouped by
divisions according to the standard adopted
by the Bureau of the United States Census

Medical inspection as now carried on in
American schools may be divided into three
classes of work The first is inspection foi the
detection of cases of contagious disease The
second consists of examinations conducted bv
the teachers themselves to detect defective
vision and hearing The third comprises com-
plete physical examinations of the pupils to
detect physical defects and organic diseases

Inspection for the Detection of Contagious
Disease. — Where there is any sort of medical
inspection it is nearly invariably true that in-
spection for the detection of contagious dis-
eases IH included as one of the most important
items Indeed, there are many cities where
this is the onlv woik carried on Its object
is pnmanlv the protection of the community,
and because of this the woik is often conducted
by phvsicians of the board of health In most
cities the inspectors call daily at the schools
to which they are assigned and examine such
pupils as are referred to them by the teachers
and principals These pupils include nil who
have returned to school aftei being absent on
account of illness or from unknown causes as
well as those who are in school and suspected of
suffering from some infectious or contagious
ailment In most cities examinations are made
for the following diseases Sea i let fcvci,
diphtheria, measles, smallpox, chicken pox,
tonsihtis, pediculosis, ringworm, impetigo
contagiosa, trachoma, and othei tiansnus-
sible diseases of the skin, scalp, and eve
Tuberculosis, when thought to be fai enough
advanced to be a menace to public health, is
generally reported to the chief medical inspect 01
before excluding the pupil from school (Foi
furthei discussion, see COVT \Giors DISEASES ,
INFECTIOUS DISEASES)

When children are excluded, brief but suf-
ficient reason therefor is written on an exclusion
card, which is sent to the parents One copy
is filed with the school authorities, and one with
the board of health School physicians are for-
bidden to make any suggestions as to treat-
ment and management of the pupils who are
sick This rule is nearly universal, and is
made imperative

18:

Vision nnfl H <'m ing YV.s/.s The policy
of legislators and school administrators in
arranging to have tests for sight arid hearing
conducted by school teachers themselves rather
than by specialists has occasioned many expres-
sions of surprise and no little criticism This
policy, howevei, has leached its piesent wide
development on the recommendations of special-
ists themselves who deem that such tests aie
wholly within the capacity of the teacher it
is their opinion that childicn aie subjected to
less nervous strain when tested by then teachers
than when tested by sti angers, and, theieloie,
exhibit themselves in a moie natuial way It is
always the intention, however, where vei t his pol-
icy is followed, to have scientific examinations
made by specialists in cases where defects are
apparently revealed by the teachers' tests

Work of this sort has gieatlv mci cased since
the action of the state legislatme of Massa-
chusetts in 190f> in passing a medical inspection
law containing mandatory piovisions by which
vision and hearing tests are conducted by the
teachers During the healings on the Medn al
Inspection Bill a mass of evidence was pie-
sented by experts bearing upon the question
of the feasibility of such tests (For furthei
discussion see EAR, section on Tests of Hcai-
ing, and EYE, section on Tests of Vision )

Physical Examinations. — Municipal and
educational authorities in America have very
generally realized that the theory on which
physical examinations are conducted rests on a
different foundation from that underlying med-
ical inspection for contagious diseases Histor-
ically, physical examinations have usually fol-
lowed, and almost nevei preceded, the inception of
inspections for the detection of contagious disease.
The latter is primarily a protective measure, and
looks mainly to the present safeguarding of the
community The former aims at securing the
physical soundness and sticngth of the individ-
ual, and looks far into the future It has been
brought into being by successive results of a
long series of studies which have shown that
there arc many physical defects which are
common among children and have an impor-
tant bearing on theii present health and future
development, and may be easily remedied or
modified, if they arc discovered early enough
Moreovei, these studies have demonstrated that,
wit hout a system of medical inspection only a small
minority of these defects are discovered by teach-
ers 01 known to them, to the parents, or to the
children themselves

The following is a copy of the record caid
which is in use in New York City to record the
icsults of the individual physical examinations
of pupils By referring to the headings under
which the entries are made we may see what
the defects are which the school physicians
search for arid record if discovered The list
for New York City is not very different from
the list commonly employed in other parts of
the country It may be regarded as typical

MEDICAL INSPECTION

MEDICAL INSPECTION

1»H\SICA1, RECORD XKW YORK CITY
Namo _ . .

Bom _ . _ _ __________________

Nationality of Father ___________ Mother

Number in FamiU. Adults . _ Children _ _____

Number of Birth _ _ ___ Hi«tor> of Measles

Scarlet Fever _______ Diphtheria

Pncuinonm Grippe _

Date of Int Examination ___ __

in School

Port mm*

1 School year

2 Term

J dans

4 KevatomationH

f> Diseases during term

0 Date of physical exam ma

itions

7 Defective vision

S Defective hearing

H Defective nasal breathing

10 Hvpertrophied tonsilH

11 Tubercular l>inph noden

12 Pulmonary disease

l.i Cardiac dwease

14 Chorea

lf> Orthopedic detect

1(» Malnutrition

17 Defective ter th

IK Defective palate

20 Weight

21 Mentality

22 Kffort

2.1 Prohcienc\

3, etc

The most extensive results yet secured in the
United States as to the physical conditions of
school children are those from the examinations
conducted by the board of health in New York
City The results for the yeai 1908, as pub-
lished in the Report of the City Superintendent
of Schools for that year, are as follows —

TOT \i.

P* RCENTAQK

Number of children ex-

amined . .

252,254

100

Found to have 110 defects

65,61o

26

Found to be defective

1H6,63S

74

Found to be suffering from

Malnutrition . .

H.054

3 2

Chorea

821

3

Tubercular lymph nodes .

W

4

Cardiac diseases

1.U04

s

Pulmonary diseases

673

3

Skin diseases . . .

4,115

1 (>

Orthopedic defects

1,72S

7

Defect of vision

26,224

104

Defect of hearing

2,287

9

Defect of nasal breathing

36,099

14 3

Defect of palate

897

4

Defect of teeth

135,1(>6

53 6

Hypertrophied tonsils

44,889

17 8

Defective mentality

691

3

The School Nurse. — The school nurse is
now considered to be one of the most necessary
adjuncts of the better developed systems of

186

medical inspection The total number can-
ployed in American cities at the beginning of
the year 1911 is 415, of which 375, or 90 per
cent, are in the North Atlantic and North Cen-
tral States

The first regular employment of trained
nurses in connection with the work of medical
examination was begun in New York City in
Decembei, 1902, when a corps of nurses was
established at a salary of seventy-five dollars
pei month each Since that time experience
has proved, especially in the largest cities, that
the emplovment of competent school nurses is
almost a necessity The nurses are especially
valuable in i educing the number of exclusions
of children from school on account of minor
illnesses Many of these when properly treated
by the nurse in school do not prevent the regulai
attendance of the child. The trained nurse
greatly enhances the success of the work of
the school physician in improving the health
of the school children She aids the school
teacher in detecting the first signs of approach-
ing illness She sees to it that all excluded
cases are placed under treatment as soon as
may be, so that there ib the least possible loss
of time from school and interference with edu-
cation She tieats those cases which would for
various reasons receive no attention at their
homes She assists the school physician in the
clerical work of recoidmg the results of the
physical examinations which he conducts

In many cases it is also found feasible to
employ the nurses during the summer months,
when theie is no school, in work directed to
the lessening of the great mortality rate among
infants from summei diarrhea, due mainly
to improper care and feeding Again, she
aids materially in the anti-tuberculosis cam-
paign About i' quarter of the cities having
any sort of medical inspection employ school
nurses, and the number is increasing rapidly
To sum up the case for the school nurse' she
is the instructor of parents, pupils, teachers,
and all members of the family in the prin-
ciples and practices of hygiene She is a
most efficient link between the school and the
home

Dental Inspection — Increasing attention is
being given to the inspection of children's
teeth in American schools, and the work is
being more and more commonly carried on as a
branch of medical inspection in a semi-inde-
pendent way (See TEETH, CARE OF AMONG
SCHOOL CHILDREN )

Summary of Conditions in the United States
— Reference has been made to the study of the
status of medical inspection which included
90 per cent of the cities of the United States
having school systems organized under super-
intendents of schools and which brought to-
gether the data as to the status of the move-
ment in the spring of 1911 The following is a
brief summary of conditions as revealed by that
study.

MEDICAL INSPECTION

MEDICAL INSPECTION

NUMBER

PER CENT

Cities from which returns were

secured . .

1038

100

Having systems of medical in-

spection . . .

443

43

Having inspection for the detec-

tion of contagious diseases

405

39

Having vimon and hearing tests

bv teachers . .

552

54

Having vision and hearing tests

by physicians

25S

25

Having complete physical ex-

aminations .

214

21

Having dental inspection by

dentists

09

7

Systems administered by boardH of educa-
tion

Systems administered by boards of health
Number of school physicians employed
Number of school nurses employed

NUMB* it

337

100

1415

415

Adttnn miration - Then1 aie two standaid
typeb of administration, that under the Boaid
of Health and that undci the Board of Educa-
tion In the early days of medical inspection
practically all the systems were administered
by local hoards of health, but in recent years
the tide has turned the other way, until at the
present tune about one quarter of the cities
have systems under then boards of health, and
in the remaining three quarters the board of
education is the controlling body According
to the best American practice there should be
one medical inspector and one nurse for each
2000 pupils in cities where the nurse and phy-
sician are employed on full time and the
schools are so large and so close together as to
reduce to a minimum the time spent in going
from one building to another These figures
must be radically altered for ruial distncts

Salaiicv —Professor William Oslei LS cred-
ited with saying with regard to the woik of
medical inspection in England, ulf we are to
have school inspection let us have good men
to do the work, and let us pay them well It
will demand a special training and a careful
technique " It is certainly to be regretted
that this point of view lias not been more gen-
erally taken in America In this country the
financial remuneration of school physicians and
school nurses is almost invariably inadequate
The salaries paid range from nothing to $4000
per annum. In many localities the local
medical association conducts medical inspection
for a year or two without cost to the city in order
to demonstrate its value This results in the
tabulated returns showing that in a consider-
able number of cities the doctors and nurses
receive no pay at all for their services It may
also be a factor in bringing about the extremely

low salaries that are received after regular pay-
ment is given The following table is made up
from the study of conditions in 1038 cities, and
shows the number of localities in which the
salaries of doctors and nurses fall within the
salary limits named in each group That is
to say, the first line shows that there are
seventy-five cities in which the doctors donate
their services and twenty-one in which the
school nurses do the same The second line
indicates that there are forty-seven cities in
which the salaries paid to the doctors are be-
tween $1 and $100 per annum

No OF Crmfl

WHERE

Dot JORS RK-
CKIVE SALAHV
INDICATED

No OF CITIES
WHERF NURSES
RtctivK SALARY
INDICATED

No salary

75

21

$1-100

47

—

101-200

50

.

201-300

44

2

301-400

25

401-500

24

1

501-600

18

21

601-700

2

17

701-800

12

24

HO 1-900

0

15

901-1000

13

2

1001-1500

18

2

1501-2500

/

2500-4000

3

Fees according to service

19

1

The table shows that there are more cities
paying their school physician at the rate of
between $100 and $200 per year than there are
paying salaries of any other amount On the
other hand, the average salary is somewhat
higher than this If computed on the basis of
the table and without taking into account the
number of doctors employed in each individual
city, the average salary would fall within the
group receiving from $201 to $300 per annum
In a similar way the second column of the
table shows that there are more cities paying
their school nurses from $701 1o $800 pel annum
than there are paying any other salary, but the
average salary would be about $700 per year.
Of course the sum of $200 per annum is given
in return foi only a part of the school doctors'
time Nevertheless it has come to be regarded
as a somewhat standaid rate of remuneration
for school physicians all over America There
are cases where so little work is lequircd that
this amount may be considered adequate, but
undoubtedly in most cases it represents an
undue degree of sacrifice on the part of the
school physician

Cost and Time — The per capita cost of
medical inspection for salaries alone ranges
from about one-half of one cent for vision and
hearing examinations conducted by teachers
to about $1 25 for complete physical examina-
tions in a few localities These extremes,

187

MEDICAL INSPECTION

MEDICAL INSPECTION

however, do not at all represent average condi-
tions In general the per capita cost of medical
inspection in America ranges from ten to fifty
cents per annum It seems to be a fair general-
ization to say that medical inspection for the
detection of contagious diseases can be ade-
quately performed at an annual cost of about
fifteen cents per capita, while physical exami-
nations similarly performed and including the
inspection for the detection of communicable
disease cost about fifty cents Physical exam-
inations for the detection of non-contagious
physical defects can be made by an experienced
school physician in about twelve to fifteen
minutes per child Vision and hearing tests
alone demand from three to five minutes per
child Systems of medical inspection which
include careful physical examinations of all
children cost the most and are bv far the most
valuable From a social and economic point
of view they are by far the cheapest in the better
sense of the word, as they are the most far-
reaching, both in their immediate and indirect
results Permanent efficiency requires skilled
workers, careful administration, and adequate
remuneration

Legal Provisions in the United States — The
first state law providing for the medical inspec-
tion of school children appears to have been
passed by Connecticut in 1899 It did not

provide for the complete sort of inspection
now carried on in many cities and states, but
only for the testing of eyesight by teachers
every three years Complete medical inspec-
tion with examinations for the detection of
physical defects was first provided for by state
enactment in the permissive law of New Jersey
passed in 1903 This was followed by the
mandatory law of Massachusetts in 1906, which
has been several times amended and has served
as the basis for a majority of the bills which
have since been presented in other state legis-
latures At the present time (June, 1911)
seven states have mandatory laws, ten have per-
missive ones, and in two states and the District
of Columbia medical inspection is carried on
under regulations promulgated by the boards
of health and having the force of law The
map on page 184 shows graphically which
states have mandatory laws, which permissive
ones, and in which states there are no laws at
all

The past five years have furnished a large
body of experience under varying conditions
in widely separated localities The lessons oi
this experience can be read in the substantial
agreement of a majority of the laws in several
salient features This is graphically shown by
the following tabular presentation of the princi-
pal features of the different laws and regulations

PRINCIPAL FEATURES OF STATE LAWS AND REGULATIONS PROVIDING FOR
MEDICAL INSPECTION, 1*)11

o

DC

H

O

No

STATE

1

ejj

W

II

Q

£3

1

California . .

1909

p

2

Colorado . . .

1909

M

3

Connecticut . .

1907

P

4

District of Columbia

1907

M

5

Indiana . . .

1911

P

6

Louisiana . . .

1911

M

7

Maine ....

1909

p

8

Massachusetts

1906

M

9

Minnesota . .

1910

M

10

New Jersey . .

1909

M

11

New York . .

1910

P

12

North Dakota .

1911

P

13

Ohio ....

1910

p

14

Pennsylvania

1911

M

15

Rhode Island

1911

M

16

Utah ....

1911

M

17

Vermont . . .

1910

P

18

Virginia . . .

1910

P

19

Washington . .

1909

P

20

West Virginia .

1911

M

M

4

t

oS

• • -

ADMINISTERED BY
SCHOOL OR HE ALT]
AUTHORITIES

INSPECTION BY Do<
TORS FOR CONTA-
GIOLS DISEASES

! PHYSIC <L EXAMIN •

TIONS BY DOCTORS

INSPECTION OF

TE \CHERS, JANI-
TORS AND BUILD-
INGS B* DOCTORS

SIGHT AND HEARD*
TESTS BY TEACHEI

NORMAL PUPILS
TRAINED IN TESTS
OF SIGHT AJTD
HEARING

PROVISION FOR EM
PLOIMENT OF
NURSES

PENALTY FOR VIO-
LATION OF LAW

PARENTS COM-
PELLED TO REMEDI
CONDITION Discov

ERED

s

s

*

s

*

*

*

*

H

*

*

S

*

*

*

*

*

s

s

*

*

*

*

S 01 II

*

*

*

*

*

H

*

*

*

*

*

S

*

*

*

S

s

*

s

*

*

*

s

*

*

*

*

s

*

*

*

*

s

*

*

s

*

s

s

*

*

s

*

*

*

*

On four points there is substantial agreement
The first is that the administration of the pro-
visions of the law is placed in the hands of the
school authorities The second, third, and

188

fourth are respectively the placing in the hands
of school physicians the inspection of conta-
gious diseases, the physical examinations, and
the inspection of teachers, janitors, and build-

MEDULLA

MELANCHOLIA

ings. In six cases the provision is made for
testing of vision and hearing by the teachers

L P. A
References —

CORNELL, W S Health, and Medwal Inspection of
School Children (Philadelphia, 1912 )

England, Board of Education Annual Report of the
Chief Medical Officer. (London )

GULICK, L. H.f and AYRKS, L P Medical Inspection
of Schools (New York, 1908 )

HOGARTH, A H Medical Inspection of Schools (Lon-
don, 1909 )

KBLYNACK, T. N Medical Examination of Schools and
Scholars Compilation of articles on the different
divisions of work, and the status of the movement
in different countries Beat general survey of the
entire field (London, 1910 )

MACKENZIE, W L , and MATHEW, EDWIN Tht, Med-
ical Inspection of School Children The moat
extensive und thorough treatise Technical rather
than popular (Glasgow and Edinburgh, 1904 )

Russell Sage Foundation Medical Inspection Legis-
lation (Summary of legal status m United States
in 1911 )

What American Cities are Doing for the Health of
School Children. (Summary of conditions in 1032
American cities, 1911 ) (New Yoik )

STEVENS, E M Medical Supervision in School* A
first-hand description of the workings of the system
in five countries (London, 1910 )

MEDULLA — Sec NERVOUS SYSTEM

MEGALOMANIA — This is a symptom in
various mental diseases which is indicative of
a feeling of well-being The individual be-
lieves he is capable of doing more than usual,
and often more than he is capable of doing
Associated with it there arc usually delusions
of great wealth and supernatural powers,
sometimes of divinity, and occasionally this
develops upon a basis of depression/ The
symptom is found in mania (qv), m paresis
(q v ), and in dementia precox (q v ). It is typi-
cal of paranoia, but we now know that paranoia
(q v ) is the rarest of mental diseases This
feeling of well-being is probably to be associated
with the day dreaming and feeling of power
and wealth of children, and these ideas of
children very likely are based upon the same
sort of mental processes as those of the in-
sane S. I F

See MANIA

MEIEROTTO, JOHANN HEINRICH LUD-

WIG (1742-1800) —German scholai and lec-
tor of the Joachimstal Gymnasium at Ber-
lin He strongly supported the attitude of
Frederick the Great (q v ) on secondary educa-
tion While he recognized the impossibility
of teaching Latin as a spoken language, al-
though Latin and Greek were still subjects
studied by all pupils, he did not neglect Ger-
man grammar and literature, history and geog-
raphy. Some attention was paid to mathe-
matics, but none to modern languages He
became a member of the Academy, of the Su-
preme Council of Schools, and of the Consistory
of Berlin He wrote many works on classical
subjects, among them being Manners and Cut-

189

toms of the Romans at different Period** of the
Republic (1778-1779), De educatwne et imti-
tutione quam M T Cicero in erudiendu fdw
Marco secutub est (1784), Grammatics cst
aliquid nescire (1785), De praecipuis Roma-
riorum auctonbux ac primum de Taciti rnoribu*>
(1790), De Sattustu monbus (1792).

References —

Allaemeine deutsche Biographic

SCHMID, K A Gcschichte der Erziehung, Vol. V. Pt. 1.
(Stuttgart, 1901 )

MEIKLEJOHN, JOHN MILLER DOW

(1830-1902) — Professor of Education at St
Andrews University, Scotland He was the
son of a private schoolmaster in Edinburgh,
and after being educated by him he entered
the University of Edinburgh. On graduating
he taught for several years in schools near
Manchester and London He contributed fre-
quently to the press, and m 1864 was war cor-
respondent in the Danish-German War In
1874 he was assistant commissioner on the
Endowed School Commission, and in 1876 was
appointed to one of the first chairs of education
in Great Britain, founded simultaneously at
Edinburgh and St Andrews under the Bell
Educational Trust In this position Professor
Meiklejohn showed a high conception of his
duties and of the difficulties before him in view
of the fact that there were scarcely any text-
books at all on the subject in England The
problem of education he conceived to be " how
to train a child to healthy activity, to self-
help, to a haimomous development of its powers
of body and mind " Pie was opposed to the dry
mechanical methods which prevailed in the
schools of his day, and one of his chief contribu-
tions was a series of school textbooks which
laid emphasis on a rich content Among these
may be mentioned Brief History of the Eng-
lish Language and Literature, British Empire,
its Geography, Resources, Landicays and Water-
ways, New Geography on the Comparative
Method, English Language, its Grammar,
History, and Literature, English Readers.
He also translated Kant's Knhk der reinen
Vernunft, and wrote a memoir on An Old
Educational Reformer, Dr. Andrew Bell His
conception of the function of a professor of
education is well stated in his inaugural ad-
dress in 1876 (see Barnard, Am Jour of Ed ,
Vol XXVIII, pp 220-224) and in the Train-
ing of Teachers and the Chair of Education in
the University of St Andrews (1879).

MELANCHOLIA —A term used to indi-
cate (1) a symptom corresponding with a
feeling of sadness or depression, or (2) the asso-
ciation of a number of symptoms making a
specific type of disease ; (a) simple melancholia,
in which there is the combination of depression,
retardation, and a difficulty in thinking; (b)
the agitated depression which is made up of
depression with motor unrest and a difficulty in

MELANCHTHON

MELANCHTHON

thinking; and (c) involution melancholia, or a
melancholia occurring late in life. The various
forms of melancholia, which are found in a
variety of diseases, are probably only exaggera-
tions of the normal feelings of sadness and
depression, exaggerated under abnormal con-
ditions Lack of initiative, apparent stupor,
due to general slowing of movement, bizarre
ideas, are among the symptoms The indi-
vidual constantly thinks of methods to escape
the depression, often ending in suicide. Re-
covery is usually not accompanied by mental
deterioration The first attack usually comes
before the age of twenty, and m childhood is not
as severe as in later life The appearance of
any or of all the symptoms in a child should be
looked on with suspicion; advice properly
given at the time of the first attack may ward
off others The symptoms in simple melan-
cholia are so similar to those occurring after
prolonged work that they have been explained
as fatigue or exhaustion phenomena. The
treatment consists of enforced lest, a building
up of the body, and sometimes restraint, are
necessary In some cases considerable watch-
fulness is required to prevent the patient from
committing suicide

In agitated depression there is an emotional
condition accompanied by lack of inhibition
of movement, e g constant moving, picking
at the face, wringing of the hands, tearing the
hair, etc. This is typical of tne cases of
depression which are of sufficient intensity to
need hospital treatment and restraint Involu-
tion melancholia comes late in life, and has no
educational interest No symptom is so com-
mon in mental diseases as is depression, and it
is not infrequent in physical diseases This
symptom should be the first to attract atten-
tion, and should cause the teacher to summon
" fust aid " assistance fiom the proper author-
ities in charge of the school health 8 I. F

See CIRCULAR INSANITY; MANIA; OBSES-
SIONS, STUPOR

References. —

DREYFUSS, G L Die Melanchohe (Jena, 1907 )
KRA.EPELIN, E Psychiatric (Leipzig, 1904 )
TOWN, C. H Experimental Studies of the Insane

(New York, 1909)

WOLLENBBRO, R Die Hypochondne (Vienna, 1904 )
ZIEIIEN, TH Psychiatric (Berlin, 1902 )

MELANCHTHON (SCHWARTZERD),
PHILIP (1497-1560) —The great German re-
former and humanist, the Pmceptor Germ,anuz,
was born at Bretten, the son of an armorer He
received a careful education at home, and his
ability attracted the interest of his uncle
Reuchlin Before proceeding to the University
of Heidelberg he attended the Latin school at
Pforzheim. At the university the humanist
movement was not yet firmly established, but
Melanchthon, in addition to official courses,
devoted himself to the new studies. Gradu-
ating in 1511, he proceeded to the University of

Tubingen, where he remained for six years,
taking his M.A. in 1514. Here he studied not
only the classics, but mathematics, astronomy
(or better, astrology), physics, medicine, and
Roman law In his own hall or bursa he lec-
tured on Vergil and Terence, and also gave
lectures on eloquence and history In 1518
he was called to the University of Wittenberg
as teacher of Greek, and almost from the first
began to exercise that influence which was to
mold German education for more than a
century His inaugural address, De corrigenda
adolesccntiurn studus, was a defense of hu-
manism against its opponents, giving in brief
a histoiy of culture and an attack on scholas-
ticism Melanchthon urges the proper organiza-
tion of studies based on grammar, dialectic, and
rhetoric, and including mathematics, poetry,
and oratory The classical languages them-
selves are of importance as opening the sources
of wisdom In his address at the opening of
the Nuremberg school he gives a more complete
definition of his educational ideas it is the
divine purpose that children be trained to piety
and virtue, and only through the sciences can
religion and good laws be maintained, the
sciences are a gift of God, hence impiety and
ignorance go togethei A similai statement
was made by Melanchthon in connection with
the school at Soest At Wittenberg Melanch-
thon in 1519 became Bachelor of Theology In
addition to his public lectures, which maveiy
short time attracted students from all sides of
Europe, he maintained a private preparatory
school in his home, and thus had an opportu-
nity of closely studying the requirements of a
secondary school.

Melanchthon's influence lay in five direc-
tions (1) as one of the most populai umveibiU
teachers in Germany he trained a large number
of young scholars who were spread ovei the
country as teachers, (2) m visitation ai tides
and whenever he made a visitation, he made
direct suggestions for the erection of schools,
beginning with the modest requirements
of Latin, religion, and music, (3) as an
organizer of schools, e g Eisleben, Magdebuig,
Nuremberg, and Socst, he established a tradi-
tion which was followed elsewhere, (4) in the
same way his influence was exercised on the
German universities, e g Marburg, Komgs-
berg, Jena, Frankfort-a -0 , Leipzig, Rostock,
Heidelberg, some of these he helped to found,
some he reorganized, some copied almost verba-
tim the organization of Wittenberg made in
1536, (5) almost as important as the other
sources of his influence was Melanchthon's
remarkable activity as an author of textbooks
and editions of classical and theological works.
As early as 1516 he edited the plays of Terence,
but his first important work was the Institu-
tiones Graxxe Grammaticcv, dealing with acci-
dence, syntax, and etymology In 1519 ap-
peared his first work on rhetoric, DC Rhetonca
Libri ires, issued m 1520 as Institutiones Rhe-

190

MELBOURNE

MEMORY

toncce, in 1531 as Elementorurn Khetoriccs,
Libn duo, and again in 1542 under the last
title with additions The Loci Communes,
1521, was the first work on evangelical doctrine
based on the Epistles of St Paul His Latin
grammar, which appeared in 1522, attained groat
popularity and went through numerous edi-
tions In 1523 appeared his plea for humanis-
tic studies, including history, oiatory, poetry,
prose, verse, composition, and language, under
the title Encomium Eloqucntice The Enchiri-
dion Elementorum Puenlium (1524) was a hand-
book for beginners giving the alphabet, a num-
ber of prayers, and extracts fiom the Bible A
similar work for begmneis of Greek was the
InMiitio puenhs Literarum Gnvcaium (1525)
In 1530 he published a commentary on certain
of Aristotle's political writings, followed m
1532 by a commentary on Aristotle He also
collaborated in a textbook on simple mathe-
matics (1535) He had already expressed his
interest in history by editing the Chronicles
of Canon in 1532 and 1558-1560 In 1538 he
published Phdosophur morale Epitome, an
outline of his ethics, and in 1549 the Initia
Doctrine phyviccr His collected woiks are
contained in the Corpux Ref or motor um by
Bictschneidei and Bindseil His influence as a
theologian cannot be bettei expressed than by
stating that he was the author of the Aug*-
bmg Confession (1530), the Brnndenbuig Ref-
ormation (1539), and the Wittenberg Reformation
(1545) How great a reputation was attained
by Melanchthon is attested by the invitations
not only to other German universities, but to
France arid England But in spite of oppo-
nents the Preceptor of Germany remained at
Wittenberg, devoted to the task of building up
German Protestantism on a solid foundation of
humanistic studies

References —
RORNEMANN, L Melanchthon «/« tfchultnann (MuK-

deburg, 1897 )

ELLINGEH, G Philip Melanchthon (Berlin, 1<)OJ )
HAKTFELDER, K PhiLpp Molanrhthon ula Praereptor

(icrmaniifi In Monumcnta Girmania Ptedagoyica ,

Vol VII (Berlin, 1889)

Melanchthoniana PfFdagogica (Leipzig, 1892)
MEIIT/,, G Das tfchulw<uien der deutochen Reformation

(Heidelberg 1902 )
NKBE, A Phifipp Melanchthon, der Lehrer Deutsrh-

landti In Sammlung pftdagoyinchcr Vortrdyc, Vol

IX (Bielefeld, 1896 )
Hl< HARD, ,1 W Philip Mrlatuhthon, I hi Proliant

Preceptor of Gftmany (No\v York, 1898 )
SCHAFF, P Histoi t/ of tfu Christian Church, VoK VI

and VII (New York, 1890 )
SCIIMID, K A (jcschichtc der Erzuhiing, Vol II, Ft. 2,

pp 206-228 (Stuttgart, 1892 )

STUMP, J. Life of Melanchthon (Reading, Pa , 1897 )
WOODWARD, W H Education during the Age of the

Renaissance. (Now York, 1890 )

MELBOURNE, UNIVERSITY OF, AUS-
TRALIA — An institution endowed and in-
corporated by the Legislative Council of Vic-
toria, Australia, in 1853 " to hold forth to all
classes and denominations encouragement

for pursuing a regular and liberal course of

191

education " Work was begun in 1855 with
three professors and sixteen students and an
annual government; endowment of £9000, raised
in 1904 to £11,000. From 1883 onwards there
has also been added to the annual endow-
ment a fluctuating sum granted by annual vote
The government of the university is in the
hands of a council of twenty members elected
by the senate, which consists of all male doctors
or masters of the university. The council
elects the chancellor and vice-chancellor of
the university A professional board consider
all questions relating to studies and discipline.
There are now the following faculties law,
medicine, engineeiing, arts, science, agriculture,
veterinary science, and dentistry. There are
further a department of education and a uni-
versity conservatory of music The following
colleges are affiliated with the University
Trinity College (Anglican), Ormond College
(Presbyterian), Queen's College (Methodist),
and Australian College of Dentistry In con-
nection with the Training College of the Victoria
Education Department, courses are given in
education and lead to a university diploma
Evening couises are given leading to the
following diplomas education, agncultuie,
mining and metallurgy, and architecture A
department of umveisitv extension under the
charge of a university extension board is also
maintained The eniollment of students in the
umveisitv in 1910 was 1136 (345 arts and edu-
cation, 34 science, 121 law, 60 engineering,
360 medicine, 65 dentistry, 23 agriculture;
92 music ; 36 veterinary )

References —

Royal Commission on the University of Melbourne.

Final Report (Melbourne, 1904 )
THWING, C Y Universities of the World, pp. 231-244.

(Now York, 1911 )

MELISH, JOHN (1770-1822) —Author of
school geographies He was educated in Scot-
land, but came to America in 1809 He pub-
lished Universal School Geography and Atlas
(1816), and books of travel on Great Britain,
Canada, and the United States W S M.

MELODY — See MUSICAL TERMS.

MEMORIAL COLLEGE, MASON CITY,

IA — A coeducational and military institu-
1ion, founded bv the Sons of Veterans, II S. A ,
in 1 900, and maintaining a college, preparatory
school, military academy, normal college, com-
mcicial college, school of oratory, college of
music, and conespondence school. The en-
trance requirements are fifteen units The A.B.
and B S degrees are conferred

MEMORY — Memory may be denned as
the return to consciousness of some experience,
together with the awareness that it has been
present earlier at a definite time and place
Four parts of the memory process need to be

MEMORY

MEMORY

distinguished in the discussion These are learn-
ing, retention, recall or revival, and recognition
The organic oasis of memory is some change
induced in the nervous system in learning that
is retained in the organism as a disposition
toward revival and is rearoused when a suitable
incentive presents itself The essentials of
the memory process are the same as those in-
volved in the formation of associations (q v )

Memory Types — All memory may be con-
veniently divided into rote and logical memory
In rote memory the work must be done from
the beginning, while in logical learning the new
material is connected with the earlier acquired
knowledge to constitute a well-ordered whole
Recent investigation has been devoted for the
most part to determining the laws that control
rote learning and the retention of materials
learned by rote To make sure that there has
been no earlier partial learning and to get rid
of all trace of logical learning, the experiments
are ordinarily made with nonsense syllables
made up of two consonants and an intervening
vowel These syllables are presented in series
of twelve or sixteen by some mechanical device
that insures that they shall be separated by
regular intervals and exposed for a constant
time The adequacy of the learning is tested
both by the number of repetitions required for
the original learning and by the number of
repetitions required for relearnirig after an
interval The accuracy of learning and reten-
tion may also be tested by determining the
number of mistakes made in supplying tho sec-
ond member of a pair of syllables when tho first
of the pair is given, and also by measuring the
time required to supply the second member
The first method is known as the method of
relearning, or the saving method, the second as
the method of successes Both apply to the
tests of retention rather than of the original
learning

Laws of Learning — The results of these
investigations may be briefly summarized in
laws of learning and of forgetting The laws
of learning are (1) Learning is a direct func-
tion of the number of repetitions Each repe-
tition increases the liability to retention by the
same amount, whether the repetition be the
first or the fiftieth The repetitions after the
series has been learned to the point where it-
can be said through without mistake are just
as effective as the earlier ones (2) Capacity
for learning and for immediate retention in-
creases with age up to the attainment of ma-
turity, and then persists unchanged until the
onset of senile degeneration The only justi-
fication for the opposed popular belief is that
it is probable that things once learned in youth
will be retained more completely in later life
(3) Rhythm is an essential aid to learning
One cannot avoid some rhythm, and the more
pleasant and easv the rhythm the easiei and
quicker is the learning Syllables that belong
to the same rhythmic unit are more closely

connected than syllables that are contiguous
in the series but belong to different groups
(4) When a series is learned, associations are
formed not merely between contiguous mem-
ones, but between the noncontiguous memories
of the series The strength of the association
is directly proportionate to the nearness of the
members (5) It is easier arid quicker to
learn a series by dividing the repetitions over
several days than to make all the repetitions
on one day The more the repetitions are
divided, the greater the saving Any selection
must be learned and foi gotten several times, if
it is to be permanently retained The explana-
tion is probably that the oldei associates are
stronger, or more effective for reinstatement
than the newer In the interval between repe-
titions the connection between nervous elements
grows stionger and thus does the work of added
repetitions (6) When a selection of any ma-
terial is to be learned, it is more economical
to learn it by reading through from beginning
to end each time than to learn it by parts and
then join the parts togethei When learned
stanza by stanza, foi example, the first stanza
will be repeated more often than is necessary
before the latter parts are learned Then, too,
unnecessary associations aie made between the
end of each stanza and its beginning These
associates not merely waste time, but interfere
with the conect associates at the moment of
recall The one disadvantage of the method
is that one is hkelv to get discouraged after
the reading has been repeated several times and
to read more slowly, so that what is gained in
the number of repetitions may be lost in time
To avoid this it is suggested that pauses should
be made now and again at natuial divisions,
and then go on again from that point This
rests the learner without the disadvantages of
learning by paits

Retention — The laws of retention have also
been investigated b^y these methods The
associations once formed tend to disappear more
or less gradually, and it is important to know
the course of then disappearance The laws
that have been determined for the disappear-
ance of associations and the processes that aid
and retard the process may be stated in brief
form (1) Forgetting goes on rapidly at first,
and then very slowly Meumann found that
30 per cent was foi gotten the fiist hour, 32 pei
cent in twenty-four houis, 50 per cent, in six
days, 80 per cent in 30 daj^s, and 97 pei cent in
120 days Forgetting is much slower for
sense material than for nonsense syllables
Ebbmghaus found that with poetry 7 per cent
was retained after twenty-two years (2)
Associations peisist longer if no other work is
done for five or six minutes after learning is
completed Other activity seems to interfere
with the " setting " of the associations that
was referred to above (3) If a syllable has
been learned in one connection, it is more diffi-
cult to learn it in another connection than il

192

MEMORY

MEN.EOHMUS

it had not been learned befoie One associa-
tive connection seems to check the formation
of others (4) If two associates have been
formed with the same .syllable, it is more diffi-
cult to reinstate either than if that were the onlv
one Both of these last laws hold only ioi
associations that are onlv partially formed 11
the first association is iullv foimed, it may help
in the formation of the second

In logical memory learning is quickei and
forgetting is slower than in lote learning
Here the mam thing IN to undei stand, and when
a .statement rs understood it is connected with
general principles or meanings that have been
developed earlier and have become so fixed
through frequent repetition that they are never
forgotten Whenever a new fact is connected
with one of these, it takes on much of the per-
manence of the meaning itself It is learned
at once, and will be remembered for an indefi-
nite time The course of forgetting is much
slower than for the material learned by rote

Recall — The laws of recall are the laws of
association What shall be recalled at any
moment depends upon the cue provided by the
environment or the tram of thought, the con-
nections that cue has made earlier, and the
attitude that dominates at the moment It-
should be said that recall is very seldom of the
particular images that were earlier experienced,
ordinarily one recalls meanings One remem-
bers that certain events happened and remem-
bers the fact on the basis of very schematic
imagery Memory is not a mere reinstate-
ment of an eaiher process, but is a icprescnta-
tion of the event rn some other terms This
fact that meaning and image may be altogether
unrelated is very evident from the difference in
mental imagery One person may remember
everything visually, another in auditory or
motor terms, and yet both may remember the
same event with equal completeness

Recognition, the assurance that the event
recalled or the object seen has been appreciated
before at a definite time or place, depends upon
the associations and movements that it arouses
when it presents itself Other events that were
associated with it are aroused, and these finally
give it a setting in a definite time and place
The times and places that stand out piom-
mently in the past, which serve as points of
reference for the other events, are fixed through
the frequency with which they have been
recalled

Mnemonics — One problem much discussed
in connection with memory is the advantage of
artificial devices for improving the memory
One of the oldest is to connect anything to be
recalled with some more familiar material
Thus dates may be represented by words b>
having certain consonants represent digits and
then combining the letters into words and
the words into sentences that can be readily
remembered. Other systems make meaning-
less associations between two things to be re-
VOL. iv — o 1U

called together 1( must be said of all of these
devices that they require more time than the
simpler methods ordinarily used. The best
mnemonic system is the system of knowledge
as developed in the sciences. There every-
thing is arranged in an order determined by
long use and the best intellects It is a logical
svstem, and foi bits of knowledge that fall
within it no better system can be devised
Mnemonic svsterns are of value only for irra-
tional mattei, such as the number of days in the
months W B P

See MNEMONICS

References —

KDBINOHAUH, H Uber das Ged&chtnis (Leipzig,

1885 )
KPHRUHSI, P Expeninentelle Beitrage zur Lehre von

GeduchtniB Zcitschnft fur Pbychologit , Bd

XXXVII, pp 5(>-l(W, and 161-2H4
JOST, A Die Assoziutioiiflfestigkeit in ihre AtihuiiKiK-

keit von dor Verteilung dor WiodorholuiiKun

ZeiisLhrift fin Psychologic, Bd XIV, pp 430 ff
MULLER, (j E , and PILZECKLK, A KxpcrimentclU

Bt"itriiQ( zur Lilm vom Gedachtms (Leipzig,

1<H)2 )
MYERH, (" S TcxtbooK of Experimental Psychology,

Chb XII, XIII (New York, 1909 )
PILLBBURY, \\ H Athntwn, Ch IX (London,

1908)
STIFFENS, LOTTIE Expemnentelle Beitruge zur Lehre

vom okonorinsehen Lemon Ztitschiift fur Psy-
chologic, Bd XXII, pp 321 IT
SYHKL, A VON Ubei dub Zusainmenwirken \orschie-

dener Smnesgebiete bei Gedachtmsleistungen

Zeikthnft fui Psychologic,!^ LIII, pp 257 ff
A\ ATT, H J The Economy and Training of Mtnnoiy

(New ^ ork, 190') )
WINCH, W H Transfer of Improvement in Memory

British Journal of Psychology, Vol II, pp 284 ff

MEMORY MAPS —Map drawing by the
pupils, as an active mode oi developing power
to read maps, takes two forms (1) map copy-
ing and (2) drawing maps from memory The
drawing of memory maps as an exer cise following
the first stages of' map leading and map copy-
ing is intended to give motive for additional
map study Inasmuch as it tests the knowl-
edge of the child in an actual expressive teht,
the child returns to his study with a definite
sense of defect \\hich guides him to the facts he
most needs to acquire The inaccuracy of all
memory drawing, if unaccompanied and un-
checked by much ma]) study and copying, would
of course lead to the fixing of false notions and
relations For this reason, rnernonter map
reproduction by the pupils has often been
vigorously opposed Its weakness is apparent
Its value IK\S in its employment as a method
of testing knowledge, preliminary to further
careful study H S.

See GEOGRAPHY, TEACHING OF

MEN IN EDUCATION —See TEACHERS,
SEX OF

MEN TEACHERS —See TEACHERS, SEX

OF

MENJECHMUS— See CONICS

MENCIUS

MENINGITIS

MENCIUS, MENGTSE, or MUNGTSE

(371-287 B.C ). — Chinese philosopher named
Chao Ch'i, or Second Holy One, and called by
Martin the St. Paul of Confucianism He
studied under a grandson of Confucius and be-
gan to teach at forty. Although he had oppor-
tunities of holding important state positions,
he preferred to travel and expound Confucian-
ism. He seems to have been more outspoken
and fearless than Confucius The last years
of his life he spent in retirement and formulated
the philosophical work which us known bv his
name Among the most notable of his tenets
were the beliefs that human nature is originally
good but deteriorates through evil environ-
ments; that humanity and righteousness are
inherent in man's nature, that government is
divine, but is intended for the people's good

References: —

GILEB. HA A History of Chinese Literature (New

York, 1901.)
HUTCHINSON, A B The Mind of Menaus From

the German of Faber, E (London, 1KHO )
LEOUK, J. Chinese Classics, Vol 11 (London, 1801 )
MARTIN, WAP Lore of Cathay (Edinburgh and

London, 1901 )

MENDEL'S LAW or MENDELIANISM.—

See HEREDITY , also ATAVISM , CHARACTERIS-
TICS, ACQUIRED.

MENDOTA COLLEGE, MENDOTA CITY,

ILL — A coeducational institution, founded
m 1893 and maintaining preparatory, colle-
giate, theological, commercial, musical, and
correspondence courses Admission i equip-
ments arc fourteen units The degrees of A B ,
B.S , and D B. are conferred The eniollnient
in the collegiate department in 1910-1911 was
only thirteen The teaching staff consists of
eleven members

MENELAUS. — See GEOMETRY

MENINGITIS — The brain and spinal cord
are inclosed by three membranes, or meninges,
the pia, the arachnoid, and the dura Menin-
gitis is an inflammation of any one of these mem-
branes, though the arachnoid is not subject to
inflammation independently of the other mem-
branes, while inflammation of the dura alone,
external meningitis, or pachymemngitis, is only
rarely encountered, so that meningitis is prac-
tically always an inflammation of the pia,
whether of the brain (cerebral meningitis),
or of the cord (spinal meningitis), or of both

Internal meningitis, or leptomeningitis, in-
flammation of the pia, may take on diverse forms,
may arise from diverse causes, and may present
diverse symptoms The two forms of chief
interest are tubercular meningitis and epidemic
cerebrospinal meningitis

The cause of tubercular meningitis is the
tubercle bacillus, and the affection is probably
always secondary to a primary tuberculous

194

process elsewhere in the body. The disease is
favored by a tuberculous or scrofulous diathesis,
by bad hygienic conditions, and is sometimes
a sequel of whooping cough or measles. The
premonitory symptoms are headache, listless-
ness, insomnia, and constipation The disease
then breaks forth with symptoms of fever,
vomiting, and a very severe headache, which
occasions a peculiar and characteristic scream
or crv On account of the nature of the dis-
turbance in the brain the disease has some-
times been called " basilar meningitis," and
formerly "acute hydrocephalus " or "water
on the brain " The prognosis is very unfavor-
able, and death usually occurs within three
weeks Though so fatal when once developed,
its appearance may often be warded off, when
suspected, by a regimen of wholesome food,
warm clothing, and rest

The several forms of non-tubercular and non-
infectious meningitis, or simple acute menin-
gitis, exhibit similar symptoms, without the
prodromal stage They may arise from an
extension of other inflammations, c g otitis,
brain abscess, 01 as complications of pneumonia,
typhoid, scarlatina, and other fevers, possibl>
also from exposure to extreme heat 01 cold
The onset of the disease is sudden, its course
rapid, and its termination usually fatal

Epidemic cerebrospinal meningitis, also
known as cerebrospinal fever, and popularly as
" spotted fever," was first recognized early in
the nineteenth century, when epidemics ap-
peared in both Europe and America There
have been several severe epidemics since then,
notably in Maryland in 1S92, at Boston in
1896-1897, at New York Citv in 1905, and in
Scotland and Ireland in 1907-1908 The epi-
demics are commoner in winter and spring
As to the mode of transmission of the disease we
are not entirely clear it is infectious, but not
directly contagious, and appears to follow bad
sanitary conditions, especially damp, sunless
housing Its cause is a microorganism, prob-
ably the thplococcm mtraceUulans of Weich-
sclbaum, which invades the body through the
mouth or nose Epidemics could be pre-
vented bv prompt quarantine, maintained
stringently during at least the first two weeks
All discharges from the mouth, nose, and ears
should be disinfected Children or teachers
in the same house as the patfrnt should not
attend school until the case is terminated The
victims arc mostly children arid young adults,
and the mortality ranges in different epidemics
from 25 to 75 per cent, or even higher Ac-
cording to Osier, the mortality in children under
one year is 87 6 per cent * The onset of the
disease is sudden, with vomiting, agonizing
headache, chills, a rise in temperature, stiffen-
ing of the neck, with characteristic retraction
of the head, and delirium, followed later by
paresis, disturbances of various reflexes, stupor,
and remitting fever Rashes which appear
about the fourth day have led to the name

MENSTRUATION

MENTAL ARITHMETIC

" spotted fever " Pneumonia is a frequent
accompaniment Death usually occurs be-
tween the fifth and the eighth day For those
who recover, serious sequel® are to be feared,
particularly deafness, blindness, chronic head-
ache, and affections of the joints This disease
has challenged the experts of two continents
The several serums elaborated in Europe proved
ineffectual, but experiments at the Rockefeller
Medical Institute led to the production of a
serum from the immunized horse, which, when
applied mtraspmally by direct injection, has
yielded remarkable results This Flexner-
Jobling serum was first tried on human beings
in January, 1907. Up to 1909, tests with about
flOO cases showed a reduction of the rate of
mortality to about 25 per cent, while now there
appears a further prediction that this serum will
in the future render this dread disease less than
one tenth as dangerous as heretofore Of pe-
culiar value is the fact that those who recover
with the aid of the injections recover com-
pletelv, there having been but eight instances
of phvsieal or mental impairment following
295 recoveries G M W

References —

Biu K'-. fa fin me Handbook of the Medical Scitncent
Vol II, p 481, Vol VII, p 329 (1904)

CiKtthn on Meningitis of tho New York State Depart-
ment of Health

f V

M

DHICK, B J Conquering Spinal Meningitis
fClun'* Magazine Vol XXXII, pp 594-004

MENSTRUATION —A periodic activity
of the genital oigans of the human female,
chanieteiized by a discharge from the uterus
and Fallopian tubes, the menses, or catamema.
The theoiy of menstruation most commonly
accepted considers this process as the second in
a cycle of activities — constructive, destruc-
tive, reparative, and quiescent — which runs
its course in the uterus and tubes

The date of appearance of the first menstrua-
tion may range from the tenth to even the
twenty-fifth year, but the years thirteen to
sixteen embrace the large majority of cases,
with the fourteenth the most common year, — •
13 7 years being a probable average for Ameri-
can girls There are on record, however, a few
extraordinary cases of menstruation in infancy
Cessation of the menses, the menopause, is a
similarly variable phenomenon, having been
recorded at all ages from thirty to eighty, but
commonly falling between the ages of forty-five
and fifty-two Both the establishment arid the
cessation of this function are gradual and char-
acterized by irregularities

In general, the irregularities of menstruation
may be classed in three types The flow may
be deficient or suppressed (amenorrhea) ; there
may be excess or flooding (rnetrorrhagia) , or
there may be undue pain (dysmenorrhea).
The first may arise from pathological conditions
of the genitals, or from chlorosis, anemia,
strong emotion, worry, or bad regimen, the

195

second may arise from local mechanical causes
or often from abdominal compression , the third
may be congenital, local, or of nervous origin

This variability of function makes sweeping
generalization concerning the relation of school
work and menstruation unwise It is certainly
true that some girls, blessed with sound phy-
sique and careful home care, can carry on their
regular tasks without interruption It is
equally true that girls who suffer from painful
periods, or who display pronounced irritability
and emotional excitement, must during men-
struation be treated as invalids, and be placed
under a special regimen, with freedom from
worry and from either physical or mental exer-
tion The publication in 1873 of Clarke's
Sex in Education occasioned widespread dis-
cussion of the need of periodic remission of
school work for girls. Despite the criticism
of his book, few schoolmen to-day deny the
desirability of safeguarding menstrual ing girls
from overpressure, while most physicians have
regarded the disabilities attendant on menstrua-
tion as sufficient argument against construc-
tion or even against coeducation G M W

References —

BUCK'S Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences,
Vol V, p 743 (1902)

CLARKE, E H. Sex in Education, or a Fair Chance
for Girls. (Boston, 1873 )

HALL, G S AdoUweuce, Vol I, pp 472-512 (Now
York, 1904 )

LEE, F S Reproduction Arner Textbook of Phys-
iology, Vol. II, pp. 457-462. (Philadelphia, 1901 )

MENTAL ABILITY — - See ABILITY, GEN-
ERAL AND SPECIAL

MENTAL ADAPTATION — See ADAPTA-
TION

MENTAL ARITHMETIC — The question
as to the merits of the terms " mental aiith-
metic " and " oral arithmetic " is an old one
It is true that written arithmetic is quite as
mental as any other kind, and that the opposite
to written is oral As between the two adjec-
tives there is little choice, however The
words " mental " and " oral " have so long
been used interchangeably to apply to that
phase of arithmetic that it is not dependent
upon written help that they have acquired a
rather definite meaning, and seem likely to
endure Historically, the mental long pieceded
the written, but only in very simple problems,
chiefly involving counting and easy addition.
As soon as the writing of numbers was intro-
duced, written arithmetic, or else the arithmetic
of some form of the abacus, became practically
universal In Japan to-day a native shop-
keeper will multiply two by six upon the soroban
(see ABACUS); and such mechanical aids were
not discarded in western Europe until the
sixteenth century, and they arc still universal
in Russia. About the beginning of the last
century mental arithmetic underwent a great re-

MENTAL ARITHMETIC

MENTAL ARITHMETIC

vival, largely through the influence of Pestalozzi
in Europe and Warren Colburn in this coun-
try, in each case as a protest against the intel-
lectual sluggishness, lack of reasoning, and slow-
ness of operation of the old written arithmetic
For a long time the oral form was empha-
sized, in America doubtless unduly so; and
this was naturally followed by such a reaction
that it lost practically all of its standing. The
question is being revived at present as to what
are the fair claims of these two phases of the
subject upon the time and energy of the pupil
and teacher.

There are two points of view in the matter, —
the practical and the educational or psycholog-
ical, — and fortunately they seem to lead to the
same conclusion. Practically a person of fair
intelligence should not need a pencil and paper
to find the cost of six articles at two cents each,
or of five and three fourths yards at sixteen
cents a yard The ordinary purchase of house-
hold supplies requires a practical ability in the
mental arithmetic of daily life, and this ability
comes to the mind only through repeated exer-
cise. As will be seen later, it is a fair inference
from statistical investigations that a person
may be rapid and accurate in written work, but
slow and uncertain in oral solutions There-
fore, it will not do, from the practical stand-
point, to drill children only in written arith-
metic if we expect them to be reasonablv
proficient in purely mental work On psycholog-
ical grounds, too, the neglect of mental arith-
metic is unwise It is a familiar law that the
memory is stronger with respect to a fact that
is known in several ways (a convenient phrase,
if not scientific) than for a fact that is known
in only one way A man who knows a foreign
word only through the eye may forget it rather
easily, but if his tongue has been taught to
pronounce it, even though he be deaf, he can
the more readily recall it If, in addition to
this, his ear has often heard it, he is the more
strongly fortified, and if he has also often writ-
ten it, by pen or by typewriter, there is this
further chain that holds it to the memory In
other words, the greater the number of stimuli
that we can bring to bear, the more certain the
reaction Arithmetic furnishes merely a spe-
cial case of this general law If a child could
simply see 9 X 8 = 72 often enough, he would
come to be able to write it in due time, even if
he did not know the meaning If in addition
to this he knows the meaning of these symbols
and recalls having taken nine bundles of eight
sticks each and finding that he had seventy-two
sticks, then the impression on the brain is the
more lasting If, furthermore, he has been
trained to say " nine times eight are seventy-
two " repeatedly, the impression is still stronger,
and if he has repeatedly heard this statement
(and here is one of the advantages of class reci-
tation), he has a still further mental grip upon
the fact In other words, mental arithmetic
in the form of rapid oral work, with both indi-

vidual and class recitation, is a valuable aid
psychologically, to the retention of number
facts.

There is, however, a danger to be recognized.
A child tires more quickly of abstract work
than of genuine concrete problems, problems,
that is, that arc not manifestly " made up,"
but that represent some of his actual quanti-
tative experiences It therefore follows that if
five minutes of mental work produce a certain
efficiency, thirty minutes will not produce six
times that efficiency If this mental work is
valuable, how much time and energy should
be allotted to it? It seems to be the experience
of teachers generally that a little mental work,
rapid, spirited, perhaps with some healthy,
generous rivalry to add spice to the exercise,
should form part of every recitation through-
out the course in arithmetic There will often
be exceptions, but in general it is a pretty good
rule to devote from three to five minutes daily,
and sometimes much more time, to this kind of
work In this way a child never gets out of
practice, save during the summer holidays, and
the practical and psychological benefits can
hardly be overestimated

On the applied side there is no better test
for the teacher's ability to adapt herself to her
environment, educationally, than this, foi
the nature of the mental work vanes with the
school year, the locality, the related subjects
in the course, and with many other factors In
general, however, it may be said that mental
arithmetic offeis the best means for correlating
the subject with the pupil's other work, both
within and without the school To limit it
to this field, however, would be an evident
mistake, the work with abstract number de-
manding the major part of the time assigned to
this feature To acquire perfect mechanical
reaction to a given stimulus much exercise is
required, and for a child to think seventy-two
when stimulated by the ideas 9x8 and 8x9
demands repeated practice, not merely in rela-
tively few applications, but in a multitude of
questions involving abstract numbers. Nor is
this practice any more irksome than is the solu-
tion of the ordinary applied problems of the
textbook, as any teacher knows It was almost
exclusively by this abstract work that Pestalozzi
developed calculators of such ability with con-
crete problems as astonished those who visited
his school.

There are two lines of work in mental arith-
metic (1) the concrete, in which the teacher
has an excellent opportunity for correlation,
for local color, and for stimulating the interest
in the uses of arithmetic; (2) the abstract, in
which the textbook may be trusted to furnish
a considerable part of the material Each
must be cultivated, and ability in one does not
necessarily mean a corresponding standard of
ability in the other, although a failure in the
abstract line must lead to a failure in the con-
crete One leads to the acquisition of number

196

MENTAL DEFECTS

MENTAL MEASUREMENT

facts, the other to the ability to rationally use
these facts in applied problems D E S
See ARITHMETIC, PROBLEMS

MENTAL DEFECTS. — See MIND, DIS-
EASES OF.

MENTAL DEVELOPMENT — Strictly
speaking, this term covers those changes in
individual consciousness which occur in the
course of experience Infancy (q v.) shows very
little mental power beyond the few instinctive
tendencies (see INSTINCT) which are inherited
and the emotions (q v ) which grow out of the
instincts From this point on (see CHILD
PSYCHOLOGY and PSYCHOLOGY, GENETIC) char-
acteristic changes appear in habit (qv), per-
ception (q v ), and all the other mental pro-
cesses

Wundt has summarized the principles of
mental development m three general laws The
first law is that of mental growth, and sets
forth the fact that in the course of development
the individual creates new forms of experience
The second law sets forth the fact that the end
of mental processes is continually progressing
with the growth of experience The third
law states that there is a tendency for the
mind to oscillate in its development between
extremes

The full discussion of the facts and princi-
ples of mental development involves all of the
problems of education C H J

See PSYCHOLOGY, GENETIC, also ADOLES-
CENCE and the various topics on PSYCHOLOGY
as given in the topical outline

Reference —

WUNDT, W Outlines of Psychology. (New York,
1897 )

MENTAL DIFFERENCES —See INDIVID-
UAL DIFFERENCES, TESTS, MENTAL, also
ABILITY, GENERAL AND SPECI\L

MENTAL DISCIPLINE — See FORMAL DIS-
CIPLINE

MENTAL DISEASES —See MIND, DIS-
EASES OF, PSYCHIATRY

MENTAL GROWTH — See GROWTH

MENTAL HYGIENE — See HYGIENE,
SCHOOL

MENTAL IMAGERY — See IMAGERY

MENTAL MEASUREMENT — It is usual,
in experimental psychology, to distinguish
between direct and indirect mental measure-
ment

Direct Mental Measurement — To make
a measurement is, in strictness, to compare a
given magnitude with a conventional unit of

the same kind, and to deteirmno hw\
times the unit is contained in the magnitude,
the numerical result is the measure of the
magnitude in question The prototype of
measurement, in all departments of natural
science, is thus linear measurement in space
Here we have as datum a certain finite magni-
tude, a given length or distance, we have oui
conventional unit, mile or meter; and the ho-
mogeneity of space assures us that the given
magnitude and the unit of measurement are of
precisely the same kind The procedure of
measurement consists in the laying off of unit
distances 0 — 1, over and over again, upon the
given distance, 0 — 2, until the limiting point
x is reached To say, e g , that a mountain is
5000 feet high means that the unit of one foot
may be laid off, 5000 times ovei, upon the verti-
cal line extending from sea level to the summit
of the mountain

There can be no doubt that measurement of
this elementary and dnect kind is poswhl^
in psychology Indeed, tne history of astron-
omy furnishes an excellent instance of mental
measurement that antedates by nearly two
thousand years the establishment of the first
psychological laboratory The Greek astron-
omer Hipparchus (c 130 B c ), and after him the
Alexandrian Ptolemy (c 150 A D ), classified ovei
one thousand of t he fixed stars in terms of their
luster or brightness The brightest stars form
class 1, those just visible to the naked eye
form class 6, the stars of intermediate luster
are grouped in the intermediate classes 2, 3,
4, 5 And these six classes are sensibly equi-
distant, so that the interval of luster, the dif-
ference of brightness, between stars of classes 1
and 2 is equal for sensation to the interval 01
distance between stars of classes 3 and 4, 01
5 and 6 In other words the ancient astron-
omers had before them a certain mental magni-
tude, the range of luster from bright to dim,
from the brightest star in their sky to the stai
that could but just be made out against its
background, and they measured this langc
01 distance bv dividing it into five equal unit
distances The given magnitude 0 — x is
changed, by measurement, into the series
6' — 1, it contains the unit of measurement,
the conventional class difference or class inter-
val, five times over The arrangement into
six classes was dictated, we may suppose, by
superstitious reasons, the arrangement itseH
is an essay in mental measurement

So far, however, we have no means of giving
an objective expression to these estimates oi
mental interval, for that we must await the
advent of stellar photometry Physical meas-
urements of the luminosity of the fixed stars
show that the light intensities of the six classes
form, in ascending order, a rough approxima-
tion to a geometrical series, with an exponent of
2.5 This result tells us two things first that
the mental measurement was fairly accurate,
the unit of brightness-difference, though not

197

MENTAL MEASUREMENT

exact, is approximately the same at all parts of
the five-unit scale, and secondly, that bright-
ness-differences which are absolutely equal in
sensation correspond to differences of physical
light intensity that are themselves not abso-
lutely but relatively equal. (See WEBER'S
LAW.) These points may be further illustrated
by reference to experiments made by Kbbing-
haus in 1887; the problem was to pick out a
series of eight equidistant brightnesses from a
set of fifty papers that, had been washed over
with various amounts of Indian ink, and the
quotients of the successive pairs of (photo-
metrically measured) stimulus values were. —

23, 21, 2.1, 18, 17, 17, 20.

Hero, again, is an approximate constancy of
physical result, a constancy as great as could
be expected from the limited material of obser-
vation, and here, too, is confirmation of the
validity of a mental measurement

It is clear fiom these examples that a direct
mental measurement is possible in all cases
in which the subject matter of psychology takes
the form of a homogeneous continuum This
state of affairs is realized, certainly, for vari-
ous departments and for sundry attributes of
sensation; for the intensity, and perhaps for
the quality of simple feeling, and, probably,
for degree of attention No more can, at
present, be said Simple as the principle of
mental measuiement is, the actual measuring
is exceedingly difficult the investigatoi must,
first, set up a workable and as it were objective
unit of measurement, and must then follow a
rigorous method and eliminate many sources
of error in liis attempt to lay off this unit upon
the magnitude to be measured, the whole ob-
ject of measurement is, after all, to carry accu-
racy into spheres of scientific research in which
unaided observation, bare estimation, is inaccu-
rate So far, therefore, direct mental measure-
ments, despite their importance for the theory
and system of psychology, have been made only
in a comparatively narrow held

A question which the author has often been asked,
and which it may he worth while to answer here, 13
this What 18 the difference between, Bay, the Ptole-
raaie classification of the stars and the sorting into
groups of a number of examination papers in history, on
the basis of equal differences in percentage of " marks " ?
The difference is that the classification of stars rests
on sensed equality of brightness interval, whereas
the grouping by marks assumes that the writer of a
paper marked ninety excels in ability the writer of
a paper marked eighty just precisely in the same degree
that the writer who is marked sixty excels the writer
marked fifty There is evidently no warrant for this
assumption , the marks could be uaed as indexes of men-
tal measurement only if we had already established,
by some other means, an unit difference of ability in
history. It may be added that, so far as we can now see,
the establishment of such an unit must be a matter of
indirect, not of direct, mental measurement

Indirect Mental Measurement —The great
majority of the numerical results found in
textbooks of experimental psychology repre-

MENTAL MEASUREMENT

sent what is called " indirect " mental measure-
ment They are numerical expressions for the
physical antecedents or consequents of con-
sciousness, that is to say, for stimuli or organic
movements, they state the physical intensity
of a light or sound, the length or direction of a
line in objective space, the force or extent of a
voluntary movement, the objective duration of
a mental event, the number of stimuli simul-
taneously presented to an observer, and so
forth They fall under our present heading
because their inteiest and relevance are always
and wholly psychological, they are determined
for psychological reasons, and have no value
beyond psychology In many cases they are
necessary to the completeness of a direct meas-
urement. Thus, we have seen that a certain
range of luster or brightness, that of the fixed
stars visible to the naked eye, has been divided
by astronomers into five equal intervals or
distances If, however, we wish to measure
directly the whole extent of sensible brightness,
from its absolute minimum to its absolute
maximum, we must find out, under the most
favorable experimental conditions, what duller
arid what brighter lusters can still be distin-
guished, we must determine, photometncally,
the light values of the liminul and terminal
brightnesses, the end points of our sensible
scale, and we must then apply our chosen
unit of measurement over the entire range
The fixation, in terms of stimulus, of the ex-
treme points or positions of the sensory scale
is a necessary preliminary to a complete direct
measurement

The scope and value of indirect measurement
can, perhaps, be shown best by illustration;
there is, in fact, no department of psychology
that jias not benefited by it Thus, in the field
of visual sensation, it is important to obtain
color matches or color equations both for
color-blind and normal eyes, and also for the
normal eye at various stages of adaptation
these equations are recorded in terms of photo-
metric intensity and wave length The influ-
ence of visual contrast may be measured as
follows a stimulus «, which shows the effect
of contrast, is equal to a stimulus />, which is
exempt from contrast; a is then removed from
its surroundings, and the difference between
the free 6 and the free a, expressed in physical
terms, measures the change which a suffered
under ^ the conditions in which contrast was
operative The same principle is employed
in the measurement of optical illusion, that is,
of the apparent change in the direction or ex-
tent of lines that form part of certain geometri-
cal figures, a perfect square, for instance, seems
to be higher than it is broad The degree of
blending of simultaneous tones is measured by
the percentage of cases in which the auditory
perception fails of analysis, i e in which two
tonal stimuli are apprehended as a single tone.
The temporal limits of the perception of rhythm,
i.e. the slowest arid fastest rates at which

198

MENTAL MEASUREMENT

MENTALLY DEFICIENT

rhythm is perceived, and the limit of complex-
ity of the rhythmical unit, may all be estab-
lished by reference to the rate and number of
the recurrent stimuli The range of attention
is measured by the number of separate stimuli
whose perceptions are clear and focal in con-
sciousness at one and the same time, the dura-
tion of attention by the length of timo during
which a perception can maintain its focal posi-
tion. A great deal of quantitative work has
been done upon the function of memory thus,
the number of readings of a given nuitenal,
necessary under various conditions for faultless
recitation, indicates the most economical
method of memorizing; the number of new
leadings required for recitation, after different
intervals of time, gives an inverse measuie
of the decay of memory, and variations in the
nature of the material itself, in the emphasis
which different parts of it recen e, in the rate
of its assimilation, in the amount presented at a
single sitting, in the temporal distribution of
these sittings, — variations of this kind yield
each one its own numerical results, which
further oui understanding and control of
memory at large The reaction experiment
(<//>), in which we measure the time elapsing
between the exhibition of a stimulus and the
performance of u responsive movement, sen es
a number of psychological purposes, in the
simple reaction, vaimtion of the modality, the
quality, the intensity of the stimulus brings
about characteristic differences in the length
of the reaction time, and in the more complex
forms of the expeiiment we obtain a temporal
measure of discrimination, association, choice,
even of the act of thought itself Indeed, in
this sense of indued ineasuiement there is no
type of psychological experiment that may not
be given a quantitative form the growth and
tenacity of habit, the onset, course, and degree
of mental fatigue, the acuity of sense peicep-
tion, the degree and constancy of emotive
arousal, the laws of retention, association, and
reproduction, the delicacy and regulantv of
voluntary movements, these and a hundred
other things of like character may now be
expressed in numerical terms And it is plain
that indirect measurement, while it has not the
theoretical importance that attaches to a direct
measurement of mind, is yet of very great prac-
tical importance. Studies of the speed and
extent of eye movement, coupled with studies
of relative legibility as dependent on letter
form, spacing, etc , not only give us a psychol-
ogy of reading, but also suggest rules foi the
make-up of our books and newspapers, the
study of the movements of writing leads to
similar practical results; the precepts of school
hygiene are largely based upon norms furnished
by psychological experiment; and the exact
psychological study of attention, retention,
and association supplies us with tests of the
drawing power of an advertisement, of a man's
special aptitude for some form of skilled labor,

of the reliability of a witness, even of the
criminality of an accused person. It is tiue
that these tests cannot be applied indiscrimi-
nately, it is true, also, that many, perhaps most,
of them have not yet been perfected; appli ca-
tions of psychology are still in their infancy.
Nevertheless, the widespread interest now taken
in questions of practical application proves that
experimental psychology has done well to mul-
tiply and refine its methods of indirect measve-
inent

In conclusion, mention must be made of the
measurement of coi relation, a line of work
which dates from the beginning of the present
century, and which has steadily gained in favor.
Correlation may be defined as a tendency to-
ward concomitant variation on the part of two
or more mental traits or mental abilities within
a group of individuals Provided that the
group is well denned and its environment uni-
form, the result of a measurement of this tend-
ency may be transferred from the group to the
individual, and may then be regarded as meas-
uring the closeness of connection of the traits
or abilities in the particular case An observed
correspondence may be due either to an actual
interrelation of the characters under investiga-
tion, 01 to the influence of the common environ-
ment Both cases are of psychological import,
as throwing light on the constitution of mind,
on the relative influence of heredity and educa-
tion, on the Mendehan doctrine of the unit
character, etc ? and both have an evident bear-
ing upon educational problems E B T

See PSYCHOPHYSICS ; REACTION EXPERI-
MENTS, STATISTICAL METHODS, TESTS, PSYCHO-
PHYSICAL.

References —

BROWN, W The Essentials of Menial Measurement
(London, 1M11 )

EKBIN(.HAU», H Grundzuge der Psychologic, i (Leip-
zig, 1911 )

Encyclopedia Bntannica, KV Photometry (llth c»d ,
1011 )

FFCHNER, G T Klemente der Psychophysik (Leip-
zig, 1SK9 )

'KITCHENER, E B Experimental Psychology, \\ (Nev\
York, 190o )

AA HTPPLE, G M Manual of Mental and Physical Tests
(Baltimore, 1910)

MENTAL PATHOLOGY — See PSYCHOL-
OGY, PATHOLOGICAL

MENTAL PHILOSOPHY. — See PSY-
CHOLOGY.

MENTAL TESTS. — See MENTAL MEAS-
UREMENT; TESTS; TESTS, PSYCHOPHYSICAL

MENTAL TRAINING. -

PLINE.

-See FORMAL DISCI-

MENTALLY DEFICIENT. — Sec BACK-
WARD PUPILS, DEFECTIVES; DEFECTIVES,
SCHOOLS FOR, EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN; GRAD-
ING AND PROMOTION, RETARDATION AND ELIMI-
NATION, SPECIAL CLASSES

199

MERCER UNIVERSITY

MEREDITH

MERCER UNIVERSITY, MACON, GA

— Established in 1829 as ji classical and theo-
logical school for prospective ministers only,
combining agricultural labor with study. In
1832 other students were admitted The uni-
versity charter was obtained in 1887 Until
1871 work was carried on at Penfieid, Ga
The following schools are maintained, aits,
law, pharmacy, and summer The entrance
n ^uirements are fourteen units. The degrees
of A B , A M , LL B (on a two years' course),
Bachelor of Pharmacy (two years), and Mastei
of Pharmacy (Ph B , and Ph M ) are conferred.
The enrollment in 1910-1911 was 368. The
faculty consists of thirty-one members

MERCHANT TAYLORS' SCHOOL, LON-
DON, ENGLAND — One of the nine Public
Schools of England It was founded in 1560-
1561 by the Merchant Taylors Company of
London " for the better education and bringing
up of children in good manners and literature "
The school was located in the parish of St.
Lawrence Poulteney. The statutes were
framed on the model of those of St Paul's
School. The number of scholars was limited
to 250, and there were to be appointed a high
master, chief usher, and assistant usher Rich-
ard Mulcaster (q v ) was the first headmaster,
and the school, when opened in September, 1561 ,
at once sprang into popular favor Unlike most
other public schools, Merchant Taylors' School
was and has always remained a day school
Through the munificence of Sir Thomas White,
a member of the Court of the Company, thirty-
seven fellowships at St John's College, Oxford,
founded by himself in 1557, were established
for Merchant Taylor scholars, thus linking the
school with a college in the same way as Eton
and Winchester had their respective affiliations
at Cambridge and Oxford The school under
Mulcaster was highly successful, one of the
most illustrious of the alumni was Edmund
Spenser; in addition to the general classical and
religious curriculum, he encouraged music and
acting, and companies of the boys performed
plays and masques before the Queen (1573,
1575, and 1583) With this feature of school
life Merchant Taylors' was long associated,
particularly in the eighteenth century The
salary of the headmaster, however, was and for
long continued to be so small and the restric-
tion on numbers so rigidly adhered to that Mul-
caster resigned in 1586 With the development
of the school may be traced the rise of the exam-
ination system in England, the first visitation
of the diocesan being made in 1562 (see EX-
AMINATIONS). During the Civil War the school
appears to have been royalist, and many of the
alumni, risen in not a few cases from " poor
scholars " to bishoprics, were strong defendeis
of the Anglican Church. The Great Fire of
1666 practically destroyed the school, but for-
tunately the library, which was maintained by
gifts of books from the members of the Com-

pany, was saved A new building was erected
in 1675 The curriculum of the school con-
tinued to be classical until the beginning of
the nineteenth century In 1828 mathematics
began to be taught regularly; in 1845 French
was introduced as an extra and as a regular sub-
ject in the following year, modern history was
added in the same year (1846), and in 1856
drawing appeared. The school has always
encouraged the study of Hebrew, and is one of
the few places where it is still retained. In
1861 an opportunity of moving to more spa-
cious quarters was afforded by the purchase of
the Charterhouse buildings. The change was
not effected until 1875, and the increased accom-
modation permitted a doubling of the num-
bers. The school is divided into classical,
modern, and special (mathematical and science)
sides, and facilities are offered for the study
of chemistry, physics, and biology, so that
pupils taking these subjects may shorten the
normal medical course by six months The
school is mainly a day school, boarders being
received only by special arrangement The
number of boys in the school is 500

See GRAMMAR SCHOOL; PUBLIC SCHOOLS,
ENGLAND, EDUCATION IN; GILDS AND EDUCA-
TION.

References —

MINCHIN, J C C Our Public Schools (London,
1901 )

ROBINSON, f1 J A Register of the Xchokns admitted
into Menhant Taylor*' tfihool from IfHM to 187^
(London, 1SS2 )

STAUNTON, II The Cuat Schools of England (Lon-
don, 1865 )

\\ILHON, H B History of Merchant Tayloru* School.
(London, 1812-1814)

MEREDITH, GEORGE (1828-1909) —
The English novelist was boin in Hampshiie,
England, and up to fifteen years of age was at
school at Neuwied in Geimany He began,
hut soon abandoned, law, and took to journal-
ism, and in 1806 acted as eonespondent to
the Morning Pout during the wai between Italy
and Austria In 1867 he acted in place oi
John Morley as editor of the Fortnightly Renru\
and became literary adviser to Messrs Chap-
man and Hall Meredith published Poerm* in
1851, and throughout his life continued to
write poetry which placed him in the first rank,
but it is in Jus novels that he presents the most
strongly marked iclations to the interests oi
theoretical and practical education. In 1856
The Shaving of Shagpat appeared, cast in the
form of an Oriental allegory The story traces
the educative power of circumstances and the
disciplinary effect of the world's " thwacks "
In 1859 Meredith published The Ordeal of
Richard Feverel, in which he insists that the
parent as educator must arouse^and help the
directions of activity of the child's own mind,
must encourage the development of the child's
independent individuality; and this he urges
as graphically as any specialist educator. In-

200

MERIT SYSTEM

MESMERISM

stead of writing a disquisition, like Rousseau,
to show the virtue of judiciously leaving the
boy alone, Meredith traces dramatically the
consequence of interfering with a soul, even by
a father with his son's The work becomes the
scene of a great educational oxpcriment, from
which springs up the conviction of the neces-
sity of freedom from system and spontaneity
of development in all true education In
Evan Harrington (I860) and Rhoda Fleming
(1865) are further studies of boy and girl train-
ing respectively, and in the Egoist (1879) is
developed the tragedy of the attempt to domi-
nate the personality of the lovor, as Sir Austin
Foverel had attempted in the casr of his son
In 1894 came Loul Ornwnt and his Amniia,
which may be called Meredith's schoolmasters'
novel, in which he places Matthew Weyburn's
ideal school, under the joint direction of him-
self and his wife, by the side of a Swiss lake,
when* swimming and physical exorcises of the
Swiss mountains and valleys are as natural as
meals Boys of all nationalities are welcomed,
and cosmopolitanism becomes at once an aim
and a method of education ( Coeducation of the
bv>\es leceives the impress of the natural envi-
lonment of Switzerland, and education appeals
as the entry into a large-hearted, large-minded,
healthy, vigorous life, with infinite riches of
various personalities F W

References —
MoFi'Ai i. JAMEH Gtorgr Meredith, a Primer to theNov-

<l*> (London, IWW)

W YIHON, Fosrt,u (ioorg< Meredith and Education
Vimh'cnth Century, Vol LXVI, pp 305-323

MERIT SYSTEM —See PUBLIC SERVICE,

TRUNlNCr FOH

MERTON, WALTER DE (d 1277). — Eng-
lish divine and statesman, at one time chan-
cellor under Henry III, arid Bishop of Roches-
ter Educationally Morton is of note as the
founder of the first college at Oxfoid, which
became the model for all future colleges at
Oxford and Cambridge In 1264 he formally
assigned two manors, at Farleigh and Maldon
in Surrey, to be held for the establishment of a
" House of the Scholars of Morton at Maldon "
with power to maintain twenty scholars at
44 Oxford or elsewhere where a university may
happen to flourish " In 1270 Morton College
was definitely and permanently moved to Ox-
ford, and new statutes were issued in 1274 by the
founder, who also provided, if necessary, for
the primary education in rudiments of orphans
of his km up to the number of thirteen.

See OXFORD, UNIVERSITY OF; COLLEGE, UNI-
VERSITIES; FAGGING

References- —

Dictionary of National Biography

HENDERSON, B W Merton College. (London, 1899 )

LEACH A F Educational Charters and Document*

(Cambridge, 1911 )
RASHDALL, H. UniveHtitws of Europe in the Middh

Ages, Vol II, Pt 2 (Oxford, 1895.)

MESMERISM — A theory propounded by
Mesmer (1734-1815), the practices which he
popularized, and the interpretation of the phe-
nomena presented The name given by Mesmer
to his doctrine was " Animal Magnetism "
He assumed the existence of a " universally dif-
fused subtle fluid, affecting the animal
economy by insinuating itself into the nerves "
It has properties like the magnet, may be trans-
mitted, and " will cure nervous diseases di-
rectly and others indirectly by provoking salu-
tarv crises, thus bringing the ait of healing to
perfection " The theory was presented dog-
matically, and fantastically affected his prac-
tice He began by applying a magnet to the
affected part, then in Pans (1778-1784) con-
structed the " baquet," or tub, filled with iron
filings and other paraphernalia suggestive of
some magnetic force, about which sat the
patients, drawing from it and from Mesmer's
passings and strokings the curative "force";
but in the end he announced that the " mag-
netism " was concentrated in his own person,
and that he could impart its virtues to a
glass of water or other inert substance It is
to this form of the theory, as a force ema-
nating from peculiarly endowed individuals,
that the term " Mesmerism " came to be
attached

Mesmer's practice was affected by the medi-
cal theory that diseases must run their course
and reach a crisis, the manipulations and the
" magnetic force " precipitated the crises,
which, as they receded, left the patient cured.
These crises, frequently taking the form of an
hysterical attack, were the common symptoms
at the exciting scenes enacted in the salle des
crises, yet the accounts show that the strok-
ings and passes and suggestions — not unlike
the " touch " for the king's evil and the meth-
ods of exorcism and faith healing — drove away
pains, paralyses, and invalid impediments.
Mesmer doubtless induced alterations of con-
sciousness and hypnotic suggestibility, but
quite ignored their significance. It was the
Marquis de Puys£gur, a disciple of Mesmer,
who, in 1784, called attention to the altered
psychological state of the subject, to the fact
that the subject was responsive only to the
verbal suggestion of the operator and recalled
nothing of his experiences when awake To
this altered condition he gave the name of
" artificial somnambulism," correctly recogniz-
ing its analogy to the sleep-walking state
Puys6gur discarded the " mesmeric " theory,
and became the first hypnotist It remained
for James Braid in 1843 to demonstrate the
physiological reality of the condition as an
altered disposition' of the nervous system
depending upon some peculiar susceptibility
of the subject; to this condition he gave the
name of hypnosis The r61e of suggestion was
recognized, and made possible the scientific
study of abnormal psychophysiological con-
sciousness and control — or, more exactly, the

201

MESSER

METHOD

revival of it — in the latter decades of the
nineteenth century. (See HYPNOSIS.)

Viewed historically, " mesmerism " becomes
an antecedent of hypnotism; and the vicissi-
tudes of its career form it complicated story,
in which false and misleading views growing
out of mysticism, of faulty observation, or of
leaning toward occult or supernormal oeliefs
obscure issues and thwart profitable insight
Mesmer's obstinate controversies with investi-
gating commissions, the one referring the ob-
served phenomena to the action of a " fluid/'
and the othei to imagination, Puysdgur's
somnarnbules, quickly degenerating to second-
sight diagnosticians and readers of sealed mes-
sages, Braid's entanglements with phrenology,
— these and other phases left their impress alike
upon the prejudices and the legitimate demands
of the medical profession, and made the tran-
sition from " mesmerism " to "hypnotism"
a difficult and circuitous process. The con-
vincing data were, in the early stages, the
anaesthetic state, permitting serious surgical
operations to proceed without pain, and in the
later stages, the orderly interpretation of psy-
chological phenomena under the leadership
of men like (<harcot, of established scientific
reputation With the establishment of the
genuineness of the hypnotic state and of its
interpretation as due to the nervous suscep-
tibility of the subject, the scientific attitude
was secure, and the notions attached to " mes-
merism " as an objective " force " were wholly
relegated to an historical significance alone.

J J

References —
BR \MWELL, J M Hypnotism its History, Practice,

and Theory (London, 1903 )
JAHTHOW, J Fatt and Fable in Psychology (Boston,

11KX) )

MOLL, A Hypnotism (London, 1910 )
PODMOKK, F Mcbmerwm and Christian Science (Lon-
don, 1910)

Most of the* handbooks on Hypnotism HIV? an ac-
count of M earner and his practices.

MESSER, ASA (1769-1836) — Third presi-
dent of Brown University Graduating from
Brown in 1790, he was tutor and professor
there from 1791 to 1802, and president of the
institution from J802 to 1826. W S M.

MESSINA, UNIVERSITY OF — See ITALY,
EDUCATION IN.

METAL WORK IN THE SCHOOLS.—

See MANUAL TRAINING

METALLURGY. — See TECHNICAL EDUCA-
TION.

METAPHYSICS.— The name " metaphys-
ics " as designating philosophy or some one of its
branches arose from a misunderstanding of an
accidental way of describing certain writings
of Aristotle , namely, those coming after the
physics. This was shortly taken to mean the

things that lie beyond the physical, that are
above the natural — a conception whicn medieval
thought identified with the supernatural. This
long remained the popular signification, so that
Shakespeare, for example, refers to ghosts as
metaphysical.

Aristotle himself in the body of his treatise
supplied some grounds for identifying his dis-
cussions with theology. His formal designa-
tion is first philosophy, and this he says has for
its object a descriptive definition of being as
being, or existence as existence Each branch
of science considers the traits of some set or
class of existences, but no science considers
the traits that all existences alike possess
Hence they leave room for and indeed require
a inoie general and formal science to take up the
matter they leave untouched. So far there is
no ground for referring first philosophy, or
metaphysics, to anything transcending the
subject matter of the sciences. But in the
course of his discussions, Aristotle is led to dis-
criminate grades of being and to conclude that
only pure actuality, or God, is completely real,
or can be said to Be without qualification
Hence metaphysics appears as a science of the
highest and more real mode of Being

Throughout the eighteenth and earlier nine-
teenth centuries " metaphysics " was loosely
used to denote inquiries concerned with mind,
what would now generally be called psychol-
ogy, and also to denote any inquiry of an
ultimate sort In the later sense it was gen-
erally divided into ontology, or inquiry into
Being, and epistemology, or inquiry into the
nature and limits of knowing At present,
there IK a tendency to revert to the more
limited Aristotelian sense, though the term is
still widely used as a generic name to cover all
sorts of inquiries that do not seem to fall within
the scope of any of the positive or mathemati-
cal sciences. J D

Reference : —

H \LDWIN, J M. Dictionary of Philosophy and Psy-
chology, Vol III, Pt 11, pp 565-674.

METEOROLOGY — The scientific study of
the phenomena of the atmosphere Sec GEOG-
RAPHY, GEOLOGY.

METHOD —The topic of method repre-
sents one of the three typical phases of educa-
tional practice, the subject matter of study and
the institutional agencies of education being
the other two As in the case of subject
matter (see COURBE OF STUDY, THEORY OF),
there are important practical matters at issue
and also general philosophical considerations.
The former is the field of methods (in the
plural number), the ways of teaching special
subjects in accordance with principles that
successful experience has vindicated — often
called " Special Methods." The latter centers
about the problem of the relation of mental
attitude and operation to subject matter For

202

METHOD

METHOD

reasons that will appear in the sequel, this
problem passes into that of the relation of the
individual self to the objects of the world and
social life. Intermediate between the field of
specific practices and the one of general theory
is the logical question of an underlying uni-
formity of method in the application 'of mind
to various subjects whether pure mathematics,
the natural sciences, or history, literature, and
language This intermediate question usually
goes by the name of " general method." The
present article is confined to the distinctively
philosophic aspect of method, extending the
survey, however, to take in those phases of
general method that are closely connected

In a general way method is the obverse and
correlative of subject matter The proper in-
terpretation of the connection and distinction
between the two is, however, by no means evi-
dent, especially since it has been complicated
and to some extent perverted by the pervasive
influence of a duahstic philosophy (See DU-
ALISM ) Mind has been severed from the
world; the individual from society and its
growth The two have not only been divoiced,
but tho separation between them has been
intensified to the point of complete antithesis
(See HUMANISM AND NATURALISM, and IDEAL-
ISM ) All effective knowing and acting involve,
moreover, both the mind in the world and indi-
vidual agency in social conditions and for social
aims Hence, the more the separation is
emphasized, the more urgent becomes the ques-
tion of the possibility of interaction and lecip-
rocal influence While tho distinction of sub-
ject matter and method was never sharpened
into such extreme opposition as that just indi-
cated, the duahstic antithesis of mind and the
world affected men's ideas of these educational
subjects The problem of method was con-
ceived as the problem of the adaptation of an
individual nnrid to a foreign subject mattoi ,
as an affair of bringing together two things
that naturally and intrinsically have nothing
to do with each other. This background influ-
enced the conceptions of discipline, culture, and
interest (qq v.) Even where the extreme dual-
ism of mind and the world, self and social insti-
tutions, has been professedly surrendered, it is
not uncommon to see questions of method of
teaching, study, and moral training discussed
as if they were essentially matters of adaptation
of one thing to another unlike thing How may
the study in question be presented to the mind
so as to appeal to it? How may the mind be
aroused so as to apply itself to this topic, nat-
urally alien? Such ways of conceiving, in the
concrete, the relations of subject matter and
method indicate the intellectual atmosphere
in which the discussion of mental operation and
application has been bathed.

An analysis of experience shows, however,
that experience is not a combination of subject
matter and method, or an interaction of two
independent factors, one of which supplies

203

content and the other form The distinction
between these two matters is developed within
experience itself, arid arises for the sake of
greater control of the course of experience As
indicated in the article on experience (qv\
experience has a dynamic and a static aspect,
one of transition and one of cumulation, of
letention Experience, that is, is always
changing, and yet it is not a mere flux Theie
is always a somewhat that changes, and its
transition is not a mere passing away, but is
a transformation Here we have the root of
the distinction between content and form,
subject matter and method, object and subject
It centers in the distinction of the what and the
how of experience What we experience vanes
in quality, in value, significance The transi-
tion from one state to another is, therefore,
measured by the content it ushers in, while
the presence and appieciation of this or that
object depends upon the factor of transition
In order to secure the objects that aie of posi-
tive or greater value and to avoid the objects
that are of negative or lesser "value, we must
control the processes of change by which one
content of experience gives way to another and
grows into it Whatever in experience, ac-
cordingly, aids in contiol of its development so
as to attain what is dosned and exclude what is
not wanted, is method, way, form of experience
The objects and subject matters that are influ-
enced bv this contiol constitute the material,
the structure of expedience

In the course of an infant's restless activity,
light is felt and enjoved The light, however,
is more or less submerged in the qualities that
attend the moving of the head, the arms and
hands, and certain intiaorgamc processes It
is, therefore, a vague and confused object, lack-
ing distinctness In subsequent experience,
it is found bv accident (that is, without delib-
erate effort or conscious intention) that the
enjoyment of the light quality — such as it is
— coheres with changes of the head, eyes, and
position of the body, these qualities not hav-
ing the value attaching to them that the light
quality has As soon as this connection is
apparent, the light acquires the status of an
object, of material or content, while the quali-
ties of the movements of organs of the body in
losing their primary values are reduced to the
status of means or agencies for getting the
object Thus occurs the gradual differentia-
tion of object and subject, mattei and method
The subject matter docs not. howe\er, always
present itself as an end to be secured, move-
ment in the desired direction may be impeded
by certain contents. These resisting factors
then stand out conspicuously as obstacles, hin-
drances. They also become objects, part of the
subject matter of experience, for it depends
upon the way they are worked upon whether
the desired end is ushered in or not. It should
be noted that the distinction between matter
and method, material and way of treating it,

METHOD

METHOD

is not a rigid one. What is subject matter at
one time may be a part of method at another,
and vice versa, according as it functions in a
concrete situation. In concrete experience
it may happen that the sound quality is the
significantly desirable thing and that the light
or color quality is of import only as clew or
stimulus to the presence of the sound as end
Then the seeing reduces itself to the status of
means, agency, method. It falls on the side of
the subject, no longer on that of the object.

Two things then characterize the concept of
method Methods with respect to their origin
mark the gradual differentiation of certain
elements of experience, and, with lespect to
their function, represent any attitudes and
operations that are employed to give the course
or sequence of experience a direction that is
desirable Method at bottom is but the way
of doing things followed in any given case Its
psychological counterpart is the habits and
habitual attitudes that determine the course
of experience It follows that methods are at
first formed by a semi-instinctive process of
trial, error, and success, and that they operate
very largely unconsciously That is to say,
attention is given primarily to the ends and
obstacles involved, and the habits respond more
or less spontaneously to the idea and percep-
tion of these objects.

At this point a serious error is often made in
the conception of educational method Just
because these primary ways of doing things
which represent method at its primary and
deepest level have been formed in relatively
accidental fashion and also prior to the period
of conscious school instruction, because, more-
over, they often mark relatively ineffective
and blundering ways of accomplishing ends,
there is a tendency to ignore them or to deny t hat
they are methods at all Method is then con-
ceived as a purely logical matter, in a sense that
identifies the logical with a consciously formed
and followed enterprise Such methods aie
embodied m symbols, and need not be embodied
in working attitudes and habits at all They
are formulae for ways in which things con-
sciously ought to be done, not descriptions of
the ways in which they actually are done. Thus
a complete split is introduced between what are
called psychological methods (but which might
better be termed vital, concrete, or practical
methods) and the so-called logical methods —
which might better be termed formal and
symbolic The result is that new habits which
are largely verbal are grafted on to the older
working habits — generally to the detriment of
their efficacy; or else, in reaction from the
futility of mere formulations of logical abstrac-
tions, the spontaneous, habitual attitudes are
relied upon, without securing the readjustment
and reconstruction needed for higher and more
t'cmplex ends — for securing a better type of
control

The fundamental question of method in edu-

cation thus concerns the right cooperation of
the unconscious and the reflective factors in
the direction of the course of experience.
Method, the way of going at a thing, depends
at first upon the relation between instinct and
desire, on one side, and an end, on the other.
The end stands out more or less in consciousness
and supplies the basis of conscious guidance.
What is educationally important is, therefore,
that on one side the proper type of desire be
aroused and the proper type of end be con-
ceived on th^ other These points are not mat-
ters of conscious formulation, but of providing
environing conditions that will call out and
fix desirable attitudes of response. Only as
these attitudes become sufficiently habitual to
be effective is there any basis for conscious
reflection so as to formulate methods for
further conscious employment. When, as is
too frequently the case in such subjects as
arithmetic and grammar, teachers insist that
pupils shall consciously follow certain forms of
statement and " analysis " before they have
become thoroughly habituated to dealing prac-
tically with the situations in which numerical
and grammatical values occur, the result is that
the foimulae come between the pupils and
their appreciation of the nature of the situation.
They do not respond any longer to the results
of the experienced situation, but only to the
verbally acquired formula* The very means
that are supposed to render the pupils' opera-
tions more intelligent, more logical, result in
making them mechanical

Logical method, in short, as a conscious pro-
cedure always implies reflection upon the means
which have already been instinctively and
hence unconsciously used in reaching ends that
make an appeal on their own account. For-
mulated logical operations are thus the possession
of an expert in a subject, one who has already
worked through the subject, and who has,
therefore, command of the materials to be
formulated. They represent the standpoint
of a matured, a developed, experience The
commonest school fallacy is that the methods
which represent the control of a subject matter
gained through long practical experience can
be conveyed directly to those who are just
beginning to occupy themselves with a topic,
so that the procedure of the latter may be made
more reasonable and intelligent Many meth-
ods that are condemned as " deductive" are
really not deductive at all, but simply represent
the attempt to hand over directly to the inex-
perienced and immature the intellectual tech-
nique appropriate to those who have gone
through a subject, and who are therefore in a
condition to review and systematize the pro-
cedures that have proved effective.

The currency of the wrong conception of log-
ical method leads to a reaction almost equally
harmful. Considerations of order, sequence,
defimteness, of fit adaptation of means to ends,
the importance of thoughtful surveys and re-

204

METHOD

METHOD WHOLE

views of ground traversed, together with the
need of formulating the practices that have
been found helpful, are ignored. Behavior
is left on the instinctive or " spontaneous "
plane with no care to see that the attitudes that
are evoked are those most adequate to their
direct end, and also such as to stimulate later
reflection. The true difference is not between
the merely psychological — the illogical — but be-
tween the unconscious logic of effective adapta-
tion to ends and the conscious logic of formulat-
ing the methods that have been successfully
employed, so that subsequent procedure may be
easier and more fruitful. And this transition,
through reflection upon that which has been al-
ready accomplished, from the blinder and more
instinctive into the more intelligently controlled,
should be a constant factor of all growth ; it is,
indeed, indispensable, if growth is to be truly
educative (See EDUCATION )

From this conception of method there follow
certain considerations applicable to the topic
of general method Strictlv speaking, method
is thoroughly individual Each person has his
own instinctive way of going at a thing, the
attitude and the mode of approach and attack
are individual To ignore this individuality
of approach, to try to substitute for it, under the
name of " general method," a uniform scheme
of procedure, is simply to cripple the only
effective agencies of operation, and to overlay
them with a mechanical formalism that pro-
duces only a routine conventionality of mental
quality Certain features may be found, how-
ever, which arc involved in the tiansition from
unconscious effort to a more consciously guided
process. These features may be abstracted
and generalized While the outcome will not
put individuals in possession of a sure key to
intellectual efficiency, it will indicate to a
teacher the mam steps that have to bo taken,
and suggest the crucial points where condi-
tions of growth have to be carefully maintained
and fostered.

The primary factor in general method, so
construed, is the existence of a situation which
appeals to an individual as his own concern or
interest, that is to say, as presenting an end to
be achieved, because arousing desire and effort
The second point is that the conditions be such
as to stimulate observation and memory in
locating the means, the obstacles and resources
that must be reckoned with in dealing with the
situation The third point is the formation of
a plan of procedure, a theory or hypothesis
about the best way of proceeding The fourth
is putting tho plan into operation. The fifth
and last is the comparison of the result reached
with what was intended, and a consequent
estimate of tho worth of the method followed,
a more critical discernment of its weak and
its strong points Those five steps may be
reduced to three more generic ones The first
and fundamental condition of right method is
the existence of some coricreto situation involv-

ing an end that interests tho individual, and that
requires activo and thoughtful effort in order
to t>e reached Tho second is consideration of
tho nature of the problem, the difficulty or
perplexity involved m reaching the end set, so as
to form a suggestion or conjecture as to the
best way of proceeding to solve the difficulty.
The third is the overt effort in which the
thought of the plan is applied and thereby
tested Scientific method will be found to
involve exactly the same steps, save that a
scientific mode of approach implies a large
body of prior empirical and tentative pro-
cedures which have finally been sifted so as to
develop a technique consciously formulated and
adapted to the given type of problem.

J D
See SCIENCE

References —

DBWBY, JOHN Child and Curriculum (Chicago, 1902 )
How We Think (Boston, 1911 )
Studies in Logical Theory (Chicago, 1903 )
Science as Subject Matter and as Method Science.

N fi , Vol. XXX, po 121-126

MILLER, I F. Psychology of Thinking (New York,
1910)

METHOD READERS — In teaching be-
ginners to read two methods are employed
One group of teachers makes no systematic
attempt to deal with phonetic and spelling
difficulties, but emphasizes the thought Then
units of treatment are the word, phrase, and
sentence The materials used are therefore
selected from the child's spontaneous usage,
children's classics (such as Mother Goose), and
the best suitable English literature Artificial
content and form are omitted from the begin-
ning Another group of instructors contend
that the mam function in teaching beginners
to read is to give them a mastery of the me-
chanics of pronunciation and spelling Hence
these emphasize4 the phonetic difficulties in
translating visual svmbols into sound They
stress units smallei than the word — the let-
ter, diphthong, syllable, and phonogram Their
reading material is consequently seleeted with
reference to the svstematic contiol and graded
presentation of phonetic elements The prim-
ers and readers used by them have a sys-
tematic plan or method, hence such reading
books are called " method readers " to dis-
tinguish them from the so-called '' thought
readers," which emphasize interesting content
rather than phonic elements H S.

See READING, TEACHING OF

METHOD WHOLE.— So much of the
subject matter of any school subject as is
sufficiently related to be treated as a teaching
unit A method unit or whole is usually
treated in a series of lessons. It is exceptional
for a method whole to coincide with the limits
of a single lesson period. H. S.

See RECITATION, METHOD OF; STEPS, FIVE
FORMVL

205

METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH

MEXICO

METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH,
BOARD OF EDUCATION OF — See COL-
LEGE BOARDS IN EDUCATION, DENOMINA-
TIONAL.

METHODIST EPISCOPAL CHURCH,
SOUTH, BOARD OF EDUCATION OF. —

See COLLEGE BOARDS IN EDUCATION, DENOMI-
v \TIONAL

METRIC SYSTEM — A system of meas-
ures invented by the French at the close of
the eighteenth century, although suggested in
part as early as 1670 by Mouton, a priest of
Lyons It is based upon the theoretical aver-
age distance from the equator to the north pole
The measurements upon which this average was
based have since been shown faulty, so that the
standard of length, the meter, is not exactly
one ten millionth of this distance, as was
contemplated This has no effect upon the
validity of the system, however, since the
standards were deposited in the archives at
Pans and serve us as a basis for making copies
From the meter came the unit of capacity, the
liter, which is a cube that is 1 meter on an
edge From this came the unit of weight, the
weight of 001 liter of water at the temperature
of greatest density

The advantages of the metric system over
the English and other earlier ones lies in the
fact that it is constructed on a decimal scale,
like that of United States money The tables
are given in most arithmetics, together with
information showing the relation of the metric
to our common system, and hence they need
not be repeated in this article.

The system was not immediately adopted in
France, and, indeed, was not made compul-
sory until 1837 Even to-day the pound
(hvre) is still used in small commercial trans-
actions, but it is now taken to be one half of a
kilogram Thus in the home of the system the
adoption was slowly made, and the usages of
the people have remained to a certain extent
A large number of other countries adopted the
system during the latter half of the nineteenth
century, so that to-day it is the only inter-
national one The English-speaking countries
have, however, declined to look upon it with
favor This may be because of the lack of a
centralized power to impose it upon the people,
or it may be due to a general feeling of inde-
pendence on the part of the Anglo-Saxon, but
at any rate the movement has been very slow
among the people as a whole Among scien-
tists, however, it has been well received, and
between 1875 and 1900 it replaced the old
system in the scientific laboratories of the col-
leges and secondary schools of the United
States, and became looked upon as the inter-
national scientific system.

Educationally the question arises as to its
status in the school curriculum It is easily
taught, and could be put into any grade. The

direct need for it does not arise, however, until
the pupil studies some branch of science in
which it is used. The time, therefore, depends
upon the course of study If elementary phys-
ics is taken up in the eighth school year, this
is an appropriate place for the system.

There is the larger question as to the pros-
pects of the use of the system by our people,
There are two factors to be considered (1) the
simplicity of the tables, (2) the demands of
foreign trade It is impossible to say what the
effect of these two factors will be. It is cer-
tain that we have, m the United States, greatly
reduced our old system in a generation
past Compound numbers are now practically
used to only two denominations, the decimal
divisions of the mile, acre, and so on, having
replaced them We are therefore decimalizing
our units, and this removes to a certain extent
the need for the metric system. The question
of foreign relations is more serious, because the
United States has come to make a strong bid
for foreign trade, and is manufacturing for that
trade How much effect this will have upon
the introduction of the metric system no one
can foresee It does not seem the business of
the school to attempt to influence the develop-
ment further than to show the advantages of
the system, and to prepare the pupil for the
work in physics When the need arises for
learning it, any one can acquire it in a short
time * DBS.

MEXICO, EDUCATION IN — Mexico.
Federal republic consisting of twenty-seven
states, three territories, and the Federal Dis-
trict, area 767,323 squaie miles, population
(census of 1910), 1,506,327

Historical — The history of public education
in Mexico is distinguished from that of the other
Latin-American countries by the fact that the
Spanish conquerors of Mexico gave evidence of
a real appreciation of the importance of public
instruction for the masses of the people In
the countries of South America, especially in
the Argentine, Chile, and Peru, such attention
as was given to public instruction was concen-
trated on secondary and higher instruction
In these countries, under the leadership of the
Church, university instruction reached a rela-
tively high degree of development, whereas pri-
mary education was neglected.

This early zeal of the Spanish conquerors for
primary education in Mexico did not last long
The enlightened policy which characterized the
early period soon gave way to the same indif-
ference to public education which characterized
Spanish policy in the other countries of the
American continent. As early as 1532 the
Spanish authorities had made provision for
elementary instruction for one thousand pupils
in Mexico City Unfortunately, trustworthy
figures as to the size of Mexico City at that time
are not available If we bear in mind, however,
that the Spanish authorities had to deal with a

206

MEXICO

MEXICO

distrustful and even antagonistic native popula-
tion, we can appreciate the difficulties involved
in bringing one thousand children under the
influence of the Spanish schools

Coincident with the opening of the Univer-
sity of Mexico in 1553, there is evidence of a
marked decline in the interest in and zeal for
elementary instruction The attention of the
government, as well as the funds available for
public education, were diverted from primary
to higher education Soon after the middle of
the sixteenth century Spanish policy in Mexico
begins to conform to the traditional policy of
Spam , namely, the neglect of primary education,
combined with a relatively advanced develop-
ment of university instruction The result
of this change was the total neglect of the real
needs of the native population, inasmuch as the
university courses in theology, civil law, canon
law, and medicine were intended exclusively for
the sons of Spanish residents It is true that
in the newly founded university a number of
courses in the native languages were given, but
these were intended to prepare Spanish priests
for missionary work among the native Indian
tribes

The lecords of the development of public
education during the colonial period are so in-
complete that it is difficult to form an accuiate
estimate of the facilities offered by private
agencies It is evident, howevei, that after
the first and rather extraoidmary development
of primary education during the earlv penod,
the system of elementary instruction was per-
mitted to decline to such a degree that its facil-
ities were extended to but a small fraction of the
school population The university developed
with extraoidmaiy lapidity, and remained an
important factor in the intellectual life of Mex-
ico during the entire colonial period

With the Declaration of Independence, new
influences began to make themselves felt The
determination of the government to improve
the condition of the masses of the people
becomes clearly apparent, and this desire ex-
presses itself in a series of attempts to develop
a system of primary education The long
period of civil war which followed soon after the
Declaration of Independence, and which kept
Mexico in a state of agitation and upheaval
during the first six decades of the nineteenth
century, made it impossible to carry out any
of the plans for the development of primary
instruction During this period of anarchy the
university also failed to receive adequate sup-
port, and when in the early sixties the struggle
between Church and State became acute,
the university organization was abolished

Elementary Schools — The adoption of the
Constitution of 1853 marks an epoch in the
history of elementary instruction in Mexico.
The adoption of this constitution was accom-
panied by a wave of popular enthusiasm for
republican institutions and a revival of interest
in popular education.

With the inauguration of President Juaie/
in 1858 the government undertook the formula-
tion of a systematic plan for the development
of primary education Unfortunately, the
provisions of the Constitution of 1853 did not
give to the federal government the powers
necessary to develop a national system of edu-
cation The framerb oi the instrument in
determining the distribution of poweis between
the federal and the state governments followed,
in the mam, the provisions of the Constitution
of the United States, but in so doing failed to
realize that the states forming part of the
federal system did not possess either the finan-
cial resouices or the enlightened public opinion
necessary to insure the growth of a vigorous
system of public instruction It was taken for
granted that inasmuch as under the political
system of the United States primary education
had reached a high degree of development undei
the direction of the individual states, the same
results would be secured in Mexico The
period that has elapsed since the adoption of
the Constitution of 1853 has served to demon-
strate the erroneousness of this view The
limited income of most of the states has made it
impossible foi them to appropriate for public
education even a small percentage of the sum
necessary to overcome the alarming illiteracy
prevailing throughout the lepubhc

There is but little doubt that had the federal
government been able to secure complete
control of public education the system would
have made far gi eater advances during the last
half centurv This is clue primarily to the fact
that the revenues and credit of the cential
government are fai in advance of those of the
individual states Furthermore, the fact that
the states have failed to develop a distinctive
and vigorous political life and that their admin-
istrative system is not thoroughly organized
makes it difficult for them to secure the expert
direction necessary for the growth of a vigorous
system of public education The magnitude
of the problem confronting the country can
best be seen from an examination of the data
relating to illiteracy Significant as they are,
it is likely that they underestimate rather than
exaggerate the degree of illiteracy that prevails

STATIRTICH o* ILLITERACY IN MEXICO

Persons 12 yearn or over,

who ran neither read

nor write
Persons less than 1 2 \ cars

of age who can neither

road nor write
Persons conccrninR w horn

no information could

be obtained
Persons w ho can read and

write
Persons who can read but

cannot write

M\LK

FEMALU,

TOTAL

3,119,044

3,604,680

6,784,624

2,118,843

2,010,209

4,129,142

76,438

80,564

166,002

1,273,325

906,263

2,179,588

163,568

184,335

347,903

207

MEXICO

MEXICO

In the central group of slates, with 6,239,038
inhabitants, but 1,002,692, or about 15 per cent
of the total population, can read and write
In the northern group of states, with a popu-
lation of 1,174,341, but 287,777 can road and
write. In the five Gulf states, with a popu-
lation of 1,756,006, but 280,087 can read and
write, and in the states and territories of the
Pacific coast of a total population of 4,437,874,
but 609,032 can read and write These figures
are taken from the census of 1900. Unfortu-
nately, no trustworthy statistics as to illiteracy
are available, which would enable us to measure
the advance that has been made during the last
ten years

Although the federal government exercises
no direct control over public education within
the states of the union, there exists throughout
the republic practical uniformity in organization

Primary instruction includes five years of
elementary grades and two years of advanced
grades The course of study in these schools
has been carefully worked out, but the greatest
obstacle in the way of efficient service is the
failure to pay anything approaching adequate
compensation to teachers Even in the Fed-
eral District, where salaries are much higher
than in the states, the principals of primary
schools receive but $730 per annum The com-
pensation of teachers ranges from $328 50 to
$547 50 per annum, depending upon the degree
of preparation and term of service It is evi-
dent that with such low salaries, teaching as a
profession does not offer much to allure young
men and women, and it is not surprising that
the government should find great difficulty in
securing competent candidates for the available
positions

The Training of Teachers — The inadequacy
of the facilities for the training of teachers is a
matter which has been dwelt upon by every
writer on the educational system of Mexico.
During the last few years a strong effort has
been made in all the states, but especially in
the Federal District, to improve this branch of
the educational system The improvement
has been due in large part to the influence of
the national Department of Public Education,
and to the example set by the two excellent
normal schools of the Federal Distnct The
new building which has been erected for the
men's normal school is thoroughly equipped and
modern in every respect In order to induce
young men to enter the teaching profession the
government has provided liberally for scholar-
ships and stipends The Normal School for
Women in the Federal District occupies an old
building which is not adapted to its purposes
In spite of the inadequate accommodations,
however, the school is doing excellent work,
and compares favorably with most of the
normal schools in the United States.

The course of study in the normal schools
covers a period of five years, and includes the
following subjects —

Firxt Year — Language', Arithmetic, Botany Ele-
ments of Zoology, Composition, Drawing, Manual
Training, Singing, Physical Training, and (for tho
men) Military Drill

Second Year — Language, Algebra, Geometry,
Klemrntfl of Physics, Elements of Physiology and
Anatomy, Principles of Hygiene, Drawing, Manual
Training, Physical Education, Harmony.

Third Year — Language, Elements of Chemistry;
Mineralogy, Elements of Psychology, Geography,
Drawing, Manual Training, Harmony, Physical Edu-
cation, Observation in the School of Practice

Fourth Year — Spanish Literature, Logic, Geog-
raphy, History of Mexico, Pedagogy, Physical Edu-
cation, Observation and Instruction in the School ol
Practice

Fifth Year — Literature, Ethics; Civics, General
History, Civur Instruction. All the Natural and
Physical Sciences, Pedagogical Organization, Discipline
and Administration, History of Pedagogy, School
Hygiene , Physical Education.

Manual, Technical, and Vocational Training
— In a country like Mexico, in which the native
Indian population was for so many years kept
in a condition of social subjection bordering on
serfdom, without any attempt to develop eco-
nomic efficiency, the need of the present dav is
a well-developed system of vocational and in-
dustrial training During the colonial period,
and in fact during the greater part of the nine-
teenth century, little or no attention was given
to this phase of education To-day the states-
men and educators of Mexico realize that na-
tional effort must now be concentrated on the
problem of making the native Mexican a more
efficient worker

During the last ten years the movement for
the introduction of manual training into pri-
mary schools, both in the Federal District and
in the states, has acquired considerable force
Those who are directing tho educational policy
of the country fully realize that the funda-
mental need of the great mass of the Indian
population is the kind of training that would
turn the attention of the younger men to the
mechanical arts Mexico lacks a native arti-
san class The overcrowding of the legal and
medical professions has become a serious
problem in all the Latin-American count nes,
and is traceable to the continuance of the
old Spanish prejudice against trade and com-
merce This tendency has been strengthened
by the purely dialectic character of the cui-
riculum of the secondary schools, which are
molded after tho French system The intro-
duction of manual training, therefore, into the
normal schools of the Federal District with a
view to preparing the teachers for this type
of instruction possesses a significance in Mexico
far greater than in many other countries

In the matter of vocational training, a begin-
ning has been made in the Federal District,
and also in some of the states, notably Chihua-
hua, but it is true that this movement is still
in its infancy In the Federal District there is
an excellent trade school for boys and another
for girls.

The school for boys prepares for the follow-
ing trades: carpentering; woodworking; iron

208

MEXICO

MEXICO

work; decorative painting and sculpture; elec-
trical and industrial mechanics For each of
these, special courses are prescribed

The School of Industrial Arts for Girls in-
cludes the following courses typewriting,
bookkeeping; stenography, sewing, dress-
making, hat making; artificial flower making,
embroidery, lace making; wig making, hair
dressing, domestic science In addition a
number of courses is taken by all pupils in
natural history, physics, and chemistry. In
this school over a thousand pupils are regis-
tered It is the purpose of the federal author-
ities to increase the number of these schools as
rapidly as the resources of the government will
permit.

Commercial Education — The introduction
of commercial education, especially in its
highei grades, is another of the recent changes
in the system of public education The first
step in this direction was taken through
the introduction of commercial courses in
the higher grades of the primary schools of
the Federal District The next step was the
establishment of a commercial section in the
national secondary .school, and the final step
in this movement was the establishment ot
a commercial high school in the national cap-
ital In the states but little has been done in
this respect Through the influence of the
foimer governor of Chihuahua a commercial
school was established in the capital of that
city

Secondary Instruction — The instruction
corresponding more or less closely to the high
schools of oui American system is given in the
so-called Kwuela*> Preparatona**, or preparatory
sdiooU The organization, as well us the
curriculum of these schools, is patterned after
the French Lyc6e, and is designed to prepare
students for the professional schools of the
university The system of secondary instruc-
tion is well organized in the Federal District,
but constitutes the weakest link in the chain
of education in most of the states The most
serious criticism to be made is the undue
emphasis laid on examinations and the farlure
to keep in close touch with the work of the pupil
during the course of the scholastic year In
every subject a series of printed questions is
furnished the pupil, and in most cases his prep-
aration consists in an attempt to memorize
the answers to a disconnected senes of ques-
tions, rather than to secure a broad grasp of any
of the subjects

A serious attempt rs now being made to
reduce the number of subjects taught, and to
require a more thorough training in a few fun-
damental courses. If this change rs made, it
will constitute a marked improvement over the
present system The course of study covers a
period of five years, and includes* the following
subjects' —

First Year — Algebra ; mathematics, geometry,
Spanish, French, drawing, manual training.

VOL. rv — p 209

Second Year — Advanced mathematics, Spanish;
French, English, drawing, manual training

Third Year — Mechanics, physics, Spanish, Eng-
lish, drawing, manual training

Fourth Year — Chemistry, mineralogy, botany,
geography, English literature, Spanish literature

Fifth War — Zoology , elements of anatomy and
physiology, psychology, logic, general history,
Mexican history, ethics, Spanish literature.

Higher Education — The movement for
the establishment of a unrversrty in Mexico
was initiated by Charles V, in 1551, but no
courses were offered until 1553 From that
time until the final abolition of this institution
by the Juarez government in 1867, the only
university organrzatron existing in Mexico was
under the direct control of the Catholic Church
As the demand for higher education, and
especially foi professional training, became
more msrstent, the government estabhshed a
series of independent professional institutions
The rnedrcal school, the law school, and the
engineering school grew up independently,
each with rts own director responsible to the
Minister of Public Instruction This form of
organization proved unsatisfactory for many
reasons, but especially because it prevented the
development of any unity of purpose in higher
education and was a permanent obstacle to the
growth of that unnersitv spirit which exerts
so marked an influence on the life and thought
of the student body

The necessity for closer coordmatron of uni-
versity instruction became so pressing that the
government finally decided to correlate the
work of the several independent faculties The
centennial anniversary of Mexican independ-
ence was made the oeeasion for the inaugura-
tion of this plan Under the law of May 26,
1910, the existing schools of law, medicine,
engineering, and architecture were made rn-
tegral parts of the new National University of
Mexico To this a graduate school was added,
intended for the conduct of special research
in every held of science The National Pre-
paratory School in the city of Mexico was also
made an integral part of the new university
organization

The university is placed under the control
of a presrdent, desrgnated as the Rector,
and a unrversity council, composed of the presr-
dent of the university, the deans of the pro-
fessional schools and the drrector-general of
primary instruction In addition, four mem-
bers are designated by the Minister of Public
Instruction, and two representatives from each
of the professional schools are elected by the
respective faculties The student body is also
represented on the university council by a pro-
vision which gives to the students in each of the
professional schools the right to elect one of
their number as their representative on the
council The council rs given wide powers over
university organization and adminrstration,
but the final authorrty in all important ques-
tions is vested rn the Minister of Public Instruc-

MIALL

MIAMI UNIVERSITY

tion The official inauguration of the univer-
sity took place on the 22d of September, 1910
It is, of course, too early to express any opinion
on the operation of the new system The re-
sults thus far attained, however, are sufficient
to indicate the importance of the step that
has been taken A spirit of solidarity among
the students, as well as in the teaching staff,
is rapidly developing The cooperation that
has been established between the various facul-
ties is improving not only the content of the
courses, but also the spirit of university instruc-
tion

Present Needs of the Educational System —
The experience of the last twenty-live years
points clearly to the necessity of increasing the
authority of the federal government in all
matters relating to public education With
the nationalization of education Mexico will
l)e able to meet two most pressing needs, namely,
the extension of the system of manual and voca-
tional training and the introduction of a well-
organized system of agricultural instruction.
Mexico is at present, and will foi a long time
continue to be, an agricultural country Her
greatest social as well as economic need is a
small land-owning class Recognizing this
fact, the government has devised a plan for the
allotment of small holdings, which involves the
purchase of great estates arid their subdivi-
sion into small farms It is not likolv, however,
that this plan will be successful until agn-
cultural education has become an integral part
of the system of public instruction This will
mean that the curriculum of the rural schools
will have to be changed in order to introduce
those subjects which will attract the attention
of the younger men of the country to agricul-
tural pursuits The Minister of Public In-
struction has devised a plan with this end in
view A modest beginning has been made, but
it is likely that the next few years will witness
a marked development in this direction

L S H
References —
Dmposiciones Reglamentanas para la Distubucidn de

las Asignaturas que deberan cursar lo» Maestras y

Maustras Normalistas (Moxiro, 1909 )
KNOCK, C R Mexico (New York, 1909 )
Ley de Educacitin 2'rtmana para d Distnto y los Ter-

ritorios Federals Expedida il Ifi de Ayosto di 19(J8

(Mexico, 1908 )
Ley de Educaci6n Pntnana imra el Distnto y l<m T<r-

ritonaa Fedeialex (Mexico, 1(M)H )
M \HTIN, P F. Mexi<o of (he Twentieth drilury

(London, 1908 )

African Year Bool, (London, 1W1-1909 -1910 )
Plan de Eatudios de la Ettcuela N Preparatory (Mex-
ico, 1907 )
Program-as e Itmtruccwnes Mctodoloywas Generates para

la Enaeftama de las Asignaturaa de Educacitin

Pnmaria (Mexico, 1909 )
Reglamento para la EstvnaciSn del A irrovechamiento de

los Alumnos de las Escuelas Normalea Pnmariatt.

(Mexico, 1909.)

MIALL, EDWARD (1809-1881) —English
politician and Nonconformist minister, born
at Portsmouth and educated at St Saviour's

Grammar School, London After serving as
usher in private schools, he was trained for the
independent ministry. Receiving a call to
Leicester, he was brought into intimate touch
with the working classes In 1840 he began
to interest himself in politics and was strongly
opposed to the established church and the
Tory government Adopting the laissez-faire
principle, he was opposed to compulsion of all
kinds, and in 1847 he delivered a lecture at
Crosby Hall for the Congregational Board of
Education, On the Non-Interference of the (rov-
{•rnment with Popular Education In this
address he strongly upheld the advantages of
voluntarism " The will of man to do good
is usually most lusty and vigorous when com-
pelled by eiicumstances ... to f rough it'
When all is smooth and mechanical the
spirits flag " Authorized education would kill
spontaneity and intelligent and disinterested
care In a scheme of stpte education there was
the danger also that a man might be taxed to
spread opinions which he did not himself hold
Miall sat in the House of Commons from 18,52
to 1857 and from 1869 to 1874 In 1870 his
views on compulsory state education had
changed, for he supported the Forster bill,
and only criticised it because he regarded it as
too favorable to the established church
Miall's chief service in English politics was to
weld together and secure Parliament aiv rep-
resentation for a paity strongly opposed to the
established church, whose organ, the Non-
conformist, he had founded in 1841
References —

Crosby Hall Lecture* on Education (London, 1H4S )

Dictionary of National Biography

MIALL, A Lift of Edward Miall (London, 1884 )

MIAMI UNIVERSITY, OXFORD, OHIO

— A coeducational institution founded by act
of legislature in 1809, although as early as 1789
a proposal had been made foi the grant of land
for an academy or college Instiuction wax
begun in a log building, maintained a,s a
"grammar school" until 1818, when a brick
structure was erected The school was raised to
collegiate rank in 1824, and the first class was
graduated in 1826 The institution made rapid
progress under the first president, Robert 11
Bishop Annual state appropriations were not
made until 1885 In 1902 the Ohio State
Normal College was established in connec-
tion with the university, and ghes two-year
courses for grade teachers, manual training,
art, music, domestic science, and rural in-
dustrial education. A summer course is also
maintained in this department. Admission to
the College of Liberal Arts is by certificate
from accredited schools or by examination, the
entrance requirements being fifteen units.
Studies are arranged in a svstem of groups and
free electives, and lead at the end of four years
to the A B degree The enrollment in 1911-
1912 was 333 students in the college, 173 m the

210

MICHELET

MICHIGAN, STATE OF

normal college, and 548 in the summer term.
The permanent staff consists of fifty-six mem-
bers.

References • —

TOBBY, W. T , and THOMPSON, W O The Diamond
University Volume, Miami University (Hamil-
ton, Ohio, 1S99 )

UPHAM, A. H. Old Miami (Hamilton, Ohio, 1909 )

MICHELET, JULES (1798-1874) —The
French historian was teacher of history at the
College Samte-Barbe and at the Ecole Normale,
investigator in the Record Office, assistant pro-
fessor at the Sorbonne under Guizot, and pro-
fessor of history at the College de France (1838)
Deprived of his government positions through
the political overturn of 1851, he was thence-
forth compelled to make his way by his pen.
His most famous work is his Hi^toire de France,
in eighteen volumes (1833-1867) Among his
other works are. Precis d'Histoire modcine
(1828), Histoirc de la Ripubhqiie rowainc
(1831), Introduction a I'Hixtoire utuvcr^ellc
(1831), Ongint'8 du Droit frai^ais (1837),
L'Oiseau (1856), U Amour (1851)), La Not-
ciere (1862); and Nos Fils (1869), this last
being liis chief educational writing F E F

MICHIGAN AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE,
EAST LANSING, MICH —A state insti-
tution established by legislature in 1855 through
the influence of the Michigan State4 Agricul-
tural Society This was the first state insti-
tution in the United States offering instruction
in scientific and practical agriculture It is
under the control of the State Board of Agri-
culture The entrance requirements arc fifteen
units Five-year courses aic ofleied to those
candidates who have not completed a high
school course The following courses aic
offered agncultuie, engineering, foicstry, home
economics, loading to B S , and the \cterinar \,
leading to the D V S. Special short courses
in agriculture* and courses for teacheis of agri-
culture are also given The enrollment in all
departments in 1911-1912 was 1702 The
faculty consists of 140 members.

MICHIGAN COLLEGE OF MINES,
HOUGHTON, MICH — Established by act
of legislature in 1885 under the government
of a board of control appointed by the gov-
ernor, The institution is located in the heart
of the gieat copper mining region of Lake
Superior. Students are admitted bv examina-
tion or diploma. The degrees of B.S and En-
gineer of Mines are conferred on completion of
the appropriate requirements. The enroll-
ment in 191 1T1912 was 222. The teaching staff
consists of thirty members.

MICHIGAN, STATE OF. — A part of the
Northwest Territory, organized as a separate
territory in 1805, and admitted as the twenty-
sixth state in 1837. It is located in the North

Central Division, and has a land aiea of 57,430
square miles In size it is about as large as the
six New England states, 01 England and Wales
combined The state consists of two penin-
sulas, which for administrative purposes are
divided into eighty-three counties, and these in
turn into townships or school districts In 1910
Michigan had a population of 2,810,173, and a
density of population of 48 9 pei square mile

Educational History — The early history of
education in Michigan is largely the history of
education in and about Detioit, a number of
private and church schools of an elementary
nature having been oigamzed there before the
organization of Michigan us a terntoiy, the
earliest date mentioned being 1755 In 1809
the first school act was passed, but wa& not even
printed, and doubtless was a dead letter from
the verv fiist It dnected that populated
terntoiv should be laid off into school districts,
a school census taken, and a tax levied, the pro-
ceeds to be apportioned to the districts in pio-
portion to the amount, spent the preceding year
for schools No further attempt to enact a
general school law was made until 1827 In
1817, an act was passed creating the " Cathol-
epistemiad, 01 University of Michigama,"
which provided not only for a single institution
of high rank, but the faculty was also em-
powered " to establish colleges, academies,
schools, libraries, museums, botanic gardens,
laboratories, and othei useful literal y and
scientific institutions," and to appoint teachers
and other school officers in all the counties,
towns, and cities oi the territory The cen-
tral territorial government was to defray the
expenses of all education In 1818 a Lan-
casterian elementary school was opened in
Detroit as a part of the scheme In 1821 the
1817 law was revised, the TTm\ersity of Michi-
gan established, and a board of trustees
created to manage all the schools forming part
of it In 1837 the institution was organized,
and in 1841 it opened its doors to men students
for the first tune Women were not admitted
until 1870

In 1827 a new school law, which provided for
a system of common schools throughout the
territory and independent of the university,
was enacted. The new law \vas modeled after
the early school law of Massachusetts Every
township containing hftv families was required
to support a primary school for six months;
townships of one hundred families, a primary
school for twelve months; townships of one
hundred and fifty families, a primary school
foi six months and an advanced fechool for
twelve months, and townships of two hundred
families must, in addition, employ a grammar
school master The system was a township
system, with a proviso, however, that the
voters of a township might order the division
of the township into districts and elect district
boards of three trustees annually By a two-
thirds vote of the electors the law could be

211

MICHIGAN, STATE OF

MICHIGAN, STATK OF

nullified in any township. The schools were
to be sustained by the rents from the school
lands, and a tax on the property of residents
In 1829 the property of nonresidents was also
included. A little later the township tax was
abolished, except for indigents and school-
houses, and the " rate bill " system was sub-
stituted for taxation A superintendent of
common schools was appointed to look after
the school lands, and in 1836 this official evolved
into a Superintendent of Public Instruction.

The constitution of 1835, adopted in prepara-
tion for entrance into the Union, made detailed
provision for a state school system, and con-
tained a definite mandate to provide a system
of common schools whereby a school should
be kept up and supported for three months
each year in each school district of the state.
The school laws of 1837, enacted in response
to the mandate of the constitution, provided for
a system of schools to be maintained in part
by state appropriations, in part by local taxes,
and in part by the rate bill The law of 1837
drawn up by John D. Pierce, called the father
of the Michigan school system, forms the foun-
dation of the present system Some progress
was made in the better settled communities,
but very little elsewhere. Detroit organized
a graded school system under a board of edu-
cation, in 1842, and provided free schools for
its children, and in 1846 union district graded
schools were permitted in the state for the first
time By 1850 seven such graded schools had
been formed; by 1860, eighty-five, and after
I860 the progress was rapid, there being
248 by 1870, 389 by 1880, 513 by 1890, and 711
by 1900. A state institution for the deaf,
dumb, and blind was established in 1848, and
a separate institution for the blind was estab-
lished in 1880. The state normal school at
Ypsilanti was established in 1849, and an ex
officio State Board of Education was created
to manage the school.

In 1850 a new constitution was adopted which
made much more detailed provision for a sys-
tem of public education An elected, instead
of an appointed, Superintendent of Public
Instruction was provided for; the school land
fund was safeguarded; the legislature was
ordered, within five years, to provide free
primary schools, although it did not do so for
nineteen years; a three months' school was
ordered in every district, the method of elec-
tion and functions of the board of regents for
the university were specified, an elected in-
stead of an ex officio State Board of Education,
to manage the state normal school, was pro-
vided for; and township libraries were ordered
to be established.

The first teachers' institute was held in 1846;
in 1855 they were first authorized by law, and in
1877 county institute funds were created by
requiring teachers to pay fees for examinations
and certificates. In 1855 the State Agricul-
tural College was established. Until 1861

212

this was under the control of the State Board
of Education, but in that year it was trans-
fer! ed to the State Board of Agriculture In
1855 an industrial school for boys was estab-
lished, and in 1879 one was also established foi
girls In 1871 a state institution for dependent
children was established, and in 1880 a separate
institution was established for the blind In
1859 districts were permitted to organize high
school departments, and in 1871 the University
of Michigan began the accrediting system
(q.v ) for entrance to the university. In 1869
the " rate bill " was abolished, and the schools
finally weie made free

In 1867 a law was enacted creating county
superintendents for each county, and estab-
lishing a form of the county system of school
administration The certification of teachers,
which since 1837 had been in the hands of the
township school inspectors, was now given to
the county superintendent In 1875 this law
was repealed, township superintendents were
created, and the certification was given to
them. As this did not prove satisfactory, a
board of three examiners for each county was
created in 1881, and certification was given
to them In 1887 the law was revised so as to
reduce the number of examiners from three to
two, and the two were required to elect a secre-
tary, who examined all teachers and acted as the
executive officer of the board In 1891 the
secretary was changed into a county commis-
sioner of schools, to be elected by the people.
In 1879 the State Board of Education was
directed to prepare questions for county
teachers' examinations, and in 1887 their
use by county examiners was required From
1867 to 1875 the State Superintendent was em-
powered to grant state teachers' certificates,
but in 1879 this power was given to the State
Board of Education

In 1871 the first " act to compel children to
attend school," was passed, and in 1885 the
first " act regulating the employment of
children " was enacted In 1885 the city of
Saginaw was permitted to provide free text-
books, and in 1889 a general free textbook law
was enacted for the state In 1891 school
boards were authorized to establish kinder-
gartens, and the power to issue certificates to
certain of its graduates was granted to the
University of Michigan. In 1895 the Ml.
Pleasant normal school, established privately
in 1891, was accepted by the state In 1899
a third state normal school was established in
the northern peninsula at Marquette, and in
1903 a fourth state normal school was author-
ized to be established in the western part of the
state The same year normal training classes
were also authorized for any county not having
a state normal school

In 1908 a new state constitution was adopted.
The State Superintendent was made ex officio
a member of the State Board of Education, and
of all other boards having control of public

MICHIGAN, STATE OF

MICHIGAN, STATE OF

instruction in any state institution, the State
Board of Agriculture was made a constitutional
body, and its duties defined, the election of the
Superintendent, the State Board of Education,
and the State Board of Agriculture was changed
from the November to the April elections, the
maintenance of the university, the college of
mines, the agricultural college, and the state
normal schools was made mandatory, boards
of township inspectors were abolished, and the
minimum school term was raised fiom three
to five months Otherwise there wore only
verbal changes from the constitution of 1050
The legislature of 1909 established an educa-
tional and professional standaid for the offices
of State Superintendent and county commis-
sioners, required districts to pay high school
tuition for their pupils, and also authorized
transfers, required instruction as to communi-
cable diseases, and provided for state aid to
agricultural high schools The legislature of
1911 empowered districts to establish trade,
vocational, industrial, marine, and manual
training schools

Present School System — At the head of
the school system of Michigan is a State Super-
intendent of Public Instruction, elected by
the people at the April elections for two-year
terms He is paid $4000 per year must be a
graduate of a university, college, or normal
school, and have taught five years in Michigan
He is a membei, ex officio, of all boards of an
educational nature in the state, but without a
vote He has general supervision of public
instruction in all of the public schools of the
state and in all public institutions which are
educational m chaiacter, may require cities
and districts to provide proper educational
facilities, and may bring suit to enforce the
law, may inspect the books of any school unit ,
must prepare rules for the management of
township and district libraries, must apportion
the school money to the townships and cities,
must authorize the establishment of new county
training schools, may request the governor
to remove any county commissioner, or ex-
aminer, and must prepare an annual report
to the governor and legislature

The State Board of Education consists of
four citizens, two elected at each biennial spring
election, and the State Superintendent of Public
Instruction, ci officio. The board is a body
politic and corporate, has control of the courses
of instruction and the management of the
four state normal schools, grants certificates to
teach to graduates of these schools, examines
candidates for life diplomas, may approve
teachers' certificates and life diplomas from
other states, may approve the pedagogical
course in colleges and universities, other than
the University of Michigan, for the teacher's
certificate, adopts a textbook m physiology
and hygiene for use in the schools, arid makes
an annual report to the governor The board
must meet at least twice each year, and the

members are paid $3 per day and expenses for
their services

For each county the voters elect a county
school commissioner, at the April elections, for
a four-year term The board of county super-
visors fixes the compensation of the commis-
sioner and his deputies, if he has any On the
recommendation of the State Superintendent
he may be removed from office by the governor
To be eligible, each county commissioner must
have had twelve months' experience as a
teacher in the schools of Michigan, and must
be a graduate either of a college or of a normal
school, or hold a first-grade teacher's certificate.
In counties having fifty or less teachers a second-
grade teacher's certificate will answer It is
his duty to keep a record of all examinations
held, sign all teachers' certificates, keep all
records, collect the institute fees, furnish the
township clerks with a list of authorized
teachers, visit each school at least once each
year, and make an annual report to the State
Superintendent and act subject to hih instruc-
tions His powers and duties are rather lim-
ited, and his salary very small The county
supervisors appoint two county examiners, for
two-year terms, and these, together with the
county school commissioner, constitute the
county board of examiners The examiners
must hold valid teachers' certificates They
give two examinations each year, and an extia
examination in October, using questions pre-
pared by the State Superintendent of Public
Instruction

Below the county school authorities are the
township officials, and the townships may be
still further divided into districts In the
northern peninsula the township organization
has supplanted the district organization, and
in the southern peninsula, the beginnings have
been made Where the township organization
has been instituted, a township board of five
trustees, elected at large, controls the schools of
the township, outside of cities and graded
school districts This board reports to the
township clerk and treasure!, and to the county
commissioner Elsewhere, where the district
form of organization prevails, annual school
meetings are held in July in each district, and
each school is under the management of a
board of three district school officers, elected
for three-year terms, consisting of a moderator,
director, and treasurer. This board is a body
corporate and politic, may build schoolhouses,
estimate and vote money for maintenance,
hire teachers, purchase books for indigents.
make rules and regulations, admit and suspend
pupils, and must take an annual school census
and make an annual report to the district
meeting in writing, and to the township clerk.
The director usually has charge of the school-
houses and grounds, makes purchases and
repairs, acts as clerk of the district, and com-
piles the annual reports The treasurer keeps
all accounts, pays all bills, and reports to the

213

MICHIGAN, STATE OF

MICHIGAN, STATE OF

township treasurer. The township clerk reports
to the county school commissioner

An annual meeting of school officers of each
county is held by the county school commis-
sioner, and one member from each district or
township board is expected to attend He is
allowed $2 per day and expenses for so doing
Graded school districts may be formed in any
district, or by two or more contiguous districts,
by a majority vote at any annual school meet-
ing For such, a board of education of five is
elected at large, and, if the district employs
six teachers, it may also employ a superintend-
ent Such a district may also establish a high
school On petition of one third of the tax-
payers of any township not having in it an
incorporated city or village, the township
board shall submit to a vote the question of
forming a rural high school If adopted by a
majority, a board of three trustees is elected to
manage the school and to raise taxes for it
The course of instruction is fixed by the State
Superintendent Very few such schools have
so far been formed Boards of trustees in
districts not maintaining a high school may pay
tuition and transportation of pupils in neigh-
boring high schools Any township, city, or
district may maintain a school library, and any
township may divide its library among the
school districts A librarian may be ap-
pointed, and any township may levy an an-
nual township library tax All county fines
for breaches of the penal laws go to the
county library fund, and the state also makes
an annual grant Such funds are apportioned
to the different townships, cities, and districts
maintaining libraries, on the basis of the num-
ber of school census children in each A State
Board of Library Commissioners, appointed
by the governor, and consisting of four citi-
zens and the state librarian, ex officw, advises
with libraries as to their work, and all free li-
braries report to them through the county
school commissioners This board is allowed
$4800 per year for its work Nearly all town-
ships and districts report libraries, the township
libraries averaging about 1000 volumes, and
the district libraries about 600 volumes Each
township, city, or district selects its own text-
books and contracts directly with the publish-
ers, and any district may vote at an annual
meeting to provide free textbooks About one
sixth of the districts provide free textbooks
Any district may establish a day school for the
oral instruction of deaf children, and the state
will grant aid up to $150 per year per pupil

School Support — The state originally re-
ceived 1,067,397 acres of land from Congress
from the sixteenth-section grants made to the
states for education, two townships of land
(46,080 acres) for a seminary of higher learning,
and 240,000 acres for a college of agriculture
and mechanical arts Tn 1850 Congress also gave
1o Michigan 5,838,775 acres of swamp land for
tx'hools The two funds now amount to about

five and a quarter million of dollars The
state pays interest on the sixteenth-section fund
at 7 per cent, and upon the swamp-land fund
at 5 per cent, and the income is distributed to
the schools on the basis of school census, being
worth about forty-seven cents a child at
present The two college funds now amount
to about a million and a half, and the income
is about $100,000 a year. There is also a
normal school fund of $68,822, which produced
$4168 for the normal school in 1910.

To the income from the sixteenth-section
funds is added the surplus from specific state
taxes (corporation taxes), which vary somewhat
from year to year, but amount to about three
quarters of a million dollars annually The
addition of the surplus taxes has caused the
state apportionment to increase from forty cents
to fifty cents per pupil, between which it varied
up to 1880, to $1 33 by 1890, $215 by 1900,
$3 50 by 1905, and to about $6 at present
The total sum is apportioned by the State
Superintendent to the counties, and by the
counties to the townships and districts, on the
basis of school census This pays a little
more than one half of the cost of the school
system A township one-mill tax is levied,
which is apportioned to the districts on the
basis of the amount each pays The remain-
der (about 40 per cent) comes from addi-
tional local taxation The undesirabihty of
the school census as a basis for the appor-
tionment of school funds (see APPORTIONMENT
OF SCHOOL FUNDS) is nowhere better illustrated
than in Michigan, where some districts have a
struggle for existence, while others possess
accumulations sufficient to run the schools for
many years At the date of the last report,
861 school districts had enough teachers' wage
money on hand at the end of the year to run
the schools for at least two years, while some
had enough to run the schools from ten to
twenty-two years

The total amount expended for the main-
tenance of schools for the last year for which
reports are available was $13,223,773, or a per
capita of the total population expenditure
of $4 70 The average term provided is about
eight and one half months The percentage
of attendance based on enrollment averages
about 70 for the state, while in the city districts
it averages a little over 95.

Educational Conditions. — The southern
part of the state has a number of important
manufacturing cities, but the northern part is
sparsely settled About 30 per cent of the total
population live in these southern cities, about
10 per cent in small towns, and 60 per cent under
rural conditions The larger southern cities
(Detroit, Grand Rapids) are very cosmopolitan,
but the rural sections are largely of American
and Canadian stock The average for the
state is about 75 per cent native. Only about
£ of 1 per cent of the total population is of the
negro race, and separate schools on account

214

MICHIGAN, STATE OF

MICHIGAN, STATE OF

of race or color are prohibited by law The
percentage of illiteracy is comparatively low,
being but 4 2 per cent and confined almost
entirely to the foreign population in the cities

The state has a good compulsory education
law, with fairly effective means for its enfoi ce-
ment, all children seven to sixteen years of age
being required to go to school the whole time
the public schools are in session, unless excused
for certain specific reasons The employment
of children under fourteen during school time
is prohibited, but children from fourteen to
sixteen may be allowed to work if they have
completed the eighth grade, and if they have a
work certificate from the school authorities
The sheriff of each county must appoint a
county truant officer, who is allowed $3 a day
and expenses Teachers must venfy census
lists, arid report absences to the county com-
missioner Deaf pupils must also go to the
day schools for the deaf, or to the state school
for the deaf Blind childien, with certain
exceptions, must also go to school Any school
board may establish an ungraded school for
truants Disorderly or incorrigible boys under
sixteen, and girls under seventeen, may be sent
to the state industrial schools

The state has good schoolhouses, the 8453
schoolhouses in the state a\er aging about
$4000 each in value Many towns and cities,
as well as many country districts, have schools
of high grade On the other hand, many vil-
lage and town schools are inadequately financed,
and are of low grade This inevitably happens
in a state using the census basis of apportion-
ment as the sole basis Agricultural instruction
has been made a marked feat me during; lecent
years, and manual training and domestic
science have been introduced in many places
The consolidation of schools has made some
headway in the better settled portions of the
state, and the township unit, which leads to
similar results, is being urged for adoption
generally in the southern peninsula, as it has
been in the northern

Teachers and Training — The state em-
ployed approximated 15,000 teachers in 1910,
about one half of whom were employed in
ungraded rural schools About 17 pei cent
of the total number were men Five grades of
certificates are granted on examination The
h'rst and second grades require pievious teach-
ing experience of nine and seven months, and
are valid for four and three years respectively
The third grade " A," for primary work only,
requires three years' previous experience, and is
valid for three years The third grade " B "
and " C " are valid for one year only, " C "
being limited to a particular district. Grad-
uates of the state university and of the South-
ern Agricultural College receive certificates,
on certain conditions, and the State Board of
Education may accredit other colleges Normal
school graduates are also certificated on gradu-
ation, and normal school diplomas from other

states may also be endorsed by the State Board
of Education Cities employing a superintend-
ent may certificate their own teacheis, if they
so desire

The state maintains four state normal schools
for the training of teachers, located at Ypsi-
lanti (1852), Mt Pleasant (1895), Marquette
(1899), and Kalarnazoo (1903) These main-
tain regular normal school couises, and each
must also maintain one course preparatory for
rural school work A marked feature of the
Michigan system for the training of teachers is
the county training school Since 1903, in any
count v not containing a state normal school,
any district arid the board of supervisors of the
county may vote to unite in establishing a
county training school (see TEACHERS, TRAIN-
ING OF) for the better preparation of teachers for
the rural schools The establishment of any
school must be authorized by the State Su-
perintendent of Public Instruction, and he,
together with the county commissioner of the
county and the superintendent of the schools
of the district, constitutes the county training
school board They regulate admissions, estab-
lish a one year 's course of study, and grant di-
plomas of graduation Graduates may teach,
for three years, in any school in the county not
having over two teachers, and the board may
renew the certificate on evidence of success
The state grants aid of $500 for each training
school teacher employed, up to two teachers,
and the county grants aid up to one half of
what the state gives Before 1903 less than
2 per cent of the rural teachers of Michigan had
had any professional training, while now over
30 per cent have had at least one year of pio-
fessional preparation About fifty such schools
\vere in operation by 1910 Teachers' insti-
tutes are held in each county each year, and all
male teachers are assessed $1 and female
teachers fifty cents each year to provide an in-
stitute fund

Secondary Education — The high school
system of the state is well organized, there
being about 400 public and private high schools
in the state, neaily all of which maintain afoui-
year course and close relations with tire
University of Michigan (see ACCREDITED
SCHOOLS) In 1907 county schools of agri-
culture \vere authorized Any county, 01 two
o? more adjacent counties, may vote to main-
tain such a school, which is placed under the
management of a county board of education,
consisting of the county school commissioner
and four citizens appointed by the county
supervisors The schools must teach agri-
culture, domestic science, and manual train-
ing The course of instruction is determined
by the State Superintendent and the president
of the agricultural college. Such schools must
have ten acres of land If the school has
cost $20,000 and has 100 acres of land, the
state will grant aid up to two thirds the cost of
maintenance, but not over $4000

215

MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OF

Higher and Special Education — The state
maintains the University of Michigan (q.v.) at
Ann Arbor, opened in 1841, which is one, of the
largest and best of the American state univer-
sities, and one which has long rendered im-
portant service The state also maintains the
Michigan Agiicultural College (</ v.) at East
Lansing, opened in 1857, and the Michigan
College of Mines (q v ) at Houghton, opened in
1880 These stand as the culmination of the
system of public instruction provided by the
state In addition to these, the following
institutions within the state oifei collegiate
mstiuction. —

INSTITUTION

LOCATION

OPhNfcD

CONIROL

FOR

Albion College

Albion

1843

ME

Both sexes

Hillsdale Col-

lego

Hillsdale

1855

Nonsect

Both Hexes

Kulamazoo Col-

l<>Hr

Kalamazoo

1855 (?)

Hupt

Both nexos

Vdruin College

Adrian

18>0

Meth Prot

Both 80XOB

Olivet College
Hope Colkgp

Olivet
Holland

1859
18WJ

Cong
Rofd

Both sexes
Both sexes

Detroit College

Detroit

1877

HC

Men

Alma College

Alma

1887

Presln

Both .sex 08

The state also maintains the Michigan School
foi the Blind, at Lansing, the Michigan Em-
ployment Institution for the Blind at West
Saginaw, the Michigan School foi the Deaf,
at Flint, the Michigan State Public School for
poor and dependent children, at Coldwater;
the Michigan Home for Feeble-Minded and
Epileptic Children, at Lapeer; the State Indus-
trial Home for Girls (reformatory), at Adrian;
and the Michigan Industrial School for Boys
(refoimatory), at Lansing E P C

References —

HOYT, C1 O , and FORD, R T' John D Picrte, Founder
of tin Michigan School System (Ypsilariti, 1905)

MAYO, A D Development of the Common School
Syntem m the Western States, 1830-1865, in
Kept U S Cum Ediu , 1898-lS'M), Vol I, pp
389-413

Michigan An Repte of the S apt Publ Instr , 1837

to date The volume for 1855, 1856, and 1857 is

valuable, us it states the problems before the state

at that time

Historical Sketched of Education in, 44th An Kept.

Supt Publ fnstr Mich , 1880, 295-453
General School Lawn, 1909 ed
State Constitutions, 1835, 1850, 1908

PUTNAM, I) The Development of Primary and Second-
ary Education in Michigan (Ann Arbor, 1904 )

UTLBY, H M , and CUTCHEON, H M Michigan an a
Province, Territory, and State, Vol III, eh, 15 ,
Vol IV, ch 20 (New York, 1906)

MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OF, ANN
ARBOR, MICH —The first of the state
universities to take and hold a position of
prominence and leadership among American
universities. It was the first institution to
utilize with some degree of wisdom the Con-
gressional land grants, made from 1787 on-
wards, for the promotion of higher learning
in the newly created stales The Constitu-
tion of 1835 undei which Michigan came inlo

MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OF

the Union made it obligatory upon the legis-
lature to create from the sale of these lands
a permanent endowment for a university and
to provide a secure investment for the funds.
The first legislature, acting under the advice
of the State Superintendent of Public Instruc-
tion, John D. Pierce (q v.), passed the enabling
act of 1837 undei which the Regents, eighteen
in all, were to be named and the various
departments provided for Following the
Piussiun idea, the new institution was distinctly
thought of as an integral and crowning part
of a state system of public instruction, and
it has come more and moie to realize this
ideal Three departments were specified:
(1) The Department of Literature, Science,
and the Arts; (2) The Depaitment of Law;
(3) The Department of Medicine There
were also a number of so-called " branches "
in different towns, which were fostered by the
Regents as tributary to the University, but
for lack of funds these had to be left to their
own fate after a few years, and in their place
sprang up the union or high schools which
continued t o supply the need The University
was opened for students in 1841, and the first
class consisting of eleven members was gradu-
ated in 1S45 Defects in organization soon
became appaient, and the constitution of
1850 reconstituted the governing board, re-
ducing the number to eight, and adding very
materially to its powers The Regents now
became a constitutional body and were given
absolute control of all moneys received from
the interest fund arid from fees, without any
interference or direction from the state capitol.
This feature of the fundamental law, which
all subsequent revisions have left unchanged,
was at that time unique and is generally
believed to have been an important factoi
in the subsequent prosperity of the institution.
The new constitution directed the Regents
to appoint a Piesident who should preside at
their meetings (but without a vote) and who
should be tho principal executive officer of the
University The choice fell upon Henry
Philip Tappan, of New Yoik, a graduate of
Union College and of Auburn Theological
Seminary, a man of wide experience as an
educator, and a writer of repute on educational
and philosophical subjects This appoint-
ment may bo considered the most important
single event in the history of the University
During the eleven years of the Tappan ad-
ministration (1852-1863) the institution was
transformed A nonclassical course was of-
fered, and the degree of Bachelor of Science
was first conferred m 1855 ; courses in engineer-
ing were established; the chemical laboratory
was built; the astronomical observatory was
opened, with Dr Francis Brunnow as director;
graduate study was projected and a beginning
made; a department of law was organized
(1859) The attendance was quadrupled and
became national in character. Names now

210

MICHIGAN, UNIVERSITY OF

MIDDLE AGES

appeared on the faculty rollh which weie to
shed lasting fame on the Umversitv — amongst
others, Henry S Frieze, Corydon L Ford,
Thomas M Cooley, and Andrew D White
President Haven (1863-1869) carried forward
the policies of his predecessor During this
period the courses in engineering were devel-
oped under the direction of Professor De Vol-
son Wood (qv), and the work in English and
rhetoric leceived a marked impulse under
Professor Moses Coit Tyler (g v ) Then
also Edward Olriev began his memorable
career at the University as a teacher of pure
mathematics From 1869 to 1871 Piofessoi
Henry S Frieze (q v ) was acting president
These years are noteworthy foi two changes
which have exerted an important influence
upon the educational historv of this countiy
women were admitted to all departments on
an equal footing with men (1870), and the
so-called diploma or certificate system of ad-
misMori from approved high schools was
instituted

In 1871 began the long administration of
James Bui nil Angell, extending over thirty-
eight years During this period the College
of Dental Surgery was added, and the same
year (1875) the Homoeopathic Medical College
In 1876 the School of Pharmacy was organized
as a separate department, and the Department
of Engineering in 1895 In 1878 the elective
system was greatly extended, and a closei
relation was established between the Univer-
sity arid the public high schools of the country.
From this time the institution developed
rapidly in many directions The attendance
multiplied, the income steadily increased, the
faculties were enlarged, and long before his
retirement the institution had taken on an
international character All this had been
made possible by the attitude taken toward
the University by the state legislature shortly
before President Angell's advent Hitherto
the income of the University had been re-
stricted to the interest on the land-grant fund
(then yielding something less than forty
thousand dollars) supplemented by student
fees The legislature now laid an annual tax
of one twentieth of a mill on the taxable
property of the State for the aid of the Uni-
versity. This rate has been increased from
time to time till the annual income from this
source is now something over eight hundred
thousand dollars The annual budget at
present (1912) shows an expenditure of about
a million and a quarter dollars The attend-
ance has reached a total of 5582, distributed
in every state and territory of the Union and
in thirty-three foreign countries

On President Angeirs retirement in 1909, he
was succeeded by Harry Burns Hut chins,
who had been Dean of the Department of Law
since 1895 President Hut chins has been es-
pecially active in organizing more closely
the alumni of the State, in establishing res-

idence halls for the women students, in secur-
ing fellowships for the encouragement of graduate
studies and in advancing the standards of the
professional schools I. N. D.

References —
HINBDALK, B A , and DEMMON, I N History of the

University of Michigan. (Ann Arbor, 1906 )
SHEARMAN, F W A System of Public Instruction and

Primary School Low (Lansing, 1852 )
TEN BROOK, A Amnican State Universities, their

Origin and ProgieNu, et( (Cincinnati, 1875.)

MICROCEPHALOUS — Having a small
head. Individuals having a head with a circum-
ference less than 42 5 centimeters (17 inches) are
counted in this group With this condition
there is associated micrencephaluh, or dimin-
ished size of brain Brain weights in micio-
cephalics have been found to be from 200 to
800 grams (normal weight being from 1300 to
1500 grams) All individuals with nncren-
cephalus have only the rudiments of intelli-
gence S. I F.

See CRANIOMETRY; CRETINISM, DEFEC-
TIVES

MIDDENDORF, WILHELM (1793-1853) —
German educator, friend and coworkei of
Froebel (</y), born in Brechten, West-
phalia, and educated at the gymnasium at
Dortmund and the University of Beilm, wheje
he studied philosophy under Fichte and theol-
ogy under Schleiermachei In 1813 he joined
the volunteer corps of Lutzow and took part
in the War of Liberation In 1817 he was called
by Froebel to Keilhau (</ v ), where he remained
until his death He carried on the work of
Froebel and did much for the general intro-
duction of the kindergarten F M.

MIDDLE AGES, EDUCATION DURING

THE — The educational activities, interests,
and institutions of the Middle Ages are treated
of under a variety of headings. The founda-
tion elements of this period are considered in
the articles on CHRISTIAN EDUCATION IN THE
EARLY CHURCH, THEOLOGICAL PJHJCATION, and
the various articles on the individual Church
Fathers The articles on NEO-PL VTONISM,
MYSTICISM, and STOICISM treat of the philo-
sophical elements entering as historic factors;
the section under ROMAN EDUCATION on the
late historic period is also of significance
The actual educational activities of the period,
especially as they center around institutions,
are presented in the articles on CHURCH
SCHOOLS , ABBEY SCHOOLS ; CLOISTER SCHOOLS ;
CONVENT SCHOOLS, and the articles on the
various Monastic Orders and education.

See also the article on TEACHING ORDERS
OF THE ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH. Supple-
menting these arc the articles on COLLEGE;
COLLEGIATE CHURCH SCHOOLS; GRAMMAR
SCHOOLS; BISHOPS' SCHOOLS; CHANTRY
SCHOOLS, HOSPITAL SCHOOLS; GILDS AND

217

MIDDLE AGES

MIDDLE AGES

KDUC \TION See also the ai tides on LATIN,
(JuEEK. LOGIC, etc P'or the legal side see
especially CANON LAW, EDUCATIONAL PRO-
VISIONS IN The most significant phase of
education during the late Middle Ages is
discussed under the origin and early work of
the UNIVERSITIES As preliminary to the
movement, the article on SCHOLASTICISM AND
THE SCHOOLMEN is also of vital importance
The curriculum is dealt with in the article
on LIBERAL ARTS; see also the medieval
section of the various articles on the subjects
of study Connected with this subject also
are the articles on MYSTICISM, NEO-PLATON-
ISM, and REALISM These topics all deal with
education as it is connected with the Christian
Church.

There are two other additional phases of
education during the Middle Ages of great
if not of similar importance One relates to
secular education; that is, of nobles and the
ruling classes This phase of education is
presented primarily under the captions CHIV-
\LRIC EDUCATION and CENTKY \ND NOBLES,
EDUCATION OF Related to these are numer-
ous articles on the writers of works relating
to this education, as Castigliom, Peachani, etc
See also the articles on MANNERS AND MOR-
ALS, EDUCATION IN, and on SOCIAL REALISM
The third phase of education is that relating
to the common people Here there is little
organized effort and few institutions But
the fundamental aspect of the education of the
great masses is discussed under APPRENTICE-
SHIP AND EDUCATION Related to this aie
the discussions of the POOR LAW AND EDUCA-
TION, and GILDS AND EDUCATION The fol-
lowing discussion will relate only to the gen-
eral conditions of the Middle Ages In this
connection read also the articles on the REN-
AISSANCE, EDUCATION DURING THE, and
REFORMATION AND EDUCATION, for tendencies
at the close of the Middle Ages

General Characteristics — Both the matter
and the manner of education in the Middle
Ages have been commonly conceived as some-
thing MI generift, a product, and a not very
important product, of the Middle Ages them-
selves. Medieval education has been repre-
sented as different alike in source, subject, and
scope from the education oi ancient times
which preceded it and that of modern times
which followed it Medieval education has
been supposed to be separated from that of
ancient times by the deluges of the coming of
( 1hristiamty and the barbarian invasions, and
from that of modern times by the hiatus of
humanism and the Reformation In fact,
education in the Middle Ages was carried on
without a break from the heathen and ancient
world and continued without a break into the
humanistic and modern world The educa-
tional institutions of the Middle Ages were the
direct offspring of the educational institutions
of Greece and Rome and the direct parents

218

of those of England, (lernmny, and America.
The very stuff of which education was woven,
a study of the language and literatim1 of Rome,
and at intervals of those of Greece, wab prac-
tically identical from the days of Cicero, we
may almost say of Demosthenes, to the days
of Gregory the Great, and from the days of
Gregory the Great to those of Thomas a
Becket, of Luther and Cranmer, and since then
to the davs of the younger Pitt and Washing-
ton, of Bismarck and Gladstone. Or, looking
not at the educated, but the educators, we find
a continuous line from Chrysippus to Qumtihan,
from Qumtihan to St. Augustine, from St
Augustine to William Wayneflete and Thomas
Wolsey, from them to Thomas Arnold (qq v ).
There has been indeed a greater change in the
subjects of education since 1850 than there
was during the whole penod from 450 B c to
A D 1850 But there is one important diffei-
ence between the education given in the years
fiom AD 450 to A D 1450 which marks that
millennium off as a separate epoch in the his-
tory of education and distinguishes it em-
phatically from the periods which precede and
follow it, and may almost be taken as defining
the era of the Middle Ages itself This differ-
ence lies not in the institutions, in the subject,
nor in the method of education, but in its
object Till the middle of the fifth century
the object of education was to fit a man to be
a good citizen and a successful man of the
world From the middle of the fifteenth
century the same object began to be put for-
ward, and from the middle of the sixteenth
century became the accepted object of educa-
tion But in the thousand years between
education had a different object The main
object of education was no longer to prepare
a man for this world, but for the next ; no longer
to make him a good citizen or to be success-
ful in this life, but to be a good Christian and
to attain successfully the world to come For
patriotism, was substituted religion, for the
promotion of society, the saving of a man's
own soul The whole of education was domi-
nated by the Day of Judgment and the dread
of the world to come, and the necessity of the
appeasement of the Judge by self-abasement
and self-torture, by constant prayer and assid-
uous asceticism The Stoic philosopher and
the Essene met together and, reincarnated
as monk, conquered the world (See MONAS-
TIC EDUCATION foi related articles )

Fusion of Christian and Roman Education.
— It was not merely the coming of Chris-
tianity which produced this change The early
Christians (see CHRISTIAN EDUCATION IN THE
E\RLY CHURCH) took the schools as they found
them They used the public grammar schools
and rhetoric schools as they had come down
from the unendowed schools of Athens and
Alexandria. Quintilian, c 91, marked a
transition from the old to the new style, from
the voluntary fee-paying school to the endowed

MIDDLE AGES

MIDDLE AGES

free school At the beginning of the third
century after Christ, Alexander Severus had
made endowed schools general ; the Christian
Emperor Constantine, in 321, extended the
privileges of the masters and set an example
for the medieval clerks by exempting them
from military and municipal service ;' and the
anti-Christian Emperor Julian, in 362, also
anticipating the royal prerogative in the matter
of clerical appointments, made the appoint-
ment of masters by municipalities subject
to imperial confirmation (See GRAMMAR
SCHOOL ) The Christian Gratian m 376
settled a universal and high scale of salaries
for the various masters of Latin and Greek
grammar and of rhetoric It is noticeable that
even then Greek was becoming a larity in
the schools of the West as the appointment of
a Greek master at the then capital Trier or
Treves was conditional " if a fit one can be
gotten " It may be remembered that St
Augustine, who was born in 354 and was there-
fore at school in the decade before Gratian's
edict, was taught Greek, but hated it and
never mastered it He himself kept a ihctoiic
school first at Carthage and then at Milan,
when he became a Christian and then a bishop
Sidomus Apollinans, born in 431, was educated
at Lyons Grammar School with Avitu.s, who
rose to be foi a short tune Emperor, and him-
self, after being Picfect of Rome, became a
bishop and a saint. In 483 he wrote a poeti-
cal epistle to the rhetoric schoolmaster at
Pcrigucux, arid a letter to his son, when fol-
lowing him at the grammar school at Lyons,
warns him much as a modern fathei might
against loose talk, and encourages him to
take an interest in his Vergil and Homer

In Italy the schools continued in spite of the
barbarian conquests, for the Goths were
Christians Theodoric's own grandson was
sent to a grammar school and flogged in the
usual way till the nobles (c 525) protested
against his spirit being broken and demanded
that he should be trained in the use of anus
instead. Gregory the Great (q v ) is said to
have learned grammar, rhetoric, and logic in
the schools of Rome But his works contain
small traces of classical culture, and he was
perhaps the last man of eminence to be
brought up iii the old way In Gaul the
public schools of grammar and rhetoric had
meanwhile disappeared, though it is impossible
to fix the exact moment of their disappearance,
and so far as schools existed at all they were
maintained by the bishops They had fallen
like the municipalities which controlled them,
under ecclesiastical control

Monasticism and Learning and the Early
Middle Ages. — It is clear that the monastic
spirit was gradually invading the Western
church as it had already done the Eastern,
and tending to displace the study of classical
literature. The fifth century witnessed the
rise of a school of Christian poets, who en-

deavored to substitute the Jewish and Chris*
tian mythology in literature for the pagan.
The first attempt in this line seems to have
been made by a lady, Proba Valeria Fullonia,
wife of a proconsul in Gaul at the end of the
fourth century with Centones VergiLiam, which
consisted of lines of Vergil wrested from their
context and reananged so as to make a patch-
work life of Christ Earlier, Seduhus, about
450, master or past master of a rhetoric school
in Italy, wrote a work in better taste, called
Carmen Paschale, probably in parody of
Horace's Carmen Seculare, in which the life
and death of Chnst is made the subject of a
long poern in Latin hexameters on the Ver-
gilian model He was followed by a whole
school of authors, chief among whom was
Aurelms Clement Prudentms (qv), a rhetoric
master and lawyer at Rome, who has been
called the Christian Pindar In a wonderful
variety of meters, his daily hymns, Liber
Catheinerikon, and his Psychornachia, or Battle
of the Soul between virtues and viceb, were
published in 409 We have evidence that
they were a favorite schoolbook in the fifth,
the tenth, and the fifteenth centuries Juven-
cus (q v ), another rhetoric schoolmastci in Ins
Hi^tona Evangehca, turned the Gospels into
Vergilian hexameters, and Dracontius, pupil
of the grammar schoolmaster Fehcianus " who
restored letteis to Carthage/' wrote hexameters.
De Laudibus Dei, between 484 arid 496 All
these poets write with a more or less conscious
desire to supersede their classical but pagan
models as schoolbooks, and Pope Gclasms, in
496, specially commended Sedulius for this
purpose. Perhaps it was the use of the
original Vergil instead of these now poets
which drew down on the devoted head of
Bishop Desiderms of Vienne in 597 the fierce
rebuke of Gregory the Great " We cannot
relate without shame that it has come to our
household that your brotherhood teaches
grammar . . since the praise of Christ cannot
he in one mouth with the praise of Jupiter
Consider yourself what a crime it is foi bishops
to recite what would be improper in a re-
ligiously minded layman " We cannot doubt
that what Gregory had in his mind was the
line in Vergil's Eclogues, always a favorite
schoolbook, Ab Jove principium, Musce, Jovis
oninia plena, and the loves of Corydon and
Alexis We must remember that Gregory was
the first monk to become Pope, and it shows
how even in a nobleman of Rome, ex-prefect
and imperial official though he was, the monas-
tic spirit was tending to destroy culture and
the classics We do not know whether Didier
answered this missive, but he had an answer
ready to his hand in Augustine "On Christian
Teaching " (n 39-42), who laid down that all
branches of heathen learning, while containing
much superstition, " contain also liberal in-
struction adapted to the use of the truth "
and cites Lactantius, Cyprian, and other

219

MIDDLE AGES

MIDDLE AGES

Fathers who were " laden with the spirit of
the heathen/' while Moses himself was
" learned in all the wisdom of the Egyptians "
The reasoned defense of learning not only of
grammar, but rhetoric and even logic, contained
in this work of Augustine, written in 427, was
one of the mam influences which prevented
the monastic furore, which attacked schools as
it attacked marriage and other institutions,
from converting the Dark Ages into absolute
blackness. But it was into the hands of
bishops and not of monks that the rule and
government of cities and of schools had fallen
But Gregory of Tours (q v ) shows that riot
all the bishops themselves had the learning of
Didier of Vienne. He had learned to read at the
age of eight, but he was taught by reading not
the classics, but the Scriptures, and never learned
grammar properly, though his teacher was
Avitus, Bishop of Clermont In later days at
Tours, with the advent of Venantius Fortunatus
perhaps, who had " sipped the ills of gram-
mar and drunk the deep pools of rhetonc in
Italy/7 he read, whether in an anthology or
otherwise, Vergil, his quotations from which,
dragged in arid unassimilatcd, " he like lumps
of marl upon a barren moor " The growing
asceticism shows itself in the necessity under
which Venantius, a litterateur born if over there
was one, found it necessary to write a labored
Life of St Martin in hexameters, and Gregory
of Tours, a born historian, had to supplement
his invaluable History of the Franks by the
Glory of Confessors of the faith M Paul
Roger has set himself to show that all the
reputed educated men of the succeeding genera-
tions, 590 to 650, had received no more instruc-
tion than that of learning Latin in and by and
for the sole purpose of understanding the
Scriptures, and certain it is that the lives of
the saints, which afford our sole knowledge of
these schools, speak almost invariably of their
being instructed in sacred letters (saw is httens)
or divine learning (dwinis discipline) General
education and, by consequence, general learning
had died out in Gaul In Spam, on the other
hand, whore the controversy between Anans
and Catholics still prevailed, learning was kept
alivo King Sigebert, to whom Isidore of
Seville had dedicated his De natura rerum,
which remained one of the groat works of the
Middle Ages, was himself partly learned,
scientia htterarum ex parte imbutus Isidore,
brother of the Archbishop of Seville, was the
most learned man of the age. Ho forbids,
indeed, monks to cultivate learning. " A
monk should eschew reading gentile works or
the writings of heretics; for it is better to
remain in ignorance of their pernicious teach-
ings than by trying thus to run the risk of
flying into the snare of error " But he does
not apply his prohibition to the clergy who
lived in the world and had to preach "Igno-
rance is the mother of error and the nurse of
vice." " Better grammar than heresy." His

Etymologies, the great encyclopedia of the
Middle Ages in twenty books, is full of quota-
tions from classical authors, and though thero
is some reason to think that it was intended
to supersede the dangerous necessity of refer-
ring to the originals, it did, in fact, materially
tend to prevent their being altogether barred
In science it proved to be a last flicker of the
torch It was, however, to England that tho
credit is due of preserving learning from com-
plete extinction by a system of education. If
Bede (q v ) , who, it is true, wrote a century
after the event, is to be trusted, in 631 thero
were still grammar schools in Gaul and in
Kont, which served as a model for the rest of
England Sigebert, king of the Eabt Angles,
was converted to Christianity when an oxilo
in Gaul Wishing to imitate what he had seen
well done there, he set up a school in which
boys should be taught letters (littens erudiren-
tur), and when this word is used without qualifi-
cation it must bo taken to mean, unless the
context otherwise requires, grammar, that is,
learning Latin by reading Latin authois, and
probably classical authors Sigebert did not,
howovor, iind it necessary to import his school-
masters direct from Gaul, but with the assist-
ance of Felix, a Burgundian, then living in
Kent, whom ho made bishop of his kingdom,
he gavo thorn masters and ushers after the
fashion of Canteibury (or Kentish) custom
As the date is only thirty years after Augus-
tine's settlement at Canterbury, it is to bo
inferred that both at Canteibury and latoi at
Rochester, when a bishopric was created thero,
the first archbishop had instituted grammar
schools A generation later by a fortunate
accident thore came to Engla<nd tho Giook
archbishop Theodore, who. though then a
monk at Rome, had been born at Tarsus in
Cihcia, and, presumably before ho became
monk, had been well instructed both in secular
and divine letters, Grook as well as Latin
Accompanied by the African, Adrian (qv),
who was in a monastery near Naplos, and,
therefore, also knew Greek as well as Latin,
they went all over England, not only preaching,
but teaching The Romans of the day de-
spised Greek Gregory, though he was Papal
nuncio in Constantinople for five years, nevoi
took the trouble to learn Greek; it is fan
to say that ho was a monk at the time But
tho English, being still new alike to Chris-
tianity and to education, had no such views
To them Greek, like Latin, camo with all
the glamor of the ancient civilization, and
thore was no danger of their worshiping
Zous or Venus, because they read Homer
or Ovid, as was the case with the lingering
paganism of Italy or even Gaul. So Theodore
and Adrian taught not only the way to read
the Scriptures, but the art of meter and
astronomy and profane (secularibus) litera-
ture. Hence it was that whether the grammar
schools instituted by Augustine taught the

220

MIDDLE AGES

MIDDLE AGES

classics or not, the grammar schools as re-
formed by Theodore certainly did Hence it
came about that the monastery at Jarrow was
redeemed from being a mere abode of English-
speaking monks and became the home of Bede
and of learning, that Winifred and Wilhbrod
handed on to Germany and Holland, not
merely Christianity, but schools in which a
classical education was given, and that
Alcum gave back to France all and more than
all that France and Italy had given to England
through Augustine

It was not that there was any mysterious
virtue in the mere learning of Greek, as some
writers on the Renaissance or on modem edu-
cation appear to think The knowledge of
Greek did not prevent the Eastern Empire
from sinking even lower than the Western
It was that the mere fact of bilingual study
appears to have a sharpening effect on the
intelligence as appeals m the superior ucuteness
of the Welsh to the English schoolboy, and
this mere fact of opening up another literature
enlarged the horizon of thought and the
breadth of mind Though the study of Gieek
died down again in the third generation, after
Bedo, especially in the north, there is reason
to think that it lingered on in Kent and Wessex
till the Danish invasions began again after
Athelstari The outbreak of English cul-
ture, which followed Alfred's reronquest of
the south, and the place given to English in
Alfred's scheme of education may be largely
due to the competition of the second learned
language, which made him realize that all
learning was not necessarily shut up within
the walls of the Latin language, and that as
the Greeks prayed and taught in their own
tongue, so might the English It is clear
from Alcum's account of the school at York
as taught bv Archbishop Albert and himself
that the old distinction between the grammar
school and the ihetonc school had disappeared
Not that rhetoric itself or logic ceased to be
cultivated But as in the davs of Qumhhan
the grammar school, as he conceived it, limited
to teaching grammar and expounding the poets,
was trenching on the sphere of the rhetoric
school by reading also the historians and teach-
ing the elements of oratory; now that the school
was not preparing citizens for the forum, but
clerks for the church, rhetoric fell into a
secondary place, and, though the art of speak-
ing was still useful for a preacher, it became
relegated to a comparatively unimportant
position in the school, which, if given a single
name, would have been the grammar school
In the same way a modicum of mathematics,
only enough to fix the calendar and find the
right time for Easter, was taught and a little
law, whereas the law schools at Rome and
Berytus had been great and separately endowed
At a Synod in Bavaria in 774 it was
ordered that every bishop should establish a
school at his see with a learned master to

teach according to the tradition of the Romans,
The Synod of Aachen in 789 under Alcumian
influences ordered that not only every bishop's
see, but also every monastery, should have
schools of readers as well as singers and of
writers of correct MSB But the monastic
schools were closed again by the Synod of
Aachen in 817 From that time education
for otheis than the monks in the monasteries
was exclusively a matter of concern to the
secular clergy Efforts were made from time
to time to extend it to the laity, also From
Alcum's words it would appear that every
noble child could be educated in York School,
and a letter of Alcum's shows that Charle-
magne tried to effect the bame, while Alfred
the Great (according to Assci, who, it
must be remembered, is probably an eleventh-
century compiler) made his earls, thanes,
and bailiffs learn giammar, and Alfied himself,
in his Preface to Gregory's Pastoial Care,
definitely set up as his ideal that every Eng-
lish freeman should learn at least to read
English, and those who wished should go on to
Latin (See ALFRED, KING ) The Council of
Cloveshoo in 747 had indeed expressed a pious
wish in this direction, also But the last inva-
sions of the Northmen in the tenth century,
destroying churches and schools wholesale as
well as the towns in which they were, wiped
out any idea of lay education except in the
highest classes and threw back the whole of
North Germany, France, and England The
Aleuimari tradition was practically extin-
guished Until the conquest of England was
finally accomplished by William the Conqueror,
learning was at a discount outside Italy

The Late Middle Ages — In the seventh
and eighth centuries Italy had sunk perhaps
lower into ignorance, owing to the monastic
and anti-classical influence of Gregory the Great
and to the Lombard and other invasions in the
North or West of Europe Gregory had indeed
instituted a song school at Rome to teach the
Gregorian chant, which may or may not have
been an advance on the Ambrosian chant, but
was certainly merely ecclesiastical, and con-
tributed not at all to learning except in so far
as learning psalrns and hymns implied some
knowledge of reading, though not necessarily an
understanding of Latin Tested by charters,
and it was almost exclusively for composition
of legal and diplomatic documents that Latin
was still kept up at all, the Latin of Italy was
hopelessly barbarous, whereas English charters
of the same date, though turgid and involved,
are grammatical and fairly good legal Latin

The Song School — One wonders whether
the schoolmasters (magitiri scolarum) who
signed charters at Milan in 748 and 767 were
as one who signed in 809 expressly described
himself master, of the song school It was
perhaps from Gregory's song school that the
crowds of scholars came, who are recorded as
greeting Charlemagne on his triumphal entry

221

MIDDLE AGES

MIDDLE AGES

into Rome in 774 At all events, the first
educational act noted of Charlemagne is the
introduction of Roman song schoolmasters into
the schools of Gaul, and in a subsequent quarrel
between the foreign and the native singers in
787 he decided in favor of the Romans because
Rome was the fons et ongo of the art It was
only on his second journey to Rome that he is
said to have brought back grammar masters,
and that in the person of Alcum the English-
man, not of a Roman Song schools were
recorded as having been established in Eng-
land at York by Pauhnus, m which the art as
taught in Kent was practiced, an implication
of previous establishment by Augustine at
Canterbury, from whence Pauhnus brought
his song schoolmaster, James the Deacon.
Gregory may therefore claim the educational
merit, at all events, of establishing the song
school as even a more necessary part of
medieval education than the grammar school.
In all the cathedrals and collegiate churches
from the beginning of the seventh century, the
song school stood as one of the essential parts
of medieval education, not because it softened
manners and did not allow them to be brutal,
but on the purely utilitarian ground that it
was necessary for the church services. Hence
the song school extended itself to the parish
churches As it was essential for singing that
the choristers should be able to read, the song
schools became the elementary schools of the
Middle Ages In the inevitable tendency of
the elementary schoolmaster to encroach on
the domain of the higher education, we find in
the thirteenth and succeeding centuries dis-
putes between the song schoolmasters arid the
grammar schoolmasters, where both existed,
as to whether and how far the song school-
master might teach the elements of grammar.
It was generally, but not always, settled in
favor of the song schoolmaster being allowed
to teach the " Donat," or accidence. In some
cases, especially after the Black Death in the
fourteenth century, we find in some smaller
places like Northallertori and Howden in York-
shire the two schools rolled into one, and one
master teaching both grammar and song In
the greater places and churches the two were
always distinct and were under different
officials of the chapter, the precentor being
responsible for the song school and the chan-
cellor for the grammar school. The song
school was specially, though not necessarily,
confined to churches The grammar school
was specially for clerks and laymen, though
choristers were not excluded, and in some cases
were made to attend But their attendance
was always a difficulty. So at Lincoln and
Salisbury, where in the fourteenth and fifteenth
centuries separate grammar schools were estab-
lished for the choristers, growing gradually out
of private tutors appointed to look after them,
the grammar school was at first under the
precentor, but was recognized as subsidiary

222

and subordinate to the old, the city or Cathe-
dral Grammar School, under the Chancellor.
At Lincoln, after a quarrel with the town coun-
cil on the subject, it was definitely settled in
1406 that the choristers' grammar school should
be allowed, but should not take in any other
than choristers or relations of the canons living
in their houses , and once a term all the scholars
in it were to go down into the town and attend
the ancient grammar school and sit there under
the teaching and discipline of the grammar
school master in token of its superiority. But
the song school received separate treatment

Conditions in Italy. — The Carolingian re-
vival affected Italy as it had France. In 825
an important educational edict was published
by the Emperor Lothaire assigning Pavia,
Turin, Cremona, Piacenza, Florence, and four
other places for central schools to which
scholars from surrounding districts, mentioned
in detail, were to resort The exact meaning
of this edict has been disputed between
Protestant and Catholic historians. It begins
by a statement that " as to teaching (doctrina),
which through the carelessness and laziness of
certain rulers is everywhere wholly extinct, it
had been decreed that the greatest care shall
be taken by those who are assigned by us to
teach others in certain places named that their
scholars shall become proficient " Giese-
brecht and Roger argue that this only refers
to religious teaching, to theology, and not to
literary or classical instruction. Ozanam ap-
plies it to the latter The unqualified words
doctrina and scolastica point to the latter.
Even if, however, the schools were only theo-
logical, they imply a preliminary grammar
training for those who were to take the Scrip-
ture course The next year, 826, saw the often-
quoted conciliar decree of Eugemus II which,
complaining that in some places neither
masters nor a cure are found for the study of
letters (or a grammar school), directs that, in
all bishops' sees and in other places where
necessary, masters and doctors should be estab-
lished with schools of grammar and the liberal
arts This is surely merely translating into
ecclesiastical law and explaining Lothaire's
decree of the year before. It only lays down
what was already the practice certainly north
of the Alps, though it may have been new
south of them. In 853 a constitution of Pope
Leo IV says that even if teachers of the liberal
arts are rarely found, nevertheless masters of
theology and teachers of the ecclesiastical
office shall by no means be wanting. In
southern Italy, at Naples, Duke Sergius is
said to have known both Greek and Latin
and to have had his two sons, the elder in-
tended for a soldier as magister militum and
the younger Athanasms intended for a bishop,
educated in both languages. As Bishop of
Naples he is said to have founded schools both
of grammar and song The Bishop of Modena,
in appointing an archpriest in 908, puts first

MIDDLE AGES

MIDDLE AGES

of his duties that of keeping a school arid edu-
cating boys It was in connection, however,
chiefly with the two studies of medicine and
law which, though largely, if not exclusively,
practiced, at all events in the North, by cleiks,
in Italv appear to have remained or to have
been largely practiced by laymen, and so did
not wholly fall under the deadening influence
of an exclusively " other-worldly " attitude,
that a revival led by Italians began At
Salerno, which was in the Greek-speaking
part of Italy, and long retained a connection
with the Eastern Empire, the study of medical
authors was kept up, and therewith was kept up
a knowledge of Latin for other than religious
purposes (See UNIVERSITIES )

The Rive of Universities -To Salerno is
due the first known gathering of doctors or
teachers which is entitled to be called a
university, and the fame of which it can
hardly be doubted was influential in aiding
the establishment of similar gatherings at
Bologna in law and at Pans in theology

Similarly as regards law In spite of the
barbarian invasions, there seemed always to
have been some tinctuie of Roman law in the
cities of Italv Gregorv the Great was essen-
tially a lawyer Alcuin records that law was
taught among the other items of tin1 encv-
clopedia in the school of York by his master,
Archbishop Albert, in 736 (7//o,s juruhca cunint
cote polirc) Aftci the Lombard invasions in
Italy it almost disappeared save at Ravenna,
where the connection with the Eastern Empire
kept it up and whence it first spread on the
revival The term scholastic us for a teacher
is probably due to Ravenna In the davs of
Gregory the Great a scholaxticus was not a
teacher 01 a scholar, but a high inipeiial
official, a lord high chancelloi, if not a chief
justice But by the tenth century schold^ti-
< MS is used at Ravenna as equivalent with
inagister, to mean what a little later was called
a doctor of law, — not so much a teachei of law,
but an expounder of it as an advocate, one
who lays down the law, — and apparently, as in
the case of Portia in the Merchant of IVn/re,
the advocates were almost regarded and fre-
quently consulted, if not as judges, at least as
anna cur HE

It was at Pans that Lanfranc (r/ r ) was bom
Lanfranc, like Anselm, coming from Italy, in-
fused a much more secular and rhetorical
spnit into the studies of Franco, and so con-
tributed to the awakening which showed itself
in Italy in the union of the Law Schools 01
University of Bologna and in France which
became the University of Paris, at the end
of the eleventh century Both Lanfranc and
Anselm, when they became monks and then
archbishops, were potent instruments of re-
action, and their influence largely contributed
to the conversion of the nascent University of
Puns from a school of free discussion and un-
fettered philosophy, into an almost entirely

theological seminary in which logic and
philosophy were only studied as a pieparation
for theology. The free thinkers Berengarius,
Roscelmus, Aboard, were crushed one aftei
anothoi The brilliant anticipation of the
Renaissance which pioduced such scholars and
researchers as John of Salisbury, Walter Map,
Grraldus Cambiensis, faded away

The mental gymnastic of dialectic, better
perhaps than anv other for sharpening the
intellect, remained and proved an immense
gain to the medieval mind Its practice at
least showed that there were two sides to
eveiy question, and it cultivated the habit of
argument and to some extent of investigation
It elevated the medieval schools into something
more approaching the ihetonc schools of the
ancient world It must never be forgotten
that what is spoken of with scorn bv later
writers as the scholastic system is really noth-
ing more than the system of discussion and
argument conducted with a view to and by
way of viva voce debate, instead of as now on
paper Hence it was keener, closer, and at
the same time produced greater heat than oui
modern discussions by newspapers, magazines,
and books It must be remembered that the
same system which produced Anselm and
Becket, produced also Wycliffe and Luther

Church School* — The rise of the Univer-
sities produced an exhilarating effect on
schools rn general, rf it had the effect of de-
pressing others There was now no question
as in the Oarolmgian days of an Imperial edict
being required to establish three public schools
for the whole empire, 01 of a Papal bull to
require every bishop to provide for schools in
his episcopal city In the tenth-century de-
velopment collegiate churches had spread
schools to all the towns considered of sufficient
importance to have such institutions In all
the boroughs recorded as built by Edward the
Elder, arid Ethelfleda, or At heist an, and which
survived to post-Conquest times, there arc
found, when records begin, collegiate churches
with grammar schools attached, such as Bed-
ford, Beverley, Derby, Leicester, Oxford,
Stafford, Warwick — it is inferred that they
were constituted when the towns won1 castel-
lated or fortified Foreign examples confirm
this Not only were the collegia tes of Nesles
and Poitiers famous for their schools, but in
Germany and France collegiate churches were
multiplied in the same town, and each of them
had its school At Li&gc, besides the cathedral
school of St Lambert's, there was a school at
the collegiate church of the Holy Cross, which
proved a model as well as probably gave its
name to Harold's foundation at Walt ham Holy
Cross, at St Martin's, at St John's, with
which last, in about 1090, there was a fierce
struggle for precedence between the rival
schoolmasters, which the chapter of the cathe-
dral was called in to settle. So at Cologne,
besides the cathedral school there were in the

223

MIDDLE AGES

MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE

eleventh century the schools of the collegiate
churches of St. Cumbert and St. Gereon
Before the end of the fifteenth century there
were no less than eighteen grammar schools in
the various collegiate churches and hospitals
in that city The fact that there was an in-
dependent collegiate church of St (Jenevifcve
in Pans which had a right to keep a school
independently of the license of the Chancellor
of Notre Dame, had an important influence in
the development of Pans University

In England, whether through less populous-
ness and wealth or for what other reason is
not clear, there was no multiplication of col-
legiate church schools (q v ) outside London
But in every town of any size there was
a collegiate church, or a collegiating as in
Hull and Northampton of the chantry priests
attached to the various churches, and in York
and some other places there were rival schools
In the smaller towns and country parishes the
schools were supplied by chantry (q v ) founda-
tions, in which the priest, either by foundation
or of his own will to eain money and obtain
occupation, kept school The gilds, too, set up
or helped to endow the schools, as in the famous
case of Stratford-on-Avon grammar school
The supply of schools indeed was ample and
tended more and more as time went on even
to outstrip the population In the foundation
of University colleges begun at Pans and imi-
tated within a few years at Salisbury, Oxford,
and Cam bridge, Bologna, in the thnteenth cen-
tury gave an enormous impetus to the founda-
tion of collegiate churches, chantries, and hos-
pitals Every one who rose to lank 01 wealth
in the church, especially in the civil service,
felt almost bound to found or augment the
church or hospital or chantry of his native
place, and therewith his school The latest
phase of this development was when William
of Wykeham founded a school as itself a col-
legiate chinch at Winchester and was imitated
by Hemy VI at Eton and a host of others

Transition to the Renaissance — But as
long as the monastic spirit prevailed, and ex-
tended to an enfoiced celibacy of the deigy,
education and learning seemed doomed to
•sterilitv There were always a few bold spirits
who, like the biographer of Adalbert, Arch-
bishop of Mainz, complained that though
philosophy shone in his city and the school
flourished, it would be more learned if the
keeping of choir did not a hateful evil and
the rigor of the church put impediments in the
way of learning, for psalm singing and learn-
ing don't agree. But the prevailing view was
that enforced by Bishop John Grandison of
Exeter, in 1357, who complained that the
schoolmasters in his diocese took the boys a Way
from reading matins and the hours of the Vir-
gin and, more like gentiles than Christians,
hurried them to other schoolbooks, the poets and
others. What more than anything else, how-
ever, retarded the progress of learning and the

world in general was the asceticism which in the
twelfth century finally overcame the freedom
of the clergy to marry. Multiply clerks as they
might, their learning perished with them, and
it was impossible for a learned or literary
class to grow up when each successive genera-
tion had to start anew from the scions of the
unlearned Consequently there was little ad-
vance made until in the Renaissance the lay-
folks, beginning with the aristocracy of Italy,
followed not long behind by those of other
nations, as the example of Henry VI (q v )
shows, betook themselves to learning. Through
them only do we get such a foundation deed as
that of Bingham asking leave of Henry VI in
1439 to found a college to train grammar school
masters ; no longer, in the words of Wykeham,
because grammar was the gate of science leading
to the mistress *of all learning, — theology, —
but because it led to a knowledge of the laws
and promoted intercourse between nations
When a parson and a scholar could plead for
learning in these terms and for this object, the
Middle Ages weie over and the Renaissance
and the modern era of education had begun

A F L
References —

See the reference lists to the various articles to which
cross reference is made in the text.

MIDDLE SCHOOLS — See MITTEL-

BCHULE.

MIDDLEBURY COLLEGE, MIDDLE-
BURY, VT — A nonscctanan institution,
chartered 1800 The mcoipoiators were
mostly Congrogationahsts of Yale anteced-
ents, but the college has never had any
formal ecclesiastical connection Fellows arc
chosen for life, and elect their own successors
without restrictions The chaiter has never
been amended The fust president was Rev
Jeremiah Atwater (Yale, 1703), who previously
was principal of the Addison County Grammar
School, founded on the advice of President
Dwight as a forerunner to the college The first
clash was graduated in 1802, at which time the
first academic degiees conferred in Vermont were
bestowed. For ten years the work of the col-
lege was done in a frame building, which it
shared with the grammar school, but in 1810
Seth Storrs presented a campus, thirty acres
on an eminence on the edge of the village Hei c
the first building was erected in 1815, and later
named Painter Hall, in honoi of Gamaliel
Painter, a founder and benefactoi This build-
ing, which is still in use, is one of the best
examples of early collegiate architecture.
A large chapel and recitation building were
erected in 1836, and Starr Hall, a dormitory,
in 1861 The growth of the college was steady
under Presidents Davis (1809-1817) and Bates
(1818-1839), but was retarded during the able
administration of Benjamin Labaree (1840-
1866) by dissensions over the slavery question

224

MIDLAND COLLEGE

MILDE

and various religious issues The Civil War
nearly emptied the college of students, and the
institution was slow in recovering President
Cyrus Hamlin (1880-1885), founder of Rob-
ert College, proved a vigorous administrator.
Under Ezra Bramerd (1885-1908) substantial
endowments were received In 1883 women
were admitted, and since 1895 their number has
approached that of the men Since 1888
$2400 a year has been received from the state
for scholarships for thirty Vermont students
The centennial of Iho college was celebrated
in 1900 In 1911 a fund of $200,000, one half
for endowment, which was initiated by a con-
ditional offer of $50,000 from the 'General
Education Board (qv), was completed The
Vermont legislature of 1908 established a de-
partment of pedagogy for the training of high
school teachers by an annual appropriation of
$6000, which was increased in 1910 to $13,600
The income in 1911 was $59,11330 The
resources are (1911) permanent funds,
$199,67264, annuity funds, $36,500, plant,
$335,987 37, reserved for buildings, $45,961 51,
total, $917,154 56 The college offers classical,
scientific, and pedagogical courses, and confers
the degrees of A B , B S , and AM in course
The faculty (191 1) numbers twenty-six, of whom
nine are full professors The present enrollment
is 408, 01, excluding the sumrnei session, 305
The attendance doubled in the six years pre-
ceding 1911 The college was on the first list
of accepted institutions of the Carnegie Foun-
dation (q v) J M T

Reference —

A Record of the Centennial Anniversary of Middlcbury
College (Middlebury, Vt , 1901 )

MIDLAND COLLEGE, ATCHISON, KAN

— A coeducational institution founded in 1S87
by the General Synod of the Evangelical
Lutheran Church Academic, collegiate, and
music departments are maintained Fifteen
units are required for regular entrance to
college Degrees (A B , B S , B L ) aie con-
ferred on completion of the appropriate courses
The enrollment in 1911-1912 was 145 The
faculty consists of fifteen members

MIEGE, GUY (1644-1718). — lie was edu-
cated at Lausanne, and about 1658 became an
"academist " He came to London in 1660
After traveling for a time in Europe, Mie*ge again
appears in London in 1678 as a teacher of
French and geography In 1678 Mie'ge pub-
lished his New French Grammar, or a New
Method for Learning of the French Tongue,
consisting of vocabularies and dialogues, mainly
" discourses of cosmography " in French
This work he describes as a new method for
learning French The Ground* of the French
Tongue (1687) covered the same field, but
omitted the geographical discourse The
teacher of French (1) must speak true French;
(2) should have good learning; (3) should have

VOL. IV — Q

225

good skill in the English language, "because
without it it is impossible he can teach by the
grammar"; (4) should be thoroughly ac-
quainted with the textbook he uses In 1677
was issued a Neic Dictionary, French and Eng-
lish, wtth another, English and French, in which
he acknowledges his indebtedness to the Z)?r-
twnary Roy all F tench and Latin of the Jebuit
Father, Pomey (See INDICULUS UNI VEHSALIS )
He introduces heie derivatives in theii alpha-
betical order, but with reference to the primi-
tives This woik was followed in 1688 by a
much laiger one, the (heat French Dictionary

Mie'ge names Cardinal Richelieu's establish-
ment of an academy as a giound for the need of
a, new dictionary, for the Academy had driven
from the French " exciescences " and " irregu-
larities," and these remained in even the best
of the current French-English dictionaries
He quotes Howell (q v ) as saying that the
English language is so made up of the French
that he needs to studv French if only to speak
good English

Other educational works of Mie'ge were
(1) for the teaching of French' A Dictionary of
Barbarous French (taken from Cotgrave's
Dictionary, 1679), A Short Dictionary English-
French and French-English (London, 1685),
Nouvelle Methode pour apprendre I' Anglais
(London, 1685), Nouvelle Nomenclature Fran-
c,ai8c et Anglaixe (London, 1685), (2) in Oog-
laphy A New Cosmography or Suivey of the
Whole World (London, 1682), and '(3) foi
teaching English, a textbook The English
Grammar, 168S, as to which Mic"ge seems to
have agreed to a division of labor, himself
instructing French people in English, and Abel
Bover instructing the English in French

P W
References --

AGNEW, D ('A Protestant Exiles from France,

Vol 1, pp 158-161 (Edinburgh, 1886 )
Dictionary of National Biography

MILAN, ROYAL FACULTY OF LETTERS
AND PHILOSOPHY, ITALY — See ITALY,
EDUCATION IN

MILDE, VINCENZ EDUARD (1777-1853)
— One of the most pioniinent Austrian educa-
tors, was born at Brunn, Moiavia, and re-
ceived his early education at the gymnasium
of his native city In Vienna he studied the-
ology, and, in 1800, he began his activity as a
parish priest From 1802 to 1804 he directed
the religious instiuction in several Vienna
schools, in 1805 he was made court preacher,
and in 1806 he received the chair of pedagogy
in the university of Vienna For the use of
his students he published his Lehrbuch der all-
gerneinen Erziehiwgskunde (Textbook of Gen-
cral Pedagogy, 1811-1813), which was based
chiefly on the principles of Kant and Pesta-
lozzi. In 1823 he was made Bishop of Leit-
meritz, and in 1831 Archbishop of Vienna. ID

MILITARY ACADEMY

MILITARY EDUCATION

both positions he did much foi the cause of
popular education and for the ti tuning of priests
and teachers In his will he directed that the
whole income of his estate be used for the sup-
port of poor priests and schoolmasters. F. M

MILITARY ACADEMY. — See MILITARY
EDUCATION

MILITARY EDUCATION —Prussia —

In recent times the Prussians were the first to
develop a comprehensive scheme of military
education Under the strong influence of
their disasters in 1806 they went to work with
biilhant leaders in a reform of the entire mili-
tary system, which they developed in compara-
tive quiet until the three wars which they fought
between 1864 and 1870 showed then preemi-
nent position as a military nation Since then
the world has become their \villmg pupil, and
all great modern armies have taken their lead
Those who have not done so owe then neglect
to political and othei conditions which their
military advisers do not cease to legiet The
method followed by Germany is, therefore, a
standard, and the others are eithei repetitions
or more or less successful adaptations of that
system

In Prussia the control of so much of the
military education as is not connected with
service with troops is, with one exception,
vested in a single officer, the Inspector-Gen-
eral of Military Education and Tiaming The
exception is the Wai Academy, which, being a
staff college, is under the supervision of the
Chief of Staff of the armv The Inspector-
General is assisted by two permanent boards,
(a) the Board of Studies, in matters connected
with the general system of instruction, and (b)
the Supreme Examination Board, in regard to
examinations and qualifications for commis-
sions The system of education is still further
centralized by placing all cadet schools under
command of a major-general, the war schools
under a lieutenant-general, arid the infantry
schools under a major-general At the same
time each of the institutions has a board of
studies, which is charged with the general
control of the course of study and with the duty
of making suggestions for its improvement
It is noticeable that a large proportion of the
instruction is in the hands of civilians, who also
have a certain proportion of places on those
boards

The entire system of military schools may be
divided into four groups (A) Schools foi the
preparation of candidates to reach the grade
of officer (B} Schools for the completion and
improvement of the education of commissioned
officers ( C) Schools for noncommissioned offi-
cers and men (/)) Schools in the duties of
officers belonging to special services and other
noncombatant arms

A The Schools for the Preparation of Candi-
dates for the Officers' Commission are of two kinds,

(a) Cadet schools (Kadettenhauser) which
prepare for the ensign examination They are
of two grades, senior arid junior The course
of studies covers nine classes The term is one
year foi each class The course is assimilated
to that of the royal schools and gymnasia, or
public schools of the country, and graduation
in the upper first class is a qualification for ad-
mission to a university The cadets are under
military instruction and discipline, but purely
military subjects have no place in the curric-
ulum

The cadets are also divided into four classes
called conduct classes On entering they are
assigned to the third class They are promoted
into the second class for good conduct and into
the first class for exceptionally good conduct
The higher conduct classes enjoy special privi-
leges and favors, especially in the matter of
liberty The fourth or lowest class is a disci-
plinary section Cadets who pass into this
section are under close supervision, and enjoy
no privileges or liberty

The junior cadet schools are eight in number,
and are located at Goslm, Potsdam, Wahlstadt,
Bensburg, Plon, Oranienstem, Karlsruhe, and
Naumburg The total capacity of these schools
is about 1700 cadets The members of the
corps are largelv sons of army and navy officers,
and receive subsistence, clothing, and tuition
either free 01 at a nominal charge Although
intended foi military service, there is nothing
compulsory about the institutions Admission
is subject to a qualifying examination in ele-
mental y subjects Entrance may be obtained
at the age of ten years The average number
of hours spent in classroom is twenty-eight hours
per week

The junior schools keep the cadets through
the first five classes, and transfer them to the
senior cadet school at Gross Lichterfelde, when
they have successfully completed the course of
the upper third class Thus, under normal
conditions, they would enter the senior cadet-
school at the age of fifteen years, and would
finally graduate at nineteen years There are
1000 cadets at Gross Lichterfelde, and they
spend thirty hours per week in class

tterwcc in the Ranks — Normally the next
stage in the progress of the cadet after passing
through the cadet schools is to take the
ensign's examination and to serve as a noncom-
missioned officer for six months with troops, but
they may do this at an earlier period At the
close of the second year of the upper cadet
school those cadets who have the requisite
age and physical development are admitted
to the ensign's examination, and, if successful,
receive a conditional appointment as brevet
ensigns (Porte-epee-Fdhnnche), and enter at
once on service in the ranks.

Likewise at the same period of the course
in the cadet schools a "select" class of espe-
cially meritorious cadets is formed, which at once
begins a course of preparation for the officers'

226

MILITARY EDUCATION

MILITARY EDUCATION

examination The course consists entirely of
military subjects and languages, and is very
much the same as that of the war schools
This class, which is small, receives officers'
commissions directly, forming an exception to
the rule that candidates must first pass through
the brevet ensign grade m the ranks, and that
they must be voted upon by the legimental
officers

The policy of making the cadet school apart
of the military educational system has been
much discussed Its opponents urge that
the character of the education is inferior to that
of the civil schools, that the methods of disci-
pline are so mild that the boys will get no idea
of military life from the experience, that the
boys so educated become unfit for the occu-
pations of civil life, that it is an error to put
boys into the militarv profession at an age
when their taste or fitness for it has not been
developed, that it tends to create a special
military class, that favoritism is shown to the
cadets over those who enter from civil life pure
and simple. On the other hand, the friends of
the system claim that by taking the boys at
an early age, advantages are gained, which over-
weigh these objections As a result of the dis-
cussion the decision seems to be in favor of
increasing the number and capacity of the
cadet schools rather than diminishing them
At present the cadet schools do not provide
more than one third of the officeis necessary
foi the army, and the balance is made up in
other ways

A young man who wishes to enter the army
as an officer, without passing through the cadet
schools, must first be nominated by the colonel
of the regiment in which he desires to serve
He then serves as a private for six months, with
certain privileges in recognition of the fart that
he is a candidate for a commission, and lie is
called an " advantageur," or aspirant officer
During this time, usually at the beginning,
he must pass an educational test Tins may
be satisfied by the production of a diploma either
from a gymnasium or royal school (technical
school) of the first class The examination
of those who do not possess evidence of having
pursued a sufficiently high course of study
embraces principally (1) a good knowledge of
the German language, (2) a translating knowl-
edge of a foreign modern language , (3) arith-
metic, algebra, up to equations of the second
degree; use of logarithms, plane geometry
and trigonometry The instructors are directed
to arrange the course according to the ability
of the pupils; they are forbidden to force them
to take up lines for which they have no talent ,
memorizing is discouraged, and useless detail
is eliminated The aim of all education is to
train the character as well as the mind, and to
do this the above method is considered best

After at least five months' uninterrupted
service in the ranks, the candidate is passed
upon by his company, battalion, and regimental

commanders, from whom a certificate is neces-
sary, setting forth that judging from his physi-
cal, mental, and moral qualities, his depoit-
ment, zeal, and the degree of practical knowl-
edge of the service he has acquired, they deem
him worthy to continue in the service with a
view to advancement

(b) War School* ( Knegsschulen) — The ad-
vantageurs and cadets not of the Selecta class
gain their military instruction at a war school,
after having fulfilled the necessary requirements
of the ensign examination and seivice in ranks

There are ten war schools in Prussia, sit-
uated at Ariklam, Casscl, Dantzig, Engers,
Glogau, Hanover, Hersfeld, Metz, Neisse,
Potsdam At these schools a corps of 172
officers is stationed, and the aggregate attend-
ance of students is one thousand Admission
may take place as early as seventeen and a half
years, and the term lasts ten months The
course of studies is strictly military, even lan-
guages and mathematics being excluded It
includes tactics, the science of arms, field
fortifications, topography, regulations

Those ensigns who successfully pass the war
schools are reported to the " Superior Military
Examination Commit toe," with a view to
taking the officers' examination The members
of the Selecta, having followed a course ex-
actly similar to that of the war schools, are also
admitted to the officers' examination if deemed
proficient After the examination they return
to their regiments for further service, generally
several months

An exception to the rule of attendance at
war schools is made in favor of students who
have attended a university, a technical high
school, or a forestry academy for at least a
year Young men of this class, though re-
quired to undergo the practical test, the result
of which is described in the certificate of their
superior officers, may, upon the recommenda-
tion of the latter, be admitted to the officers'
examination without previous attendance at a
war school and without serving a full term of
six months in the ranks Still another excep-
tion is made in favor of officers of the reserve
transferred to the active army The aggregate
number of those who enter under these excep-
tions is quite small

The nomination to the sovereign of a person
who has passed the officers' examination for
appointment as second lieutenant must be
accompanied, except in the case of the Selecta
class of the cadet schools, by a statement of
the officers of his regiment or independent bat-
talion that they regard the nominee as fit to
become their comrade, and that he possesses
the practical knowledge of the service which is
indispensable to an officer If the majority of
the officers refuse to join in such a statement,
the next senior ensign is at once voted on,
but if the election of a candidate be opposed by
a minority only, the reasons of the latter for
their dissenting view are submitted to the com-

227

MILITARY EDUCATION

MILITARY EDUCATION

mandmg general, who decides what weight,
if any, is to be attached to them In order that
officers may have an opportunity to form an
estimate of the mental and moral qualities of
the ensigns, the latter, during a part of their
service, are admitted to the officers' mess and
are otherwise brought into frequent contact
socially and officially with the officers

B School? for Commissioned Officers — The
schools of this class partake of the character of
postgraduate schools or schools of application.

(a) For cavalry there are two riding schools,
one at Paderborn (Offizier-Reitschule) and one
at Hanover (Militar-Reit-Institut) The school
at Paderborn is for cavalry officers only, and has
a staff of five officers and instructors and forty-
one students Attached to the school there is
a detachment of ten noncommissioned officers,
eighty-four men, eighty officers' horses, and fifty
troop horses The school at Hanovei central-
izes the methods of horsemanship throughout
the empire. It is under the supervision of the
Inspector General of Cavalry and of the Cavalry
Board The personnel consists of twenty-three
officers as instructors and staff

There are one hundred and thirty-three stu-
dent lieutenants at the school, of whom ninety-
one belong to the cavalry and forty-two to the
field artillery The course is usually one year,
but the most proficient are retained for another
year to practice a more extended course
Among the novel methods of the school is the
hunting, with a government pack of hounds
Since 1888 all higher officers of cavalry go to
Hanover each year to take a course of a few
weeks in the chase and in jumping

(b) For field artillery there is a firing school
at Juteibog, which trains officers from all field
artillery regiments as instructors in gunnerv
The personnel consists of twenty-four instruc-
tors, arid there is an instruction regiment (Lehr-
Regiment) with forty-four officers The course
lasts for five months, and the instruction is
under the control of the Inspector General of
Field Artillery In 1910 it was proposed to
send seventeen general officers for a short
course at the school

(c) The infantry schools are under a major
general who is subordinate to the Inspector
General of Military Instruction Those in-
fantry schools which are intended for officers
are (1) The Military Gymnastic Institute
at Berlin, which trains officers of cavalry,
artillery, and infantry to act as athletic in-
structors and fencing masters. It has a staff
of four officers (2) The School of Musketry
at Spandau, which has three courses, (a) The
information course for field officers of cavalry
and infantry, lasting ten days. It was attended
by 118 officers in 1909. (6) The instruction
course for captains arid lieutenants of cavalry
and infantry, lasting twenty days It was
attended by 452 officers in 1909. (c) The
course for noncommissioned officers It was
attended by 540 noncommissioned officers

of cavalry and infantry in 1909. The object
of the school is to instruct officers in target
firing and in the use of small arms so that they
may act as instructors when they return to
their regiments, to hunt out discrepancies in
the present firing regulations and in the meth-
ods of instruction in the different parts of the
empire, and to suggest methods by which they
may be removed , to watch the development
of small arms and small arms practice in foreign
armies, to answer any questions of the Minister
of War on the subject, and to plan and examine
sites for target ranges Attached to the school
are twenty-one officers, of whom six remain
throughout the entiie year, and the balance do
duty with their regiments during the winter
It was proposed during 1910 to send eleven
generals to the school for a short course
(3) There is a battalion of instruction at Pots-
dam, designed to coordinate the methods of
instruction throughout the anny To it are
attached about seventy-five officers and five
hundred and sixty-four men

(d) The Foot Artillery Filing School (Fuss-
artiUenc'-Schiexx-schule) is at Juteibog It is
under control of the Inspect 01 General of Foot
Artillery, and has for its object the training of
officeis and noncommissioned officers of all
foot artillery legimentb as instructors in
gunnery It has twelve instructors, and is
provided with an instruction battalion (Lehr-
bataillon) of nineteen officers

(c) The Technical Military Academy (Mih-
tar-Technischc Akndcnnc) at Berlin is under
the supervision of the Inspector General of
Military Education, and is commanded by a
lieutenant general, with twenty-two officers
as assistants Its object is to complete the
professional instruction of officeis of foot artil-
lery, engineers, pioneers, and communication
troops It also includes more extended courses
in the higher scientific branches of armament
and the engineer and communication services
There are three divisions of the course (1)
Armament (with eighty-seven lieutenants of
artillery and infantry) (2) Engineering (with
forty-seven lieutenants of engineers) (3) Com-
munications (with twenty-two lieutenants of
cavalry, artillery, infantry, tram, and com-
munication) The majority of the officeis leave
at the end of two years The third and fourth
years' course is followed by a small number of
those who are most proficient

(/) The War Academy (Kncgn-Akademie)
at Berlin, founded in 1810, is the highest mili-
tary school of the system The general object
of the institution is to raise the scientific spirit
of the army; its special object is to give such
an education to the most talented officers of all
arms, after they have proved themselves pos-
sessed of the practical qualifications of good
regimental officers, as will fit them not only for
appointments on the staff, but for all responsible
positions of high rank, for the command of regi-
ments, for employment as instructors of military

228

MILITARY EDUCATION

MILITARY EDUCATION

schools, and for all duties which require scien-
tific attainments, both in military and in
general subjects, of a higher degree than those
ordinarily possessed The War Academy is
located in Berlin, under the control of the Chief
of the General Staff of the Army The imme-
diate command is vested in a general, who is
assisted by a board of studies and a personnel
of twenty-three officers as instructors and staff
There are 480 students The course embraces
three consecutive yeais

An officer who takes the examination for the
War Academy must have had at least thiee
years' service as an officei, and musl have satis-
factory repoits from his commanding officers
as to his familiarity with the practical part of
his duties, his health, strength, and chaiactei,
conduct, and pecuniary affans The entiance
examination is intended to ascertain whethei
the applicant is sufficiently advanced in general
education and knowledge on special branches
of learning to enable lum to attend the lectures
of the academy with profit It is also designed
to determine whcthci his powers of discrimina-
tion and judgment aresuchastoguepionnseof
further satisfactory development Accordingly
the subjects for examination are so chosen as
not merely to test the memory, but also to
afford the applicant the opportunity to demon-
strate his ability to express his thoughts in a
cleai, coherent, and effective mannei The
examination embraces the military branches of
tactics, applied tactics, the science of arms,
permanent and field fortifications, study of
ground, and topographical drawing, and the
following branches of general science, — his-
tory, geography, mathematics, and French (op-
tional)

Reference to previous papers shows that the
candidate for the War Academy must make
good use of his time in order to ht himself
for this examination There is no repetition
of subjects covered in previous schools, but he
is called on to draw upon the fund of informa-
tion which he has acquired by seivice with
troops

The course of instruction continues on the
general lines indicated by the entrance exami-
nation, with the option of mathematics or a
language, which may be either English, French,
Russian, or Japanese At the close of the
course the work of each officer is described with
much care and particularity, but no class
standing is announced.

C Schools for Noncommissioned Officers and
Men — In Germany the ordinary noncommis-
sioned officer rarely becomes an officer Oc-
cupying an intermediate position between the
officers and the troops, they form a corps by them-
selves Much care is bestowed on them. For
noncommissioned officers there are seven pre-
paratory schools at Annaburg, with a commis-
sioned staff of eight officers, Bartcnstcm, with
a commissioned staff of eight officers; Grieff en-
berg, with a commissioned staff of eight offi-

cers, Juhch, with a commissioned staff of eight
officers, Xenbrisacli, with a commissioned
staff of ten officers, Weilburg, with a commis-
sioned staff of eight officers; Wohlaw, with a
commissioned staff of eight officers

Candidates mav be admitted at the age of
fifteen years. The course lasts two or three
years, depending upon the previous education
of the students These prepaiatory schools
have the same relation to the noncommis-
sioned officers' schools that the cadet schools
have to war schools About one fourth of t he
noncommissioned officers aie provided b}
schools which aie located as follows Biebrich,
with a commissioned staff of eighteen officei s,
Ettlmgen, with a commissioned staff of eight-
een officers, Juhch, with a commissioned staff
of twelve officei s, Potsdam, with a commis-
sioned staff of twenty-thiee officers; Treptow,
with a commissioned staff of twenty-two
officers, WeisenfeLs, with a commissioned staff of
twenty-two officers, Manenwerder, with a
commissioned staff of eighteen officers There
are about 4000 men in these schools

I) *SV//oo/s foi Auxiliary tfrrvues — These
may be enumerated as follows King William
Militaiy Medical School (A'crw? Wilhehn-
Akadenne fur das M ilitbraitzhchc Btldung^-
wesen) at Beilin Militaiy Vetemum Acad-
emy (AlilitAr- Vetertnai-Akadenne) at Beilin,
with thirteen officei s as instiuctois and staff
Militaiy Hoise Shoeing School at Berlin (Mth-
tdr-Lehrschmiede] personnel of seven officers
Other schools aie in Bieslau, Frankfort, Han-
ovei, Kailsiuhe, Komgsbeig Militaiy orpluu.
schools at Potsdam and Pietzsch, with foin
officeis ( 'avail v Telegraph School (Ahht&r-
TcleytaphenMhuIe) at Berlin, with ten offi-
cers as staff Wallincisteischule at Strass-
buig, with three officei s as staff School of
Fortress Construction (FcdunysbmiKchuh) at
Charlottenburg, \\ith foin officei s in charge
Artificers' School (Ober-Fvuerwcikerschule) at
Berlin, with eighteen officers detailed as staff
and instructors School for Sons of Soldieif,
(M ilitar- K 'nabcn- Erzieluingsansta.lt} at Anna-
berg, with five officers assigned to it foi duty

The mihtaiv schools of Saxon v and Bavana,
except in minor particulars, are exact dupli-
cates of those of Prussia, and thus complete
the educational system of the German Empire

Remarks on Prussian System — From the
foregoing, the conditions of military education
in Germany may be summarized as follows

(1) Proof oi a fair general education is le-
quired either by the certificate of a public
school or by passing the ensign's examination
(2) FT am five to six months' service in the
ranks, as a minimum (3) Ten months'
professional instruction at a war school
(4) Proof of piofcssional knowledge by passing
an officers' examination (5) Acceptance b>
the officeis of the candidate's regiment Thus
there is a double examination and two proba-
tionary periods of service with troops.

229

MILITARY EDUCATION

MILITARY EDUCATION

In Germany the principle of deferring the
strictly military part of a man's education until
after a good grounding in general education is
well established No serious attempt is mado
to give a special military education at an early
age The junior cadet schools give a inild sort
of discipline and some elementary military
exercises, but not enough to partake of the
character of military education Up to the
age of seventeen or eighteen the future officer
receives the same kind of an education as a
civilian, and in a great majority of cases gets
it at the ordinary public schools of the country
The only exception is in the Selecta class of the
cadet schools, which receives military instruction
before actually joining the service, but in this
case the special instruction does not commence
until the age of seventeen After the candi-
dates have had service in the ranks, however,
they receive most careful professional in-
struction in the war schools The course
of these schools is essentially of a practical
character, comprising only strictly military
subjects and excluding such studies as mathe-
matics and even languages.

A notable point of contrast between the
Prussian and the other systems is the absence
of competition in the former There is, in fact,
universal objection to competitive methods
because it is the desire to discourage every-
thing like the schoolboy feeling among officers,
partly from fear that it may lead to jealousy and
ill feeling among them, and diminish the spirit
of comradeship to which so much importance
is attached in the German army Other claims
are that competition prevents individuals from
devoting their talents to subjects for which
they have a natural taste, that it encourages
an abnormal attention to useless details, gives
undue prominence to the man whose chief
ability lies in the memory, and the greatest
objection urged is that it is impossible to make
an examination that will test all the quabties
which go to form military capacity All
examinations are made of a qualifying nature,
and in furtherance of the same general idea
promotion is not made by selection, but by
seniority To form an estimate of the capacity
and general character of all officers there is
provided an elaborate system of inspections and
reports If an officer is passed by a junior
in promotion, it is a sign that he is no longer
considered competent and he must retire from
the service. Usually they are given previous
warning on this point It is supposed that this
system cultivates the mind, directs the atten-
tion to broad principles, and promotes good
feeling

In the German system it will be observed that
mathematics does not hold a high place in the
training of an officer. A knowledge of mathe-
matics up to trigonometry is all that is required
for admission to the army, but the subject
is not taught in the war schools in connection
\vjth the examination for an officer's commis-

sion In the scientific schools, it is true, some
proficiency in mathematics is required, but it is
not of a high standard. The principle seems
to be that the higher branches of mathematics
can only be studied with advantage by a few
who have real talent in that line, and that
it is a waste of time to force the study upon
those who have not a taste for it

More importance seems to be given to the
moral and physical qualifications of an officer
than to actual performance in classroom. A
knowledge of at least one foreign language
is a necessaiy condition for admission No
particular prominence or encouragement is
given to the technical services and scientific-
corps It is, in fact, rather a disadvantage for
those who seek advancement through the
General Staff to comply with the requirements
of the technical schools and then prepare them-
selves for the War College course of three
years As promotion is based on seniority as
a rule, there are only two ways by which a man
can get ahead of his comrades of the same grade
and age (1) The Selecta classes of the cadet
schools are able to got an advantage of about a
year. (2) Officers who are appointed to the
General Staff as captains have their com mis-
sions antedated three years, and this same ad-
vantage may be gained a second time, if, as
majors, they aio again selected on the General
Staff Apparently only a few of the General
Staff come from the scientific corps It is
not considered that these cases are violations of
the rule against competition As stated before,
selections are based on reports showing char-
actoi and mental and physical qualities com-
bined

The most notable feature in the German sys-
tem is the close connection of the schools with
the army, whereby theinfoimation gathered in
the school is constantly applied in the every-
day work of the army

France — Military education is controlled
by a Central Executive Committee entitled
" Permanent Instruction Board of Military
Schools," at the head of which is a general of
division He is invested with the right to con-
trol the discipline of the schools, military edu-
cation, and the general organization of instruc-
tion, and also the initiation of all measures
relative to the material organization of the
schools and the elaboration of programs of
instruction and education

A Schools for the Preparation of Candidates
for the Officer's Commission — The junior cadet
schools of the military class have been for the
most part abandoned because of the conviction
that it was not an advantage to begin a mili-
tary education at an early age The only sur-
vivor of this class is the Military Orphan School
(Prytane'e Mihtaire) at La Fl&che, which con-
tinues to educate the sons of men who have done
meritorious service. It has 500 students, of
whom 300 have their expenses entirely paid
and 120 partly paid by the government. En-

230

MILITARY EDUCATION

MILITARY EDUCATION

trance is at the age of ten years by a qualif^ying
examination Graduates receive4 the degree
of Bachelor of Science, and are pi epared to enter
Saint-Cyr and the Polytechnic Although
under military discipline, with a military per-
sonnel of forty-five officers, and although in-
tended to prepare young men for the imhtarv
profession, there is no obligation of that kind
In the ninety-five years of its existence some-
thing more than half of its graduates have
been officers of the army

Pieparation for the officers' commission may
begin for those who enter fiom givil life in two
schools, the Polytechnic (L'Ecole Polytcch-
niqufi) at Pans, and the Special Military School
( L'Ecolc Speciale Mihtaire) at Samt-Cyr, in
both of which service of one year in a regiment
is required Since 1907 there is a strictly
competitive examination, requiring graduation
at a high school and also special work The
polytechnic school at Pans prepares cadets
for artillery, engineers, and other technical
services in the army and navy The course
lasts two years, beginning at the age of sixteen
or seventeen It gives a preparatory civil edu-
cation, almost entirely of a mathematical
character, and is a scientific school of high class
under military discipline Its graduates are
commissioned as second lieutenants in the coips
for which they have prepared The mihtaiv
element is not prominent During summer
there are two drills pei week only In fact it
is not a military school, although three fourths
to two thirds of its pupils enter the army It is
a sort oi mathematical university, a degree at
which is a necessary condition of admission
to certain departments of na\al, military, and
civil services The staff and personnel consists
of seventy officers and numerous civil in-
structors There are 350 cadets, of whom 100
are at the expense of the State

The Special Military School at Saint-Cyr
is a companion institution to the Polvtechnic,
preparing cadets for the cavalry, infantry, and
marines The course is two years, beginning
at the age of sixteen or seventeen years The
requirement of one year previous service in a
regiment has resulted in the suppression of
military exercises in ranks at the school The
rifle is rarely carried Instruction is essentially
practical, with the object of forming instructors
and officers, and no longer almost exclusively
soldiers The one year's service with regiments
is used in the case of cavalry cadets to develop
in important proportions their general and mili-
tary knowledge They join the class of non-
commissioned candidates for Saumur in the
courses of history, geography, and topography,
and are besides employed in the training of
young horses. There are about 900 cadets,
furnishing about one third the officers neces-
sary. Its graduates predominate in the higher
grades and at the Staff School About half
are pay cadets, the remainder free The mili-
tary and instruction staff" is sixty-five officers

The recruitment of the corps of officers is
further provided foi by three* schools for non-
commissioned officer candidates who are deemed
worthy of advancement In each of these
the requirements of admission are two years'
service and an educational requirement equal
to that offered by the higher primary schools
It is expected that in this way the candidates
will be able to enter the service with the same
degree of preparation as their comrades from
Samt-Cyr and the Polvtechnic The course
in each is about one yeai (1) The Cavalry
School constitutes a section of the Oavalrv
School of Application at Saumur (2) The
Artillery and Engineer School (L'Ecolc Mill-
tairv de Vartillcne et du genie) at Versailles It
has a staff of twenty-two officers (3) The
Infantry School (L'Ecole nnlitairc d' infantene)
at Samt-Maixent, maintains a staff of thnty-
one officers

B Schools for the Completion and Improve-
ment of the Education of Officer — (a) The
Cavalry School (L'Ecolc de Cavalene), at Sau-
mur, has a number of courses, so that it
combines the school ol application with the
preparatory school foi officers and noncommis-
sioned officers The courses arc* (1) School of
application for cavalry, consisting of forty-
five officers, one from each brigade, preparing
for the duties of instructors in equitation
(2) School of application for artillery and engi-
neers, consisting of forty ofheeis, preparing to
act as instructors in equitation (3) School
of application for second lieutenants of cavaliy
on graduation from Saumur, consisting of
eighty to ninety officers, completing their in-
struction in equitation

The school has fifty-six instructors and perma-
nent staff officers The course is one year

(b) The School o/ Application for Artillery
and Engineers (L'Ecoh d' application de V ail ti-
le rie et du genie), at Fontamcbleau, furnishes the
advanced military and technical instruction
needed in these arms The school is under the
command of a general officer with the assist-
ance of forty-seven officers. The course is two
years

(r) School of Musketry (L'Ecolc normale
dc tir), at Chalons, has for its object, first the
preparation of officers to act as instructors of
musketry, and second, as a station for general
experimental purposes in matters pertaining
to musketry. It has several courses, varying
from six weeks to three months and a half
The school is conducted by a personnel of six-
teen officers

Closely connected with the School of Mus-
ketry at Chalons are the schools of application
for lieutenants of cavalry, infantry, and engi-
neers, one at Camp Reichard and the other at
Camp Valbonne, with courses of about six
weeks, and a corps of instructors of about
ten officers

(d) School of Explosives and Mines (L'Ecole
d' application des poudrex et saltpetres), at Pans,

231

MILITARY EDUCATION

MILITARY EDUCATION

is recruited entirely from graduates of the Poly-
technic and is intended for an advanced study
by engineer officers

(e) School of Gymnastics (UEcole nor male
de gymnastique) , at Joinville-le-Pomt, trains a
limited number of officers and noncommis-
sioned officers as instructors in gymnastics and
fencing, in order to insure a uniform method of
instruction in all that concerns these exercises
throughout the army The course lasts six
months There are eight officers permanently
detailed

(/) School of Aerial Navigation (UEcole
d 'aerostation) gives technical instruction in the
service to a certain number of detailed officers

(q) Artillery Schools (UEcole d'artillerie),
one for each brigade of artillery, with the
object of completing the instruction of the
officers of this arm and of noncommissioned
officers aspiring for promotion

Annexed to the school of this class at Poitieis
is a practical course for majors and captains
of artillery, lasting from three to six months
according to the rank of the officers It in-
cludes the study of the changes in the con-
struction and employment of field artillery at
home and abroad

(h) School of Field Fortification (UEcole de*
travaux de campagne) This school is attached
to the school for the first engineer regiment at
Versailles Its object is to train officers of
infantry in the construction of field works in
time of war The course is four weeks

(t) The War School (UEcole tupfrieur dc
guerre), at Pans, has a two-year course, thirty-
three instructors and directors, and 280 stu-
dents It is open to the best students of the
Polytechnic and to competition by graduates
of Samt-Cyr Upon graduation the students
serve two years with cavahy, two years with
infantry, one year with artillery before they
are eligible for staff appointment The day's
work begins at six or seven o'clock and con-
tinues until five p M , with the exception of one
arid one half hours Much of the time is
taken up with outdoor work, and the evenings
are free

As an adjunct to the war school an addi-
tional class for higher officers is about to bo
started to study the duties of high command
The course will be six months, and the first class
will consist of twenty majors and lieutenant-
colonels

C Schools for Noncommissioned Officers and
Privates — Preparatory schools are provided
for the sons of soldiers, pensioners^ and deceased
officers, where education and instruction is
given at the public expense to train them as
noncommissioned officers The State assumes
a guardianship in a way over these children
(enfants de troupe), and gives them an allowance
in money for the earliest age, and at the age of
thirteen admits them into one of six military
preparatory schools The schools are located
as follows: For cavalry at Autun; for artil-

lery and engineers at Billom, for infantry at
Rambouillet, Montreuil-sur-Mer, Samt-Hip-
polyte-du-Fort, and Andelys The aggregate
number of students accommodated at these
schools is 3000, with 34 officers in charge
of instruction and discipline.

A school for soldiers' orphans (Orphelinat
Heriot), established by private endowment,
takes boys at ages from five to thirteen yeais,
and serves as a preparatory school for the higher
class It is umioi military supervision and
control

Through out the army there aie in every
regiment schools for the soldieis (ecoles* riginwH-
taires) The schools are of two kinds (1) pri-
mary, for the illiterate, and (2) for noncommis-
sioned officers who desire promotion. The
cavalry school at Saumur provides several
courses for noncommissioned officers and men,
as follows (1) School for noncommissioned
officers preparing for officers' commission, con-
sisting of over 100 men who have gained ad-
mission bv competitive examination. (2) The
school foi saddlers, with 100 workmen (3)
The school for sixty to eighty apprentice fai-
ners, detached from regiments, to which they
return with a warrant as farrier sergeant

(4) School for cavalry telegraphers, consist-
ing of two groups of 100 each, detached from
regiments, to take the course each yeai

(5) The school of veterinary students who come
to complete previous training before enteiing
the army; there are twenty-six to Unity of
them

D School* for Auxiliary Services — (a) The
School of Administration (UEcole d'aditnmstni-
tion) at ViricenneH is intended to instruct spe-
ciallv qualified noncommissioned ofhceis with a
view to advancement to the grade of ofheeis in
the supply departments and sanitary ,sei vice

(b) School of Sanitation Seivice (UEcole du
service de unite], at Lyons, supplements the medi-
cal course of students and gives them the nec-
essary military training The course is six
months under a corps of nineteen instructors

(c ) Schgol of Application for the Sanitary Serv-
ice (UEcole d' application du service de sante),
at Paris, receives the graduates of (b) and im-
paits theoretical and practical instruction.

Austria-Hungary — A Preparatory Schools
for Officers. — Preparation for military life
begins early. As in Germany, the young men
go through a series of military preparatory
schools, beginning at the age of ten years. The
schools, called military technical schools, are
similar to the corresponding public schools
designed to lay a foundation for a scientific
education They are of two classes, named
respectively Upper and Lower Schools. The
Lower Schools (Unter-Reakchulen) have a
three-year course, and are located at Enns,
Steicrmark, Fishau, Moros V&sa'rhcly, St
Pol ten, Kosneg They have about 140 officers
on duty and 900 students The military
orphan school at Hirtelberg is of this class,

232

MILITARY EDUCATION

MILITARY EDUCATION

The Upper Schools receive the graduates of
the former for a four-year course They are
situated at Kismarton arid Mahrisch Weiss-
kirchen, with about 70 officers and 450 students

The militaiy academies receive the graduates
of the Upper Schools for three yeai s Prepai a-
tion for the academies may, however, be ob-
tained elsewhere, in public schools or private
educational establishments The age of admis-
sion would be about seventeen years The
expenses are either borne by the State, which is
the most common case, or they make full 01
half payments

The Theresa Academy at Neusladt is the
institution which educates officers foi the
cavalry and infantry It has fifty officeis and
450 students The Technical Military Acad-
emy of Vienna prepares for aitillery, engmeeis,
and other special services It lias forty-six
officers and 279 students The graduates of
the academies are commissioned directly into
the arrnv The recruitment of the corps of
officers is further provided by a large number of
cadet schools, with a two-veai course. There
are fifteen of these for infantry, some of which
are also open to the cavalry, with an aggregate
of 345 officers and 2400 cadets They are
located at Vienna, Budapest, Prag, Komgsfeld,
Pozsonv, Innsbiuck, Temesvar, Nagvzeben,
Liebenau, Lobszow, Cailstmlt, Marburg, Ka-
memtz, Lernburg, and Kassa

The cavahv also has a special cadet school
,'it Mahnsch Weisskirchen, with 24 officers and
1 50 students

The artillery school is at Tiaiskirchen, with
50 officers and 350 cadets

The pioneers have a school at Hamburg, with
25 officers and 160 cadets

After graduation at the cadet schools the
cadet is assigned to a regiment as a cadet,
with actual or honorarv position as noncom-
missioned officei As vacancies occur they may
be appointed cadet officers' substitutes (Cadet
Officicrs Stcllvertrctei} in which they exeicise the
function of officers, and associate with them
without actually holding rank as officeis
Having completed a probationary period in
this position, they may be nominated foi com-
missions, after having received the approving
vote of the officers of their regiments

B Schools for Officer — (1) The Special
Technical School of Artillery, Engineers, Build-
ing Construction, and Civil Schools (Techntsctu
Militarfachkurse] at Vienna (2) School of
Musketry (Armcschiess-vchide) at Vienna (3)
Artillery School of Fire (Artillcnc Scfuess-
schule) at Vienna (4) Riding Masters' School
(Miht&r-Rcitlehrennstitut) at Vienna (5)
Fencing and Gymnastic Institutes' School
(Militar-Rcit-und-Fahrlehicnnstitut) at Schloss-
hoff bei Marchegg (6) School of Instruction
in Riding and Driving (Militdr Fecht und Turn-
lehrerimiitut) at Vienna (7) War School
( Knegs-schule) at Vienna, has a permanent
staff of 26 officers and 136 students

C Schools for Enlisted Men — Schools for
one-year volunteers are established in each
regiment, and divisional schools in each division.

D Schools for Auxiliary Services — (1) The
Military School of Administration (Administra-
tive Mihtarfachkarsc) at Onna (2) Military
Medical School (Mihtar arzthche Apphkahons-
schule) at Vienna (3) Veterinary School
(Tier arzthche Hochschule) at Vienna (4)
Cavalry and Infantry Telegraph Schools (Tele-
graphenkurs) at Tullm

Italy. — The military schools of Italy are
under supervision of a Superintendent or
Director of Military Education

A Schools for the Preparation of Candidates
for the Officers' Commission — Prepaiation is
usually made at the junior cadet schools or the
military colleges of Rome and Naples (Collegi
Mihtar)), both conducted under the same
regulations and with the same entrance exami-
nations The earliest age at entrance is thir-
teen years The couise is about the same as
for boys of corresponding age at certain of the
public schools, and takes four years Entrance
is cornpetrtive.

The military colleges aie preparatory for the
senior cadet schools, of \\hich there are two*
the Military School (Scuola Mildaie) at Modena
for cavalry and infantry cadets, and the Mili-
tary Academy ( Arcade nuo Mihtare) at Tumi
for engineer arid artillery cadets Admission
to these schools is competitive, as in the col-
leges, and they are also open to giaduates of
civil schools, and deserving soldiers. The
course in the military school at Modena is two
years No mathematics is taken by the cadet,
except what is included in the subjects of phy-
sical and natural sciences On graduation a
cadet receives his commission as an officer ot
cavalry or infantry. The course at the Mili-
tary Academy of Turin is three years, and the
sciences occupy a prominent part in the
schedule On graduation a cadet receives his
commission as an officer of artillery or engi-
neers, but antedated one yeai in order to adjust
the rank It will thus be seen that cadets who
pursue the usual course will be officers at a
minimum age of nineteen years About one
third of the vacancies go to meritorious non-
commissioned officers, for whom a special course
is provided at the school of Modena, with a
term of two years

K School^ for the Completion and Improve-
ment of t/te Education of Commissioned Officers
— Upon graduation from the military schools
the candidates are commissioned and are sent
to the schools of application for their branch of
the service The second lieutenants of cavalry
go for a course of ten months to the Cavalry
School of Application (Scuola di Cavallena) at
Pmerola, immediately after graduating at
Modena A second course provides for train-
ing of officers as riding instructors, and a third
course is given to officers preparatory to passing
then examination for promotion. The second

233

MILITARY EDUCATION

MILITARY EDUCATION

lieutenants of heavy artillery and engineers go
for two years longer to the School of Applica-
tion for their arms (Scuola d'Apphcazionc
d'Artiglena t> Genio) at Tunn The second
lieutenants of field artillery enter the Artillery
School of Fire (Scuola Centrale di Tiro d'Artig-
lena) at Nettuno, in the infantry the lieuten-
ants go to the School of Fire (Scuola Centrale di
Tiro di Fanteita) at Parma Several additional
courses are provided —

(1) Course for pieparing cavalry and in-
fantry officeis to enter the Wai School at
Tumi, — four months (2) Course for pre-
paring infantry officers for their promotion, —
three months (3) Course for students of the
lowest class of the war schools, — forty days
(4) Course for noncommissioned officers who
seek commissions in the accounting depart-
ments, — two years The Royal School for
Carbineer Officers (Scuola Allien Officiate
Carabmien Reali), and the military fencing
school (Scuola Magistrate Mil tart di Scherma}
are at Rome The War School (Scuola di
Gucnd) at Turin is the highest school, and is
designed to qualify officers who have had three
or four years' service for duty in the General
Staff Entrance is competitive for cavalry
and infantiy, but no examination is required
for those who have graduated at the higher-
schools of application for artillery and engineers
The course takes three years, and is conducted
by 44 officers with 165 students

C Schooh for Noncommissioned Officers and
Men — The most important is the above-
mentioned section of the Modena School, which
prepares intelligent and deserving noncom-
missioned officers who aspire to the grade of
officers for admission to the military schools

D Schools for Auxiliary Service* — The
principal schools of these kinds are The Mili-
tary Sanitary School of Application (Scuola
d Apphcazione di Samta Mihtare) at Florence
The Military Geographical Institute (Imtituto
Geograjico Mihtare)

Great Britain — A School* for the Prepara-
tion of Candidates for an Officer's Commission are
to a large extent limited to two, — the Royal
Military Academy at Woolwich, and the Royal
Military College at Sandhurst Entrance is at
the age of seventeen 01 eighteen years Admis-
sion is stnctly competitive, except for a small
number of King's cadets, who are subject
to a qualifying examination only Giaduation
from the sixth form in English secondary
schools, which is equivalent to entrance to a
university, qualifies for Sandhurst and Wool-
wich, but there are also numerous private
schools which prepare for both

The Royal Military Academy at Woolwich

Prepares cadets for artillery and engineers
t has a one-year course, and accommodates
200 cadets, with 40 officers The cadets are
organized and held under military discipline
The course of instruction is largely taken up
vvith military subjects

The Royal Military College at Sandhurst is
the preparatory school for the cavalry and
infantry branches The course is one year,
mostly devoted to military matters It con-
tains 400 cadets and 36 officers The amount
paid by cadets depends upon ability to pay, and
langes from £ 150 per year to nothing Kind's
cadets receive a gratuity from the age of thir-
teen in order to prepare them for entrance ex-
amination The weekly routine takes up
forty hours per week or about five hours for
class and study and three hours daily for drill
In a year there are about three months of vaca-
tion

Among the novel disciplinary methods to be
noted is the rule that cadets have an allowance
of pocket money which, in amount, dependb
on cadet rank It is taken away when under
punishment Cadets reduced to ranks are not
graduated unless they are reinstated at least
to the grade of corporal

The characteristic features of the Woolwich
and Sandhurst schools are the brief periods of
instruction and the exacting competitive stand-
ards of admission The ordinary arguments for
and against these methods continue to be heaid,
with the general result that the tendency is to
increase the length of the course

Among the schools having a military char-
acter which serve as preparatoiv institutions
are the Duke of York's Royal Military School
at Gaston, the Royal Hibernian Military School
at Dublin, and the Queen Victoria School at
Dunblane

In addition to the royal schools described,
entrance to the regular coips of officers can be
obtained (a) by nomination of recognized
universities to candidates fulfilling the academic
and military qualifications, (6) by competition
to officers of auxiliary and colonial forces

B School^ for Commissioned Officer* — (a)
The Ordnance College at Woolwich has four
courses (1) the ordnance couisc for officers of
the army and marines, (2) the gunnery staff
course for officers and noncommissioned officers,
(3) the master gunner's course, (4) the artificer's
course The course lasts one year, with thir-
teen officers permanently assigned and twenty-
six students

(b) The Engineering School at Chatham has
three courses (1) for officers of the Royal En-
gineers, (2) for officers and enlisted men of the
Royal Engineers, (3) for officers and noncom-
missioned officers and men of the line The
officers foi instiuction and administration num-
ber seventeen

Other schools of this class are (c) Cavahy
School at Nethcravon, takes thirty officers for
six months (d) School of Gunnery at Shoe-
buryriess (e) Mounted Infantry School at
Longmoor (/) School of Musketry at Hythe.
(g) School of Gymnastics at Aldershot and
Cuiragh (h) Staff College at Camberley
The Staff College performs the ordinary mission
of a college of its kind The college maintains

MILITARY EDUCATION

MILITARY EDUCATION

a permanent personnel of sixteen officers and
ninety-eight student officers

C Schools for Noncommissioned Officers and
Enlisted Men are conducted in connection with
a majority of the schools noted In addi-
tion there are numerous garrison schools, which
furnish certificates of three kinds Promotion
to the rank of corporal requires a third-class
certificate, to the rank of sergeant a second-
class certificate, arid the other more important
noncommissioned officers must have a first-
class certificate (a) The School of Cookery,
Aldershot, has a course of three months for
noncommissioned officers (6) The Royal Mili-
tary School of Music is at Kneller Hall for
training of bandsmen of ail ranks (c) For
training of assistant mstiuctors in riding theie
are establishments at Canterbury, Woolwich,
and Aldershot (d) A course for saddlers is
provided at Woolwich dockyard (e) A course
of instruction foi soldiers to qualify as chirop-
odists is formed (/) A course foi tailors is
provided at the Royal Army Clothing Factory

D Schools for the Auxiliary Service* — (a)
The Royal Army Medical College at (imsvenor
Road, SW (b) The Royal Medical Corps
School at Aldershot (0 The School of Signal-
ing at Aldershot (d) The Army Service
Corps School at Aldeishot (r) The Army
Veterinary School at Aldeishot (/) The Bal-
loon School at South Fainborough lias twelve
officers for a seven weeks' couise (g] The
School of Electric Lighting at Plymouth and
Portsmouth for officers of engineers and heavy
artilleiy (h) The School of Economics pro-
vides a six months' course in commercial and
business training

There are a number of military schools and
colleges in the colonies, as (a) The Indian
Staff College, at Quetta, with forty-nine stu-
dent officers (ft) The Indian Cavalry School
at Saugoi (r) The School of Musketiy at
Blocmfontem, S A (d) Schools ol Musketry
at Pachmarh, Satara, Changla Call, Mayengo,
India (e) The Royal Military Academy at
Kingston, Canada

Comparison of the system of military educa-
tion in Great Britain with that of other coun-
tries shows loss time devoted to study and less
exacting qualifications foi the grade of officer
than in most countries

Switzerland — This country presents many
novel features in her military and educational
system, because she is the only country in the
world which has formed an efficient scheme of
national defense based entirely on a militia
system The preparatory training of the Swiss
youth for military service begins early Be-
tween the ages of ten and twenty years a course
of gymnastics and elementary drill is made
obligatory at public schools and elsewhere
To this is added rifle firing for the older boys,
so that much of the " rawness " of the recruit-
has disappeared before they present them-
selves for enrollment. The principle that every

able-bodied male citizen must help to defend
the State applies to all between the ages of
twenty and forty-eight years, who arc not
exempted by law The first twelve years are
passed in the active army, and the next eight
years are put in with the first reserve, or Land-
wehr Finally, the eight years up to the age
of forty-eight are in the second reserve, or Land-
sturm Thus the active army is divided into
twelve classes, according to age Each year
the young men who reach the age of twenty
years report for duty as recruits At the same
time the class of those who pass the thirty-
second birthday go into the first reserve, while
still another class finish their term of service
in the first reserve at the age of forty years

A date is fixed when the young men of the
recruit class present themselves for enrollment
They are then examined, the unfit arc excused,
the fit are assigned to the most appropriate
branch of the service They are armed,
equipped, clothed, and instructed in the school of
the recruits for ninety days in the cavalry,
seventy-five days in the artillery, and sixty-five
days in the infantry At these schools the
skeleton regiments, battalions, or companies
necessary to give the entire body of recruits
a technical oiganization nre first formed by
calling upon the newly appointed office* s and
noncommissioned officers in sufficient numbers
This is then an important part of the training
of others besides the recruits

Immediately after finishing his recruit course
the soldier takes his place in the active army as
a member of a company located near his home
Subsequent service of instructed troops is as
follows For cavalry, privates, and corporals,
eight annual trainings of eleven days each,
for infantry, seven annual trainings oi eleven
days each; for artillery, seven annual trainings of
fourteen days each The artillen, infantry,
and other troops of the first reserve, cavalry ex-
oepted, have one annual training of eleven days
Thus the total service as apnvate of cavalry is
178 days, 184 foi artillery, and 153 for infantry
These days are in addition to the days of
reporting and dismissal When they are
counted, the total will be from eighteen to
twenty-seven days more It is to be observed
that a day is counted for a full eight hours of
hard work, in which all the time is occupied
in a manner that has been carefully studied and
planned beforehand Each special arm has
a course of its own The butchers, bakers,
teamsters, and others so essential to a hold
army, are organized, drilled, and woiked in the
way they should go

Volunteer shooting clubs are subsidized by
the government when they use the military
firearm according to military rules They are
an important feature of the military system,
every soldier between the ages of twenty arid
forty must either fire a course at one of these
meetings once a year or attend a three days'
course of practice under* military supervision

235

MILITARY EDUCATION

MILITARY EDUCATION

For officers and noncommissioned officers the
course IK extended to thirty days This train-
ing is in addition to other military service, and
of course greatly increases the aggregate tune
given to the state bv each man In 1905 there
were 3694 of these shooting clubs in that small
state, with a membership of 220,147 The
United States, being thirty times more popu-
lous than Switzerland, would, at the same rate,
have 100,000 such clubs with a membership of
six million and a half members, at an annual
cost of two million dollars That six million
and a half membership will also represent the
proportional number of armed, trained, and or-
ganized soldiers, maintained at a cost of half
that ot our own military establishment

Advancement in the army depends upon abil-
ity and the time given to learning the duties
of a soldier Promotion to the grade of cor-
poral comes on the recommendation of supe-
riors, after the candidate has satisfactorily
passed his recruit course and followed the
course of training prescribed for the new grade
The sergeants are taken from the corporals,
so that, after four years, a man has not ordi-
narily been able to get his commission as an
officer The principal schools for noncom-
missioned officers last thirty-five days for cav-
alry and artillery and twenty days for infantry,
with corresponding courses for other arms
After qualifying as noncommissioned officers,
they at once act as instructors at the recruit
schools of the next class, and then take their
regular annual course with the active army, so
that in the year when a man becomes a cor-
poral of cavalry he has 136 days' service, 124
days in artillery and 106 days in infantry This
course was taken by 2095 men in 1906

Noncommissioned officers, or soldiers who are
declared qualified, enter a preparatory school
for officers lasting eighty days for cavalry
and infantry, 105 days for artillery, and cor-
responding periods for other services They are
appointed lieutenants if satisfactory, and imme-
diately practice their functions as such at a
recruit school, and again follow it up with the
annual training with their regiments So
that the lieutenant, in the year when he qual-
ifies, devotes 181 days to military service in
cavalry, 194 in artillery, and 156 in infantry
Seniority rules in promotion to first lieuten-
ant Above and including the rank of captain,
promotion is by selection among the best
officers

Numerous schools are provided for officers
After reaching the rank of lieutenant, officers
must remain four years in each grade, at least,
so that they cannot reach the grade of colonel in
less than twenty years Before becoming cap-
tains they must successfully pass through the
thirty days' course for captains and command a
company at a recruit school Before being
promoted major, they have a course of fifty
days, and command a battalion of recruits
Lieutenant-colonels and colonels have tactical

exercises without troops for eleven days every
other year Candidates for the general staff
have a seventy days' course The general staff
is the branch upon which the higher duties of
the military profession are placed; their special
work lasts from two to three months at a time
Thus, in an average case, it will take about
forty-five days each year devoted to military
duties in order to get regular promotion, and
it will take about eight years to a captaincy

About 220 instructors of all kinds are required
to give the necessary direction to the various
branches of military training. They constitute
about the only permanent establishment in the
army, and are under pay at all times. A por-
tion of the general staff may be included in this
Notwithstanding the apparently exacting na-
ture of the calls for military service in a country
where it is fulfilled at the same time that
a man pursues his ordinary vocation, it has
been calculated that working hours are reduced
onlv 1 per cent thereby

Turkey — Turkey has a good system of
military education, commencing with the pri-
mary grades and continuing up to a complete
war school course It was introduced with
other military reforms by the distinguished
general, Von der Goltz, who succeeded in a very
short time in giving the country a first-class
army

A Preparatory Schools. — There are twenty-
eight junior schools of this class, of which six
arc situated at Constantinople and the others
are distributed among the principal cities
The boys wear uniforms, but are not quartered
in barracks, receive no military instruction,
properly speaking, and are under no obligation
to enter the army unless they are otherwise
bound by the law The program of instruction
simplv confoims to that of the ordinary primary
school The course of instruction lasts four
years The head or director of each school is a
military officer who has a number of officers
as assistants, but most of the teachers are
civilians The military colleges are seven in
number, and may be classed as senior cadet
schools The course is three years, and its
character is distinctly military, most of the
teaching personnel being military, arid consider-
able military instruction being imparted.
These colleges are usually placed at the head-
quarters of the Army Corps districts. Al-
though specially designed to prepare for the
army, there is no obligation to serve.

Those cadets who are desirous of entering
cavalry and infantry join the Cavalry and
Infantry School (Mekteb i harbit) at Constanti-
nople On graduation the pupils are com-
missioned in the infantry and cavalry as
second lieutenants, while the unsuccessful are
sent to join a regiment with the rank of first
sergeant

The School of Artillery and Engineers (Mu-
liendis-Khant ? berri i humayoun) at Constanti-
nople prepares officers for the artillery and

236

MILITARY EDUCATION

MILITARY EDUCATION

engineers of the line of the army, as well as
for fortress artillery. It has a military and
scientific course which lasts four years On
graduation successful cadets join the army as
second lieutenants Those specially recom-
mended at the end of the course, not more than
one tenth of the class, undergo a further tech-
nical course for three years, on the completion
of which they are promoted to be captains

B Schools for Officers —The best of the
graduates of the Cavalry and Infantry School,
as well as a few of the higher graduates of the
Artillery and Engineers' School, are assigned to
take the course of the Staff School (Erbium i
harbie mektebi) The course is three years, and
graduates are assigned to the General Staff
with the rank of captain The curriculum
compares favorably with the other war colleges
in Europe

C Schools for Noncommissioned Officers
— As only a small proportion of the officers
come fioin the military schools, the balance is
furnished by the promotion of meritorious non-
commissioned officers, for whom theie aic
appropriate schools

D Schools for Auxiliary Services — The
Militaiy School of Medicine (Mckteb i fintoun
thabie i chahanl) at Constantinople has a six-
years' course Graduates enter the Samtaiv
Corps with the rank of captain, and take an
additional two years in a military hospital

A veterinary section is attached to the Ca\-
alry and Infantry School, and graduates receive
the lank of captain veteimanan

China — The plans for an imperial annv
weie made in 1 907, and contemplated the
formation of thirty-six divisions of troops, two
for each province, before 1912 The scheme
has met with numerous delays in execution, but,
the progress made has been remarkable At
present the number of students of the officer
class is about 10,500, distributed as follows - -

At twenty-nine junior cadet schools, 0000
students, at three senior cadet schools, 1550
students, at one school for nobles and members
of the royal family, 200 students, at one school
for the rapid instruction of officers, 1140 stu-
dents; at six provincial schools for rapid in-
struction of officers, 810 students, at one school
for instructors, 120 students, at one provincial
war college, 120 students, total, 9940 students

There are also 500 officers and military stu-
dents in Japan and thirty in Europe Two
graduated at West Point recently

There are as yet no schools of application,
and it is found necessary to provide officers
at an exceedingly rapid rate for the new divi-
sions from schools of instruction, in which the
course is necessarily abbreviated It is ex-
pected that the great Central School for
Officers will be ready m 1911 and that the War
College will be opened in 1916 Under present
plans the army will need annually about 1500
officers, which will be completely provided by
the national schools. This will be done in

1912, when there will be nearly 13,000 students,
distributed as follows —

In junior cadet schools 0000 students, or
2000 per year, in senior cadet schools 3600
students, or 1800 per year, in war schools 3200
students, or 1600 per year

The ordinary progress of the Chinese officei
will be as follows entrance at a cadet school
at age of fifteen years, at junioi cadet schools,
three veais, at senior cadet schools, two years,
service in ranks, lour months, at war schools,
eighteen months, service in lanks, six months
Thus at the age of twenty-two years and foui
months he becomes an officer After two yeais
with his regiment he may entei the War Col-
lege, if specially selected lor the honor, and will
graduate in two years more

Here again we have the German system In
addition to the officers' schools there are every-
where schools for noncommissioned officers and
men The school in iact is one of the most impoi-
tant parts of the soldier life, and the army is to-
day the most important factor in the introduction
of western thought and learning throughout the
count ry Thousands of young men are learning
to be officers, and the battalion schools oi the
army of 250,000 men are devoting two hours of
study each day along with six hours of drill
The military profession is now honored where
formerly it was despised It is sought by the
most favored youth of the land Eveiy where
a sentiment of national patriotism is taking the
place of former indifference If improvement
continues at the same rapid rate, it will not be
long before China will be one of the greatest
mihtaiy powers in the world

Japan — In all military nations, and in
Japan particularly, the army is a school of the
highest quality in which the habits of disci-
pline and self-respect are formed arid the prin-
ciples of honor and patriotism are taught In
the public schools there is a military color given
to the conduct and to the sports of the students
which prepaies them ior their military service.
Hushido is taught, and Honor occupies the fust
place in the list of studies (See JAP\N, EDU-
CATION IN )

The mihtuiy educational system is based
on the German

A Schools for the Preparation of Candidates
for the Giade of Officer are of two kinds, (a) Cadet
Schools (Chuo Yonen Gakko), which prepare foi
the ensign (Shi k wan Kohowi) examination, and
(b) the War School (Shtkwmi Gakko), which pre-
pares for the officers' examination.

(a) Cadet Schools arc of two grades, a senior and
a j umor grade The j uinor cadet schools are six in
number, and are located at Tokyo, Osaka, Sendai,
Nagoya, Hiroshima, and Kurnamoto with an
aggregate of about 127 instructors and admin-
istration officers and 900 students Pupils aie
admitted at the age of thirteen years, and
remain three years Many of them are sons of
officers and soldiers, and the same argument is
made in Japan as in other countries for and

237

MILITARY EDUCATION

MILITARY EDUCATION

against their continuance The additional
objection is made that their expense is excessive,
costing three million yen per year

At the end of three years the cadets are
transferred to the senior cadet school at Tokyo,
where the course is for two years The Tokyo
institution has about 530 cadets and a eorps of
76 officers and instructors, a part of whom
are attached to the junior cadet school at
the same place About 80 per cent of the
cadets pay their own expenses The five years
at the cadet schools may thus be supposed
to have been completed at the eighteenth year

The cadet schools furnish less than half of the
candidates for officers, so that provision is made
for candidates for commission direct from civil
life They enlist as one-year volunteers or
candidates for commissions, with the approval
and consent of the colonels of the regiments
in which they desire to serve These candidates
enjoy certain privileges arid at the end of the
yeai of service they take the examination for
ensign, or they are appointed without examina-
tion, if they possess a diploma from a civil
school of sufficiently high grade Having
reached the grade of ensign, they take their
place with the graduates of the cadet schools
for the next step

(b) The candidate school for officers (Shi-
kwan Gakko) at Tokyo corresponds to the war
schools of many other countries, and receives
the ensigns for one year It is commanded by a
major general, assisted by 104 officers, and
accommodates about 720 students, divided into
six sections according to whether the cadets aie
to enter the cavalry, field artillery, infantry,
engineers, heavy artillery, or train Upon
graduating, their candidacy is passed upon by
the officers of their regiments, and if the result
is favorable they are commissioned ah officers
by the Emperor

B. School^ for Commissioned Officers, or
Schools of Application — (a) The Cavalry School
of Application (Kihei Jisshi Gakko), at Tokyo,
has a term of one year with two courses, (1)
Tactics, for captains and lieutenants, (2)
Equitation and Hippology, for lieutenants and
sometimes for noncommissioned officers. Prob-
ably officers and noncommissioned officers of
the artillery and train are also admitted At
the close of' the first year the best are selected
for a second year as instructors There are
about 33 instructors and 136 student officers
at this institution

(6) The Field Artillery Firing School (Yasen
Hohei Shageki Gakko) has a course of eight
months for captains and one of four months
for lieutenants of field artillery arid mountain
artillery There are about twenty instructors
and twenty-two students

(c) The Infantry School of Application (To-
yama Gakko), at Toyama, has a term of about one
year, and three courses (1) Tactics for captains
and lieutenants of infantry, and sometimes of
engineers and heavy artillery, (2) Gymnastics,

firing, and musketry for lieutenants and some
noncommissioned officers of all arms, (3) Music
course for musicians The school has 45 offi-
cers in the permanent personnel and 145 officers
as students

(d) Artillery and Engineering School of
Application (Hoko Gakko), at Tokyo, is com-
manded by a major general, assisted by fifty-
nine officers, and it instructs 230 students, who
are second lieutenants Although the course
is usually one year, the best students arc given
a second year, and at the close of the second
term the best are again designated for study
abroad There are courses in field and heavy
artillery and engineering

(e) The Heavy Artillery Firing School (Ju-
hohet Shageki Gakko) has three courses (1) for
captains and lieutenants of artillery, eight
months, (2) for captains and lieutenants, four
months, (3) for captains and held officers who
have completed studies in the telegraph bat-
talion and for noncommissioned officers who
desire to study electricity. It has a staff of
nineteen officers and fifty-fom students

(/) The Staff College (Dai Gakko), at Tokyo,
tops the system, with a three-year course It is
commanded by a lieutenant general, with a staff
of 46 assistants and 159 students It dates
from 1883

C Schools for Noncomrnixsioned Officers and
Enlisted Men — In addition to the schools
for ensigns arid certain selected noncommis-
sioned officers, there are many other schools for
enlisted men

(a) The Artillery Master Workman's School
has five courses (1) Pyrotechnic section,
(2) Master Saddlers' Sections 1 and 2, (3)
Master Armoiers' Sections 1 and 2, (4) Master
Wheelwrights' Sections 1 and 2, (5) Master
Blacksmiths' Sections 1 and 2 (b) Veterinary
School (Jm Gakko} at Tokyo, for farners, has a
five months' course

All army divisions have probationary schools
for officers, aspirant officers, and noncommis-
sioned aspirant officers

D Schools for Officers of Auxiliary Serv-
ices — (a) The Intendance School ( Kein Gak-
ko), at Tokyo, for officers, probationary officers,
and intendance cadets It has a staff of 29,
and 131 students for about two years (b) The
Army Medical School (Gum Gakko) at Tokyo
(c) The School of Military Topogiaphy

In 1876 when the new army was fairly started
there were 2131 students in military schools;
in 1893 there were 2602 students, in 1908 there
were 2755 This will evidently be increased to
correspond to the increased size of the army
since the Manchurian campaign

United States. — A Officers1 Preparatory
Schools in the United States are confined to two
classes The first class consists of a single
school, the Military Academy at West Point.
Cadets are admitted at the age of seventeen on
nomination by a congressman or by the Presi-
dent of the United States, the number of can-

238

MILITARY EDTTCATTON

MILITARY KDlirATION

didates allowed to each being i emulated by law
The course lasts four years A qualifying
examination is required, or a certificate of grad-
uation at a public school of good standard All
expense is borne by the government The
Military Academy closely resembles the mili-
tary scientific and technical schools of other
countries, where cadets are prepared for
engineers, coast artillery, and other scientific
branches of the service Its prototype in
Kurope would be the Military Academy at
Modena, in Italy, or the Polytechnic School of
France

The West Point system developed by itself,
and probably was little influenced bv other
schools OIK* of its most distinctive features,
for which great merit has been claimed, is due
to the provision in the law of 1812 which pro-
scribed that cadets shall " be trained and taught
all the duties of a private, noncommissioned
officer and officer " The result is to give
instruction in the duties of all arms of the
service In other countries this part of an
officer's military education is usually given
in two probationary periods of service in
tho ranks with troops, and that the duties
of all arms are not learned bv all officers
Much unjust criticism of West Point has been
due to ignorance of its place in military educa-
tion Always a preparatory school of a high
class, it has never been a war college Its great-
ness is due to the high character of its grad-
uates, and not to the course of study pursued by
its alumni The higher duties of command
must be learned in another school The sug-
gestion has been made that perhaps it is time to
defer to foreign experience in the plan of the
Military Academy, and to foim each class
into two sections, one an Engrneer-Aitillery
section and the other a Cavalry-lnfantiy sec-
tion, each with a course of study appropriate
to future service

The second class of cadet schools is composed
of certain civil schools in which " Military
Science and Tactics " forms a part of the cur-
riculum. It is a large class of neai ly one hundred
institutions, although only ten of them have the
privilege of furnishing commissioned officers to
the army At these schools there are ninety-
two officers detailed as military instructors

At the inspection of 1910 22,147 students were
present About 10 per cent of the attendance
in 1909 were at ten schools rated as " Dis-
tinguished/' and another 10 per cent were at
strictly military institutions About 15 per
cent had target practice on the range A part
of the attendance consists of boys under fifteen
years of age, and in this respect these schools are
like the junior cadet schools

Under the provisions of General Orders,
No 231, War Department, Nov. 16, 1909,
these institutions are divided into five classes,
as follows: —

Class A — Schools or colleges whose organi-
zation is essentially military, whose students are

239

habit uiilh JM wufoim, in which militaiy disci-
pline is constantly maintained, and one ol whose
leading objects is the development of the
student by means of military drill, and by
regulating his daily conduct according to the
principles of military discipline

Class B. — State land grant or agricultural
colleges established under the provisions of the
act of Congress of July 2, 1802, which are
required by said act to include military tactics
in their curriculum

Class BA —Any college of Class B which
attains the state of efficiency lequired ior
schools or colleges of Class A shall be classed
as BA

Class C — All schools or colleges not essen-
tially military which maintain a course of mili-
tary instruction equal or superior in character
and hours of instruction to that required of
institutions of Class B

Class D — All other schools or colleges at
which officers of the army may be detailed
and which do not maintain a course of military
instruction equal to that required of institu-
tions of ("lass B, and at which such instruction
is legaided as nominal

Institutions, not exceeding ten, whose stu-
dents have exhibited the greatest application
and proficiency in military training and knowl-
edge during the year are designated annually
as " Distinguished Institutions "

B Hchools of Application — These are pro-
vided for every branch of the service

(a) The Mounted Sei vice School at Fort Riley,
Kansas, for officers and noncommissioned offi-
cers of the Cavalry and Field Artillery, has three
courses (1) Training school for officers

(2) Training school for horseshoers and far-
riers (3) Training school foi bakers and
cooks It has ten officers as staff and military
instructors, and thirty-six student officers
The course is one year

(b) The Coast Aitillery School at Fort
Monroe, Va , has a two-year term divided into
three courses (1) Regular (2) Advanced

(3) Enlisted specialists It has an instructional
staff of sixteen, and twenty-four student officers.

(c) The Engineering School at Washington
Barracks, D C , has a course in civil engineering
and a course in military engineering, with a
term of one year, five instructors, and a class of
fourteen officers

(d) The Army School of the Line at Fort
Leavenworth has four courses in a year of
time (1) Military Ait (2) Engineering.
(3) Law (4) Languages It has twenty-four
officers in the staff and as military instructors,
and thirty-six students An engineering school
of the line is about to be formed at the same
place A portion of the instructors are as-
signed also to the Army Staff College, to be
mentioned later

(e) A School of Musketry for Cavalry arid
Infantry is provided at Monterey, Cal

At all military posts there are garrison

MILITARY EDUCATION

MILITARY EDUCATION

schools loi officers, in winch a groat amount of
work is prescribed

(/) The most advanced schools of the army
are the Army Staff College, Fort Leavonworth,
Kan., with a course lasting one year and a
class of twenty-three, and finally the Army
War College at Washington, D C , with a per-
manent personnel of eight officers and twenty-
one students, for one year The War College
course may be compared with that of the third
yeai at the German Kriegx-Akadenne, the
Staff College course with the second yeai, and
the Army School of the Line with the fiist year
at that institution

C All posts are provided with schools for
enlisted men, but attendance is not compulsoiy
Schools for bakers and cooks are at Washington
Barracks, D C , and at San Francisco, ( 'al
Schools for saddlers and for battery mechanics
of Field Artillery are located at Rock Island,
111 At many of the officers' schools there
are courses for noncommissioned officers, as
noted

D Schools for Auxiliary Services — (a) An
Army Signal School at Fort Leaven worth,
Kan , instincts fourteen officers every yeai

(6) An Army Medical School at Washington,
D C., maintains a personnel of ton officers as
staff and instructors, and sixty students

The notable features of military education
in the United States are the lack of coordination
between the different institutions, and the fact
that giaduation at a war college is not an indis-
pensable requirement for the general staff

A scheme bv which the military departments
of the civil schools may be available in the plan
of national defense is a matter of importance
Many of these schools compare favorably with
the preparatory mihtaiy schools of other
countries, and they ought to be of great service
to the country

In no country of the world are officers re-
quired to spend more time on military education
than in the United States, or to maintain a
higher standard It has been suggested that
the standard is too high in respect to the scien-
tific knowledge required from officers of all
arms of the service If there are faults in the
military system, they are not in the military
education, but rather in the lack of coordina-
tion, in the obsolete methods of promotion, in
the difficulty of obtaining units at war strength
for practical work

Other American States. — Canada maintains
a Royal Military College at Kingston, which
furnishes a few officers to the regular army of
Great Britain and also to the local reserves
Entrance is secured by competition, the course
is three years, and the Corps of Cadets numbers
about 100.

In the Mexican army there is a system of
compulsory military education, strict atten-
tion at the classes being enforced. The sol-
diers are for the most part Indians, and when
they join the ranks are almost without excep-

tion illiterate They are given instruction in
reading, writing, arithmetic, natural sciences,
history, drawing, and singing. For officers
there is the Military School at the Castle of
Chapultepec, which provides about one third
of those who receive commissions

In Chile there is a very good system of mili-
tary education prepared under German in-
fluences A The preparatory schools for
officers consist of (1) The Cadet School
(Escuela de Cadetes) (2) The Military School
(Escuela Mddai) B The schools foi officers
are (1) The Cavalry School (Escuela de Cabal-
leu a) (2) The Artilleiy School, finng included
(Escuela de Artillena) (3) The Infantry School,
including musketry, gymnastics, and fencing
(Escucla de Infantena) (4) The Wai College
(Le Acaderma de Guerra) C The schools for
enlisted men are. (1) Preparatory School for
Noncommissioned Officers (Escuela Preparatoria
de Sub-oficiales) (2) Noncommissioned Officers'
School (Escuela de Sub-oficiales) All of the
schools except the War College are under the
contiol of the Inspector General of Education
The War College is under the Chief of Stuff.

The scheme of military education of Argen-
tine, like that of Chile, is based on (Jeiinan
models and is complete and comprehensive.

In other South American and Central Amer-
ican states the scheme of military education is
in various stage of development, with a constant
tendency to improvement

Military Educational Methods — Most of
the educational systems just described are de-
voted to purely academic instruction, and might
just as well be given at any civil school The
use of giving a military chaiactei to the pre-
paratory schools has often been disputed, but
the idea that a certain amount of military
tiaining and discipline is beneficial foi youths
of every age seems to be gaining This kind
of military training is far fiom being mihtaiy
education, and might also be obtained in the
ranks or in volunteer companies Both the
academic education and the military tiaining or
drill are therefore considered necessary before
a man becomes an officer The actual duties
of commanding men in gradually inci easing
numbers must be learned later The Military
Academy at West Point is probably the finest
preparatory school of this kind in the world

After entering the body of officers the purely
professional part of military education begins,
and this is the particular function of the
schools of application and the staff schools or
war colleges Some of the advanced schools for
the scientific branches continue to hold much
of their technical character, but the scholastic
element is quite absent in the schools where
officers are sent to learn the higher duties of
their profession

It would be quite easy to fill the course of
these schools with the pedantic military learn-
ing of many centuries. The mass of stuff of
this kind is immense, and was greatly increased

240

MILITARY EDUCATION

MILITARY EDUCATION

after the Napoleonic wars by numerous com-
mentators who claimed to have discovered in
many fantastic rules and maxims the secret
of his success It soon became evident that
most of this would have to be put aside, and
that military education would have to follow
another line

As war is one of the most ancient and honor-
able of all the vocations of man, it strikes us at
once as remarkable that rt should have been so
long and successfully conducted without, the
paraphernalia which in comparatively recent
years have been thought necessary The criti-
cism is just, but easily explained The wars of
mobs arid strong men were characterized by
deceit and perfidy or by drill and discipline, and
were won by the side which showed most pro-
ficiency in one or the other The armies were
small and easily handled The world was often
at the mercy of inferior races, ridiculously small
in numbers, neither great in courage nor \\Lse in
mind But the age of invention changed all
this The invention of gunpowder increased
the length of each man's arm, brought the knight
to a level with the peasant, and made new
varieties of skill necessary for success The
invention of steam made it possible to feed and
assemble greater armies than ever before The
policy of universal liability to service, quick
mobilization, and peace training has given us
the " Nation in Arms" To train officers for
their new responsibilities, so much greater and
more complicated than e\ er before, is the object
of military education

To teach men their duties in war by peaceful
means without giving them the experience of
war was the greatest difficulty to be met In
other words, to give them practical instead of
theoretical methods of instruction was the im-
portant end of all instruction Practical meth-
ods of instruction had indeed been found and
long practiced by all other professions The
schools of medicine, electricity, law, engineering,
and others, of late years have constantly irn-
proved and developed the practical course
They have reached the point where theory
and practice go hand in hand, teaching prin-
ciples by practical examples, and sending out-
graduates from their universities who are ready
to begin the active practice of their profession

The difficulties of giving a practical military
training in time of peace disappear on an analy-
sis of the situation, which shows First that
most of the situations requiring practical
knowledge by officers can be studied apart from
the battle itself and even away from the pres-
ence of troops Second, that one thing should
be learned at a time, following the sequence of
events as they would present themselves in
actual service Third, that by a proper selec-
tion of examples for study an officer will be
able to gam a variety of experience closely
resembling that obtained in real war

This, therefore, is the appheatory or deductn e
system, involving the study of concrete cases
VOL iv — R 2<

instead of the abstract study of principles The
principle and the illustration may be con-
sidered together, but it is better to study the
example hist and decide on the pi maple after-
wards It is like the method of the child in
learning to speak the language before learning
the grammai, for heie we study the campaign
first and pick out the principles afterwards,
thus reversing the former methods

It will be apparent that our system has
decided advantages over the actual school of
war During war the ground, the troops, the
killed and wounded, conflicting reports, the
sense oi responsibility, the nervous strain, are
all crowded upon us at once with a thousand
variations In our peace system every distract-
ing influence is excluded, and every subject ex-
cept the one proper to the case in hand

Taking account only of the duties of officers,
they mav be divided into two classes — those
conducted indoors and those conducted in the
open In the first class are map problems and
map maneuvers, in the second clash are staff
rrdes or terrain exercises and maneuvers
Noticing them in the order named, there are
map problems which are simply military sit-
uations stated in the form of problems for solu-
tion, and solved bv the aid of a map It is
logical to consider them hist, because the officer
sees the map before he sees the ground, studies
it, and makes his plans beforehand The result
of the study causes a decision to be reached
which is stated in the form of an order to the
troops This order is the foundation on which
the entire structure of command is built To
acquire the habit of issuing correct and sound
orders takes much time and is i educed to a
beautiful system It makes no difference what
the size of the command may be The map
maneuver comes next, and resembles in a way
the ancient game of chess The checkerboard
rs represented by a map of large scale, the
pawns are replaced by blocks or markers indi-
cating tactical organizations, and the rules are
governed by the well-known powers and limita-
tions of troops in moving over varying condi-
tions of ground The map maneuver tests
the correctness of the decision made in solving
the map problem By these simple means
many varieties of military questions are use-
fully studied, practiced, and decided

The first kind of outdoor exercise has been
called a war ride, although it may be a walk
as well Its distinctive feature is that the map
of the map maneuver is here replaced by the
leal ground The troops remain absent be-
cause of the rule to learn one thing at a time,
and it is well known that the officers would
otherwise have their attention largely devoted
to personal direction of the troops The ob-
ject is still to practice the officers in making
quick and accurate decisions, and for this the
troops may continue to be imaginary

Finally the troops themselves appear upon
the stage, and the officers may now be said to

MILITARY EDUCATION

MILL, JAMES

bo ready to take up the mechanical duty of
handling the men This part of the military
education is called the maneuver stage It IH
also progressive in its character, beginning
with an enemy whose position is outlined at
first by flags and markers, ending at last with
troops actually represented as an enemy, with
both sides firing blank ammunition This is
the last rehearsal in time of peace for the serious
drama of war In most respects it gives a
practical demonstration of war, lacking only
the element of dangei, which cannot be supplied
in peace

Abundant expenence has shown that this
method of military education in time of peace
furnishes armies in every way ready for war,
no1 only ready but able to carry on war moie
efficiently than any other soldiers who ever
lived E S

References —

ALLLNS WORTH, A Military Education in the United
States Pro( eedinQs NEA, 1X91, pp 221-1^34
(New York, 1841 )

HARNAKD, H Military Schools and Cour&tt* of Instruc-
tion in the Science and 'Irt of War, in France,
Pruxvia, Austria, RURMO, Sw(den, Suntz(rlnnd,
Satdinia, Knyland, and the United Stat( s Drawn
from Recent Official Reports and Documents
(Philadelphia, 1S02 )

D \BNJ-Y, C W Ivuid-graiit arid other Colleges and
the National Defence U S Office of Experi-
ment Stations Circular No 40 (Washington,
1405 )

ECHOLH, r P Report upon Foreign Schools U S
Military A< ademy, We.st Point Bulletin, No 1
(West Point, N Y , 1407 )

GARCIA, A H LOA E \cueki8 militates European, <an lo*
ti ntect dented hibtontos (Buenos Anes, 1407 )

Great Britain War Office Committee on Military
Education Report of the cotnnutlte appointed to
( outsider th( education and training of owners of the
Army (London, 1902 )

GuGuiHiiEKG, F G " The Shop'1, the tit or y of the
Royal Military Atadtmy (London, 1400 )

HANCOCK, H I Life at We^t Point, the Making of
the American Anny O filter hi? Studies, DIM i-
plmt, and Amubctncnlu (New York and London,
1902 )

HUMBLRSTONE, T L Recent Alterations in Armv
Regulations Journal of Education, London, No-
vember, 1911, Vol XLIII, pp 767,768

MOCKL^H-FERRYMAN, A F Annal* of Sandhurst
(London, 1900 )

Monumenta Germanm1 Pcedafjogtca, Vols X, XI,
XV, XV11, XVI11, Military Training tn German-
8 peaking Countries

PARDIELLAN, P DE (rtaine*. d'Ojffu un Let* Ernie*
mihtaire^ en Frartff, en Kuisu, en Allema(/ne et en
Autncfu (Parih, 1895 )

POTEN, B VON Gewchichtc den Mihtar-Erzirhiingjs-
und Bilduiig8weseii8 in den Landen deutH< her
Zunge Monumcnta Germanw* Pwdagoyica
hrsg von Karl Kehrbach Vols X, XI, XV,
XVII, XVIII (Berlin, 1899-1400 )

PHEVE, B La Via alia Forza, Educazione fits a a «
morale nell Esercito (Modena, 1407 )

SARGENT, D A Should we have Military Training in
the Schools ? Proceedings NEA, 1 896, pp
920-929 (Chicago, 1896 )

TRICOCHE, , G N Les Acadwnies militaires pnvecs
aux Etats- Vnis (Pans, 1903 )

U S Adjutant-general's office Military Information
Division The Military Schools of Europe, and
Other Papers Selected for Publication. Publication
no 9 War Dept Doc No 10 (Washington,
1846)

Sources of Information on military professional sub-
jeetb A classified list of books and publications
(Nov 10, 1897) Publication No. 17 War Dept
Doc No 55 Education and Schools, pp 87-131
(Washington, 1898 )

U S Bureau of Education Military Drill in the
Schools of the United States In Rep Coin
Educ , 1898-1899, Vol 1, pp 479-488. (Wash-
ington, 1900)

U S Military Academy, West Point Annual Report
of (hi Superintendent, 181 7 -date Published also
in the Annual Reports of the War Department
(Washington, 1817- date )

Thf (\nttnnial of th< ljmt(d State* Military Auifltmy
at West Point, N<w York, 1802-1902 (Wash-
ington. 1904 )

\VoTHKiwpooN, W W Training of the Efficient
Soldier \tneiuan Academy of Political and
Soaal ,SV,fw«, Annals, July, 1905, Vol XXVI,
pp 149-160

MILITARY SCHOOLS, PRIVATE — See

MILITARY EDUCATION, PRIVATE SCHOOLS

MILITARY TRAINING IN THE
SCHOOLS — See SCHOOL MANAGEMENT

MILL, JAMES (1773-1831) —The son of
a shoemaker, horn at Montroso, Scotland, and
educated at the University of Edinburgh,
where he distinguished himself in Gieek and
philosophy Not succeeding as a preacher, he
went to London as tutor in the family of Sn
John Stuart This constituted his educa-
tional expenence, together with the training
of his son, John Stuart Mill, an experiment
of unusual interest The education of this
piecocious child he kept entirely in his own
hands and conducted according to his own
peculiar ideas The hoy began Greek at three,
and at eight had read in the original ^Esop'.s
Fablex, the4 Anabaviv, the whole of Herodotus,
and six Dialogue* of Plato, a translation of
Plutarch, and the Histories of Robertson,
Hume, (fibbon, Rolhn, Bui net, and Mosheim
He had also begun the study of Latin, Euclid,
and Algebra, and was teaching younger chil-
dren At ten he had read all the usual classical
authors and more At twelve he was studying
Plato and Aristotle, and at thirteen Adam
Smith and Ricardo A detailed account oi
these studies is given in his Autobiography and
in Ham's Biography of his father The case
was of singular psychological interest This
strenuous method of education produced an
intellectual prodigy Its most effective feature
was the intimate association of the child with
the vigorous intellect and character of his
father and their partnership in scholastic
pursuits But the boy was not the passive
victim of a mechanical process of indoctrina-
tion In accordance with his favorite maxim
that " one of the grand objects of education
must be to generate constant and anxious con-
cern about evidence," the elder Mill encouraged
his son to collect and weigh evidence and to
accept nothing upon authority The boy was
brought up as a thoroughgoing agnostic, and
afterwards described himself as one of the few

242

MILL, JOHN STUART

MILLS COLLEGE

persons in England who had not thrown off his
religious belief, because he never had any He
always averred that his childhood was not un-
happy, although almost entirely lacking in the
element of play, and that his tasks were not
so severe as to prevent his healthy growth

James Mill wrote much for the magazines
on educational topics in later life, and took an
active part in the founding of University Col-
lege, London His life in London was devoted
chiefly to literary and philosophical pursuits,
although he held an important office in the
East India Company His History of Rntish
India was his greatest literary work, and pro-
duced a complete change in the government of
that country Mill played an important part
in English politics, and was the originator of
what is known as " philosophic radicalism "
The Reform Bill was carried through Parlia-
ment under his auspices He was the chief
friend and ally of Jeremy Bentham (qv), to
the piopagation of whose principles he de-
voted all his energies Hib Political Economy,
written primarily for the instruction of his
son and following the lines of Ricaido, was
a highly finished work His Analyse of the
Human Mind, which has been regarded al-
most as the Bible of associationism, won him
a high position in p^ychologv and philosophy
Its chief merit lies in its accurate definition of
terms and clear statement of lesults It sim-
plified association (q v ) by reducing it to a
single form-association bv continuity, and
made great use of " mental chemistry " in
1 using ideas and feelings and in showing that
morality is based on utility Thus he furnished
a psychological foundation for Bentham 's leg-
islative and ethical reforms W H

References —

BAIN, A Biography of James Mill (London, 18S2 )
BALDWIN, J M Diet of Philosophy and Psychology,

Vol III, pi 1, p 372
BOWER, (i S JantLS Mill and Hartley (London,

1881 )

Dictionary of National Biography
MILL, JOHN STUART Autobiography (London, 1873 )

MILL, JOHN STUART (1806-1873) —One
of the greatest philosophical writers arid think-
ers of the nineteenth century, lived his
whole life in London Like Spencer, he had
no university training, but was educated en-
tirely by his father, James Mill (q v for this
interesting educational experiment), in accord-
ance with his own peculiar ideas This rigor-
ous discipline brought on in his twentieth year
mental disorders from which he was rescued
with difficulty After a period of rest and
foreign travel, he entered the service of the
East India Company, in which he continued
for thirty-three years Much of his time was
devoted to philosophical pursuits In philos-
ophy he was an empiricist, sensationalist, and
associationist; in politics, a radical ano! in-
div dualist, in ethics, an utilitarian He be-

came an author at a very early age His
System of Logic is the most original of his
works It was severely criticized by Whewell
and others from the scientific point of view,
but it became a classic, and ensured him a
high reputation in the educational world His
Principles of Political Economy followed closely
the lines of Ricaido His Examination of the
Philosophy of Sir William Hamilton was his
chief philosophical work His Essays on Reli-
gion, Liberty, Utilitarianism, and the Subjec-
tion of Women attracted wide attention His
chief contribution to educational literature
was his Address Delivered at his Inauguration
as Rector of St Andrew's University, which
ranks with those of Spencer and Huxley, and
exerted a profound influence upon the thought
of his day His thesis was that there i*» no
real antagonism between classical and scientific
studies, such as was then supposed to exist, and
he raised the question, " Why not both? " He
argued strongly for a full and complete educa-
tion in both directions, but the curriculum
which he advocated ruled out modern languages
and literature entirely, made extravagant de-
mands for ancient learning, and left little time
for scientific training It was a practical sur-
render to the classicists. W H.

References —

BALDWIN, J M Diet of Philosophy and Psychology,

pp 372-376
BOURNE, H R F Life of John Stuart Mill (London,

1873)
COURTNEY, W L Life of John Stuart Mill (London,

1889)
DoudLAs, C Study of Mill's Philosophy (London,

1895 )
MILL, J S Autobiography (London, 1873 )

MILLET, MME — See INFANT SCHOOLS

MILLIGAN COLLEGE, MILLIGAN,

TENN — A coeducational institution founded
in 1882 as the outgrowth of Buffalo Institute
Academic, Bible, collegiate, commercial, and
musical departments are maintained The
entrance requirements are fifteen unith of
work The college confers the degrees of A B ,
B Lit., B S , and A M on completion of appro-
priate courses The enrollment in the collegiate
department in 1910-1911 was 134 The faculty
consists of eleven members

MILLINERY — See HOUSEHOLD ARTS

MILLS COLLEGE, OAKLAND, CAL —

An institution for the higher education of
women, founded in 1871 as Mills Seminary, and
the only woman's college on the Pacific blope.
A preparatory department was maintained
until 1911. The entrance requirements are fif-
teen units The degrees of A B., B L , and
B S are conferred in the classical, literary, and
scientific courses The enrollment in 1911-
1912 was 121 There is a faculty of thirty-
five members

243

MILLS, CYRUS TAGGERT

MILTON, JOHN

MILLS, CYRUS TAGGERT (1819-1884) —
Founder of Mills College , was graduated from
Williams College in 1844 He studied at the
Union Theological Seminary, and engaged in
missionary labors in Hawaii In 1860 he became
president of Oahu College, near Honolulu, and
from 1864 to 1871 was principal of secondary
schools in California He founded Mills Semi-
nary, now Mills College, in 1871. W. 8. M.

MILLSAPS COLLEGE, JACKSON, MISS.

— An institution chartered in 1800 under
the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church
South, and opened m 1892 A preparatory
school, college, and law school are maintained.
The entrance requirements are fourteen units.
The degrees of A B and B S are conferred by
the college The law school grants the LL B.
after a course of two years without entrance
requirements There was in 1911-1912 an
enrollment of 285 students in all departments.
The faculty consists of fourteen members

MILTON, JOHN (1608-1673). — During
the English Civil War, as in other revolution-
ary periods, new ideas were in the air, not only
in regard to politics and religion, but m every
sphere of life. The stress of the war drove
John Milton, already famous as a poet and a
literary genius, to the practice of education
as a profession, and, being what he was, also
to write on the theory ol education. In 1640
he set up house in Aldersgate Street, London,
where he entertained a few select and ai istocratic
private pupils, whom he carried to prodigious
lengths of learning In 1644, at the invitation
of Samuel Hartlib (q v ), he published a Trac-
tate on Education, and about the same time
wrote a little schoolbook, not published till
1669, called Accedence commenced Grammar
The latter was written because the authorized
Lily's Grammar made "two labours of one,
by learning first the accedence, then the gram-
mar in Latin, ere the language of those rules
be understood " and purported to apply the
only remedy, to join both books in one and in
the English tongue It was, in fact, a Latin
grammar in English, much simplified, largely
by omitting the exceptions to the rules
Though Milton's contemporary, Charles
Hoole (qv), also translated Lilv into English,
Lily was destined to reign in Latin and pioduce
a hatred for literature in many thousands of
English boys for many years to come

The Tractate on Education was also aimed
at shortening the road to learning and to
prevent " the waste of seven or eight years
merely in scraping together so much miserable
Latin and Greek, by giving a complete and
generous education, which fits a man to
perform justly, skillfully, and magnanimously
all the offices, both public arid private, of
peace and war " This was to be done by
substituting a knowledge of thmg& for a knowl-
edge of words But Milton had no idea of

getting at the " things " in English He
would have none of the modern tongue, Janua
and Didactics, " more than ever I shall read/'
of Comenius (q v ), then in great vogue.
Things must be got at through Latin and
Greek This was sensible enough, as all the
authors who wrote on " things/' from agricul-
ture in Cato, Varro, and Columella, and archi-
tecture in VJtruvius to physiology in Aristotle
or Cynegetica, the " Book of the Dog," in
Oppian were to be found in the two tongues
Grammar, therefore, was the real gate of learn-
ing, as it always had been since Latin ceased
to be a spoken vernacular But it was to be
learned "put of some easy and delightful book
of education/' as Plutarch or Qumtilian, " with
leetures and explanations " In passing
through this gate, and having passed it, the
pupil was to study everything, — geogiaphy,
trigonometry, fortification, engineering, navi-
gation, " then out of some not tedious writer,
physic, so that they may know how to manage
a crudity " Only latei were to come comedies
and tragedies, followed by politics and laws
from Moses arid Lycurgus to Justinian ajul
the common and statute law of England
During hours of exercise, which were not to be
stinted, fencing, wrestling, music, riding, sail-
ing, were to be learned Italian was thrown in
to be learnt at odd hours, and Hebrew, Synac,
and Chaldee on Sundays In fact, like Quin-
tihan's Orator or Machiavelli's or Elyot's;
Prince, eveiv one by the rational system was
to become a living cyclopedia

If it had not been that Edward Phillips,
Milton's pupil from the age of ten to seven-
teen, in his Life of Milton, bears witness to
Milton's having actually taught the willing
youth all these subjects by reading the books
and enlaigmg on them with him, we might
have thought Milton was writing a skit on
the educational theorists of the day and of
previous ages Milton indeed admits that
" this is not a bow for every man to shoot in
that counts himself a teacher/' The Tractate
does not perhaps present an impossible pro-
gram for exceptional private pupils with an
" Ulysses " of a master As a protest against
the way Latin and Greek were taught then,
and are in many schools still taught, it was
perhaps of use. But it was of little use for the
ordinary grammar schoplmastei . The theory
was impossible of " application to the common
herd in a common school by a common man "
Milton remained a schoolmaster only for
seven years, and his Tractate is perhaps only
an example of the truth that it is not much
use putting Pegasus into harness. A F L.

References —

BROWNING, O Milton's Tractate of Education (Cam-
bridge, 1883 )

LAURIE, S S Studies in the History of Educational
Opinion from the Renaissance. (London, 1903 )

LEACH, A. F. Milton as Schoolboy and Schoolmaster.
Proc Brit Acad., Vol III, 1909.

244

MILTON COLLEGE

MIND READING

MASSON, DAVID Life of Milton (London, 1895 )
Milton's Prose Works Bohn Library, Vol III, 5.

(London, 1848)
MONROE, PAUL Textbook in the Hu>toiy of Education.

(New York, 1906 )

MILTON COLLEGE, MILTON, WIS —

A coeducational institution established in 1844,
and chartered as a college in 18G7 An
academy, college, and school of ^ music are
maintained The entrance requirements are
fifteen units The college grants the A B
degree on completion of appropriate courses
The total eriiollment in 1911-1912 was 165
The faculty consists of fifteen members

MIND — In philosophy the term is used
to designate that form or phase of reality which
is contrasted with matter or body Mind is
the reality which thinks, feels, and wills, while
matter is the reality which has extension and
moves through space In psychology the
term is used, not to designate an entity of some
kind, but rather as a general term, to cover all
conscious processes, present and potential, in
any individual The essential inner individual-
ity of a person is his mind In a nariowei sense
the term is- sometimes used to refei more
specifically to the knowing processes as dis-
tinguished fiom the emotional and volitional
aspects of personality In this sense mind is
sometimes contrasted with soul 01 spirit As
contrasted with intellect (qv), mind is a
broadei term As contrasted with spirit (gv),
it is a narrower term (' II J

MIND, DISEASES OF — See CIRC ULAK
INSANITY, DELIRIUM, DELUSION, DEMEN-
TIA, DERANGEMENT, EPILEPSY, FIXED
IDEAS, HALLUCINATION, HYSTERIA, ILLUSION,
INSANITY, INTOXICATION, INCOHERENCE, MA-
NIA, MEG \LOMANI \, MEIANCHOLI\, MORAL

I Nh \NITY, MoRIHD, OBSESSION, PARAPHASIA,

PSYCHIATRY, PSYCHO-PATHOLOGY, WILL, DIS-
ORDERS OF

MIND READING. — The term refers to
the tendency for mental states, particularly
when accompanied by emotional value or
other intense interest, to reveal then nature
through involuntary indications, which in
turn may be read bv a shrewd obseiver It
may be well to dismiss the use of the term that
implies a transcendent power to read the con-
tents of another's mind by some form of alleged
thought transference (See TELEPATHY )

The most familiar form of such interpretation
is called muscle reading, a term that indicates
the part played by involuntary contraction of
muscles Within this field the most familiar
demonstration is that of indicating the mere
direction of the object thought of or attended
to For this purpose an instrument such as
the automatograph is helpful The instrument
consists, in one form, of a board suspended
from the ceiling by a thread, aud having

inserted below it a bristle, or writing point,
which traces its path upon a smoked paper or
other suitable surface, in another form it
consists of a glass plate carefully leveled, upon
which are placed three polished balls, which
in turn support a lighter glass plate, to which
a recording device is fastened In either case
the hand of the subject rests lightly upon the
recording board or plate, and he is directed
to give the hand little thought and to absorb
his attentio i in the task set This may be
sensory, as in listening to the beats of a met-
ronome oi following with his eyes a series of
colors or words as they are successively ex-
posed; or mental, as in tracing an imaginary
walk or in thinking intently of a given object
in a specified locality The involuntary trac-
ing thus obtained with a favorable subject will
indicate the direction in which the object of
attention was situated

The more complex forms of muscle reading
involve a similar revelation not merely of the
direction, but of the nature of the mental con-
tent Yet in the most familiar form of muscle
reading the indication consists of the slight
tiemor or change of breathing or other nervous
unsettlement when the point of interest is
miched Thus the muscle reader places the
subject's hand upon his own forehead and holds
it lightly, and by tentatively trying this or that
move, or by pointing to this or that letter or
figure on a prepared diagram, shrewdly judges
from the delicate changes of tension when he
has reached or indicated the object upon which
the subject's mind is concentrated In this
way a needle concealed in a distant loom, or
a number ot a bank note, may be found, and
yet more delicate "muscle" tasks may be
solved Special studies have also shown the
presence of involuntary whispering and other
involuntary signals which may provide clues
when one individual is tiying to read the
thought of another (The shrewdness of dogs
or even horses in similarly reading intentional
or unintentional signs may also be noted )
Highly susceptible subjects will use the auto-
matograph or the yet simpler form of " plan-
chette," which carries a pencil, and actually
writes words indicating the clues to their men-
tal occupation, 01 reply by " yes " or " no "
or other messages to questions, without full
awareness of their actions Such a phenome-
non is known as " automatic writing," and
involves a considerable departure from the
normal state and a susceptible nervous tempera-
ment Related to this are the forms of table
moving and lapping, which again arc pro-
nounced and partly involuntary indications
of the mental intent or content. That these
trend toward the abnormal and imply states
of high emotional tension is readily realized.

In the most recent methods of mental diag-
nosis an additional form of mind reading is
available If a subject be sent to another room
with two envelopes, each of which contains

245

MILLS, CYRUS TAGGERT

MILTON, JOHN

MILLS, CYRUS TAGGERT (1819-1884).—

Founder of Mills College ; was graduated from
Williams College in 1844 He studied at the
Union Theological Seminary, and engaged in
missionary labors in Hawaii In 1860 he became
president of Oahu College, near Honolulu, and
from 1864 to 1871 was principal of secondary
schools in California He founded Mills Semi-
nary, now Mills College, in 1871. W. S. M.

MILLSAPS COLLEGE, JACKSON, MISS

— An institution chartered in 1890 under
the control of the Methodist Episcopal Church
South, and opened in 1892 A preparatory
school, college, and law school are maintained.
The entrance requirements are fourteen units.
The degrees of A B and B S are conferred by
the college The law school grants the LL B
after a course of two years without entrance
requirements There was in 1911-1912 an
enrollment of 285 students in all departments.
The faculty consists of fourteen members

MILTON, JOHN (1608-1673) --During
the English Civil War, as in other revolution-
ary periods, new ideas were m the air, not only
in regard to politics and religion, but m every
sphere ol hie The1 stress of the war drove
John Milton, already famous as a poet and a
literary genius, to the practice of education
as a profession, and, being what he was, also
to write on the theory of education. In 1640
he set up house in Aldersgate Street, London,
where he entertained a few select and ai istocratic
private pupils, whom he carried to prodigious
lengths of learning In 1644, at the invitation
of Samuel Harthb (q v ), he published a Trac-
tate on Education, and about the same time
wrote a little schoolbook, not published till
1669, called Accedence commenced Grammar
The latter was written because the authorized
Lily's Grammar made "two labours of one,
by learning first the accedence, then the gram-
mar in Latin, ere the language of those rules
be understood " and purported to apply the
only remedy, to join both books in one and in
the English tongue It was, in fact, a Latin
grammar in English, much simplified, largely
by omitting the exceptions to the rules
Though Milton's contemporary, Charles
Hoolo (qv), also translated Lily into English,
Lily was destined to reign in Latin and produce
a hatred for htciature in many thousands of
English boys foi many yeais to come

The Tractate on Education was also aimed
at shortening the road to learning and to
prevent " the waste of seven or eight years
merely in scraping together so much miserable
Latin and Greek, by giving a complete and
generous education, which fits a man to
perform justly, skillfully, and magnanimously
all the offices, both public and private, of
peace and war " This was to be done by
substituting a knowledge of things for a knowl-
edge of words But Milton had no idea of

getting at the " things " in English. He
would have none of the modern tongue, Janua
and Didactics, " more than ever I shall read/'
of Comenius (q.v ), then in great vogue.
Things must be got at through Latin and
Greek This was sensible enough, as all the
authors who wrote on " things," from agricul-
ture in Cato, Varro, and Columella, and archi-
tecture m Vutruvius to physiology in Aristotle
or Cynegetica, the " Book of the Dog," in
Oppian were to be found in the two tongues
Grammar, therefore, was the real gate of learn-
ing, as it always had been since l^atin ceased
to be a spoken vernacular. But it was to be
learned "out of some easy arid delightful book
of education," as Plutarch or Quintilian, " with
lectures and explanations " In passing
through this gate, and having passed it, the
pupil was to study everything, — geography,
trigonometry, fortification, engineering, navi-
gation; " then out of some not tedious writer,
physic, so that they may know how to manage
a crudity " Only later were to come comedies
and tragedies, followed by politics and laws
from Moses and Lycurgus to Justinian ajid
the common and statute law of England
During hours of exercise, which were not to be
stinted, fencing, wrestling, music, riding, sail-
ing, were to be learned Italian was thrown in
to be learnt at odd hours, and Hebrew, Syriac,
and Chaldee on Sundays In fact, like Qum-
tihan's Orator or Machiavelh's or Elyot'b/
Prince, every one by the rational system was
to become a living cyclopedia

If it had not been that Edward Phillips,
Milton's pupil from the age of ten to seven-
teen, in his Lift of Milton, bears witness to
Milton's having actually taught the willing
youth all these subjects by reading the books
and enlarging on them with him, we might
have thought Milton was writing a skit on
the educational theorists of the day and of
previous ages Milton indeed admits that
" this is not a bow for every man to shoot in
that counts himself a teacher." The Tractate
does not perhaps present an impossible pio-
gram for exceptional private pupils with an
" Ulysses " of a master As a protest against
the way Latin and Greek were taught then,
and are in many schools still taught, it was
perhaps of use But it was of little use for the
ordinary grammar schoolmaster. The theory
was impossible of " application to the common
herd in a common school by a common man "
Milton remained a schoolmaster only for
seven years, and his Tractate is perhaps only
an example of the truth that it is not much
use putting Pegasus into harness. A. F L.

References —

BROWNING, O Milton's Tractate of Education (Cam-
bridge, 1883)

LAURIE, S S Studies in the History of Educational
Opinion from the Renaissance (London, 1903.)

LEACH, A. F Milton as Schoolboy and Schoolmaster.
Proc Brit. Acad , Vol III, 1909.

244

MILTON COLLEGE

MIND READING

MAHHON, DAVID Life of Milton (London, 189.5 )
Milton's Prose Works Bohn Library, Vol III, 5.

(London, 1848 )
MONROE, PAUL Textbook in the History of Education.

(New York, 1906 )

MILTON COLLEGE, MILTON, WIS —

A coeducational institution established in 1844,
and chartered as a college in 1807 An
academy, college, and school of music are
maintained The entrance requirements are
fifteen units The college giants the A B
degree on completion of appropriate- couises
The total enrollment in 1911-1912 was 165
The faculty consists of fifteen members

MIND — In philosophy the term is used
to designate that form or phase of reality which
is contrasted with inattei or body Mind is
the reality which thinks, feels, and wills, while
matter is the reality which has extension and
moves through space In psychology the
term is used, not to designate an entity of some
kind, but rather as a genera,! term, to cover all
conscious processes, present and potential, in
any individual The essential inner individual-
ity of a person is his mind In a nanower sense
the term is sometimes used to refei moie
specifically to the knowing processes a^ dis-
tinguished from the emotional and volitional
aspects of personality In this sense mind is
sometimes conti listed with soul or spirit As
contrasted with intellect (<//»), mind is a
broader teim As contrasted with spirit (// v ),
it is a narrower term C H J

MIND, DISEASES OF — See CIRCULAR
INSANITY, DELIRIUM, DELUSION, DEMEN-
TIA, DERANGEMENT, EPILEPSY, FIXED
IDEAS, HALLUCINATION, HYSTERIA, ILLUSION,
INSANITY, INTOXICATION, INCOHERENCE, MA-
VIA, MEGALOMANIA, MELANCHOLIA, MORAL
INSANITY, MORBID, OBSESSION, PARAPHASIA,
PSYCHIATRY, PSYCHO-PATHOLOGY, WILL, DIS-
ORDERS OF

MIND READING. — The term refers to
Ihe tendency for mental states, particularly
when accompanied by emotional value or
other intense interest, to reveal then natuie
through involuntaiy indications, which in
turn may be read by a shrewd observer It
may be well to dismiss the use of the term that
implies a transcendent power to read the con-
tents of another's mind by some form of alleged
thought transference (See TELEPATHY )

The most familiar form of such interpretation
is called muscle reading, a term that indicates
the part played by involuntary contraction of
muscles Within this field the most familiar
demonstration is that of indicating the mere
direction of the object thought of or attended
to For this purpose an instrument such as
the automatograph is helpful The instrument
consists, in one form, of a board suspended
from the ceiling by a thread, and having

inserted below it a bristle, or writing point,
which traces its path upon a smoked paper or
other suitable surface, in another form it
consists of a glass plate carefully leveled, upon
which are placed three polished balls, which
in turn support a lighter glass plate, to which
a recording device is lastened In either case
the hand of the subject rests lightly upon the
recording board or plate, and he is directed
to give the hand little thought and to absorb
his attcntio i in the task set This may be
sensory, as in listening to the beats of a met-
ronome or following with his eyes a series of
colors or words as they are successively ex-
posed; or mental, as in tracing an imaginary
walk or in thinking intently of a given object
in a specified locality The involuntary trac-
ing thus obtained with a favorable subject will
indicate the direction in which the object of
attention was situated

The more complex forms of muscle reading
involve a similar revelation not merely of the
direction, but of the nature of the mental con-
tent Yet in the most familiar form of muscle
reading the indication consists of the slight
tremor or change of breathing or other nervous
unsettlement when the point of interest is
reached Thus the muscle leader places the
subject's hand upon his own forehead and holds
it lightly, and by tentatively trying this or that
move, or by pointing to this or that letter or
figure on a prepared diagram, shrewdly judges
from the delicate changes of tension when he
has reached or indicated the object upon which
the subject's mind is concentrated In this
way a needle concealed in a distant room, or
a number of a bank note, may be found, and
yet more delicate "muscle" tasks may be
solved Special studies have also shown the
presence of involuntary whispering and other
in voluntary signals which may provide clues
when one individual is trying to read the
thought of another (The shrewdness of dogs
or even horses in similarly reading intentional
or unintentional signs may also be noted.)
Highly susceptible subjects will use the auto-
matograph or the yet simpler form of " plan-
chette," which carries a pencil, arid actually
writes words indicating the clues to their men-
tal occupation, or leply by "yes" or "no"
or other messages to questions, without full
awareness of their actions Such a phenome-
non is known as " automatic writing," and
involves a considerable departure from the
normal state arid a susceptible nervous tempera-
ment Related to this are the forms of table
moving and rapping, which again are pro-
nounced and partly involuntary indications
of the mental intent or content That these
trend toward the abnormal and imply states
of high emotional tension is readily realized

In the most recent methods of mental diag-
nosis an additional form of mind reading is
available If a subject be sent to another room
with two envelopes, each of which contains

245

MINERALOGY

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION

directions to perform a set task, but only one
of which he is to open, and if upon his return
he be subjected to a series of association or
similar tests, an examination both of the time
period and of the nature of these associations
may determine beyond doubt which of the
two envelopes he opened and which of the two
tasks he performed The wider and more
delicate application of this principle for the
discovery of cinne has recently excited atten-
tion. Throughout, the common principle is
the revelation of the mental content by m-
voluutarv indications, which in turn are either
a form of muscular expression 01 of an inter-
ference with the normal flow of the mental ex-
pression The methods by which we read
human expression and the underlying sincerity
of candor, or the insincerity or perturbation
of embarrassment are similarly conditioned

J J

References : —
JASTROW, J. Facts arid Fable in Psychology. (New

York, 1900 )
MUNHTKRBERG, H. On the Witness Stand. (New York,

1908 )

MINERALOGY — The science of minerals
See GEOLOGY; TECHNICAL EDUCATION

MINING, EDUCATION IN —See TECH-
NICAL EDUCATION

MINISTRY, EDUCATION FOR THE.—

See THEOLOGICAL EDUCATION.

MINISTRY OF EDUCATION, MINISTER
OF EDUCATION. — The name frequently ap-
plied to that department of government which
administers educational affairs Its director or
minister of education is usually a party politi-
cian, and holds office and is a member of the
cabinet as long as his party is in power Such
ministries of education have in most countries
been established within the last century, and
in some the ministry of education is combined
with other functions. The modern tendency,
however, owing to the increased importance
of education everywhere, is to establish sepa-
rate bodies

Germany — The full development of minis-
tries of education has not yet taken place in the
German states. Educational affairs are either
administered by the Minister of the Interior,
by a Department for Ecclesiastical Affairs,
or by a ministry which has charge of both
public worship and education (See GER-
MANY, EDUCATION IN ) Here only the develop-
ment of the central administration in Prussia
will be dealt with As long as education was
under church control, it was administered and
supervised by the church authorities solely
In the middle of the eighteenth century both
church and school affairs came within the juris-
diction of the Department of Justice, from
which they were separated arid placed under
the Oberkonaistorium in 1750. In 1787 a sepa-

rate department for education (Obcrschulkolle-
gium) was established under the Minister for
Church and School Affairs (then Zedhtz). In
1808 public worship and instruction was placed
under a Minister for the Interior, from which in
1817 these functions as well as the charge of
medical affairs were withdrawn and a new min-
istry established in the Mmistenarn der geist-
lichen und UnternchtMingelegenheiten, which in
the middle* of the nineteenth century became
the Ministmum der geiutlichen, Untemchtti- und
Medizinalangelegenheiten, or Ministry of Public
Worship, Education, and Public Health The
Department of Public Health has been sepa-
rated off since Jan 1, J911. There is a strong
movement to establish an independent ministry
for education At the head of the ministry stands
the minister, who is responsible to parliament
for the management of affairs within his juris-
diction He is assisted by an undersecretary
The educational section is divided into two de-
partments, each under a director, the one deal-
ing with university, secondary, technical, and
art education, the other with the education of
girls, physical training, and special institutions
for idiots, blind, deaf and dumb There are
employed six sectional directors, thirty coun-
cilors, and twenty-three assistants

England — The chief executive oflicei re-
sponsible for the national educational adminis-
tration is the President of the Board of Educa-
tion, established by the Board of Education
Act, 1899 In 1839 a Committee of Council
was formed to superintend the application of
the first national grant for education In
1856 the Committee of Council and the Science
and Art Department were united in the newly
created Education Department under the
Lord President of the Council, sitting in the
House of Lords, and a new official, the Vice-
President, with a seat in the House of Commons
In 1899, as a result of the suggestions of the
Bryce Commission, the Board of Education
Act was passed, providing for the creation of a
Minister of Education, known as President of
the Board of Education, responsible for pnmary,
secondary, and technical education in England
and Wales (See ENGLAND, EDUCATION IN.)

The President is assisted by a permanent secre-
tary. The board is divided into two main
departments for England and Wales, although
certain branches are common to both The
following are the branches into which the work
is subdivided architects, medical, women in-
spectors, legal, elementary education, secondary
school, technological, university and training
of teachers, and special inquiries and reports.
Scotland and Ireland have separate depart-
ments for education, but are represented by
the state secretaries for the respective countries.

France — During the Revolution several
experiments were made in establishing a central
authority for education From 1795 to 1808
there was a Directeur G6n6ral de V Instruction
pubhque in the Mimttt&re de I'lnUrieur ; this

246

MINNESOTA

MINNESOTA

arrangement was continued under Napoleon,
the director bearing the name of Grand-Maitre
In 1815 a Commission dc I' Instruction publique
was established and continued until 1820, when
it became the Conned loyal de I' I nab action In
1822 the position of Grand-Maitro was restored,
and in 1824 education was placed under the
charge of the Minister c dcs Affuife* eccle*ia*>-
tiques el de V Instruction p antique, korn winch
it was separated in 1828, when a Mimstei ol
State for Education was appointed (Ahni^tcie
dc V Instruction pabliquc) To this mrnistry
there was added in 1870 the department of
fine arts (Department dcs Beaux-Attb) The
ministry was reorganized in 1884 Theie are
thirty bureaus under the control of the Minis-
ter of Public Instruction, of which se\enteen
have charge of educational affairs (cabinet of
the minister, one bureau, higher education,
five bureaus*, secondary education, five buieaus,
primary education, live bureaus, and accounts,
one bureau) Each of the educational bureaus
is under a director who is a professional expert

United States — Heir there is no ministry
of education There is no federal author it \
over education A bureau of education undei
the control of a commissioner ol education was
established in 1867 in the Department ol the
Interior It has several trrnes been proposed
to establish a separate department of educa-
tion under a state secretary, but it seems im-
probable that this plan will ever be carried out

For the contra! authority in other countries
sec the separate national systems, e </ , AUSTHI \,
KDTH'\TIO\ i\

References —

ltuisao\, F Dictwiuiairt dt Pcdaouyu 8\ \ltnu>Uii
/ahrhuth <lcr hohcrtn ftchulen (Leipzig, \imual )
&<.htHtlnw*ti rs" Yearbook (London, Annual )

MINNESOTA, STATE OF - I«nM organ-
ized as a separate territory in 1840, and ad-
mitted to the Union as the thirty-second state
in 1858 It is located in the North Central
Division, and has a land area of 80,S58 square
miles In size it is one third larger than all
New England, about one half as large as Cali-
fornia, and about the size of England, Wales,
and Scotland combined For admimstiatne
purposes the state is divided into eighty-six
counties, and these in turn into cities, to\\ns,
and school districts In 1910 Minnesota had
a total population ol 2,075,708, and a densiU
of population of 25 7 per square mile

Educational History — The first school for
white children in Minnesota was established at
the present site of St Paul in 1847, two years
before the organization of the territory, and
when it was first organized in 1849 there
were but three settlements in the territory
at St. Paul, St. Anthony, and Stiilwatcr The
first territorial legislature in 1849 enacted the
first school law This provided for the appoint-
ment of a Territorial Superintendent of Public
Instruction, to be appointed by the Governor

for two-year terms, and at a salary of $100 per
year, constituted each township having five
families a school district, with a clerk and three
trustees, but permitted the dnision into school
districts if the township had ten or more fami-
lies, and levied a county school tax of two and
one half mills, to which was to be added all
money derived from liquor licenses and fines
for criminal offenses The trustees had the
power to examine and hire teachers This
law remained almost unchanged until 1860
The first report of the Superintendent of Public
Instruction, for the year 1851, reports but
eight districts and three schoolhuuses in Ram-
sey County, and four districts and one school-
house in Washington County, and an enroll-
ment of but 250 pupils in the state In 1851
the legislature established the University of
Minnesota, though the institution was not
opened to students until 1868, the interval
being spent largely in erecting a building and
in struggling with debts in an effort to save
the university's land endowment In 1853
higher or grammar school classes were organ-
i/ed, and in 1854 a thiee months' term of school
was required In 1855 the office of Territorial
Super rntcndent of Public Instruction was
abolished, and no such official existed again
under the territonal form of government

In 1858 Minnesota was admitted to the
1 nion The constitution formed at that tune
made it the duty of the legislature to establish
a general and unilorm system of public schools,
to piovide for the sale oi tho school lands, the
safeguarding of the principal, and the distribu-
tion of the income from the fund to the town-
ships, on a census basis, provided for general
taxation for education, and confirmed the
Unnersitv of Minnesota in its establishment
and privileges This section has remained
practically unchanged ever since An agricul-
tural college was founded, by law, the same
year, but in 1868 it was consolidated with the
State1 unnersrtA The first state normal
school, also, was established in 1858, and
opened in 1860 at Winona In 1868 a second
state normal school was opened at Mankato,
and in 1869 a third at St (loud In 1860 the
citv of St Anthony was authorized to establish
a high school, town superintendents of schools
were ordered to be appointed to examine and
license teachers, and the chancellor of the
State university was made ex officio State
Superintendent of Public Instruction In
1862 the town of Winona was permitted to
effect a sepaiate organization under a board
of education, a county examiner, appointed
by the county commissioners, superseded the
town superintendent, and the Secretary of
State became e2 officio State Superintendent.
In 1864 the appointment of a county superin-
tendent of schools was authorized, if the
counties so desired, in 1809 the appointment
of such an official was required in all established
counties, and in 1877 the office was made

247

MINNESOTA

MINNESOTA

elective and required of all counties In 1867
the Governor was authorized to appoint a
Superintendent of Public Instruction, a plan
that has been followed ever since The state
first began to care for the blind, deaf, and
dumb in 1863, establishing three institutions
for such defectives at Faribault, school dis-
trict bonds weie authorized first in I860, state
teachers' institutes were aided first in 1867
and .state teachers' certificates were authorized
first in 1868 In 1875 an impoitant change
was made in the method of distributing the
income from the state school fund by pioviding
foi a forty-day enrollment basis, instead of a
census basis, and this was also made to applv to
the distribution of the state one-null tax for
schools, first authorized in 1887 In 1877 the
constitution was amended to prohibit aid to
sectarian education In 1878 the state high
school law was enacted, the policy of state
subsidies for high schools begun, and a State
Inspectoi of high schools appointed The
policy, begun here, has recent lv been extended
to many forms of extra-educational cfioit In
1878 women were permitted to vote at school
elections In 1885 state aid for school libraries
was granted, a state school foi dependent and
neglected children established, the Minnesota
state reading circle organized, and a compulsory
education law enacted requiring twelve weeks'
attendance of all children eight to sixteen years
of age In 1X99 this law was amended so as
to cover the whole tune the schools weie in
session, in 1907 the child labor law was rc-
enacted and made into a good law, and in 101]
the excuse of poverty for non-attendance was
withdrawn In 1901 the consolidation of
schools and the transportation of pupils was
authorized, in 1905 county rural school com-
missions s were authorized to icdistrict the
counties, and to locate consolidated schools,
and in 1909 rural schools were permitted to
vote to unite with a cential town school lor
instruction in manual training, domestic
science, and agnculture, and to put themselves
under the supervision of the superintendent
of the central town school In 1911 state
subsidies were granted for consolidation, state
aid was granted for the erection of a consoli-
dated school building, and an Assistant Super-
intendent of Public Instruction was appointed
to help forward the consolidation of schools
Kflorts were also made in 1911 to secure the
creation of a State Board of Education A
constitutional amendment also was submitted
in 1911, for the second time, to permit of the
imposing of professional standards for the
office of county superintendent of schools

Present School System — At the head of
the present state school system is a State Super-
intendent of Public Instruction, appointed by
the Governor, with the consent of the senate,
for two-year terms He receives a salary of
$8000 and traveling expenses, and appoints
a deputy super intendent at $1800 He has

general oversight of the public schools of the
state, meets with the county school superin-
tendents and advises with them, makes pro-
vision for the county teachers' institutes, and
apportions the State Institute Fund, provides
for examinations for teachers' certificates in
the different counties at times uniform through-
out the state, holds examinations for profes-
sional state certificates, may grant permits
to teach, and special certificates in certain
cases, apportions the state school fund, and
grants some of the subsidies for extra educa-
tional undertakings, and makes an annual
report to the (Jovernoi He is also a member,
ei ojfficto, of the State High School Board, the
State Normal School Board, and the Board of
Regents of the state university The Attor-
ney-General is the official adviser of the State
Superintendent, and his opinions have the
force of law until overruled by a court

For each county there is a county supenn-
tendent of schools, elected by the people for
two-year terms The salary of the office is
fixed by the county commissioners If there
are over 125 teachers in the county, a deputy
may be appointed It is the duty ol the su-
perintendent to visit eat h school in his county
at least once each term, to organize and con-
duct teachers' institutes, to advise teachers
and school boards as to the best methods of
instruction and as to plans for buildings and
ventilation, to keep all records, and file all
official papers, to call a meeting each year of
the district school officers, for the purpose of
instruction on then work and duties, to hold
examinations for teachers on dates designated
by the State Superintendent, and to re\okc
the certificates issued for cause, and to make
an annual report to the State Superintendent

The organized territory within each count \
is dnided into common, independent, and
special school districts These may be consoli-
dated or divided, bv petition and electron For
unorganized territory, a county board of edu-
cation, consisting of the chairman of the board
of county commissioners, the county superin-
tendent of schools, and the county treasurer,
looks after the educational needs of the children,
and levies a tax to provide instruction lor them
The county commissioners may, and on peti-
tion of 25 per cent of the residents must, ap-
point a rural school commission of seven, one
of whom is the county superintendent, to re-
district the county and form consolidated dis-
tricts and farm schools The plan and map
are published and submitted to a vote of the
people for approval The annual school meet-
ing is held m July, special meetings may be
called, and women may vote at such and hold
school offices Such meetings may elect
officers; select sites, build and move build-
ings, vote money for maintenance, and pro-
vide free textbooks On request of five per-
sons, the question of free textbooks must be
voted on About 90 per cent of the districts

248

MINNESOTA

MINNESOTA

provide free textbooks, the remamdei selling
them to the pupils at cost Common school
districts have a chairman, treasure!, and
clerk, elected as such, and independent dis-
tncls have a hoard oi six dnectors, who mav
employ a superintendent ol schools The
hoards of both forms of distuets have power
to purchase and sell equipment , lease class-
rooms; employ and dismiss teachers, pi o vide
free textbooks, or sell them at cost to pupils,
pi escribe rules and regulations for the schools,
determine the textbooks and courses oi study,
admit nonresident pupils, establish and dis-
continue such grades oi schools as aie thought
best, provide transportation ioi pupils living
more than half a mile from school, contract
with adjoining distncts for the instruction oi
pupils, and independent districts may estab-
lish kindergartens and evening schools In
common school distncts the board submits an
estimate of financial needs to the annual meet-
ing for appioval, but in independent districts
the board determines and levies the tax
(lerks and treasurers mav be paid a small
sum for their services, and members are paid
a per diem and mileage to attend the annual
count v school board convention, called by the
county superintendent The exclusion or
segregation of pupils on account of race, color,
social position, or nationality is forbidden
Vll public schools must, be free, and taught in
i he English language, though one hour per dav
in foreign languages is allowed The schools
.ne divided into the following grades, or
gioups —

(1) High schools, nino months' term, teachers, course,

and equipment uppioxed

(2) (jradfti schools nine months' term, four te<i< hers,

pnncipul must be a normal school gradual* , or
mufit hold a state professional license
M) Semi-giaded schools eight months' term, two
teachers, principal must hold a first oi second-
grade* certificate
(4) ( 'oiibohdated i ural H( hnols —

(A) eighteen or more sections of land, eight months'

term, four rooms, principal able to tench
agriculture

(B) eighteen or more sections, eight months' term,

three rooms, principal same
( O twelve to eighteen set turns , eight months' term ,

two rooms, principal same
(«5) Common schools —

(A) eight months' term, tea< her first-grade certifi-

cate

(B) eight months' term teacher second-grade cer-

tificate

(C) seven months' term, teacher second-grade «•»-

tificate
(/)) shorter schools and lower grade ceitihtatc

School Support — The state onginallv re-
ceived 2,969,990 acres oi land in the sixteenth
and thirty-sixth section grants, about two
thirds of which have been sold The perma-
nent state school fund is now about $20,000,000,
and is increasing nearly one million dollars a
year from sales of land and timber, mineral
leases, and iron royalties The state one-mill
tax for schools produces over $6,000,000, mak-
ing a total state fund of about $8,000,000 for

apportionment This is about, 20 per cent
of the cost of the school system The1 income
on this iund, together with the state one-mill
tax, product's a fund of over $2,000,000 a year,
which is apportioned to the counties and dis-
tricts on the basis of a forty days' enrollment
in the schools The amount received in each
county irom hues, strays, and liquor licenses
is added to the iund, before apportioned to the
districts This iund can be used only foi
teachers' wages, and all districts must raise
an equal amount by local taxation The local
taxation consists of a one-mill county tax, but-
given back to the districts paving it, and local
district taxes in addition, as voted These
lattei may reach fifteen nulls for maintenance,
and ten mills lor buildings in common districts,
up to eight mills for buildings in independent
districts, up to nine mills for all purposes in
districts of 20,000 to 50,000, and up to eight
mills for all purposes in districts of over T>0,000
In addition to the regular state fund and tax
Minnesota has gone further perhaps than any
other state in the matter of special grants and
subsidies ior special and desirable educational
efforts. A list oi these grants, as they were
made for the bicnmum oi 1911 and 1912, will
show their nature and extent —

SCHOOL

Regular High Schools

1 wo year High S< hools '

Normal Training Course in

Agricultural High S< hools ' Tp
to

Graded Schools

»semi-gr,ided Schools

Industrial Couiscs in high 01
graded schools 2

Rural Schools2 uniting for Main-
tenance

Consolidated Hural Schools ' —

Consolidated J{ ural Schools - —

New buildings
Kural S< hools abandoned and

pupils transported *
Grants to Common Schools

Schools in unorganized tern-
tor\

Public School Libraries

Public Schools on Indian Reser-
vations

Five tents an acre for state
land in districts Up to

Webster's Dictionaries for

sc hools

Teachers' Institutes in th< coun-
ties

Total Specific Grants for
Bienniuiu

'Added in 190M

GB\NTH

$1750 |
$">00
S7")0 i

$2">00
UbOO
*JOO

ft 1000 \ '

$200 j

$750, $1000
or $1 ">00

Up to $1 r)00

$50, $100,
$150

*10.

AlM'HOVKIA-

I TIONh, 1011

\M> 1M12

* {20,700

210,000
133,600
1 00,958

1 25,000
100,000

<no,6i7

100,000

1 -i.OOO
'•0,000
4.SOO
27,000
?2,192,b75^

* \dded in 1911

The total cost of the public school system for
maintenance only was about $10,000,000 in
11)10

Educational Conditions — Educational con-
ditions in Minnesota are verv good, for a state
so sparsely settled The state is richly agri-
cultural, with a thrifty agricultural people.
249

MINNESOTA

MINNESOTA

59 per cent of the total population live in
country districts, and 25 pei cent in the Iwo
cities of St Paul and Minneapolis. In the
whole state are only 165 cities arid towns with
schools of four or more teachers, while among
the rural schools of the state 258 enrolled less
than 10 pupils, and 1860 less than twenty
53 per cent of the total population is male,
less than one third of 1 per cent aie of the
colored race, and 73 per cent are native hoi n
The illiteracy is low, being about 4 per cent in
1910 The foreign born are largely Norwegians,
Swedes, English and Canadians, and Germans
Marked educational progress has been made
during the past decade, particularly along the
lines of lengthening the term, eliminating
the untrained and weak teacher, the consolida-
tion of schools, and the introduction of agn-
cultural and industrial instruction The state
has good schoolhouscs, 85 per cent of the dis-
tricts have school libraries, and the schools
have good equipment A State Library Boaid,
consisting of the State Superintendent and the
presidents of the five state normal schools,
publishes lists of books, arranges contiact
prices, and apportions state aid to tjie dis-
tricts of $20 the first year, and $10 thereaftei,
provided the district raises at least as much
About 100,000 volumes are added to the
hbraiies each year The inspection earned
on bv the different state inspcctois has had
a marked influence for good on the schools
The state has a good compulsory education
law, children from eight to eighteen being
lequired to go to school all the time the schools
are in session, unless excused for ceitain specific
reasons In 1911 the excuse of poverty was
withdrawn Any board may appoint a truant
officer, maintain a truant school foi pupils
from eight to sixteen, and may secuie com-
mitment of mcorngibles to the state training
school No child under fourteen can be em-
ployed in any factory, and not at all during
school time Children over fourteen must
have labor certificates The state labor de-
partment is charged with the enforcement of
the child labor laws Since 1909 all deaf and
dumb, eight to twenty, must attend the state
school, unless provided for in cities or excused
for certain statutory reasons The school term
in all the larger schools is from eight to ten
months, and averages seven and a quarter
months for the state as a whole

Teachers and Training — The state em-
ployed 15,157 teachers in 1911 Of these 12
per cent were men, 45 per cent were high school
graduates, 26 per cent were normal school
graduates, and 9 per cent were college gradu-
ates. The state aid for schools employing
teachers with first or second-grade certificates
has done much to eliminate the third-grade
certificate, only about 7 per cent of the teachers
holding such In addition to the five large
state normal schools at Winona, Mankato,
St Cloud, Duluth, and Moorhead, many high

schools offer one year of professional training,
following three years of high school work, and
the graduates of such a course receive a one-
year second-grade certificate The State Su-
perintendent issues first-grade professional
certificates to permanent teachers, on examina-
tion or credentials, and second-grade profes-
sional certificates on examination. County
superintendents issue first and second-grade
certificates on examinations or ciedentials,
and third-giade certificates on examination,
only when necessary, and these are limited to
particular districts and valid for but one year
The examination subjects are graded, and form
a continuous series, each examination involving
new subjects and broader preparation Gradu-
ates of the state university, who have taken
the pedagogical couise, and graduates of the
normal schools, are granted first-grade certifi-
cates Cities of over 50,000 inhabitants
(Minneapolis, St Paul) may examine their own
teachers Two examinations are held each
year , all expenses for such are paid bv the state
01 eounty, and no fees are charged teacheis
admitted to them A teachers' institute of
four days is required in each eounty each veai
Summer sessions of fom to six weeks are held
in each of the state normal schools

Secondary Education — Secondary educa-
tion in the state is well organized, and the
number of high schools in the state is increas-
ing very rapidly In 1895 there were 86,
1900, 115, 1905, 174; and in 1910, 210, with
over 21,000 pupils enrolled There is a State
High School Board, composed of the State
Superintendent, the president of the state
university, the president of the board of nor-
mal school directors, ex officio, the principal
of one high school, and one other, appointed
by the Governor This board looks after the
high schools and the graded schools of the state,
and has power to prescribe rules and regula-
tions for com sen of study, examinations, and
conditions for receiving state aid. To repre-
sent them, and to act as their agent, they ap-
point a high school inspector to visit the high
schools and a graded school inspector to visit
the graded schools each year, and they may ask
county superintendents to visit and report
to them The provision for aid and inspec-
tion for graded schools (nine months, four
departments) is a meritorious feature of the
Minnesota state school system The agricul-
tural high schools, ten of which were authorized
in 1909, are another meritorious feature In
1911 the number authorized was increased
to thirty In 1911 state aid to two-year high
schools, and to high schools offering instruc-
tion in agriculture and either manual training
or home economics, was also authorized

Higher and Special Education — The Uni-
versity of Minnesota (q v ), at Minneapolis,
a large, important, and rapidly growing insti-
tution, opened in 1868, is the culmination of the
public school system of the state. The state

250

MINNESOTA, UNIVERSITY OF

also maintains, under the direction arid con-
trol of the University Regents, state schools
of agriculture at Crookstown and Morris a
sub-agricultural station at Grand Rapids and
an agricultural high school at the university
(bee AGRICULTURAL HIGH SCHOOLS ) In addi-
tion to these institutions, the following colleges
offer higher instruction • —

INHTITUTION

LOCATION

OP'D

CONTROL

FOR

Hamline Univer-

"

sity
St John's Univer-

St Paul

1854

ME

Both sexes

sity
(juatnvus Adol-

ColleKoville

1857

RC

Men

phua College
C'arleton College
Augsburg Semi-

St Peter
Northhold

1862
1R07

Luth
Nonseot

Both sexes
Both sexes
Men

nar \
St Olaf Collie
Ubrrt Leu Col-

Minneapolis
Northfield

1860
1874

Luth
Luth

Both Hexes

lege
MaoalpiBter
Parker

Albert Lea
St Pun!
Winnebago

1884
1885
1888

Presby
Presbv
Free Bap

Worn on
Hot}) soxos
Both sexes

The state also maintains a numbei of insti-
tutions for the training of defectives These
arc the State Tiaining School for Boys
and GnLs (reformatory), at Red Wing, the
State Reformatory at *St. Cloud, the Minne-
sota School foi the Blind, at Fanbault, the
Minnesota School for the Deaf, at- Fanbault ,
and the Minnesota School for Feeble-Mmded and
Colony for Epileptics, at Fanbault K P (1

References —

ClHfcKR, JOHN N History of Education in Minnesota

(Circ Inf V N Bu Educ , No 2,1002)
KIEHLE, D L Education in Minnesota (Minneapolis,

MinnoHota, State Cotiatitutton, 1K5S

Law* Relating to Schools and Education, 1911 od
Heportti of the Supt Publ Inxtr , annual 186S-1S7*
biennial IKHO-date '

MINNESOTA, UNIVERSITY OF MIN-
NEAPOLIS AND ST PAUL, MINN —
A coeducational institution established in
1851. A preparatory school was conducted
until the financial panic of 1857 Aftei a
period of difficulties, a reorganization was
effected in 1868, and collegiate instruction was
begun in 1869 under President Folwell The
university was given lands for the support
of a college of agriculture, and was em-
powered to organize other colleges and schools.
President Folwell fostered practical agricul-
tural education, organized the geological and
natural history survey (1872) in organic con-
nection with the university, and secured the
establishment in 1878 of high schools receiving
state aid in consideration of their preparing
students for the university The university
thus became actually as well as nominally the
head of the state system of education Under
the administration of President Cyrus Northrop
(1884-1911)^ the following colleges and schools
were organized: engineering and mechanic

251

MINNESOTA, UNIVERSITY OF

arts in 1885, medicine and suigery, homeo-
pathic medicine (discontinued in 1909)
dentistry and law in 1888, mines in 1889, phar-
macy in 1892, analytical and applied chemistry
in 1903, graduate school and college of educa-
tion in 1905, forestry and training school for
nurses in 1909 The work in agriculture has
developed until it includes a college, school,
short courses for farmers and teachers, an ex-
periment station at the university, and three
schools of agriculture and two experiment
stations at other points in the state The
college of forestry has extensive forest lands
near Lake Itasca for practical work In 191]
Dr George Edgar Vincent succeeded Dr
Northrop as president of the university

Prior to 1884 more than $300,000 had been
invested in farms, campus, buildings, and equip-
ment By the year 1906 this had increased
to nearly $2,000,000, and by 1911 to about
$6,000,000 The university has received fiom
private benefactions about $550,000 Since
1907 the campus has been increased fiom about
53 acres to about 120 acres at an expense of
$841,000, and the sums made available by
legislative appropriation for the years 1908 to
1913 for the purpose of new buildings, equip-
ment, and other permanent improvements
amount to over $4,000,000 The university
is suppoited by funds received from the fedeial
government, by legislative appropriations and
the proceeds of a 23 mill tax from the state, by
interest on invested proceeds of land sales,
and by students' fees The annual budget for
current expenses for the year 1911-1912 shows
a total income of $1,410,000 The university
still retains a large part of the lands granted
for its support, and much of this land contains
valuable ore deposits The endowment ulti-
mately to be derived fiom these ore lands can
seal col y be estimated at present — ceitainly
several millions of dollars The univeisity
occupies twenty-five buildings on the univer-
sity campus, twenty-nine buildings at the
university farm, and thirty-three buildings at
the other agricultural schools and experiment
stations There are under construction six
buildings on the university campus and ten
buildings at the college and schools of agricul-
ture

There is required for admission to the col-
leges of science, literature and arts, agriculture,
engineering, dentistry, mines, pharmacy, chem-
istry, forestry, and nurses' training school, a
four years' high school course (fifteen units),
including certain specified subjects The col-
leges of medicine,, law, and education require
two^ years of college work for entrance.

The length of the courses of study in the
several colleges is as follows- education, two
years; dentistry, law, and nurses' training school,
three years; science, literature and aits, agri-
culture, chemistry, forestry, mines, and phar-
macy, four years; medicine and engineering,
five years The college of medicine requires

MINSHEU

MISSIONS

one year of satisfactory service as hospital
interne before granting the M D. degree The
usual degrees for undergraduate and graduate
work are conferred by the university

The enrollment of students of collegiate
grade in 1911-1912 was 4073, of whom 311
were in the summer school Students in agri-
cultural schools, 1322, of whom 1S6 were at
Crookstori and Morris Correspondence and
extension courses, 306 Total enrollment, 5701
The faculties at Minneapolis and St Paul
consist of 41S professors and instructors and
104 assistants, at Crookston and Morns, 22
instructors, total, 544 members J B J

MINSHEU, JOHN —A teacher of lan-
guages and writer of a polyglot dictionary in 1617
He edited and enlarged R Percyvall's Dic-
tionary in Spanish arid English in 1599 (and
1623), and augmented Percy vall's Spanish
Grammar in L509 His j^olvglot dictionary is
entitled "Hye/xcoi/ ek TGIS r/\a>crous, id ml, Ductor
ui Linguas The Guide into Tongues Origi-
nally there were eleven languages English,
Welsh, Low Dutch, High Dutch, French,
Italian, Spanish, Portuguese, Latin, Greek,
Hebrew These are given together for the
sake of comparison In his address to the
leader he enumerated the various gentlemen
who had assisted him in undertaking his great
work, and prefixed to the Dictionary a catalogue
of subscribers for the volume, headed by the
King (James I), the Queen, and the Prince —
the first instance of a book containing such a
list Published in the year following Shake-
speare's death, it is of special value as containing
the most representative names of book-buyers
in England F. W.

Reference —

Dictionary of National Biography.

MIQUELON

EDUCATION IN

See FRENCH COLONIES,

MIRABEAU, GABRIEL HONORE RI-
QUETI, COMTE DE (1749-1790) —French
author, orator, and statesman His chief
interest in the field of education is indicated
by four speeches published posthumously by
his friend Cabanis under the title Travail sur
I' Education pubhque trourt dans les Papiers
de Mirabcau Vain& (Paris, 1791) In one of
these he advocated the abolition of the three
French academies (later done by the Conven-
tion, 1793), to be replaced by a single national
academy A rather elaborately worked out
plan of educational organization recognized
the following as essential factors in the scheme.
(1) academies (i e learned societies); (2) col-
leges and public schools, (3) medical schools,
(4) the theater; (5) museums, botanical gar-
dens, and public libraries This never got
beyond the stage of a " proposed " bill, but it
merits note among the educational activities of

the revolutionary period His works were pub-
lished in nine volumes ((Euvres, Paris, 1825-
1827) F. E. F

References —

Mtrnoires de Mirabeau Merits par lui-memet par son Pere,
son Oncle, et son Fils adoptif Introd by Victor
Hugo (Brussels, 1834-1836)

WARWICK, C F Mirabeau and the French Revolution.
(Philadelphia, 1905 )

WILLERT, P F Mirabeau (London, 1898 )

MIRROR WRITING —Writing which
would appear like normal writing if seen in a
mirror Such writing as this very frequently
appears in abnormal cases It is readily pro-
duced by a normal individual by taking a pen-
cil in his left hand, and moving this hand freely
without special effort to control the direction
of its movements while he writes with the
right hand, Cettain persons when hypnotized
produce mirror writing with the right hand
The whole matter is of importance to the
teacher because certain children exhibit a tend-
ency to produce mirror writing in the early
years of their training Such a tendency of
the young child may be due to the fact that
a child is extremely left-handed When he
is foiced to write with his right hand, he
sometimes inverts the order of the move-
merits as a normal individual inverts these
movements in the experiment of tracing with
his left hand The teacher will very frequently
regard a child as utterly incompetent to form
letteis because the regulai form of the move-
ments is overlooked on account of their in-
verted character, where such cases arise, it is
usually best to make some concession to the
left-handed character of the child's organiza-
tion C H J.

See AMBIDEXTERITY, WHITING

MISSIONS, THE EDUCATIONAL AS-
PECT OF MODERN — Modern missions be-
gan with the last century The charters of the
missionary societies organized at that time
and for fifty years afterward contained little
or no allusion to educational work The pui-
pose of the missionary endeavor was set forth
in the general statement, " to preach the Gos-
pel to the heathen nations " An occasional
charter refers to the translation of the Scrip-
tures into the languages of the East as indicat-
ing a part of the work the missionary society
was set to accomplish, but in none of these
earlier charters was there revealed any purpose
to plant systems of education in the East. It
is equally apparent that when the earlier
missionaries reached their widely separate
fields they quickly saw the necessity of be-
ginning some kind of educational operations,
and schools of low grade were among the first
reported results of missionary labor. The fact
that this method of approach was adopted by
practically all of the earlier missionaries indi-
cates a general practical need for educational

252

MISSIONS

MISSIONS

work as a foundation foi tho missionary enter-
prise As in most instances the early schools
established by the missionaries were the only
educational institutions in the country, they
were naturally of the most primitive grade
In reporting the schools thus started, emphasis
was laid by the missionaries, not upon their
educational value, but upon the approach to
the people that the schools afforded, and also
upon the fact that through these schools
natives were being trained to become mission-
aries' helpers

It is not within the province of this article
to record the development of the mission school,
but it should be recognized that as a natural
and inevitable result the grade of mission
schools was lifted until there were developed
special forms of education, as ministerial train-
ing for selected young men and a more general
line of education with emphasis upon languages,
history, geography, and mathematics, for the
prepaiation of teachers It was inevitable,
however, that the school should experience
a larger degree of development, especially in
countries like India and Turkey, where there
was a strong desire on the part of the people
for a higher education for then children

Another stimulus to the development of the
educational work of missions was the fact that
so many of the missionaries had received col-
lege education and were naturally appreciative
of the value of such a discipline in the new
society which they were endeavoring to es-
tablish throughout the mission fields These
saw the necessity of thoroughly educated
men and women to hold positions of leader-
ship, not only in what are called the learned
professions, but in all departments of business
At the same time the mission plan involved the
development of the Christian Church as an
institution developed within the East, with
Eastern funds and under Eastern leadership,
itself aggressively extending Christianity in
the country in which it was established It
required no argument for these men and women,
themselves the product of the highest educa-
tion given in England and America, to realize
that such an Eastern Church must have us
its leaders men and women of the broadest in-
tellectual training This fact was emphasized
when attention was called to the defective
educational systems already existing in China,
India, Japan, and other countries, which, al-
though inadequate to prepare men for modern
life, nevertheless possessed great disciplinary
values It was evident that if the Church
of Christ, which the missionaries were attempt-
ing to develop throughout the East, was ever
to become a recognized force and assume a
place of leadership, it must be through the wide
dissemination, among the Christians at least,
of general education, including even that of
collegiate grade and rank

Another important factor in the develop-
ment of missionary education, particularly

that carried on by missionaries from England
and America, was the introduction of the study
of English In most of these countries at the
beginning of the last century there was no
educational literature, and it could hardly be
expected that the missionaries would ever be
able to produce a modern scientific literature
in the vernaculars of the various countries
where they were carrying on work sufficient
to meet the demands of the higher educational
institutions into which their intermediate and
boarding arid high schools were bound to
develop They did create a hterature for the
primary and intermediate schools which was
measurably adequate, but the task of doing
the same for the colleges was practically too
great to be undertaken

At the same time, as the earlier missionaries
represented for the most part the English
speaking world, and as the countries from which
they came were recognized by the people as
of leading political and commercial influence,
it was but natural that there would be a general
desire on the part of the young men, at least in
mission collegiate institutions, and even in
high schools, to study English In India a
knowledge of the English language opened a
career under the East India Company, and
later under the British government, for any
Indian young man, the same was true of
Burma and Ceylon Moreover, in other coun-
tries, not officially connected with English-
speaking nations, there was soon developed the
opinion that English was a modern classical
language, the language of the great commercial
nations of the world, and that the mastery of
that tongue would be of financial as well as
intellectual value to their voting men

From 1855 to 1S75 there was a reaction on
the part of some missionary societies against
higher educational work in mission institu-
tions, and especially against the teaching of
the natives through the medium of Western
languages This department of mission effort
had not made the same progress in German
and Scandinavian societies that had been made
by English-speaking societies. There was at
that time much discussion among the home
societies and their constituency as to the place
of higher education in missionary work While
in not a few instances the decision in the coun-
cils of the home societies was against the further
development of higher educational work on
the mission field, under the direction of the
missionaries this work was gradually and per-
sistently enlarged, until during the last quarter
of that century, mission boarding and high
schools in no small number began to assume
the rank and do the work of collegiate institu-
tions It should be stated that in the meantime
the conservative constituency at home began to
realize the place that education must take in
the planting of permanent Christian institutions
in the East, and opposition rapidly diminished
until it has now practically disappeared.

253

MISSIONS

MISSIONS

Among the Roman Catholics quite another
set of problems presented themselves Their
schools were not as democratic and general
as those of the Protestants, but were regarded
more as church schools, and were maintained
within and for the Church

The Aim of Mission Schools. — In creating
a system of education in the mission field
the endeavor has been made from the be-
ginning so to develop the work that it shall
belong to the country and not have the ap-
pearance of being a foreign educational sys-
tem imposed upon the country The teachers
in most pumary schools, apart from the heads
of kindergartens, are natives The same is
practically true in the boaidmg and high
schools, except that occasionally the head of
the school, for the present at least, is a mission-
ary. It is not expected, however, that the
foreigner will hold permanent control

In collegiate institutions the great majority
of the teachers are natives of the country In
some of these the president is a native, with
missionaries working under him, as in the
Doshisha in Japan Even in the theological
schools in mission fields, native teachers are
employed It is probably tiuo that the for-
eigner will keep his hand upon the collegiate
and theological institutions longer by far than
upon the other schools of the country; how
long he will continue to hold dominating in-
fluence will depend upon the rapidity with
which the country itself develops in moral and
educational ability and the native leaders show
themselves capable of assuming the larger
Christian responsibility. The general policy,
however, of mission institutions in tins respect-
lias been from the first, and still is, to develop
native talent as rapidly as possible and to em-
ploy that talent in the educational work

Support of Mission Schools — Another
phase of this work is the development of self-
support It was eaily learned by the mission-
aries that free schools were practically value-
less The Asiatic appreciates that for which
he pays something, but is liable to look almost
with disdain upon that which costs him nothing
No free school can expect to command the regu-
lar attendance of its pupils There are prob-
ably no schools in the world that come nearer
to self-support through the tuition paid by
pupils than do many of the mission schools of
the East In fact, large numbers of these
schools are wholly self-supporting, although
still retaining their relations to the mission
Even the collegiate institutions, in some coun-
tries like Turkey, secure from the pupils them-
selves in the form of fees or tuition from
three-fourths to five sixths, or even a larger
ratio of the cost of the conduct of the schools.
The development of self-support has not been
so marked in India because of the greater pov-
erty of the class of people who make up the
student clientele So long as Americans and
Europeans remain in any appreciable num-

ber as teachers in the mission colleges and
universities, financial help from abroad will be
necessary for their conduct

The Character of Mission Schools — Mis-
sionary education has been handicapped for
the lack of a model or precedent, the whole
plan of education had to be wrought out by
the missionaries through long and protracted
experiments in each country Each different
country presented new problems to be met and
solved At the same time few of the mission-
aries had received scientific pedagogical train-
ing Large numbers had full collegiate training,
but with no special reference to the teaching
profession Many missionaries went to the
field expecting to engage only in evangelistic
enterprises, but soon found themselves in
charge of a large educational work

It is no wonder then that the development
of the missionary educational system, if it
could be called a system, was irregular and often
unscientific The hindrances already named
were enhanced by the fact that the man who
was at the head of a high school, college, 01
even university was seldom able to give his
entne time and strength to that woik Keeog-
rn/irig also that missionary educational efforts
from the beginning have been curtailed foi
the want of proper financial suppoit, we begin
to realize some of the limitations undei which
this work has boon developed Theie is
hardly a mission school to-day that is proper h
equipped In the marked educational ad-
vance of countries like Japan the missionary
schools are rapidly left behind The Easier n
governments, becoming aleit to the value of
modern education, aie able to appropriate
funds for the erection of buildings and for
their equipment, far superior to those of any
mission plant China is making rapid progress
rn this line at the present time, and even the
Turkish Empire, under the new regime, is
appropriating large sums of money foi develop-
ing a national educational system

Notwithstanding that missionary work is so
defective in equipment and in skilled leader-
ship, the fact remains that the mission schools
in most of these countries have been the models
which have demonstrated to the officials of
the country what can be done rn the line of
modern education, while, at the same time,
they have awakened ambition in the hearts of
the people for education Moreover, though
far surpassing the missionary institutions in
equrpment, in many places the government
schools are not popular, because of inability
to secure teachers able to command the con-
fidence of the parents and pupils.

Courses of Instruction. — It is impossible
within the limrts of this article to give any
adequate conception of the courses of study
offered in the higher collegiate missionary in-
stitutions In each case and in every country
the missionary college offers a curriculum that
places it among the first educational institu-

254

St John's roIli'Kc , Shanghai, China

An KlcmontiiM School in Af IK a

K( id rhiistun ( 'oll( gc, Lu< kno\\ , Indui

Robcil ColloKc, Constantinople

st Collcgo, Rangoon, Uuiniu A Mission School for Girls in Jupun

TYPICAL MISSIONARY EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS.

MISSIONS

MISSIONS

tions of the land This position is held by
nearly all of the so-called mission colleges,
although at present in Japan the national
universities are m advance of the missionary
college, and it is expected that the students of
the missionary college, to complete their couise,
will go to the universitv In each countiv the
endeavor is made to adapt the course of in-
struction to the needs of the countiy In no
instance has the American 01 English cumeu-
lum been transported bodily to the Kast Less
emphasis is laid upon the dead languages, and
more emphasis upon spoken tongues, especially
English, French, and German

The sciences, which were at first indifferently
taught, arc receiving more emphasis as the
East is developing Special stress is laid upon
the history of Westein nations, upon the
science of government, economics, etc , all of
which arc demanded At the present tune
there is an unusual demand for the sciences and
the development of technical tunning How
far missionary societies will be able to respond
to this call remains to be seen To meet tins
demand the universities' missions are coming
to the front

It should also be understood that all of the
mission colleges put emphasis upon the train-
ing of the stable moral chaiaeter Thus state-
ment applies to all of the mission schools,
beginning with the kmdergaiten and primary
school The development of chaiaeter is
fundamental in the ideas of the missionaries
and the societies backing them, and emphasis
upon this point is not lacking even in institu-
tions not especially labeled as missionary, but
which have grown out of the missionary educa-
tional system

The Protestant mission schools, with few
exceptions, have no religious tests for admis-
sion or for graduation In most of the schools
the fundamental truths of Christianity and
the principles that underlie it, as well as some-
thing of an outline of the history of its develop-
ment and the growth of the Christian Church,
have place in the regular instruction given
Every pupil is left free to adhere to the religion
of his fathers, without loss of standing in the
school and without sacrifice of any of its
pnvileges.

Female Education — There is probably
no department of missionary education which
is more fundamentally important than that
dealing with the education of girls. In
nearly every country where the missionaries
have started schools there was not only an
immemorial custom, but a deep-seated and
fundamental prejudice against the advance of
woman, and in most of these countries it was
a matter of belief that women were incapable
of intellectual improvement In some places
the idea that a woman could learn to read was
hardly to be entertained, but the still more
advanced idea that she should be educated was
regarded as preposterous

In the face ol tins handicap, the mission-
aries began in a modest way to educate girls,
in the lace often of open and violent opposition.
It has been a rnattei of surprise to the mission-
aries themselves that this opposition has so
completely disappeared Girls' schools in many
of the mission fields are among the most
popular of missionary institutions, and many
an Oriental parent is paving handsomely for
the education of his daughters While Japan
has made marvelous pr ogress in adopting an
educational system foi the empire, she has not
made the same development in girls' schools
as in those foi young men, and even to-day it
has been stated on what seems to be good
authority that the mission collegiate institu-
tions for young women are superior to the
government institutions foi girls

The girls' schools, at first of the humblest
character, have de\ eloped, as have the schools
tor boys, and have pi oven to the people be-
yond any possibility of doubt, not only thai
girls aie capable of intellectual discipline and
development, but that there is a place in Onental
society for the educated woman These school
systems have developed into colleges for young
women, some of which ha\e already gained
international lepute, like the Amencan Col-
lege for Girls in Constantinople, and othei
institutions in Turkey of similar character, as
well as colleges for girls in India, China, and
Japan While the courses of study in these
colleges are not yet quite up to the grade of
coiiesponding institutions for men, yet they do
not lag far behind They are all thoroughly
abreast of local conditions, and are preparing
women for positions of marked influence and
leadership The graduates of these schools
have open to them the teaching profession, and
1he demand even from government institutions
for teachers is far greater than the mission
schools can supply

As a natuial result of the elevation of woman-
hood through these schools of the East, we
find that the young men who are graduates from
higher institutions of learning are eager to secure
wives who have had a higher course of instruc-
tion About one third of all the pupils in the
mission schools of the world aie girls and young
women This fact demonstrates the place
which these schools already hold and the influ-
ence they exert

Classification of Schools — Departmental
classifications of mission schools have been
most unscientific in all countries, and with-
out uniformity throughout the world The
fact that every missionary society prosecut-
ing work for any length of time in a single
country has felt it necessary to take up some
form of educational work is a clear indication
that, in the judgment at least of the workers
on the ground and the societies at home, per-
manent missionary institutions cannot be es-
tablished in any countiy without their being
embodied in some form of general education

255

MISSIONS

MISSIONS

The first educational work undertaken by the
missionaries was elementary

Primary or Village Schools — Even during
the first modern missionary generation the
primary school held an important place The
first work the missionaries could do, even while
they were learning the language of the people
and, in fact, as one of the most effective ways
of securing a working knowledge of the
vernacular, was to gather groups of children
together into rude schools If there was a lit-
erature of the land, the children were taught to
read that hteiature, if, as in the case oi many
of the peoples of Africa and the islands of the
Pacific, their own vernaculai had no wiitten
character, the children weie taught the charac-
ters which the missionaries created and the
grammar of the language which they made,
and thus education in the vernacular com-
menced

The village or primary school, however, has
become one of the institutions of missionary
effoit, and lies at the foundation of the educa-
tional work earned on in all countnes In
these schools are gathered by far the largest
number of the pupils under missionary instruc-
tion Most of these lowest schools are not
carefully and thoroughly organized In no
single country can the missionary primary
educational work be called a " system," as
there is little or no relation between the schools
carried on by one mission board and the schools
even in near regions carried on by another
missionary organization While there is lack
of systematic cooperation in primary educa-
tional work, essentially the same things are
taught rn all those schools, viz training in wrrt-
mg and reading the vernacular, with a smatter-
ing of number work and a little geography and
history, with stories about foreign countnos
and the Bible In some countries, arid by sonic1
mission boards, English, German, or French
is taught even in the lower grades

It can be laid down as a fact that wherever
the modern missionary has gone and among
whatever people he labors, there have been
organized under his direction widely extended
common village schools for both boys and girls
These, for the most part, were at the beginning
and still aie the only schools of the kind in the
country, and furnish the only rudimentary
education afforded the children of that country
The teachers in these schools are natives, who
in turn have received their training in the higher
schools more directly under the missionary
The missionary has general charge, of the pri-
mary educational system, and, in many cases,
the expense oi the school is paid in whole or
in part bv the people themselves in the form
of tuition This statement does not apply
to Japan and some other countries, since the
governments of Japan and a few other na-
tions have theniNehes developed a comprehen-
sive primary educational system which has
made it unnecessai v for the missionary to gue

time and strength arid to spend money on this
line of work

The primary and village schools now carried
on by Protestant missionaries alone number
nearly 29,000, and they have an attendance
of over 730,000 pupils, of whom nearly one
third are girls In each instance it is in these
schools that children receive the first rudiments
of an education and get their first ambition
to advance in an intellectual course The
most of these schools are in rural regions, away
from centers of influence arid action, but among
some of t he most virile populations

The Roman Catholics were in some respects
the pioneers in the prosecution of primaiy
education In schools organized and conducted
by them among non-Christian races they have
a primary school population under their direc-
tion and control numbering 841,000 This
gives a total of children in non-Christian coun-
tries studying in Christian mission schools in
the primary grade of 1,571,000, but few of
whom would have4 hud any school privileges
had it not been for the missionary

Kindergarten* — The kindergarten was in-
troduced into Asia by missionaries It is a
comparatively new method of education in the
Nearer and the Farther East Missionaries
introduced the first kindergarten into Japan
and prepared the first kindergarten literature,
but the Japanese government has now adopted
this method of training It is proving to be
one of the most popular methods of education
that the missionaries have introduced into any
country, attractive to parents and recening
general favor from government officials In
India the government gives subsidies for well
conducted kindergartens The Chinese are
showing unusual interest in kindergarten tram-
ing, and in Turkey parents are eager to have
their children come into the developing and
suggestive atmosphere of the kindergarten
The kindergarten holds a different place in
missionary education horn that occupied by the
common village school In the latter, for the
most part, pupils are gathered from the lower
strata of society, while the kindergarten has
the patronage of the higher classes and thus
brings the missionary educational system
closer to the palace The kindergarten has
not vet been widely introduced in any country
abroad Only the more advanced of the East-
ern peoples have yet been offered this method
of child instruction There are as yet only
about 5000 children in the Protestant mission-
ary kindergartens, while the Roman Catholics
seem to have given little or no attention to this
type of education

Intermediate and High Schools — During the
first missionary century in this modern era,
practically all of the -education carried on by
missionaries was of the puinarv character It
was inevitable, however, that in the awakening
of the East, education could not be kept down
to primary grade, and that steady advance

250

MISSIONS

MISSIONS

should be made until the pi unary and village
school grew into the intermediate school,
which, in turn, developed into the high school
This statement should not give Ihe impression
that the missionaries had ;i well developed
school system, in winch pupils passed readrh
and systematicallv lioin one grade to anothei
It is not uncommon even lo-day to find undei
a single roof, occupying the same classroom,
and studying side hv side, students of piimaiv
and of high school giade, with all giadations
between

At the same time it should he recognized
that the desire foi education on the part of the
people themselves, cooperating with the need
of the missionaries foi trained uatne woikers,
led to the development ol the educational sys-
tem at the larger centeis of population until
there came to be well-defined schools, which,
in the ordmarv classification, would be called
high schools These did not fit foi college or
have a umfoini course of studv, but the\ we're
the schools giving the highest and most exten-
sive training to both young men and young
women in the country, and would compaie
favorably with even some collegiate institu-
tions in the United States, two hundred and
fifty years ago In the Protestant mission
schools in Africa and the Kast, of mtei mediate
and high school giade, including mission
boarding schools releired to under another
heading, there are now studying 165, ,100, of
whom about 60,000 are girls and young women,
while the Roman Catholics have an attendance
in schools of a similar class of 156,000 This
makes a total of students studying in mission
mtei mediate, boarding, and high schools for
both sexes and in all countries of 321,000

Boarding tichoolv — The missionaiy boaid-
ing school might almost be classed undei the
name of high school, but having characteristics
peculiar to itself, it fills a place of such gieat
importance in the woik of missionaiy education
among Eastern laces that it should receive
special mention The missionary boarding
school is probably the pooicst classified and
organized school which can be named Under
modern development it has become much better
organized than a few years ago, but the basis
of classification in the boarding school is the
pupil, and not his studies 01 age In most, of
these schools pupils are gathered from outlying
districts and kept in the school home, which
may well be compared to the old New England
academy The emphasis, from the missionaiy
standpoint, is placed upon the Christian char-
actcr of the home into which the pupils aie
gathered, and not upon the courses of studv
or the scientific character of the instruction
given. It is from these schools both for boys
and girls that the missionary secures teachers
for the lower schools and the best native
missionary workers Statistics were given un-
der the preceding subject

Normal Schools — The normal school is one

of the latei developments of the missionary
educational system It is only in iccent years
that the imssionaiies lun e been conscious of
the necessity of having moie scientifically
1 1 ained leacheis Even at the picsent time,
howevei, the missionaiy normal schools arc
woefully deficient Feu indeed have come up
to grade, but it should be said that an earnest
endeavor is now being made to put normal
instruction upon a bettei basis In sonic
countries the missionaiies of various denomina-
tions aie uniting in the development of a nor-
mal school that is worthy of the work to be
done Missionaries are securing foi them-
selves special pedagogical training, with a view
to giving more attention to normal school edu-
cation This advance has been made under
the stress of the need and the pressure of the
governments where the schools are India,
for instance, is demanding a better grade of
teachers for the pnmaiv schools that receive
grants-m-ard from the government The same
rs true of Ceylon, and it will undoubtedly be
true soon of China and of Turkey

It is strange that the normal school has not
had earlrer and more complete development
It is expected that this phase of missionary
work will henceforth develop more rapidlv, and
that the missionary schools wrll be called upon
much more than in the past to provide teachers
for the governments, and that thev wrll be
copied more as models for the development of
national institutions It is impossible to fee-
cure accurate statistics regarding the number
of pupils under normal training in mission
schools, since in most cases instruction in this
department is given in collegiate and training
schools to special classes, of which separate
records are not kept

In probably a rnajorrtv of the mission board-
ing schools for girls, domestic economy is taught
This is not the domestic economy of Occidental
life, but of the life of the pupils among whom
the school is established and for whom it works.
Attempt is made to avoid training the girls
into ways of living that will not be in harmony
with then life after graduation It was once
thought necessary to introduce Western ways
rnto Asiatic schools and to teach these ways
to the pupils, but wrser counsels are now pre-
varlrng The girls in boarding schools, as, for
instance, in India, are taught to prepare the
foods of India with Indian appaiatus, and to
serve these foods in the best possible way with
the equipment an Indian kitchen affords In
most of the boarding schools each pupil is
expected to have a share rn the domestic
economy of the institution, under wise and com-
petent teachers, so that when she completes
her course she will carry to her home the
highest domestic skill to be found in the country

In some instances, wheie it is expected that
pupils will be hi ought into contact in their
after life with people of the West, or where it
is anticipated that Western customs will pre-

VOL. IV — S

257

MISSIONS

MISSIONS

vail more or less in their homes, Western
phases of domestic economy are introduced
into the school, as, for instance, in great cen-
ters like Tokyo, Bombay, and Constantinople,
certain girls are taught the domestic economy
of the West, which consists of the preparation
of Western food in a Western way and the
serving of those foods at a table as it would
be served in Europe 01 the United States At
the same time, the pupil is taught to sit at the
table and to carry herself in a way that would
be acceptable in good society in the West

This phase of domestic economy is not
widely extended, but it is impoitant, since not
a few of the graduates of these institutions,
especially the girls' colleges, become wives of
professional men who either thernseUes go
to America or to Europe with then wives 01
are called upon to entertain Westein men of
note in their homes In all such cases a knowl-
edge of Western customs is of great value
But for the most part the domestic economy
taught in the mission schools is that of the
country wherein they aie located

Collegiate Institutions — The missionary
colleges were in many instances the first insti-
tutions of higher learning to be developed in
the countries in which they exist to-da\ This
statement is true oi Turkey, Persia, Bulgaua,
India, Burma, Ceylon, Korea, and Africa, and,
viewed from a Western standpoint, of China
and Japan. They were the natuial outgrowth
of the village school, and have come into exist-
ence at the demand oi the people for modern
Western education, accompanied by the need
in missionary work for thoroughly trained nati\ e
leaders It is this requirement oi the mis-
sionary work, togethei with the aspirations
of those who sought an education for its own
sake and for what it would bring to them in
the way of advancement, that lias made the
missionary college a significant institution in
the East to-day It must be remembered that
many high schools, and even ordinary boarding
schools under missionary direction, have been
given the name "college" This weakness,
on the part of certain missionaries, for a high-
sounding name has brought discredit, in some
countries, upon the missionary college At
the same time it cannot be denied that mis-
sionary colleges have been, in most cases, the
foremost institutions for higher Western learn-
ing in the countries where thov have been
established, and in lands like Turkey, Africa,
India, Ceylon, Burma, China, and Korea they
stand without a rival The development of
missionary colleges within the last generation
has been rapid. In 1850 there was hardly a
missionary school that bore the name " college "
The real collegiate movement began in the
last quarter of the last century The develop-
ment of the college is quite parallel with the
awakening of the Asiatic races, and may be
regarded as a part of that awakening

The courses of study in these colleges are

on a par with the curricula of the ordinary
colleges of the United States and Canada, and
many of the denominational colleges of Great
Britain Not so much emphasis is put upon
the dead languages as upon the living, and
in all these institutions the native tongue of
the missionary in charge is made the principal
foreign tongue, as, for instance, in the French
missionary colleges, French is the principal for-
eign language, in the German colleges, German,
and in the English colleges, English.

These institutions have been most satisfac-
torily patronized by the people. They are
more largely self-supporting, because of the
heavy tuitions the people themselves pay, than
are similar institutions in America and Europe
It has been currently reported that the Ameri-
can colleges in Turkey, all of which have grown
out of the missionary work there, have had
unusual influence in shaping the new Turkish
Empire and in preparing the minds of the peo-
ple for constitutional government It would be
impossible to overestimate the place which
the missionary colleges to-day hold in the
great national movements of the East and the
influence which they exert over the minds oi
t he young men and young women coming
forward rapidly to positions of leadership
among these awakening nations These colleges
have formed the model upon which private
and national collegiate institutions have been
created

More than 25,000 of the brightest young
men and women in the Nearer and the Farther
East are to-day receiving a thorough higher
education in the collegiate and training insti-
tutions which Protestant missionaries have
established, and which directlv 01 indirectly
they sustain This means the graduation of
some 4000 young men and women each year
to take positions of commanding influence
among then own people The Catholic mis-
sionaries furnish no distinct statistics covering
this grade of work

Medical Colleges — The medical college is
an outgiowth of the medical as well as of the
general educational missionary woik Even
to the present time there have been not a large
number of medical colleges established in
mission fields, but a few of these are of a high
order and rapidly developing, as, for instance,
the Medical College at Pekm, China, in which
six different organizations unite and which is
alreadv recognized by the imperial government,
also the Syrian Protestant Medical College
at Beirut in northern Syria In China, in
India, and in Turkey, as well as many other
of the Eastern countries, the first modern
scientific medical education provided for young
men has been given through the missionary
medical college and by the medical missionary
in the form of personal instruction to native
assistants. There are some 1000 students in
the distinctly Protestant missionary medical
colleges, besides medical missionary assistants

258

MISSIONS

MISSIONS

am] nurses numbering several thousands. The
Roman Catholics furnish no statistics

Industrial Schools — Industrial schools are
the least systematized and the poorest devel-
oped of any of the educational institutions
connected with missionary work They are
probably the least scientifically conducted
The first idea of the industrial mission school
grew out of a desire to provide for needy pupils
some means by which they might earn a part,
at least, of their own suppoit, while securing
an education For that purpose industries
were introduced with the main object of fur-
nishing food and clothing for the students
practicing them This was followed by the
idea of teaching pupils some trade by which
they might earn their livelihood after they
had finished their education The necessity for
this vocational training grew out of the per-
secution which the Christian student often
received and which handicapped him in in-
dustrial competition This part of missionary
work has not, on the whole, proved a success
Missionaries have not shown themselves ca-
pable of teaching trades to Asiatic young men
by which they may earn a livelihood after
going out into the woild Instances aie com-
paratively few where students graduating from
an industrial school have successfully pursued
the trade studied in the school

At the present time industrial work is taking
a somewhat modified form, and will probably
bo widely developed along this hne/ namely,
to teach the pupil to use the tools of his country
and pioduce that which the people themselves
require, and to do it at a price that will make
it possible foi him to live thereby Alto-
gether too many of the industrial schools have
taught the pupils to produce goods which could
not be sold except in a foreign market and
through the missionary agency One thing
has been accomplished by all those forms of
mdustiial work, namely, the pupils have been
taught the dignity of labor, and their minds
have been dispossessed of the false impression
so prevalent in the East that a scholar must
not do manual labor The results in this
direction have been most beneficial

There is an independent line of industrial
work for women which needs to bo mentioned.
This consists largely of lace making and needle-
work, and has been, in large part, for the pur-
pose of furnishing them a means of livelihood.
The results have been most satisfactory in
that widows and others who without this
would be beggars upon the street or something
worse, have become self-respecting and inde-
pendent, earning their living by the skill and
labor of their hands Industrial work of this
kind on a large scale has been carried on, as,
for instance, by Miss Shattuck at Oorfa, where
thousands of widows and orphans were pro-
vided an opportunity to earn their living when
Turkish massacres had cut off their every
source of support.

The Roman Catholic missionaries do not
publish reports of their industrial operations,
although they are not behind the Protestant
societies in teaching the dignity of labor and
self-help and in instructing their pupils in
various handicrafts In Africa the demand
for a fuller development of this line of instruc-
tion is on the increase

Technical Schools — The missionary techni-
cal school has not been widely developed,
although at tho present time the call is gi owing
louder for the enlaigeinent of this phase of
collegiate education The reason for slow
development has been, without doubt, the
great cost of the technical school as compared
with the ordinary college The colleges
themselves have been poorly equipped, and
the most of thorn are moagerly supplied with
apparatus and with a proper teaching force
The demand for such technical schools in India.
China, and Turkey is now insistent It is
probable that in China, as in Japan, the govein-
ment will soon provide for this line of education
Few missionary societies will feel able to make
the necessary outlay of money for the estab-
lishment of adequately equipped plants for
full technical education

Theological Schools — Tho theological school
has been a natural outgrowth of missionary
work, and has for its object tho tiaining of
Christian leaders for tho newly organized
churches and for general evangelistic work
in the field Tho purpose of tho theological
school is to train up natives of the count ly
who will themselves bear the burden of the
work which tho missionaries at first bore, and
to lead tho native church into independence
and self-support These schools have boon
in many instances rude, and tho development
has not kept pace with the development of the
missionary colleges and other educational in-
stitutions About 12,000 Protestant young
men in mission countries are now pui suing
courses of instruction in preparation foi the
pastorate of native churches and for general
religious leadership Again we are prouded
with no statistics for Roman Catholic missions.

Agricultural Institutions — In many differ-
ent sections of the mission held, missionaries
havo done not a little to improve tho agiicul-
tural conditions of the country by securing
land and training young men connected with
their schools in scientific methods of tilling
the soil and raising orops. This phase of mis-
sionaiy work has never received much atten-
tion, although not a little has boon done by the
missionaries in many countries in introduc-
ing, through this line of education, better im-
plements of agriculture and more scientific
methods of farming as well as new seeds and
vegetables from the West There is at the
present time much call in many mission coun-
tries for tho establishment of agricultural
schools Plans are already being developed
to have an agricultural department connected

259

MISSIONS

MISSIONS

with some of the existing missionary colleges
This work is eagerly desired by the people, and,
"f properly guided, would be of infinite value in
raising the productive power of land as well as in
increasing the quality of agricultural products

Schools for the Blind — The early loss of
sight is probably one of the greatest afflictions
of the East, but until Christian work began
little or nothing was done for the blind The
missionaries have opened schools for the blind
in many of the great mission centers They
have secured the printing of books for the blind
in the languages of the country, and have
opened schools in which blind children are
taught not only to read, but to become self-
supporting through the practice of some handi-
craft suited to their condition These schools
have made profound impression upon the people
of the country, and are changing their attitude
toward the helpless blind in a way that was
not contemplated

Something of the same line of work has been
opened in many places for the deaf and dumb,
and with similar results This work as yet
is not very extensive, but it has led, as in Japan,
to calling the attention of the government to
the necessity of doing something for this class
of their citizens

In Protestant schools for the blind and for
the deaf and dumb there are 844 children under
special instruction The Roman Catholic fig-
ures make no report of these departments
of training This is one of the new lines of
mission work, and probably as lesourccs in-
crease it will be rapidly developed

Orphanages — There are few missionary
societies that have not at one time or another
in their history opened schools for orphans,
which have been practically orphanages pure
and simple, but with provision for the intellec-
tual as well as physical and industrial training
of the children brought into them The Ro-
man Catholics have done more in this direction
than have the Protestants As a general
thing the Protestant missionary societies
have not regarded this as a permanent part of
their work, but in countries which have
suffered severe scourges of plague, famine, 01
massacre, it has been impossible for the mis-
sionaries to remain in the country and not
open refuges for the reception of the gieat
numbers of orphan children left absolutely
without protection

It was under such an impulse as this that the
Protestant orphanages, for the most pait,
were opened It was necessary to continue
fche work at least until that generation of or-
phans had received their training and had been
placed in positions where they could become
self-respecting, self-supporting members of
society The massacres at different times in
Bulgaria and Turkey and the plagues and
famines that have afflicted India in the not
remote past have led to a large and necessary
development of this line of work

Among Protestant societies funds for the
support of these orphan schools have been
provided largely by special gifts for that pur-
pose, and have not come directly from the
treasuries of the missionary societies

The Roman Catholic missionaries put
greater emphasis upon orphan institutions than
do the Protestants Among the Protestants,
in large part, orphan children are cared for in
the boarding schools, and not in separate insti-
tutions There are, however, separate or-
phanages, especially in India and Turkey, in
which the latest reports show there are 20,206
children In the orphanages under the Roman
Catholic missionaries in the various countries
of the world there are 89,699 children

Japan — When Protestant missionaries
entered Japan about 1860, they found a con-
siderable degree of education in the country,
but not of the Western type As imssionaiies
could reside outside of treaty ports only when
employed by Japanese, it became necessary
for those who wished to take up their residence
m the interior to be connected with some
Japanese institution, in whose employment
they were registered in the government records
At the same time, the desire of the Japanese
for Western learning was increasing, and many
Europeans and Americans were called to Japan
to teach in the government schools The
mission schools were eagerly sought by the
young men and young women of Japan as
affording unusual opportunity to study Eng-
lish, constitutional government, history of
Western nations, and, what may seem rathci
strange, the fundamentals of Christianity
In some of the earlier schools, as, for instance,
those under the direction of the famous Gmdo
Verbeck, the two subjects which were most
eagerly sought by the Japanese pupils, all of
whom came from families connected with the
samurai, or titled classes, wcie constitutional
government and Christianity A large num-
ber of the men who became foremost in the
reorganization of Japan and the development
of constitutional government were pupils in
those early mission schools.

Mission schools have a reputation for main-
taining a standard of English and of music
which it is impossible for the government
schools to surpass They also are said to have
developed a strength of character in their
students noticeably lacking in government
schools These mission schools exercise great
care in the selection of teachers, basing school
government upon Christian principles The
historic foundations of Christianity are taught
to all the pupils, although in none of them are
there religious tests for admission or graduation.

The grade of school in which missionaries
chiefly work is the Chu Gakko, or middle school
for young men, and the Koto Jo Gakko, or
middle and high school for young women In
the empire there are twelve such mission schools
for young men and forty-five foi young women

260

MISSIONS

MISSIONS

These arc all beyond the experimental stage,
no new schools having been opened in recent
years

The total number of young men who have
received more or less instruction in the Protes-
tant mission schools in Japan is about 25,000
From three to four thousand oi these are
graduates of the schools, eithei of the middle
or higher course, or of both Of those who
have received or are receiving instruction, about
3 per cent are in the Christian ministry 01 some
other form of special Christian work, 12 per
cent are teachers in eithei mission or govein-
ment schools, 5 per cent, are officials under the
government, 28 per cent are in some form of
business, 1 per cent in military service, and
2 per cent in various other callings, while 7 pei
cent have died, 35 per cent are still in schools,
and the rest are unreported

There are certain professions in which al-
most no graduates of mission schools aie
found, namely, the military, medical, and legal
About 700 of the graduates of mission schools
aie engaged in farming, manufacturing, com-
merce, and in various arts and professions
Not a few are managers of banks and presi-
dents of commercial companies Then1 aie
117 graduates of mission schools who are active1
in official and political life, and among these
a considerable proportion have risen to promi-
nence They hold positions in city and ken
offices, postal and customs service, thev are
members of the Upper and Lower Houses of
Parliament, mayors of laige cities, and diplo-
mats It is, however, in the realm of ideas
rather than in business 01 official life that the
former pupils of mission schools have espe-
cially distinguished themselves Here they have
exerted their widest influence over social and
national progress in Japan It has been said
that the sign " Importers of new ideas " might
appropriately be hung over the entrance of
every mission school in the empire The
graduates of these schools are prominent in
teaching positions, even in the highest national
schools

It is stated on good authority that the stu-
dents in mission schools originated magazine
literature4 in Japan They also hold promi-
nent positions in journalism, many later gradu-
ates choosing that as a profession The follow-
ing is only a partial list of prominent Japanese
journals which have graduates of mission
schools either as cditors-m-chief or as promi-
nent members of the editorial staff The
Maimchi Shimbun, The Kokumin Shimbun,
The Hoehi Shimbun, The Osaka Asaht Shimbun,
The Nngoya Fuso Shimbun, Kagoshnna Nichi
Nichi Shimbun, The Clnmei Nippo, The Tokyo
Asaht, Shimbun, The Yorozu Choho, Tht
Kahoku Shimpo, The Seridai Nichi Nicfu
Shimbun, The Jitsugyo no Nihon, The Eibun
Shinshi, The Boken Sekai, The Bunko, The
Waseda Daigaku Shippan Bu, The Chuo Koron,
The Taiyo, The Jmsen Chosen Shnnpo} The

Mojl Shimpo lu the held of authorship,
students from these schools present an equally
interesting record Eminent national poets,
historians, lecturers, and authors on topics
connected with education and sociology, as
well as novelists, have come from these schools,
and their writings have excited and are exert-
ing a strong influence on the thought of the
empire In fact, these have led the way in
creating a new literature for Japan, a literatuie
that is rapidlv familiarizing the whole nation
with the best ideals of the West It naturalh
follows that the Christian press of Japan is
under the direction and control of former
puprls in these schools All of the editors-m-
chief oi the Christian papers are of this class,
and most of the assistant editors and contribu-
tors have icceived the same1 training The
leaders in the Y M C A movement in Japan
arc from the same class The Doshisha, a
Christian university established in Kyoto bv
Dr Neesima, has a national reputation, and its
giaduates are sought for important positions
because of the record they have made for moral
strength, stability of charactei, and integrity
of purpose

In the education of girls in Japan, the mis-
sion schools have taken the lead, and have
been of great influence in stimulating the govein-
ment to make better provision for female
education It is impossible to follow the course
of the graduates of mission schools for girls
in the same way that we can follow the gradu-
ates from the schools foi boys and young men
Most of these graduates are soon found in
homes of then own It is impossible to trace
the influence of those homes, picsided over by
a Christian woman or one who has been trained
in Christian schools, in shaping a new order of
society in Japan The number of mission
schools for girls is reported as forty-five, with
ninety-three mixed schools, including fifty-
four kindergartens There are twenty-two
theological schools in the empire, conducted
by missions, fourteen schools for training
women for special forms of Christian work, and
five kindergarten training schools for the
education of kindergartners The Roman
Catholics have about eighty schools of all
grades, attended by about 8000 pupils, but
no data are given regarding the grade of these
schools or the walks of life into which these
students enter after graduation

China — As a nation China has been more
favorable to higher education than any other
great country of the world For the last five
hundred years, indeed, official positions have
been more completely based upon a civil service
examination than in any other country This
national education, however, contained nothing
that is regarded in Europe arid America as
part of the curriculum of any educational
system While the national education gave
a certain measure of mental discipline, it did
not inform the student regarding the outside

2f»l

MISSIONS

MISSIONS

world, nor was anything in the line of science
or mathematics included The basis of the
old educational system of China was the Con-
fucian classics and Chinese history (See
CHINA, EDUCATION IN )

Protestant missionary work began in China
in 1807, and for a century endeavor has been
made to exhibit to the Chinese the value of
u Western learning," as this system of educa-
tion was quickly named by the Chinese them-
selves Acceptance was slow Perhaps one
of the most far-reaching results has been the
turning of the minds of Chinese youth toward
the Western world, which has resulted in send-
ing to America and Europe a considerable
number of young men for educational purposes
Not long since, the Chinese Students' Associa-
tion, made up of several hundred Chinese
youths studying in American universities and
colleges, reported that over 80 per cent of their
number came from mission schools in China

Missionary education has received a great
impulse since 1900, following the reorganiza-
tion immediately after the Boxer Movement
The revival of Western learning in China is
coincident with the inauguration of the new
order and the development of the idea of con-
stitutional government Mission schools which
were long tabooed by the masses of the people
then became popular, the government system
of education was changed by impenal order,
and Western learning was made the basis of
the official education of the Chinese empire
No longer does the old system prevail, and the
new government is endeavoring to build up its
own educational system on the model hud
down by the missionaries and brought back
to China by the Chinese students who have
taken degrees in European and American
universities

It i« impossible here to trace the history and
development of the Protestant educational
propaganda, and we can give only a summary
of the work of seventy-three missionary societies
in China There arc eighteen missionary uni-
versities and colleges in the country, with a
total attendance of 919 students in the col-
legiate departments These institutions are
pretty well scattered throughout the empire,
with locations generally at great political and
influential centers, as, for instance, two in
Pekm, two in Foochow, two in Canton, and
others in Nanking, Hankow, Wuchang, etc
In theological, normal, and training schools
there are 2544 students, in the boarding and
high schools, 20,806, and in the elementary
and village schools, 54,964, making a total
in all the Protestant mission institutions in
China of abont 80,000 Chinese children and
youth To these should be added 122,000
pupils m Roman Catholic schools, the most
of whom are in middle or primary grades, with
one sixth of the entire number in orphanage
schools, making a grand total of 202,000
Chinese youth in mission schools in the country

Turkey — There is probably no country in
which mission schools have figured more promi-
nently in the development of the intellectual
and social life of the people than in the Turkish
empire The work of missionary education
was begun in Turkey in 1820, and has been
continuous to the present time Until very
recent years the missionary schools were the
only ones based upon scientific methods of
instruction The pupils in these schools,
which quite generally cover the empire north
of Arabia, have come largely from the Syrian,
Greek, and Armenian communities, although
there have been in them all some4 pupils of
other nationalities Owing to the alertness
of the Armenian and Greek minds and the
readiness with which they have sought educa-
tion, the mission schools in Turkey have devel-
oped into colleges more rapidly than in any
other country, and, in the absence of govern-
ment institutions to supply the need of higher
education, these mission colleges have occupied
a place in the empire which such institutions
have assumed in few if any other countries

To-day the mission colleges in Turkey, and
institutions which have grown out of missionary
work and are substantially a part of it, are afford-
ing the highest and most thorough scientific train-
ing available for young men and young women
As illustrations we mention Robert College (q r )
on the Bospoius, which, although never undei
missionary control, has always had a mission-
ary for its president, and has been conducted
along precisely the same lines as missionary
institutions, the Syrian Protestant College
at Beirut, which began as a missionary school,
but has since become independent under a
separate board of trustees, and the American
College for Girls at Constantinople, once mis-
sionary, but now independent

Collegiate education for women has reached
a high stage of development in Turkey The
Greek and Armenian races have been respon-
sive to the call for the higher intellectual training
of their women, and in response to this call
three colleges have developed, the Central
Turkey College for Women at Marash, the
International Woman's College at Smyrna,
and the college already referred to at Con-
stantinople Euphrates College at Harpoot
in Eastern Turkey has two departments, one
for women and one for men The girls' high
and boarding schools at Marsovan, Amtab, and
Beirut have leached a stage of development
which carries their pupils into the collegiate
grade, although as yet these institutions do
not bear the college name

The influence of these colleges upon Turkey
cannot be measured by the rolls of their pupils
A great number of national schools have sprung
up among the Greeks, Armenians, and Syrians,
as well as other nationalities, which employ
teachers who were trained in mission schools
In this way modern missionary education has
penetrated into the remote sections of the

262

MISSIONS

MISSIONS

Turkish empire and has prepared the people
not only for constitutional government, hut
for the adoption of a general system of educa-
tion which the new regime in Turkey is now
endeavoring to establish Many of the native
teachers engaged in these collegiate institutions
in Turkey have received special training in
European and American institutions A major-
ity of the American colleges in Tin key are
incorporated under the laws of Massachusetts
or New York, and aie partially endowed

In these institutions to-dav theie are about
5000 young men and young women, natives
of Turkey, taking a general course of instiuc-
tion. This number includes the pupils in the
preparatory departments, but does not include
pupils of high school giade in institutions out-
side The boarding and high schools, with the
elemental y and village schools in the empire,
have over 40,000 scholars, making a total, with
the 1101 mal and industrial institutions, of more
than 48,000 pupils receiving then training
in Protestant missionary schools The Roman
Catholics have extensive educational plants,
in which some 68,000 pupils are rccening in-
struction under Christian training, making
a total of nearly 120,000 clnldien of Turkey
leceivmg their education in mission schools

One of the Moslem leadeis in the inaugura-
tion of the new constitutional government in
Tuikey stated that they would never have
dared to undertake such a bold step, had they
not relied upon the influence of the missionary
educational work which has been carried on
in Tuikey for two generations to sustain them
and to make constitutional government pos-
sible

India — Beginning with Ziegenbalg, Plut-
schen, Schultze, and Schwartz in the eighteenth
century, missionaries inaugurated an educa-
tional program which has since played an
important pait in the development of the in-
tellectual life of modern India In 1728 the
Christian Knowledge Society began woik in
the Madras Presidency, and from that day to
the present, Christian missionaries have been
engaged in a multitude of forms of educational
work The first decided attempt at female
education was undertaken in 1800 The gov-
ernment system of education was based upon
Sanskrit, Arabic, and Persian, while the mis-
sionaries made use of the common veinacular
and placed emphasis upon religious instruction
Dr Alexander Duff, an early missionary, made
a remarkable record as an educate! (See
INDIA, EDUCATION IN ) Of forty-eight young
men who were under his tuition, nine became
ministers, ten catechists, seventeen professors
and high-grade teachers, eight high-rank govern-
ment officials, and four physicians and surgeons
He was especially influential in shaping the
educational policy of the Indian government,
which is now of almost universal application
in India, Burma, and Ceylon

In India and Ceylon the government method

of canyiiig on its own educational work is
largely thiough a subsidy to those mission
schools that come up to the government stand-
ards and meet the requirements In Ceylon,
for instance, the support of the missionary
primary and village schools comes almost
wholly from the government grant, and in a
large number of the schools in India by fai
the greater propoitiori of the funds for main-
tenance is supplied by the goveinment The
schools thus aided are under the regular in-
spection of government officials, and the grant
is based upon the number of pupils in the
schools that reach a fixed standard. These
grants are also given in still more liberal form
to industrial institutions

In the Protestant missionary school system
in India there are thnty-seven collegiate insti-
tutions well scattered over the empire and
directly connected with the Indian university
system In these colleges, nearly all of which
arc for young men, there are about 5000 matric-
ulated students In the 141 theological and
normal schools theie are 77,400 students In
the industrial training institutions and schools
there are 9000 pupils, although there are many
pupils in other institutions who are receiving
regular industrial instruction In the ele-
mentary and village schools of the country
there are 362,000, with about 1000 in the mis-
sionary kindergartens This makes a total
in the Protestant missionary schools of all
grades and classes in India, and representing
eighty-five missionary societies, of about
458,000 children

The island of Ceylon, although not densely
populated, furnishes a good illustration of the
influence of missionary educational endeavor
While in the entire island there is a population
of only about 3,988,000, in the Piotestarit
missionary schools on the island, consisting
of three university and collegiate institutions,
seven theological and normal training schools,
fortv-foui boarding and high schools, six indus-
trial institutions, and 871 schools of elementary
village grade, there is a total attendance of
63,000

The Roman Catholic figures for India and
Ceylon report a school attendance of 225,000,
making a total of pupils in these two countnes
in Protestant and Roman Catholic mission
schools of 819,000 who are receiving their
instruction in missionary institutions

Africa — Africa, unlike other countries that
are named in this list, is riot a united or com-
pact empire, it represents no single govern-
ment, and has no native administration at any
point which is now developing education Un-
der the British flag the government is beginning
to render some assistance to primary, interme-
diate, and normal education for native popula-
tions, but this affects only a limited area.
Very little is done by the French and German
governments, and perhaps less by the Portu-
guese in this direction There is no country

263

MISSIONS

MISSIONS

here named that is so dependent at the present
time upon the educational work developed and
carried on by missionaries as the continent of
Africa. There is, moreover, little hope that
in the near future any form of native govern-
ment or of the foreign governments holding
control in Africa will take advance steps in
this direction This being the ease, the mis-
sionary educational work has the greater sig-
nificance

It should be stated also that in missionary
education in Africa there is an increasing con-
sciousness that the system that will be most
valuable in the future must, be more or less
connected with some form of industrial train-
ing While the African learns to read and
write, he, by this method of training, is also
learning new processes of agriculture, how to
make brick and tiles for his home, how to con-
struct his home according to improved modern
methods, how to make his own agricultural
implements and tools and furniture, and to do
many other things which belong to a more
civilized society These processes of educa-
tion are going on at the mission centers in
different parts of the great African continent

As might be expected, highei education in the
line of collegiate work has been but little devel-
oped up to the present time among the natives
of Africa There arc few institutions which
should bear the name of college or university,
and the number of students in these to-dav
aggregates less than two hundred In theo-
logical and normal institutions* that are training
preachers and teachers for the lower schools,
statistics show that there are over 2500 Afri-
can youth receiving training In the mission
boarding and high schools the number of pupils
passes the 20,000 mark It is, however, in
the elementary schools that the largest number
of African youth are found Protestant mis-
sion institutions of elementary grade in Africa,
exclusive of the work carried on in Egypt,
number over 405,000 pupils Taking all of
the Protestant mission institutions together,
exclusive of Egypt, there arc now under mis-
sionary instruction in Africa, in schools of all
grades, a little more than 432,000 youth and
children. This is probably largely in excess
of the number of native youth in all of the other
modern and equipped schools in the entire
continent The Roman Catholics have in
schools under the direction of their mission-
aries in all Africa, also exclusive of Egypt, a
school population of over 400,000 The figures
which they furnish are not capable of as care-
ful analysis and classification as the figures
provided by the Protestant societies This
makes a total missionary school attendance
of native African pupils of 832,000

Statistics — The following statistics will
show the present strength as well as the growth
of Protestant missionary educational work
during the last decade, though these figures are
changing rapidly: —

PROTESTANT
AMERICAN MIHHIONARY SOCIETIES

1900
1905
1909
1910

0,2.52

9,949
10,032

PUPILM

240,263
303,835
437,138
515,108

ENGLISH SOCIETIES

HCHOOLH

1900
1905
1909
1910

9,100
11,447
10,049
11,179

PUPILH

GERMAN SOCIETIES

1900
1905
1909
1910

2,022
2,40(»
3,373
.U30

437,874
028,407
004,075
602,723

PUPILS

97,587
120,817
150,021
159,547

CONTINENTAL AND OTHER SOCIETIES

1910

S( HOOLH

5,274

PUIMLH

224,0()1

The totals of schools and pupils, together
with the summary of the schools of Christen-
dom, are as follows, with their growth for the
last decade —

1900

1905
1909
1910

SCHOOLS

PUPILS

•

20,190
27,835
29,190
30,215

1,035,724
1,240,127
1,413,995
1 ,502,039 *

1 About ono fourth of these arc girls

Figures showing the growth of the Roman
Catholic missionary educational work are not
available, but the following statistics of the
pupils recently reported show the number of
students under Roman Catholic instruction
under three classifications- —

ROMAN CATHOLIC

In Lower Schools, including Primary 840,974
In Middle Schools (approaching the Board-
ing and High Grade in Protestant Statis-
tics) . 06,399
In Orphanages . . . J<?,699
Total "997,072

264

MISSIONS

MISSIONS

Their figures do not indicate the proportion
of girls among the pupils under instruction

Grand total of pupils in missionary schools
m all mission countries: —

Protestant 1,552,039

Roman Catholic ' 997,072

Total 2,549,111

Cost of Missionary Schools — It is difficult
to state accurately the amount which mission
hoards and societies of Christendom at the
present time are using annually for the support
and development of educational work in their
various mission fields Including the support
of those who are engaged in whole or in part
in educational enterprises, together with the
subsidies given to schools of various grades
and character, it is probably not an exaggera-
tion to say that at least $6,000,000 a year go
directly or indirectly into the various Protes-
tant missionary educational enterprises, in
Africa and the Nearer and Farther East A
huge part of the cost of this educational woik
is carried by the natives themselves It can
be baid without exaggeration that the educa-
tional institutions that are called missionaiy
around the world are earned on at an annual
cost of not less than $12,000,000 It should
also be stated that not a few institutions, all of
which are here classified as missionary either in
oiigin or in character and spmt, have organized
themselves under separate boards of trustees,
with charters from different states This has
been done in a large number of instances for
the purpose of securing more funds for their
support Many of those stand to-day as
distinctively missionary, and all are classified
as Christian and are supplementing missionary
wor k

Cooperation — - During the last decade there
has been a marked movement among the
mission hoards of various denominations to
combine then efforts along higher educational
lines in union collegiate and theological insti-
tutions, and all in the interests of economy
and greater efficiency This movement is
progressing rapidly, and union Christian mis-
sionary institutions are constantly increasing
in numbers, strength, power, and influence
through the combined support and cooperation
of two or more missionary organizations
(lood illustrations of this are the North China
Union Colleges at Pekin, in which three or
more missionary societies unite (these include
a college foi young men, a college for young
women, a theological seminary ior young men,
a men's medical college, and a women's medical
college); the Union College at Nanking, in
which three missionary societies unite, the
Union Educational Movement in Chengtuhsien
in China, in which more than half a dozen
missionary societies join, the Union Theo-
logical College in Bangalore in southern India,
participated in by SON oral different communions

Another marked step is now contemplated,

which may not be classed as strictly mission-
ary, but which probably indicates another step
in the development of missionary education.
The universities of Oxford and Cambridge
in England and one or two universities in
Scotland are uniting with several institutions
in America, including Harvard University,
McGill University in Montreal, and the Uni-
versity of Toronto, in developing a Christian
university in Wuchang, China It is expected
that this university will be closely affiliated
with the missionary colleges already established
at that center, and that other missionary organi
/at ions will join in the plan

Other institutions also are maturing along a
somewhat similar line in other parts of China,
as, for instance, the Yale Educational Mission
in Chang Sha and the Harvard Medical Mis-
sion in Nanking These indicate another step
in the development of educational work of
missionaries and institutions which are in
sympathy and close cooperation with the oiig-
inal missionary enterprises

The Place of Christian Colleges in the Edu-
cational Systems of Christendom — It is a
significant fact of history that the leading
educational institutions of Christendom had
their origin in schools which were started by
the Church and for the primary purpose of
strengthening and perpetuating the Church
Out of these church institutions have grown
the great universities of England and America
The state universities followed long after, arid
received then inspiration and impulse from
these church institutions The educational
awakening upon the continent of Europe in
the seventh and at the beginning of the eighth
century is traceable to the influence of the
Irish-Scotch missionaries, who, wherever they
located, founded centers of learning Rashdall
in The Universities of Eutopi declares that
" so much of the culture of the old Roman
world as survived into medieval Europe
survived by virtue of its association with
Christianity " " It was only among church-
men that an educational ideal maintained
itself at all "

Dr James S Dennis says* " The pioneers of the
educational revival of nations outside Christen-
dom have been the missionary teacheis who
have always striven to have this mental
awakening identified with Christian enlighten-
ment In this they have succeeded to an
extent that is not surpassed in tho educa-
tional provisions of the most favored com-
munities of Christendom "

Reasoning not only from this analogy, but
from modern movements which are distinctly
traceable at the present- time in many of the
loading Asiatic countries, there is reason for
assuming that mission schools started in the
great Kast and in Africa by the Church are
already becoming the nucleus and foundation
for still greater and more advanced educational
systems Again the Church is proMiiR itself

MISSISSIPPI COLLEGE

MISSISSIPPI, STATE OF

the pioneer of the intellectual development of
races and nations . J L B

References : —

Articles in current missionary magazines, both inter-
denominational and denominational
Chinese Mission Ye<ir Hook for 1910 and 1911
Christian Movement ?n Ja pan, Vols VIII arid IX, 1()10

•ind 1911, Tokyo, Japan
Current leportw of the loading missionary souoties of

America, Japan, and Kurope
Decennial Missionaty Conference, Homhuy, 1892-1S93

(Bomba> , 189.* )
DKNNIH, J S Christian Missions and Social I'togrens

(New \ork, 1897-1899)
CcHlinmal fturvey of Foreign Missions (New York,

HM)L>)

World Atlas of Chjititian Mibttiotut (New York, 1910 )
DWIUHT, H D, TUPPLR, II A, and BLIHH, 10 M

Encyclopedia of M t&aous (New \ ork, 19(M )
England, Board of Education, Hpe< lal Reports on

Educational Subjects, Vol XIII passim (Lon-
don, 1905 )

HuiziNUE, II Missionary Education in India (Cut-
tuck, 1909 )

Indian Missionary Conference (Madras, 1900 )
LEWIH, R K Educational Conquest of tin Far East

(New Yoik, 1903 )
LOVETT, H History of the London Mtvwonary Society

(London, 1899 )
Madras Decennial Missionary Conft'iinct (Madras,

1903 )
Report of Commission II of the World Missionary

Conference
Ripoit of the Missionaiv Conference South India and

Ceylon (Madras, 1880 )
Rcpoit of South India Missionary Confereiu e (Madras,

1903 )
Reixtrt ot the Centenary Missionary Conference at

Shanghai, 1907
Report of the Ecumenical Missionan Confeienee.

(New \ork, 1900)
Report of the Missionary Conforem es in Mildmay ,

England, 1878

Report of the Missionary Conferences in London, 1888
Report of the Missionai.\ Confeienee in Tokvo, Japan,

1900
Rtport of the World Student Christian Federation f'on-

ferenee, Tok\o, Japan, 1907
Special do< umenth collected bj ComniihHion III of the

Edinburgh Conference, but used orih in part in

the Report
SPKKK, R E Missions and Modern History (New

York, 1904 )

Statesman' t> Year Hook (London, annual )
STOCK, K History of the Church Missionary Society.

(London, 1899 )
STKONU, W E Story of the A m triuin Boaid (Boston,

1910)
World Atla* of Christian Missions, 1911. Student

Volunteer, New Yoik

MISSISSIPPI AGRICULTURAL AND
MECHANICAL COLLEGE, AGRICUL-
TURAL COLLEGE,^ MISS — A state insti-
tution founded in 1878 as a land giant college
foi the benefit of agneulture and the mechanic
arts The college offers a two yeais' industiial
training coui&e, two years' training course for
teachers, and a four years' course in agriculture,
engineering, textiles, and education, leading
to the B S degree The entrance require-
ments are equivalent to a good knowledge of
the common school branches. The enroll-
ment in 1910-1911, including the summer
school, was 1390 There is an instructing
staff of sixty-five members

MISSISSIPPI COLLEGE, CLINTON,
MISS — Founded in 1826 as Hempstead
Academy, and now under the auspices of the
Mississippi Baptist Convention. Preparatory
and collegiate departments are maintained
No entrance requirements are stated De-
grees of A B , B S , and Ph B are conferred.
The enrollment in 1911-1912 was 415 The
teaching staff consists of twelve members,

MISSISSIPPI, STATE OF — As first or-
ganized in 1799, the territory included the
present states of Alabama and Mississippi
In 1817 the territory included within the pres-
ent state was admitted to the Union, as the
twentieth state It is located in the East
South Central Division, and has a land area
of 46,362 square miles In size it is about the
same as New York. For administrative pur-
poses the state is divided into seventy-nine
counties, and these in turn into school dis-
tucts, black and white, and special school
districts In 1910 Mississippi had a total popu-
lation of 1,797,114, and a density of population
of 38 8 per square mile

Educational History — There seem to have
been no schools of any kind in the territory
preceding 1795 A few private schools were
opened by 1800, and in 1801 " the first public
female school " in the territory was opened,
though doubtless on a tuition basis In 1802
the territorial legislature chartered Jefferson
College, though it was not opened until 1811
Up to the time of its admission as a state the
territory had done nothing beyond the estab-
lishment of a few tuition academies

The only mention of education in the constitu-
tion of 1817 was a declaration, adapted from the
N. W Terntoiy Ordinance, to the effect, that
" religion, morality, and knowledge being neces-
sary to government, schools and the means of
education should forever be encouraged in this
state." The fhst legislature, meeting in 1818,
passed an act giving the care of the sixteenth
section lands to the judges of the county courts,
to piotect and lease, and with powei to provide
one or more schools in each county, as they
might deem best In 1821 a " Literary Fund''
was constituted, additional sources of futuie
income were specified, and a State Board of
Dnectors was cieated for the management of
the fund A board of five to ten commissioners
was provided for each county, to distribute
the fund to a school or schools for the aid
of such poor children in the county as might
be selected, with the assent of their parents,
to be taught reading, writing, and arithmetic
The income from the fund was to be used
only for the building of schoolhouses and
for the education of the children of the poor.
The county school commissioners were to
appoint, annually, a visiting committee to
visit, examine, and report to the directors
of the State Literary Fund, as to the con-
dition of all schools A form of teachers'

266

MISSISSIPPI, STATE OF

MISSISSIPPI, STATE OF

certification, by the directors of the Lit-
erary Fund, was also provided for. Three
years later this law, which had been a dead
letter, was virtually repealed by a new law
making the township the unit Five trustees
of schools and school lands were to be elected
annually in each township, and they were to
build schoolhouses on the school section, em-
ploy teachers, and lease the school lands
Practically nothing was accomplished under
any of these early laws The new constitu-
tion of 1832 merely reproduced the brief and
inadequate section on education contained in
that of 1817, and no attempt to organize
schools was made for some years In 1833 the
Literary Fund, which had by Ihib tune reached
$50,000, was distributed to the different coun-
ties for investment, and the state system of
education provided for in the law of 1821
was abandoned

About 1844, owing to immigration, increas-
ing illiteracy, and the general agitation for
education then going on in manv states, the
question of education in Mississippi began to
attract new attention In 1844 the Univer-
sity of Mississippi was created, in 1846, despite
bitter local opposition, funds to establish it
were voted, and in 1848 it began instruction.
The central figure in the campaign for schools
was lion A G Brown, Governor of the state
from 1844 to 1848 In his inaugural in 1844
he pleaded with the legislature for a general
system of common schools, opon to all, and
free to the poor In 1846 a school law was
finally enacted This created boards of five
school commissioners for each police district,
established county school funds, and gave the
commissioners power to open schools, license
teachers, and levy specific taxes, but contained
a proviso whereby no tax could be levied with-
out the consent of a majority of the heads of
families in each township, and made the law
inoperative in any township if a majority
filed a protest in writing against it each year
This almost completely nullified the law The
commissioners were to look after the sixteenth
section lands and funds, and to report to the
Secretary of State, who was made ex officw a
general school commissioner for the state
The law proving ineffective, the ruinous policy
of special laws for cities and groups of coun-
ties was begun in 1848, and this completely
destioyed the chance for any general school
system Practically all of the succeeding legis-
lation up to 1860 was of this character The
Civil War put an end to all of these efforts

A new constitution was formed in 1868,
which provided for a complete system of free
public instruction for all children in the state
Rejected by the people in June, it was finally
accepted by them in December. The section
on education provided for a State Board of
Education, for state and county superin-
tendents, for a four months' school in eaeh
school district; for the establishment of

a state school fund, by consolidation and
additions, for a poll tax^for educational pur-
poses, for general state taxation, for the es-
tablishment of an agricultural and mechanical
college, and forbade sectarian control of any
school funds The detailed law of 1870 carried
most of these provisions into effect, and estab-
lished the first real state school system the
state had known County superintendents
were to be appointed by the State Board of
Education, each county arid each city of
5000 population was created a school district-,
boards of subdistnct school directors were also
created to look aft or and manage the school,
county taxation of ten cents on the $100 for a
schoolhouse fund and five cents for a teachers'
fund was authorized, county examination and
certification of teachers was provided for,
and a form of the county system of school
management was inaugurated The law and
the system of school taxation encountered much
opposition, for many yeais, and the idea of
popular education was combated openly and
covertly In time, however, the system was
accepted, and slow but steady progress was
made, although for a long time the schools were
kept without a definite plan What one legis-
lature enacted the next modified or repealed

In 1871 the Alcorn Agricultural and Mechani-
cal College for negroes was opened In 1873
the boards of distnct dnectors and the sub-
dmsion system were abolished, and their
functions turned over to the county authori-
ties The patrons of each school were per-
mitted, however, to elect trustees to care for
the property, visit the school, and recommend
teachers for election A general state school tax
of forty cents on $100 was levied, the proceeds
to be distributed on census, though this was
later changed to a fixed biennial appropriation
All schools were divided into two glades, cor-
responding to primary and grammar, and the
monthly wages of teachers in each were fixed
by law In 1878 an agricultural and mechani-
cal college for whites was established, and opened
in 1880, and in 1885 a state industrial insti-
tution for whites was opened at Columbus.
The system thus established weathered the
political revolution of 1875-1876, and remained
almost undisturbed up to 1886, when a com-
plete revision of the .school law was made
Uniform state examinations for teachers were
instituted, and standards for teachers' certifi-
cates were insisted upon for the first time,
county teachers' institutes were established,
county superintendents were directed to fix the
salaries of teachers in their counties according
to a definite schedule, based on the certifi-
cate held and on evidence of teaching capac-
ity, the payment of teachers was changed from
a yearly credit to a monthly cash basis, and
towns were permitted to form separate school
districts, and to tax themselves for buildings
and maintenance This law has since remained
1 he basis of the Mississippi school system.

267

MISSISSIPPI, STATE OF

MISSISSIPPI, STATE OF

Most of the educational provisions of the
constitutions of 1868 were readopted m the
new constitution of 1890, and a number of
additions were made The additions in the
new constitution prohibited special or private
laws for the benefit of any private or common
schools, permitted the use of the Bible in the
public schools, increased the amount of poll
tax for schools, practically made the main-
tenance of a four months' school bv state taxa-
tion and funds mandatory, established a
literacy test for the exercise of the suffrage,
made the maintenance of separate schools for
the two races mandatory; and confirmed the
establishment of an agricultural and mechani-
cal college for each race, from the proceeds of
the Congressional grants Few changes were
made in the school law following the adoption
of the new constitution, the revision of 1886
still forming the basis for the state educational
system In 1893 the Peabodv Fund estab-
lished an Institute Conductors' Training School
for the state, and grants for teachers' institutes
were made by it to the state for a number of
years In 1896 the State Board of Examiners
was created, with power to grant higher state
teachers' certificates, to assist the Superin-
tendent in the preparation of all examination
questions used in the state, and to transfer
teachers' licenses from one county to another
Epidemics of yellow fever and smallpox inter-
fered great! v with the schools from 1896 to
1900, and almost no educational progress was
made during this time In 1904 a State Text-
book Commission was created, and the first-
uniform state series of textbooks was adopted
in 1905 In 1908 a law regulating child labor
in factories was enacted, and in the same year
a bill was passed providing for the establish-
ment of an agricultural high school for whites
in each county, with a county tax on all piop-
erty up to two mills, for support, and with
state aid of $1000 per school, but in 1909 this
was declared unconstitutional During the
ten years from 1900 to 1910 there weie two small
increases in the annual state appropriation for
schools, but there was little legislation of im-
portance By the legislatures of 191 1-1912 much
important educational legislation was enacted,
the results of which are noted in the following
section

Present School System — At the head of
the present state school svstem in Mississippi
is a State Superintendent of Public Educa-
tion, a State Board of Education, a State Text-
book Commission, a State Board of Examiners,
and a State Board of Control for the highei
educational institutions of the state The State
Superintendent is elected by the people for
four-year terms, and has an annual salary of
$2500 He is given general supervision of
the public free schools of the state, and mav
prescribe rules and regulations for their or-
ganization and conduct, prepares all printed
forms and blanks; renders official opinions,

and construes the school laws, meets the
county superintendents for conference; appor-
tions the school funds semi-annually ; requires
annual reports from the county superintend-
ents, and submits an annual report to the
legislature, showing the condition of the
schools He is also ex officio a trustee of
the State University, the State Agricultural and
Mechanical College, the State Industrial In-
stitute and College, the Alcorn Agricultural
and Mechanical College, and the different
state educational boards and commissions

The State Boaul of Education consists of
the Secretary of State, Attorney General, and
State Superintendent This board is a board
of appeal from the decisions of the county
superintendents, and has final jurisdiction,
audits claims against the school fund; deter-
mines the allowance to the State Superintend-
ent foi contingent expenses, grants special
certificates to teachers in Indian schools; may
adopt a state course of study, names a list
of institute conductors, and has oversight of
the teachers' institutes in the state, and may
make rules and regulations covering all matteis
of school administration not covered by law
The State Textbook Commission consists of
the State Superintendent and eight educators,
no two from the same congressional district,
appointed by the Governor for five-year terms
This commission adopts uniform textbooks
in the common school subjects for use in all
of the schools of the state, and contracts with
publishers for the same, districts being free
to adopt supplemental books and books for
higher branches taught The State Boaid
of Examiners consists of the State Superin-
tendent and two teachers appointed by him,
for four-year periods This board prepares
the examination questions used in all teachers'
examinations in the state, and examines appli-
cants for the county supenntendency, and for
state and professional teachers' certificates The1
Board of Control consists of seven trustees ap-
pointed bv the Governor, one of whom must be
a fanner, one a lawyer, and one an architect,
builder, or factory man This board has full con-
trol of the four institutions of learning mentioned
above

Foi each county there is a county superin-
tendent of public education, elected by the
people for four-year terms To be eligible for
election to the office he must pass an examina-
tion on all the subjects required for a first-
grade county certificate and on the art ot
teaching The county superintendent acts
under the instructions of the State Superin-
tendent and the State Board of Education,
and by law is required to employ all teachers
for the schools, and to fix their salaries; to
examine the reports of teachers and trustees,
to enforce the course of study adopted by the
State Board of Education, and the textbooks
adopted by the State Textbook Commission,
to enforce the rules and regulations in refer-
268

MISSISSIPPI, STATE OF

MISSISSIPPI, STATE OF

ence to the examination and certification of
teachers, to visit and inspect the schools,
to decide controversies (appeal to the State
Board allowed in most cases) , to keep a record
of the proceedings of the county board of educa-
tion, and of his official acts, to make annual
reports to the board of supervisors, the mayor
and aldermen of special city districts, and to
the State Superintendent, and to instruct
trustees as to their duties For each county
there is also a county board of education, a
county board of examiners, and a county
library commission The county board of
education is composed of the county superin-
tendent, together with one member from each
supervisorial district in the county, to be
appointed by the county superintendent, with
the consent of the board of county supervisors
The Superintendent may remove members for
cause, and may fill vacancies The board
meets annually, and has few functions Its
chief duties are to define and alter the bound-
aries of the white and black school districts,
and to locate schoolhouses. to approve the
creation of special districts in unmcorpoiated
villages, to provide educational facilities foi
small numbers of isolated children, and it
may locate the public school, in any school
district, in connection with a chartered insti-
tution of learning and provide for joint contiol
If there is a sufficient number of Indian chil-
dren in the county, the board may establish
an Indian school for them The county board
of examiners consists of the county superin-
tendent and two teachers holding first-grade
teachers' certificates, appointed by him each
year, prior to the September examinations
This board conducts the examinations oi all
teachers applying for teachers' certificates
The county library commission consists of the
county superintendent, together with two
teachers holding first-grade teachers' certif-
icates, named by him Their function is to
select and publish lists of library books from
which district libraries may purchase, to make
rules and regulations for the control of school
libraries, and to receive annual reports from
each library in the county

Each county is divided into ordinary school
districts and " separate " or independent school
districts School districts may be formed
by the county board of education, whenever
there are forty-five children of school age of
either race, but where the distance is too great,
or where streams or lack of roads make attend-
ance difficult, districts may be constituted
for fifteen children In the case of isolated
families, ten children may be declared to form
a "special" school district "Line" (joint)
school districts may be formed by the action
of two county boards Consolidated school dis-
tricts have recently been provided for, with trans-
portation for pupils living more than two miles
from the school Schools with a monthly
attendance of less than five mav be closed at

the end of any month For each common
school district the patrons elect a board of
three school trustees, one each year, and foi
three-year terms The election is held in
annual meeting, the first Saturday in August,
and the annual school meeting seems to have
almost no othei function If the patrons fail
to elect, the county superintendent appoints
The board elects one of its members as
secretary, and may designate its choice
for teacher to the county superintendent If
the trustees express no choice, or if the person
chosen fails to secure a teacher's certificate,
the county superintendent appoints The
final appointment, fixing of salary, and contract
rests with the county superintendent The
trustees are to visit the school, provide fuel,
care for the property, settle disputes (with
appeal to the county superintendent), and may
suspend or expel pupils They can spend no
money unless authorized to do so by the county
superintendent

Any municipality, by ordinance of its mayor
and board of aldermen, mav erect itself into
a special school district Similarly, any unin-
corporated district having sixteen square miles
of territory, on petition of a majority of its
electors, may be set off as a special district by
the county board of education All such special
districts are financially independent of the
county. For all such special districts a board
of five trustees, for three-year terms, is ap-
pointed by the mayor and aldermen in cities,
and by the county superintendent in unin-
corporated places The1 powers and duties
of boards in special districts aie practically
the same as in common school districts, and,
in addition, they mav employ principals and
a superintendent, may elect their own teach-
ers, contract with them, and fix their salaries,
may maintain both graded schools and a high
school, and mav charge tuition for the lattei ;
and may estimate needed funds, up to three
mills, and submit the estimate to the aldermen
or county supei \isors for levy

School Support — Mississippi origmalh ie-
ccived 902,744 acres of land in the sixteenth-
section grants, as well as two townships for
a seminary of learning Some of the sixteenth-
section land is still unsold The total common
school fund oi the state is now about $3,500,000
The constitution of 1890 practically requires
an annual state appropriation sufficient, with
poll taxes and the interest on the permanent
fund, to maintain all of the schools foi foui
months each year This state appropriation
which at present is $1,424,088 a year, consti-
tutes the chief source of revenue for the school
system County taxation up to three mills
is permissible, and is resorted to in a num-
ber of the counties, but the chief local taxation
is in the special and financially independent
(town and city) districts, where a seven months'
school at least is always maintained Tuition
fees for high school instruction are still per-

MISSISSIPPI, STATE OF

MISSISSIPPI, STATE OF

mitioii To the county agricultural high schools
is granted $30,000 a year of state aid, and $5000
a year to weak districts

Educational Conditions — The property
valuation of the state compared with the popu-
lation is very low, and this shows itself in the
matter of school support In percentage of
children, five to eighteen years of age, in the
total population (34 per cent); in the amount
which each adult male must contribute ($1 51)
to produce $1 of school money for each child,
and in the small amount of school money
raised for each child five to eighleen vears of
age, Mississippi is only surpassed by one
htate, — South Caiolma But little is spent
on school buildings (34 cents per capita of at-
tendance, at last report, as against an aver-
age foi the United States, of $645), and the
average value of all school buildings in the state
is only about $300 The state has no cities of
over 25,000, and 88 5 per cent of its people live
in country districts Of the total population
in 1910, 56 2 per cent were black and 43 7 per
cent white In some counties the blacks out-
number the whites three, foui , and five to one
99 5 per cent of the population is native born
The average length of term of all schools is
about seven months, while in country distiictb
it is less than six In 1908 a child labor law was
enacted The state has no compulsory educa-
tion law as yet The state has a school hbraiv
law whereby any district which subscribes
$10 and provides a bookcase may receive a
similar amount from the county school fund,
though not more than ten districts can be
aided each year, and no district can receive
aid a second time, if other districts aie apply-
ing

Teachers and Training — The state employed
about 10,166 teachers in 1910, and at an aveiage
of about $250 a year County supenntendents
in employing teachers are limited by a state
wage scale, varying from $15 to $75 a month
for teachers, and up to $100 for principals
Three grades of county teachers' eeitificates
are issued, and only those holding a first-grade
(Certificate can receive more than $30 a month
The examination subjects are the common

school subjects, the grade of certificate varying
with the percentages made in the examination.
The state also issues two grades of certificates:
(1) State licenses, which are the same as a
first-grade county certificate, but, on examina-
tion, have been validated for the entire state;
and (2) Life diplomas, which involve high
school subjects, and are the only certificates
issued which represent any educational stand-
ards County teachers' institutes and summer
normal schools have for years rendered a valu-
able service in educating the teachers of the
state The state has for some time made
provision for the training of colored teachers
at Holly Springs, and a normal school for the
training of white teachers, located at Hatties-
burg, was opened in 1912.

Secondary Education. — The public high
schools are mostly of low grade, and most of them
are still in part grammar schools, though in the
nine cities of more than 8000 inhabitants, well-
organized high schools are found The recent
legislation relating to agricultural high schools
promises much for future development In all,
137 high schools were reported in 1911, with 394
teachers and 7763 pupils enrolled Seven public
arid twelve denominational schools offer secondary
instruction to the colored race

Higher and Special Education — The Uni-
versity of Mississippi, founded in 1844 and
opened in 1848, and located at University,
stands at the head of the public school system
of the state, though it is only within the past
ten yeais that any real coordination between it
and the public school system has been effected.
The school of pedagogy of the university,
established in 1893, has done a valuable serv-
ice, serving as a form of state normal school
for white teachers for the state The univer-
sity summer school for teachers has been well
attended The Mississippi Agncultuial arid
Mechanical College for white students, founded
in 1878 and opened in 1880, at Agncultuial
College, and the Alcorn Agricultural and
Mechanical College for colored students,
opened in 1871 at Alcorn, are also state insti-
tutions In addition, these state institutions
aie assisted by the following —

INSTITUTION

For Wfulev

Port Gibson Female College
Whitworth Collet
Central Misa Inntitute
Miltaapa College
lid haven College
Stutitun College
Meridian Male College
Meridian Womon'B College

For

So Christian Institute
Rust University
Kosrmsko Industrial College
Tougaloo University
Marv HolmeH Seminary

L<>< ATION

OMENED

CONTROL

FOR

Port Gibson

183W

ME South

Women

Brookhaven

1851)

M E South

Women

Freneh Campn

1880

Presb

Women

Jackson

1892

M K So

Both Sexes

Jac knoii

1894

Nonsect

Women

Nat die/

18«4

Nonseot

Women

Meridian

1001

Nonseet

Men

Meridian

1903

NoiiHeet

Women

Edwards

Discip of Chr

Both Sexes

Hollv Springs

M B

Both SexeB

KoHriUMKO

Both Sexes

Tougaloo
Westpoint

Cougr
Presb

Both Sexes
Both Sexea

270

MISSISSIPPI, UNIVERSITY OF

MISSOURI, STATE OF

Many of those institutions arc in large part
preparatory schools; all have small endowments,
and the collegiate work is of a somewhat ele-
mentary type

The State Institution for the Blind, at Jack-
son, the Institute for tho Deaf and Dumb, at
Jackspn; and the State Industrial Institute
and College for whites, at Columbus, are sup-
ported by the state The last named offers
business, normal, collegiate, industrial, and
music courses to both sexes K P C

References —
MAYER, E History of Education in Afwwmip/n

U S Bur Edur , Circ Infonnation No 3, 1SQ9
MAYO, A D The Amonoan common school up to
1840, in Kept U ,S Com Ediu , lM)3-lH9lj,
Vol I, pp ;i02-307 Sumo, to 1S(>0, m fa /tort for
1899-1000, Vol I, pp 493-502

MiSHissippi Bieii Reptft Slate Supt of Edut , 1K09 to
date, School Laws, 1910 ed , and 1912 supplement
Constitutions, 1817, 1832, 1805, and 1890

MISSISSIPPI, UNIVERSITY OF, UNI-
VERSITY, MISS —A state-maintained co-
educational institution chartered in 1S44 and
opened in 1848, out of the endowment of one
township granted by Congress in 1819 The
institution has been liberally supported by
appropriations from the legislature The fol-
lowing departments are maintained academic',
education, engineering, law, medicine, phar-
macy, science, literature, and arts The entrance
requirements are fourteen units The uni-
versity confers the degrees of A B and A M
in science, literature, arid arts, B K and C E
in engineering, A B. and B8 in education;
Ph G. and Ph B in pharmacy, and LL B in
law The courses in the last two depaitmems
are two years m length The enrollment in
1911-1912 was 480, and the faculty consists
of forty-three membeis

MISSOURI, STATE OF — First organized
as a separate territory in 1812, and admitted
to the Union as the twenty-fourth state in
1821 It is located in the West North Central
Division and in about the center of the Missis-
sippi Valley, and has a land area ol 68,727 square
miles. In size it is about as large as all of New
England and New Jersey combined, and about
one third the size of France For admimstra-
tive purposes the state is divided into 1 14
counties and the city of St Louis, and the coun-
ties are in turn divided into cities, towns,
villages, and rural school districts In 1910
Missouri had a population of 3,293,335 and
a density of population of 47 9 per square
mile.

Educational History. — The first school in
Missouri is said to have been opened by J B.
Trabeau in 1774, and he is reported to have
been teaching forty years later The first
attempt to organize a public school was made
at St. Louis m 1817, when the village, acting
under a territorial law, appointed a board of
trustees to organize a public school. The

attempt uas not successful, and it uas not
until 1838 that schools were opened thoe
(See ST Loins, Cm OF ) The first consti-
tution was framed in 1820 This contained two
sections relating to education The general
assembly was instructed to preserve the school
lands, apply the income as it should be, to
establish at least one school m each township,
"where the poor may be taught gratis," and
''as soon a^ mav be," to establish a university,
as provided for in the grant of two townships
foi a seminary of learning Commissioneis
for the care of the school lands were to be
appointed by the county couits, five for each
county by the law of 1X20, and two for each
township by the law of 1822, and they were
authorized to build schoolhouses, as needed,
when the funds would permit In 1824 the
first real school law was enacted This made
each township a school district, school boards
of five were created to build or to rent school-
houses, employ a teacher, appoint school
visitors, and to make rules and regulations,
and, on demand of two thirds of the voters,
the boards were to le\y a tax for the desired
term Little was done under this law In
1835 the law relating to schools was reMsed
Three trustees were to be elected for each town-
ship, some of the powers of supervision were
taken from the school VLSI tors and given to the
trustees, and biennial reports were to be made
to the county courts A " Committee for
Literary Purposes," virtually a State Board
of Education, was also created, to consist of
the (Joveinor, Auditor, Treasurer, and Attorney-
(Jeneral In 1839 a new revision of the school
law was made, the office of State Superintend-
ent of Common Schools was created, county
commissioners and township inspectors were
provided for, and a three months' school term
was requiied The office of State Superin-
tendent was abandoned two years later, how-
ever, and the Secretary of State again recened
such reports as were made, acting ex oj/icio
The census of 1840 showed that most schools
were still private, there being but 042 primary
schools in the state, St Louis included, and
but 526 pupils educated wholly on the public
charge In 1842 only 28 of the 77 counties
then organized had schools By 1850 there
were 1570 public schools, though nearly one
half of the income still came from tuition fees
In 1844 the state* university, provided for in
the constitution of 1820, was opened, but it
had a very struggling existence until after
1853

In 1853 the office of State Superintendent
of Schools was reestablished, and the fiist
public high school m Missouri was opened in
St Louis In 1855 a revised school law was
enacted This law created the office of county
school commissioner, and made a number of
improvements in the system By 1858 every
county had been organized into the public
school system By 1861 there were 5670

271

MISSOURI, STATE OF

MISSOURI, STATE OF

r/eachris employed, mid 1 lie e\pense,s of the
schools were about ^850,000, one fouith oi
which came from rate bills The coining oi
the war put an end to this school system, and
the legislature of 1801 abolished the office of
State Superintendent, and suspended the school
appropriation During the war the schools
of the state were virtually closed, and the
office of State Superintendent of Schools was
not reestablished until 1865 The public
school system of Missouri really dates from after
the Civil War

A new constitution was adopted in 1865,
which made a much more detailed pi o vision
for the creation of a state school system
Separate schools for the colored race weie
permitted, but the apportionment of school
money was to be made without regard to race
or color The State Board of Education was
continued, and a Superintendent of Public
Schools was provided for The maintenance
of the state university was made mandatory
A three-months' term was required, and per-
mission was given to enact a compulsory edu-
cation law The school funds were safeguarded,
the investment of the principal narrowly
limited, and a state tax, and apportionments
to equalize inequalities, were permitted The
new school law of 1866 carried these provisions
into effect Separate schools were permitted,
if twenty or more colored children were in anv
district The township, while still nominally
remaining the school district, was in reality
abandoned for the Iowa plan of subdistncts,
with three directors for each, thus virtually
introducing the district system County su-
perintendents, elected for two-year terms, were
provided, and given the full functions of
a county superintendent Cities were per-
mitted to organize under boards of education
of six, with the usual powers This school
system lasted ten years, when it was super-
seded by a third constitution and a new school
law In 1870 two state normal schools were
established for white teachers (Warrensburg,
opened in 1871, and Kirksville, established
privately in 1867, and adopted by the state
in 1872), and one for colored teachers (Lincoln
Institute, at Jefferson City) In 1874 a third
school for white teachers was authorized at
Cape Uirardcau In 1874 the first textbook
law was enacted, providing for county uni-
lormity, the presidents of the district school
boards of the county constituting a textbook
•ommission

In 1875 the constitution adopted at the close
of the wai was abandoned, and a new one,
under which the state has since been governed,
was substituted Most of the provisions of
the constitution of 1865 were retained, though
the statements in the new constitution were
in some cases less forceful and less emphatic
This constitution of 1875 and the laws fol-
lowing form the basis of the present Missouri
school system

272

Since IS75 foui periods in Missouri education
stand out From ] 875 to 1883, under the admin-
istration of Superintendent Shannon, was a period
of material organization, and the maintenance
of a system of public education was changed
from a questionable undertaking to a settled
public policy From 1883 to 1891, under Super-
intendent Coleman, and following the period
of organization, came a period of agitation
for careful work in the fundamentals oi
elementary education, and foi perfection in
classroom management The only legislation
of any importance during this period was the
repeal oi the county textbook law in 1885,
leaving the state under district adoption until
1891, the amendment to the constitution in
1887, changing the percentage of state revenue
which must be appropriated to education fiorn
one fourth to one third, the lengthening of the
school term from four to six months in 1889,
if a tax levy of forty cents on the $100 would
permit of it, and the enactment oi a permis-
sive county superintendency law in 1889,
pel mitt ing any county so desiring to vote to
employ a county superintendent But nine
counties had provided county superintendents
as late as 1 903

From 1891 to 1899, under Superintendents
Wolfe and Kirk, was a period of agitation foi
a better school system and a broader outlook
in education, and a period of struggle against
the extreme conservatism of the state in educa-
tional matters The legislation during this
period was i at her meagei, and centered around
textbooks and the training and certification oi
teachers In 1891, aftei six years of distuct
adoption of textbooks, state uniformity in text-
books was substituted An Institute Boaid of
Examiners now superseded the county commis-
sioners, in the matter of certificating teachers,
three grades of teachers' certificates were issued,
and teachers were certified after two weeks' at-
tendance at the summer county institute Two
years later the training school for institute
conductors was abolished, arid a new la\\
rigidly fixed the weekly wages to be paid in-
stitute conductors and instructors The same
year the State Reading Circle, which had
existed from 1884 to 1887, was revived and
made effective In 1899 the teachers' certrfi-
cation law was again revised, a graded series
of certificates provided for, which materially
raised the standard, uniform questions for the
state were to be supplied, and the certification
of teachers after a two weeks' summei institute
was abandoned The development of high
schools was stimulated during this period, and
the1 state university, for the first time, began
to receive some real recognition

Beginning with 1900, under the administra-
tion of Superintendents Carrington and Gass,
the state has experienced an educational
awakening before unknown This last period
has been essentially one of reconstruction and
unification, and marked educational progress

MISSOURI, STATE OF

has boon made In 1901 a stale library law
was enacted, and a State Libraiy Commission,
consisting of the State Superintendent and four
appointed by the State Board of Education, was
created. County boards' of education, con-
sisting of the county school commissioner, one
appointed by the county court, and one ap-
pointed by the State Boaid of Education, were
also created, and given some powers of supei-
vision They were authorized to supervise
;uid grade the rural schools, to issue a county
course of study, to renew teachers' certificates,
and to approve summer schools The consoli-
dation of school distncts was hist authorized
in 1901, also In 1902 the people approved a
constitutional amendment to extend and re-
new the state's Ccitihcates of Indebtedness to
the School Fund, and the discussion preceding
the election brought out clearly the necessity
for more revenue for schools In 1903 the
summer county institute law was repealed,
a three days' county teachers' association in
the autumn was substituted, and attendance
foi ten to twelve weeks in an approved summer
normal school was substituted for the two
weeks at the summer county institute The
Slate Superintendent was authorized also to
inspect and classify the high schools of the state
In 1904 a constitutional amendment, pro-
viding a five cents additional tax, to be dis-
tributed to the school distncts and to be used
in supplying tree textbooks and supplies, was
defeated In 1905 the state textbook law,
enacted in 1891, and under discussion evei
since, was entirely repealed, and county adop-
tions once more substituted, two new normal
schools were established, at Springfield and
Marysville, both of which were opened the
next year, and the first compulsoiv education
law was enacted In 1907 the school law was
revised and a number of changes made The
State Library Board was changed to its piesent
form, state inspectors of high schools and of
county schools were piovided, the school teim
was increased fiom six to eight months, if
a forty cent, tax will provide the necessary
funds, distncts having less than twenty-five
childien were authorized to close their schools
and transport their children, orphans, half
orphans, and dependent children weie to be
educated free in any district, boaids were
pei nutted to employ superintendents for two
years instead of for one, and St Louis was
permitted to lequire pupils to attend the whole
uime the schools were in session In 1909 the
compulsory education law was amended to re-
quire attendance, outside of St Louis, for
three fourths of the time the schools are in
session, and boards in towns of 1000 or over
were authorized to appoint attendance officers
Also in 1909, after thirty years of agitation,
a county supervision law was enacted and
made mandatory for all counties, with state
aid of $400 toward the srilary of each county
{superintendent, all state aid 1o districts not

VOL. iv — T 273

MISSOURI, STATK OF

providing $350 was cut off, unless they raised
a tax of forty cents, special state aid to poor
and weak school districts was granted, under
certain restrictions, night schools, and an
eleven-month term in cities, for physical
training, were both permitted, and a state
industrial home for negro girls was established
In addition, the school laws applicable to all
schools (Section I) and to common schools
(Section II) weie thoroughly revised In
1911 the child labor law was extended to all
cities of .5000 inhabitants or ovei , the certi-
fication bill was revised so as to give the State
Superintendent the supervision of all certifica-
tion, and the method of apportioning school
funds was revised so as to substitute a combined
teacher and attendance basis for the old census
basis

Present School System — At the head of
the school system is a State Board of Educa-
tion and a State Superintendent of Public
Instruction The State Board is an ex officnt
body, and consists of the State Supeiintend-
ent as President, the (Jovernoi, Secretary
of State, and the Attoiney-Oeneial This
board has nominal supervision of the educa-
tional interests of the state, but its leal work
is the investment of the school funds and the
sale and preservation of the school lands
The Superintendent of Public Instinct ion is
elected by the people for four-year terms
He is also charged with the supei vision of the
schools and the school funds of the state, con-
fers and advises with county school office-is,
may visit and inspect schools, prepares all
questions foi the examination of teachers, has
general supervision of all examinations, and
the grading of the answers, issues state cei-
tihcates, valid anvwheie in the state, receives
annual reports fjom all school officers and
state institutions, and makes an annual report
to the (Jovernoi There is an Inspect 01 of
High Schools, who assists in classifying and
prescribing courses for the high schools, arid an
Inspector of Common Schools, who assists
in their examination and appioval

Below the State Superintendent is a counts
superintendent for each county, the count \
boards of education having been abolished by
the county supenntendeney law of 1909
The county superintendents are elected by the
people in district school meetings for four-yea i
terms, must have taught two yea is in the pic-
ceding four, or have spent the preceding two
years in a college or normal school, and, in
addition, must hold a college 01 iiormal diploma,
a life state certificate, 01 a fust-grade county
cei tificate The count}' superintendent has gen-
eral supervision of the schools of the county,
except in the case of cities, towns, or villages
employing a superintendent, with at least half
his tune free for supervision The Superin-
tendent must visit each school yearly, super-
vise the work and the accounts of the district
officeis, issue a course of study; adopt a plan

MISSOURI, STATE OF

MISSOURI, STATE OF

of grading for the schools, arrange for exami-
nations and for graduation from the district
schools, hold six public meetings each year,
at different points in the country, to instruct
and to advise, hold a county teachers' insti-
tute in the autumn, and must follow the in-
structions of the State Super intendent and
make an annual report to him An especially
meritorious provision of the law is one re-
quiring each county superintendent to spend
live days each year at a convention of school
superintendents, and twenty days each year
in the state university, a state normal school,
or in a manner approved by the State Super-
intendent, and in the study of rural school
problems and school supervision The salary
for the office ranges from $700 to $1500, and
of this the state pays 1400, in each case
County uniformity in textbooks is secured by
the county textbook commissions, consisting
of the county superintendent and two teachers,
one appointed by the county court and one
by the State Board of Education Cities of
100,000 or over and accredited high schools
may select their own books This commission
adopts books for five-year periods, from a
pnnted list of registered books supplied by the
State Superintendent Publishers have to be
properly licensed to sell, and books and prices
must be on file Supplemental books are not
included Indigent pupils may be supplied
with books free

Below the county are four classes of school
districts (1) common, with three school direc-
tors, elected in annual school meetings,
(2) consolidated school districts, with boards
of six directors; (3) town school districts in
towns, villages, and cities of the fourth class,
with boards of six school directors, and
(4) cities of the first, second, and third class,
under boards of education and special laws
The township unit is permissible, but is little
used

Each common school district holds an annual
meeting, at which vacancies are filled, and one
school director is elected, for a three-year
term The board of trustees then organizes
by electing one of their number as clerk, who
then performs most of the functions assigned
to the board The school meeting may also
vote to lengthen the term beyond eight months,
may vote a tax in excess of forty cents, or a tax
for buildings or equipment, may decide changes
in boundaries, or site, may direct the sale of
property, and vote on allowing the school-
houses to be used for specified purposes, and
once in four years designates its choice for
county superintendent City, town, and con-
solidated districts may select a secretary and
a treasurer, not members of the board; may
establish graded schools, high schools, and
libraries, as needed; and must maintain a
term of at least eight months Consolidated
districts may be formed of three or more
contiguous common school districts, 01 a Mi-

lage and two adjacent districts, and may
maintain elementary and high schools Any
district which provides less than eight months
school, if a tax of forty cents will provide it,
forfeits its organization. School boards in
all classes of districts may borrow, by vote
of the district , up to 5 per cent of their assessed
valuation, may make rules and regulations for
the government of then schools, admit and
suspend pupils1, require a medical examination
of any pupil, contract with teacheis, have
an annual school census taken; condemn sites,
estimate funds needed; maintain separate
schools for the two races, establish a negro
school whenever there are fifteen negro chil-
dren in the district, and provide equal privi-
leges and terms for each race, and make an
annual report to the county superintendent
and to the county clerk The latter leports
all statistics to the State Superintendent

School Support — Missouri, on its admis-
sion as a state, received two townships of land
for a university, the sixteenth section in every
township for common schools, and seventy-two
sections of saline lands for schools, — the six-
teenth-section lands being gnen to the state
for the benefit of the townships The sixteenth-
section grants amounted to 1,199,139 acres
In 1837 the saline land fund, together with
the Surplus Revenue fund ($382,335) then
recened, was constituted a permanent state
school fund To this was added the money
received from the sale of the State Tobacco
Warehouse (SI 32,000) in 186,5. This fund
now amounts to S3, 1,59,281, and yields an
income of about seventeen and a half cents per
pupil per year The one third of the state
revenue added raises the amount to about SI 80,
the amount having risen uipidly with the re-
cent increase in wealth in the state The
swamp-land grants of 1849 Missouri put into
a series of county school funds, to which have
been added the proceeds of hues, forfeitures,
and the sale of estrays These funds now
amount to $5,750,000 The sixteenth-section
township funds amount to a total of approxi-
mately $4,000,000 Both the county and the
township funds vary greatly in amount, being
from ten to thirty times as laige in some
counties as in others, and pioduce very unequal
incomes per pupil in the different counties and
townships The income from all school funds
must be used only for teachers' wages

The largest proportion of the money for
support comes from local taxation, which may
go to sixty cents on the $100 in cities and to
forty cents elsewhere, and may exceed these
limits by a vote of the people A tax of forty
cents must be levied, if necessary to provide
an eight months' school If a tax of forty
cents will not piovide sufficient funds, with a
salary of $40 a month to the teacher, to provide
an eight months' school, the State Treasurer
will add an amount sufficient, provided the
district is not less than nine square miles in

274

MISSOURI, STATE OF

MISSOURI, STATE OF

area, has an assessed valuation of $40,000 or
more, a school census of twenty-five, and has
levied a tax of forty cents foi the teachers'
fund and twenty-five cents for incidental ex-
penses Such aid cost the state $13,078 in
1910 All other school money was distributed
on census up to 1911, but thereafter all state
money is to be apportioned on the combined
basis of teachers employed and aggregate days'
attendance The total cost of the school
system in 1910 was about $13,000,000, 01
about $3.97 per capita of the total population
Educational Conditions — Aside from two
large cities and a few smallei ones, which con-
tain 30 8 pei cent of the total population (Si
Louis and Kansas City contain 28 1 per cent),
57 5 pei cent of the people live in rural districts
Of the total population, 95 2 pei cent arc white
and 4S per cent negio, while 93 per cent are
native born, and about 5 per cent aie illiterate
Of the foieign born a little over one half are
Germans The state has many small schools,
and very unequal educational conditions in
the different parts of the state Not much
headway has as yet been made in the mattei
of the consolidation of school distncts, 01 in
the piovision of school libraries The com-
pulsory education law requnes the attendance
of children, eight to fourteen, foi only thtee
fourths of the time the public schools are in
session, and the same for employed childmi,
fourteen to sixteen, unless excused for a num-
ber of statutory reasons Cities and towns of
1000 population may appoint attendance
officers, who may enforce attendance and visit
factones Cities of 10,000 or over may estab-
lish parental schools Children, eight to four-
teen, cannot be employed in any mine, f acton,

or shop during school hums, unless possessed
of a certificate showing attendance at school
for three fourths of the school tenn City
school authorities may contiact with homes
established for the caie oi delinquent, depend-
ent, or neglected children, for their care and
training Childmi who aie orphans or half
orphans, or dependent, may receive free school-
ing in any district wheie they find either a
temporary 01 a permanent home

Teachers and Training — The state em-
ployed appioximatelv 19,000 teachers in 1911,
about one fourth oi whom were men Foi
the training of new tcarheis, the state main-
tains five normal schools foi whites and one
foi the coloied mce The cit> of St Louis
also maintains an institution foi the training
of teachers for the city All of the state 1101-
inal schools (five foi whites and one for colored
students) and the state umveisity maintain
summer sessions Thiee giadcs of ceitihcates
are issued, these being ai ranged in a giaded
series The questions aie furnished by thr
State Superintendent, and are uniform thiough-
out the state The county superintendents act
as agents in giving the examinations, and certif>
the professional grade of the candidate, but
tho State Superintendent has oversight of the
grading of the papers and the granting of the
certificates to teach Certificates may be
lenewed County institutes aie to be held
in each county, and ten or more art1 to be
provided in the state foi coloied teachers
Cities of 300,000 (St Louis) examine then
own teachers and conduct their own institutes
( trades made in approved summer schools mav
be accepted in lieu of examinations in the sub-
jects covered

INSTITUTION

Ixx \ i ION

OphNl J)

( i()N I HOI

Fou

St Louis University . . .

St Louis

1829

R C

Men

Linwood College* . . .

St Charles

1831

Presbv

Women

William Jewell College- .

Liberty

1S49

Bapt

Men

Christian Brothers College .

St Louis

1851

R C

Men

Christian College

( Columbia

1S51

Christian

Women

Christian University

Canton

1853

Christian

Both hexes

Westminster College

Fulton

1853

Presl >y

Men

Carleton College

F.irnnngton

1854

M K

Both sexes

Lexington College

Lexington

1^55

Bnpt

W omen

Stephens College

Columbia

1 K5f *

Bapt

\\oinen

Central College

Favett<

1857

M E South

Both sexes

Washington UmvcrsiU

St Louih

1859

Nons* ct

Both sexes

Central Weslevan College

\\ arrenton

]K(,4

M E

Both bexeb

Pntchett College

GhlhgOU

18of>

NoriHect

Both sexes

Central College for Women

Lexington

18(i9

M E South

Women

Mornsville College

MorrisMlle

1872

M E South

Both sexes

Drurv College

Springfield

187.*

Nonsect

Both sexes

Sy nodical Female College . .

Fulton

1873

Presbv

Women

Mexico

1873

Bapt

Women

Park College

Parkville

1875

Preshy

Both sexes

Pike College

Bowling Green

1881

Nonsect

Both sexes

Conception

1883

RC

Men

Tarkio College

Tarkio

1883

U Presby

Both sexes

Cotley College

Nevada

1884

Nonsect

Women

Missouri Wesleyan College ....

Cameron

1887

M E

Both aexes

Missouri Valley College ...

Marshall

1889

Cumb Presbv

Both sexes

George R. Smith College . .

Sedalia

1894

ME

Negroeg

275

MISSOURI, UNIVERSITY Off

MISSOURI VALLEY COLLEGE

Secondary and Higher Education — The

development of secondary schools in the state
has been rapid during the past decade Many
small and short-term schools have been devel-
oped, and put on the accredited list Four hun-
dred nineteen high schools were reported in
1910, about one half of which were classified
as first grade Any city, town, or consolidated
district mav establish a high school, and any four
or more common school districts may unite
to form a joint high school, if approved by the
people In the latter case, 20 per cent of the
teachers' fund may be used for high school
purposes Teachers in high schools must
hold a first grade county or a state professional
certificate

Higher Education — The University of
Missouri, at Columbia (q v ), stands as the
culmination of the system of public education
of the state The agricultural college is com-
bined with the university at Columbia, but
the school of mines is located at Rolla The
university is assisted in the work of higher
education in the state by the institutions as
shown on page 275

Many of the above are small and strug-
gling institutions, and nearly all of them were
founded before the state university began to
receive real support from the state

Special Education — The state also main-
tains the Missouri Training School for Boys
and Girls, at Booneville, the State Industrial
Home for Girls, at Chillicothe (both reforma-
torv), the Missouri School for the Blind, at
Si Louis, the Missouri School foi the Deaf, at
Fulton, and the Missoun Colony for Feeble-
Minded and Epileptics, at Marshall E P C.

References —
KUNKEL, O Rural Consolidation in Missouri Univ.

of Missouri Bulletin, No 3 (Columbia, Mo ,

1<U2)
MAYO, A D The Ameiicaii Common School in tho

Southern States up to 1840, in Rfpt U S Com

Educ , 1895-1890, Vol I, pp 329-3.il Same, to

1860, m Ript U S Com Educ, 1901-, Vol I,

pp 373-388
Missouri Annual Reports of the Public Schools.

Sixty-second Kept in 1911
Reoisvtl School Lawn 1911 ed
Constitution* 1820, 18o5, 1875
PHTLLIPH, C \ A History of Education in Missouri.

(Jefferson Citv, 1()11 )
SNOW, M S Iliuhcr Education in Missouri Circ

Inf (I S Bur Kd\u , No 2, 1898 (Washington,

18M8 )

MISSOURI, UNIVERSITY OF, COLUM-
BIA AND ROLLA, MO —A coeducational
institution, forming part of the public school
system of the state of Missouri, founded in
1839 The present organization, with two
colleges (Arts and Science, and Agriculture)
arid schools for professional and graduate
work, was adopted in 1909 The separate
divisions, each of which was in some form dif-
ferentiated from the rest of the institution
in the year indicated, are College of Arts and
Science (1839); School of Education (1807),

College of Agriculture (1870), School of Mines
and Metallurgy at Rolla (1870), School of
Law (1872), School of Medicine (1873),
School of Engineering (1877), Graduate School
(1896), School of Journalism (1906). Special
minor divisions are the Extension Division,
the Summer Session, the Agricultural Experi-
ment Station, the P^ngmeering 'Experiment
Station, the Mining Experiment Station, and
the Military Department. All of these divi-
sions are located at Columbia, with the excep-
tion of the School of Mines and Metallurgy
and the Mining Experiment Station, which are
situated at Kolla

The entrance requirements are fifteen units
for the College of Arts and Science, the School
of Mines, and the College of Agriculture, and
in addition two years of college work for all
the other schools These requirements, which
arc on the certificate basis, have been strictly
administered, and this policy has stimulated
and built up an excellent system of secondary
schools in the state The institution was one
of the nrst four state universities admitted to
the benefits of the Carnegie Foundation

The final control over the institution is
vested in the Board of Curators, which is ap-
pointed by the Governor of the state and is
granted large powers by the state constitution
The internal oigamzation is based on a general
university faculty of all teachers of the rank
of assistant professor and above, and special
faculties for the vanous divisions The uni-
versity faculty assumes an unusually laige de-
gree of responsibility, arid to it lepoit many
of the committees that in similar institutions
report to the board of control

The university holds the distinction of es-
tablishing the hist school of education in a state
institution, and of establishing the fust school
of journalism in the world.

The institution has a productive endowment
fund of $1,258,839, and receives the income
of a 5 per cent state tax on collateral inherit-
ances Almost one third of its income is
derived from the general revenues of the state
by legislative appi opnations A movement
to give the university other permanent sup-
port as a substitute for legislative appropria-
tions has been under way foi several years, but
so far has not been successful The receipts
from fees are insignificant The total income
foi 1911 was $875,000 The enrollment of
students for 1911-1912 was 3063 Albert Ross
Hill, LL D , is the president C A.

MISSOURI VALLEY COLLEGE, MAR-
SHALL, MO — A coeducational institution
chartered in 1881 and opened in 1889 under
the charge of the Presbyterian Church of
Missouri An academy, a college, and a school
of music are maintained The entrance re-
quirements are sixteen units Studies are
divide^ into required subjects and classical,
modern language, and science courses leading

270

MISSOURI WESLEYAN COLLEGE

MNEMONIC SYSTEMS

to the A.B and B S The enrollment in
1911-1912 was 105 students in the college
proper. There are fourteen members on the
faculty.

MISSOURI WESLEYAN COLLEGE,
CAMERON, MO —A coeducational insti-
tution established in 1883 as the Cameron
Institute and incorporated under its present
title in 1897, under the control of the Methodist
Episcopal Church Collegiate, academic, noi-
mal, commercial, arid music departments are
maintained Students are admitted to the
college on completing a high school course
The degrees of A B , B S , and B 8 in Civil
Engineering, are conferred The enrollment
in 1910-1911 was 275 The teaching staff
numbers nineteen members

MISTRESS, SCHOOL

SEX OF

• See TEACHERS,

MITCHELL, MARIA (1818-1889) — Pro-
fcssoi of astronomy and advocate of the higher
education of women She was educated by her
father and in the private school of Cyrus
Pierce (q v ) She discovered a new comet in
1847, was for several years engaged in astio-
nomical work for the United States Coast Sui-
vey, and was professor of astiononiv at Vassal*
College fiom 1865 to 1880 She was the in at
woman elected to membership in the American
Academy of Arts and Science and the Ameri-
can Association foi the Advancement of Science.
She seived as one of (he editors of American
V a ut i en f \lmcintc, and published several papers
on scientific subjects and the question of the
highei education of women W S M

MITTELSCHULE, MIDDLE SCHOOL —

A term which in Austria and Southern Germany
is applied to those schools which aie inter-
mediate between the elementary schools and
universities (H ochschulen} , i e secondary schools
In Prussia and the states whose systems are
modeled on Prussia, a Mittelschule is a type
of school which furnishes a higher elementary
education preparatory to the higher artisan
occupations and the lower commercial and
administrative positions It is accordingly in-
termediate between elementary and secondary
schools This type of school originated toward
the end of the eighteenth century, and has
been known under many different names (c g
hdhere Burgerschule, fttadtsch ule , gehobcne
Burgerschulc, Rektorschule, etc ) It was not
officially recognized until the General Regula-
tions of 1872, but even then it was not defi-
nitely organized, so that several types existed
(1) attached to an elementary school, (2) a
separate school with five or six classes taking
pupils from elementary schools, (3) a separate
school with nine classes The middle school
is established and maintained entirely by
local efforts, and receives no grants from the

government Hence the curriculum can be
adapted to meet local needs The only re-
striction until recently was that the teacher
employed in such schools must have passed
the Mittehckullehierprufung or else an examina-
tion for higher school teachers In 1910 the
middle schools were reorganized, the complete
school of this tvpe must have nine classes, but
pupils may enter into the sixth class (Class I
is the highest) from the elementary schools,
the curriculum has been defined, and, most
important, such schools may prepare for the
secondaiv schools Up to the present the
progress of the middle schools has been retarded
because, although they charged fees and kept
pupils as long as the Realschule, graduation
earned 110 privileges, and pupils could not be
transferred to secondary .schools The recent
regulations remedy this See further details
under GERMANY, EDUCATION IN

The term is not used in English to refer to
any type of school, although it has been em-
ployed with reference to secondary education
by Chancellor Elmer E Brown in The Making
of our Middle School*, which deals with that
type of education which is midway between
elementary arid university In Ireland second-
ary schools and education are known as inter-
mediate, although here pupils may be leceived
from the age of rime on and the elementary
branches may be taught

References : ~

Cent i alblatt filr die gcsamte Unlerrichfavenvaltung, 1910,

pp 345-4 11
REIN, W ErizyUop&dizchcx Hnndbuch dcr Ptidagogik,

8 v M ittelschule

MIXED NUMBER — A number in which
the sum of an mtegei and a fraction is ex-
pressed For example, 21 is a mixed number
The term has generally been applied to the
case in which the fraction is a common fraction,
but there is no reason why this limitation should
be placed, since 2 5 is just as much of a mixed
number as 2^ The tcirn is merely one of
convenience in the school, and aside from its
value in distinguishing the various cases that
it is thought best to take up in fractions, it
might well drop out of the vocabulary The
operations with mixed numbers are sufficiently
treated in any common arithmetic D E S

MNEMONIC SYSTEMS —Artificial de-
vices for memorizing depending upon the crea-
tion of arbitrary associations Every one at
times deliberately associates some fact to be
remembered with some more well-known fact,
as in the case of fixing the memory of the name
of a person which it has been found difficult
to remember A device of this sort which
is a little more elaborate is the verse commonly
used for remembering the number of days in
the various months, beginning " Thirty days
hath September " The early logicians made
use of many such aids to memory in connec-

MOB PSYCHOLOGY

MODEL SCHOOL

tion with the methods of syllogistic reasoning
Thus, the syllogistic moods were indicated by
the vowels of the words of the barbarous
Latin verses —

Barbara, Celarent, Darn, Ferio, Barahpton
Celantes, Dabitis, Fapesmo, Fnsesomorum,
Cesare, Camostres, Fostino, Baroko, Darapti,
Felapton, Disamis, Datisi, Bokardo, Fenson

More modern mnemonic systems apply the
same principle in a more general way by the
use of the figure alphabet, which is committed
to memory The one most frequently used
is as follows —

1234567890

t n in r 1 sh g f b s

d j k v p c

ch c z

" To briefly show its use, suppose it is desired
to fix '11 42 feet in a second ' as the velocity
of sound t, t, r, n are the letters and order
requned Fill up with vowels funning a
phrase like ' tight run,' and connect it by some
such flight of the imagination as that if a man
tued to keep up with the velocity of sound he
would have a tight run " (E Pick, Memory
and z/,s- Doctor 8, p 8 )

Two chief objections have been brought
against the use of such systems In the first
place, they are either so limited in their appli-
cation 01 so cumbrous as to defeat their pui-
pose And in the second place they are purely
mechanical, and thus tend to discourage logical
memorizing, which is not only more useful, but
has been shown expeii mentally to be more
economical than the mechanical methods

Sec MEMORY E H C

References —

COLBGHOVE, F W Memory (Now York, 1901 )

Kncyclopedia Bntannica, & v Mnemonics

FKLLOWS, CJ S " Loisette " exposed Loisette's

complete System of physiological Memory

appended a Bibliography of Mncmonux, 1325-1888

(New York, 188S )
HOLBROOK, M L How to nhcngthen the Memory, or

natural and scientific Methods of Training the

Memory (New York, 1886 )
JAMEH, W Principles of Psychology, Vol 1, pp H68 ff

(New York, 1890)
MULLKR, G E Zur Analyse dor Godaohtninstatigkoit

und des Vorstellungsverlauf Erganzungsbajid 5,

Zeitschr fur Psych
PICK, E Memory and it-s Doctors (London, 1888 )

MOB PSYCHOLOGY —A special type
of behavior and mental activity is exhibited
by groups of persons who come together under
the influence of any strong emotional excite-
ment Thus a community aroused by some
crime is likely to behave in a fashion entirely
different from any individual member of the
community The behavior of the company
as a whole is characterized by lack of delibera-
tion and lack of a feeling of responsibility.
Imitation undoubtedly plays a very large part
in mob behavior and in mob consciousness

The imitation here involved is likely to be
relatively blind The whole situation can be
described by saying that the emotional tension
is laised to a very high level, and the action
which proceeds from the company as a whole
is intense to a degree which would be impos-
sible in a single individual, even if he were
dominated by the same emotion. Some
wntcrs on social psychology have been led
to regard the behavior of a mob as typical of
all social consciousness Emphasis should be
laid upon the fact that mob behavior is dis-
tinctly characterized by emotional tension
There arc many other forms of social bchavioi
which depend upon common ideals and common
plans, but are not dominated by emotional
stress General interpretation of social phe-
nomena on the analogy of mob behavior is
therefore not justifiable C H J

References —
BALDWIN, J M Social and Ethical Imitations (No\\

Yoik, 1911 )
LE BON, G The Psychology of Ptoplc (New York,

1898 )

The Crowd (Engbbh translation, London, 1903 )
MACDOUGALL, \V Social Psychology (No\\ York,

1008)
Rows, E A Social Psychology (New York, 1911 )

MOBERLY,

TER COLLEGE.

GEORGE. — See

MODE — See GRAPHIC CURVE ; STATIS-
TICAL METHOD.

MODEL LESSON — In the training of
teachers it is customary to illustrate the prin-
ciples of teaching by the use of actual class-
room instruction For this reason, most normal
or training schools for teachers are equipped
with a special laboratory school with carefully
selected teachers in charge When there is but
one such school, it provides oppoitunity for
(1) demonstration, (2) practice, and (3) ex-
pen mental teaching In the teaching of
pedagogical theory, the demonstration school
is an important and necessary adjunct to read-
ing and discussion The critic 01 class teachers
of the observation or model school teach before
the class in theory to illustrate the vanous
types of teaching employed in current practice
The students report their observations and dis-
cuss them, thus gaming a more concrete basis
for their theoretic study The use of model
or type lessons is vastly superior to random
observations by students, for they can be
given for the particular purpose and at the
specific time required by the instructor in
pedagogical theory H S

See ILLUSTRATIVE LESSON

MODEL SCHOOL —A term commonly
applied to a graded school connected with a
normal school, or teachers' training college.
The school may be used as a real model
school, and little or no practice teaching or

278

MODELING

MODERN LANGUAGE

experimental work ho done in it, 01 it nmv be
used as a regular training school, in which
student teachers teach under direction The
term is rather loosely used Strictly speaking,
it should be used only for such schools as are
models or types, serving mainly for observational
purposes, the terms training school 01 practice
school or experimental school being used for
schools serving primarily for practice teaching
purposes See EXPERIMENTAL SCHOOL, NORMAL
SCHOOL

In Ireland the term "model school" is used
to refer to a type of highci elemental y school
The model schools when established by the
Board oi Commissioners of National Education
aimed "to promote 'united education,' to
exhibit the most improved methods of literary
and scientific instruction for the surrounding
schools, and to train young persons foi the
office of teachei " in the national schools It
was proposed to establish one in each of the
thirty-two school districts, but this was nevei
earned through The fiist model school was
opened in 1849 A highei education is given
than in the elementary schools, arid the teachers
receive a higher rate of pay Although the
term has been letamed, many of these schools
have long ceased to serve as models, and pio-
vi do an education intermediate between the
elementary and secondary schools foi those
pupils who cannot proceed to the lattei

References — ,

B \LFOUR, GRAHAM Educational Systems of Great

Hntani and Inland (Oxford, 1<)(M )
MOORE, H K An Unwntttn Chiiptei in tfif History
of Education (London, l')()4 )

MODELING — In teaching geograph\ in
the elernentarv school, modeling in lehef is
used to fix the interpretations of flat maps
(Jlay, papiei mache', and sand are among the
materials used Owing to its cheapness and its
ready us-e, modeling on the sand table has been
very popular among teachei s The value of
such work has been the subject of consideiable
controversy It has been opposed as an in-
accurate mode of lepresentmg physical features,
which necessarily leads to exaggeration and
the fixing of false impiessions Those who
favor it contend that it is meiely a supple-
ment, not a substitute foi accurate map leading,
its main value being found in its use as a psy-
chological de\ice for teaching children facts
in an active and concrete way H S

See FINE ARTS, GEOGRAPHY, TEACHING OF

MODELS -— See VISUAL AiDh TO TEACH-
ING

MODENA, ROYAL UNIVERSITY OF. —

See ITALY, EDUCATION IN.

MODERN LANGUAGE AND LITERA-
TURE — The modem languages as subjects
of study in the higher institutions of learning

take as then province the culture both old and
new of the foieign peoples as revealed in then
languages and literatures In the bioadcst
acceptation of the term it is the study of phi-
lology For a full discussion of this discipline,
particularly with regard to modern tendencies
and the development of scientific methods,
see under Philology Of close relation, also,
is the article on Phonetics This article is
limited to a consideration of the scope and
methods of the study of these languages and
liter at nies in the univeisities and schools at
the present and during the very recent past

In Universities — (ternuinif — The scien-
tific study of Romance languages and English
in the universities of Germany is but the
natural outgiowth and broader application
of the philological method that began to flour-
ish in the caily decades of the nineteenth
century, and is associated with such names as
Grimm, Wilhelm von Huniboldt, Bopp, and
others There were few chairs established
in the Romance field before 1850 Halle,
Giessen, Bonn, are among the earliest All
the chairs for the study of English came in the
last three decades, the earliest at Leipzig and
Stiassbiug in 187.3 At present theic is, even
in the largest German universities, only one
chair for Romance and one for English phi-
lolog> Here and there a pnvat Dozcrtt
gnes lectures, and the plan of having foreign
lektors, usually one French and one English,
has also been quite generally adopted Berlin
boasts of two English lektors, one Italian, one
Russian, one Dutch, and one lektoi for the
Scandinavian languages

There is a widespread feeling in Germany that
the modern language depaitments, especially
in the larger institutions, are considerably
undermanned to carry on the work satisfac-
torily and meet the practical demands thai
are becoming more and more imperative
E\en if the professor keeps within the field oi
philology, to such an extent has it giown that
it is impossible foi one man to covei the ground
satisfactory to himself or to his students
The Geiman Neuphilolog justly pi ides him-
self upon the thoiough grounding he gives
his students in scientific method, in historical
grammar, and in the interpretation of the
older texts To accomplish this and yet add
courses in Shakespeare, Mohere, to say nothing
of interpreting wnteis nearer otu own times,
in whose works theie is so much of truly
scholarly interest, must obviously soon bring
about an increase in the modern language
staff

The scholarly woik is in the hands of the
professor, a law unto himself as regards the
courses he offers during a semester 01 series
of semesters For more intensive work in
method with advanced students, there have
been established seminars The kind of
work done in the modern language seminars
\anes with the personality of the dnector.

279

MODERN LANGUAGE

MODERN LANGUAGE

The English seminar at Berlin undei Profes-
sor A Brandl is a very good example of the
more modern type of organization There
are three rooms for books which now amount
to over 11,000 volumes; one room for pho-
netic apparatus, a loom foi conversational
practice, and vanous offices The doors are
open freely to all, but only the achanced stu-
dents are regular members, allowed to take pait
in the work of the scimnai In thewmtei sernes-
t ei , 11)09-1 910, there were 290 using the seminal ,
and t went v-one regular members In order to
become a regular member it is necessary to pass
.in examination, or the applicant must prove to
the lektor that he has sufficient practical
command of the language to omit the work
demanded in the preliminary prosernmar
FA en entrance to the prosemmar is safe-
guarded bv a preliminary trial The lektor
does the practical teaching of the departments
On the whole, his work is primarily planned
to give students of the university an oppor-
tunity to hear the foreign language lather
than a scholarly discussion of a limited held
of knowledge His lectures deal with modern
literature, 01 serve to orient the student in
the life and customs of the foreign peoples
He nlso usually offers some work for small
groups of advanced students in composition
and phonetics How much the lektor adds
to the scholarly side of the departments con-
cerned, depends upon his personality, training,
and, doubtless, upon the attitude of the pro-
lessoi, as head of the department

The following paragraph presents two types
ol courses The fust is very progressive It
takes cognizance of the practical as well as
the more strictly philological side of the sub-
ject Lectures in most courses are held in
English by the professor as well as the lektor
The second is a more tvpu-al offering of courses
found in Germany (Ireat stress is lard upon
historical grarnmai, syntax, and the interpre-
tation of old texts The modern authors are
usually treated by the lektor

Courses offered in English at the University
of Marburg during the summer semester of
1912- Introduction to the study of English
Philology, two hours, Old English Literature,
with readings, three hours, English Seminar,
philological section Shakespeare's Hamlet, one
hour, Essays of Addrson, one hour English
Seminar, practical section Poetrv of George
Meredith, one hour, Prosemnun, philological
section introduction to Old English (Prose),
one hour; Practical Section reading of Pho-
netic Text, one hour, England and the English
(Part I), one hour, Introduction to spoken
English, open to students of all faculties, two
hours, Essays and Discussions, one hour

Courses offered in the Romance Languages
at the University of Gottingcn during the
summer semester of 1912 French Phonetics,
two hours; Historical Italian Grammar, with
interpretation of selections from Dante, Pe-

traica, Boccaccio, four hours, Introduction to
Old French with exercises in interpretation,
two hours, Selected topics of French Syntax,
two hours, Seminar, exercises in Old French
(Ercc), one hour, Prosemmar, reading and inter-
pretation of Racine's Plaideurs, one hour. The
French lektor gi\es the following courses-
Modern French for beginners in two sections,
two hours each, Modern French for advanced
students, two hours, Alfred de Musset, two
hours Italian lektor offers Introduction
to the studv of Italian, four hours, La Novellc
dclla /Yxra/a by Gabriele d'Annunzio, reading
and composition foi advanced students, one
hour, Italy and its People, illustrated lectures
for students of all faculties, one hour Span-
ish courses Elementary course, two hours,
Dona Pcrfeda, novela de P6re/ Gald6s, read-
ing and composition, for advanced students

France — In a numbei of the provincial
universities there is still only one professor-
ship of modern languages Others have one
professor of English or (ierrnan, the work of
the second language being in charge of men
of non-prof essoiial rank, variously named
wait re de course*, waUre de conferences, chargk
dc conferences Only in the larger universities
like those of Pans, Lille, and Poitiers do we
find separate chairs for German and English
Two or three others have one full and one
adjunct professor All, however, have teachers
of the modern languages usually for both
German and English, and sometimes for
Russian, Italian, etc Here and there, the
German system of having lektors, native
Germans and Englishmen, seems to have found
favoi This, however, is not at all general

The young man or woman who has passed
the French baccalaureat and who wishes to
specialize in modern languages has a very
definite course of study to pursue in order to
obtain, through public examination, the vari-
ous diplomas granted by the State. The
chief state diplomas are the (1) Licence,
(2} Diplome d* etudes supeneures, (3) Doctorat
£,s- lettre^ In addrtron to these diplomas there
are, among others, competitive examina-
tions for the certifieat d'aptitude and the
agtegatwn The work, including the read-
ing, demanded for these several diplomas is
pretty definitely prescribed, and the courses
offered in the universities are planned, very
largely, to prepare students to meet the re-
quirements There is, consequently, great
similarity in the offerings of all the universities,
in marked contrast to the lack of uniformity
of courses given in the various German uni-
versities In the preparation for the advanced
examinations, however, the student must
evidently largely depend upon himself, the
university piofessors and courses serving
merely as guides The candidate is also
doubtless aided by the full accounts of all
examinations that are found in educational
journals

280

MODERN LANGUAGE

MODERN JAXC.UVOE

The li rente cm be obtained aftei one \ ear *s
study beyond the passing of the baccalaureate
As a rule, a longer time is necessary to pre-
pare for this diploma The prescribed work
in modern languages is narrow in scope, with
the chief emphasis upon a few books that
are representative of different periods of lit-
erature. The examination is both oral and
written. In addition to the general three-hour
Latin examination required of all arts students,
the candidate specializing in modern languages
passes (A) written tests in (1) Translation
and grammatical commentary, modern lan-
guage, chosen by the candidate Commentary
written in the modem language, four houis

(2) Modern language theme, three houis

(3) French essay, four hours (B) oral tests
in: (1) Interpretation of a modern language
text, together with a literal y and grammatical
commentary in the foreign language, (2) lit-
eral y history of the modern language, (3) in-
terpretation of a text from modern French
hteratuie, (4) any university course, at the
choice of the candidate, (5) translation of an
easy selection from the second modern lan-
guage chosen by the candidate About on ti
par with the hcence are the competitive exam-
inations for certificate of piohciencv for
modern language teaching in the various state
schools

Great stress is laid upon the candidate's
ability to speak and write the foreign language,
and it is usual to spend a yeai abioad befoie
attending the regular university courses

The English books chosen for 1913 for the
modern language certificate for teaching in
normal schools are- Sheridan, The School
for Scandal, G Eliot, Adam Bede , Kipling,
The First Jungle Book, Wordsworth, Michael,
a Pastoral Poem, Keats, Isabella, Tennyson,
The Miller's Daughter, The Brook, Doja, Moite
d' Arthur, Ulysses, The Revenge, Bi owning,
The Pied Piper of Hamehn, Herve Kiel, How
they brought the Good News from Ghent to .4/.r,
Whittier, Maud Midler

The Diploma of Higher Study can be ol>-
lained aftei two years at the university It is
the intermediate 'stage between the licence and
the competitive agrigation Greater specializa-
tion in the chosen field chaiactenzes the work
for this diploma The candidate must pre-
pare and defend a memon written either in
French or in the language the student offers
The examination also includes the grammatical
and literary mtcipretation of passages from
authors of the Middle Ages, Renaissance, and
Modern periods, previously chosen by the
candidate

A much-coveted state diploma is the agre-
gatwn, which carries with it the right to a posi-
tion in a Lyce"c, or college The agrege is the
highly trained specialist in his own particular
field. The Ecole Normale at Paris, now the
professional school of pedagogy of the Univer-
sity of Pans, is closely associated with the name

ayregahon The competitive examination is,
however, open to all those who possess the
prerequisite training It requires at least
three years beyond the baccalaureate to pass
the aqi&gahon As only a certain number can
pass each year, depending on the demand for
teachers of this grade, even good candidates
try four or five times before meeting with
success The work in pieparation for the
aqregatton is pretty definitely outlined, and,
to a certain extent, the courses given at the
university meet the needs of candidates
Practice teaching in a Lyce"e, and special
classes at the Kcole Normale supplement the
regular university courses in subject mattei
Independent work under super vision occupies
the better poition of the student's time, pai-
ticularly at the later stages of preparation

In addition to the teaching qualifications the
written requirements are — (1) An essay in
Fiench on some topic dealing with the literary
history of the foreign people, seven hours,
(2) essay in the foreign language dealing with
the history of civilization of the foieign people,
seven houis, (3) translation fiom and into
the foreign language, two papers, four houis
each The oral test includes a lesson given in
French and one in the foreign language after
five hours' preparation, three quarters oi an
hour, a half-hour test of the candidate's practi-
cal knowledge of the spoken language

The books chosen for 1912 upon which the
various papers aie set are —

I The vision and the dream in English
literature Chaucer, The Hon^e of Fame,
Books 1 and II Shakespeare, .4 Midxuitnuei
Night' *t Dream Macpherson's Ossian, Fingal,
Carthon, The Death of Cuchullin Byron,
The Dicain, Darhnt^, The Vision of Judgment
R Kipling, The Finest Story in the World
(Many Inventions), The Brushwood Boy (The
Day's Work)

II Biblical influence on English literature
and society Judith (Sweet's Anglo-Saxon
Reader), The Revelation of St John the Di-
vine (Authorized \ersion of 1611) Milton,
Pani(hse Lo,\t< Books VII and VIII Bun van,
The Pilgntn\ Progictts W Hale White,
The Autobiography of Muik Rnlheifoid, The
Deliverance of Maik Rntheifoid

III Criticism of contemporary English so-
ciety Carlvle, ]jattei-dai/ Pamphlet* Rus-
km, *SYsowf and Lihe* Chesterton, O/-
thodoxif Cialswoithy, The Inland Phari-
see^ As examples oi the topics set at the oral
examination of the English aqi6qation for 191 1
French lessons Treatment of Nature in
The Tempest, The humor of Wells English
lessons comment on the versification of the
Knight's Tale, line 1363 to line 1439, the
manners of the Restoration as illustrated b>
the Way of the World

There is a state Doctoral &s lettics and one
primarily for foreign students granted by the
University The state diploma is usually

281

MODERN LANdUAGE

MODERN LANGUAGE

taken several years aftei the licence or even
the agieguhon Two theses are requned, one
in French and the other either in French or
the foreign language They are matuie and
scholarly contributions to the subject, corre-
sponding to the doctors' dissertations accepted
by the best American universities To
gam the University diploma lequires four
semesters' enrollment and a thesis either in
French or Latin There is, in addition to the
public defense of the dissertation, an examina-
tion on university courses

The following German courses were oMered
tit the University of Paris dining the year
1911-1912 Language and Literature M
Andler, Professor, director of studies Public
Course Intellectual geography of Germany in
the nineteenth century, one houi Confer -
ences (1) Historical syntax of modern Ger-
man, one hour, (2) exercises in syntax in
preparation for the licence and the certificat
(inaptitude, one hour; (3) consultation with stu-
dents, one hour Reception of students of mod-
ern languages, one hour. M Lichtenbeiger, Ad-
junct Professor Conferences (1) History of
the German language, one hour, the legend of
the Grail, one hour ; (2) explanation of texts ot
Middle High German, one hour, (3) lessons
in preparation for the agrtgation, one hour
M Rouge, Malt re de Conferences Confer-
ences (1) Heinnch von Kleist, one hour,

(2) correction of work and explanation of
texts, one hour, (3) exercises in preparation
for the licence, one hour M Basch, Charge
de Cours Conferences (1) Religious and
moral philosophy of German Romanticism,
one hour, (2) practical exercises, one hour ,

(3) histoiy of German literature in the eight-
eenth century, one houi

England — Work in modern languages in
the older universities of Oxford and Cambridge
is, on the whole, but a generation old To be
sure, as early as 177S Sir Robert Taylor be-
queathed £1X9,000 to the University of Oxford
tor the establishment of an institution for the
teaching of modern foreign languages The
Taylonan Institute, however, did not come
into existence until 1845, and the first professor
of modern European languages was chosen
three years later Max Mullei succeeded the
first incumbent, but after he became Corpus
Professor of Comparative Philology in 1SOS,
the professorship lapsed and Taylonan teachers
of French, German, Italian, and Spanish were*
appointed instead It was not until after the
establishment of the honor school of modern
languages that appointments were again made,
one professor of German in 1907, and one of
French in 1909 At present there are also
a professor of Russian, about nine or ten
lecturers or readers, and about an equal num-
ber of tutors and teachers connected with the
Women's Colleges and Halls Cambridge
celebrated in 1909 the twenty-fifth anniversary
of the founding of the Medieval and Modern

Languages Tripos, and in that same yeai ap-
pointed the first professor of German At
present there is a reader of French Four lec-
turers also give instruction in modern languages
exclusively, and a number of recognized
women teachers

The other modern English universities,
such as London, Manchestei, Liverpool, etc.,
have about the same strength and organiza-
tion of teaching staff as the German universi-
ties As the work in modern languages re-
quired for the pass and honor degrees in the
various English universities does not differ
essentially, a description of the status of
modern languages at Cambridge will be given

A Cambridge man may take a degree with
no knowledge of a modern language at all
Since IcSSf), however, German and French
form two of the thiee so-called additional
subjects, one of which must be passed at the
" previous examination " 01 entrance examina-
tion As French is the language usually
taken in the boys' schools fitting for college,
there is a dearth of young men coming to the
university well grounded in German The
percentage of voung women that have had
both languages is very much higher. At-
tempts to induce the authorities to allow
German as a substitute for Greek have thus
far failed A certain amount of specializa-
tion in the modern languages may be done
even by students who go in foi the ordinal v
B A degree by preparing for the special exami-
nations in English and German, or English
and French These examinations are com-
paratively easy and consist of translation and
composition based upon prescribed books.
Some of the work is voluntary No oral ex-
amination is at present required Candidates
can, however, obtain recognition for then
practical command of the foreign language
by taking the oral test held for honor degree
students The prescribed books in Fiench and
German for 1911 were* French* Racine,
Athahc; Marbot, Mernoires, vol 2, cc 1-26,
(voluntary) Eztraits de la Chanson de Roland,
Mohere, Lcs P*ernmcs savantcb, Bossuet, Orai-
sorif> funebres German Gutkow, Zopf und
Rchwcrt, Tieck, Em Dichterleben; Fulda, Dct
Talixmun, (voluntary) Hartmann von Aue, Dc7
Arme Hetnnch, Uhland, Ernst von Schwaben,
Hebbel, Agnes Bernaiter; Lihencron, Anno
1870

Most students especially interested in
modern languages prefer to go in for the
Medieval and Modern Languages Tripos,
corresponding to the Honor Schools at Oxford.
As at present constituted, there are ten
sections, six of which deal with the modern
literatures of England, France, Germany,
Italy, Spain, and Russia. Four em-
phasize older periods and philology. (Eng-
lish and Germanic, French and Romance, and
German and Germanic ) A candidate for an
honor degree in modern languages must pass in

282

MODERN LANGUAGE

MODERN LANGUAGE

any two of the above sections It is possible
for him, therefore, to do all his work in one
language or divide his tune between two, if he so
desires. Other combinations can be made with
subjects outside the modern language field, with
history, the classics, etc Both sections mav be
passed off at the end of the third year, or one
may be taken at the end of the second and the
other at the end of the third The examina-
tion in the " German " section tests the candi-
date's ability to translate into the foreign
tongue, to write a German essay on some topic
bearing upon the literature, history, 01 insti-
tutions of Germany There are papers on
the general field of liteiature since 1500 and on
some special modern period, and also on the
history of the German language, the elements
of historical German grammai, and on metei
The examination on the " Old German " sec-
tion is more strictly philological in character
and serves to test the candidate's knowledge of
the language and liteiature pievious to 1500
The courses given at both Oxford and Cam-
bridge are in general plan of organization very
similar to the modern language comses found
in the various German universities In le-
cent years more attention has been given to
the literary side of the field The aim has,
however, always been to make the woik of
the tripos as sound phrlologically as the time
and conditions permit The practical and
modern side of the student's training must be
obtained largely through residence abroad
before or during the university course An
oral test now forms a regular part of the exami-
nation at both Oxfoid Jtnd Cambridge But
it is possible, at least at Cambridge, for one
to pass the tripos without satisfying the exann-
neis in the oral command of the language In
both places, however, the names of successful
candidates in the vive vocc test are especially
distinguished in the published class lists
During the first twenty-five years since the
establishment of the Medieval and Modern
Languages Tripos, 567 took honor degrees in
Modern Languages at Cambridge Of these
230 were men, and 337 women

The older English universities do not confer
degrees taken in courses beyond that of B A
But both Oxford and Cambridge offer oppor-
tunities for work to advanced and research
students under certain conditions The degree
of M A in the University of London can be
taken in the several modern languages and
literatures by those who have already passed
the B A honors examination It is an exami-
nation in both language and literature and in-
cludes: (1) a thesis, (2) a written examination,
(3) a wve wee examination, especially on the
subject of the thesis The written portion
of the examination consists of general ques-
tions to be treated in the form of an essay
and translation of texts chiefly chosen from
early periods, with commentary The follow-
ing courses were offered at Cambridge during

the year 1911-1012 The foundations of
modern German Literature, 1800-1850,
Goethe's Faust I, Historical German Gram-
mar, Modern German Seminar, Advanced
German Composition, Old German Seminar,
History of the German Language, Old High
German, German Historical Grammai, In-
troduction to Middle High German Transla-
tion (with papers), Kudrun and Walt her von
der Vogelweide Special subjects and books
announced for the German section of the Mod-
ern Languages Tripos, Cambridge Univeisity,
for 1912 are as follows Paper (4) Walther von
der Vogelwerde Das Niebelungenhed (Samm-
lung Goeschen), pp 27-9() Braune, Althoch-
deutsches Lesebuch, xvi, 7-11 , xvn, xxx, xxxn,
10-12; xxxm, xxxiv, xxxvi, Paper (5) (special
subject) The historical drama in connection
with Lessmg, Goethe, Schiller, Kleist, Gnll-
parzer, Uhlan d, Wildenbruoh, Saar Paper
(6) Luther (Sammlunp; Goeschen) Goethe
Poems, Jphigcnic, Faust Schiller Poems
of the third period, Dtt Biaut run Messina
Uhland Ballads Consbruch und Klmck-
sieck, Deutsche Lynk des neunzehnten
Jahrhunderts

Special subjects and books announced for
the Old French and Provencal section, the
Modern Languages Trrpos, Cambridge Uni-
versity, for J912 Paper (2) (special subject)
French literature in the reigns of Louis VII,
Philippe Auguste, and Louis VI II, in connec-
tion with Ahscans; Chretien de Troyes
Lancelot, Guillaume de Dole, Aucassin
et Nicolette; Villehardouin, La eonqufcte de
Constantinople; Le Mystere d'Adam Baitbdi
et Horning, La langue et la htte>ature fran-
gaises depuis le IXdme sie,elc lusqu'au XIV-
fcme sifccle, pp 101-394 and 399-408 Paper
(4) Bertran de Born, Flamenca,, Appel
Provenzahsche Chrestomathie

England — The status of modern foreign lan-
guages m English schools of secondary grade is
still m the making Among the factors that have
retarded their growth arc (1) Lack of any
national system of public instruction before 1902 ,
(2) The influence of the older Universities and
Public Schools — strong bulwarks of classical
training, (3) Until a few years ago, the over-
emphasis of science and art subjects m non-en-
dowed schools, m order to obtain State grants of
money, and the consequent neglect of the hu-
manities, (4) The attitude of the Board of Edu-
cation towards modem languages, its insistence
upon Latin as one of the two foreign languages
taught in every school In the most recent cir-
cular, however, it has taken a more liberal atti-
tude and has yielded so«far as to say that provision
for the study of Latin need not be made in every
school, but only m one out of every group of
schools The present ratio of pupils taking
French to those taking German is about five to
one Since it is usually only possible for pupils
to take two foreign languages of which Latin
either must be, 01 almost invariably is, one, Ger-

283

MODERN LANGUAGE

MODERN LANGUAGE

man goes to the wall Indeed many feel it is in
a state of serious decline

According to the Report on the conditions of
modern language teaching presented in 1908 at
the meeting of the Modern Language Association,
the average age of pupils beginning French was
11 ; of 98 schools of the local type reporting, 74
began French first, 4 schools Latin, and 20 began
the two languages simultaneously German, if
studied at all, is taken up at 14 Tins gives
little time to the study of this language where
the leaving age is 16 or 17 Four or five 45-
mmute lessons a week are quite usual for the
foreign language

The teaching has shown great improvement in
recent years In the past, particularly in the
Public Schools and the numerous private schools,
the scanty instruction was in the hands of a
foreigner who was, far too often, treated as an
outsider in the social scheme Today there is
an increasing number of men and women —
trained at the universities or by study abroad —
who have done much to put modern language
work in a better strategic position Within the
past ten years or so, the principles of the German
reform method have found many advocates. The
Modern Language Association with its excellent
organ Modern Language Teaching has been a
powerful instrument m arousing apathetic official
boards and in creating public interest in the
cause, and particularly in threshing out and
adapting the so-called direct method " to Eng-
lish conditions Judging from the report of the
committee referred to above, reform teaching has
already made considerable headway especially in
the elementary stages of instruction The vari-
ous university and other examining bodies that
play such a r61e in English education have also
begun to set papers more in keeping with modern
aims of foreign language teaching

For fuller discussion of this subject m the
English schools, see PUBLIC SCHOOLS, ENGLISH ,
also GRAMMAR SCHOOLS.

United State* — Until the Revolutionary
war, American colleges, as a rule, followed
about the same course of study as was found
in the universities of the mother country
Latin and Greek, Hebrew, some logic and phi-
losophy, rhetoric, elementary mathematics,
and physics were regarded as ample French
is recorded as an extra study about the middle
of the century at Harvard^ The program of
senior study of 1756 at the Academy at Phila-
delphia (later the University of Pennsylvania),
permitted French to be studied at leisure
hours The first professorship of French
seems to have been established at the College
of William and Mary m-1779, with the radical
reorganization of the curriculum brought
about by Thomas Jefferson Students at
Harvard, not preparing for the ministry,
could substitute French for Hebrew m the
80's of the eighteenth century But for a
good many years the advance made by French
and, later, German, in the colleges was ex-

284

tremely hlow It was an extra subject,
occupying an inferior position in the same
list as music, fencing, etc , to be paid for extra,
and not permitted to interfere with the stated
academic duties George Ticknor was made
Professor of French, Spanish, and Belles
Lettres at Harvard m 1816 With his name
is closely associated the term " elective sys-
tem," which much later came to play such
a r61e in the organization of the work of all
higher education m America The modern
languages acted as the first entering wedge
m the attempt at breaking up the rigid curric-
ulum of the past Ticknor organized his
department on the elective basis, but his at-
tempts to develop and extend the elective
system met with severe opposition at every
turn In 1825 the University of Virginia
opened its doors, and modern languages
formed one of the ten schools comprised in
the plan In six months the modern language
school was second in numbers after mathe-
matics, and larger than the school of ancient lan-
guages In the same year, due to the influence
of Ticknor, Carl Follen was appointed Pro-
fessor of German at Harvard In 1828 Henry
W Longfellow began, as instructor at Bowdoin,
to teach French, Spanish, Italian, and German,
to members of any of the four classes who
chose to elect the courses The position of
the modern languages in other colleges at the
time is verv similar

Very little piogiess was again made foi over
a generation in modern language studies until,
in fact, the idea of elective studies again
rapidly spread during the period of the presi-
dency of Charles W Eliot at Harvard At
present, the modern languages are among the
largest departments in the Colleges of Arts
The more important universities maintain
large staffs of instructors At such univer-
sities, for example, as Harvard, Columbia,
Chicago, and Wisconsin there are twenty-five
or more giving instruction in the Germanic
and Romance departments

At the present time many colleges demand
a ready knowledge of French or German, or
both, for the several degrees, although there
is by no means uniformity except m colleges
exclusively for women As late as 1896-1897,
of 432 institutions only 14 per cent required
a modern language for the B A degree, of
123 institutions 41 f per cent required a modern
language for the Bachelor of Philosophy, the
modern language being in lieu of Greek. Simi-
lar percentages are shown in the requirements
for the degrees of B S and B L

The present high school course usually equips
the pupils with a knowledge of Latin and one
modern language, French or German according
to choice or environment Large numbers,
therefore, take as prescribed work in their
freshman year, the modern foreign language
required for the degree which they did not
offer for entrance. This elementary work

MODERN LANGUAGE

MODERN LANGUAGE

in modern languages has become a great bur-
den for the colleges to bear Particularly
in the smaller colleges there is neither time
nor opportunity for the staff to offer much
beyond what might well have been done in
high school classes Even in the larger uni-
versities the beginning classes contain a large
percentage of the total number of students
in the department

Still, in a few colleges that require French
or German, or both, for the B A degree, the
student can prepare himself by private study
if he so chooses At Bryn Mawr, for example,
five-hour courses throughout one year tire
provided, but until the junior year attendance
is not obligatory, the student being free until
then to complete the work by herself Har-
vard also allows the student to pass off any
deficiency in French or German before the
opening of the second year in college

For undergraduate students wishing to
specialize in modern languages, there is given
considerable range of opportunity in the large
institutions of the country, cithe'i through the
system of majors and minors, the group svs-
tem, or honor degrees, etc To obtain honois
in Romance languages and literatures at
Harvard, for example, the student " must have
taken five courses in the department, only
one of which may bo of an elementary charac-
ter He must be able to icad two of the Ro-
mance languages and to write one of them with
readiness and correctness He must present
a thesis and pass an examination orally and
in writing on the general held covered by the
studies "

At the University of (Chicago, the student
interested in German must take, for the degree
of Ph B , " at least nine coherent and progres-
sive majors (a major being a course which
meets four or five hours weekly throughout
one quarter year) "

At Bryn Mawr, the special work in modern
languages must include two major courses of
five hours a week for two years in any one of
the fifty-five groups By taking " any lan-
guage with any language " the student is offered
a wide field of choice It is also possible to
combine one foreign language with some other
field, such as history or comparative litera-
ture, etc

At Columbia, candidates for the A B degree
who wish to specialize to a certain extent in
German, for example, can elect this language as
one of the two sequences required for gradua-
tion. They would then take courses in the
department for a period of three years "aggre-
gating at least eighteen points beyond the ele-
mentary requirement for admission (A point
is credit for satisfactory completion of work re-
quiring attendance one hour a week for one half
year )" Honor students must have high stand-
ing in two or three sequences and also do consid-
erable supplementary reading A final exami-
nation, both written and oral, is set, covering the

entire field of honor work Honor students
would, after the thiee years, have gained a
knowledge of the history of German literature
and have taken general and special courses deal-
ing with the classical period and later writers of
the nineteenth century The collateral and
supplementary reading at present required
consists of above 5000 pages of literary texts
representative of the different periods of the
literature.

In the elementary work of the colleges the
same textbooks are generally used as in the
high schools, and doubtless the same variety
of method employed The maturity of the
students, many of whom are aheady too old
to begin a modern language, and the fact that
it is often prescribed and dropped at the end
of the year, probably force college instructors
to follow traditional lines of teaching The lack
of uniformity in the preparation given to the
students in high school also makes for conserv-
atism in college methods of instruction The
so-called higher courses are very often largely
translation courses combined with some liter-
ary interpretation In recent years, however,
much more attention has been given to the
practical side, and in most of the better col-
leges there are courses in oral and written
composition, either given as separate courses
or in connection with some literary course
In a number of institutions, notably in colleges
for women, almost all the work of the depart-
ment is carried on in the foreign language
In still others some of the staff regularly give
then lectures in German or French The
undergraduate work is largely literary in
character In the courses primarily for gradu-
ates there are in addition to the more special-
ized literary courses a number which aim to
give the student some knowledge of philology
arid historical grammar Stress is also laid
upon the older periods of the language and
literature, and in some institutions modern
related languages are taught The group,
Scandinavian languages, for example, is often
included in the work of the Germanic depart-
ments, although in a few institutions a separate
department for these languages has been cre-
ated

The more important universities have well
equipped libraries, both general and special, for
advanced students

The following is a hat of undergraduate
courses given by the Romance Department of
Adelbert College, Western Reserve University,
for 1911-1912, though not all are given in any
one year

In French Elementary Courses; The Classic
Drama (Corneille, Racine, Molifcre, Voltaire) ;
Prose Writers of the Seventeenth Century
(Pascal, La Bruy&re, Bossuet, S^vigne*) ; Prose
Writers of the Eighteenth Century (Montes-
quieu, Voltaire, Diderot, J J Rousseau);
Drama of the Eighteenth Century (Marivaux,
Le Sage, Regnard, Beaumarchais) ; The Ro-

285

MODERN LANGUAGE

MODERN LANGUAGE

mantic School (one of above four sections given
each second half-yoai) Literature of the Six-
teenth Century (Montaigne, Rabelais); Out-
lines of the History of French literature to
the end of the Sixteenth Century; Historical
French Grammai , French Grammar, His-
tory of French Literature

In Italian. Elementary Course; Dante

In Spanish Elementary Course; Reading
of Modern Prose and Plays; The Classic
Drama, Cervantes

The following is a list of graduate courses
offered by the Romance Department of Har-
vard University for the year 1911-1912, or
alternate years

French (for undergraduates and graduates)
General View of French Literature; Litera-
ture in the Nineteenth Century, Literature of
the Eighteenth Century; Literature of the
Seventeenth Century; Literature of the Six-
teenth Century; The French Drama in the
Nineteenth Century; Literary Criticism in
France, with special reference to the Nine-
teenth Century; Rousseau and his Influence

(Primarily for graduates) Old French
Literature; French Literature in the Four-
teenth and Fifteenth Centuries , Historical
French Syntax; French Prose in the Sixteenth
Century, Studies in the French Drama of the
Seventeenth Century, Studies in French
Drama of the Nineteenth Century

Italian (for undergraduates and graduates)
General View of Italian Literature, Modern
Italian Literature; Italian Liteiature of the
Fifteenth and Sixteenth Centuries, The Works
of Dante (Primarily for graduates) Italian
Literature of the Thirteenth and Fourteenth
Centuries ; The History of the Novel and Tale
in Italy and Spam from Beginning of Medieval
Period to the Eighteenth Century.

Spanish (for undergraduates and gradu-
ates) Spanish Composition and Conversation;
General View of Spanish Literature, Spanish
Prose arid Poetry of the Eighteenth and Nine-
teenth Centuries; Spanish Literature of the
Sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries ; Spanish-
American Poetry. (Primarily for graduates)
Early Spanish

Romance Philology (primarily for gradu-
ates) Old French ; Provencal ; Low Latin,
Portuguese; Anglo-French and the French
Element in English. Course of special study.
Investigation of Special Subjects in Romance
Philology

Seminary Meetings every three weeks, for
the discussion of theses, etc In 1911-1912
attention will be given to the history of French
words in English.

Secondary Schools. — The study of modern
languages in the schools was largely de-
veloped during the nineteenth century. Before
that period school instruction was not very wide-
spread, nor were the foreign languages given
anything but a very minor place in the
school program

Germany — Although Germany was much in
advance of other countries, the introduction
of French into the schools did not begin to
make any headway until the eighteenth cen-
tury Before that time its study was confined
to pnvate instruction or to the schools attended
by the upper classes (Ritterakademien) (See
ACADEMIES, COURTLY ) By the beginning
of the nineteenth century, however, most
Prussian gymnasiums offered French as an
optional subject Owing to patriotic reasons,
it was banished from the schools in 1816, to
be taken up more vigorously a few years later
In 1831 French became obligatory in Prussia,
beginning in Tertia Other states followed
later, Saxony in 1846, Bavaria in 1854 The
study of English was much slower in its devel-
opment The relations between the countries
were in earlier times not strong, but were
kept alive by trade, traveling, and, notably,
beginning with the middle of the eighteenth
century, by the increased interest in English
literature It was, however, not until as late
as 1859 that English was made obligatory
in the Realschulen of Prussia, although of
course it had been gradually introduced in the
schools during the first half of the centui)
Since the refounding of the German Empire,
and particularly dumig the last two decades,
the study of English has made rapid advances
In 1900 an imperial edict allowed the substitu-
tion of English for French in the three upper
classes of the gymnasium (Oil, UI, and OI),
French remaining an optional subject It
also made possible the substitution of other
subjects for Greek in UIII, OIII, and IHI,
in which case three of the six hours are given
to PJnglish, and the other three arc distributed
between French and mathematics and the sci-
ences.

The method of modern language instruc-
tion in Germany has, from early times, swung
between two poles, — the synthetic and the
analytic Both types of instruction have ex-
isted at all times side by side, although, dur-
ing the first half of the nineteenth century,
the method employed in the schools was on the
whole synthetic, and a close imitation of the
severely giammatical procedure employed in
the teaching of Latin and Greek This was
due in part to a great lack of properly trained
teachers, for the universities were late in es-
tablishing chaiis of French and English, the
majority coming after 1850 The new facilities
for study produced in time an organized and
well-schooled body of modern language teachers.
Particularly during the last generation have
great changes and progress been made toward
better ways and means of teaching the subject,
so that at the present time no country equals
Germany in the excellence of its modern lan-
guage instruction The method now widely
employed, often called the direct method, is
analytic in character, and is a revolt against
the older formal grammatical procedure. The

28G

MODERN LANGUAGE

MODERN LANGUAGE

chief points are as follows Heading occupies
a central position in the work in place of giam-
rnar, and is selected so as to give pupils a clear
idea of the life, thought, and civilization of
the foreign people In all stages, but particu-
larly in the earliei, great emphasis is laid upon
oral practice Indeed, the emphasis upon the
spoken language and upon written exercises
growing out of the oral woik is a salient char-
acteristic of the method Translations fiom
and into the vernacular cease to he anv longei
a regular exercise Grammar study is i educed
to essentials, and taught largely inductively
This, in general, represents the plan of the
more radical reformers The more conserva-

tive, forming probably the majority, still favor
the retention of tianslation, and greater em-
phasis upon the grammatical course

The work, particulaily of the more advanced
reformers, has been the subject of much criti-
cism, especially m the last decade, partly
because of its too utilitarian tendencies, and
partly because of the general instability of
pupils' knowledge, mainly on the formal side
The movement, howevei, represents a great-
step forward both in aim and piactice Modern
language method has never been as efficiently
and rationally organized with the idea of giving
power to the pupil to use the foreign language
either in reading, writing, or speaking

FRENCH INSTRUCTION IN PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS

VI

V

IV

UIII

OIII

UII

Oil

i;i

01

TOTAL

GyiniiaHium

—

_

4

r

2

2

,4

J

i
.i | n

20

Oberrimlsohi It

l> (,

(>

6

r,

4

4

4 4

47

Realschult-

(> ; o

6

6

6

5

35

Reform Clvi nusium

2

2

<>

2

V2

and Refor n ReulKvnmusmru

(> (•

0

T

•< \

with conn on foundation

'; 1

1

4 4

,j

4

M

ENGLISH INSTRUCTION

PRUSSIAN SCHOOLS

Gymnasium

Realf^ mnasmin

Obt>rrt'aln(huk

Realiichule

Rofonn Gymnasium

and Rofo? niK\ mnasium
common foundation

with

GIRLS' HiGiii'R S< 11001,

French
English

IX

VIII VII

_

2 l

2

2

fi

.i

t{

{

.i

.{

.1

18

t

4

4

4

4

4

2~>

",

1

4

—

—

13

—

2 i

2

2

6

_

—

(>

J

4

3

17

VI

\

IV

III

II

I

TOTAL

r)

r>

4

1

4

4

i2

~

~

4 4

4

4

16

1 Optional

France — German and English are the mod-
ern languages most studied in the French
public schools, instruction in Spanish and
Italian being confined almost exclusively to
places near the borders of the respective coun-
tries Of the two languages (Jerman is chosen
more frequently m the boys' schools This
is partly due to the fact that it is lequned for
entrance „ to the military school at Saint-CYi
and the Ecole Fob/technique English is moie
favored in the gills' schools

Instruction in the modem languages was
made optional in lycfo* and colleges in 1821,
though but little weight was attached to then-
study, and but meager time allowed In 1838
the study became compulsory in the classical
course, and in 1847 in the "modern" couise
In 1880 modern languages were studied in
every class, with a total of twenty-nine hours
pei week The kind of instruction, arid the
results obi allied weic, howevei, unsati.sfactoi v
Translation from and into the foieign tongue,

and much foimal grammar were the chief
means employed almost every wheie, even as
late as 1890, although the ministerial instruc-
tions of 1890 weie in theoiy in advance of am
of the German official regulations of about
the same time The provinces in paiticulai
were \ery backwaid The lefoim, which had
abeadv been in pi ogress a dozen yeais or
moie in Germany, had as vet made scarcely
anv impression upon the woik in Fiance Jn
1902, however, the whole subject of modem
language instiuction was radically changed
The aims and practices of the advanced (Jerman
reformers were taken over, stock and barrel,
and formulated in the instructions of the
15th November, 1901 Since that time most
earnest attempts have been made by the
government and the teachers to carry out
the new radical program, and apparently with
considerable success

After six years' trial it was found necessary
to be more conservative in the work, particu-

287

MODERN LANGUAGE

MODERN LANGUAGE

larly in the upper classes The new instruc-
tions of 1908 confirm and strengthen the plan
of work done in the lower classes. For the
fifth and fourth classes translation into the
mother tongue, riot mentioned in the earlier
instructions, is suggested as a means of control
in addition to the study of the reading text
by exercises m the foreign language The
chief changes, however, are made in the instruc-
tions dealing with the work of the second and
first classes TIi3 earlier program emphasized
leading material dealing with the life, civiliza-
tion, and history of the literature of the foreign
people, the new lays stress entirely upon litera-
ture, pure and simple Moreover, one of the
chief exercises of the last period is the cultiva-
tion of the art of tianslation into the mother
tongue These changes, howevei, are very
slight on the whole France leads the world,
officially, m the advocacy of the radical direct
met hod of modern language teaching

Modern languages may now be studied for
eleven of the twelve years in the French lyeces
and colleges for boys In the second year of
the piepaiatoiy division and in the eighth and
seventh forms of the elemental y division the
subject is very inadequately represented by
two hours lor each Attempts to eliminate
the study and to defer the regulai instruction
until the sixth fonn have thus fai failed In
the following four forms, constituting the first
cycle, one modern language is studied five
hours per week in each of the four years In
the first two forms of the second cycle the
number of hours devoted to modern languages
depends upon which of the four possible groups
of courses or sections the pupils elect to pui-
sne The following is a table for these two
years —

Si ( IION A

SM TION B

SLCTION C

SM TION 1)

Latin ciud
Greek

Latin and
Modern
Language

Lutm and
Science

Science und
Modern
Language

Modern

Language

2

3

2

.3

4 i

4»

1 Second language begun and continued

In the highest form theie is a twofold divi-
sion into the philosophy and mathematics
forms, each with two sections, A and B

PHILOHOPHY

MATHEMATICS

Section A

Koction B

Section A

Section B

Modern
Language!

2«

{i.

2

f 1
\2»

The modern language course in girls' sec-
ondary schools is begun in the infant class and
continued as an obligatory study throughout
all the nine years In the last two years a sec-
ond modern language may be taken The fol-
lowing is the number of hours per week in each
of the classes: 2J, 2J, 2J, 2i, 3, 3, 3, 3 (2)1,
3 (2)1

The following is the number of hours given
to modern languages in the usual three classes
of the French higher elementary schools, the
ecoles pr two ires suptneures and ecoles pratiques
dc commerce et d' Industrie

BOYS' Sc HOOL

•

II

III

General Course 1

M

.,

Commercial Course j e nup#ri?ur(

'"*

14

4

Commercial Course (ctolr pratique)

"

0

GlHLH* SCHOOLH

General course (ecolc nuptruurt)
C«>nnnercial Course (erolt pratique}

3

1 1

3

45

1 Optional

* Pupils have the right an to distribution

>f these houin

Untied Mate* — The modern languages were
late in getting a foothold in the program of
studies of schools in the United States There
were sporadic attempts at teaching French
in the East during the eaily nineteenth century ;
but it was not until the second half that its
study was at all general The first, mention
of Geiman in a Massachusetts' high school
is in 1854 German, however, appeared in
the Cincinnati public schools as early as 1840,
and in general thrived, particularly in parts
of the Middle West and other centers wheie
a large German population had settled It was
not until 1875 that a modern language was
requned for admission to college Since then
the growth in the study of the modern lan-
guages has been stead}', so that in the period
1890-1910 no subject showed such a high per-
centage of increase The study of French ad-
vanced in the public schools from 5 84 pei cent
in 1890 to 9.90 per cent in 1910, German over
the same period from 10 51 per cent to 23.69
per cent. The study of Spanish is confined
largely to the Western Division of states.
In other parts it is pursued only by a few
pupils in the larger cities Statistics were
first given for 1909-1910 m the Report of the
United States Commissioner The percentage
for the whole country is 65 for the combined
statistics of public high schools and private
high schools and academies Colorado and
California lead, with 17.67 per cent and 8 49
per cent respectively.

In the country at large the study of modern
languages is restricted to the secondary school,
with courses of one, two, three, and four years'
duration. The two-year courses are probably
by far in the majority, to meet the college ad-
mission requirements, although in the larger

1 Second language optional

MODERN LANGUAGE

MODERN LANGUAGE

cities and towns three- and four-v ears' courses
are very common The Ohio statistics for
1910 show that of 312 high schools reporting
German 60 offer a four- years' course, 29 a three-
years', 120 a two-years', and 6 a one-year
course

The geographical distribution of pupils
studying French and German in secondary
schools shows remarkable variations In gen-
eral, the North Atlantic Division leads in the
percentage of pupils studying both French
and German in 1909-1910, with 27 56 per cent
as against 11 50 per cent for the rest of the
United States Again, the New England
states lead in the percentage of those pui suing
French, with 4121 per cent as against 6 44 per
cent for the rest of the United States On the
other hand, the same states are below the
average for the United States in the peicentage
of pupils studying German, 17 21 per cent as
against 23 69 per cent for the country as a
whole As an example, also, of the great
variation in the study of the two language's
in different states, 49 09 pel cent of pupils in
the New Hampshire secondary schools study
French as against 0 69 percent in Indiana New
Jersey leads in percentage of pupils pursuing
German with 41 39 per cent, while the per-
centages for South Carolina, Louisiana, and
Mississippi are 0 34 per cent, 0 72 per cent., and
1 69 per cent, respectively

It is only in some few centers of the Middle
West that there is at present anv serious at-
tempt at maintaining the studv of German in
grades of elementary schools Milwaukee and
Cincinnati are the two great strongholds In
the latter city, if the parents wish it, one half
of the time of instruction may be given in the
German language up to the fourth grade
The study is then continued throughout the
eight grades, but with a i eduction in the amount
of time

On the whole, modern languages were, and
are still, taught in schools to far too great an
extent in much the same spirit and manner
as Latin But owing to ill-equipped teachers
and to the shorter length of the courses, the
work done in modern languages was only a
poor imitation of the kind of woik done in
the traditional Latin course Stamhuds weie
either lacking or were to a large extent con-
trolled by the requirements for admission to
college The course consisted of formal drill
in grammar, though lacking in real thorough-
ness, followed or accompanied by hasty trans-
lation into and from, the mother tongue, of
material often badly graded as to difficulty

The Report, published in 1898, of the Com-
mittee of Twelve, appointed by the Modern
Language Association, has been of great assist-
ance in fixing standards of modern language
instruction in the schools The method fa-
vored by the committee was on the whole
the so-called reading method; that is, copious
reading of graded texts hand in hand with

VOL. IV — U

28<>

the stuih of grammatical essentials But the
committee also advised, particularly in the
longer courses, the introduction of some oral
work, and other practices of the German direct
method Three grades of attainment were
defined in the Eepoit, and reading texts for
each suggested The elementary grade, reached
normally after two years of study, represents
the minimum requirement now usually set
for entrance to college The work of the two
higher grades, the intermediate and the ad-
vanced, is intended to take one and two years'
longer study than the elementary (See COL-
LEGE ENTRANCE REQUIREMENTS IN MODEUN

L \NGUAGES )

Withrn the past few years, the more progres-
sive teachers, stimulated by the results obtained
by the Reformers in Germany, have been trying
to adapt to local conditions some of the aims and
methods employed abroad More attention has
been given to or.il work, and to teaching pupils
freer arid better control of the language in general
The greatest obstacle to rapid progress, however,
is bad teaching, for outside the large city systems
there are far too few special teachers possessing
adequate knowledge of the subject, and specially
trained in methods of presentation

Aim and Methods of Teaching —Modern
languages are studied in the secondary school
primarily for their practical value Through the
choice and study of material a cultural value
is added Moreover, the processes involved in
learning a foreign language are conceded to be
disciplinary IL their effect, they serve to clarify,
deepen, and broaden one's knowledge of language
in general as a vehicle of thought. The practi-
cal goal sought in the course may be regarded
from at least two points of view We may stress
the utilrtanan side, the practical oral control of
the language, allowing the reading of books to ap-
pear as a natural outgrowth, or we may make
r ending the chief aim The first way might seem
upon the surface both a desirable and a logical
one to pursue Yet experience teaches us that
the school is not a favorable place for the ac-
quisition of a language technique commensurate
with the energy that would have to be expended
and for which there is not sufficient time The
field of reading, on the other hand, is not only
broad and cultural, but the kind of work
required to teach pupils to read successfully,
is quite in keeping with school conditions
Moreover, the ability to read a language is
more likely to be of permanent piactical value
than anv conversational knowledge that might
conceivably be gained in school classes

Pronunciation — The importance of teach-
ing the foreign sounds correctly in the early
weeks of the modern language course cannot
be too strongly emphasized The work should
largely be upon an imitative and oral basis,
the teacher acting as model. It is also im-
portant that he possess a working knowledge
of phonetics This will insure the right atti-
tude toward this element of the course, and

MODERN LANGUAGE

MODERN LANGUAGE

enable him to diagnose and correct mistakes
wherever imitation is insufficient as a guide
Whether the pupils themselves shall be taught
phonetic terminology and the foieign bounds
at first by means of transcribed texts is a moot
question. There arc good arguments both for
and against, particularlv when dealing with
a language like French In any case, it is
fundamental that there should be abundant
practice in hearing and uttering the sounds of
the new language

Oral Practice — Although intelligent read-
ing is the chief end sought, a great deal of
attention ought to be given to work in hearing
and speaking, because of their very positive
value in classroom procedure In general,
emphasis upon the spoken word makes for
greater flexibility in the treatment of the ma-
terial. It is stimulating both to teacher and
pupil Imitation and repetition are funda-
mental means of acquiring a new language,
and if oral exercises in the foreign tongue are
employed with judgment, there is no kind of
work which allows and suggests to the teachei
greater abundance of icpetition, and hence
tends to make right associations habitual
Moreover, the constant use of the foreign lan-
guage in the classroom in the form of commands
arid well-directed questions and answers, favors
the formation of a Sftrachgefuhl, or language
sense, an indefinable though undoubtedly a
potent factor in the acquisition of a foreign
language4 The amount of time to be devoted
to work in speaking cannot readilv be deter-
mined In general, however, practice seems
to favor greater emphasis proportionally dur-
ing the elementary stage, at a time when a
great deal of drill is necessarv to acquire the
grammatical forms and a working vocabulary
Hut throughout the course it should be the rule
to have regular oral practice carefully graded
and coordinated with all othei elements of the
course Only in this way can we be assured
that it shall be beneficial in the work The
scope of work in speaking and its distribution
in the different vears of the course, its relation
to other elements such as reading and grammar,
have not as yet been satisfactorily worked out,
particularly for the later stages Adequate
books and specially trained teachers are still
lacking

The earliest material will probably best be
selected from objects in the immediate en-
vironment; and wall pictures, if judiciously
employed, will be of great assistance in planning
the elementary work The bulk of the material
for the secondary school, however, should be
chosen from connected reading texts In the
elementary stages these will consist of simply
constructed texts or natural texts that are
rich in certain grammatical forms or vocabu-
lary Later the regular annotated stories, etc ,
may be made the basis for conversational
practice Still, for many reasons, chief among
which are that the reading texts may not lend

themselves to conversational treatment, that
the vocabulary may be too uncommon or too
highly literary in character, and above all, that
the selections may be too difficult, it would
seem advisable on the whole to have sepaiate
texts for conversational practice, carefully organ-
ized as regards vocabulary, content, and form.
Graded material dealing with foreign life and
customs is suggested

Work m speaking may be roughly divided
into two kinds (1) highly formal in character,
(2) a more natural kind, which emphasizes the
thought as well as the form side of the material
The first kind will consist of various changes in
the sentences read, in person, number, tense,
\oiee of the verb, and substitutions of pionoun
for noun, etc Questions may be put in such
a way as to force the pupil to employ the
desired grammatical form The second type
will consist largely of rapid questions and an-
swers upon the day's reading In the earlier
stages the questions and answers would closeh
follow the printed text, later the text might
be used merely as a starting point for eomeisa-
tronal practice, the pupils drawing their answers
from their general knowledge of the spoken
language Fr om time to time the class would be
encouraged to i elate the contents of a pait 01 the
whole of the material thus intensively studied
Success, however, in the later stages depends
upon the thoroughness with which the so-called
question and answer work is done In any
high school course simple questioning on a
•suitable connected text should occupy the ma-
jor portion of the time 111 oral practice It
is only in this wuv that fluency and the requi-
site accuracy are assured

Grammar — Whatever other value the study
of grammar may have in the menial training
of the pupil, its immediate value is to enable
him to acquire 1he foreign language on the
form side svsternaticallv and intelligently
Only essential forms and usages should be
selected, and these should be taught by con-
stant practice rather than by drill upon rules
Correct habits of use should be icgarded as
of more importance than the mere learning
of paradigms In general, the treatment of
grammar should be at least inductive in spirit
Traditional grammar teaching regards the
translation of a number of detached sentences
from and into the mother tongue as the chief
exercise for clinching the previously studied
formal rules More recent teaching, however,
lays great stress upon exercises planned to gi\e
a great deal of oral and .written practice carried
on in the foreign language itself Some of
these exercises have been suggested under the
preceding topic, such as changes of tense,
number, and person, etc , based upon discon-
nected sentences or connected reading material.
The filling out of appropriate endings and a
large variety of exercises all serve to give more
copious arid quicker drill than the older trans-
lation method Of greater importance than

290

MODERN LANGUAGE

MODERN LANGUAGE

these, howevci, are the more or less formal
question and answer drills, in which the teacher's
questions force the pupil to employ the new
grammatical principle or form Many of
these questions will be type questions, that
is, one question will admit of a comparatively
large number of answers, each one of which,
however, will contain the required principle or
form The judicious employment of this so-
called living grammar teaching is of great
advantage in giving quick, definite, and withal
interesting drills which to a large extent are
wanting under the still widely prevailing plan
of translating detached sentences into the for-
eign tongue

In a course lasting four years it seems
highly desirable, in German at least, to have
the first grammatical course extend over two
years The last two years might then be spent
in giving richer practice and somewhat broader
treatment This plan, however, is not piac-
ticed in the majority of schools, with the result
that pupils in the higher classes are often weak
both in knowledge of forms and in the ability
to use them accurately for the expiession of
simple thoughts in the foreign language

Written Work — Work in wilting should
accompany at every step the oral work in the
German classroom As a rule, it should follow
directly the oral development of, and dull
upon, the grammatical topic After the ma-
terial has been first threshed out orally in the
classroom, it should then be put into writing,
for the time being the final form As every-
thing cannot be written, the work should
represent that which is typical and essential
in the lesson or series of lessons The results
obtained from writing are fairly obvious
Hand and eye serve to fix the oral impressions,
and it chocks up the work on a given topic
Further, it makes for great ei defmiteness and
flexibility in the work done outside of class In
the early stages, however, it is bettor to have
much of the written work done in class, and
thus controlled and corrected at every step
But wherever done it is a wise procedure to
ask of pupils that they shall employ in their
written exercises only the materials, vocabu-
lary and principles, with which they are quite
familiar through previous study

Work in writing may be of two kinds* (1)
exercises largely imitative in character, (2) ex-
ercises in translation, involving comparison
between the mother and the foreign tongue
The latter type is still largely employed in
all stages of the course Latterly, however,
teachers have found that written exercises,
similar to, and in fact gi owing out of, the con-
versational practice, are productive of better
results In addition to the more formal exer-
cises which emphasize a certain grammatical
fact, the simple narrative of the day's lesson,
and the introduction in the upper classes of
the letter form of composition, offer a rich
field for development. Over against this

291

rather modern procedure, we find a large pro-
portion of teachers still faithful to exeicises
in tianslating from the mother into the foioign
tongue In the early stages the exorcises con-
sist of detached sentences arranged under the
appropriate grammatical headlines in the text-
book Later, a graded composition book, con-
taining various stylos of writing, is employed
As this kind of work prevails, often to" the
exclusion or at least only fitful use of free
reproduction and other nontranslation kinds
of exercises, it is well to point out some of the
weaknesses of the practice (1) Pupils are
made to learn the foreign language by com-
parison before they have sufficient knowledge
of its vocabulary and principles (2) The com-
position books arc far too ambitious in charac-
ter The acquisition of speed and accuracy
should be regarded more highly than the ability
to translate difficult material inadequately
Written work of all kinds ought largely to con-
sist of material that the pupil can readily do
at sight

Reading — Since reading is the chief aim
of the modern language course, great care
should be exercised not only in the selection,
but also in the treatment of the material It
should be interesting, possess literary merit,
and be well graded as to difficulty and the
maturity of the pupils At present, the general
tendency is to read stories, and in the later
years some poems arid plays of classical writers
Unity and point of view are lacking in
the course It is organized only as to general
amount and difficulty required for entrance
to college It would seem desirable to increase
the kind of reading dealing with facts, particu-
laily with those that give an insight into the
life, customs, and history of the foreign peoples
In a four-years' German course we might, for
example, group the reading material around
some definite points such as these first year,
a general introduction to Gorman life, second
year, legends and sagas and the Marchen ,
third year, some few facts of history as illus-
trated by the lives of great personalities,
fourth year, at least one literary masterpiece
and brief sketches of the lives of such men as
Goethe, Lessmg, and Schiller

The traditional treatment of reading is that
of translation into the mother tongue Moie
recently systematic attempts have been made,
notably in Germany, to reduce the amount
of time spent upon this exercise and to increase
the ability of the class to study and understand
the foreign text without the aid of habitual
translation Clearness of understanding in
the early stages is effected by selecting simple,
objective matciial and teaching it by means
of close questioning in the foreign tongue, by
explaining new words by the use of objects,
pictures, gesture, by opppsites, by the study
of woid formation, by definition in the foreign
language, or even by translating troublesome
words and phrases If the woik is systemati-

MODERN LANGUAGE

MODERN SCHOOL

cally done from the outset, translation mav
be limited largely to the more difficult passages,
and the time usually devoted to it, be employed
in various exercises carried on within the lan-
guage being taught How much shall be trans-
lated is a question, however, which individual
teachers will always have to decide for them-
selves. Length of course and the equipment of
the teacher are the controlling factors It is
obvious that translation is the quickest apparent
test of the pupil's understanding of a passage,
although where it is used to the exclusion of
all other exercises upon the text, some of its
weaknesses may be summed up as follows : •—

In general, translation is largely an exercise
in the use of the mother tongue. As an exer-
cise for the teaching the foreign language, it
is wasteful of time as a vocabulary builder
Since the pupil exchanges symbol for symbol,
it neglects almost wholly the acquisition ol
the form side of the foreign language, and as
usually carried on, it lays but little stress upon
the thought side It has little or no influence
upon the growth of language sense (Sprachgc-
fM) The foreign language is kept in the
background, and is used as a mere vehicle for
exercising the mother tongue

Results of School Work. — What, briefly,
should be the outcome of a four years' high
school course in modern languages ? The pupils
should be able to read ordinary prose or poetry
suitable in range of thought to their years of
understanding By far the greater proportion
of the materials should be selected horn modern
authors While there can be no objection to
the appreciative study by the pupils of one or two
of the classic dramas or other forms of literature,
the reading of the classics in general should be
deferred to the college period of modern lan-
guage instruction By the selection of reading
material and by all other means that the
teacher can devise, the pupils should be taught
some elementary facts regarding the life and
customs of the foreign peoples They should
have obtained by careful teaching an accurate
working knowledge of the essentials of grammar
in order that their growth in knowledge of the
language shall always be upon a solid founda-
tion In addition, the pupils should have ac-
quired the power to use a small stock of common
words in speaking or in writing They ought,
for example, to be able to answer questions
based upon an easy story read to them, or to
give its contents in simple language either
3rally or in writing Finally, they ought to
have some facility in conversing about simple
matters of daily life, and be able to express
their doings in letter form. E. W. B-C.

References —
Bibliography : —

BREYMANN, H. Die neusprachliche Reform- Literatur,
1876-1909. (Leipzig, 1910.)

History • —

FARRINGTON, F. E. French Secondary Schools. (New
York, 1910 )

292

Fumr, A B Th< (itrnuin El<nt(nt in the United
State*, 2 VO!H (Bobton, 1909 )

HANDBCHIN, C H Instruction in French arid German
m Ohio The Miami Bulletin (Ohio, February,
1911 )

HARTMANN, M Reiseeindriicke und Beobachtungen
einet> deutschen N euphilologen in der Schweiz und in
Frankreich (Leipzig, 1897 )

INGLIB, A J. The Rise of the High School in Massa-
chusetts (New York, 1911 )

REIN, W. Entyklopddischet> Handbuch der Pada-
gogtk, s vv Enghsclur Untemcht , Frawoatschrr
Untemcht

U S Bur Kduc , Hep Cam Ed , German Instruction
in American Schools, 1900-1901, Vol I, pp 531-
70S

VIERECK, L Zivei Jahihunderte dtutschen Unter-
richts in den Vereinigten Staaten (Braun-
schweig, 1903 )

General —

BAGSTER-COLLINS, E W The Teaching of German in
Secondary Schools (New York, 1904 )

BAHLSEN, L The Teaching of Modern Languages
(Bobtoii, 1905 )

BAUMANN, F Reform und Antirefornt im ncusprach-
hchen Untemcht (Berlin, 1902 )

BREUL, K The Teaching of Modern Foreign Lan-
guage* (London, 1908 )

BUTTNER, H Die Mutttrspractie im ne-ut>prachluhen
Vntemcht (Marbuig, 1910)

CUULTON, G C Publu Schools and Public Nted*
(London, 1901 )

EGGEUT, B Der psych ologische Zummincnhang in der
Didaktik do> n< uiprachhchen Refoimuntarielitx
(Berlin, 1904)

England, Board of Education Special Reports on
Educational Subject*, Vol II (1898), pp 648-079,
Teaching of Modern Languages in Bdgium ami
Holland, Vol 111 (1898), pp 401-533, Teaching
of Modern Languages in Germany (several articles)

HOVELAQUE, E Deux Conf6reiicL8 sai V Enseigne-
nient det> Lunguen Vivantet* (Pans, 1910 )

JEBPERSEN, P How to Teach a Foieign Language
(New \oik, 1904 )

MuNC'H, W Didaktik und Methodik de& franzosischen
Untemchts (Mum-hen, 1910)

QUIEIIL, K Franzdbische Ausspiache und Spiath-
ferhgke.it (Marburg, 1900 )

REIN, W Encyklopadisches Handbuch der Pddagogik,
a vv Englibcher Unteiricht, Franzoswcher Unter-
ritht

Report of Committee on Modern Languages (Wash-
ington, 1899, also Boston )

RUSHELL, J E. German Higher Schools (New York,
1905 )

VIETOR, W Der Sprachunternchl 7nut>8 uinkehicn
(Heilbronn, 1886 )

WALTER, M English nach dem Frankfurter Reform-
plan (Marburg, 1910 )

Die Reform de& neiisjn-achhchen Unterncht* auf Schule
und [Trnvcrsitat (Marburg, 1912 )

WOHLFEIL, P Der Kanipf um die neunpraehliche Un-
tcmchtsmtthode (Frankfort, 1901 )

WOLFROMM, A La Quebtion des Methodes Revue
de V Enscignenient des Langues vivantes (PariH,
1902-1905 )

Periodicals : —

Die Neuerrn Sprachen Marburg
Modern Language Notes Baltimore
Modern Language Teaching London
Monatahcfte fur dtutsche Sprache und P&dagogik.

Milwaukee

Revue de V Enseignement des Langues vivantcs Pans
Zeitschrift fttr franzosischen und cnglischen Untemcht.

Berlin.

MODERN SCHOOL (Escuela Moderna) —
The term given to the school established by
Francisco Ferrer (q.v ) at Barcelona and imi-
tated now m urban centers in many countries

MODERN SCHOOL

MODERN SCHOOL

by gioups holding radical social views Those1
schools are gcnorally projected by the so-called
philosophical anarchists, and are extremely ra-
tionalistic toward religious ideas and influences

The Escuda Modern a of Barcelona IN
summed up by its motto " Scientific and
rationalist teaching " This does not mean
that rationalist schools in Spain started
with Ferrer or that the principles enshrined
in the Excuela Moderna originated at Bar-
celona As a matter of fact, Ferrer only
gave fresh vitality and a more distinctly
scientific rationalist tone to a more or less
non-religious movement in populai education
that seems to have been racy of the soil of
Spain for several decades pnoi to the found-
ing, in 1901, of, Ferrer's Escvela Moderna (Cf
Heaford's L' Ecole Moderne, ed 2, ptu>&m,
and Archer's Life, etc , p 31 ) This early
movement has an interesting and hitherto
unknown history. On the fall of Isabella II
in 1868 from the throne of Spam, a ferment
of liberal ideas stirred the Spanish mind, a
craving for education seized the masses, and
secular schools , arose in many parts of the
Peninsula (L' Ecole Moderne, pp 11 .s<? )

The schools grew out of the enthusiasm
of the vaiious political, industrial, and ration-
alist groups that sprang up throughout Spain
The schools were admittedly ill-equipped and
deficient in methods, most of the teaching
being undertaken by untrained enthusiasts
consisting of a Bohemian set of intelligent
artisans, journalists, and social outlaws of
all kinds These were mostly Freethinkers,
and some — notably Clemencia Jacqumot,
afterwards the first Directress of the Excuela
Moderna — were natives of Fiance (For her
caieei see U 6 cole Moderne, p 17, Aicher, Life,
p 34 sq )

In 1883 the new schools had so much grown
and multiplied that a fedeiation — for some
time controlled by Bartholomeo Gabarro, an
ex-priest — was founded for then protection
Long prioi to Ferrer's initiative, the Spanish
Freethinkers had recognized the necessity of
safeguarding and spreading theii ideas by
means of schools inn undei nationalist, aus-
pices One such school, founded as far back
as 1885 — that known as La Verdad, at San
Feliu de Guixols — was still flourishing in
connection with the Excuela Moderna in 1907

When, therefore, Ferrer founded his Modern
School he was not launching a new movement ,
he was only cultivating with improved pro-
cesses a ground already plowed and sown
Nor is it true to say that the Escuelo Moderna
was the Aaron's rod that swallowed up the
hitherto existing secular schools in Spam
The fact is that many of the old schools, and
others formed later, were autonomous bodies
existing independently of the Escuela Moderna,
though all became more or less imbued with
its principles by adoption of its educational
program and textbooks

Ferrer's Manifesto ( L' Ecole Mod(rw, p 31) on
starting the Modern School stated its object
to be the progressive education of the child,
without superstition (he meant, Catholicism)
or mysticism (Protestantism) He specially
sought to avoid the awakening of what ho
termed the ata\istic instincts of religion, race
hatred, the rnihtarv temper, and the spirit
of revenge

His whole school curriculum and its auxil-
iary publications were inspired throughout In
this ideal, and Ferrer's prevision of a neu
social order explains why ho did not accept
the pedagogic doctrine that the child's school-
books should be silent concerning God, religion,
and similar burning questions On the con-
trary, his a \owed aim was to enable the child
to render to himself a faithful account of the
source and origin of the vaned social evils that
afflict humanity

The Modern School was opened in the Callo
Bale*n, Barcelona, on the 12th September, 1901,
with twelve girls and eighteen boys At the
conclusion of the first year the scholars totaled
some sixty-six in all In June, 1905, after
four years of activity, there existed forty-
eight schools, of which fourteen were at Barce-
lona, two at Carthagena and La I'mon,
and one in Algeciras, Cadiz, Granada, Mahon,
Malaga, Saragossa, etc In 1900 the number
of schools was about fifty Early in the same
year the movement had so well succeeded that
Ferrer was able to invite 1700 students of the
schools affiliated to the Ewucla Moderna to
a rationalistic Good Friday banquet — a cele-
bration which gave great offense to the Catholic
party in Spain (Archer, p 61, cf L' Ecole
Moderne, p 30 )

When, in June, 1906, Ferrer was put under
lock and key for thirteen months (see FERRER),
nothing could arrest the torrent of the move-
ment in Spain for the establishment of ration-
alist schools New schools arose on every
hand, and fresh educational centers sprang
into being Of these, one of the most success-
ful was the Excuela Moderna — Hiimanidad
Nuew — at Valencia Founded by Dr Sam-
uel Tornei in July, 1906, in December, 1907,
it numbered 150 scholars of both sexes The
repression rn 1909 closed this school, after eight
others had formed around it

Elsewhere in Spain some fifty new schools
had been founded by February, 1908 Exact
statistics as to school attendance at these
several foundations are not available, the par-
ticulars, however, as to ten of the schools in
Barcelona indicate that these latter served a
total of 1000 pupils Moreover, it is estimated
that the government closure in 1909 of the
rationalist schools in different parts of the
country deprived more than 10,000 children
of their usual and onlv means of education

The school hours at the Excuela Moderna
were from nine in the morning to 5 30 in the
afternoon The school was open from Monday
293

MODERN SCHOOL

MODERN SIDE

to Saturday inclusive, the Sunday being de-
voted to lectures on scientific subjects. Boys
and girls were taught together Ferrer speaks
from experience of "the brilliant result, I
may even say the triumph, of mixed teaching "
The scholars were grouped only under three
sections: Infants, Elementary, and Higher
Elementary In each section the first ten
minutes of the school day were devoted to
hygienic inspection and gymnastic exercise
The following briefly describes the curriculum
under each section: —

Infants Exercises m observation on familiar objects and

knowledge of life

Reading (the fiilibario, -7- described and Ferret's
view thereon eited, m V EC. Mod , pp 32 -3.*) and
writing

Grammar (Span )

Arithmetic its operations illustrated by the com-
bination of objects
Geometry knowledge of lines according to their

nature, position, etc.
Physical geography

Object lessons based on animal, vegetable, and
mineral objects, and on industrial, etc , products.
Familiar scenes animal life
Manual labor

Gymnastics without appliances.
Hygiene
Elementary Section

Amplification of above lessons
Reading, with explanation of word meanings
Books used Adventures of Nono (An her's de-
scription, p 39), Leon Martin (by Malats), EH-
tovaiiez's History of Spain, and the Fir*>t Manu-
script Book, a collection of extiacts from best au-
thors, used as an exercise in reading vanouH kinds
of script

Writing from dictation
Drawing plain and decorative

Physical, agricultural and industrial geography of
Europe generally and of Spam and Portugal in
particular Needlework, arid carving
Higher Elementary

Reading, with comments

Texts Patriotism and Civilization, Malvert's Onyin
of Cfuistianity, The Setond Manuscript Rook,
Paraf-Javal's Subxtanna , Universal (for Ferrer's
view of this see I/ EC Mod p 39), Jaequmet's
Hmtona Universal (3 vols See Archer, pp
49-51 )

Writing Composition exercises, comments on the
school texts, etc These compositions, no doubt,
gave birth to the remarkable school essays cited
in the Boletin (Ano 111, , p 1, Ano IV, pp 1-6, cf
Archer, pp 54-5S, and // EC Mod p 37)
History General idea of the history of peoples fiom
the point of view of the development of civilisa-
tion (Jacqumet's three remarkable volumes of
history led the way for the student ) (Now trans-
lated into Portuguese, Lisbon )
Shorthand classes twice a week

In addition, we must count to the credit
of the Excuela Moderna the botanizing, geo-
logical, and natural history rambles in the
neighborhood of Barcelona (descriptions and
photographs in the Boletirien) , the visits of
inspection to the factories and industrial hives
of the Condal City and vicinity, m order to
study the processes of production; the lectures
on every branch of hygienics by Dr. Martinez
Vargas those on physical geography, miner-
alogy and geology, etc , by the celebrated Dr
Od6n de Buen, many volumes of whose works

adorn the collection of Ferrer's publications
These lectures were delivered every Sunday
to the students, their parents, and the general
public at the school, and were deservedly popu-
lar No elementary private school in Europe
could boast of finer courses of lectures by
professors of greater national and world-wide
reputation

By means of these popularizations of scien-
tific knowledge and of the unique series of school
texts and other publications (see FERRER), the
founder of the Escuela Modtirrin, at the cost
of his fortune, his liberty, and ultimately of his
life, provided the neglected people of Barce-
lona, and, radiating theiefrom, some hundred
or more centers in Spain, with the nearest
approacli to the encyclopedic cuniculuni of a
university en rbglc that probably any democ-
racy in Europe has had placed within its
reach The students at the Modern School
were demonstrably more fortunate in educa-
tional advantages than millions of children in
moie fortunate countries than Spain Ferrer
would have been the first man in the world
to acknowledge the imperfections of his system,
but, for all that, the schools weie admittedly
" very well managed and very well equipped "

See FERRER ' W H

References —

ANSPACH, LUOIEN Les Aetes oflicieh, etc (Brussels,

1910 )

ARCHER, WM Life of Finn (London, 1911 )

BELLOC, HILAIRE The Ferrer Case Dublin Rev ,
January, 1910

BON\.FULLA La Rtvolucion de Julio (Barcelona )

BRISHA, JOSE La Revolution de Julio (Barcelona,
1909 )

COELHO, JOSE SIMOEH. Qucm e Ferrer? (Lisbon.
1909 )

COMAS fiu Vida, su obra Dcxtructora, etc (Bar-
celona, 1910 )

Cortes Full debate, March, 1911 , See Lerroux,
below (Madrid, 1911 )

Cultura Proletana (N<>w York ) Special Issues
Dot 13, 1910 and Get 13,1911

Escuda Moderna, Boletines and other Publications
(Barcelona, 1901-1909 )

KASPAR, J J Pour la Revision, etc (Pans, 1909 )

LERROUX, A Ferrer su Ptoccso en /as Cortes (Bar-
celona, 1911 )

MOLINARI, LUIOI Vita e opera de F Ferrer. (Milano,
PP 32 )

GHHORIO, (J Barcelona, Julio dc 1909 (Madrid )

PABBELKCQ Actes officiels, etc (Brussels, 1909 )

RIERA La sernana trdgita (Barcelona )

RYAN, J A Ferrer criminal (onspiiator (St Louis,

1911 )

SIMARRO, Luis El ProcLao Ferrer y la Opmi6n europea.

(Madrid, 1910 )
VILLAEBCUSA La Rovolucion dc Julio. (Barcelona,

1909)
See also references undei FERRER.

MODERN SIDE — A term applied to
that division in English secondary sehools in
which the chief emphasis is laid on modern
subjects, — language, science, and mathematics.
Of the classical languages Latin alone is studied
to a small extent The modern side is intended
for the preparation of boys for business, army,
and civil services In some schools commercial

294

MODESTY

MONASTICISM AND EDUCATION

subjects are also taught in this department
As a rule boys do not proceed from the modern
side to the universities In addition to the
modern side, it is not unusual to have other
special divisions for science and mathematics
Wliile modern subjects have been taught since
the seventeenth century here and there in
English schools, no value was attached to them
either by the boys or masters Since the pass-
ing of the Endowed Schools Act, howevei,
the modern sides have sprung up to meet the
increasing demand foi a type of secondary
education which did not aim at picpaimg for
the universities The modem side may on
the whole be said to correspond to the German
Realschule

See ENDOWED SCHOOLS ACT, GRAMMAR
SCHOOLS, ENGLAND, EDUCATION IN, etc

MODESTY — This term is used to denote
two quite different characteristics of the
emotional life, which Darwin has pointed out
have little in common except the blush as a
distinguishing expressive reaction In the first
sense the term lefers to that characteristic of
some individuals which tends to make them
hold a moderate opinion of their own woith
and attainments Used in the second sense,
modesty is an attitude of mind which revolts
against indelicacy of any soit, especially
that involving sexual lelations Fioin the
psychological point of view, both of these
forms of reaction aie instinctive attitudes and
accompanied by emotional feelings, and capable,
like other instincts, of modification and train-
ing by the influence of envnonment Develop-
ment of modesty in the second sense does not
propei lv take place until the time of pubeitv,
though it is not always of sexual origin

K H c

See ADOLESCENCE, EMOTIONS

References —

CHAMBERLAIN, A K The Child, p 2S1

D^UWIN, O Expression of t)i< Emotions, pp 353-367.

(London, 1900 )
ELLIS, H Thf Evolution of Modesty Psych R<n ,

Vol VI, 1894, pp 134-135

MOERBEKE, WILLIAM OF (d 1281) —
Archbishop of Corinth (1277-1281), and tians-
lator of Aristotle He derived his name iioni
a small town on the borders of Flandeis and
Brabant, whence he is also known as William
of Brabant or William the Fleming (as he is
ealled by Roger Bacon) He was chaplain to
Clement IV and Gregory X, and acted as
Greek secretary at the Council of Lyons (1271)
He translated Aristotle's Politic* and Khctouc
from the Greek, and also Hippocrates' Piog-
nostics, Galen's De Aliment™, and Proclus'
Decent Dubitahones, De Prowdentia, and DC
Malornm Subsistcntia The translations of
Aristotle, though very literal, are of value as
representing a text, now lost, better than any
now extant.

References . -

JonitDAiN, A L M Rt(.hinh<\ iritiquc* vur /' AQL
<t rOriifim di s Tniflu(tion\ LtiLm^ d'Ariatoh
(Paris, 1M.-J )

SANDYS, J K Hilton/ of Clat>8ic<il tfcholaidnjt, Vol 1
'

MOHAMMED IBN MUSA — See AL-
KHOWARAZMI

MOHAMMEDAN EDUCATION — See

ARABIC EDUCATION, EGYPT, EDUCATION IN,
INDIA, EDUCATION i\, PERSIA, EDUCATION
IN, TURKEY, EDUCATION i\, etc

MOLUCCAS, EDUCATION IN THE —

See NETHERLAISDS, COLONIES OF, EDUCATION
i\ THE

MONASTICISM AND EDUCATION —

The vast subject of the i elation of monasticism
to education is treated fioni so many angles
in various articles of this Cyclopedia that a
special treatment is superfluous Under this
caption the only attempt will be to i elate
organically these scattcied accounts The
fundamental problem, about which there is
much controversy as to whether the moie
important and general educational activities
during; the Middle Ages were carried on by
monastic bodies or by the secular organiza-
tion of the church, is discussed under the titles
ABBEY SCHOOLS and CLOISTER SCHOOLS, these
being the general terms used for monastic
schools in England and Germany, respectively
The general conclusions of these discussions,
contrary to the commonly accepted views, is
in favor of the regular church hieiarchy, and
adverse to the claims of the monastic organi-
zation A similar view is expressed m the
general article on EDUCATION DURING THE
MIDDLE AGES Here the relation of the monas-
tic organization and theory to the general intel-
lectual and educational conditions is discussed
On the other hand, the actual educational work
of the leading monastic organizations is pre-
sented in the sepai ate articles on the leading
monastic bodies, such as the BENEDICTINES,
FRANCISCANS, DOMINICANS, CISTERCIANS, and
others The relation oi these bodies to the
education of women and girls both during the
Middle Ages and the modern period is pre-
sented in the articles on CONVENT SCHOOLS and
in the historical section of the article on HIGHER
EDUCATION OF WOMEN The educational work
of the post-Reformation period, and of the
monastic orders ha\mg education as one of
their chief functions, is presented in the
articles on the JESUIT SYSTEM OF EDUCATION,
the PORT ROYALISTS, the ORATORIANS, the
PIARISTS, and the TEACHING ORDERS OF THE
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH The philosophical
aspects of monasticism are considered under
MYSTICISM, NEO-?LATONISM, and related topics,
SCHOLASTICISM AND SCHOOLMEN For noted
monastic educators, see the articles on the

295

MONGE

MONITORIAL SYSTEM

special orders. For the bibliography of the
subject, see the reference lists in connection
with the articles mentioned above

JKONGE, GASPARD, COMTE DE
PELUSE —Was born at Beaune, May 10,
1746, and died at Pans, July 28, 1818 He was
one of the leading mathematicians of las time,
and is known for his work in descriptive1 geome-
try In the history of education he is worth v
of recognition as bei^g one of those most active
in promoting the Ecole Polytechmque He
first taught his descriptive geometry in one of
the military schools (1768) as a secret of the
service He later taught it in the Ecole {Jor-
male at Pans (1794), and still later in the Ecole
Polytechmque Politically his life was one of
turmoil Although an ardent i evolutionist,
he barely escaped the guillotine He was in
great favor with Napoleon, but on the restora-
tion he was deprived of all his honors and offices,
and died soon after as a result of his disgrace

D K S

MONEYS, SCHOOL —See APPORTION-
MENT OF FUNDS; SCHOOL FUNDS

MONISM — The name for the philosophi-
cal theory which holds that there is but one
ultimate substance or reality. The term is
quite formal in character, connoting nothing
about the nature of the one ultimate being
Thoroughgoing materialism, absolute idealism,
panpsychism, pantheism, are alike monistic
The vagueness of the term is enhanced bv the fact
that the motif of some monistic systems is opposi-
tion to dualism, while that of others is opposi-
tion to pluralism Consequently, some con-
temporary theories arc monistic in then denial
of dualism (r/ /> ), especially as relates to any
final cleavage between mind and matter, and
vet are pluralistic in holding that the various
forms in which the one ultimate reality occurs
do not form an interdependent necessary whole,
but are relatively independent of one another,
or form real individuals J D

MONITORIAL SYSTEM —In one of the

At'ulnan Night* a scamp who could neither
read nor write opens school and conceals his
ignorance by setting the children that knew
a little to teach those that knew less His
plan has often been tried since It is pre-
scribed by the ordinances of a sixteenth-century
grammar school, a Portuguese traveler saw
it in India in 1623; Comeruus (qv) suggests
it in the Great Didactic; Mine, de Mamtenon
(q.v ) introduced it at Saint-Cyr, Rollin (q.v.)
mentions it as a useful expedient, Herbault
applied it in the Pans Hospice de la Piti6 in
1747 and the Cheveher Paulet in an orphan
school at Vincennes in 1772, and the Abbe*
Gaultier, a refugee from the Revolution, prac-
ticed it in the capital of the only country
where it was ever employed on a large scale

Its spread in (he United Kingdom \va«
facilitated by a combination of causes. Long
and acrimonious disputes 111 the press, on the
platform, and even from the pulpit as to the
rival claims of Bell (q v ) and Lancaster (q.v )
to the honor of inventing it, made it generally
known, its cheapness rendered the establish-
ment of schools possible just when the public
conscience was awakening to the need of them,
and two great educational societies (see BRITISH
AND FOREIGN SCHOOL SOCIETY and NATIONAL
SOCIETY) were founded to establish schools in
which it could be applied to teaching children
to read the Bible or the Church Catechism

Bell was led (in 1791 or 1792) to employ
monitors because the masters of a school at
Madras of which he was superintendent offered
a passive resistance to his efforts to introduce
the native method of teaching the alphabet
by writing on sand. In 1797, after his return
to England, he published an account of his
Experiment, but the book attracted no atten-
tion, and the author, who had settled down in
a snug rectory, allowed it to be forgotten till
Lancaster began to excite public interest
Lancaster began (about 1801) to employ mom-
tors because his school had grown too large for
him to teach alone and he could not afford to
pay for help There is no doubt that the idea
occurred to him independently, but before he
had woiked it out in all its details he came
across a copy of the Experiment He closes
the account of his Improvements (published in
1803) with an acknowledgment that he had
" adopted several useful hints " fiom the
Experiment, and with an expression of regret
that he was not " acquainted with the beaut A
of " Bell's plan " till somewhat advanced in "
his own

That Lancaster could be accused (with that
appearance of truth which even a false accusa-
tion requires) of counterfeiting Bell shows
that there must have been a considerable
resemblance between the two systems An
account of the differences between them would
occupy more space than the importance of the
subject warrants, but it may be stated generalh
that Lancaster's was far more elaborate than
Bell's Bell held that for a class " the best
number " was " from twenty-four to thirty
or in large schools to forty " , Lancaster thought
ten the ideal number for a " draft " For
teaching alone therefore he required far more
monitors, and he employed them for man>
other purposes. " When a child was admitted,
a monitor assigned him his class, when

he was absent one monitor ascertained the fact
and another found out the reason, a monitor
examined him periodically and when he made
progress a monitor promoted him, a monitor
ruled the wnting paper; a monitor made or
mended the pens; a monitor had charge of
the slates and books; and a monitor-general
looked after ail the other monitors " Bell
expected his masters to exercise initiative and

296

Interior of the Central School of the Bntish and Foreign School Society , London.

A Monitorial School in Operation , from a Manual of the British and Foreign School Society

The Outdoor School of the Stow M.mitorial System The Covered School of the Stow System.

MONITORIAL SCHOOLS.

MONITORIAL SYSTEM

MONITORIAL SYSTEM

judgment; Lancaster expected his to do little
more than watch and admire the " system "
working almost automatically Beyond thr
adoption of sand-writing Bell made hardly
any change in the old methods of instruction,
Lancaster, who (with proper acknowledgment)
copied the sand writing, used wall sheets in-
stead of books for reading, and slates instead
of paper for writing, invented dictation, and
a method (now happily forgotten) of teaching
arithmetic Bell's rewards and punishments
were few and simple, Lancaster's rewards in
practice and punishments on paper were many
and curious

The fact that the monitorial system, so often
abandoned elsewhere after a brief trial in one
or two institutions, should have flourished
throughout the British Islands for some foity
years may be attributed to its cheapness and
its (comparative) effectiveness (1) The ini-
tial cost was small, as neither Bell nor Lancaster
icquired more than a bare room, which was
often found ready to hand, and neithei re-
quired much furniture, the pupils standing at
most of the lessons The cost of maintenance
was greatly reduced by dispensing with assist-
ants, Lancaster boasted that in his schools
it did not exceed " seven shillings each child
for twelve months, and probably may be re-
duced bv the perseverance* of the mventoi
undei unmeiited opposition to four " In
days when the establishment and maintenance
of schools depended entirely on enlightened
benevolence, Bell and Lancastei made their
establishment and maintenance possible

(2) In the old schools the method of teaching
was individual, hence the children, except
during the few minutes that they were " saying
their lessons " to the master 01 mistress, were
generally wasting their time In a monitorial
school, divided into classes, with an abundance
of teachers of a sort, there was no idling One
of Lancaster's maxims was " Let every child
at- every moment have something to do and a
motive for doing it/' and Bell would not have
disclaimed it, if any one else had uttered it
Another cause of comparative effectiveness
was that, while none of the old teachers had
been made and few of them had been born,
Lancaster's and Boll's teachers had all been
trained, after a fashion Nobody may ha\e
seen the necessity for teachers to be taught the
principles of education, but everybody could
see the necessity of studying a new machine
before being placed in charge of it Lancaster
began training apprentices in 1805, and adults
were admitted to "learn the system" from
1809 in the Central School of the British and
Foreign School Society in the Borough Road
(q v ) and from 1812 in the Central School of
the National Society in Baldwin's Gardens
Thus, though the best monitorial school may
have been poorer than most of its successors,
the poorest must have been better than most
)f rts predecessors

The inherent defects of the monitorial sys-
tem are too obvious to need pointing out, but
there was an economic consideration which
told as potently as the educational considera-
tions against permanence. The monitors were
necessarily the brightest and most forward
children, and parents who sent them to school
to learn would be unwilling that they should
remain to teach The managers tried to over-
come the parental unwillingness by paying
the monitors a few pence a week, but the in-
ducement was inadequate when a few shillings
a week might be earned elsewhere One con-
sequence was the employment of a smaller
number, another was the modification of the
system In 1839 the committee of the British
and Foreign School Society reported that they
were " by no means disposed to bind them-
selves exclusively " to it, and in 1841 they
reported that " the British System as now
practised in the Central School may properly
be denominated mixed, simultaneous teaching
being satisfactorily united with that which is
monitorial " The mutation might have gone
on indefinitely, if the system had not suffered
transmutation After the issue of the famous
Minutes of 1846, the monitor receiving a few
pence a week from the managers became a
pupil teacher apprenticed for five years, re-
ceiving a fair wage from the government with
the promise of a subsequent Queen's scholar-
ship tenable for two or three years in a train-
ing college Thus the monitorial system,
besides giving England cheap schools which
afterwards became good schools, led ultimately
to her having a body of efficient teachers

Spread of the System — Lancaster's Eng-
lish supporters saw in his plan not an end, but
an instrument, — an instrument for teaching
the childien of the poor to read the Bible
That their purpose was not limited to their
own country is indicated by the title which they
deliberately adopted, — the British and For-
eign School Society The society had no paid
agents abroad, but William Allen (q v ) and
other members acted as its voluntary agents
in the course of their travels It did not di-
rectly establish any schools outside the United
Kingdom, but it was always ready to give in-
formation, it sometimes furnished teachers, and
rt often made grants of books and material

France — France was the only foreign coun-
try in which the monitorial system was ever
widely diffused The first steps toward its
introduction were taken by the Society for
the Encouragement of National Industry
Having during the war heard vague reports
of the extraordinary success of the system, the
society, when the treaty of 1814 made peace-
ful intercourse possible, sent over four of its
members to investigate — the Comtc de La-
borde, the Cointe de Lasteyrie, Francois-
Ednie' Jomard, and Jean-Baptist e Say. They
weie present at the half yearly meeting of the
British and Foreign School Society in No\em-

297

MONITORIAL SYSTEM

MONITORIAL SYSTEM

her, and visited the Central School in the
Borough Road, the Central School of the Na-
tional Society in Baldwin's Gardens, and
several other schools in various parts of the
country On then return Laborde and Las-
teyne wrote books on the system, and Jomard
wrote a long report on it for the society, Say
only describes its " admirable effects " in the
book which he wrote

The deputation having returned to Paris,
the society which had sent them met on Mar
1, 1815, and resolved to form an independent
association (the Society for Elementary In-
struction) Napoleon landed on this very
day, but the change of government did not
impede the movement On Apr. 27, Carnot,
the new Minister of the Interior, presented a
report to the Emperor, which was followed
by a decree ordaining the minister to make
inquiries as to the best methods of education
and to establish an experimental school in
Paris This school was opened in an " apart-
ment " in the Rue Saint-Jean-de-Beauvais
on June 13, the master being the Rev Francis
Martin, of Bordeaux, trained in the Borough
Road Although he was a Protestant, Ins
employment was rendered possible by the
liberal rule of the society "All possible care
shall be taken that the first principles of reli-
gion shall be inculcated, the developments of
which shall be left to the ministers of religion "
A minority of the committee considered that
this did not involve the reading of the Scrip-
tures, but the president, the Baron de (Brando,
wrote to Mai tin on Aug 24, enti eating him
riot to delay putting into the hands of his
scholars the Bible of Royaurnont, which was
not a Bible at all, but a collection of scriptural
pictures with explanations

The government of the restored monaichy
did not at first manifest any hostihtv On
Nov 3, 1815, the Prefect' of the Seine,
the Comte Chabrol de Volvic, appointed a
board of primary instruction for the prefec-
ture, and on Feb 29, 1816, a royal decree
was issued granting fifty thousand francs a
year to the Society for Primary Instiuction,
and appointing a primary education com-
mittee for everv canton Except for the
grant, the decree was little moie than a pious
wish, as it provided no means for compelling
the committees to act and no money for them
if thev did act,; still it must have had some
effect, for fifteen hundred monitoiial schools
were opened before 1820

A heated polemic began in 1816. As in
England Toiics supported Bell and Whigs
Lancaster, in France the clerical reactionaries
advocated the simultaneous method employed
in the schools of the Christian Brothers (q v )
and the Liberals the method which, to avoid
a foreign name, thev called mutual The
reactionaries had sufficient influence to obtain
a decree that all Protestant teachers should
be dismissed, that the Roman Catholic reli-

gion should be taught in all schools, and that
the Christian Brothers should have a monopoly
wherever thev chose to exercise it Though
the reactionaries failed in their effort to sup-
press the royal grant, they were on the whole
successful, only six hundred monitorial schools
remained open in 1828, and these continued
omV till the inherent difficulties of the system
became manifest The Society for Elementary
Instruction is still in existence

RuMia — Alexander I was a religious and
benevolent despot He was considerably in-
fluenced by some Quakers settled in St Peters-
burg It was probably from them that he
heard of monitoiial schools, and in 1813 he
commissioned Joseph llarncl to report on them
On his own visit to England after the peace
of 1814 his interest was deepened He sent
four youths to the Borough Road to " learn
the system," and ordered its introduction into
the military schools Some of the nobles,
from flatteiy or conviction, established schools
on their estates A few of these long suivived
the Czar

Norway and Sweden — Accounts of the
monitorial system were published in Sweden
by the Count Jacob de la Gardie, who lived in
London, bv Mr Svensson, who was sent over
by the King, and by, I A Gerehus, one of the
King's secietaiies These three were the lead-
ing spirits of a society established in 1822 to
promote the establishment of schools Some
yeais later Paihament voted funds for the
establishment of a normal school In 1841
there were nearlv hve hundred schools on the
plan, but the law of 1842 making education
a national concern caused cheapness to be no
longer the chief consideration, and monitors
gradually disappeared

Denmark — The prime mover hi Denmaik
was the Chevalier d'Abrahamson, who wrote
a book on the system and in 1819 established
at his own cost the first model school. En-
couraged by the King and Queen, the new
plan made rapid progress; by 1831 it was used
in nearly 3000 schools, and a knowledge of it
was one of the essentials of the teacher's
diploma

United State* — Monitorial methods of in-
struction were introduced into the United States
tin ough the Lancasterian System as first embodied
m the woik of the Public School Society of New
Yoik City from about 1809. This system spread
very rapidly throughout the country, especially in
urban communities, and its popularity and cheap-
ness did much to further the interest in popular
education. Monitorial methods were not limited
to elementary schools, but academies, indeed
whole state systems of academies as in New
York and Indiana, were organized, at least
ostensibly on the basis of these methods. The
Lancastcriari plan had lost its vogue by 1840.
but monitorial methods both in organization ana
in teaching weie popular and widely used for
more than a generation later. They have sur-

21)8

MONITORS

MONTANA STATE COLLEGE

vived into the more recent generation, however
only in a very subordinate r61e in schoolroom
management. The extent of the influence of the
monitorial system is treated somewhat indirectly
in the articles on New York City School System,
Public School Societies, and on Joseph Lancaster.
Other Countries — In European countries
(such as Germany and Holland) which had
a good system of education the monitorial
system had no acceptance, in backward coun-
tries (like Italy and Spain) its acceptance was
sporadic Missionanes used it in the West
Indies, and under the direction of James
Thomson, an agent of the British and Foreign
Bible Society, it achieved a remarkable success
in South America D S-N

References —

Educational Record (London), the organ of the Brit-
ish and Foreign School Society, generally contains
some articles on the subject

Fox, J A Comparative Vit w of the Plant* of Educa-
tion of Dr Bell ami Mr Latudbtct (Lon-
don, 1809 ) ,

GiikARD, OCT. Kducatwn it In^trudton. (Pans, 1{)10 )

HAUEL, J L' JKntttiffmntent Mutud (Pans, ISIS )
This work was published in (Herman .ilso

L\BOKDK, COMIK ALEXANDRE DE LA Plan d' Educa-
tion (London, lMf> )

L^HTEY^iUE, COMTE C'HAltLLS DE X OUVVIUI Syttthtll

d'Eduaittoti (Paris, lM,r> )
SALMON, D Jo^tpk Lancaster Contains excellent

bibliography (London, 1(K)4 )
The Monitorial System in Fiance Educ Rev, Vol

xviii (lino), pp 30 \i

TRIMMER, MRS A Comiwrative Vnw of the New

Plan of /Education, etc (London, 1805 )
Impartial Consideration}* of the present staU of the

Question Ixtween Dr Bell and Mr Lancaster

(London, 1812 )
WARD, H A series of articles in th< Educational

Record of the British and Foreign School Society

(1<H)6- 1909)
" \\ Monitorial Schools and their siu cessors

Educational Rcioid, October, 1909, ff

MONITORS — Sec MONITOIU\L SYSTEM,
PREFECT ^ND PREFECTUHAL SYSTEM

MONMOUTH COLLEGE, MONMOUTH,

ILL — A coeducational institution opened
as an academy in 1S53 and chailered as a
college in 1857 under the control of Ilie United
Presbyterian Church of North America Pre-
paratory, collegiate, and musical departments
are maintained The entrance requirements
are fifteen units The degrees of A B and
BS are conferred The enrollment in 1910-
1911 was 451 in all departments

MONOMANIA —See ABNORMALITY.

MONROE, LEWIS BAXTER (1825-
1879) — Author of a series of school books
and professor of elocution He was educated
in the common schools of Massachusetts and
at the Castleton (Vt ) Academy He taught
in the public schools of Massachusetts and
New Hampshire, organized a school of elocu-
tion and oratory in Boston, arrd was professor
of elocution in Boston University He pub-

lished a series of school readers and spellers
and numerous works on elocution W S M

MONTAIGNE, MICHEL EYQUEM DE

(1533-1592) — French essayist, moralist,
educational theorist, and man of affairs A
student of law, courtier, councillor in the Bor-
deaux parliament, and twice mayor of Bor-
deaux, his claim to renown rests upon Ins
essays Although his ideas upon education
are found scattered through many of his
essays, the particular one entitled Concerning
the Education of Children contains his chief
contribution in the held of educational theory
While Montaigne has points in common with
Rabelais, Bacon, Comemus, and Rousseau,
it is by no means easy to classify him as air
educational theorist Dr Monroe's expression
11 social-realist " is probably the most satis-
factory to apply to him His appreciation
of the significance of the educational problem
is expressed in his own words " The greatest
difficulty with human learning seems to be in
the field where it treats the care and instruc-
tion of children M One of his most pregnant
and oft-quoted comments on education is the
following " To know by heart is not to know
at all, it is merely to retain what one has en-
trusted to his memory " He is seeking rather
training of the judgment than mere " bookish
education," as he characterizes it The first
edition of the Essay * appeared in 1580 Of
the modern editions that of Courbet et Roger
(Paris, 1872-1900) is probably the best

F E F
References —

BAKNARD, H Montaigne on Learning and Education
A merit an Journal of Education, Vol XIV

CoMPAYRiL, G Montaigne and the Education of the
Judgment , tr by J E Mansion (New York,
1908 )

DOWDEN, E Montaigne (1905 )

EMERSON Representative Men

HAZLITT The Works of Montaigne

HODGSON, G Studies in French Education from Rabe-
lais to Rousseau (Cambridge, 1908 )

MONROL, P Textbook in the HibtoTy of Education
(New Yoik, 1911 )

QUICK, R H Educational Reformers (London, 1899 )

RECTOR, L E Montaigne on the Education of Chil-
dren (New York, 1899)

MONTANA STATE COLLEGE OF
AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS,
BOZEMAN, MONT —An institution es-
tablished in 1893, in pursuance of the Mornll
Acts, by the legislature of Montana College
courses leading to degrees are offered in divi-
sions of agriculture, engineering, and science,
which includes home science In addition,
there are courses not leading to degrees in the
schools of agriculture, pharmacy, art, music,
preparatory, and other special courses. An
experimental station is also maintained The
entrance requirements to the college courses
are fifteen units The enrollment in 1911-
1912 was 595 The faculty numbers forty-
four members

299

MONTANA, STATE OF

MONTANA, STATE OF

MONTANA, STATE OF — First organ-
ized as a territory in 1864, and admitted to
the Union in 1889 as the forty- first state It
is located in the Western Mountain Division,
and has a land area of 146,201 square miles
In size it is about three times as large as the
state of New York, larger than Prussia, and
nearly as large as California For adminis-
trative purposes the state is divided into
twenty-eight counties, and these in turn into
school districts In 1910 Montana had a total
population of 376,053, and a density of popu-
lation of 2 6 per square mile

Educational "History — The first school re-
port was made in 1868, though never printed
Tins showed a total of 2000 children, 25 school
districts, 15 schoolhouses, and 27 teachers in
the territory The series of printed annual
reports begins with 1879, at which time the
school system had grown to 130 districts, 119
schoolhouses, and 161 teachers The revised
school law of 1879 contained the essential
outlines of that in use at present One pio-
vision of the law required separate schools for
negroes, though there must have been vcrv few
in the teiritory at the time In 1881 the first
uniform textbook law was enacted, providing
for a uniform series of textbooks, to be adopted
for four-year periods In J882 the Territorial
Teachers' Association held its first meeting In
1883 a pei missive town and city library law,
with a permissive library tax, and the first com-
pulsory education law, were enacted In 1885,
at the time of the new textbook adoptions, a
Territorial Textbook Commission was created.
In 1886 Congress passed the temperance
physiology bill, making such instruction man-
datory in all the territories In 1889 a uni-
form course of study for all of the schools of
the territory was first issued

In February, 1889, the enabling act was
passed by Congress, a constitution was adopted
in August, and the territoiy was admitted
as a state in November of that year At this
time there were 344 school districts, 419 school-
houses, and 507 teachers in the new state
The new constitution made definite provision
for " a general, uniform, and thorough system
of free schools " for the state, provided for
the election of a State Superintendent of Public
Instruction, for four-year terms, arid county
superintendents of schools for two-year terms;
made women eligible for any district or county
school office, defined the public school fund,
provided for additions to it, and for the appor-
tionment of the net income on the census basis;
authorized taxation for education, prohibited
local and special laws for schools, any aid to
sectarian or private schools, religious or parti-
san tests or instruction, and any discrimination
at the university on the basis of sex; created
a State Board of Education, to which was
given the control of all of the state higher and
special institutions, and a State Hoard of Land
Commissioners to look after, lease, arid sell

the school and other educational lands; ex-
empted school and library property from taxa-
tion, limited school district indebtedness to
3 per cent, and provided that district school
elections must be held at a different time from
state and county elections. The Code Com-
mission, in 1891, proposed a new school law
for the state

In 1893 the State Board of Education, pro-
vided for in the constitution, was created by
law, and the establishment of the State Uni-
versity at Missoula, the State Agricultural and
Mechanical College at Bozeman,thc State School
of Mines at Butte, and the State Normal School
at Dillon, were authorized. In 1895 a recodi-
ficatiori and revision of the school law was
adopted by the legislature, to which only minor
amendments have since been made. The
law of 1895 does not differ greatly from the
old law of 1879. A school library law was also
enacted In 1897 the state textbook law was
revised to provide for six-year adoptions, and
optional free textbooks for any districts voting
to provide them In 1899 the free county
high school law was enacted In 1903 the old
compulsory education law, which had remained
almost a dead letter foi twenty years, was
revised and strengthened, the education of
poor children was provided for, arid industrial
schools, for the better enforcement of the law,
were authorized In 1909 the State Board of
Education was given somewhat larger authority
in the management of the state institutions,
and instruction as to dangerous and communi-
cable diseases was required in the schools In
1911 graduates of the University of Montana,
when recommended by the university, were to
receive five-year high school teachers' certifi-
cates, exchangeable after twenty-seven months
of teaching in the state for life diplomas An
Educational Commission to revise and codify
the school laws was created in 1911, and a bill
requiring elementary manual training in all
grades, manual training in the upper grammar
grades in all large towns, and direct vocational
training in the cities, with state aid of $10
per year per pupil attending such courses, was
adopted

Present School System — At the head of
the present school system of Montana is a
State Board of Education and a State Super-
intendent of Public Instruction The State
Board of Education consists of the Governor,
State Superintendent, and Attorney-General,
ex ojficio, and eight others appointed by the
Governor with the concurrence of the Sen-
ate They are appointed for four-year terms,
two being appointed each year This board
possesses rather unusual powers in that it has
supervisory control and acts as a Board ^of
Regents for all of the higher and special
state institutions (university; agricultural and
mechanical college; school of mines; state
normal schools, orphans' home; reform
school, and state school for the deaf, blind,

3(K)

MONTANA, STATE OF

MONTANA STATE OF

and feeble-minded), as well as acting as n
State Board of Education in the usual sense
for the schools of the state Acting as a board
of control for the higher and special institu-
tions, it appoints the president and faculty
of each; grants all degrees and diplomas, as
recommended by the different faculties, con-
trols the land funds, and the general expenses
of each; adopts rules and regulations for their
government, and appoints an executive com-
mittee of three to manage each institution, and
to report back to the board Acting as a State
Board of Education it adopts rules and regu-
lations, not inconsistent with law, for the ad-
ministration of the schools of the state, grants
state certificates and life diplomas to teachers,
appoints and commissions experienced teachers
to act as institute conductors, and may accredit
other institutions (colleges and normal schools)
within or without the state A State Board
of Land Commissioners, consisting of the
Governor, State Superintendent, Secretary
of State, and Attorney-General, has control
of the leasing and sale of the umversitv, school,
and other educational lands of the state, and
the investment of the accumulated funds A
State Textbook Commission, consist ing of
seven persons appointed by the Governor for
hve-vear periods, five of whom must be ex-
perienced educators, adopts a series of uniform
textbooks for the schools of the state, for
five-year periods, and contracts with the pub-
lishers for the same

The State Superintendent of Public Instruc-
tion is elected by the people for four- year terms
He must hold the highest grade of Montana
state teachers' certificate, or be a graduate of
a university, college, or normal school He
is paid a salary of $3000 Except as specified
for the State Board of Education, he has
general supervision of all of the schools of the
state, preserves all records, and fin rushes all
blanks, keeps a record of all of his official acts,
prepares lists of books suitable for school
libraries, and prescribes rules and regulations
for their government, prepares all questions
for the examinations for teachers' certificates,
makes rules and regulations for the manage-
ment of the same, and for cause may revoke
state or life diplomas, prepares and publishes
a course of study for the schools of the state,
issues rules and regulations for the holding
of teachers' institutes, and visits the same,
advises county superintendents, hears and
decides appeals, and makes rules and regula-
tions governing appeal cases, apportions the
school fund to the counties, and makes a
biennial report to the Governor

For each county there is a county super-
intendent of schools, elected by the people for
two-year terms Women are eligible for this
office, and nearly all of the positions are held
by them Each county superintendent has
general supervision of the schools of the county,
under the direction of the State Superintendent ,

must visit each school at least once a veai, and
advise with teachers and trustees, decides
district controversies, administers oaths to all
subordinate officials; apportions the school
money to the districts, selects institute in-
structors, from a list submitted by the State
Board of Education, presides at the county
institutes, may issue temporary teachers' cer-
tificates, on evidence of fitness, keeps a record
of all district boundaries, and may adjust them,
acts as one of a board of trustees for any county
high school established, makes an annual re-
port to the State Superintendent, and acts
as a mernbei of the county board of examiners
The other two members of this board are ap-
pointed by the county commissioners, and
must hold high-grade teachers' certificates,
or be graduates of a normal school or college.
The board conducts all examinations within
the county for teachers' certificates, and all
examinations for graduation from the eighth
grade

Each county is divided into a number of
school districts, for each of which a board
of school trustees is elected Three classes of
districts exist, according to population, with
from three trustees in all districts ha\ing less
than 1000 to seven in citres of over SOOO The
school election takes place at the schoolhouse
the first Saturday in April, and women mav
vote and are eligible for the office Vacancies
are filled by the county superintendent, by
appointment New districts may be formed
when ten or more children are over two miles
from a schoolhouse Each board must follow
the instructions of the State Superintendent ,
sec1 that the schools are taught in the English
language, employ teachers for the schools,
repair, insure, and care foi the schoolhouse;
mav suspend, expel, or exclude undesirable
children, must supply books to mdigents, and,
on vote of the district, must supply free text-
books, may add additional branches of instruc-
tion, may establish kindergartens and a high
school, and mav grade the school into depart-
ments, and must make an annual report to
the count v superintendent If their funds
exceed $25,000, they must print a financial
report, and if a less sum, the clerk must make
a financial statement annually If deemed
best, trustees may close a school and transport
the children to another school, paying tuition
for them An annual school census must be
taken by the clerk of each district From
5 to 10 per cent of the county school fund must
be spent each vear for school libraries, which
are to be kept in the schoolhouse, arid their
condition reported annually to the county
superintendent Cities of 4000 population
may employ a city superintendent, for four-
year terms

School Support — Montana received 5,112,-
035 acres of land from the sixteenth and
thirty-sixth section grants As late as 1908
some 2,000,000 acres were as yet unsurveyed,

301

MONTANA, STATE OF

MONTANA, STATE OF

and about 1,500,000 acres were under lease
The permanent fund at present amounts to
about $6,000,000 A number of miscellaneous
sources of income are specified to be added to
the fund The income from this fund is
apportioned to the counties on the basis of the
school census. The County Commissioners of
each county must levy a four-mill county tax,
which, with the net proceeds of fines, is added
to the state school money and apportioned
to the different districts on census also Any
district board may levy up to ten mills for
maintenance, and in first and second class dis-
tricts (over 1000 population) up to an amount
sufficient to maintain a nine months7 school
After an eight months' school has been main-
tained, if the district so votes, surplus funds
may be used for building purposes. County
high schools may levy a county tax up to three
mills for maintenance, and up to tori mills, if
erecting a building. The county treasurer
is the custodian of all funds for all kinds of
districts, paying out the funds only on orders
from the district school authorities

In addition to common school lands, the state
also received two townships of land (40, (ISO
acres) for a state university, and 90,000 acres
for an agricultural college At the tune of
its admission as a state Montana also received
further special grants of 50,000 acres for the
agricultural college, 100,000 acres for the
school of mines, 100,000 acres for the normal
school, 50,000 acres for the leform school,
and 50,000 acres for the school for the deaf
and dumb

Educational Conditions — Considering the
sparse population, educational conditions in
the state are very good The population is
about 70 per cent native, 95 9 per cent white,
and less than 1 per cent negro The remain-
der is Oriental, mostly Chinese. The schools are
well supported, and the per capita expenditure
is very high About 30 per cent of the dis-
tricts Supply free textbooks The school
libraries average over 100 volumes to the
building The schoolhouses are good, averag-
ing about $3500 in value More than one
half of the counties have established county
high schools, and a number of district high
schools are maintained So much have the
high schools developed within recent, years
that the university has been able to dispense
with its preparatory department There are
as yet only about 1000 school districts in the
state, and trustees often live twenty miles
apart The school term throughout the state
averages nearly eight months (7 9), and nine
months in the cities and towns The state has
a fairly good compulsory education law, but
the machinery foi enforcing it is weak Teach-
ers in private and parochial schools must
coSperate in enforcing the law, and private
schools must make reports to the public school
authorities. No distinctions based on race or
color are allowed.

Teachers and Training — The state em-
ployed 2250 teachers in 1910, of whom 12 per
cent were men, 1 1 per cent were college gradu-
ates, and 26 per cent were normal school grad-
uates The salaries paid were fairly good,
averaging about $900 for men and $600 for
women. For the training of teachers the
state maintains a good state normal school
at Dillon, and graduates of the university may
also be certificated, if they have taken the re-
quired work in education The state is very
liberal in the matter of accrediting normal
schools and colleges in other states, as well as
the btate certificates and diplomas possessed
by new teachers coming to the state This
has enabled the state to attract to it many
well-trained Eastern teachers A county
teachers' institute of from thiee to ten days is
held each year, and all teachers except high
school teachers aie required to attend They
receive full pay while attending The amount
to be expended for the institute vanes, in
different counties, from $100 to $300

Four grades of teachers' certificates are
issued on county examinations, based on ques-
tions prepared by the State Superintendent
The examinations form a good giaded series,
and in granting certificates the county
superintendent and the examiners are author-
ized to take into consideration the candidate's
teaching expeiience and success, as well as
aptness, knowledge, and personal character
High school teachers and principals of schools
of three or more teachers must hold the highest
grade of county certificate or a state certificate,
or be graduates of a university, college, or
normal school The two highest grades of
certificates are valid in any county Normal
school and university graduates may be certi-
fied without examination State diplomas
and life diplomas are gi anted by the State
Board of Education, and these involve still
further advanced examinations

Higher and Special Education — The Uni-
versity of Montana, at Missoula, opened in
1895, the Montana College of Agriculture
and Mechanical Arts, at Bozeman, opened in
1893, and the Montana State School of Mines,
at Butte, opened in 1900, stand as the culmina-
tion of the public school system of the state
The state also maintains a number of experi-
mental substations in horticulture and agri-
culture The Montana Wesleyan University,
at Helena (ME) organized in 1888 and opened
in 1890, and the College of Montana (Presby ),
at Deer Lodge, organized in 1878, are the
only other institutions of collegiate rank in the
state

The state also maintains the State Orphans'
Home, at Twin Bridges (a state home and public
school for orphans, foundlings, arid destitute
children), the Montana School for the Deaf,
Blind, and Feeble-Mmded, at Boulder, and the
Montana State Reform School, at Miles City

E, P C

302

Blindfold \\uik with tin- Didactic Matoimls

\\ ashing Dishes after tin1 Noond.u Meal

V\ orkmg with the Didactic MatcnaLs

The Muldav Meal

Write Learning to Write

THE MONTESSOIU SCHOOL.

MONTANA STATE SCHOOL

MONTESSORI MKTPIOD

References. —

Montana. Reports of the Supt of Public Jnstr , Mon-
tana. Annual, 1879-1889, Biennial, 1S()() to date
Annual Reports, State Board of Education, Montana,

1894 to date

School Laws of Montana, 1911 ed.
Constitution of Montana, 1889

MONTANA STATE SCHOOL OF MINES,
BUTTE, MONT —A state institution pro-
vided for in the enabling act of 1889 It is
maintained by biennial appropriations made
by the legislative assembly. Fifteen units
are required for admission to the courses,
which are purely technical and lead to the
degree of Mining Engineer The enrollment
in 1910-1911 was fifty-nine There is a teach-
ing staff of eight members

MONTANA, UNIVERSITY OF, MIS-
SOULA, MONT — A coeducational insti-
tution founded m 1893 by legislative1 act and
placed under the State Boaul of Education
The university was opened in 1895 There
is a campus of forty acres, arid at present thcie
aie six buildings used lor instructional and
othei purposes The univeisity is maintained
by the income from a umveisity fund, annual
appropriations, tuition and matriculation fees,
and public and private contributions The
requirements for entrance are fifteen units,
two of which mav be carried over under con-
ditions for one year The degrees of B A , 13 S ,
and B S in Engineering with the corresponding
master's degrees are conferred after the com-
pletion of the appropnate courses The uni-
versity has power to grant legally recognized
certificates of qualification to teachers The
enrollment in 1910-1911 was 220 students, and
the faculty consisted of twenty-seven membeis

MONTESSORI METHOD, THE —This
method of teaching childien of the kindergarten
or early primary school age is the woik oi Di.
Maria Montessori of Rome For several yeais
prior to 1900, Dr Montessori was assistant at
the Psvchiatnc Clinic in the Univeisity of
Rome. This position brought her in close
touch with the defective children who were at
that time confined in the insane asylums
Thus it was that she became a close student
of the methods of Itard and S6gum. Guided
by the work of these two men, she devised a
large amount of didactic material and began
the teaching of these unfortunates. The le-
sults were so satisfactory that these childien
were able to pass the examinations required
of the Roman children in the elementary
schools. These positive results brought her
to the attention of the school authorities, and
she was invited to deliver lectures before the
teachers of Rome Eventually these lectures
led to the formation of an institute which con-
tinued under her direction for several years

It was a conviction with Dr. Montcssori
that methods which were so effective with

defectives would be conespondinglv effective
w'th normal children The oppoit unity to
try the method with normal children came
when the Dnector (Jcneial of the Roman
Association foi Good Building invited Dr
Montesson to organize infant schools in some
of the model tenements which the Association
owned These tenements were for the most
part located in the poorest parts of Rome
Each was built about a court and occupied an
entire block Rooms opening out into this
court were set apait foi sehoohooms, and
these were fuimshed in aecoi dance with Dr
Montesson's plans Theie was little of the
conventional school equipment Small tables
and chairs took the place of the fixed desks
and seats The didactic matenal which had
been used with the deficient was modified and
here took the place of the usual kindergarten
and elementary school apparatus The schools
were called the (ya.s« (lei Bambini, or The Chil-
dren's Houses The first one was opened in
January, 1907. The methods which were
used in these schools have been adopted by
many of the schools in Italy and Switzerland
and in several of the larger 'cities elsewhere.

The essentials of the system advocated by
Dr Montessori may be considered under two
general headings The fiist is a strong em-
phasis on sense training This sense training
IN first of all for general development For
this purpose there aie many diffeient pieces of
apparatus designed to tiain the sevcial senses
In older that the child may gain perception of
form, there are vaiious wooden insets similar
to those used by Itaid and Se"gum The child
leains to lecogmze the form by passing the
fingers around the edges of the insets and then
putting them in their pioper places Percep-
tion of dimensions is seeuied through the use
of blocks in which cylinders of various dimen-
sions are set in holes There are also blocks
of various sizes fiom which the child may
make stairs, thus gaining a perception of size
and length Perception of coloi is secured by
using silk bobbins of different colors and
shades In each case the matenal is so
planned that the child may coirect his own
errors If he fails to put the cylinders in the
pioper holes, he cannot get all of them in If
lie does not place the blocks in proper order,
they do not make stairs Some of the ma-
terial is planned to serve as a preparation foi
the school arts. Letters cut from sandpaper
are pasted on cards The children by passing
their first two fingers over these are supposed
to gain such muscular control that they are
better able both to write the letter and to
associate the sound Other letters are cut
from cards, and with these the children build
up words and sentences

In addition to this somewhat formal sense
training for general development, there is a
large amount of incidental sense training
which is gained through such activities as

303

MONTESQUIEU

MONTPELUEK

buttoning and lacing cloth or leather fastened
on frames Further, the courts or gardens con-
nected with these schools arc also used in
training children to obsene flowers and plants
as well as birds and small animals kept as pet*
The second essential fealuie of the Mon-
tessori method is the gieat si i ess laid on 1he
freedom of the child This means Uiat the
teacher is expected to observe and direct the
activities of the children rather than to contiol
them To accomplish this the teachers or
directors are expected to measure the child's
growth, record any significant fact regarding
his development, and at different times test
his advancement in order that they may know
how best to deal with him The large degree
of freedom allowed and the individual treat-
ment are features which differentiate these
schools markedly from what one customarily
finds elsewhere This pnnciple of freedom is
carried out in the theory of discipline The
materials and exeicises are of such a nature
that the child is led to coirect himself If, in
moving about, the child upsets a chan, the
noise at once makes him understand what his
error has been, and it is expected that the
annoyance to others will cause him to avoid
such mistakes in the future In this wav
self-control is to be secured As so far used
the method has been applied only to childien
of the kindergarten and early elementary
school age There is promise, howevei, ol
experimentation looking to its extension into
higher grades

Reference : —

MONTESBORI, MARTA The Montesaon Method, trans-
lated by Anne E Geoigo (Nrw York, 1<)12 )

MONTESQUIEU, CHARLES LOUIS DE
SECONDAT, BARON DE LA BRIDE

ET DE (1089-17.55) — French philosopher,
statesman, and scholai lie was educated
at the Oratorian school at Juilly, and seived
as councilor in the parliament of Bordeaux
foi twelve years, the last ten years as president
Subsequently removing to Pans, he was elected
a meinhei of the French Academy (1728) His
pnncipal writings are Lett rex peiwne\ (Am-
sterdam, 1721), Considerations sin les cause*
de la c/iandeur tl de la decadence des Ronwtnv
(Amsterdam, 1734), L'cspnt dcs lois ((}ene\e,
1748) Hook IV of the lust work contains
several chapters on education, one of the sink-
ing statements found therein, though it is by
no moans peculiar to Montesquieu, being
'' The laws of education vary as the govern-
ment " — a truth that gives us the keynote
to the kaleidoscopic transformation in the
educational system of France during the revo-
lutionary period, and that goes far toward
explaining the different national educational
ideals P E P

References* —

CHARAUX, A U Espnt de Montesquieu (Pans, 1885 )

ROKKL, A MnntcKqunu, tr 1>\ (J MnsHon (London,

1*87)
VIAN, LOUIB Hwtoirc de la Vie el des (Euvres de Mon-

U'aquwu (Paris, 1879.)

MONTEVIDEO, UNIVERSITY OF. —

See Unucju\y, EmjrATroiv IN.

MONTHLY JOURNAL OF EDUCATION

— See JOURNALISM, EDUCATIONAL

MONTPELLIER, UNIVERSITY OF,
FRANCE — One of the earliest of the medieval
universities, a medical school being referred
to in 1 137 It is doubtful how the institution
originated, but it is certain that the population
was mixed, and Saracen, Arabic, or Jewish in-
fluences may have been strong, although this
view is balanced by the great power which the
Church always enjoyed. The medical school
was certainly free and unrestricted about 1180,
but the organization of other universities was
soon imitated, but side by side with the strong
gild principle went the authority of the Bishop
of Maguelone The earliest definite mention
of a university at Montpelher is found in
statutes of 1230, when a chancellor is nominated
by the bishop The growing democratization
of the student body led to constant opposition
to episcopal authority, which was only settled
in 1340 The Montpellier medical school was
for long the center of the cult of Hippocrates
and (ialen The study of law, civil and canon,
was also pursued at Montpellier from the
twelfth century, and before a university is
heard of, well-known jurists like Placentius
(author of a Summn Codiax and Sumtnn /nxtitti-
tionum) and Hassianus taught there and in-
timate relations were maintained with Bologna
A titudmm Generate was formally established
in 1289, and, as in the medical school, a struggle
went on between the bishop and the ttudnun
until an arrangement was reached about 1340
In 1421 the faculty of theology, which subject
had been studied in connection with the Carthu-
sian monastery, was added to that of law, while
the faculty of arts which had existed certainly
since 1242 was also attached to the legal faculty
Foi many reasons — war, plague, and the rise
of the university at Perpignan — Montpellier
declined in the fouiteenth century The
medical faculty, however, enjoyed a renewed
period of prosperity as a result of the Renais-
sance and the revived interest in Hippocrates
and (ialen (Rabelais, q v , lectured there on
the former) and through the patronage of
Henry IV and the excellent work in surgery
it acquired a considerable reputation In 1572
a college of pharmacy was established in the
town fn 1593 a botanical garden was laid
put, and the first chair in botany was established
in 1597 In the seventeenth century chairs
were founded in chemistry, physics, mathe-
matics and hydrography, and French law.
The arts school was under the control of the
Jesuits from 1629 to 1762. During the Revolu-

304

MONUMENTA P^DAGOGICA

MOOD

tion the university with the exception of the
medical school suffered the same fate as the
other higher institutions With the reorgani-
zation effected in 1808 separate faculties of sci-
ence and letters were established, the medical
faculty had been reorganized in 1803, in 1840
the school of pharmacy became a part of the
university, in 1878 a faculty of law was revived
Other institutions connected with the umvei-
sitv or located in the town are an agricultural
school, a forestry laboratory, a meteorological
laboratory, a school of commerce, a school of
fine arts, a conservatory of music, and an
institute of historical science Special pio-
vision is made for foreign students to studv
the Fiench language, hteratuie, histoiy, and
national institutions The student enroll-
ment in 1909-1910 was 19.58 (law, 744, science,
282, letters, 134, medicine and pharmacy, 798)
See FRANCE, EDUCATION IN

References —

Annual re dtV Universite de Montpclher (Memtpelher )
GKKMAIN, A Cartulaire de CUnwersiti de Mont-

pellier (Montpellicr, 1890)
Li\m>, L L' Enueujnerncnt supencur en Franu

(Pans, 1888)
RAHHDALL, H Vmvfrxttitv of Eurojx in the Middle

A0e*, Vol II (Oxford, 1895 )
Rouz^un, H LiS Fetes du VJC C(ntenain de V (/ni-

veraitt dt Montpdhfr (Montpellier, 18(H )

MONUMENTA GERMANISE P^DA-
GOGICA — A comprehensive publication
modeled on the Monumcnta GcrnuiHicc Hi*-
tonca The work was conceived by Pi Karl
Kehrbach, and is now published undei the
auspices of the Gexdhchaft fur deutwhe Eizieh-
ung* und Schulgeschichte, ioundcd by Kehr-
bach in 1890 As originally planned the work
was to cover all aspects of education in Gei man-
speaking countries from the humanistic penod
On further consideration it wah decided^ to
begin with the early medieval penod The
first volume appeared in 1890 The work
deals with education in its bioadest sense
It is divided into four departments (1) School
ordinances (church, state, and municipal),
including school regulations, visitations, con-
stitutions of orders, letters of appointment,
synodal acts, and salary scheme, oaths of
office, statutes of hostels, dornntoiies, etc
(2) School textbooks (3) Educational trca-
tises and systems; biographies, school addresses,
table manners, regulations for education, poem*
dealing with education, and colloquies, corre-
spondence of schoolmen , school plays (4) Dis-
sertations dealing with the place of the above
in education The school ordinances are treated
from historical, bibliographical, and textual view-
points; the textbooks from the viewpoints of
subject matter and history, pedagogy, text,
and bibliography. The work is necessarily
not published at regular intervals or in any
defined order. Up to the present there have
appeared forty-eight volumes, the general con-
tents of which are given in the following list -
VOL iv — x •-

Volume I, VIII Brunswick School Ordinances up
to 1828

Volume II, V, IX, XVI Ratio Studiorum et In-
fltitutionet* scholaHtica? aooictatia Jesu per Ger-
manium olini \ igenteb

Volume III Histoi> of Mathematical Instruction
in Germany up to 1525

Volume IV German C.itechiHins of the Moravian
Brethren

Volume VI, XIII The Traiih\lvaman-Saxony School
Ordinances

Volume VII Philip Melaiichthoii as Preceptoi of Ger-
many

Volume X, XI, XV, \VIL, XVIII History of
Military Kdiuation and Training in German-
speaking Counting

Volume XII The Doctrinal t of Alexander de Villa
Dei

Volume XIV Hibton of Education of the Ba\«inari
^ittelsbachw up to 1750

Volume XIX History of Kdur.ition under the Wit-
telsbachs of the Palatinate

Volume XX, \XIII, XXXIX Evangelical (Cate-
chisms before Luther's Kin hind ion

Volume XXIV School Oidmnnies of Baden

Volume XXV, XXIX, XXXI PesUlozzi Bibhog-

Volume XXVI, XXXII The Kduc.tKMi.il Kefoini

of Comemuh in Germany up to the End of the

Heventeeiith Century
Volume XXM1, XXVIII, X\\II School Oidi-

nances of the Grand-Due hj of HC-.M
\olume XXX Au.stimn Edu< .ition at the Tmu of

Maria The resa
Volume XXXIV \outh and Education of th< Kle<-

toral Prunes of Biandenburg and the Kings of

Prussia
Volume XXXV Commercial Education in Berlin

in the Eighteenth Century
Volume XXXVI, XXXVII, XL Youth of Fied-

enc William IV of Prussia arid of Emperor and

King William I
Volume XXXVIII, XLIV, XLV Education m the

Grand-Duchies of Mecklenburg-tSehwenn and Stre-

htz

Volume XLI, XLII Documents on Secondary Edu-
cation in Bavaria, including Regensburg
Volume XLIII Andrea Guama's Bellum Gra?nmati-

cdl( and its Imitatois
Vrolume XLVI, XLVlll Higher Education in Prussia

under the Superior School Council (1787-1806)

and the Abitunenteiiexamen
Volume XLVI I Documents on the History of the

Humanistic Schools in the Bavarian Palatinate

MOOD — The general emotional tone of
one's consciousness is sometimes pleasuiable
or unpleasurable for a considerable peiiod of
time Under such circumstances, the individ-
ual is said to be in a pleasurable or unpleasui-
able mood, as the case may be The mood does
not consist in a fcingle emotion, but rather
in a persistence of a general type of emotional
attitude On the other hand, mood is to be
cont uisted with temperament as a iclatively
tiaiihient phase of experience A person who
is ot a sanguine temperament will continue
dav after day to be in an optimistic state of
mind One may have an optimistic mood for
a period of time without having the general
temperament characteristic of the ^ optimist
The control and education of an ^individual so
that his mood may be developed into a perma-
nent temperament is desirable, provided tho
mood is of a favorable type

For a discussion of this topic, see EMOTIONS.

C. H. J

MOOR'S INDIAN CHARITY SCHOOL

MORAL EDUCATION

MOOR'S INDIAN CHARITY SCHOOL

— The name given by RJV. Eleazer Whcclock
to his Indian school, wlr li he opened in 1754,
in recognition of a i quest by Mi Joshua,
Moor of Mansfield, Conn The school was
first established at Lebanon, Conn , and in
1785 was moved to Hanover When the insti-
tution was chartered as Dartmouth College,
the education of Indians gradually became
secondary, the school being chartered as a
separate institution in 1807. It continued
until 1849

See DARTMOUTH COLLEGE; INDIANS, EDUCA-
TION OF

MOORE, ZEPHANIAH SWIFT (1700-
1S23). — College president He was gradu-
ated from Dartmouth College in 1793, was for
thirteen yeais pastor of a chinch at Leicobtei,
Mass , four years professor at Dartmouth
College (1811-1815), six years pi evident of
Williams College (1815-1821); and two years
president of Amherst College (1821-1823)

W S M

MOORES HILL COLLEGE, MOORES
HILL, IND — A coeducational institution
founded in 1853 and opened in 1856 undei the
auspices of the Methodist Kpiscopal Chinch
There are maintained an academic, collegiate,
agricultural, commercial, music, and art depart-
ment The college entrance requirements are
sixteen units Classical, scientific, and literary
courses are offered, leading to their respective
degrees The enrollment in 1911-1912 was 270
The laculty numbers twenty-one member h

MORAL CHARACTER — See CHARACTER

MORAL EDUCATION -- The problem of
mf)ral education in the schools is very com-
plicated First of all, the present status of
the teaching of morals is the result of a long
and varied history, the phases of which are
reflected in many of the problems of to-day
Again, the nature of the moral sense, and the
i elation of morality to the general aim of edu-
cation are both matters upon which a variety
oi opinions are held These different views
have given us antithetic practices, and to-day
the educational world cannot be said to show
any marked agreement as to the general place
of morality m the educational scheme, the
method of moral culture, or the subject matter
of moral instruction An exposition of the
situation at present in regard to moral educa-
tion requires as an introduction a consideration
both of the main trend in the histoiy of moral
culture and of the various philosophical and
psychological theories concerning the develop-
ment of the moral sense

Four Historic Movements in regard to
Moral Culture — The history of mornl cul-
ture presents among others four issues whirl

are to-day especially fruitful of difficulties to
the school that engages m this task. These
issues concern (1) the progress from customary
to reflective morality, (2) the association of
morality with lehgion, (3) the evolution of aca-
demic fiom utilitarian morality, (4) the variety
in moral standards among different peoples and
in different ages

(1) In primitive society morality is wholly a
matter of custom Indeed, the word " moral-
ity " is derived from mores, or customs. These
11101 es controlled the moral sense of early man.
Even to-day they are, peihaps, the dominant
factor in the moial life Whatevei is in the
mores, the sociologist Sumner declares, is felt
to be nght These customs constitute the
social adaptations that society has established
as a result of blind and uncomprehended ex-
perimentation However, with the progress
of time men get a widei outlook, which reveals
to them the mechanical foundations of much
that had seemed like the sacied utterance of
an inner voice Some mores come in conflict
with others as people migrate and get into con-
tact with strangers Othei mores are out-
giown, and histoiy preseives for our amazed
studv the intense moral allegiance of oui fore-
fathers to practices towuicl which we feel only
indifference or contempt Thus man advances
toward an age in which morality is no longer
merely a matter of the mores, but seeks a
rational foundation in some universal laws of
social and individual life

Morality tends to become reflective by yet
another process The mores find substantial
help in such specific instruction as can be added
to supplement the cultural effect of imitation
This instruction tends to become generalized
in rules of practice These are at first mere
summations of existing mores, but with the
progiess of tune they come to include reasons
and to strive to leconcilc inconsistencies that
are laid bare as various principles are drawn
into a system Thus instiuction in morality
constantly tends to make it reflective, critical.

But the tendency to make morality reflective
weakens the implicit faith in the mores What
is consecrated by habit and feeling is desecrated
by reason Habituation in the mores, which
we may call moral training, and reflective
criticism of them, which is almost a necessary
implication of moral instruction, do not always
support each other In this emergency we
find a gradual differentiation of two parties
One consists of those who reverence the moies
and would limit moral culture to habituation
in them, possibly supplementing this by such
dogmatic instruction as can be made to
strengthen their grip on conduct. The other
comprises those who would make all morality
of the reflective critical type. Such was the
view of Socrates and of Plato in his earlier
years Their notion that virtue is knowledge,
and can be taught, may be regarded as eaeen-
ti.illv in abandonment of the mores in favor

306

MORAL EDUCATION

MORAL EDUCATION

of a reasoned course of conduct. There is yet
a third party, in which we may group those
who hold, as did St Paul, that we may know
the better, yet do the worse On this view,
while morality should be based on reflection,
it must be ingrained in character before it be-
comes effective This result can be reached
only by habituation, by will Thus moral
training is again invoked, not as the basis of
the moral life, but as the only agency by which
the dictates of reason and conscience can be
put into practice.

It is evident that these various points of
view arc implicated in the attitudes taken
to-day toward moral instruction in the schools
Those who feel that morality is a matter of the
mores, if they want moral culture in the schools,
have in mind, as the substance of this, habituat-
ing training plus a little instruction preceptive
in character Some, however, think that this
dogmatic instruction will take the spirit out
of the habits that it is designed to aid They
hold that moral culture should be indirect,
that we get it best by gi owing into it, rather
than bv having it preached to us, that to state
in rules the principles that should constantly
be exemplified in habits is to deal in platitudes
There is life in such precepts when we Ine
them, not when we merely talk about them

On the other hand, those who would found
morality on reflection may hold that it is be-
vond the reach of children, and so exclude it,
from the studies of the elementary schools,
or if they have a more favorable notion of the
capacity of the child, they may wish the classes
seriously to discuss the vital pioblems that
constitute mooted issues in the life of the day
It is evident that instruction in morals does
not go far befoic it reaches the plane of reflec-
tive morality, and that this is critical, inter-
ested only in that which is not vet a matter of
habit or in that habit which is questionable
It tends to disintegrate and to reconstruct the
mores Otherwise it has little ground for being

(2) The association of religion with morals
is very largely responsible for the situation
to-day in reference to moral instruction In
the very beginning of conscious endeavors
to supplement the mores by direct teaching,
religion played a prominent part The cus-
toms that society was most anxious to empha-
size involved as a rule individual self-rest] amt,
often individual sacrifice foi community wel-
fare. In making a conscious appeal on behalf
of such mores the belief in the supernatural
was of the greatest help. Instruction appeals
here, as always, to the reason, but to a reason
uncritical of the products of its imagination.
In religion instruction found something new
and fresh that could be used to reenforce the
mores rather than to cause one to grow weary
or skeptical of them Moral instruction in the
guise of religion can interest and inspire The
mind is lured away from the commonplaces of
everyday life arid invited to speculate about the

rewards and punishments of the invisible powers
that preside over the destiny of man The
glory arid the terror of such unexplored expe-
riences are a never failing stimulus to the
imagination

In modern times the struggle over freedom
in religious matters has resulted in the removal
of much or all religious instruction from the
national schools in democratic communities
(see RELIGIOUS EDUCATION) The historic
association of moral and religious instruction
has caused the latter to carry the former with
it out of the curriculum France after the
Revolution and the United States illustrate
this tendency best among the larger states
In many cases such religious organizations as
possessed a more or less adequate system ol
schools under their own control resisted the
development of the national schools, holding
them to be Godless institutions, calculated to
sharpen the wits rather than to cultivate the
conscience It has even been urged that non-
sectarian education produces crime, and in
proof thereof shown that the amount of crime
as indicated by the statistics increased with
the development of state schools A more
careful examination of the data made clear,
however, that the apparent increase of crime
was due to the addition of new causes of
arrest, such as drunkenness, or to the more
accurate keeping of records of arrests, or to
the greater vigilance of the officers of the la\v
In point of fact, the data seem to indicate1 that,
education, even though it does not include
specific moral instruction, tends to reduce
crime by increasing efficiency, and so diminish-
ing in a measure the incentive to crime

However this may be, there has seemed
much reason to deplore the lack of more posi-
tive instruction in morals in the schools In
order to make up this deficiency and 3 et keep
out instruction specifically religious, efforts
have been made to develop a system of morals
not based on religion Here some have dis-
sented and maintained the inseparability of
the two Especially in England this view
has found many supporters Since the public
elementary system there was until 1870
entirely in the hands of the voluntary associa-
tions of either the Church of England or Dis-
senting Denominations, religion has had in
them a prominent place When schools were
later established independently by the public
authonties, a little undenominational religious
instruction was given in them, and moial
teaching was connected with it In France,
where, perhaps, religion has been more com-
pletely excluded from state schools than in any
other European country, we have the most
definite attempt to develop moral instruction
independently The law of 1882 required a
certain amount of moral and civic instruction.
At the same tune, one day a week in addition
to Sunday was allowed the children that the
parents might, if they would, piovide religious

307

MORAL EDUCATION

MORAL EDUCATION

instruction outside the schoolhouse, In Ger-
many religious instruction is regularly given
in the state schools by or under the supervision
of the pastors of the various churches in the
localities To-day not only Catholics and
Protestants, but also Hebrews, have a chance
to determine this religious instruction Moral
instruction is closely connected with the reli-
gious teaching The German plan prevails,
in general, in Switzerland In European
countries where one denomination is not only
the state religion, but is also in control of the
situation, the religious and moral instruction
in the school centers about the ideas and prac-
tices of that denomination Thus, so far as
the connection between religion and moralit}'
is concerned, we have five types of schools, as
follows (1) Those schools in which there is
neither specific religious instruction nor set
lessons in morals Such arc most of the pub-
lic schools in the United States and many of
the private schools as well However, almost,
if not quite, invariably the public school regu-
lations in the various states enjoin the teachers
to provide incidental inoial instruction as well
as to care constantly foi moral training
(2) Those schools that provide no religious
instruction, but have developed a special course
of study in morals and civics This type is
illustrated in the state schools of France, where,
although a general recognition of a Deity is
approved, very little, if any, religious instruction
is given (»3) Those schools in which unde-
nominational religious instruction has been
made a feature of school work, arid the moral
instruction associated therewith. This method
mav be said to be that aimed at in the English
elementary schools established by the public
authorities The parents may, if they wish,
withdraw the children fiorn the periods de-
voted to religious instruction. (4) Those
schools in which religious and at least partially
denominational instruction is given under the
control of the various denominations in the
locality. Here moral teaching springs out
of the religious teaching This system is
illustrated in Germany and Switzerland.
(5) Those schools in which religious instruc-
tion according to one faith is given, and moral
instruction made largely dependent thereon.
Such a system prevails in the state schools
where one faith, as the Roman Catholic or the
Lutheran, is in control, or in the schools main-
tained by the various denominations

In general, it may be said that moral m-
stiuction receives most attention where there
is enough religious study to give it large founda-
tions and emphatic attention, as in the denomi-
national schools of the fifth type, or where
it is developed independently of religion, as
in the schools of the second type. The at-
tempt to make moral instruction dependent upon
undenominational religious instruction, or upon
such denominational instruction as may be
given by officials not in the regular teaching

force, or in periods sharply separated from the
rest of the program, does not yield vital results,
inasmuch as a broad enough religious basis
cannot thus be given to interpenetrate very
thoroughly the moral life. In consequence,
those who hold that moral instruction should
be founded on religion are likely to advocate
much more religious teaching in the secular
schools, or to propose to base moral instruction
largely, if not wholly, on religious agencies
outside of the school

(3) The historic movement from utihtanan
to academic morality has been a factor in
determining the present nature of the problem
of moral education. When men began first
to reflect upon the reasons for the prevailing
mores, they searched for utilitarian ones The
customs must be upheld, they thought, be-
cause only thus can the prosperity of the in-
dividual be assured This springs from the
fact that the mores are founded either upon
natural law or, as is usually the conception,
upon the supposed will of the supernatural
powers Especially such practices as may
make for the welfare of society rather than foi
that of the individual are found to take refuge
behind the theory of authorization by a divinity
When, however, long experience reveals no
demonstrable connection between self-sac-
rificing obedience to divine law and personal
prosperity as an ultimate reward for such serv-
ice, men seek another justification for it
They rise from the notion of prudential moral-
ity to the Stoic conception of " right for right's
sake." They find in conscience the only guide,
and regard the conduct that has for its motive
hope or fear of consequences as not genuinely
moral. If they associate happiness at all with
moral conduct, it must spring fiom the con-
sciousness of duty done rather than from the
worldly success thereby achieved

However, when men reflect further, they
may conclude that after all the happiness of
the individual is the only justifiable end of
moral conduct, that morality is merely the
highest sort of prudence The utilitarian
finds his explanation of the altruistic conduct
of man in his social nature, which cannot be
happy when surrounded by unhappy com-
panions He would, therefore, make moral
education consist largely in the study of conse-
quences and such culture of habits and will as
enables one to carry into practice the bidding
of the knowledge thus acquired. Here we
have the conception of moral culture enter-
tained by Rousseau and Herbert Spencer The
child is to be subjected to the discipline of
natural consequences

Opposed to the utilitarians are the rigorists
like Kant, who maintain that morality is a
matter of obedience to absolute law and cannot
be based on the calculation of consequences.
Hence, in their view, moral culture consists
not in any revelation of relations between
cause and effect to be derived from experience,

308

MORAL EDUCATION

MORAL EDUCATION

but rather in rousing to free utterance an inner mental among the issues involved here is that

voice On the question of the nature of this
inner insight we have the lationahsm of Kant
opposed to mtuitiomsm Kant founds moral-
ity on reason, — riot empirical reason, which
investigates consequences, but pure leason,
which reveals the right in itself Such right-
ness, he holds, consists in conformity to the
absolute moral law, the universal categorical
imperative One may act rightly and yet
apparently bring disaster to himself and others
True moial cultuie consists, therefore, in en-
deavoring to rouse the attitude of good will
which considers only the form of the act, and
is careless of consequences The intuit lomsts
hold that the awareness of the right is not even
reasoned out, but is a matter of direct percep-
tion To teach morality becomes, on then
view, analogous to teaching one to use his eyes
We do not learn a moral law and then apply
it, as Kant supposes, but we simply look stead-
ily at what we think of doing, and its Tightness
or wrongness becomes immediately apparent

(4) Finally, among the histouc facts that
have entered in to determine the charactei of the
problem of moral instruction to-dav is that of
change and vanetv in the moral codes The
notion that in morality we have something which
differs from ichgion in that theie is universal
agreement as to its nature and rules is evidently
erroneous Historically the views of mankind
in regaid to the Tightness of acts have changed
quite as much as their notions of religion For
example, infanticide and cannibalism and
harlotiy have been held to be sacied when
proper lv earned on To-day the common
judgment of the enlightened seems to be united
in abhorrence of them Yet manv among the
so-called enlightened feel no horror at some
sorts of infanticide or of sexual intercourse not
recognized bv law, indeed, they justify them
And while the exceptions to those who to-dav
concur in regard to these fundamental matteis
arc, perhaps, few, the unanimity in regard to
just what is permitted in the matter of the
relations of the sexes, just what is involved
in veracity or business honesty or intemperance
or in proper service to the state or proper regard
for patents, for servants, 01 for chanty is cer-
tainly very scant If the school is to keep to
the universally recognized in morality, it
seems to be confronted with the necessity of
dealing onlv m generalities and platitudes
Among the special bits of ethical instruction
to be found in textbooks widely used in the
French schools is this in regard to the attitude
of children toward paicnts " Do not be fanul
lar with them as you are with your companions ''
The interpretation of this principle by different
households, and especially in America, would
evidently vary greatly

Various Views on the Psychology of the Moral
Sense — The problem of moral culture to-dav
is further complicated by conflicting views as
to the psychology of the moral sense. Funda-

betweon those who regard moral development
as essentially a negative, mhibitive process
and those who hold that it is at I ottom positive,
constructive Accoiding to the first party
moral education is a purging away of original
sin, a purification of the spirit from the taint
of flesh, a wai against, selfishness, or a curbing
of the brute that we inhent in the interest of
the higher civilization of to-day This control
of our baser natuie may* be conceived to be
dependent upon the influence of the rewaidp
and punishments established by the temporal
and the spintual lulers who determine our
fortunes here and hcieafter, 01 upon the wisdom
that has come to perceive the penalties that
nature visits upon those who permit their
appetites and passions to control them, or,
finally, upon the birth of an inner conscience,
a spiritual quality, — the product, perhaps,
of Divine Grace, by virtue of which one comes
to despise his inferior self In any event, the
function of the teacher is held to consist in the
task of getting the lower nature under control
lie is a lawgiver, threatening and punishing,
a prudent adviser, pointing out the folly of evil
ways, or a preacher, shaming the self-indulgent,
the dishonest, and the base by exhibiting their
shortcomings to themselves and to others

The advocates of the constructive ideal of
moral culture maintain that all, or at any rate
most, of the human desires have a function,
that the task of self-control is not so much that
of suppressing the e\il as it is that of encourag-
ing the good Among the extreme advocates
of this view is Rousseau, who held that man
is born good and coimpted by education
Hence, with him the ideal education is to let
the child alone, foi in its natural development
will be found the best cultuie The more
moderate conception is that, while the natuial
child or man is by no means morally perfect,
yet he does have in him the qualities the right
development and harmonization of which will
make of him an ideal individual Moral cul-
ture should, therefore, aim, not at suppression,
but at an harmonious development of all the
powers, at self-realization

In addition to their view that all, or nearly
all, the human instincts have a place in the
propei lv trained man, the advocates of the
constructn e sort of moral culture hold that
the contiol 01 the suppiession of the undesirable
can take place only by substituting something
better This substitute can, they think, be
found onlv in the nature of the child The
negative discipline is, therefore, held to be
faulty in that, in aiming meiely to suppress the
undesirable, it leaves to chance or to the un-
directed impulse of the child the selection of a
substitute interest by the ascendency of which
alone control of the objectionable quality is
made possible Inhibitive education at best
merely gets rid of an evil without assuring
itself that something better takes its place.

309

MORAL EDUCATION

MORAL EDUCATION

A second issue in regard to the psychology
of the moral sense is that between those who
emphasize freedom and those who hold that
cultural influences are essential to morality. The
idea of transcendental freedom, advocated by the
followers of Kant, led them to minimize the im-
portance of circumstances in the development
of morality. Kant's notion was that the one
absolutely independent thing about the individ-
ual is the moial will To make it depend upon
educative influences seemed to be to take from
it its unconditioned character Herbart, on
the contrary, held that from the point of view
of the concrete problems of education trans-
cendental freedom is a myth All education,
he asserted, aims at moral character, and to
maintain that culture has no reference to the
moial will is to deny that the teacher and the
school have any serious value Education,
he claimed, should not passively wait for the
moral nature to assert itself, but should con-
tinually endeavor by the presentation of ap-
propriate experience, which he characterized
as an " cesthetic presentation of the world,"
to stir up many-sided interest and to cultivate
that union of judgment with desire which
insures a comprehensive, just, and steady will
Both Herbart and Kant agree that morality
is a matter of inner insight. To get this, one
must have that in his nature which responds
to and evaluates the moral situation Kant,
however, docs not think that this moral judg-
ment is a posteriori, or derived from experi-
ence, but rather a priori Experience is moral
because we make it so by judging it, and the
.judgment of conscience is not a result of
instruction Herbart, on the other hand, de-
clares that it is to be evoked only by the con-
tinued presentation of phases of experience
in reference to which it can express itself The
child becomes moral by constantly beholding
and reacting to moral activity in others

In more recent years this inner response to
moral situations which Herbart held to result
from familiarity with them has been traced
to the ripening of certain instincts. The
keener conscience of the older child is thus
attributed not to his experience, but to his
maturity As to the character of the instincts
that he back of moral character, there is a
difference of opinion. One school revives the
conception of Rousseau, who held that up to
adolescence the child is purely self-regarding
and should be disciplined only through an
appeal to his experience of the pleasant and
unpleasant consequences of his acts. In the
instincts of puberty, the interest in the oppo-
site sex and later in one's children, he found
desires that tend to break down the self-cen-
tered life and to create broader sympathy
and an altruistic moral sense. President G.
Stanley Hall agrees with Rousseau in empha-
sizing adolescence and the parental instincts
According to him the life of ideals is born and
reaches its climax in the " storm and stress "

of youth. Kirkpatrick in his Fundamentals
of Child Study includes among the instincts
that have a bearing upon moral development
not only the parental, but also the social and
regulative instincts. Under the social in-
stinct he ranges fondness for society, love of
approbation, sympathy, and altruism Under
the regulative instinct he places the moral in-
stinct proper and the religious instinct. The
former he reduces to the tendencies toward
self-control and toward evaluating conduct
and developing ideals. Altruism, the genuine
religious attitude, and the sense of independ-
ence and responsibility, he regards as not much
in evidence before adolescence The period
before adolescence in his view is, therefore,
merely preparatory so far as moiahty is con-
cerned. The experience, the habits, and the
knowledge of objective values to be gained in
this preparatory period are, however, regaidcd
by him as of the highest importance.

Morality and the Aim of Education — An
important phase of the theory of moral culture
is concerned in the relation of morality to the
total aim of education Liberal education
has from time immemorial occupied itself
with ethical culture, especially its civic and
social phases But the development of leisure
led to phases of culture calculated to minister
rather to individual gratification than to social
service. In consequence, liberal education
came to aim at knowledge and beauty as well
as at strictly ethical qualities Latei, the
development of unworldly religions with the
attendant emphasis on the spiritual life as
compared to the life of sense, led to the eleva-
tion of the religious above the moral aim of
education Still latei, the Enlightenment of
the eighteenth century found in personality
its supreme concept. The struggle for the
rights of the individual, for freedom, for self-
realization, displayed itself in all phases of
human life, — political, social, economic, artis-
tic, and educational. In education the ruling
notion of self-realization tended to draw all
liberal culture into a unity The religious,
the scientific, the social, and the sesthetic
interests were held to bo mutually dependent
phases of a developing personality. The goal
of such development Herbart found in moral
character, which to him meant volition con-
trolled by the broadest insight into and sym-
pathy with the various interests of men. In
his system, therefore, moiahty is so broadly
interpreted as to be restored to its ancient
position as the sole aim of liberal culture.

The Herbartians regarded history, or the
account of the human will in action, as the
fundamental subject for the development of
moral character. With it was closely asso-
ciated literature Science and mathematics
and, indeed, all the subjects of the liberal
curriculum were held to have an ethical bearing,
and to justify their place therein because of
this fact Moral instruction, therefore, comes

310

MORAL EDUCATION

MORAL EDUCATION

to consist not in certain lules of conduct
taught in connection with lehgion or separated
from the rest of the couise ot studv, but in
all the studies of the school It is then essence
Similarly, moral training was regarded as the
whole of the discipline ol the school

The Heihartian conception united in the
notion of moral culture all the vaiious histoiic
aims of liberal education llowevei, it held
to aristocratic tiaditions in excluding the voca-
tion from the liberal ido-il Thus vocational
instruction was not regarded by lleibait as
an essential phase of moral cult me The
democratic and industrial movements of the
niiioteeiit.il cent in y have brought, pieparation
foi the calling forward as an indispensable fact or
m education Those who agiec with Herlmrt
in regai ding vocational education as not aiming
at moial ehaiactei, and at the same time sym-
pathize with the modem demand for tiaming
to make a livelihood, aie compelled to enlarge
his statement of the educational ideal The
cxpiession, efficiency, or in Spencei's phrase
" prepaiation foi complete living," has been
the most geneially cuiront symbol foi the aim
of education The extent to which human effi-
ciency is a matter of social adaptation has led
this ideal to be ohaiactenzed as social efficient y
Put in this fonn, it is capable ol a moial intei-
pictation If inoiality is chaiactei in action
in «i social ciuiionment, then social efficiency
must be hold to be an essentially moial aim
Indeed, Piofessor Dewey, in finding moial
education to consist in making msti notion
h\e in the activities of the child, has defined
it bioadly enough to make it include all sound
education Cultuic that is the union ol
thought, and action in a social \\oild which
loproduoes the essential piobloms oi human
hie and gradually appioxnnates to the social
environment of the adult is oxidentlv both
moial and vocational Just as Heihait en-
larged the notion of moial chaiaotoi to include
all the pioduots of liberal education, so oui
modem demociatic education would seem to
be widening it to embrace the vocational effi-
ciency so much demanded to-day

Present Agitation in Regard to Moral Edu-
cation. — The issue of moral education is
to-day uipidly forging to the front as one of
the leading pioblems of the school In France
since 1SS2 specific inoiul instruction has taken
a place in the curriculum It must be said,
howevoi, that this has not always seemed
either to Fiench or to foieign obsoi veis ontiielv
satisfactory Especially has it been attacked bv
the clergy Since the suppression of the leh-
gious associations and the consequent disappeai-
ance of nearly all the Catholic schools, the
question of the adequacy of the moral instruction
received by the French children has been verv
much in the foreground In England the issue
of moral instiuction has also become pi eminent,
stirred up especially by the struggle over de-
nominational control in elementary education

A commission on moial instruction and train-
ing, soli-constituted, but containing many of
the leadeis in education, published in 1908
and 1909 an extensive and valuable report
on conditions and opinions in reference to this
matter in many countiies In the United
States for many veais the need of more atten-
tion to moral education has been discussed
In the convention of the National Educa-
tional Association held in Los Angeles, Cal ,
in 1907 a resolution was passed to the effect
that " It is the duty of the teachers to entei
at once upon a systematic couise of instruction,
which shall ombiacc not only a broader patri-
otism, but a mote extended course oi moial
instruction, especially in regard to the rights
and duties of citizenship, the right of pioperty,
and the security and saciodness oi human
life " A committee was appointed which
made 111 190.S and again in 1909 lepoits on
various aspects of moral culture At the latter
mooting certain papers recommended special
instiuction in morals as part of the curriculum
The idea that this should take the foim, not
of dogmatic precepts, but of a rational attack
on living issues with the aim of developing
conscience through reflection was put forth
Experimental eftoits in this dnection have
boon made, as, foi example, in the couiso
designed by Piofossoi Sharp of the University
of Wisconsin, and tried in some of the high
schools of that state, in the illustrated lessons
piepared by the National Institution foi Moral
Instruction, through its secretary, Milton Fair-
child, and in couises given in progressive schools,
especially the Ethical Culture School in Now
York City The Ethical Culture School (q v )
owes its origin pimoipally to the efforts of
Professoi Felix Adlor, to whom is to bo credited
one of the earliest positive attempts to intro-
duce4 the specifically moral element into Amoi-
ican education This movement led to the
formation of a number of Ethical Culture
Societies Among the most influential agencies
at piesent engaged in the movement for moial
education in the United States is the Kohgious
Education Association, a voluntary society
founded in 1908 This organization hold at
Piovidonoo, R I , in February, 1911, a con-
vention especially devoted to the subject of
moial education, and in its Journal for that
date it gives one of the most comprehensive
summaiies of the conditions in the United
States in logaid to moral education that wo
possess It lovoals gioat diversity of opinion,
but so fai as practice is concerned the prevail-
ing custom is to tiust to other agencies than
specific couises in moials State laws or
couises of studv often emphasize the need of
moral instruction, but they do not, as a rule,
make such definite provision for it as to insure
that the schools should give to it an assigned
amount of time and attempt to oovei a certain
cloaily defined field Hoie and there whoio
in counties, in cities, or in individual schools

311

MORAL EDUCATION

MORAL EDUCATION

the personal supervision of one superintendent
makes possible unity of conception arid prac-
tice, there have been worked out fairly definite
schemes of moral instruction Legislation has,
in general, laid stress upon mstiuction in the
duties of citizenship, on the bad effects of alco-
hol and narcotics, and occasionally on the
humane treatment of animals (See HUMANE
EDUCATION ) It has required teachers to be
of good moral character, and provided for the
punishment of both teachers and pupils for
immoral conduct It is very rare, however,
for licenses to be withdrawn loi this cause
As for the preparation of teachers for giving
moral instruction, the curricula of colleges
and ot normal schools provide, aside from a
course in ethics, very little that has much bearing
thereon

Various Views as to what should be done
in regard to Moral Education — When we
come to the problem of providing adequate
moral culture m the future, wo find that the
complexity of the factors involved results in a
corresponding variety of opinions and sugges-
tions Five main opinions mav be distinguished,
although each of these may be subdivided
according to particular views on minor points

(1) A verv considerable number hold that
moral education requires no addition to the
agencies at present at work in the schools
The chief forces in moral culture are, on this
view, the personality of the teacher, the dis-
cipline of the school, the moral insights and
ideals to be derived from the 01 dinar v studies,
incidental instruction in moral notions and
practices by the teacher and by occasional
speakers from outside the school, and inter-
course of the children with each other on the
playground and in school organizations Of
all these forces the personality of the teacher
is usually held to be the most important If it
be of the right sort, it is trusted to inspire the
pupils and to be a constant model for imita-
tion that goes on in the main unconsciously
In this agency alone, many believe, lies the
solution of the entire problem of moral culture,
for, in the last analysis, character can be under-
stood only in terms of the experience that comes
from actual contact with it and practice in its
wavs M 01 cover, the discipline of the school,
(lie efficiency of which is so important an ele-
ment in moral culture, depends upon the per-
sonality of the teacher The sympathy and
the justice, the patience and the firmness, the
refinement and the strength, the ideals and the
common sense of this individual find then
expression in the rules of conduct of the school,
and especially in the spurt in which they are
enfor ced Thus through the habituating effects
of his steady supervision the momentary
inspirations of the child are converted into
the traits of a character

The Heibai turns value highly this personal
contact, but espfciallv do they emphasize the
moral value of the course of study The im-

portance of each subject is, they hold, in pro-
portion to its reaction on character. This
principle determines the selection and arrange-
ment of the curriculum History and litera-
ture show character in action, and thus create
ideals and standards, i t moral intelligence
01 her subjects are made contributory to these,
completing the circle of thought and perfecting
the sympathy and the judgment While
the Herbariums emphasi/ed the moral value
of the content oi the studies, the Disciplinarians
lay all stress on their form In the preemi-
nently formal work of the languages and of
mathematics they find a discipline of the will
to attentiveness, persistence, accuracy, love
of truth, etc When we add to these agencies
for rnoial instruction the lite on the playground
and in the school societies, we are able, in the
opinion of many, to enltuate adequately the
additional virtues of courage, tact, self-conhol,
regard for the rights of others, and sense of
obligation for public seiuce Finally, unusual
occasions in the hie of the school, such as the
celebration of an anniveisar \ , the advent of
a stranger who will address the pupils, or some
crisis demanding an appeal to the spirit of the
general body, for example, athletic contests
or a reform in bad practices, such as cheating
in examinations, — all these afford constant
opportunity to promote and to revive healtln
moral life

Those who hold the present agencies to be
adequate for moral culture may, and often do,
feel a need for greater efficients in regard to
some 01 all of them They frequently urge
the need of better selection of teachers from
the point of view of personal influence, of dis-
cipline that will be more effective in de\ eloping
moral strength, of more careful selection oi
history and literature with a view to the ethical
effect- thereof, of such methods of mstiuction
as will more successfully bring out ethical
ideas, of more sympathy on the part oi the
teachers with the play of the child or with hib
social life and home conditions, of more care-
ful supervision of such of these interests as can
be influenced by the school, or of more fiequent
departures from the routine of the school work
in order to introduce an exercise having ethical
significance The study of physiology and
hygiene should, many think, include instruction
not only in the effects of alcohol and tobacco,
but also in matters per taming to sex Simi-
larly, the worly in history and civics should
include more attention than is commonly given
to the obhgationsvof the individual in regard
to public service All these reforms invoke
no radical transformation of the school as at
present organized

(2) A second paity consists of those who
hold that the key to effective moral instruction
is to be found only in religion They would,
therefore, either introduce more religion into
the schools or look for the needed betterment
of moral education largely to independent

312

MORAL EDUCATION

MORAL EDUCATION

religious agencies, which they would de\elop
to greater efficiency in this field The various
solutions of the problem of the relation of moral
and religious instruction have already been
dealt with In gencial, it may be said that,
although the present movement in favor of
more moral education has been greatly pro-
moted by those interested primarily in the
religious life, still comparatively few look foi
reform through an increase in the amount of
lehgious instruction in the schools (See
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION )

(3) A very considerable number hold that
what we need is not moie 01 different moial
instruction, but rather the development of new
and more effective agencies foi moral training
Two plans aie advocated, each of which has
been experimented with The one strives to
develop the idea of student self-government (q r )
so as to awaken in the child as soon as possible
the sense of responsibility undei the stimulus
of shaiing in the work of making and adminis-
tering law The Geoige Junior Republic
(<l v ) is, perhaps, as complete an illustiation
oi this conception as we have Although
designed primarily for wayward youth h\mg
and working together in a small community,
it embodies ideas of self-government that many
think should be far more completelv leah/ed
in every school than they are at present By
Mich methods it may be possible not only to
tuin the discipline of the school o\ei largely
to the pupils themselves, but even to give
them considerable initiative and control in
reference to their studies and occupations
The second plan addresses itself to a hn moie
systematic organization of the games and lec-
reations of the young Children, it is thought,
may, and should, be taught to play as well as to
work, and through this agency the needed
supplement to their piesent social and ethical
tunning is conceived to be obtainable, foi it
is in the amusements rather than in the work
that ethical degeneiation is most to be feared
and ethical advance most to be hoped for
Hence playgrounds and recreation centers
with competent supervision aie advocated lor
the cities It is urged that the school should
become the leading social center for the com-
munity, fostering athletic sports, literary,
musical, scientific, and social enteitaimnents,
and in numberless ways contributing to the
healthy interest of children and even of adults
in a common life of voluntary vet incalculably
beneficial diversion

Both self-government and play have from
time immemorial been to some extent utilized
as educational forces in the great English
Public schools, and there their value has been
convincingly demonstrated However, it is
felt by many English observers that this
Public School'life with all its excellent features
is too much a life by itself, interested too ex-
clusively in its own affairs to constitute the
best sort of a preparation for active participa-

tion in the social life of the outei world This
defect is one likely to be found in boarding
school training everywhere, and it is undoubt-
edly desirable that the school in developing its
own community life should keep in close contact
with the family , the economic, the social, and
the political interests of the \videi public (See
ATHLETICS, EDUCATIONAL, PUBLIC SCHOOLS )

(4) Of all the present-day advocates of
radical changes in regard to provision foi
moral education, those who behe\e in direct
and regular instruction in morals make up the
most distinct and, perhaps, the most numerous
group They mav be divided into two classes
First, we have those who hold that a graded
course in morals should run through the school,
beginning in the primary department They
insist that such work can be made intelligible,
interesting, and practically effective, that it
need not be mere preaching, nor be dogmatic,
nor productive of pnggishncss Second, there
are many who regard routine teaching of ordi-
nary pieceptive morality as, peihaps, un-
necessary and a rather diy formalism nt best,
but who hold that the older children, especialh
those of high school grade, should take up the
lational discussion of concrete ethical issues
such as are creating the difficult problems in
the life of the day School instruction in
morality is thus made rational rather than
dogmatic and should, therefore, be for the most
part postponed until ability to reflect becomes
prominent in the child

(5) Finally, we ha"\e many who belie\e
that the failure of our schools in teaching
morality is due not to the absence of direct
moral instruction, but rather to the divorce
between instruction and practice that is found
to such an extent in school work A school
that constitutes a genuine life, that teaches
through the solution of actual problems that
confront the school society will, they think,
have no need of special agencies to instruct in
duty or responsibility or to train in right habits
The moral sense is born in the practical emer-
gencies of life, and by confronting a child with
these we may easily develop that sort of feeling,
thinking, and acting which belongs to a strong
and efficient charactei We need not so much
to expand the curriculum in order to include
morality, as to reorganize it and the method
of teaching it so as to make it stand for an
inevitable progress of the child into the prob-
lems and the ideals of the social life of the time

E N H

See CHARACTER, ETHICS AND EDUCATION;
RELIGIOUS EDUCATION

References —

ADLETC, F Moral Instruction of Children (Now

^oik. 1898)
DI-WI-Y, .1 Kthieal Principle* underlying Education

(Chicago, 1897)

Motal Pnnnples in Education (Boston, 19()() )
MrC'VNN, .1 The Making of Character (New York

1900 )

313

MORAL EDUCATION BOARD

MORAVIAN CHURCH

PALMKK, (i If Kthuul tind Moial Jnvtnutioti in
Schools (Boston, 1909 )

Religious Education Association Education and Na-
tional Character

SADLER, M E Moral Instruction and Tin in ing in
School* (London, 190S )

Si'iLLKK, G Report on Moral I nut i notion and on Moral
Traminy Bibliography (London, 19()() )

SPILLER, G , c-d Papers on Moral Education In-
ternational Moral Education Congress (London,
1909)

MORAL EDUCATION BOARD — See

MOH\L EDUCATION

MORAL IMBECILITY. — See MOUAL IN-
SANITY

MORAL INSANITY — This term has been
used to indicate an inability on the pait of the
individual to comport himself in accoi dance
with the legal and moral standards of the
community, and is not a disease in itself
(although so considered by some English
writers) It is a symptom to be found es-
pecially in the feeble-minded and in cases of
paresis (</ v ) The condition is most clearly
seen in those individuals who aie known as
moial imbeciles These people steal, he, and
perform all kinds of immoral sexual acts to
the exclusion of the normal Such an in-
dividual may otherwise be normal merit all v,
but the moral sense appears to be lacking
The subject is one of consideiable importance;
in dealing with school children, and especially
with the so-called delinquent classes

S I F

References —
COKIAT, I H Tho Mental Condition of Juvenile

Delinquents Psyck Clw , l'K)7, Vol I, j>p

1J5-137
MMKEI and EN/JERK Leu invalids inoiaux (Pans,

i<m) )

ScHAEFfcii, H l)cr nwralische Schwachsinn (Halle,
1906 )

MORAL TRAINING. — See MORAL ED-
UCATION

MORALITY AND MORAL SENSE -

Morahtv in its objective moaning is the bodv
of practices, habits, and beliefs which the pie-
vailmg enlightened judgment of a penod re-
gards as right, and which accordingly it stnves
to inculcate by all forms of education and tui-
tion, and which, within coitam limits, it stuves
to enforce* against individuals who openly
transgress The vauous theories of inoials
or ethics arise partly from the effoits to rnti-
cize, purify, and systematize cunent morality
in the objective sense, and partly in the effort
to discover its ultimate basis and justihcalion
Moral sense, in its broader usage, denotes
the body of judgments current in a community
with respect to morality Tt is called a " sense"
to express its relatively unreasoned character;
pur more fundamental moral estimates and
ideas have become ingrained in us by educa-
tion arid habit, arid hence arc identified with

ou i immediate emotional and practical re-
sponses rather than with consciously reasoned
out conclusions In its more technical mean-
ing, " moral sense " denotes one variety of the
theory about morality which holds that moral
judgments are innate or intuitive, not the
results of experience The term " sense " is
used to indicate the notion that the direct
perception of right and wrong attaches to
particular cases, not to general principles
In the case ol its leading historic representa-
tives, Shaftesbui y and Huteheson, it also
connoted an assimilation of oui moral to our
ipsthetic perception Just as a man of good
taste responds immediately to the beauty 01
ugliness of objects, so a man of moral sense
appreciates at once the loveliness or baseness
of character and acts J D

See ETHICS, INNATE IDEAS, INTUITION,
MORAL EDUCATION

MORAVIAN CHURCH AND EDUCA-
TION — The history of the Moravian Church
falls into two parts, that of the Ancient Unitas
Fratrum, extending from 1457 to the beginning
oi the eighteenth century, and that of the re-
suscitated church — variously known as the
Unity oi the Brethren, Hruedergememe, llenn-
huters, but most commonly called the Moravian
Church — reaching from the latter date to the
present time In both periods this church
has been deeply interested and energetically
engaged in educational work.

At a very eailv day the Ancient Unitas
Fratrurn, first established in Bohemia and
Moravia and later in Poland, gave attention
to popular education From its famous pre-
cursor, John Huss, great reformer, but also the
most popular professor of the University of
Prague1 in his day, it had received inspiration
to fight ignorance, the fruitful mother of sin
and error Free1 elementary schools were
opened in all the villages where the Unity had
parishes In course of time they ranked
among the best of the land With the aid of
friendly nobles, some fifteen higher schools
were established at different points in Bohe-
mia and Moravia, the fame oi which attracted
pupils from beyond the bounds of the church
and the country, even sons oi the nobility.
In those schools the syllabus was much the
same as rn other schools of corresponding
grade Latin was taught/ in most, and in
some dialectics, rhetoric, physics, astronomy,
and geometry The system of education was
largely practical Chief stress was laid on
religious training Among the textbooks were
a catechism, a book of extracts from the Gospels
and Epistles, a " Book of Morals,*' and the
hymnbook oi the church, the first edition
of wliich appeared in 1501. A college was
founded at Eibcnschuetz for young noblemen in
1574. Ton years later a theological seminary was
established in connection with this institution,
and within the succeeding twenty years other

314

MORAVIAN CHURCH

MORAVIAN CHURCH

divinity schools were opened at Jungbunzlau
in Bohemia, Prerau in Moravia, and at Ostrorog
in Poland The ministers of the Unity came
to he among the most highly educated of the
time The famous college at Lissa, Poland,
over which Comenius presided for some time,
was begun in 1624 In Comenius (qv) all
that was best in the educational experience
of the Ancient Unitas Fratrum was embodied
Practically all of these schools were wiped out
by the terrible anti-reformation of the seven-
teenth century, which well-nigh crushed the
church itself, though not before they had
given powerful stimulus to the revival of learn-
ing all over Europe.

Largely through the influence and almost
prophetic provision of Comenius, the traditions
of the Ancient Unitas Fratrum and the means
for reconstructing its peculiar system were
preserved against a possible icsuscitation of
the organization In the event, this was
brought about at the beginning of the eight-
eenth century, in Saxon}r, under the leadership
of Count Zmzendorf Thus thek educational
ideals of tho Ancient Unitas Fratrum were
transmitted under the most favorable auspices
They were, also, invigoiated by an infusion of
the best elements oil the European culture
of the time through Zinzendoif, of Halle and
Wittenbcig, as well as Spangenberg and
Boehler of Jena, Pyilaeus of Leipzig, and many
other university men who became identified
with the Moravians and knew the value of
liberal culture Naturally, almost from the
beginning of the Moravian settlement at Henn-
hut, Saxony, attention was devoted to educa-
tion, particularly because many of the Mora-
vians were so occupied with the diversified
missionary and evangelistic operations of the
church, speedily and widely established, that
provision iiad to be made for their children
Hence, boarding schools as well as day schools
were started By 1750 the church had es-
tablished in Germany an infant school, two
boys' schools and a girls' school, a psedagogium
and a theological seminary, in England a boys'
school, in America two girls' schools and a
boys' school, besides day schools in each of
these countries and elementary mission schools
in various heathen lands. In them all the
Comeniaii principles ruled Great emphasis
was laid on religious training, Moravian
teachers aimed at well-rounded Christian
character Considerable attention was given
to handwork, both for boys and girls The
schools came to enjoy a fine reputation for
thorough training and strict moral discipline.
Much stress was laid on individual attention
In consequence, the schools became widely popu-
lar, especially among the cultivated classes,
and at an early day they were opened to other
than Moravian children Thus the church
came to recognize in this direction an oppor-
tunity for widening its mission Moravian
educational theories were formulated by Bishop

P K Layritz in Rclrachtungcn uber cine
verstbndigc und chnxthche Erziehung der Kinder
(Thoughts on a rational and Christian education
of Children, 1776), giving suggestions for educa-
tion up to twenty-one

Subsequently, the educational activity of
the church was greatly developed. In Germany
fourteen day schools, primary and more ad-
vanced, are maintained In addition there
are ten boaidmg schools for girls and six for
boys Recently much interest has been shown
in industrial schools carried on for girls from
fourteen to seventeen years of age, who are
instructed in the womanly arts of handiwork,
music, housekeeping, etc There are fourteen
such schools For the furtherance of all this
educational activity a teachers' seminary for
men was established in 1872, at Niesky, and
one for women, in 1875, at Gnadau The
secular instruction is kept well up to the re-
quirements of the Imperial Department of
Instruction Besides, a college and a theologi-
cal seminary continue their distinctive work,
and a missionary training institute is in opera-
tion. In England and Ireland there are five
day schools Two boarding schools for boys
and five for girls are maintained, which, as
regards secular education, are recognized sec-
ondary schools, adapted to the requirements
of the University Local Examinations A
theological college has been doing its work
since I860, and a missionary training school
was established in recent years

In America Moravians began their work in
1735, settling first in Georgia and a few years
later transferring their operations to Penn-
sylvania and the neighboring colonies In
1739 Spangenberg wrote to Count Zmzendorf
from Pennsylvania (see PENNSYLVANIA, EDU-
CATION IN) that " almost no one made the youth
his concern " Naturally, therefore, Mora-
vians in this country included educational
effort in their plans Their special zeal and
capacity for the training of the young blossomed
out in schools of various kinds, particularly
in Pennsylvania, where the provincial au-
thorities, during the first three quarters of the
eighteenth century, did next to nothing for
the cause of general education. In 1742 Zin-
zendorf inaugurated a school for girls in Ger-
mantown, later this was transferred to
Bethlehem, Perm , where it still continues
as a seminary and college for women A
school for boys was founded at Nazareth in
1743, but was transferred, two years later, to
Frederickstown, where it flourished for some
years Linden Hall Seminary for girls was
founded in 1746, and reorganized in 1794, at
Lititz, Penn During the next three years
more than a dozen day schools were opened
in Pennsylvania and elsewhere, for it was the
policy of Moravian leaders to organize schools
wherever they established a congregation or
posted a preaching station. Unfortunately,
these schools ceased when Braddock's defeat

315

MORAVIAN CHURCH

MORBIDITY IN SCHOOL CHILDREN

opened the floodgates and a turbulent stream
of savagery poured into the back country
beyond the Blue Mountains Thus Moravian
educational effort was driven back upon itself
and confined to the parochial and boarding
schools of the settlements Yet at this critical
time a boys' school was opened at Nazareth
in 1759 After reorganization in 1785, this
has continued to the present tune The
Salem Female Academy and the Salem Roys'
School, N. C., were established somewhat later
Both are flourishing at the present time, the
former under the name and chaiactei of the
Salem Academy and College for Women At
the present time in America Moravians are
operating three boarding schools for girls, two
of which are also colleges, one boaidmg school
for boys, and three day or parochial schools
In 1807 a theological seminary was established,
and reorganized in 1858 under the name and
character of the Moravian College and Theo-
logical Seminary.

In subjecting to scrutiny the curricula of
these schools in their early days, it should be
remembered that textbooks were rare The
accessories of the modern schoolroom wcie
mainly wanting. Nevertheless in some of
them special attention was paid to English,
French, and German Mathematics, astron-
omv, and history find their places beside the
more elementary branches At Nazareth
Latin and Greek weie icad Instrumental
and vocal music and drawing contributed
pleasant accomplishments The Bethlehem
spinning, needlework, and embroidery were
famous, fitting young women for life In the
boys' school at Lititz opportunity was fur-
nished for learning various trades Unob-
trusively and free from sectarian bias, religion
was imparted as a matter of course Despite
defects and crudities, here were the elements
of a liberal education. At the present time
these schools measure up to the standards of
similar schools elsewhere in the land

In colonial days the Moravians maintained
mission schools among the Indians Wherever
it was possible in the Indian country, within
and beyond the bounds of the Pennsylvania
colony, church and school were established
Wickcrsham, History of Education in Penn-
sylvania, pays these Moravian mission schools
the following tribute " Even Carlisle and
Hampton, with all their merit, have less to
recommend them as schools for Indians, than
had the old Moravian towns of Griadenhuettcn,
Friedenshuetten, and Friedensstadt "

The mission work of the Moravians has been
extensive, and has embraced the West Indies,
Central and South America, Labrador, Green-
land, Alaska, the North American Indians,
South Africa, East Central Africa, Australia,
and Tibet In each case educational and
evangelistic work went hand in hand, various
grades of schools being established in many
lands.

The present extent of all Moravian educa-
tional work may be summed up thus The
Moravian Church operates 409 schools, employs
on their account 1312 teachers, and imparts
instruction to 36,101 children and young
people cither bearing the Moravian name or
intrusted by those of other names to its educa-
tional institutions Moravian schools embrace
a wide range scholastically, from humble ele-
mentary schools to technical institutions of
recognized worth There are kindergarten
and primary schools, parochial day and board-
ing schools, industrial, teacher training and
missionary training schools, colleges, university
affiliations, and theological seminaries True
to their international character, Moravian
schools, of one or another of these types, are
doing their work on every continent, in many
lands, among diverse peoples, and through vari-
ous tongues W. N S

References —

BATTY, B Moravian Schools and Customs (London,

1889)
HAMILTON, ,T T History of the Moraman Church,

American Church History Series, Vol VIII, pp

425-508 (New Yoik, 1895 )
A History of the Moravian Church, Bibliography

(Bethlehem, Pa , 1900 )
HENIIY, J tfkttcha* of Moiaman Life (Philadelphia,

1859 )
REIN, W Encyldopadtsches Handlmch der Padayogik,

8 v IJerrnhutibches Erzicehungawesen
SCHA\\AR/K, M A History of the Moravian College

and Thtologtcal Seminary (Bethlehem, Pa , 1909 )
ScHWKiNi'iz, h DE History of the Unitas Fratrum

(Bethlehem, 1885 )
THOMPSON, A C Moravian Missions (New York.

1904)

MORAVIAN COLLEGE AND THEOLOG-
ICAL SEMINARY, BETHLEHEM, PA —

The theological seminal y was established in
1807 at Nazareth, Pa , and removed to Bethle-
hem in 1837, when a regular college course was
established After an interval at Nazareth,
the institution was permanently established at
Bethlehem in 1858 and mcorpoiated under the
present title in 1863. The college offers
classical, Latin scientific, and general scientific
courses leading to the A B and B S degices
The seminary confers the B D after a two
vears' course preceded by classical studies
The enrollment in 1911-1912 was sixty-seven
and the faculty numbers six members

MORBID — Used particularly in speaking
of ideas, is the equivalent of abnormal (q v )
Morbid states may be temporary or persist-
ent, but in either case do not necessarily de-
note a condition of insanity S. I F

MORBID PSYCHOLOGY. — See PSYCHOL-
OGY, PATHOLOGIC IAL

MORBIDITY IN SCHOOL CHILDREN —

This term is used to indicate the disease rate,
usually estimated in percentage for school
children Many extensive investigations in

310

MORBIDITY IN SCHOOL CHILDREN

MORK, HANNAH

different countries have now been made In

1881 Hertel published the results of his classic
study of over 4000 school children in the higher
schools of Copenhagen The result showed
that 31 1 per cent of the boys and 39 4 pei
crent of the girls weie suffering from chronic
diseases, not including defects of sight and
hearing This investigation was followed in

1882 by the appointment of commissions both
in Denmark and Sweden to study the subject
The Danish Commission reported on the
health of 17,595 boys and 11,046 gnls Of
the total number of boys 29 pci cent weic found
ill, of the girls 41 per cent The repoit of the
Swedish Commission conceined the health
of some 18,000 pupils of the higher schools
Axel Kev who prepared the repoit foi this
Commission gave loi the largest group the
following statistics Of 11,210 pupils of the
higher boys' schools, 48 8 per cent weie afflicted
with chionic disease, the laigest percentage
of illness being found on the classic side Of
3072 pupils in the higher gills' schools the per-
centage of illness was 61 7 per cent These
investigations in Scandinavian schools raised
grave questions in legaid to the conditions
of school life in general flow far the school
was responsible was not evident, but it seemed
clear that the conditions of school life together
with home study and an inadequate supply
of sleep were in huge part lesponsible

Since these eaihei studies many investiga-
tions of the health of school childien ha\e been
made in Europe and m this countiy While
the percentage of illness is not as gieat usually
as found by the Danish and Swedish Commis-
sions, it appears that eveiy where theie aie
a large numbei of cluldien suffering fiom
chronic disease And if we add to this the
number that suffer from contagious diseases,
and from the various defects of sight, hearing,
etc , the number of children that need special
hygienic care is likely to be large in any school
class

Many investigations in different cities of
this country have shown a large percentage
of the school children with chronic disease or
physical defects While it is impossible to
generalize from the statistics at hand, it is a
conservative estimate that 25 per cent of the
children in any school are likely to be handi-
capped by illness or defect of some kind
On the basis of the investigation of 275,641
children examined in New York City in the
years 1905 to 1908, of which 71 9 per cent were
found to have diseases or defects, Mr Win H
Allen estimated that the number of school
children in the United States needing attention
would be over 14,000,000 It is to be understood,
however, that these large percentages are due
to the inclusion of defects in sight and hearing
and diseases of the tooth While in other
parts of the country the percentage of disease
may not be as great, it is probably true that if
the above-mentioned defects are included, this

estimate would not be too large Public alarm
or ridicule, however, is often based on a mis-
apprehension of the condition just noted

These children are in every school, their
presence cannot be ignoied, they make up in
large degree the army of laggards, they are
apt to be the cases that require discipline,
and the cause of most of the absence from
school, they make the task of the teacher
difficult, and special hygienic care and medical
inspection are necessary W H B

See MEDICAL INSPECTION

References —

ALLEN, W H Civics and Htalth (Boston, 1909 )

BuiiLrERHTETN, L Aid K<y't> Schulhygicnische Un-
IcrbUihunycn (Hamhuig, 1S99 )

BURNHAM, W H Srhool DiRpahos John son1 1> Uni-
vcisal ( ydopcdia, 1S()(), Vol X

CKOWLEY, U A Hy(ji<-n< of School Life (London,
1910 )

(iuiJCK, L H , and AYRES, L P Medical Inspec-
tion of School* (New York, 190S )

HKHIEL, A Neuere UntersuehuiiEen uber den all-
geniemen Gesundheitfazubtund dei Schulei und
Sdiulennnen Zeit f Schulo^undhtitaflcgc, 1SH8,
Vol 1, No b, pp 167-1K3, No 7, pp U01-215
Ovtr-I'msurt, in the High Schooln of Denmark (Lon-
don, 1SS5 )

NziNd, FR Hnndbuch der medizinibchcn Statistik
(Jena, 1900 )

orts of the London Medical Officer (London,
1904- )

MTDT-MoNNAKD Die chroiusc hf Kiaiiklichkeit m
unhcren imttleien und hoheren Srhulen Ztit f
fichulgcttundhnt^p/lcgc, Vol X, No 11, pp 593-
bliO, No 12, pp ()bb-OS5

MORE, HANNAH (1745-1833) — Eng-
lish author and philanthropist, born at Staple-
ton, near Bristol, the daughter of a school-
master She showed a ready ability arid keen
intellect, and studied Latin, modern languages,
hihtoiy, and mathematics Although she be-
gan writing early, her first serious work was a
pastoral drama, The Scotch aftci Happiness
(1702), to be acted by the childien at her sis-
ters' school From this time on she devoted
herself with remarkable success to a literary
career, and m London made the acquaintance
of the leaders in the world of literature, being a
iavonte with Johnson and (iarrick, who pro-
duced some of her plays The death of (Jar-
rick (1779) marked a change in her career, and
she devoted herself almost entirely to devo-
tional and religious literature In 1785 she
settled in the Cheddar district, at that time
notoriously vicious and neglected Influenced
by Wilberforce, Hannah More and her sisters
devoted themselves to uplifting and improv-
ing the population for ten miles around their
home at Cowslip Green The girls were em-
ployed at spinning and weaving, with the boys
they were taught the Catechism, Psalms, and
the Bible A 13ible class was held for adults
The Mores trained teachers for this work, and
Hannah wrote some books Anxious, however,
as Miss More was for the uplift of her neigh-
bors, she considered that reading was a suffi-
cient accomplishment for laborers' children,

317

MORE, SIR THOMAS

MORE, SIR THOMAS

but farmers' children might for an extra fee
learri writing and arithmetic Another phase
of Miss More's activity was her work against
the Jacobin influences of the time and the
writings of men like Tom Paine. Oi this type
was her Village Politics, by Will Chip, 1793
In 1794 she commenced the issue1 of Cheap
Repository Tracts, consisting of stones for the
poor pointing the morals of contentment and
loyalty These appeared three times a month,
and were continued until 1797 The circula-
tion in the first year is said to have been over
two million copies In 1818 she published
Moral Sketches of prevailing Opinions of Man-
ners foreign and domestic, with Reflections on
Prayer In 1799 appeared her Strictures on the
Modern System of Female Education, with a
View of the Principles of Conduct prevalent
among Women of Rank and Fashion (1799),
in which she criticizes the prevailing demand
for external accomplishments and a multitude
of knowledge without any depth Religion,
she maintained, should be the most prominent
part of education, for " we have to educate
not only rational, but accountable beings "
At the same time the education of women
should tend to make them fit companions and
helpmates for men, and " the chief end to be
proposed in cultivating the understandings
of women is to qualify them for the practical
purposes of life " Miss Moie also wrote
Hints towards forming the Character of a Young
Princes (1S05), a book of advice on the educa-
tion of Princess Charlotte, by some thought
to have been written at the request of Queen
Charlotte

References —

Dictionary of National Biography

MEA.KIN, A M Hannah More (London, 1911 )

YONGE, C Hannah More (Boston, 1858 )

MORE, SIR THOMAS (1 478-] 535) —
English statesman and author, born in Lon-
don, the son of a bamster He attended St
Anthony's School in Threadneedle Street,
where also were Colet and Latimci On
leaving school he was placed in the household
of Cardinal Morton, Archbishop of Canter-
bury, who recognized the boy's ability and had
him sent to Oxford (1492) More was entered
at Canterbury Hall, which was later incorpo-
rated with Christ Church Here he met
Linacre and Grocyn (qq v ), and from the
former learned Greek He had broad interests,
and besides his ability in Latin and Greek, he
had a knowledge of French, history, mathe-
matics, arid music In 1494 his father, fearing
for his religious opinions, withdrew him from
Oxford and entered him at New Inn, and later
at Lincoln's Inn In 1497 More met Erasmus
(q v.), and the two became firm friends; and it is
probable that through Erasmus' influence
More continued his scholarly pursuits For
a time More had thoughts of retiring into
clerical life, but setting them aside he devoted

himself to law with great success In 1504
he entered Parliament, in 1515 he was sent
on a mission to the Low Countries, and there
he met many humanist scholars, chief among
them Peter Giles, and began what was latei
published as the second part of the Utopia,
in 1521 he was knighted, and, enjoying the favor
of Wolsey, he was made speaker of the House
in 1523, in 1529 he was created Lord Chan-
cellor, retiring into private life in 1532 He
joined Henry VIII in his early attack on Luther,
but while the King broke away from the
Catholic Church, More remained a stanch
member, and this, combined with his opposi-
tion to the King's marriage to Anne Bolcyn,
brought him to the scaffold in 1535

More was a keen man with a stiong sense
of humor; devoted to the Church, he was not
blind to the defects of many of its ministers,
with his piety he combined a great love of
the liberal studies, to which he added a love
of music and art As an authoi he composed
many poems in Latin and English, in piose
his chief works were written in vigoious lan-
guage, if clumsy in construction, in defense
of Papacy against the lefoimers at home and
abroad His best known woik is the Utopia,
written in Latin and published in 1510 at
Louvam, and frequently lepubhshed at othei
places Tho earliest English transition was
made in 1551 by Raphe Robinson, and has been
reprinted by the Oxford Umveisity Press
The Utopia (Oi! TOTTOS) is a description of
an ideal countrv free fiom the abuses of the
Old World While Moie does not pietend
to give an exposition of the ideal system of
education, there is sufficient indication of his
views on the subject " Of all the pleasures,"
he says, " they esteem those to be most valu-
able that lie in the mind, the chief of which
anses out of true virtue ..." Higher educa-
tion is only for those who have the ability and
inclination, for these education is compulsory,
and incompetence is punished by iclegation
to the class of laborers, the vacancy being
filled from below The studies are earned on
in the vernacular, and include music, logic,
arithmetic, geometry, and astronomy, while
they show a ready ability in learning (Jreek
Strangely enough, More makes no reference
to Latin. For the majority lecture halls are
open daily, and they study according to then-
taste and the demands of their occupations
Moral education of children and youths is
cared for by selected priests, who with the
adults influence by force of example rather
than by compulsion of rules Importance
is attached to physical exercise, which includes
agricultural labor and handwork, riding and
military exercises, sufficient sleep and modera-
tion in eating and drinking It must be said,
however, that More, unlike other authors of
ideal commonwealths, does not lay so much
stress on a thoroughgoing wystern of education
as might be expected. In his family life More

318

MORNING EXERCISE

MOUSE

paid considerable attention to the education
of his children, three daughters and a son, foi
whom he kept tutors On the education of
women he held that both sexes should be edu-
cated alike, for " 1 do not see why learning
may not equally agree with both sexes," ioi
the " true and solid fruits of learning " are
primarily the virtues If women aie by nature
mentally less able than men, then the aim of
instruction must be to remedy the defect
Among the studies which, according to hi*
letters, his children pursued weie astionomy,
Latin, declamation, composition of veises,
exercises in logic, and philosophy His fa\o-
nte daughter, Margaiet, wrote Latin with
Midi foice and punlv of style that Moie's
fiiemls could not but believe that it was wjitten
by a man

See furthei UTOPIAS IN EDUCATION

References —

HAKNARD, H Atncruan Journal of Education, Vnl

XXIII, pj) 369-376
Dictionary of National /Jtourfijfftij
EMK.LS, M A Dav EizuhnrtgvHiml h< i N<r T ho man

Mon, tiu Thomn\ Elyot, Rofjtt A wham un<i John

Lyly (MurbuiK, 1<M)4 )
HITPON, W H Lift and \\ntiuut* of Sn Tlnnnntt

Mon (London, 1S1)1 )
Lhfc, S (treat Englishimn of lfn tfLrtcenth C<utunj

(New York, 1904)
SkMJoiiM, F Oxford Rt formers (London, 1SS7 )

MORNING

EXKKCISE

EXERCISE —See OPENING

MORNINGSIDE COLLEGE, SIOUX CITY,

IA — A coeducational institution, maintain-
ing academic, collegiate, music, education,
and suimnei school departments The en-
hance requirements are fifteen units The
A B degree is confened on students who com-
plete ceitain couises which are arranged in five
gioups The emollment in the college proper
was 283 in 11)11-1912 The faculty consists
of thirty-eight members

MORPHOLOGY — See BOTANY.

MORRICE, THOMAS (ft 1619) — The
writer of a pedagogical booklet, entitled An
Apology for Schoolmasters, Tending to UK
Advancement of Learning, and to the Virtuous
Education of Children, lh'19 Mornce insists
on the dignity of schoolmasters' work
Teachers must not make the profession of the
liberal sciences servile The schoolmaster is
in the same case with the professors of divinity,
law, physic He must be learned, of ready
utterance, and perfect pronunciation of speech
As to the subjects of instruction, first is " pure
and perfect English, to be delivered with decent
action and gesture, with a right accent and
distinct pronunciation ", next " pure and per-
fect Latin," and " perhaps " Greek In any
case it is the teacher's business to study the
child's nature and disposition, and to frame

instructions and precepts thereunto, according
to the child's capacity Sports are to be intro-
duced for lecreation, and moderate exercise for
health of the body lie particularly empha-
sizes the visualizing value of traveling for the
youth F W.

Reference —

WATHON, F Thomas Momrc'b Apology for School-
masters Educational Times (London), March, 1894,
Vol XLVII, ]>)> 150-152

MORRILL ACT — See AGRICULTURAL EDU-
CATION, NATIONAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCA-
TION , TECHNICAL EDUCATION

MORRILL LAND GRANT. — See AGRI-
CULTURAL EDUCATION, NATIONAL GOVERN-
MENT AND EDUCATION, TECHNICAL EDUCA-
TION

MORRIS BROWN COLLEGE, ATLANTA,

GA -- A coeducational institution for colored
students, founded in 1881 undei the African
Methodist Episcopal Church, and opened
in 1885 Grammar, preparatory, collegiate,
normal, miihical, theological, commercial and
industrial departments are maintained De-
grees are conierred The enrollment in 1911-
1912 was 851 in all departments

MORRISVTLLE COLLEGE, MORRIS-
VILLE, MO — A coeducational institution
chartered in 1872 under the control of the
Methodist Kpiscopal Church, South Aca-
demic, collegiate, music, arid expression depart-
ments are maintained The entiance require-
ments are equivalent to twelve points of high
school \voik The AB, Pd B , and AM
degrees are granted

MORSE, JEDEDIAH (1761-1826) —
Author of the first American schoolhookb on
geography He studied at the Woodstock
Academv, and was graduated at Yale College
in 1788 He taught school for a few years, and
was one vear a tutor at Yale Engaging in
the work of the ministry, lie was pastor for
thirtv years of the First Congregational Church
at Chariest own, Mass He was active in the
formation of the Society for the Propagation
of the Gospel (1792), and he was the founder
of the Association for the Reformation of
Morals But his most abiding labor was in
the line of authorship of schoolbooks on geog-
raphv His Geography Made Eati/, published
in 1784, was the first American schoolbook
on the subject This was followed in 1789
bv his American Geography, or a View of the
Present Situation of the (>nited States In
1797 he published his Element* of Geography,
and in 1814 his (rnivet*al Geography For
more than thirtv years those were almost the
sole textbooks on the subject used in Amencan
schools, and with the introduction of the
sfudv ID colleges (Han aid, 1X16) they also

.W)

MORTALITY

MOSELLANUS

found a place in American colleges In con-
nection with his son, Richard C , Mr Morse
published in 1823 a comprehensive Universal
(Gazetteer Pie died at New Haven on June
9, 1826 His son, Sidney Edwards Morse
(1794-1871), also attained some distinction
as an authoi of school books on geography
Sidney was graduated from Yale College in
1811, and latei studied for the niimstiv He
published seveial textbooks on geography,
and invented a new system of printing
maps in colors With Ins brothei Richaid
he established the New Yoik Obwiver in 1823,
which he continued to edit until 1858

W S M
See GEOGRAPHY

MORTALITY, RATE OF, AMONG
CHILDREN — In vital statistics, the rate
of mortality, 01 death late, is detei mined by
comparison of the number living and the num-
ber dying at each age of life foi a given area
of country Reliable statistics aie obtainable
only for certain restricted regions in the United
States, owing particularly to the laxitv of regu-
lations governing the retaliation of births
The table reported here was piepaied by the
Secietaiy of the State Board oi Health of
Massachusetts foi the years 1893-1897, and
may be considered reliable for the region con-
cerned and fairly typical of the conditions
prevailing ovei the greatei portion of this
country

])v VTH RATK, put KM), FOR BO\H

HFTTH

Y V A II

Girln

17244 22
14 70 4 00

1 U2

IN MAHHA< HU-

10

1 40 1 OS 0 SI |() <>5 0 54 'o 4,"»iO W

\ 40 i oo o K jio M,IO r>r>io 4«|o 40

BOVH

17

IS

20

.S3 0 20l() 2S 0 WO ,*()'() 4*'o 4<) 0 ,"> i 0 ~>S 0 <>2
0 \\ ()40I0 l7l()r>4K) ->S 0 (>] (M.r>

Inspection of this table suggests the following
inferences (1) For both sexes the first year of life
has by fai the highest mortality (2) Male chil-
dren undei three have uniformly a lughei death
rate than female children of the same age
(3) Dunng the years five to twenty-one, in-
clusive, the female death rate is slightlv higher
than the male (4) The yeai of minimal
mortality is the twelfth for girls and the
thirteenth foi boys, or the yeai just at the
dawn of pubeity in each sex (5) There is no
evidence that attendance at school alfects the
death rate either favorably 01 unfavorably

E M Hart well's icport, in 1894, on the
mortality of children in the city of Boston alone,

which was based on data for the census years
1875, 1885, and 1890 shows, for each age, a
higher death rate than that given above foi
Massachusetts as a whole Hart well found
the year of minimal mortality in Boston to be
the thirteenth for boys (0 34 per cent) and the
twelfth for gnls (032 per cent) Both dis-
tnbutions, however, concur in showing that
"the period 10-15 is the half-decade in all
human life in which fewest deaths occur to
a thousand living," and that the minimal yeai
is earlier for girls than for boys It will be
noted that the maximal resistance to fatal
disease coincides with the maximal rate of
growth in height and weight G M W

References —

Report of the Director of Physical Training (E M
Haitwell) School Document, No H, Boston, 1H<)4.
Especially pp 45 52

Special R(poih of thi ('eriHus Oj[jiu Supplementary
Analyse, IMh Cttututt (WabhniKton, 1900 )

MOSCOW, UNIVERSITY OF — See RUS-
SIA, EDUCATION IN

MOSELLANUS, PETER (1498-1524) —
Humanist scholar, so called fiom the position
oi his native* town, Bruttig, 01 Pioteg, on the
Ruet Moselle He became a student in the
University of Cologne in 1509, and studied un-
der the humanist Heimann von dem Busche, was
fellow pupil with Erasmus at Deventer, and
leained Greek from Johannes CsBsarius He
then studied at Fieiburg and in 1515 went to
Leipzig, and in 1517 he succeeded Richaid
Croke, the successor of Erasmus, as Reader of
Greek at Cambridge Mosellanus gave a
notable inaugural address dc variaruw Iniguarum
cognittone Greek was still a u suspect " sub-
ject, and this, with his advocacy of the intro-
duction of Hebrew gave color, at that time,
to a twofold charge of " heresv " from eccle-
siastics Of frail body, enfeebled by sickness
and privation, he bore himself bravely, a niartyi
to the humanities, and in a celebrated address
given in 1528 won the audience of students
as against his critics In the year of his ap-
pointment, 1517, he was able to publish his col-
lection of Lai in Colloquies, which he called
Pa'doloyta, as to which he received a letter
of congratulation from the great Erasmus
Forty-five editions of this work appeared by
1550, one of these in England, 1532, by Wynkyn
de Worde These dialogues graphically dis-
close the state of life in Leipzig University, as
the Manuale Scholanum of 1480 had described
the Heidelberg students (See STUDENT LIFE )
Lily's Latin Grammar borrowed the plan of
the verbal figures from Mosellanus, though
with alterations Malnn's Consuetu dines (1561)
ior Eton include the study of the Moscllan fig-
ures by Forms VI and VII

Mosellanus died in 1524, at the age of thirty-
one years In 1528 in the C ' iccronianu* he
received 1 he high praise of Erasmus " There is

320

MOTHER (JOOSE

MOTOR PROCESSES

nothing gieat which might not have been
exported fiom him, had not a premature death
snatched him from our midst in youth, soaiooh
entered into the arena of glory, 1o the great
grief of all the learned and the no small loss of
learning " F \V

References . - -

BoMKR.A ])>( lattinivcht H SdniluutttpriidH'dd Hunnin-
i»tni E>xtcrTul,( 14S01.WO (Boilm, 1S')7 )

MAHHEBIEAU, L L^ Colloqm^ ^«>lunc* <ht ^(tzihtic
Sieclr, <>t It ft Autcur^ (1180-1570) (Pans, 1S7S )

MICHEL, H Peter M o^llanu*. PtidoluQin lnL<ifiim*>(hc
Lin(ratur-tltnlmMtrtVi>\ XVIII (Merlin, 1900 )

MOTHERGOOSE —See NURSERY KHYMES,
LITERATURE, CHILDREN'S

MOTHER PLAYS — See FEOEBEL, KIN-

DKKUARTKN, INFANT EDUCATION

MOTHERHOOD, EDUCATION FOR --

See PARENTHOOD, EDUCATION FOR

MOTHERS' CLASSES AND MEET-
INGS — See PARENTS' MEETINGS

MOTIVE — That phase of a volitional pro-
cess which precedes in consciousness the deci-
sion 01 choice Thus the motive for going
to have a tooth pulled may be the pain which
it causes The motive foi not hiu ing it pulled
may he the thought of disfiguiement The
motive has sometimes been treated as essen-
tial Iv an intellectual or cognitive piocess
Wundt recognizes, on the other hand, two
aspects in every motive, an affective 01 feeling
component, which he calls the impelling feeling,
and the ideational element, which he calls
the moving reason Thus he savs, "When
a beast of prov seizes his victim, the moving
leason is the sight of the victim, the impelling
fooling may be oithoi the unpleasant feeling of
hunger 01 the race-hate aroused by the sight "
(Outlines of Psychology, § 14, 4 ) It mav be
pointed out that even when theie is an impelling
feeling included in a motive, the feeling must
be consciously recognized as a part of the situa-
tion before it can ser ve to determine the volition
It need not, however, be reduced to a cogmtne
process through this conscious recognition

The educator is interested in the question
of motivation of action from two points of
view First, in practical procedure the teacher
must ask how can adequate motives be found
to stir up activity of the right sort? Secondly,
the teacher is concerned with the subsequent
effects of the employment of motives Thus
the hope of reward or the fear of punishment
may be practically effective, but may so sap
the independence of the pupil as to render him
incapable of intelligent self-guidance in later-
life The problem of motives is especially
important in school life, since the school en-
vironment is in a high degree artificial, and
genuine motives are difficult to provide.

In connection with the training of the will,
it is to be pointed out that the cult i\ at ion of
clear, bioad insight is the surest guarantee of
correct behavior In terms of the analysis
of motive suggested in the abo\e paragraph,
this means the cultivation of clear intellectual
insight into the needs of mdrvrdual and social hf(
as ground for action T II J

See INTEREST

References —

Si OUT, Ci F Manual of Psychology, Book IV, Ch X

(Now York, 1SW )
WiiNivi, AN (htthiH^ of I'M/ihtiJogy, §1-4 (Now

York, 1SM7 ) •

MOTOR ABILITY —See MOTOR EDUCA-
TION, MOTOR INSTINCTS, etc

MOTOR CONTROL — See HABITS

MOTOR DEFECTS —See MOVEMENT DIS-
ORDERS

MOTOR EDUCATION —See ACTIMTY,
also MOTOR PRO< KSSES

MOTOR INSTINCTS — See INSTINCTS

MOTOR PROCESSES — The nervous
system may be roughly divided into sensory
and motor regions The sensory regions are
those which lecene stimulations from the
external world, and the motor regions are those
which send out impulses to the muscles of the
body The relation of sensory processes to
consciousness has always been fully recognized
Color and sound and the other sensations aie
all readily recognized as sources of conscious
experience The discussion of sensation lias
therefore always been an important chapter
in any treatment of the relation between
mind and body On the other hand, the rela-
tion between the motor processes in the nervous
system and conscious expeiience is much more
complicated and obscure Certain motor pro-
cesses, such as those of reaching out the hand
to grasp a desired object, are obviously re-
lated to the conscious processes of choice and
volition Hut it very early became apparent
to students of human behaMor that many of
the contractions of the muscles aie in no wise
to he treated as yoluntaiy processes The
cont factions involved in respiration, in many
oi the instinctive activities, and in most of
the emotional expiessions are not matters of
yoluntaiy choice There is, nevertheless, a
traceable connection between all of these
muscular activities and the general state of
consciousness, even when* volition is not in-
volved This is conspicuously true of the
emotional icactions These reactions have
their conscious parallels in veiv pronounced
states of feeling Not only is feeling related
to the muscular activities, but it has become
obvious during the more complete analysis

VOL. IV Y

321

MOTOR PROCESSES

MOTOR PROCESSES

of the perceptual processes that here also the
muscular activities are of importance thus
in describing the methods which we follow
in visual perception, some place must be given
to the movements Berkeley, Helmholtz,
Wuridt, and others have laid great emphasis
upon eye movements as factors in the devel-
opment of visual space perception Heie
again consciousness is not of the* volitional
type, but rather of the perceptual type Any
defect in the movements of the eve will reflect
itself in the change in the form of visual
knowledge

So fully has the importance of motor pio-
cesses come to be recognized in recent psycho-
logical discussions, that a number of theories
have been propounded to explain their place
in the general economy of mental hie In a
paper in the Psychological Review of 1890
Dewey criticizes that doctime ol the condi-
tions of mental life which distinguished sharply
between the motor processes and the sensorv
processes He holds that both of these pro-
cesses are invoked as necessaiy conditions
of every state of consciousness, and that both
contribute equally to the completed conscious
activity This may be made cleai by quoting
briefly one of his illustrations " Take the with-
drawal of the hand from the candle flame for
example What we have is a certain visual-
hcat-pain-muscular-qtiale, transformed to an-
other visual-touch-muscular-quale " That is,
the reaction is just as essential to the com-
plete recognition of the object as is the visual
experience

The tendency to emphasize motor processes
as equally significant with sensory processes
appears also in the writings of MacDougall
in a series of articles in Mind for 1898 Mac-
Dougall points out that consciousness is
present only wheie muscular and nervous pro-
cesses are being organized into new ionns of
behavior That is, consciousness would dis-
appear entirely, if the nervous system were
not involved in woikmg out certain new con-
nections

\ third theory is that set forth by Munster-
berg in his "action theory" Munsterberg
holds that the motor processes in the nervous
system condition the vividness and value of
all experiences The more open the motor
channels, the greater the vividness of the
experience, thus when one is icady to act
instantly upon the reception of a stimulus,
the experience will be much more vivid than
when he is unprepared for action The term
" value " as used by Munsterberg difters very
little from the general term " emotional tone "
If the stimulus is discharged into certain sets
of muscles, the emotional tone is pleasurable;
if discharged in other directions, it takes on a
different character

An older doctrine with regard to the motor
processes was that defended in his earlier-
writings by Wundt, and known under the

name of " mnervation theory " According
to this theory, the outgoing motor processes,
as thev leave the cerebrum, are conditions for
certain phases of experience which are co-
ordinate in importance with the conscious ele-
ments aroused by incoming sensoiy processes

To the untechmcal student of mental devel-
opment the emphasis which psychologists
lav upon the motor processes seems somewhat
extravagant One reads with great reserve the
statement that a very large part of mental
life is drawn from muscle sensations 01 joint
sensations The technical student of mental
processes, on the other hand, finds himself con-
stantly driven to the recognition of the fact
that sensorv qualities are bound together in
space percepts thiough movement, and that
the whole end of conscious activity is to be
sought in some form of behavior Many stu-
dents of psychology are prepared to use the
word " behavior " as the most important general
word in their psychological vocabularies The
sensory stimulus is significant merely because
it sets going some organized train of behavior
The psychology of habit, in addition to the othei
topics above mentioned, immediately suggests
itself as an important part of this general
discussion

To the teacher the recent discussion of
motor processes is significant because it draws
attention to the fact that activity of some tvpe
is essential to all educational development
There is no such thing, as William James points
out in his Talks to J'eaehcrs, as " sensation with-
out behavior" (page 20) " No truth however
abstract is ever perceived that will not probably
at some time influence our earthly action
You must remember that when I talk of action
here I mean action in the widest sense. I
mean speech, I mean writing, 1 mean ycsses
and noes, tendencies 'from' things, and tend-
encies ' toward ' things ; and I mean them
in the future as well as in the immediate pres-
ent " James further summarizes his psycho-
logical view of education by defining education
as training in behavior

All of the recent movements toward the
introduction of constructive woik into the
school emphasize the practical importance
of muscular activity for education So en-
thusiastic have some defenders of activity
been in their advocacy of this type of school
work that they have criticized the older forms
of education as entirely devoid of motor pro-
cesses Students of education should recog-
nize the falsity of the criticism in view of the
fact that speech is a form of motor process as
well as is manual work Furthermore, some of
the recent advocates of constructive work have
stated that unless children are given something
to do in the schools their motor organism is
likely to atrophy We are told that the motor
areas of the cerebrum will suffer if not properly
exercised by school practice. Here again at-
tention should be turned to the fact that

322

MOUNT ALLISON COLLEGE

MOUNT ST. MARY'S COLLEGE

some kind of motor process will always follow
upon the stimulation of the nervous system
There will he inner organic movements if no
other The major need of the school is not
activity on the ground that it was entirely
absent in the earlier forms of education, but
rather the selection of those forms of motor
activity which are most likely to develop the
individual If manual training is a more
satisfactory form of activity in order to pro-
duce certain types of perceptual recognition,
it should be introduced, not because it is a
form of motor process merely, but because
it is a better form of motor process than verbal
reaction for the purpose in hand There may
be certain cases in which verbal reaction is
verv much more economical and advantageous
In this case the verbal reaction will draw the
attention of the learner to certain distinctions
that could not be clearly maiked in any con-
structive activity

All forms of behavior, therefore, should be
considered in any complete psychological
discussion of education Indeed, it is probable
that the motor processes will receive inci eas-
ing attention in future psychological analysis
of children's consciousness and development.
That expression as well as impression is impor-
tant to the teacher is demonstrated beyond
the possibility of any doubt, and the study
in detail of the different forms of expression
remains as one of the major lines for future
educational investigation. C H J

References —

DEWEY, J Reflex Arc Coiicopt Psychological Rev ,
IH'Mj, Vol III, pp 357-370

JUDD, C II Mooement and Consciousness Yale
Psychological Studies, New Sonos, Vol 1, No 1

McDouciAU,, W A Contribution to an Improvement
in Psychological Method Muid, 1898, Vol.
XXIII, pp 15, 159, 364

MuNHTEituERfj, H Grundzugt der Psychologic (Leip-
zig, 1<K)0 )

\\UNDI, W Grundzuge dcr phy.nologischen Psycho-
logy (Leipzig, 1902-1903 )

MOUNT ALLISON COLLEGE UNIVER-
SITY, SACKVILLE, NB —Established in
1858 as Mount Allison Wesleyan College, the
present title being adopted in 1886. The
institution is owned by the General Conference
of the Methodist Church of Canada. The
following courses are given- arts leading to
A B , divinity leading to B D., engineering
leading to entrance on the third year of Applied
Science at McGill University, and honor
courses in classics, mathematics, science, phi-
losophy, and English language and literature
The institution is coeducational, and is affili-
ated with McGill University The faculty
consists of eighteen members, and the student
body 250 in 1912

the Benedictine Fatheis Preparatory, com-
mercial, academic, and collegiate departments
are maintained Degrees are conferred in
arts, letters, science, arid music. The en-
rollment in 1911-1912 was 175

MOUNT HOLYOKE COLLEGE, SOUTH
HADLEY, MASS — An institution for the
higher education of women chartered in 1836
and opened m 1837 as Mount Holyoke Semi-
nary through the efforts of Mary Lyon (q v ),
who was president from 1837 to 1849 In
1888 the institution was chartered as Mount
Holyoke Seminary and College, and in 1893
obtained the present title The entrance
requirements are fifteen units, students are
admitted by certificate or examination The
A B degree is conferred on completion of a
course of two years of prescribed and two of
elective work The enrollment in 1911-1912
was 771 The staff consists of 115 members.
See LYON, MARY, WOMEN, HIGHER EDU-
CATION OF.

References —
GILCHRIST, B B Life of Mary Lyon (Boston,

1910)
STOW, SARAH D Mount Holyoke Seminary and CY>1-

k'Re U S Bur Ed Circ of Information, No.

6, 1891, Ch XX (Washington, 1891 )

MOUNT SAINT AGNES COLLEGE,
MOUNT WASHINGTON, MD — A Catho-
lic educational institution founded in 1867 and
chartered as a college in 1890 A high school
and schools of art and music are maintained
in addition to the college department Re-
quirements for admission are the completion of
a classical high school course The A B de-
gree is conferred by the institution

MOUNT SAINT JOSEPH'S COLLEGE,
BALTIMORE, MD — An institution in-
corporated in 1876 and conducted by the
Xavienan Brothers. Commercial, classical,
scientific, and normal courses are given.
Students are admitted to the college depart-
ment on completion of a high school course
The college confers the A.B , B S , and A M
on completion of the appropriate coiuses.
The enrollment in 1910-1911 was 109.

MOUNT ST. JOSEPH COLLEGE,
DUBUQUE, IA. — An institution for the
higher education of women, founded and main-
tained by the Sisters of Chanty of the Blessed
Virgin Mary College, academic, commercial,
preparatory, music and art departments are
maintained The entrance requirements are
twelve units The A B and B S degrees arc
conferred. The enrollment in 1908-1909 was
221.

MOUNT ANGEL COLLEGE AND MOUNT ST. MARY'S COLLEGE, EM-
SEMINARY, MOUNT ANGEL, ORE —An MITSBURG, MD. — A Catholic college with
institution founded in 1887' and conducted by a secondary school department founded in

323

MOUNT UNION COLLEGE

MULC ASTER

1808 and conducted by secular clergy. A four
years' course leads to the A B, degree, and
the A M is also conferred An ecclesiastical
seminary is also attached to the college The
enrollment in 1910-1911 was 357 The teach-
ing staff consists of eighteen members

MOUNT UNION COLLEGE, ALLIANCE,
OHIO — A coeducational institution established
in 1846 as Mount Union Seminary, arid chai-
tered as a college in 1857 An academy, col-
lege, and conservatory of music are maintained
The entrance requirements are fifteen units
Classical and scientific courses are oiiered
leading to the A B and B S degrees There
was in 1911-1912 an enrollment of 183 stu-
dents in the college proper

MOUNT VERNON COLLEGE, MOUNT
VERNON, OHIO.— A coeducational institution
maintained since 1905 by the Seventh Day
Adventists with college, normal, industrial,
commercial, academic, music, and nursing
departments Four years of high school woik
are required for entrance; courses aie given
leading to the A B and B S degrees The
enrollment in 1911-1912 was 162 The teach-
ing staff consists of nineteen members

MOVEMENT DISORDERS —These are
very varied and limit the ability of the individ-
ual to properly react through stimuli They
may be grouped as (a) slowings (see RETARDA-
TION), (b) lessened power (e q paresis (qv),
paralysis (q v ), monoplegia, hemiplegia, para-
plegia, diplegia, rigidities, and contractures) ,
and (c) increased niotility (eg tiemor (qu),
spasm (q v ), tic (qv), and convulsion (q v )) ,
see also APHASIA, ATAXIA; CHOREA, EPILEPSY,
INTOXICATION, KATATONIA, PAROXYSM,
SPEECH DEFECTS, STAMMERING, STUPOR,
VERTIGO S I F

MOVING PICTURES AS MEANS OF
INSTRUCTION —See VISUAL AIDS TO
TEACHING

MOVING SCHOOL — The moving school
was the first and the most distinctive step
in the evolution of the district school (q v )
The original town school of New England
had been located in the village during the
entire year and was taught (except in the
largest towns) by a single teacher The mov-
ing school was this school of one teacher
located in various parts of the town during
successive periods of the school vear It was
most prevalent during the first half of the
eighteenth century The more remote con-
ditions leading to its creation were (1) social
disintegration, (2) dispersion of population,
(3) decentralization of local institutions due
to growth of democracy, (4) example furnished
by the scattered private master and dame
schools, (5) renewed interest in education, which

brought about the passage of laws imposing
heavier fines upon towns for failure to maintain
schools (in 1701 and 1718) and which secured,
also, a rigid enf 01 cement of such laws. The im-
mediate reason for its establishment was the
abolition of the tuition tax and the raising of the
entire support of the school by the town rate
Many of the inhabitants throughout the town
kept their children at home rather than pay the
town tax, experience proved the impossibility
of raising the master's salary by the combined
town rate and tuition tax On the other hand
it cost little or no more to maintain a school
bv town rate than to pay a fine by town rate
At this juncture the people in the outer sec-
tions would not vote the town rate for a school
unless they enjoyed its benefits equally with
the inhabitants of the village Thus the vil-
lage was compelled to yield and the moving
of the town school into the various outer sec-
tions resulted

The next step in the evolution of the school
distiict was the divided school (qv) H U

References —

MARTIN, G H Evolution of Massachusetts Public
School System (New York, 1894 )

UPDEGRAJF, H The Origin of the Moving School in
Massachusetts Contains Bibliography (Now
York, 1()08 )

MUHLENBERG COLLEGE, ALLEN-
TOWN, PA — Formerly Allentown Academy,
incorporated undei the present title in 1867
and now umlei the control of the Evangelical
Lutheran Mimsteiium Academic arid col-
legiate departments are maintained The en-
trance requirements are fourteen units The
A B , B S , and Ph B are conferred on com-
pleting the appropriate courses The total
enrollment in 1010-1911 was 278 The teach-
ing staff consists of thirteen members

MULCASTER, RICHARD (c 1532-1611)
— English schoolmaster and educational
writer, born at Brakenhill Castle of a bordci
family He was educated at Eton under
Nicholas Udall (qv) and in 1548 was at Cam-
bridge as a King's scholar In 1555, however,
lie is found at Christ Church, Oxford, where he
graduated in 1556 He was appointed the
first headmaster of Merchant Taylors' School
(q v ) and taught there successfully for twenty-
five years In addition to Latin, Greek, and
Hebrew he devoted attention to vocal and
instrumental music and drama In 1573-
1574 and 1575-1576 he presented plays before
Elizabeth, who later appointed him rector
of Stanford Rivers in Essex Owing to a dis-
pute with the governors of the school, he re-
signed in 1586, but again appeared at the school
in 1588 as an examiner (See EXAMINATIONS )
For seveial years he seems to have attended
to his clerical duties, but in 1596 he was ap-
pointed headmaster of St Paul's School,
where lie remame'd until 1608 He died in

MULCASTER

MULLANY

straitened circumstances in 1011 Whatever
Mulcaster's claim to reputation as a teacher
may have been, he will always have a place
in the history of English education as the author
of two works full of ideas and suggestions which
were some three centuries in advance of his
time Unfortunately his style of writing was
not one to command attention and although
his works possess a richer educational content
than those of his contempoianes, Ascluun and
Elyot, they remained neglected until thev were
restored by the revival of educational interest
in the last century In 1581 appeared Posi-
tions wherein those Primitive Circumstances
be examined, which are neccxxane for the Tiain-
ing up of Children, either for xkill in their Books
or Health in then Bodie The work is dedi-
cated to Queen Elizabeth The Portions are
the fundamental principles for an efficient sys-
tem of education The author gives his reasons
for writing the treatise in English those who
know Latin will find just as much ease in under-
standing English, and geneially that language
is better understood which is used from child-
hood, " as our first impression is alwaie in
English before we do deliver it in Latin
And in persuading a known good bv an un-
known waie are we not to call unto us all the
hclpes that we can, to be thoroughly under-
stood ?" Mulcaster begins with the earliest
education of the child, whose individuality
must be respected bv teacher and parents
All classes of society an to attend the elemen-
tal y school where reading, writing, drawing,
and music are taught, the vernaculai is always
to precede a foreign language Mulcastei
is probably the earliest advocate of drawing
" by penne or pencil, . venc requisite to
make a man able to judge what that is which
he byeth of artificers and ciuftsmen, foi sub-
stance, forme and fashion, duiable and hand-
some or no, and such other necessane services,
besides the dehtefull and pleasant " In the
teaching of music (singing) he emphasizes the
value of propei breathing A gieat part of
the work is devoted to the value and character
of physical training, for Mulcastei insists on
the mcnx *ana in eorpore xano This part oi
the treatise is based very probably on the DC
Arte gymnastica of Girolamo Mercuriale (15,30-
1000) Mulcaster not only gives a large num-
ber of exercises and games to tram all parts
of the body, but he suggests the proper seasons
of the year and the time of day for the various
exercises In dealing with school buildings he
emphasizes the importance of an, light, and
playgrounds The elementary school should be
compulsory for all, rich and pool, boys and
girls Not all can be scholars oi leained in the
classics, but all should have the elements, and
in higher education greater differentiation of
courses is desirable On the education ol
girls and women he takes up a very progressive
position , he argues as follow^ " Our countrey
doth allow it, our duetie doth enforce it, their

aptnesse calls for it, their excellencie com-
mandes it and dare private conceit once seem
to withstand, where so great and so rare cir-
cumstances do so earnestly commende " But
handwork for girls is not to be neglected On
the question of piivate tutorial education as
opposed to public he ranges himself strongly
on the side of the latter and overthrows all
the traditional arguments in favor of private
tuition So, too, he is at. one with Ascham
in opposing the prevailing system of foreign
travel But it is on the question of teachers
that Mulcastei becomes almost prophetic
Setting up high standards for the teachei
(professional spirit, all-round knowledge, and
discretion), he insists as strongly on then
proper training He recommends the establish-
ment of training colleges at the universities
parallel to other professional schools for divines,
physicians, and lawyers, — an ideal only just
beginning to be realized

In 1582 appeared The First Part of the Ele-
wentarie which deals with the coriect use of
written and spoken English This is one of
t he earliest as well as one of the strongest pleas
for the cultivation of the vernacular Mulcas-
ter is opposed to the bondage to Latin "I
love Rome," he says, " but London better,
I favor Italy, but England more, I know the
Latin, but worship the English " lie dis-
cusses the origin of language, orthography,
and language refoims, and gives rules foi
orthogiaphy and composition A Second Part
was apparently contemplated, but nevei ap-
peared Mulcaster also wrote verses in Latin
and English, mdifieiently in both, and was the
author of a Cuto Chnvtianus Much was done
by Quick (77') in drawing attention to the
onginal and suggestive works of the piactical
schoolmaster who ruled over the two greatest
London schools of his day

References —

BARN\RD, H Enolnh Pedagogy Second Series, pp
177 1S4 (Hartford, 1876 )

C Die Nnnhbchc Pfidagogik mi 16 Jahr-
huiuhrt Elyot, \scham, und Mulcaxta (\ i-
eima, 190,r> )

Litnn und Wtrkc Richard Mulca^tertf
1N93 )

The educational Writing* of Richaid
(Ciltwgow, 1903 )
Position \ hy Richard MuhuxUr (Lon-

KLAHK, TH

(Dresden,
OLIPHANT, ,1

Mulcnxttr
Qtm'k, H H

don, ISScS

Kdutational Rcfortntr* (New York, 1007)
WATSON, FOHTLH Richard Muleaster and his

mental le
pp 13-17
b47~ap>9
WILMON, 11 H
(London, 1

Edi
Also

Ele-

Tinua, Jun 1893, Vol XL1V,
Rep Com Ed, 1904, pp.

Hi\t<ny of M (reliant Taylor*' School.

MULLANY, PATRICK JOHN (BROTHER
AZARIAS) (1847-1893) — Educator of the order
oi rhnstian Brothers He was educated in
the colleges of his order in America and sub-
sequently studied in England and France
He was president of Rock Hill College (1879-
1886) and professor in De La Salic Institute

32G

MULTIPLICATION

MULTIPLICATION

in New York (1889-1893) He was one of
the founders of the Catholic Summer School
at Plattsburgh, N Y , and wrote numerous
papers on education and philosophy, us well
as books on the philosophy of history, literature,
and the relation of Aristotle to the Christian
church. W 8 M

MULTIPLICATION —In its puimtive
form, the operation of taking one number as
many times as there are units in another, or
of folding a number on itself many times, from
miiUus (many) and phcare (to fold) The word
is related to the English manifold, and it ap-
pears in various languages with a similar kind
of translation Thus it is found in the early
printed books of Germany in the form of
mannigf alien and vervielfachen, as well as
Me hrung

The idea of " leading " a number into this
mamfoldedness is seen in such Latin expressions
as this from Jordanus (1496 edition of his
arithmetic) " Si aliquis numerus duca-

tur " Chchtoveus (1503 edition) says " Mul-
tiphcare, est ex ductu vmus numen in alterum
producere," and similar expressions aie found
in most Latin works This is the origin of our
common expression in algebra, " a into b "

The definition of multiplication has always
given trouble on account of the continual
broadening of the idea. As soon as a frac-
tional multiplier appears the piimitive defini-
tion ceases to be valid For example, we do
not look out of a window half of a time, and
hence the expression " 2\ times 4 " is mean-
ingless unless we extend the significance of
multiplication and of the word " times " This
has been done, and no one objects to saying
" 2£ times 4 " at present, although many
would still object to saying " I times 4," which
would be quite as justifiable if it were not that
we have as short expression, and one1 that is
more exact, in " \ of \ " There is no definition
of multiplication that covers the cases needed
in elementary and secondary classes, and that
is at the same time simple enough for children
It is doubtful if there is any advantage in learn-
ing a definition like the familiar one that " mul-
tiplication is the piocess of taking one number
as many times as there are units in another "
The important thing is that the term should be
correctly used, but that a definition covering the
case of — J V3 X (— I V — 1) should be learned
by beginners is riot at all necessary One
of the best of the elementary definitions is the
one that states that multiplication is the pro-
cess of finding a number that is derived fiom
the multiplicand in the same wav that the
multiplier is derived from unity; but this is
open to the objections of difficulty as well
as uncertainty It is, however, one of the
oldest of our definitions, appearing in the
works of Maximus Planudes in the fourteenth
century and in many of the first printed text-
books

Of the teims employed, " multiplicand "
comes from n inner w mulnplicandux, " Anglico
ye nombui the quych to be multiplied " (as
our earliest English manuscript on the subject
translates it) It appears in this full form in
most Latin arithmetics, but finally numerus
was dropped, as in the writings of Licht (1500),
Huswirt (1501), and Cirvello (1505), leaving
only multiplicand us The word " multiplier "
has had a varied career, appearing as multt-
phcans, multipUcator, moUi plicante , and mul-
tiphant, besides having various othei form •
The word " product " is relatively modem
as limited to multiplication It has as often
been applied to the result of addition, meaning
simply the outcome of any operation In-
stead of product, factus has been used by good
writers, and there is some reason for this usage
in view of the word " factor " This brief
historical sketch is introduced to suggest a
doubt as to the necessity for the difficult
technical terms now taught to children The
early writers spoke of the number to be multi-
plied, which in Latin is numerus multiph-
candus, and there is no reason whjr we should
not say " number to be multiplied " to-day,
at least to primary children Neither is theie
any reason why we should not use " answei "
or " result " for all of the operations In
time it is probable that some such simple
terms will be evolved

As to the operation itself, the history i* very
long. Bhaskara (q v ) gives five plans, and

Pacioli (q v ) gives eight One of these was
known as the " grating " or " quadrilateral M
plan, and is here shown from an Italian
manuscript of about 1420 It was also
known as the " gelosia " plan, because the
Venetians called the gratings in front of
their windows by this name, — whence
the modern French jalomic for a kind of a

326

MULTIPLICATION

MULTIPLICATION

blind Out of all the plans thai have boon
suggested, only one remains in common use
This was invented by the Florentine business
computers, and went by the name of the bert-
cocolo method, because it represented the num-
bers arranged in little squares such as were
found on a kind of cake (bencocolo) and used
in Tuscany The Venetians more commonly
called it by the name xcachien (wachcno, and
other variants) because the little squares
resembled those on a chessboard It was
long after the time of the hist punted books
that the older methods were completely aban-
doned for this one. The object of this his-
torical sketch is to suggest that it is quite
probable that we have not yet settled upon
the best method The introduction of decimal
fractions (see FRACTIONS) has made it often
necessary to multiply to only a limited number
of decimal places, and the ordinary method
carries the work farther than necessary It
seems possible that we may soon be teaching in
the schools some contracted process that will
carry the result only as far as needed

The multiplication table has had thiee gen-
eral forms Of these the column arrangement
is the oldest, being found in the clay tablets
of ancient Babylon, of the third millennium
» c The column table was often very ex-
tensive, miming up to factois in the hundreds.
The products were not memorized, but the
tables were used foi reference, and when a
pioduct was found in this way, the multipli-
cation was said to have been performed '* pet-
colonna " (by the column). The following
are parts of such a table taken iioin a Florentine
manuscript of about 1450

nance times ihe Pythagorean table
Pythnyouca, Tavola Pitagonca, Tabh <lr Pythn-
gorc) It first appears in print in an edition
of Boethms, although Boethius probably ncvei
knew sucli a table, this being an interpolation
of some later copyist The following illustra-
tion shows the table as it appeared in the first
edition

I

8

\o

\<r

\s

1K.6

longtoft*.

\T

-i-o

2-7

8

t-l

ft <f* 70

$

4*

+$

V

•71.

So

\8

-70.

ye

4*

8*

£>

longuubo.

£ctragona.

i i

\ i

\ 7

19 C

t-*t \

40 c

\'v

^ A second form was used by the more scien-
tific writers It was the square array, and was
commonly called in Medieval and Renais-

The third standard form of the multiplica-
tion table is the triangular array, formed by
cutting the square along the crossed diagonal
in the pieceding illustration This was used by
many early writers of mercantile arithmetics

The question of learning the
multiplication table as such
has agitated some teachers
in every generation It is
one of the most patent facts
in education that clnldien
and adults are deficient in
the combinations of numbers
in addition arid multiplica-
tion, and that, with all the
time at the disposal of the
schools these number facts
should be more thoioughh
known than at piesent The
tendency of a generation ago
to let the child acquire these
number facts as the need
appealed, memorizing them
as acquired, has happily been
checked Unless the table is
learned thoroughly, as such,
not all of the combinations
will receive the requisite at-
tention It should be the
subject of constant oral drill,
and if possible it should be placed where it
can also be seen Besides the tabular drill
there must be an equal amount of drill upon

327

MUMPS

MUNICH

the isolated combinations, 4 X 7, 9 X 6, and so
on This learning of the table does not exclude
the introduction of motive, nor does it in any
way interfere with modern ideas as to how
number facts should hrst be presented

The explanation of the process offers few
difficulties In general, it is well to give the
full form of any operation first, followed at
once, and befoie the pupil acquires his habit*
of work, by the form to be used in practice
The explanations of the ordinary textbooks
are generally quite sufficient for the puipose
in view D E S

See CHECKS ON COMPUTATIONS

MUMPS. — Mumps, more technically paro-
titis, 01 parotiditis, is an acute, highly infec-
tious, febrile disease, characterized by swelling
of the parotid gland It breaks out in brief,
but intense, epidemics, usually duung cold and
wet seasons Though few not rendeied im-
mune by previous attacks escape infection,
these epidemics bring little or no mortality
It is rare in infancy and aftci middle age and
commoner in males than in females

The cause of mumps is obscuic, though
probably a microbe present in the saliva and
disseminated by the breath The period of
incubation is long, from two to three weeks,
often nineteen days, and the disease runs its
course in about a fortnight more

As a rule, premonitory symptoms are absent
or very mild The onset is sudden, with pain
and stiffness at the back of the lower jaw,
followed in a few days by the characteristic
swelling of the region just under the lobe of
the ear, and extending forward and downward
to a degree depending on the seventy of the
case A moderate fever lasts for four or five
days The swelling reaches its height m from
two to five days, is stationary for two days,
then rapidly subsides The inflamed region
is painful and very tender In some cases the
skin may redden and even peel Speech is
difficult and muffled Swallowing 01 masti-
cation is painful and the diet must be exclu-
sively fluid The head is bent forward or
toward the swollen side There mav be
headache, earache, vomiting, and other symp-
toms of general ill health In mild eases there
may be but little pain or swelling, but these
cases are as infectious as the severe ones

The most common complications are swell-
ing and pain in the testes, mammae, and ovaries,
which may follow subsidence of the parotid
inflammation, particularly in adolescents and
adults In rare cases the inflammation is
transferred to the brain and death may result
from meningitis In any event, the patient,
even in mild cases, should remain in bed until
convalescence ensues The disease is self-
limited and the treatment consists primarily
in insuring free action of the bowels and pro-
tection of the swelling from cold

The period of infection extends from the

appearance of the swelling for some three
weeks, or about two weeks after the fever sub-
sides, though some authorities believe that
infection is spread in school during the period
of incubation Children suffering from mumps
should be excluded from school for at least
four weeks after the swelling appears Opin-
ion differs as to whether other children living
in the same house should also be excluded
In any event, it is rarely necessary to close
the school as a precautionary measure.

G.M.W
Reference —

BUCK, A H Reference Handbook of the Medical
Sciences, Vol VI, pp. 9-10. (New York, 1903 )

MUNICH — See GERMANY, EDUCATION IN,
INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION

MUNICH, ROYAL BAVARIAN LUDWIG-
MAXIMILIAN UNIVERSITY OF, GER-
MANY — The history of the present um-
versitv at Munich dates buck to the foundation
of a university at Ingolstadt by Papal Bull
obtained by Duke Louis the Rich in 1459
The opening, however, was delayed and took
place in 1472, with faculties of theology law,
medicine, and arts The university was
modeled on the University of Vienna Ingol-
stadt played a prominent part in the Renais-
sance peiiod and numbered among its teachers
Oeltes, Reuchhn, and Aventmus Duimg the
Reformation it became the rallying point oi
Catholicism, Dr Eck, Luther's opponent,
being then a member From the .sixteenth
(1556) to the eighteenth century the umveihity
was under Jesuit contiol in all its faculties
In 1772 the .Jesuits weie lernoved fiom the
university, and the theological faculty was
placed undei the Benedict ines Undei direc-
torship of .1 A Ickstatl in the middle oi the
eighteenth century much pi ogress was made
In 1799 a Kameinl-lnxtdnt was established,
which developed into a faculty of political
science and economics, and for a tune included
also technology, agriculture, and forestry In
1SOO the uni\ersit\ was moved to Landshut,
and received the present title in 1S02 The
transference to Munich took place in 1820,
much to the advantage of the univeisity, which
was now piartically amalgamated with the
Academy of Science The royal family were
strong supporters of the institution New
buildings were provided in 1840, and a hostel
(Maximihaneurn) was established by Maxi-
milian II In 1868 a Tcchnischc Hochschulc
was established in Munich, and agriculture
and to some extent forestry were provided for
in separate institutions Courses have been
increased, the collections have been augmented,
and institutes and seminars have been added
The following faculties arc maintained the-
ology (Catholic), law, political science, medi-
cine; and philosophy (section for philosophy,
philology, and history, arid section for mat he

328

MUNICIPAL COLLEGES

MUNICIPAL COLLEGES

maties and science) The enrollment in the
winter semestei of 1910-191 1 was 6905 matricu-
lated students and 691 auditors, and in the
winter of 1911-1912, 7579

References —
HAUHHOFEH, M Dio LudwiK-Maximilians-Univorsi-

tat zu IiiKolstadt, Lundshut mid Munchrn in

VciuiiKdilu'it und Cornwall Akadtmixfhe

MonaMnft< (Munu h, 18(H) )
LKMH, \\ Dan (1 nten ichtHwexen int deut^ctu n Htnh,

Vol I, pp 45J-t(>8 (BtMliM, 1904)

1'KW 1(H)4 (MuiiKh )

neiuitat in J nf/ol^tmll, Lan ishut, Munchtn (Mu-
nich, 1S72 )

It \HHD\LL, 11 I'umm/us of Europe in (he Middle
Agi* (Oxford, 18*K3 )

MUNICIPAL COLLEGES AND UNIVER-
SITIES - England - - As education became
a function of the state, the tendency was to put
the responsibility foi elemental v education
upon the local communities Gradually that
i (\sponsibility has been extended to the post-
clemcntary grade's And of late there has been
manifest a disposition on the pait of great
cities to provide the means of higher education
rather than to wait for private initiative and
the1 sporadic philanthropy of personal generos-
ity The municipal colleges of England and
the United States are expressive of this high
purpose It must not be understood, however,
in speaking of municipal colleges in England,
that thev are established or maintained by
the municipal authorities In all cases these
universities and university colleges have been
established bv private benefactions and are
still maintained largely bv pnvate endowment
It is only since the beginning of the present
century that the municipalities have been con-
tributing giadually more and moie to the
maintenance of the institutions in then midst
Further, they take an active part by maintain-
ing scholarships and prizes in the universities,
and also have repiesentatives on then govern-
ing bodies The institutions are also civic in
the sense that their success is more and moie
coming to be a matter of local pride, and many
of the benefactions are inspired by civic spirit
as much as by the desire to promote- education.
The local universities, chartered within the
last few years, are Birmingham, Bristol, Leeds,
Liverpool, London (reorganized), Manchestei,
and Sheffield (qq v ) There are also a number
of university colleges, which, howevei, do not
grant degrees Nottingham, Reading, South-
ampton (qq v ) To these must be added the
constituent bodies which make up the Univer-
sity of Wales (q v ), and the new University of
Belfast (qv ), and the colleges of the National
University of Ireland (qv), all of which have
strong local affiliations These civic institu-
tions had their origin in an endeavor " to raise
the intellectual level of the town " in which
thev were placed But situated, as thev aie,
in the renter of England's commercial and

industrial life, and confronted by an intense
desire of their students for greatei efficiency
in these activities, they immediately widened
their scope of work and became strongly
technological The government commission,
in its report of 1907, complains that it " cannot
distinguish between the university and the
technical woik "

Organization — The umveisities and col-
leges are organized into faculties; e g at the
University of Manchestei there are the follow-
ing faculties aits, science, law, music, com-
merce, theology, technology, and medicine,
and a department of education In each
faculty ordinary and honois degrees (q v ) are
given at the end of a course of three years
(except in medicine) While there is a system
of election for the oidmary degree course, the
subjects are taken in closely allied gioups
Each of the universities has the powei to
inspect and examine schools on request The
northein universities, Manchestei, Leeds,
Liverpool, and Sheffield, have combined to
foim a Joint Matriculation Boaid, which holds
a combined entrance examination foi the uni-
versities and also inspects and examines schools,
gi anting school certificates on the results The
universities are also lepiesented, as a rule,
on the governing bodies of local secondary
schools and local education committees

Relation to the Community — These insti-
tutions justify their name, civic universities,
because each makes a special effort to meet
the economic problems of its city In Shef-
field, foi example, the cutleiy center of England,
the local umveisity has an excellent " School
of Metalluigy " "No laboratory is better
equipped than this The manufacture of
crucible, Siemens, and Bessemer steel i& carried
on, on a commercial scale " Leeds is England's
textile center The civic university of that
city has a school of "Textile Industries"
and another of " Dyeing arid Color Chem-
istry " In Birmingham mining is piomi-
nent, and in Manchester " much research
work has been done m chemistry and physics
and their application to the Cotton City's
industries " Industrial England is looking to
these civic universities as agents in promot-
ing hei economic efficiency 01 supremacy

No applicant is admitted to these schools
unless he can meet the standards of geneial
cultuie These requisites allow a certain
amount of election according to a student's
pievious training Thus at Manchester Eng-
lish language or literature, English history, and
mathematics are compulsory, while a choice
of three other subjects (including a foreign
language) out of nine is allowed But there
are no prerequisites according to the future
woik of the students, with the possible ex-
ception of medicine An applicant for a cer-
tificate in am blanch is not requned to meet
the same high le\el of preparation as the
young man who seeks a degree

MUNICIPAL COLLEGES

MUNSTER

Financial Support — The sources of income
of these universities can be grouped under the
following heads —

(1) Endowment fund (2) Pnvate dona-
tions to the general fund (3) Private
donations for specine endeavois Money is
frequently given for a library, a special school,
a new depaitment, special research, new
courses to train for efficiency in some industry
The Cloth woikeis' Company of London gave
the University of Leeds £4000 a yeai, revocable
at pleasure Tins donation was made peima-
nent upon the establishment of the " Depait-
ment of Olothworkers " Such donations are
typical of a large1 numbei (4) Student fees
Though the fees are reasonable, an attempt
is in process to reduce them further and make
thorn uniform (5) National government sub-
sidy allotted annually A regular commission
on " Grants in Aid to University Colleges* "
decided upon a proportional allotment 1o
each institution These subsidies are usually
divided among the universities in proportion
to the fund thai each can raise fiom all other
sources (6) The municipal grant The mu-
nicipality or the county within whose limits
the university is situated makes an annual
grant In many instances the income from
the municipal treasury is insignificant in com-
parison to the othei sources

Students — These universities are coeduca-
tional Sessions are held at night as well as
during the day, those in the industries are
thus enabled to take the technical courses
In no universities, however, do evening courses
count toward a degree Many of these stu-
dents come from distant cities and foreign
countries to avail themselves of the specialties
of the different universities No better index
of the need of the work of these universities
need be offered than their growing popularity
Then influence is shown in the following table —

TEACHING

STAFF

DAY STUDENTS

University College, Lon-

don . .

134

13,%

Bristol University

123

700

Manchester University

242

ir>r>7

Leeds University . .

152

<)()!

Liverpool University .

219

107S

Birmingham University

14K

1017

Sheffield University

150

885

+ 1818 evening

United States — In the United States such
civic institutions are in a stricter sense munici-
pal colleges Every Western state maintains
its university, which is, not only in its purposed
service, but also in its support, public, and
many other states contribute largely toward
Die suppoit of such institutions But beyond
this, cities have made provision of like char-
•ictei Cliai lesion and Baltimore have for

330

many decades supported institutions known
as "city colleges," but the two most notable
examples are the University of Cincinnati
O/ v ) and the College of the City of New York.
The former, made possible by a large private
gift, is a consolidation of an original college
and neighboring schools of medicine, law,
engineering, dentistry, and education Its
student body of 753 college students and 709
piofessional students, its teaching staff of over
200, and its manifold activities are supported
by the original endowment just referred to and
in pait by city contributions

The purest type of a municipal college is the
College of the City of New York. (See NE\\
YORK, COLLEGE OF THE CITY OF ) It is
goveined by trustees appointed by the city,
and receives graduates of the city high schools
upon certificate It is a municipal college
in the truest sense of the term, for it is sup-
ported solely by the city; its unexcelled physi-
cal equipment, costing $5,000,000, was paid
for by the city, it is open only to residents of
the city who meet the entrance requirements,
and to them without fees In its development
it is looking toward fitting young men for
highest service to the city

Germany — While municipal universities as
such have not been established in Germany,
there is a tendency for the universities situated
in the large towns to flourish in point of num-
bers at the expense of the small universities
This is further drawing attention to the fact
that the largest and wealthiest centers of popu-
lation are not provided with facilities for higher
education A new era has been inaugurated
in this field by the establishment of a uni-
versity in Frankfort-a-M (qv), in which
private munificence and the civic authorities
had a large shaie It is very probable that
before long a similar institution will be estab-
lished at Hamburg J H F

MUNICIPALITY — See CITY SCHOOLS;
CITY SCHOOL ADMINISTRATION.

MUNSTER, WESTFALISCHE WIL-
HELMS-UNIVERSITY OF, GERMANY —

The present university, although one of the
most recent of German foundations, has his-
torical continuity with the Gymnasium Pau-
linum conducted by the Jesuits at Munster
in 1588 Efforts were made to establish a
university early in the seventeenth century,
and although privileges were obtained from
the Pope in 1629 and the Emperor in 1631,
nothing more was done. In the next century,
however, through the untiring energy of Elec-
toral Prince von Furstenberg, a Papal Bull
and the Emperor's consent were obtained in
1773 for the erection of the university. But
the endowments were so poor that the opening
with faculties of theology (Catholic), law, and
philosophy wns delayed until 1780 Chairs in

MURMELLIUS

MUSCLES

medicine were added gradually The numer-
ous wars of the period, however, were a check
on progress. Hopes foi the future were en-
tertained under Prussian rule, but they came
to nothing^ since the government decided to
found a university at Bonn in 1808, and to close
the faculties of law and medicine at Minister,
leaving to it only theology and law and the
title of Akademixche Lehranxtalt. The work
of the institution was thus confined to training
Catholic theologians and the few candidates
for the higher teaching profession In 1843
the title of Royal Theological and Philosophi-
cal Academy was granted, with university
privileges. New chairs were added from time
to time after 1858 Aftei 1875 a fuither
development took place; new chairs were
created, seminars were added, an audit onum
and chemistry laboratory were erected, and
an archaeological museum, botanical institute,
geographical equipment, and a museum of
medical and modern art In 1900 the Prov-
ince of Westphalia and the city of Minister
raised funds for the local institution, and in
1902 a faculty of law and political science was
established and university privileges weie
granted In 1907 the title Westfahsche Wil-
helms-Universitat was adopted A faculty
of medicine has riot vet been established, but
five semesters toward a complete medical
course can be completed at the university
The following faculties are now in existence
Catholic theology, law and political science,
philosophy (philology-history, mat hematics-
science, and pharmacy) The enrollment m
the winter semester of 1911-1912 was 2314

References —

LEHMANN, R Dn Erwriterung dtr Witfftllmchcn

Hochsckuh (Munstor, 1901 )
LEXIS, W 7>a.s Unterncht^wescn im deutschcn Reich,

Vol I, pp 444-^51 (Berlin, l'H)4 )
PIEPEH, A Die altc Umvcr&itfit Minister. (Munstor,

1902)

MURMELLIUS, JOHANNES (1480-
1517) — A Dutch scholar and schoolman, was
born in Roerrnond, Holland, and educated
at the schools of Deventer, where he became
a pupil of the famous humanist llegms
From 1498 to 1513 he lived at Minister,
Westphalia, where (1509) he was appointed
rector of a Latin School In 1510 he took
a similar position in Olkmai, Holland He
was the author of many widely used text-
books, such as the Pappa puerorum, a begin-
ners' book in Latin, also an anthology of Latin
poets, and a textbook on versification With
Reuchlm (q v ) he took part in the fight against
the enemies of humanism His life has been
written by Reichling (Freiburg, 1880), who also
published a selection of his Latin poems with
a German translation F M

References —

BOMER, A Augtigewtthllc WerLe d?8 M dnatt / ixJn n
Huntamaten Johannes Murmelhua (Mtumtci,
1892-1895.)

FRETJNDOEN, J ])cs Jotumnes Murmelhus ptodag<t-
gixche tichriftcn In Kammlung der bedeutewlxtt n
jrtdagogwihui SthrrfUn, Vol XVI11 (Pader-
horn, 1H94 )

MURRAY, DAVID (1830-1905) —Educa-
tor Graduating from Union College in 1852,
served as mstructoi in Albany Academy (1852-
1857) and principal of that institution (1857-
1863), and professoi in Rutgers College (18(53-
1873) From 1873 to 1879 he was adviser to
the Minister of Public Education in Japan, and
from 1880 to 1S89 was secretaiy of the
Hoard of Regents of the University of the
State of New York He was the authoi of
Land Surveying (1869), Japanese Education
(1876), and History of Education in New Jei-
wj (1899) W 8 M

MURRAY, LINDLEY (1745-1826) —
Author of Murray's grammars, readeis, and
spellers He was educated in the schools oi
the Society of Friends, and taught ior a shoit
time in a boarding school at Burlington, N J ,
and later at Holdgate, neai York, England
His English Grammar was published in 1795,
his English Reader in 1779, and his Spelling
Book in 1804 All these textbooks passed
through many editions, with numerous " se-
quels " and abridgments His Autobiography
was published by Elizabeth Frank after his
death W S M.

See GRAMMAR; LATIN GRAMMAR

MURPHY, JOHN J (1844-1892) —

Jesuit educator He was graduated at Carlo w
College, Ireland, in 1862, and came to the
United States and ]omed the Society of Jesus
four years latei He was instructor and pio-
fessor in seveial American Jesuit colleges, and
was piesident of St Francis Xaviei College
(1885-1888) He wrote several philosophical
papers W S M

MUSCLE READING —See MIJSD READ-
ING

MUSCLES, FUNDAMENTAL AND AC-
CESSORY — In the course of animal evolu-
tion, the small fine muscles of the body have1
graauallv been evolved by differentiation
within the stiuctuie of the larger muscles
Thus, the muscles which control the lips of
the human mouth have been evolved out of a
relatively simple gioss muscle, which in the
lower foims of animal life controls the mouth
opening The muscles of the hand have be-
come gradually differentiated from the gross
muscles controlling the forward extremity of
the lower animals This fact of animal evolu-
tion has been cited by students of education
as ground for the general principle that the
child's muscular training should follow the
same genetic order The grosser muscles
should be first brought into action, the finei
muscles should be reserved to a later period

MUSCULAR SENSE

MUSEUMS, EDUCATIONAL

of education This statement with regard to
muscular training has sometimes been put in
a form which accentuates further the signifi-
cance of the difference between fundamental
and accessory muscles It has sometimes
been said that the finer muscles are immature
at the beginning of individual life and unable
to perfonn any work Such a statement as
this last overlooks the fact that even the
i datively undeveloped movements of eaihei
infancy involve the contraction of the finer
muscles Thus the closing of the fist as it
appears in every normal infant involves the
contraction of all the finer muscles of the hand
as well as of the grosser muscles The con-
ti action of the vocal cords in like fashion
involves some of the most delicate muscles
of the body The rolling of the eyes depends
upon the contraction of the fine muscles of the
eye

In the early stages, however, these fine
muscles are not capable of acting in such a way
as to produce complex or highly differentiated
coordinations Thus it is quite impossible
to move one of the fingers at this early stage
in a dnection different from the general move-
ment which is being made by all of the fingers
of the hand While the fine muscles are thus
capable of contraction, they are not capable
of highly differentiated movements The dis-
tinction should be made, therefore, not between
the small muscles and the large muscles, but
between the fine differentiated coordinations
and the grosser coordinations The develop-
ment of the fine diffcientiated coordinations
is undoubtedly slow and requires sensory and
motor control of a very highly organized type.

C H J

See COORDINATIONS

MUSCULAR SENSE — The organs of move-
ment, especially the joints and muscles, are
provided with sensory nerve fibers which send to
the central nervous system sensory currents
whenever the limbs or other muscular organs
of the body are moved The significance of
motor processes for mental development has
long been recognized in psychological writing
The muscle sensations have been described by
such writers as Bain and Wundt as avenues
through which bodily movements contribute to
mental development C H J

References —

BAIN, A Senses and Intellect (London, 1885 )
WUNDT, W Outlines of Psychology (Leipzig, 1897 )

MUSEE PEDAGOGIQUE — See FRANCE,
EDUCATION IN; MUSEUMS, EDUCATIONAL.

MUSEUMS, EDUCATIONAL — The edu-
cational museum may be defined as an insti-
tution to conserve and display collections
which have an illustrative, comparative, or criti-

cal relation to the schools and to school work,
01 which are concerned with education as a
profession, a science, or a social institution.
The mention of a confusion in the use of the
term " educational museum " will make its
proper significance more clear Museums lo-
cated in a school or organized as an adjunct
to a system of schools, and aiming to aid school
instruction directly and immediately, are some-
times called " educational museums " Their
contents are related to education, but- since
their collections arc designed as a supplemen-
tary agency in instruction, they may better
be called " school museums " They can be
sharply distinguished from the ''educational
museum " the school museum is itself didac-
tic, it exists for the pupil directly, it includes
only the means of teaching, that is, the appara-
tus, appliances, and materials of teaching
brought together for use in actual instruction
Distinguished from the school museum is the
type of museum which is related to education
as an institution, a profession, or a science,
rather than to actual teaching, which exists
not for the pupil, but for the teacher, the person
interested in school administration, the student
of education, and the general public, the col-
lections of which illustrate not only the means
and appliances of education (and these not
to be used in teaching, but to be studied and
considered for themselves), but in addition, it
may be, the methods of education, its results,
its organization and administration.

The function of the educational museum may
also be defined by comparison with the educa-
tional library, the educational laboratory, the
model school, arid the school exhibit and ex-
hibition The educational library contains
all printed material relating to education, the
educational museum contains all objective
collections, the museum, however, includes
all printed material more properly treated as
exhibits for inspection or as gross data for
elaboration, than as books for circulation,
namely, collections of school textbooks, teach-
ing manuals, archives of school catalogues
and reports, and perhaps bulky illustrated
works, as on school architecture The educa-
tional laboratory undertakes investigations
in education, and gathers books and objective
collections as demanded by these investiga-
tions; it has no function of public visitation,
as the museum, or of circulation of its resources,
as the library, its activities are centered in
its scientific studies The model school or
practice school of an institution for training
teachers might be called a dynamic museum
of education By the school exhibit is ordi-
narily signified a temporary display of the
results of pupils' work, together with the
school building and its equipment, usually
opened to the public for one or more days at
the end of the school year The school ex-
hibition or exposition is a centralized display
of such exhibits, chiefly including samples of

MUSEUMS, EDUCATIONAL

MUSEUMS, EDUCATION \L

pupils' work, brought together for a city or
larger district for a longer or a shorter tune,
organized, it may be, independently 01 in
connection with some industrial exposition
Such educational expositions often include
manufacturers' exhibits of teaching appliances,
school furniture, textbooks, and other materials
In so far as these exhibitions bring together
displays which have been prepared disinter -
estedly, so far they do temporarily pait of
what educational museums do peimanently
In so far as manufacturers' exhibits enter on
a competitive basis, the exposition is oi a
different genus from that of the educational
museum (See EXPOSITIONS, INTERNATIONAL,
\ND EDUCATION, EXHIBITIONS, SCHOOL)

There have been seventy-five or more edu-
cational museums piojected in some twenty-
five different countries since 1850 Credit
foi the first one is due to Egeiton Ryerson,
Provincial Superintendent of Education for
Ontario, Canada, who- in 1845 was granted
£100 to purchase samples of school models,
copies of which he had seen in Ameiican schools
and which he thought Canadian manufactuieis
might duplicate The collection of school
aids became part of the Canadian Museum,
opened at Toronto in 18f)G, and afterward
known as the Educational Museum, until
1897, when the name Provincial Museum was
assumed At about the lattei date the last
purely educational exhibits weie retned from
the museum The educational collections at
Toronto realized ceitain important results
they distinctly improved the teaching equip-
ment of the schools of the province both < hrough
force of example and by the dnect agency of
the government m selling to the schools dupli-
cates of the exhibits shown, they led, within
ten years, to Canadian manufacture of teach-
ing materials, school desks, and other requi-
sites, so that the depository and sales bureau
of the government could later be dispensed
with, they influenced American schools through
the visits of various American teachers, es-
pecially through the stimulus given to Prin-
cipal Sheldon (q v ) of the Oswego Normal
School, who inspected the Toronto collections
about I860 and as a consequence initiated the
"Oswego movement" (q v ) in American
education

Though the idea of a museum of education
is claimed for the French school inspect 01,
Jullien, who wrote about 1817, the Crystal
Palace Exhibition in London in 1851 assuredly
.gave the stimulus to the first, two European
educational museums, — the Collection of
Teaching Appliances of the Royal Buieau
of Commerce and Industry for Wuittemberg,
organized at Stuttgart in 1851 and still forming
a section of the National Industrial Museum
in that city, and the Educational Section of the
South Kensington Museum, London, 1857-
1888 Indeed, a large proportion of educa-
tional museums owe their beginnings to the

educational sections of mtei national exposi-
tions A survey of the educational museums
of the world is the basis for the following state-
ment of their usual collections and activities

Such exhibits may be organized according
to (1) the progiessive stages of school work,
the kindergarten, the elementary giades in
turn, and higher education, or (2) the sub-
jects of instruction, as geography, history,
industrial arts, or what not Both schemes
of classification have been followed, each has
its obvious advantages These materials of
instruction, including textbooks as well as
" aids," appliances, illustrations, material, and
teaching equipment of all sorts, the teacher's
tools in short, form the item of first importance
in a dynamic museum, one that seeks to im-
prove teaching It is significant that in the
statutes of sixty-seven museums, assistance
to teachers is mentioned by forty-two as their
first aim, and the collection and exhibit of
teaching appliances by fifty-seven as their most
important work The collection of teach-
ing appliances is made vital by the effort, to
secure new and improved types as soon as
they come upon the market, and by prompt
criticisms m the educational press, while in
a few cases museums have sent out traveling
exhibits of new appliances that teachers may
see the latest and best

With emphasis upon new arid improved
appliances, one in five museums at least plans
to include foreign exhibits, thus looking to
that international exchange of ideas so im-
portant to educational progress Some strik-
ing instances of this international movement
in educational ideas aie afforded by the To-
lonto, Tokyo, and South American museums
It might be urged that these museums all aided
in the improvement of education in new coun-
tries, the Fiench and German museums, how-
ever, show that the educational museum has
still a function for progress even in advanced
countries

The next most common exhibits are those
of the school building and its furnishings The
comparative study of architecture, or, to men-
tion a more limited topic, the school desk,
could be facilitated by the aid of the educa-
tional museum, and either topic is worthy
of research The school building itself forms
a division in most educational museums,
illustrated by architects' drawings and blue
prints of floor plans, elevations, and then
details Such exhibits make possible a com-
parative study of the school plant, and may
extend the adoption of good architecture
Such collections furnish the necessary founda-
tion to treatises upon school architecture,
which ought to be more than compilations
of pictures, and should offer wise criticism
based on wide comparisons

Other exhibits mentioned in the plans of
different museums are the following those
illustrating school organization as record blanks

333

MUSEUMS, EDUCATIONAL

MUSEUMS, EDUCATIONAL

and report*, samples of pupils' work, to illus-
trate the results of instruction, historical
exhibits — a feature in one in four of the
museums, an educational library, an histoiical
library, archives of school reports, collections
of textbooks, of children's literature, and of
school and other pictures Two or tlnee of
these items merit an extended notice

Exhibits of children's work, the immediate
material results of the teaching process, have
had Hrnall place, usually, in educational
museums They have always been a large
feature of temporal y educational exhibitions
Usually regarded as of ephemeral value, these
exhibits have in a few instances, notably the
Paris museum, been created into peimanent
displays Their utility resides in the possibil-
ity which they afford of comparisons of prog-
ress in the schools; to be ichablo for this
purpose, they must be onginally compiled
with accuracy and under known conditions.
Limited in amount, and organized in albums,
such exhibits of children's regular school work,
or perhaps of the results of tests and examina-
tions, might become educational records of great
value

Historical exhibits of various kinds have
been made Some of these are memorials
of educators, as the collection in the Deutuchcs
SchulmuMum in Berlin, and the collection of
physics appaiatus made and used by Professor
SchaefTer at Jena, and now maintained there
as a memorial to him Most striking of all
iire the Pestalozzi memorials at Zurich and the
Cornenius collection at Prague, while the great
educational libiary at Leipzig, the Padago-
qischcH Zcntral (Comenius-Stiftung), although
not a museum primarily, is in itself a memorial
of this tvpe Very suggestive as a type of
possible historical exhibit is the Hamburg
School-History Collection, which by means of
prints, photographs, pupiiV books, textbooks,
old school reports, and the like represents the
development of local education Any com-
munity might in a similar simple way preserve
within its main school building such memorials
of its own educational history Another type
of historical exhibit is that illustrating the
development of particular school subjects, as
the Breslau museum display illustrating the
evolution of charts and other appliances for
religious education and for the teaching of
mathematics In this category, too, belong
the unique historical collections of manuscripts
and textbooks of arithmetic, grammar, readers
beginning with hornbooks, penmanship, and
other school subjects, in the private library
of George A Plimpton, Esq , of New York

Special collections are features of some
museums sometimes collections of local
natural history or industry, often exhibits
of school art and schoolroom decoration,
school hygiene, pictorial collections, or teach-
ing materials for individual subjects, as re-
ligion, arithmetic, or drawing. In a few in-

stances, educational museums devoted en-
tirely to a limited field have been proposed
as, the projected museum of Frocbel memorials
at Eisenach; the museum of industrial educa-
tion at Frankfort (1900-1902); and that of
deaf-mute education at Leipzig

The educational library is the natural ad-
junct to the museum There is some sort of
book collection with practically every museum.
The Pans and the Berlin city museums have
each a large library; and others have frequently
5000 or more volumes. These libraries com-
prise books on education, textbooks, teachers'
manuals, and the archives of school reports,
regulations, programs, and like invaluable
documentary records The possibilities of the
last-named item arc indicated by the collec-
tion of several thousand serial catalogues and
reports, annually augmented, on file in the
Educational Library of New York State
Special book collections are found with certain
museums: catalogues and books relating to
teaching appliances, children's books, in
many cases, reading rooms with educational
journals on file (See LIBRARIES, EDUCA-
TIONAL )

Anothei view of the educational museum as
an institution mav be secured by observing
its activities. Over half the museums loan
out exhibits, in a few cases directly into the
schools, in other cases to teachers and school
officials for inspection and study The St
Petersburg museum made a striking exhibit
at the Centennial Exhibition in Philadelphia
in 1870, the Rostock museum sends parcels
of new teaching appliances over four different
circuits, to forty-four different places of exhibit,
and the Copenhagen museum has circulated
exhibits and arranged accompanying lectures
on school architecture, hygiene, etc Lantern
slides are loaned for purposes of instruction by
several museums The loan of books from the
libraries is common Temporary exhibitions
are held by three fourths of the museums, and
on such subjects as children's literature,
history of schools or of education, pictures
and school decoration, manufacturers' loan
exhibits of teaching appliances in special sub-
jects as geography and drawing, exhibit of
pupils' work in manual training and other
subjects The Paris museum has a section
for publishers' loans in each of its departments;
the Amsterdam museum has definite regula-
tions governing manufacturers' loans, the Rio
de Janeiro museum has as one feature an
annual exhibit of pupils' work The number
of visitors is another measure of a museum's
usefulness, the " mean " attendance for forty
museums was from 1000 to 1500 per annum
Especially significant are visits by teachers
and pupil teachers preparing for examinations,
and by members of seminar classes, as is
common in the German museums.

Publications of some form other than
catalogues are issued by many museums

334

MUSEUMS, EDUCATIONAL

(a) a periodical, in some cases a separate paper
or perhaps a supplement or page in an educa-
tional journal which reports accessions, ex-
hibitions, criticisms, etc , (/>) monograph
studies giving historical material or the results
of investigations have been issued b\ six
museums at least; (c) school mateiials, whethei
books, new types of teaching appliances, 01
even, in one case, a school desk, have been
brought out by certain museums in the effort
to improve teaching equipment The furnish-
ing of information has been stated as the broad
aim of these museums, and many seive as
veritable bureaus of educational information
for the territory they reach

Finally, instruction for self-improvement,
lecture courses, and even laboratory courses
m natural science have been provided by some
museums for teachers and pupil teacher s,
emphasizing that the museums exist, for the
teacher, arid especially for the teacher in
training Significant to this same end is
the tendency of educational museums to ally
themselves with institutions for training
teachers the Toronto museum was connected
with a normal school, the Tokyo museum has
been annexed to the higher normal school,
the director of the Pans museum has recently
suggested affiliation with the University oi
Pans and the normal schools, in the university
schools of education there has been a sentiment
in favor of the organization of collections
which may stand to educational research as
do the natural history collections and his-
torical archives to scientific and historical
study Herein, perhaps, lies the most promis-
ing function of the educational museum

Ltst of Educational Museumx The names aie
arranged by countries in alphabetic order
The first date indicates the year of opening ,
the second date, if given, the year of closing

Arg<ntine Republic — 1 Buenos Avres Bibhotwa y
Muneo pedagdgicos, 1888

Austria-Hungary — 2 Agram Hrvatvki tfkolski Mu-
zej, 1901 3 Hozen. Mandig< Ldirnuttelauv-

vtdhtng, 1889 4 Budapest Oi izdgon Tanszer-
muHeunt, 1877. 5 Graz Pet niariente L< lir-
mittelaussteUung, 1882 (> lnnnbnuk MtAndige
Lthnnittelauzstellung, 1888 7 Laibaeh »SV/<w/-
inuseum and StAndtge Lehrnnttelauattdlung, 1898

8 Plague Stdld skohn vyntara v Praze, 1890

9 Vienna Perrnanente Lehrmittelavsstellung du
Hladt Wien, 1872-1892 10 Vienna (A/< r-
reichixehes SUuilmtmeum, 190.1 11 Vienna Pa-
manente Lehrnu'ttelaufwtellung der Ge-sellnehaft Lehr-
mittelzcntrale, 1905

Belgium — 12. Brussels Mu»6e stoluire National, 1880
Brazil — 13 Rio do Janeiro Afuveii excolai nacionnl,

188.3

Bulgaria — 14 Sofia. Ucihtten Muzej, 1905
Canada — 15 Toronto Educational Museum, 1845-

1881 , now Provincial Museum
Chile — 16 Santiago Muxeo dt Kdmaridn Xaunnal,

1911
Denmark — 17 Copenhagen Dannie tikolernuueurn,

1887
France — 18 ChartreB Educational Museum and

Library 19 Paris Mus6e ptdagngiqut, 1879
Germany — 20 Augsburg Die Scliwdbische per-

manente tichuUaugtellung in Augsburg, 1881. 21.

MUSEUMS, EDUCATIONAL

Bumberg Dn
in Bantbtrg, I

/'<

Bremen

/ ninm nit Lt Inrnittt hin^^tdlitng
Mi J2 Berlin Da* Dtitl^h,
uni in Berlin, 1870 2,3 J3erlm Du^
ttihulnnweuni in flu I in, 1877 2\
/>r/s tfthulmutt urn tin Jlrvwi^chfn Lrhi-
1902 25 B resin n /Ms *1(idti^h<
uHi tn Jiniluu, 1S9I. U(> ( Vilngnr

Du »ttifitix<h< L<}irnntt<l\f>tntnlun(/ in Coin n Kh ,
1901 27 DoiiMU\voitli l)n 1'ci HIII m nt< l<h>-
nnitelnniwIi'Uung (let* C'ab^u
1870 1884 28 Dnnzig
tclxan.inlunu, 1904 29

kundlnht tfdtuhnuwuin tn
Drewden 7Ms Mhulmu
Ldncrvwant* in I)ut*d(nt

Dtatdr

u UHIH in Diimmworth
Dn Donzigrr Lrtmmi-
Diesden J)OK humul
1905 {()

Kacli* when
,31 Eisenach
.32 Frank-
i'bihulHiUb iuni,

1904
'piojoited)

(iothn J)tii>

51 Hix^loif
urn do tittidt-

Datf Fr<nlnl
fort l)ti*

1900-1902 .3,3 Cileiwitz f)at

tichuhnuseinn in (Jlnwitz, 1905 .34
(jothaischc tit huhnuseum , 1889 ,'35 Hamburg
J)ie Hamburgu LthrnntttlauKstellunQ, 1897
^3(> Hamburg Dit &hnlg<i*(.hiihtlic}H tiammhnig
(I Nchulwibantachaftlichcn Bildungwreinb, 1897
37 Hanno\er Dan fitndtwche tithuhnuscum in
l/annnuer, 1892 ,3S Hildesheun l)a^ tithul-
nntMuni (du L(V(?kuhn*>tiftung) in H\ldcnheini,
1891 39 Jena Das Thunngtj tichulmtivt urn
in Jena, 1889-1897 40 Jena Dart Kchacffn

Muirum, 1900 41 Kiel l)a\ fthltwig-

fiulfitfiniscnc St. hulni upturn in Ki<l, 1890 42

Konigsberg J)ai> tiihulmimeuni dn Konig^-
bcrycr Lthrvroir(in\, die titadh^rin Hihlurfluh
fin die VolkiwchuUchrcr, 1881 4.i Kolbeig

Dati tfchnlinu'M urn m Kolbctg, 1904 44 Leip-

zig Du Pfrmaticntt Aubstcllung Ton Lthi-

inittfln in Lnpzig, 1805-1875 45 Leipzig

Deutwhea Must urn fui Tai4bstunimi'nbildnng,
1895 4() Magdeburg Die Lt>hrnntlclan^ttl-
hnig f/r.s Lvhnrotrbnndt*. du J'rovinz tiatfiitn in
Magddntrg, 1877 17 Munich Da\ Kanig-

lich( Kidbrnfiflfiztn ron Obtrbaijcni fiir L<hr-
ftutfd und tiihuli inuchtungvgegtmtandc in Mnn~
(hen, 1875 IS Oldenbuig Da* Mhulmuwutn

zu Oldenbuig i (jro^h , 1900 49 Po,sen 7>«,s
Postncr S< hiihnuM iun 1S97 50 Regensbejg

Die Oberpfalzit>(h< juintamutt Rn t^-Lt hrtmt'd-
(in&blillung in Ktgcn^lurg, 1880
Dats Natuihwtoi tut hf tidinlni
yimeindf Ktjrdnif, 1897 52 Rostock

JV/*rA/f nburgivt In VolL^chtihnuw urn in Ro^ttxh,
1888 5,'3 Stuttgart Die Lefmnittdttamnilunt/
der Koniglich Wurttcinbti(/ischen Zintiahtdlt fui
(rcwerbe und Handd in tftuttyart, 1851 54 Wolf-
enbilttel Da* La nd<"»-Schuhnu WHIH fur da,\
Herzogturn Braunschweig in \\olftnbuttel, 1S92

Great Britain --55 London Educational Section of
South Kensington Museum 1857-1888 5(> Lon-
don Educational Museum oi Te.nheis1 (Juilcl,
1 892

Greece — 57 Athens ''RMraiScvriktv Mowrftov, 1905

Italy — 58 Genoa Civieo Mu&eo pedagogtto t t(o/6f«-
tuo, 18S1 59 Rome Muzto dldiuziom t d'
Educazwnt , 1874 1881

Japan — oO Tokv o Kimku-k<ikubnt*ukwan, 1878

Nethnlandb --61 Amsterdam \ederUind*ch Sthool-
muiteuHi, 1877 (>2 Hague Museum t< n baft
Dan lid Onderuuj* (Projected)

Norway — 03 rhristiama Nkulunuimm for A'n,s-
hama Folktt>kol< i , 1901

Portugal — (>4 Lisbon Muit jjedaydgico dt Lwboa
188.3

7?Mss/a -05 St IVteisburg Pidagugitwkij M uzej
vojt nnoutebnueh znvcdeni), 1801

Xervta — 00 Belgrade tikohlei musej, 1898

Xixnn — (>7 Madrid MHMO pedagtigtco nacional
1884

Switzerland — 08 Bern Schweizer perwanente fichul-
ausbteUung, 1878 09 Freil)erg Mutfe ptdagogiqiif
sMiisf de Fnbmtrg, 1881 70 Lausanne Mu<*i<
siolaire cantonal Vaudois, 1901 71 Lucerne

J'rirnancnte Sehulausxtellung, 1905 72 Neuchatel
Kxpnttition afolaife cantonal permanent^, 1887. 73.
Zurich Pestalozzianum, 1875.

335

MUSEUMS, SCHOOL

MUSEUMS, SCHOOL

United Mates of A mo Ma 74 New York Teachers
College, Columbia University, 1891) 7,r> Wash-
ington U S Bureau of Education, 1H70 1900
In addition, museums or permanent exhibits of
educational matenal have been contemplated or
provisionally organized within the United States,
by the city sehool systems of St Louia, New York,
New Haven, Connecticut, and Reading, Pa , bvthe
state museums of New Jersey, Pennsylvania,
and Louisiana , by the State Education Depart-
ments of New Yoik, Massachusetts and some
other states, by departments of education in the
following universities California, Clark, Harvard,
Illinois, and Indiana, and by societies or associa-
tions a geography exhibit by the Brooklyn, New
York, Institute of Arts and Sciences, and a religious
education exhibition by the Sunda\ School Coin-
mission of the Episcopal Church Diocese of New
York, and by the Religious Education Association

Uruguay — 7ft * Montevideo Maneo y Biblioteca peda-
gdgicos, 1889 B. R A

See also EXPOSITIONS, INTERNATIONAL \ND
EDUCATIVE, EXHIBITIONS, SCHOOL

References —

ANDREWS, B R Museums of Education Teachers
College Record, Vol IX, No 4, September, 190S,
pp 195-291 (New York, 1908)

BEEGER, ,T Die Padagogischen Bihtiotheken, tidiul-
rnuxeen und stQndigen Lehnmftel aubstcllungen dir
Welt, imt beftotidt rei Bfruchsic/ittgung d(r lya(1(i-
gogunihen CentrulbildioUuh ((1onn>fnn\-Stiftung) zu
Leipzig Eiiu' geschichtli(.ht>tah\tix<}t( Zuxumnien-
stdlung (Leipzig 1X92 )

EATON, J Museums Illustrative of Education Cir-
cular of Information, No tt, ISSl, U S Bur Educ
(Washington, 1S91 )

HALL, (J STANLEY A Central Pedagogical Libiaiv
and Museum for Massachusetts Pal Sein , Vol
XII (1905), pp 464-470

HUBNER, M Dn analdndtacht n tichulrnuveoi, nut
t inn Abbildung den Nthulntut*eum*i in Tokw (Bres-
lau, 1906 )

Die (leutxchen Schulmuitecn Nebut finer Karte und
>> Talxlltn (Bieslau, 1904)

(These give complete historical sketches of individual
museums )

MONROE, WILL S Educational Museums and Libraries

of Europe Educ Rev , Vol XI, 1896, pp .374-391
WATERMAN, E , JR Educational Exhibits at World's

Fairs Educ Rev , Vol V (1893), pp 120-129 and

219-231
ZIEIIEN, J Uber den Gedanken der (Jrdridurtg ciucs

Reichxschulmuseumx (Leipzig, 1903 )

MUSEUMS, SCHOOL —Quite apart from
formal laboratory equipment and materials
on the one hand, and the usual school tools,
as slates, books, pencils, on the other, there
exists a broad field of illustrative materials,
pictures, specimens, models, what, not, used
in instruction, the organization and caie oi
which constitutes the province of the school
museum Its divisions mav be as maiiv us
the subjects of instruction which aie capable
of objective illustration American schools,
while emphasizing laboratory methods and
the use of textbooks and other tools of teaching,
have done less than European schools to utilize
illustrative materials

The simplest " school museum " is the school-
room collection made by the teacher or by the
pupils themselves to illustrate the subjects of
study, geography, history, or nature study

The saying that the usefulness of the school
museum is in its making, not in its use, refers
to collections made by pupils, it is an axiom
of partial application, however, for the room
collection should grow from year to year and
receive adult curatorship The room collec-
tion ments suitable accommodation a good-
sized cupboard with glass doors above for
display, a vertical-file drawer 11 by 14 inches
at least in section, with alphabet guides for the
picture collection, arid other drawers both
shallow and deep foi the stoiage of objects
Such a room collection will furnish material
of increasing value each year for illustrating
topics in the course of study and for arranging
occasional small exhibits by the pupils, who
will get valuable training in its care as well as
knowledge by its use

Room collections may be bi ought together
for a school building into a " school museum "
proper, as books are centralized 111 a libraiv
Indeed, the school museum is a " library of
objects," and may be administered with the
school library The essentials are a well-
lighted room with (a) a few exhibit cases oi
suitable height foi changing displays, ananged
now by the librarian or cuiatoi, now by tins
grade or that as illustrative pioblems foi the
enjoyment of the whole school, and (b) ample
storage facilities for the systematic care of
(1) pictures, photogiaphs, magazine illustra-
tions even, in properly indexed vertical-file
drawers, (2) lantern slides ananged on shelves
in long boxes which convert them into vertical-
file records as easily classified as a hbiaiv
card catalogue itself, similarly, stereoscopic
views, and a set of illustrations for the pro-
jectoscope if the reflecting lantern is used,

(3) a collection of objects, minerals, woods,
and other nature inatenals, textiles and other
industrial materials, models, maps, chaits,
etc , stored compactly and systematically in
drawers and cupboards without- display, and

(4) living exhibits, a vivarium to include plants,
animals, birds, fish, etc , especially in urban
schools For the objective collections there
is perhaps no better method of classification
than by general subject numbers, as, c g ,
in the Dewey library classification, with
sequence numbers 1, 2, 3 within groups,
or sequence numbers alone may be used In
either case a card catalogue with direct and
cross references will be useful, and in a
large collection indispensable Such a school
museum is (I) a supply bureau for illustrative
materials to be taken into classrooms and used
in teaching, (2) a room where pupils may
secure information at first hand from concrete
materials, as in the library from books, (3) a
display room for changing exhibits (the fixed
unchanged exhibit, be it of ever so much ini-
tial interest, is soon dead material) , and (4) an
important avenue for the expressive activity
of pupils in organizing exhibits for their own
rooms, or within the museum itself

330

MUSUUMS, SCHOOL

MUSEUMS, SCHOOL

The third stage in the school museum is the
central loaning bureau of learning materials
for a system of schools, organized with or
without exhibit looms The rential depository
and loan bureau is best illustrated by the
'* Educational Museum " so-called, the school
museum of the St Louis schools Organized
in 1905, this museum i caches by weekly wagon
dehveiv and collection ovei 100 school build-
ings of the city, with selections made on pie-
vious order from its rich and varied collections
There are over 1000 sepaiate collections
(objects, mounted specimens, pictuies, ehaits,
lantern slides, stereoscopic views), many of
them in duphrtote so that several schools can
ha\e the same exhibit at one time, which
furnish illustrations of " food, clothing, natural
objects, industrial objects, animals, plants,
minerals, national life, physical geography,
phvsics, lustorv, astronomv, physiology "
Hi let descriptions accompany the exhibits,
with titles of leierence books A detailed
catalogue oi the museum is put in the hands of
eveiv teachei, and its service is regarded
highly Certain exhibits which cannot be
transported to the schools arc available for
inspection by teachers and principals a1 the
museum A similar bureau, though more
limited in scope, was organized by the teachers
of geography in the Chicago schools a few yeais
ago, and was then taken over by the Chicago
Normal School Similar ioreign experience,
loi example the school museum conducted
for many years by the School Science Educa-
tion Association at Hamburg, and the circu-
lating materials in the Liverpool schools,
might be cited The possibilities in a state
bureau for circulating materials among schools
are suggested by the activities of the New
York State Education Department in loaning
framed and unf rained pictures and lantern
slides, arid in depositing slides permanently
with school authorities Sirnilai slide loaning
services have been organized elsewheie the
Muse> PeYiagogique in Paris, Teachers' Cuild
Museum in London, and Educational Museum
in St Petersburg are examples

Traveling Museums — The museum
which as an institution has its activities
primarily limited by its own walls, has widely
extended its usefulness by the development
ol circulating collections or traveling museums
The natural history collections which are sent
out from the cential museum and leach the
children in their own schoolrooms is one
example of the traveling museum, the great
English loaning system centering in the Vic-
toria and Albert Museum is another, with
its traveling exhibits of woods, metals, tex-
tiles, science specimens, and apparatus, and
samples of art and art industrial work Com-
meicial agencies have often employed the
traveling museum the school decoration
movement in the United States received great
impetus from the local display by publishing

houses of pictures and casts, the receipts of
which went for the purchase of selections for
the schools, the state governments have some-
times sent over the country samples of their
products to attract settlers The traveling
exhibit has been found most effective in social
education , the anti-tuberculosis crusade has
possibly achieved as much by its exhibits
as by any one agency The New York State
system of loaning photographs and slides,
the art movement in certain states, taking the
form oi circulating art exhibits, and more
recently the development of agriculture exten-
sion education by means of demonstration
lailroad trains are othci examples of successful
traveling museum work The demonstration
trains usually contain not only accommodations
for lectures and demonstrations, but exhibits
which cnfoice lessons in faun management,
improved equipment, and other subjects by
means of striking diagrams, models, charts, and
other objective displays Education itself has
utilized traveling exhibits as a means of im-
provement and progress in teaching, as in
the art and industrial art exhibits often circu-
lated by state departments of education
and by teachers' associations, foi the benefit
of local teachers The influence of museum
extension in schools is making itself felt, and
a demand for exhibits is being made by ruial
districts Thus in Illinois the Illinois Audubon
Society has arranged to send out fiee of charge
foui traveling hbiaiies, four bird picture collec-
tions, and two lantern slide collections, with
accompanying lectuies Seeing is believing,
and the effectiveness of objective examples is
unquestioned as an aid in the learning process,
whether with childien or with adults

Relations of Public Museums to Schools.
— Related in educational function to the
school museum are the activities of general
museums of art, science, and natuial lustoiv
in placing then resources at the service
of schools, both in elementary and seeondai}
education and in advanced technical education
The value of museums, whether of ait 01 science,
in education is a subject which has been icceiv-
ing ever increasing attention during the past
ten years by museum officials in Europe and in
America, as may be seen by a reference to the
bibliography In England the laige and varied
collections of the Victoria and Albert Museum are
lent to prominent museums, and to art and ot her
types of schools The first systematic attempt
to bring about a recognition of the educational
functions of museums was made in France 111
18HO, when a commission was appointed by
the Mimstei of Public Instruction to take
the necessaiy steps preparatory to the intro-
duction of arts into schools In Germany,
according to David Murray, " museums are
made the basis of instruction, and every sub-
ject which can be made intelligible by means
of a museum is provided with a teacher " Ex-
cellent work is done in this field in the lowci

VOL. iv — z

337

MUSEUMS, SCHOOL

MUSEUMS, SCHOOL

grades of public schools in Hamburg through
the influence of Dr A Lichtmark, director
of the Kunsthalle Other prominent leaders
have been George Hirsch, author of Ideas
Concerning the Teaching of Drawing and Pro-
fessional Art Education (1887), and Professor
Konrad Lange of the University of Korugsberg
and later of Tubingen In the United States
the question of the i elation between museums
and schools was not actively considered until
Ihe appointment of a Pornimtt.ee on the
Utilization of Museums of Art bv Schools and
( 1olleges The direct methods of the committee
included formal lectures in museums, or peri-
patetic conversations, the employment of
" docents " or trained guides, and traveling
exhibits Indirect methods include printed
lectures, stereopticon illustrations, and photo-
graphic reproductions This svstern, largely
inspired by Mr M S Pntchard, was put into
practice at the Boston Museum

Another impulse toward the use of museums
of art was given by the demand in most coun-
tries for better schoolroom decorations Cheap
casts, photographs, and lantern slides were
placed in the schools, and the possibility of
employing greatly improved illustrative mate-
rials became apparent From these collections
to museum collections was but a step, and now
t he stage where the difference between reproduc-
tions and originals is being understood has been
leached

The utilization of museums for the study of
art has, however, not been so great as in the
scientific lessons The value of specimens in
such studies as natural history and physical
geography, and of laboratory practice, was en-
couraged by the Agassiz Association and certain
modern textbooks The new relation between
schools and museums has led to the creation of a
new office, that of the museum instructor who
meets teachers and pupils and shows them the
collections or instructs them in such subjects
as may be desned Special rooms have been
provided for teachers and pupils for talks by the
teacher or instructor, photographs and lantern
slides are more widely used and lent out,
special children's collections have been arranged,
and special lecture courses intended foi school
pupils are given Lastly, many museums
cooperate actively with the school boards of
their communities, and in return for financial
support provide for the special relations with
the schools

Museum collections can reach the school
child in two ways, exhibits may be taken to
the schoolroom, or the pupil may be taken
to the museum Both types of effort are
admirably illustrated by work undertaken
for the schools by the American Museum of
Natural History of New York Pity This
museum circulates week by week, by messen-
ger, nearly 500 small cases, each containing
a unit exhibit illustrating birds, insects, woods,
or minerals, which have been studied in a

single year by over a million children in 400
different school buildings; and fifty similar
cases are rented to the schools of a neighboring
city Besides lectures given at the museum
for the general public, a course of illustrated
lectures is given for school childien who come
at stated times in groups with their teachers,
forming audiences of 500 and upwards, special
lectures are occasionally given by the staff at
the request of teachers, who are also allowed
to give lectures, illustrated with the mus( im's
lantern slides, to then pupils A " Phjldren's
Uoorn " is provided, with a special instructor
in charge, who also gives assistance to classes
of children visiting the museum to stud>
exhibits Formal instruction is carried e^sen
further in the Milwaukee Public Museum,
when1 a special teacher appointed by the
board of education devotes her time to in-
structing classes of children coming in regulai
rotation from the schools The " child i en's
room," as a feature oi museum work, with
exhibits with special labels particularly ar-
ranged for children, was suggested iirst perhaps
in the U S National Museum ((/ r ) in Wash-
ington, where it had, however, no relation to
school work , this idea finds its best expression
at present in the Children's Museum, Bedford
Park, Brooklyn, a branch of the Brooklyn
Museum of Arts and Sciences which, while not
under the direction of the schools, attempts
to i elate its work to that of the schools Here4
is an institution with exhibits in various divi-
sions of natural histoiv, wholly devoted to
children, its aim is to 4< stimulate the interest
of young people," and specifically " to provide
collections and working materials . . to be
immediately helpful to teachers who come to
the museum with classes for the supplementary
study of special subjects pursued in school "
In addition to exhibits within the museum, and
a limited amount oi loan material, a library
and reading room are correlated with the
exhibits, arid the museum provides a lecture
room where teachers may present topics to
their classes with lantern illustrations, and
where lectures will be given by members of
the museum's staff on request The museum
of the Buffalo Society of Natural Sciences and
the Fairbanks Museum at St Johnsbury,
Vt , have cooperated with the schools very
successfully The Philadelphia Museums,
while encouraging systematic visitation by
school classes, have distributed from their
duplicate1 materials small exhibits to the schools
as permanent teaching collections, a form of
cooperation practiced by many other museums,
In Phicago, through the influence of Professor
T C Phamberlam, the Academy of Sciences
since 1909 has arranged one hundred museum
loan collections for the use of public and private
schools of the city During 1911 279 loans
were made to forty-four schools, and it is esti-
mated that in this way 20,000 children have
been reached. Free instruction courses are

338

MUSEUMS, SCHOOL

MUSEUMS, SCHOOL

offcicd to children, and many schools and
classes send representatives who later report
at the school Courses arc also arranged for
teachers. Thus, the Woman's Club has in-
stalled civic and health exhibits, and work of
a similar kind is being done by the School of
Civics and Philanthropy, Municipal Art
League, Council for Museum and Libiary
Extension, and other bodies. In 1912 a be-
quest of $250,000 was made to the Field
Museum for the special purpose of museum
extension in the public schools (See tinencc,
Fob 10, 1912, pp 261-262)

The simplest cooperation peihaps lias been
the encouragement of informal visitation by
teachers and pupils whenevei the museum
promises to be of help in their work, thus the
Metropolitan Museum of Art of New Yoik
has called the attention of teachers to possible
applications of the collections in their language,
art, and history instruction, the Carnegie
Museum of Pittsburg and other museums
have sought to increase miormal visitation
by means of annual prize essay contests open
to school children, with topics based on the
collections Cooperation between public mu-
seums and public schools is yet to be devel-
oped in many respects the organization of
branch museums comparable to branch li-
braries, perhaps located in school buildings,
the writing of suitable "penny guides" foi
children which will give surveys of fields of
science and other expositions based upon the
exhibits, the place of changing exhibits within
the museum, correlated with the course of
study of the schools, the possibilities of oial
instruction within the museum, either in lec-
tures or in peripatetic explanations ol exhibits,
exhibits and instruction for teachers as dis-
tinct from pupils That this field is one rich
in possibilities for school and museum alike
is evidenced by the success attending loan
exhibits sent to schools, lectures for classes
from the schools, and special exhibits, rooms,
and museums for children

Museums and Higher Technical Educa-
tion — The place of museums in higher tech-
nical education is moie striking than in public
elementary and secondary education, and
especially in the thiee higher fields of fine arts,
the industries, and industrial ait The museum
of fine arts which exists in practically every
large center of population has often a formal
school of ait attached, and is nearly always a
place of informal art education The indus-
trial museum is one which displays industrial
products, a museum with exhibits represent-
ing the whole field of industry, however, would
be impossible of realization, some principle
for the selection of exhibits is necessary, and
this may be historical, technical, or artistic
The exhibits in the National Museum at Wash-
ington, for example, illustrating the develop-
ment of artificial illumination from ancient
lamps to electricity, or the evolution of fire-

arms, offer interesting historical data and sug-
gest the significance for history of well-organ-
ized exhibits illustrating the industry of the past
Collections made for technical purposes are
those which seek to improve industry in a
limited field by more or less inclusive exhibits
of materials, tools, machines, methods, and
products Finally, industrial objects may be
selected for exhibition because of artistic
rather than technical merit , such collections
form an industrial ait museum as distin-
guished from the industrial museum in which
technical interest pi ('dominates The indus-
trial museum aims to increase technical pro-
ficiency in industry, the industrial art museum,
to increase the element of beauty in industrial
products The relation of museum col returns
in fine art, industrial art, and industrial
technique to education in these fields is ob-
vious enough Concrete examples of the best
man has hitherto done are the necessary
stimulus and basis to further progress

Europe has appreciated this better than
Amonca up to the present There is scarcely
an industrial center in Europe but has its
collections intended to improve general taste,
as with us, but also used specifically to aid
workers in fine arts and increase the skill of
the artisan and the beauty of his useful product
A city like Leipzig, for example, has the follow-
ing museums (1it> Museum of Graphic Arts,
Industrial Art Museum, with collections in
metal, wood, cciamics, textiles, etc , Museum
of the German Book Trade, besides two his
torical museums, the university collections
and ceitam others Dusseldorf, art and in-
dustrial centei, has the Fine Ait Collections
of the Roval Ait Academy, the Industrial Art
Museum, which is controlled by an industrial
association, and an art hall for exhibitions
Tn Dresden there aie the Royal Collections
for Art and Science1, and the Royal Museum of
Industrial Art, connected with the Royal
Academy of Industrial Art-, besides many
minor collections Chemnitz has the Indus-
trial Museum of the Artisans' Association,
with a collection of 9000 objects " to advance
the skill of workers," and a city collection
of models managed by the Industrial Union
and aided by a grant from the city " to advance
local industry especially in regard to artistic
taste ", both exhibits represent local industries
Crefeld has a collection of the Association for
the Advancement of the Textile Industry,
started in 1902, which shortly had over 25,000
samples illustrating carpets, upholstery, modern
silks, etc , and receives large accessions each
year One might cite the large museums and
collections of Berlin, Stuttgart, and Munich,
representing local and national industries;
the example of the smaller centers, however,
illustrates even better the wide diffusion of
the museum in the system of art and industrial
education The Bremen commercial col-
lections merit the motto " Here learn how

339

MUSEUMS, SCHOOL

MUSEUMS, SCHOOL

prepares hoi hoiib for world commerce "
Museums indeed form one absolutely essential
element in the great German organization for
industrial progress Not only do the technical
and art schools depend upon the museum
collections, with which they usually stand
in close connection, but the individual artisan
works within the museum and takes out draw-
ing plates, objects, etc, for study In Dussel-
dorf, for example, the Industrial Art Museum
loaned 200,000 illustrations and 64,000 objects
in the first twenty years of its existence

In France, Switzerland, Italy, and England
one finds that museum collections are similaily
utilized in higher technical education The
example of England is suggestive, particularly
in two respects, first in the large number (if
local museums, and second in their close rela-
tionship to the great Victoria and Albert
Museum in London This relationship is
evidenced especially by the verv efficient loaning
service maintained by the museum in London,
and similarly by the Dublin Museum, which
send out selected exhibits to the local and
provincial museums, to educational exhibi-
tions, and, what is more significant, to art and
technical schools, " as examples likely to be
useful to their classes m which training in art
crafts is given " These loan collections aie
veritable traveling museums which leach
every industrial center in Great Britain

In the United States natuial history and
art museums have been organized widely, and
have reacted upon science and art teaching
The industual and industrial ait museums,
however, aie thus far few in numbei Indus-
tual art objects find a place in many art
museums, howevei, as in the architectural,
woodcarvmg, glass, and other sections of the
Metropolitan Museum of New York, and
industrial collections are to be found in cer-
tain general museums, as the National Museum
at Washington The best American example
of an industrial art collection is poihaps the
Pennsylvania Museum and School of Industrial
Art, Philadelphia This institution, organized
just after the Centennial Exposition, main-
tains significant collections in fine arts and
particularly in industrial arts, with depart-
ments of numismatics, textiles, goldsmith's
work, oriental pottery, American pottery,
arms, musical instruments, sculpture, furniture,
prints, philately, it also conducts an important
School of industrial arts, which includes a
school of design and a textile school, the latter,
one of the leading American schools of textile
technology Another growing industrial art
collection is the Museum of the Arts of Decora-
tion of the Cooper Union, New York City
The United States will need a great museum of
industrial art alongside of every great indus-
trial school, and industrial and industrial art
collections in every 'industrial center if we are
seriously to use education for technical and
artistic progress BRA. AND H W. K.

340

References —

ANDREWH, B R. Some Functions of an Educational
Museum Teachers College Record, Vol V, 1904
1>1> 264-274
BAKEH, F C The Museum and the Public School

Museum' tt Jouinal, August, 1905, pp 50-55
BATHEH, F A How may Museums best retard the
Advance of Science7 Museums Association, p
92 (Glasgow, 1896)

BUMPUH, II C The Museum as a Factor in Educa-
tion Independent, Vol LXI, p 269
CONXLIN, W J The Educational Value of the Publi<
Museum Da\ton (Ohio), Public Libra -y ami
M u»c urn Itiport, 1894-1895, 1896, p 15
CURTIUH, E Kunstmuseen, ihrc (Jcschichtc und thx

Bettimmuno (Berlin, 1870 )

DKDEKAM, H The Arrangement of Museums with
Special Rifirtnct to Museum* of Industrial Art
(Christiama, 1904 )
DRAPER, M 8 The Children's Museum in Brooklyn

Library Journal, April, 1910

England, Board of Education, Special Reports on

Educational Subjects, Vol II, pp 281-316 Tht

Haslemerc Educational Museum (London, 1898 )

FARRINGTON, O C Educational Value of Museums

Proc \ K 1 , 1902, pp 765-771
The Museum as an Educational Institution Edu-
cation, Boston, 1897, Vol XVII, p 481
FLOWEU, Hiu W H Modern Museums Museum
Association, London, p 21, Naturt, 1893, Vol
XLVTII, pp 234, 254
Museum Specimens for Teaching Purposes Naturt ,

1876-1877, Vol XV, pp 144, 184, 204
Use of Museums in Connection with Pubht Schools

Nature, 1889, Vol XLI, p 177

FORBES, E Tht Educational Use of Must urns (Lon-
don, 1853 )

FRIEZE, H S Art Museums and their Connection
with Public Libraries U S Bureau of Education,
Report on Publit Libraries, 1876, p 434
GALLUP, A B Childien's Museum as an Edwatoi

Pop Sci Mo, Vol LXXII, pp 371 379
GILBLY, W Educative Value of the Modern Museum

Ninttetnth Ctnturu, 1909, Vol LXVI, p 663
GILMA.N, B J On the Distim tivo Purposes of Mu-
seums of Art Museums Journal, 1904, Vol 111.
No 7

GOOD*,, G B Museum-History and Museums of

History American Historical Society, Pap<i*,

Vol III, p 297 (New York, 1889)

GRAY, J E Museums Their Use and Improvement

Bntish Association Report, 1864, Sections, p 75

GREENWOOD, THOMAS Museums and Art (jailer icv

(London, 1894 )
The Place of Museums in Education Science, Vol

XXII, 1893, p 246

GROSbE Communications, 1904, Vol 1, p 66
HART, M B Docentry — A New Profession Out-
look, Vol XCIV, pp 701-708

HOUOHTON, F Cooperation of Museums and Schools

American Education, Vol VI, 1905, pp 524-527

HUKE, W H A School Museum Nature Study

Review, Vol V, pp 29-30 (A Grammar School

Museum )

KENT, H W Art Museums and Schools Educa-
tional Review, 1910, p 76

Cooperation between Libraries, Schools, and Mu-
seums Library Journal, 1911, Vol XXXVI, p 557
Law regulating National Museums in France Revu<

Archeoloyique, 1897, Vol XXX, p 120
LEVY, FLORENCE N Educational Work of the Ait
Museums Art Education in tht Public Schools
of the United States Ed by J P Haney
(New York, 1908)
MAHON, C T The Educational Aspect of the United

Suites National Museum (Baltimore, 1890 )
MAYER, A G Educational Efficiency of our Museums.
North American Review, 1903, Vol CLXXVII,
p 564

MORSE, E S If Public Libianes, why not Public
Museums? Atlantic Monthly, p 112 (Boston,
1893)
Museums of Art and their Influence (Salem, 1892.)

MUSIC AND MUSICAL TERMS

MUSIC AND MUSICAL TERMS

MURRAY, DAVID Museums, their History and their

Use (Glasgow, 1904 )

Museum Cooperation in Ait Teaching Third In-
ternational Congress for the Development of
Drawing Transaction* (London, 1<K)S )

PAINE, A B Children's Room in the Smithsonian
Institution Rt port of timithwnuin Institution,
1901, pp 553-560, see also St Nicholas Maaazint
September, 1901

PRITCHAHD, M S Burlington Magazine, 1907

REID SIDNEY The Children's Wonder House, Chil-
dren s Muhcum of Biooklvn Indtpcndtnl Vol
III, 1902, pp 30, 36

St Louis Pu hi u Schools Kducatwual Musium Cata-
logue of Collections for Circulation, 1911

SCODDING, REV II Museums and other Classified
Collections as Instruments of Education in Natuial
Science Canadian Journal of Industiu, Vol
XIII, p 1 4

SEIDLII/,, K VON Art Kdu< ation in Germany D(ui-
*th( Ktvut, November, 1900 Reprinted m Ren
Corn Ed , 1900-1901, Vol 1, p 11

SKIFF, F J V Uses of Educational Museums Proc
A K A , 1905, pp SO -So

STARK, FRBDEKICK The Museum m Educational
\\ork Educational Ktoitw, 1S9L>, Vol III, p

United States Bureau of l«Muc ation Museum Ex-
tension Distribution ol Duplicate' Spec im< us
amongst competent Musters for School Instuic -
tion Statistics of Muslims, 1S99 1900, p «i()7
Rep Com Ed Statistics of Museums, 1S7J-1S76
1S72, pp LVI1, SSS, 1S73, pp 764 770, 1S74, pp
794, S02, 1875, pp SKI, 890, 1S7G, pp 7SO, 7SS

YOCHON,, MARIUH Rappoit* sut la, jtfW< s a

Us Ecoles d' Art induatnel (Pans, 18S5-1S90 )

MUSIC AND MUSICAL TERMS — When-
ever and wherever music has been included
in academic cumcula, rhythm and harmony
have been the main .subjects of stiuh Coun-
terpoint was at hist included under the gen-
eral teim "harmony," but since the rise of
the modern conception of harmony, counter-
point has been recognized as a distinct subject
of study Rhythm, in its broader sense, 'has
almost vanished as a specific study, but its
mu tow, mechanically conceived metric phase
is included in the study of form Until within
a veiy few years the only academic studies
have been harmony and count 01 point, pursued,
generally, in the ordei named This is an
anomaly when we stop to eonsidei the i elation
of melody to harmony, and note the fact
that the modern choidal system is the out-
growth of a highly developed melodic imag-
ination embodied in counteipoint Stnctly
speaking, therefore, there should be no separate
study of these two eternally wedded elements
of music, but out of a free melodic develop-
ment of harmony, in its legitimate signification
as tonality, should be evolved aesthetically
significant harmonic backgrounds and color-
ings of interval and chord masses

The following condensed treatment of the
three subjects, harmony, codnterpomt, and
rhythm, is an effort to explain the general
nature and essential elements, and at the same
time outline the general duft of then historic
development

Harmony — Harmony,
covers all synchronous
melodic tonal relations

broadly conceived,
and progressive or
In a restricted use

341

it means the structure and relation of chords
and intervals

The histoiy of harmony is the histoiy of the
development of music, inasmuch as all forms
of music aic based on harmony in its broad
and essential meaning Archaeological research
has brought to light many facts concerning
ancient instruments \\hich gue wing to the
imagination, and induce the belief that har-
mony, in its narrow meaning of synchronous
intervals, was known and piacticed before
recorded history recognizes it This belief
finds coiioboration in ethnological lesearehes,
which make clear the fact that all stages of
human development are lepiesented by human
beings to-day, and that the most primitive
of these peoples not only sing in parts, but
in some instances order then music in accord-
ance with modern tonic tonality

The highest expression of the conception
of harmony as the simultaneous sounding of
tones, however, could not be attained until
its deeper and broader significance was dis-
covered and wrought out in a conscious appli-
cation of the tonic principle of tonality Many
of the most ancient folk melodies, untouched
by theoretical or ecclesiastical thought, reveal
this principle as at least subconsciously opera-
tive in the human mind A large mass of
melodic material makes it certain that this prin-
ciple was the essential force in the stiucture
of the folk music that arose from the effort
to give expression to the individual and social
spirit, long befoie and thioughout the periods
when the theoretical musicians were blindly
searching for a free and unlimited means for
musical expiession of the human spirit

From whatever source the (i reeks may have
derived their conception oi harmony (har-
motnkc), historically they furnished the pri-
mary harmonic system upon which rested the
first period of music as a consciously developed
art Through the Christian Church the
modern woilcl inherited the diatonic tonality
of the Greek s\ stern, with its \aiious species
To this were added, at a later period, chromatic
intervals as embellishments, but not as integral
units of a definite chromatic tonality, as in
the Greek system With the exception of
many of the genuine folk songs and dance
tunes, and the dawning musical drama of the
latter part of the sixteenth century, this har-
monic system of tones or modes furnished
sufficient material for the larger part of the
monodic and contrapuntal music, secular and
sacred, vocal and instrumental, of the first
Christian peiiod, including the marvelously
complex and beautiful works of Orlando Lasso
and Palestrma Such a system, however,
was not comprehensive enough to furnish
the human spirit with adequate material to
meet the demands of its a\vakened arid ex-
panding aspirations for higher forms of musical
expression Still further, dependent upon lan-
guage for its coherency, this tonal system

MUSIC AND MUSICAL TERMS

MUSIC AND MUSICAL TERMS

did not possess an inherent principle capable
of crystallizing into a well organized and inde-
pendent art the tonal material and relation-
ships revealed and suggested by the contra-
puntal polyphony of the period

During the latter part of the sixteenth cen-
tury the tonic principle, which had been em-
bodied in many of the genuine folk songs and
dance tunes of the modal period, and which
had sporadically come to light in contrapuntal
music, finally broke the shackles of the mathe-
matical determination of intervals, received
definite recognition, and assumed its rightful
dominion in the ordering of harmony and
melody This tonic principle gradually de-
veloped a definite and primary harmonic
tonality, the diatonic, involving the three pri-
mary harmonies of tonic, dominant, and bub-
dominant, together with a corresponding sys-
tem of harmonic units, called chords Here,
too, the term " harmony" covers two distinct
meanings: the progressive conception involved
in tonality, and the static conception enbodied
in the chord, and m the inteival formed by
two synchronous tones The system of pitches
necessary to the expression of tonality was
called, as in the Grecian and ecclesiastical
tonalities, a key, each key system being named
by the root pitch of the tonic choid Two
distinct species of diatonic tonality, called
major and minor modes, gradually crystallized,
adding new and extremely effective harmonic
material

An embryonic conception of chromatic to-
nality arose from experiments in modulation
to nearly related keys Owing, however, to
the pure tuning of the instrument used in the
period preceding Bach, the number of key
tones available for modulation was limited
almost exclusively to those of the dominant
and subdommant, with their so-called relative
minors based upon the sixth tone of each majoi
key With the final establishment of the
equally tempered scale of keyed instalments,
the way was open for the application of the
tonic principle to the complete development of
a harmonic unity of diatonic keys in a definite
tonality, the chromatic, with its system of
chromatic keys, chords, and cadences This
larger honzon stimulated and greatly emiched
harmonic imagination, since chiomatic intervals
no longer served as meie melodic embellish-
ments, but became harmonic units of chromatic
tonality, and their expressive significance arid
capacity were therefore enormously enhanced
As a result, chromatic melody assumed a new
and highlv significant role in the development
of all types of music, but especially of the
dramatic

Diatonic and chromatic tonality furnished,
almost exclusively, the harmonic and melodic
material foi the monophomc and contrapuntal
music of the sixteenth to the first half of the
nineteenth century, including the greater
number of the works of Bach, Handel, Haydn,

342

Mozart, and the early part of the Beethoven
period Rich as this mine of harmonic and
melodic material proved to be, it did not meas-
ure up to the demands of the restless spirit
of the latter part of the nineteenth century
In this period of storm and stress and feverish
search for more efficient means of musical ex-
pression the tonic; principle proved equal to
all demands, and opened a new vein of un-
limited harmonic and melodic wealth in an
all-inclusive tonality, for which the term en-
harmonic is a legitimate cognomen The en-
harmonic tonality is the all-inclusive harmonic
unity of all diatonic and chromatic keys

In the polyphonic exploiting of tonality,
one of the most significant means of expression,
vitallv characteristic of contrapuntal as dis-
tinct from chorda-1 polvphony, is the harmorn-
callv individual significance of each melody
In pure counterpoint the application of this
principle of harmonic individuality in respect to
each melody produces the impression of the
compounding of harmonies In diatonic, or
even chromatic tonality, this harmonic in-
dividuality concerns itself only with the
simultaneous defining of different harmonies,
or chords, of the same or related kevs, but in
the enharmonic tonality two or more melodies
mav smiultancouslv move in two 01 moie
diatonic or chromatic keys The levelation
of this inexhaustible source of harmonic and
melodic material opened an infinite field for
monodic invention, and revealed an entirelv
new basis for contrapuntal imagination Com-
posers have not been slow in exploring this
mine, and their labors have issued in many
masterpieces of musical art born of the noblest
and purest spiritual aspirations and inspira-
tions, and also in some voluptuously sensual
aural orgies that rival the wildest dreams of
Bacchanalian revels and debaucheries And
the end is not yet

The history of harmonv, in its broad and
legitimate sense, shows clearly that the de-
velopment of the consciousness of tonality is
the direct result of the ever-increasing demands
for significant melody In the Grecian and
early Christian periods, the units of thought
were intervals conceived, in a sense, horizon-
tally Musical thought was concerned with
only one dimension Expressive power was
gamed by means of the character, the color,
of the intervals, and relatively few were, or
could be, made use of, even if the quarter
tones be included This monodic mode of
expression sufficed, since, in the mam, music
had no real independent existence, and melody
was essentially speech inflection tonally defined
Cohesion of melodic material really centered
in language, and the aesthetic character of the
poetry The result of the efforts at poly-
phonic expression immediately established a
harmonic conception of the interval in two
dimensions — longitudinal (melodic) and ver-
tical (synchronistic) — moving simultaneously.

MUSIC AND MUSICAL TERMS

MUSIC AND MUSICAL TKHMS

Through this process coherency began to appear
as a definite and purely musical fact, music
began to break away from the limitations im-
posed by language and to assume an individual
existence and character As a lesult the devel-
opment of instrumental 01 pure music became
possible

Pushed to its logical conclusion, the syn-
chronous conception of intervals revealed the
fact that the chord is not a mere aggregation
of such intervals, but is a definite harmonic
entity formed, pnmaiilv, of a root, or center
of unity (thus representing, like the pnnio
pitch of the indi\idual tone, the tonic, pnn-
ciple), SL fifth, or root-defining interval, and a
third, or mode-defining inteival The recogni-
tion of this pure chord unit and its progressive
ordermgs necessarily led to the consciousness
of a third dimension embodied in pure har-
monic tonality Thus melody enlarged its
expressive scope by a threefold harmonic sig-
nificance, and attained to a principle of cohe-
sion that finally wrought out the absolute
individuality of music as an art having its own
significant power of expression, and no longer
dependent upon either the dance or poetry 1o
define its solidarity, or to make clear its message

Since in all times the roots of art draw then
sustenance from the eternal mental and spiritual
needs of humanity, history is ever repeating
itself in art, as in all other modes of thought
This repetition is never a copy, howe\er, but
rs manifested in new forms, undo? varying
conditions, meeting the present conceptions
of mental and spiritual nature and aspira-
tions This is seen in the history of music
Notwithstanding the enormous amount of
harmonic and melodic material included in
diatonic, chromatic, arid enharmonic tonali-
ties, in keeping with the ultra-irnpressionrstic
spirit of all modern art, musicians are not want-
ing who find no satisfaction in the material
at hand Even the alleged whole tone scales
and melodic phrases are beginning to pale,
and the quarter tone as an element of harmonic
and melodic coloring and significance is being
revived and experimentally exploited by a few
radical musicians The demand bv the few
for more significant means of expression is
no proof, however, that the present melodic
and harmonic material rs inadequate It
may possibly be a sign of failure to pereerve
the potentialities of present means, or a wit-
ness to the absence of the " open vision," of
the power to see through the veil of sen-
suous tone and discover and mold significant
melody, rhythm, arid harmony into pure and
noble embodiments of the real spirit of music
Time alone can determine whether the employ-
ment of the new-old material shall issue in
rarer and more beautiful " temples never
built at all, and therefore built forever", but
history would seem to prophesy failure, and
for the same inherent reasons that obtained in
Grecian efforts based upon like means

Harmonic Terms — Tonality — In gen
eral, any specific system of intervals, or
chords, or harmonies constituting the umtal
basis of melody In modern music, a specific
harmonic unit based upon a real tome prin-
ciple Tonality rs essentially fluidic in nature,
involving, like the line, progress of thought,
whereas the tone 01 the chord is static in
its primary character Tonality is of three
orders —

(a) Diatonn, — the harmonic unity invoh-
ing the primary harmonies of tonic (I), domi-
nant (7), and ^ubdominant (IV], in both major
and minor modes, and then derivatives, super-
tonte (II), tubmediant (VI), mediant (III) of
the major mode, and diminished and flat *>upei-
tonic (II), flat submcduint ( 17), flat mediant
(III), and flat subtontc ( VII) of the minor
mode.

The following diagram of the diatonic to-
nality of C makes the chordal and harmonic
content clear A line under a figure or letter
indicates a flat (d = d-flat, II = II-flat), and
over a figure or letter, a sharp (c = c-sharp,
IV = IV-sharp)

11°
II

iv VI

Ill v YI1
III+ Y»

(b) Chromatic, — the harmonic unity of the
diatonic key* of tonic, dominant, subdorrnnant,
mediant, supertonic, and .submcdiant tones of the
major mode, and tonic, dominant, yubdominant,
flat supcrtontc, flat mediant, flat submediant, and
flat vubtontc tones of the minor modes

(() Enharmonic, — the all-inclusive unity of
all diatonic and chromatic tonalities

Chord — Harmonic unity of three factors,
root (1\ color (3), and defirier of root (5)

Chords are (a) simple — major and minor
triads (b) complex — (/) augmented and
diminished triads, c e g c. e g (u) all septa-
chords and (in) nonachords," (c) compound —
all chord forms having two well-defined roots,
although one may harmonically predominate,
as in the major diminished Heptachord, c g a c,
or nonachord, c g a c b where e and a are roots
whose center of progression is the chord of d

The superimposing of chords icsults in

(1) compound harmonies, (2) retardation of
harmonic progression, or (3) the simultaneous
profession of two different harmonic series

Interval — The harmonic unity of any two
tones the relation, synchronous or progres-
sive, of any two tones Intervals are classi-
fied (1) according to (a) the number of contig-
uous degrees involved — primes, seconds, thirds,
tilths, etc , (b) the character of the interval
— perfect, majoi , minor, augmented, diminished

(2) As (a) consonant — perfect fifths, and octaves,

343

MUSIC AND MUSICAL TERMS

MUSIC AND MUSICAL TERMS

and major and minor thirds and sixths, (6) dis-
sonant— seconds, fourths, ninths, and all aug-
mented and diminished intervals

Key — The system of tones involved in
tonality, — diatonic, chromatic, or enharmonic.
The key is named by the root tone of the tonic
chord — key of I) major, D minor, etc

Scale — The degree-wise order ing of the
tones, diatonic or chiomatic, of a key from any
given point, usually the key tone, up or down
to the octave

Diatonic tonality includes sixteen, and chro-
matic tonality a veiy much larger number
of possible diatonic scales

The chromatic scale consists of the follow-
ing incidents — I 1 2 2 3 4 4 5 5 6' 7 7, in the
majoi mode, and of I 22334456677, in
the minor modes

Counterpoint — The term " countei point "
(contrapunctvs) had its origin in an eaily
system of representing melodic movements by
means of points, and therefore literally sig-
nifies point against point (punctnx con ha punc-
tum) In general, counterpoint is a species
of musical writing resulting fiom the wea\mg
together of two 01 more individually significant
melodies into a harmonic unit having definite
design and form Polyphonic (many-voiced)
singing is known to exist among the most
primitive peoples of the present age, such as the
Kushmen of Australia This fact fin mshes some
basis for believing that pail, singing may have
been practiced long before wntten history
takes note of it, but there are no lecoids of a
conscious effort to develop polyphonic art until
about the eighth 01 ninth century of the Chris-
tian era The development of a lugliei and
more complex inner life, togethei with an ex-
panding apprehension of the sohdantv of
humanity, could not find adequate art rep-
resentation in the pure monody ol Greece or
in the early Christian period, notwithstanding
all the subtle and complex modes of enhancing
its aesthetic and spiritual significance1 The
demand for a more deeply expressive, moie
comprehensive, more fully organized form of
an art that touches so strongly the hidden se-
crets of the human mind arid heart led to the
development of polyphonic, and polyodic music

The earliest attempts at polyphony lesulted
in one or more voices singing a more or less exact
repetition of a given melody, culled the cantu^,
a fourth below or fifth above, with cadences
on the unison or octave The essential prog-
ress of the accompanying voices being parallel
to the cantus, no real melodic individuality
could result This seemingly ban en type of
counterpoint was not, however, without, a
certain aesthetic significance quite in keeping
with the austere and icy character of monastic
and religious life Melodic individuality and
significance in the accompanying voices be-
came possible when the principle of contrary
motion in respect to the cantus began to
govern the progression of the accompanying

melodies The resulting synchronistic inter-
vals were the fifth and octave This type of
polyphonic music was called descant (discan-
tus) The ungainly skipping nature and utter
insipidity of the melodic succession of inter-
vals resulting from this mode of descant led
to the improvised or artistically designed fill-
ing in of certain skips according to laws govern-
ing both melodic progression and rhythmical
pioportions, and the point for point (cantus
plan as) type of counterpoint was supplanted
by the more interesting and artistic species
of figured counterpoint

The development of this species of writing
finally broke through the restrictions imposed
by a false mathematical determination of in-
tervals, and established the intervals of the
third and sixth as effective musical material,
whether in the form of melodic progression or
quasi chord masses Thought and imagination
thus liberated wrought out. a higher degree of
melodic and rhythmic individuality and sig-
nificance in both the canti and the accompany-
ing voices, and a pure contrapuntal polyphony
was the final outcome The advent of this
free and pine contrapuntal tvpe of music
marked the beginning of the choral epoch,
one of the most prolific and glorious periods
in the history of music an epoch which in-
cluded the works of Palestrma and Bach
Notwithstanding the enormous increase in the
power and broader scope of musical imagination
and aesthetic expression resulting from the
use of the richer inteivalhc coloring and rhyth-
mic life in the ordering of melodies, a purely
musical cohesion did not exist The necessity
for it, however, did exist in the very nature
of human thought, and the next epoch reg-
isters the appearance and application of the
pinnarv principles of musical coherence and
umtv, and a more highly organized and ex-
piessive type of foirn.

The first principle to appear was imitation
Somewhere some one hit upon the device of
making portions, or the whole, of the principal
melody accompany itself In one method of
writing the second voice begins the original
melody when the first voice reaches a certain
point in the cantus This distinct species of
contrapuntal polyphony is called the canon
The well-known Round, Scotland's Burning, is
an illustration Canons are termed strict, if
the answering voice repeats each interval ex-
actly as in the cantus, or free, if it varies in
any degree the nature of the answering inter-
vals Canons are also designated as canon at
the unison, octave, second, etc , according as the
answering voice begins at the interval of the
unison, octave, or second from the first tone
of the cantus

The following types of complex canon were
eventually evolved (1) Canon by inversion —
the second voice answering the upward pro-
gressions in the cantus by downward move-
ments, and vice versa. (2) The crab canon — •

344

MUSIC AND MUSICAL TERMS

MUSIC AND MUSICAL TERMS

the second voice singing the cantus backwards

(3) Canon by augmentation — the second
voice singing the melody in notes double the
length of the cantus (4) Canon by diminution

— the second voice repeating the cantus m
notes of half the value Repetition rather
than true imitation is the essential character-
istic of this type of polyphony, but in the free
canon the element of variation approaches
more nearly the spirit of the higher type of
imitation

Through the increasing influence of the folk
song, the folk dance, and the musical drama,
and the adoption of the tonic tonality, with its
major and minoi modes, the fundamental
principles of form were evolved, and instru-
mental or pure music attained its freedom.
From this period, polyphonic thought in both
vocal and pure music developed m the direc-
tion, (1) of the pure contrapuntal type, (2) of the
chordal or harmonic type Apart from dra-
matic music and the pure song, the dominating
idiom of musical thought m this contrapuntal
and choral epoch was the fugue and fugal and
canonic imitation This species of musical
art was the product of the canonic Ivpe pliih
a demand for greater unity through well -de-
fined tonality and logically organized form It-
used the principle of the cantus, but in the* form
of a short theme It employed the repeti-
tioiuil method of imitation, but developed a
high species of variation in the imitating voices
It molded its forms along lines derhed from
the folk song and the folk dance, but with a
freedom that made possible1 the embodiment
of the noblest lynoal and even dramatic imag-
ination

The elements of the fugue are (1) the theme
(dux}] (2) the answer (corner) — the repetition
of the theme by the second voice in the domi-
nant key (later in other keys), eithei strictly,
called the real fugue, or in a modified foini,
called the tonal fugue ; (3) the counter subject

— the contrapuntal melodv sung by the first
voice as an accompaniment to the answer;

(4) the episode — a free treatment, in fugal and
canonic imitation of various types, of some
figure or phia.se of the theme, binding together
the several parts and serving a,s contrasts to
the sections m which strict imitationb of the
theme obtain, (5) the stretto (pressing together),
in which the imitative repetitions of the second
voice begin before the complete ending, and at
points nearer and nearer to the beginning of
the theme

The era of the fugue and canon culminated
in the works of the acknowledged greatest mu-
sical genius the world has yet known, Johann
Sebastian Bach

Overlapping, but essentially beginning with
the establishment of the tome principle and
the domination of the chord mass in place of
the simple interval as the essential unit of
thought in tonality, pure counterpoint has
been ordered in accordance with the two dis-

345

tmct governing principles of (1) tonality,
whether modal (ecclesiastical) or tome (modern
tonality), and (2) the chord In the first and
purest type of counterpoint each melody moves
freely in the tonality, untrammeled by any
necessity for defining, in conjunction with the
other voices, a specific series of chords, and
unfettered by any demand that its cadences
shall coincide with those of accompanying
voices, except at the close of important sec-
tions In this species the synchronous masses
are not chordal m the strict harmonic sense;
but masses of synchronous intervals, intervalhc
colors, suggesting, it may be, two or more
harmonies or chords In the second type of
counterpoint all the voices, while real and in-
dividual melodies, move with reference to
defining a specific chordal scheme In this
second type the synchronous masses are clearly
defined chord units, either simple or complex.
These two types of polyphonic music are dis-
tinguished by the fact that all the voices are
concerned with melodies of equal significance,
and are, therefore, strictly contrapuntal

A third and important species of polyphonic
music is one in which the \oices are concerned
mainly, if not solely, with the function of
defining chord masses and enriching them with
interval lie color, sonority, and massiveness
Chord masses thus conceived may serve as the
principal means of expression, and melody, in
a degree, may be fragmentary and not defi-
nitely organized, 01 all chords may be used as
means for enhancing the expressive signifi-
cance of one 01 more important melodies
This is the genius of what is termed the mo-
nodic or monophomc type of composition, al-
though it may be polyphonic as to the fact of
many voices In this type of polyphony the
voice progressions do not pretend to assume
melodic significance, as in pure counterpoint,
in fact, the various voices may be, and often
are, without melodic significance These three
types of polyphonic thought are all employed
as means for enhancing the aesthetic import
of the music of all writers, from the pure lyncal
and dramatic contrapuntist, Johann Sebastian
Bach, down to Richard Strauss and Claude
Debussy, the ultra-impressionist tone painters
of the present time

Rhythm — In all modes of thought, all
modes of imaging a consciousness of ideas or
experiences, t he factors of duration, or quantity,
and intensity, or stress, are necessary condi-
tions for determining aesthetic form and sig-
nificance Proportion m respect to duration,
or dynamic intensity, arising from the aesthetic
impressions or from the nature of the elements
of expression, — for instance, sound in language,
tone m music, — is the essence of that idea
which, following the Greeks, we call Rhythm
A rhythmic idea appears whenever a grouping
or ordered sequence of proportions is defined

In music the melody of folk songs and church
canti followed the proportionate durations gov-

MUSIC AND MUSICAL TERMS

MUSIC AND MUSICAL TERMS

(Tiling the sounds of language until the efforts
at combining melodies of varying rhythmic
design made it necessary to adopt some prin-
ciple of order arid unity m respect to the num-
ber of tonal durations that, should be sung to
the tones of the cantus by the discantmg voices
From these efforts arose what was called men-
sural music, based upon two pnmaiv ratios —
the perfect, three is to one, 44* = o and the
imperfect, two is to one ** - o

Under the influence of counterpoint, the
dance and instrumental music, the gi.adual
development and organization of complicated
rhythms led to the adoption of the accentual
principle of metric ihythm as a means ior de-
fining the progress of the vanous voices The
elements of metric rhythm are (1) units oi a
given duration, called beats, and (2) vaiving
intensities in respect to the thought content of
such units A measure, therefore, is a rhvt hime
entity involving the relation of a definite num-
ber of beats of like duration, but of differing
intensities Measures may vaiy (1) in the
number of intensities or beats, / c two, three,
four, beat measure, etc , (2) in the older
of the intensities, as in the following illustra-
tions, where the quarter note represents a beat
of given duration, and the bar the point of
greatest intensity

To meet the exigencies of free poetic imagina-
tion and to avoid monotony resulting iiom a
long scries of like kinds or orders of measure,
there are in music varying modes of treating
metric conceptions

1. The most common metric variation re-
sults from the use in a given metric series of a
variety of forms (orders of intensities of meas-
ure), that is, while the general unit ot duration
from crest to crest of the greater intensities re-
mains comparatively constant, the less signifi-
cant thought units, the lesser intensities, may
freely vary in their relations to the strong in-
tensity, thus resulting in a series of changing
forms of measure

2. A second mode of variation (Fig 1) arises
from the sudden changing of the strong inten-
sity from its normal position in the series, ic-
sultmg in what is known as syncopation Tn
polyphonic music, syncopation practically arises

from superimposing like meteis, starting at
different periods, a species of rhythmic disso-
nance A modern term for the extreme use of
this effect, is Ragtime, to which all great
writers must plead guilty

X A third and very effective mode of rhyth-
mic treatment arises from combining different
measures That is, while one melody moves in,
say, throe-boat measure, the second may be
moving in two-beat, and a third in four-beat
measure, a species of rhythmic harmony In
the following illustration (Fig 2) from Schu-
mann the melody is in three-beat and the
accompaniment in two-beat measure.

(4) The fourth form of metric variation is
the product of a scries of varying kinds of
measures This species of rhythmic variation
may bo accomplished in different ways.
(n) The measure may change in respect to the
number of beats without changing the limit of
duration between the points of greater inten-
sity, as in (he following passage from Schumann
(Fig 3), where a, the primary two-beat measure

Pig. 1.

Fig. 3.

of tho first strain, is followed by fr, a three-beat
measure, tho metric scheme of tho second
strain, (b) A boat may bo added or subtracted,
tii us changing not merely the kind but the real
<Jin at ion of tho measure, as in the passage from
Mac Do well on tho following page (Fig 4 )

This rhythmic variation is characteristic of
many folk songs, showing that it is a primitive
form The following fifteenth-century chanson
is a fine specimen. (Fig. 5 )

(c) A third variant, of like nature with the
above, is a species of rhythmic augmentation,
as in tho following passage from Schumann
(Fig 6), where the rhythmic unit a, formed by
two three-beat measures, is followed by really a

346

MUSIC AND MUSICAL TERMS

MUSIC AND MUSICAL TERMS

one-meas are rhythm of three augmented boats,
three Jongs, the quantitative value of which
equals the preceding two-measure unit.

Fig. 6.

The following complicated and effective
passage from Brahm's Clarinet Sonata m
F minor is interesting, because of the augmen-
tation in two voices that are syncopated m
respect to each other. (Fig 7 )

\l% J j

S> " j <
*Mi ' »

ra

^— 6

rf

f
=&=-

x-—

"- \

.

1 «
-9

-S-P--W—

Fig 7

In the educational development of rhythm,
meter is usually given the first place, as though
it were the more important rhythmic factor;
quite opposed to this common theoretical
notion, however, is the fact that m the real
interpretation of both music and poetry meter
is far from being the most significant rhythmic
conception Based upon the circumscribed
figures of the dance, and serving the purpose
mainly of punctuating the lesser units of
thought, in the highest lyrical, and especially
in dramatic music, the metrical accent; is prac-
tically lost, swallowed up in the quantitative
proportions and the stresses involved in the
larger units of musical thought, such as the
phrase, and even the motive As a matter of
fact, therefore, quantity (durative mass) and
quantitative proportions are the essential ele-
ments of rhythmic thought A very simple
illustration will serve to make clear the vitally
expressive rhythmic effect of the rhythm of
quantity The following versions of the open-
ing phrase of Beethoven's Sonata, Opus 113,
do not differ in respect to the number of beats
and points of greater intensity (Fig. 8.)

Nominally, and as conventionally punted
(fig 4) this phrase is supposed to lie within one
measure of four beats, each beat being icpre-
sented by a quartoi note Practically, the
development of the thought requiios two
points of greater intensity — the first and fifth
tones The beat, therefore, is represented by

the eighth note, and the phiase includes two

four-beat measures

Fig 4

In the first version, Beethoven's diamatic
idea is entirely lost, because the individuality
of the first choid is meigod with the second
and third chords, forming the opening musical
idea In version two the ihythmic foim of the
first chord embodies a distinct impression, like,
for instance, the fust woid in Hence f loathed
Melancholy f But the intensely dramatic foice
of the opening choid is only realized in the
quantitative form of Beethoven's veision Still
fuithoi,m Beethoven's version the second idea,
/;, is far and away more diamatically expres-
sive by reason of the quantitative proportions,
and also because the same means break the
thought into two impassioned utteiances, b1
and />*, the second of which foims the climax

Educationally, it would seem to follow, as
a necessary deduction from histoncal evolution
and the greater significance of quantitative
(durative) proportion, that this should be the
rhythmic principle first recognized and most
assiduously studied The ordinary method of
rnetiic scansion in music based upon the tyranny
of mechanical accent (in music represented by
the bar) is deadening to the higher and vital con-
ception of the beauty and expressive significance
of quantity in music as certainly as in poetiy

It lemains to call attention to the fact that
rhythm plavs as significant a role in the har-
monic design as it does in the melodic structure.
For the undei standing and interpretation of a
musical work of art it is essential, therefore,
that the rhythm of the harmonic background

347

MUSIC AND MUSICAL TERMS

MUSIC IN EDUCATION

should receive equal consideration with the
rhythm of the melodic designs C B C

References —

ALBKBCHTHBEBOER, .T C Collected Writings on Har-
mony, etc. (London, 1H55 )
BEETHOVEN Studies in Thorouuh-ba*?;, Counterpoint,

etc, tr by Person (Lcip/ig, 1H53 )
BELLERMANN, H. Der Contrapunct (Berlin, 1862 and

1901 )
BUBBLER, LUDWIU Elemtntary Harmony (New

York, 1K91 )

Der strenae Satz. (Berlin, 1905 )
Contrapuncl utid Fuge (Berlin, 1878 )
CHUBUBINI, LUJGI Treatise on Counterpoint (Lon-
don, 1854)
COUBSEMAKEU, EoMOND DE Memoire 8ur Hucbald

(PariH, 1841 )
Scnptoium de Musica mefhi <d$va, Nova Scri(t>, 4

vola (Ciiaz, 1908)
Histoire de V Harmonie du Moyen Age (Pans,

185U )
UArt Harmonique aux XIF et X11IC Sieclen (Pans,

1865)
CURWEN, JOHN How to observe Harmony (London,

1861 )

MuRieal Statics (London, 1874 )
Commonplaces of Mu*>it Paits B to G (London,

1879)

DAY, ALFRED Treatise on Harmony (London, 1845 )
FOOTL, A , and SPALIHNG, W K Modern Harmony

(Leipzig, 1905)
GEVAERT, F A Traite d' Harmonie (Pans, 1905 and

1907 )

GOETSCHIUH, PERCY Material uwd in Musical Compo-
sition (New York, 1889 )
Theory and Piaetice of Tom Relation* (New York,

1892)

Applied Counterpoint (New York, 1902 )
HAUPTMANN, MOHITZ The Nature of Harmony and

Metre (London, 1888 )
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(Pans, 1902-1909 )
KLAUHER, JULIUH The Scptonatt (Milwaukee,

1890)

LALOY, Louis Ariitoxtne de Tarenti (Paris, 1904 )
MACRAN, S The Harmonies of An^toxenns (Ox-
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MUSIC IN EDUCATION. — Historical
Sketch — The place of music in popular edu-
cation has changed with the changing motives
that control such education. Three distinct
phases may be recognized, the religious, when
education was chiefly connected with the
Chinch and the teacher was the priest, the
humanitarian, which came with the growth of
the democratic influences of the eighteenth
century, and the social -economic, as one may
call the third phase upon which we are now
entering The rapidly growing complexity
of our modern life has been putting greater
and greater demands on our whole educational
system The problem of the modern educator
is to discover how to economize time and energy
A new valuation is now going on of all foims
of study and exercises that occupy the student's
time, aiming to adapt the curriculum to meet
the practical requirements of life efficiently It
is natural that such a study as music, which
presents so little that can be measured from
a practical point of view, should be influenced
by this movement

The Religious Phase Choir Schools — Tra-
dition says that choir schools (xchola can-
torutn) weie instituted at Rome as early as
the fourth centtny (by Pope Silvestei I, 314-
335) and from 590 they were much emphasized
by Gregory I (q v ) At least by the eighth
century, li not much earliei, the Western
Church had given official sanction to a system
of unison melody, commonly known as " Gre-
gorian," though apparently developed from
By/antme and Greek origins, which had at-
tained notable proportions as the artistic vehi-
cle or embodiment of the liturgy That the
Church used music as a means of elevating
the people is shown by a saying of Chiodegang
of Motz (746-766) " The melodies of the
singers shall uplift the people to love of divine
things through the inspnation of the words as
much as through the tune " From about the
twelfth century the Church also became the
field within which the art of contrapuntal com-
position unfolded This evolution was scho-
lastic, rather than popular To master it re-
quired discipline, such as was possible only
under teachers and through study In the
medieval " choir school " the subject of the
new Figured Song was now added to that of
the Gregorian Plain-Song The persons thus
educated were primarily only adult ecclesias-
tics,— monks and priests, — but as choirs of
men and boys became common, the " choir
school " tended to become an institution in which
many boys below the age of puberty might be
educated to considerable musical proficiency
The study of sacred song was the main object,
but, because the boys had to be kept together
for several years, other subjects were introduced
more or less Hence the " choir school "
often touched the field of general education,
but with music highly emphasized In
process of time some of these schools accumu-

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MUSIC IN EDUCATION

MUSIC IN EDUCATION

lated endowments and became independent
institutions A famous illustiation of this is
the Thomasschule at Leipzig, which began as
an Augustiman monastery school in the
thirteenth century, and became a Protestant
town school before the middle of the sixteenth
Many others, especially those connected with
cathedrals and with certain national com is
(Chapel Royal), have persisted in some form
to the present day (See CHORISTERS'
SCHOOLS, SONG SCHOOLS, in the article1 on MID-
DLE AGES, EDUCATION IN THE )

Early Metfwds of Teaching MUSK — Fioin
the earliest periods two distinct modes oi ap-
proaching music teaching were piesented, one
m which the learning was through mutation,
teaching by rote, us it is called - - and the other
where the rudiments of music wore taught, and
the pupils learned to road from the written
signs In a school ordinance of 1522 at Noid-
hngon the pupils were to be divided into thieo
sections, of which the two upper ones wcie to
receive instruction in theory and piactico, and
the last should iiist be taught the text, and then
the tune by ear The Wurttemburg chinch
ordinance, 1559, and tho Pomeranian, 15(53, pio-
vidod for the piactice of singing in elementary
schools, but the method was only that of sing-
ing by ear, in the Latin schools it was usual
to employ the pupils in chons so that they
received regular instruction in music While
tho Reformation broke away from the older
ecclesiastical music, it stimulated in the choiale
even a gieatei desire to sing Luthei is 10-
ported to have said u A schoolmaster must
be able to sing or I take no notice of him "
The oidmances drawn up by Melanchthon
and Bugenhagen provide foi instruction in
music, but they deal generally with Latin
schools The School and Church Visitation
in Marbuig (1628) and Hesse-Darmstadt
provided that all children above eight yeais
of age should " attend the public schools and
at all times bo present at the singing in
Church " Duke Ernest the Pious of Got ha
(q i) ) included singing in the famous School-
method of 1643, which devoted one of the longest
portions of the work to the subject (paiagiaphs
212-294) It includes suggestions on method
and formal instruction in music At, least
one hour each day was to be given to it Two
divisions, choral music and liguied descant
(Figuralgcsang), were made The former was
taught by car, phrase by phrase, the latter
from notation The teacher is warned not
to weary the pupil with too much theory and
troublesome scales A song book is to be pro-
vided for each Clear and sensible expression
should be insisted upon The earliest pieces
were to be sung in four parts (descant, alto,
tenor, and bass) The teacher was not pro-
vided with an instrument for accompaniment
An ordinance of 1697 for Nuremberg provided
that singing should be taught in wilting and
ciphering schools for church purposes Co-

memus (q v ) proposed that the child should be
taught singing of a few easy psalms as early
as the " mothci school." In the elementary
school ho only recognizes singing for church
and religious purposes Francke's aims m music
were similar

The numerous ordinances of the sixteenth
century provide for the teaching of singing,
but in all cases the subject matter is religious
In many cases the ordinances appoint the local
sexton to teach singing along with the cate-
chism In fact, many Protestant schools owe
their origin to the need of teaching singing for
the service of the Church

In England the song school occupied a posi-
tion a little above the elementary and below
the giammar, and while their chief object
was to teach the singing necessary for chuich
services, the other common subjects were in-
cluded

Erasmus describes the English as a musical
and the German as a drunken people, and it
has boon suggested that the abolition of the
training school of song and music that took
place with the Reformation and during the
leigns of Henry VI 11 and Edward VI had
much to do with changing the musical chai ac-
tor of the English people

It must be noted that tho song school was
not confined to song, often teaching to play
on tho organ is included in the description of
the song school rnastoi Such was the case
at Bosbury in Herefordshire The school-
inastoi was to " bring up the youth in learning
and to play the organ" Similar to the song
schools m 'England weie the sang schools of
Scotland, one in Aberdeen is behoved to have
existed as early as 1370 While in Scotland
especially the sang school seems to have
been adopted by tho Reformation, tho lesser
importance that music occupied in the service
of the Protestant Chuich reduced tho impor-
tance of these schools, so that they have grad-
ually died out

Gild School* — Outside the Church two
organizations, the gild schools and the "town
musicians," contributed largely to the develop-
ment of musical education Of the gilds the
most notable example is the extensive circle
of gilds oigamzod by the Moist eisanger of
southern and western Germany from the four-
teenth century onward for moie than two
hundred years Those societies sought to
magnify pootiy and song as a kind of tiade
specialty, which was to be cultivated only by
passing' through a graded system of training
and examination that led ultimately to the
right to tho title "Master " The historic
importance of these curious fraternities lay not
in tho artificial and even ridiculous methods
that they often used, but in their number and
distribution, with the considerable number of
their members Artistically and pedagogically,
the Mcidersanger movement lacked breadth
and insight, but its popular influence was not

349

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MUSIC IN EDUCATION

insignificant. It served to bring into action
latent capacities for music as a serious pursuit
among the common people, and to dignify
the process of education which was involved
in that pursuit Somewhat parallel move-
ments— the so-called " Minstrel Gilds " — oc-
curred in other countries

Town Mwician** — Associated with these
gilds in time, though not always connected with
them directly, weie numerous efforts to or-
ganize in certain communities a body of " town
musicians," both singers and players upon
instruments, which could be called upon to
assist in numerous civic and social functions
Every such organization, when continued long
enough to become an institution, demanded
more 01 less of an educational element or basis,
which was variously supplied in different cases,
sometimes through the town schools It is
difficult to cite any large number of farts under
this head, but there is reason to suppose that
fiom the sixteenth century onwaid a constantly
increasing number of towns and villages in
Germany, France, and England maintained
some communal interest in music, arid made
some slight communal provision for instruction
in it This tended always to bring the subject
of music into organic connection with whatever
system of public education was attempted

The Humanitarian Phase — The second
phase of music teaching was strongly influenced
by the humamtaiian spirit that so pervaded
the democratic movement in the latter part of
the eighteenth century The school, instead
of being for the Church, was developing more
and more for the people Hence, reforms in
the methods of teaching were many and radical
The desne to give every one attending school
the rudiments of a musical education led to
the simplifying of notation Much of the
inteiest that was awakened in popular singing
eaily in the nineteenth century can be traced,
in Germany especially, to the revival of interest
in liturgies in the Lutheran Church, giving
nnpoitance to congregational singing Another
motive is that the national school systems that
were then being started in the leading countries
of Europe gave a value to music as an element
in the education of patriotism The influence
of such a reformer as Pestalozzi was felt
Hans Georg Nageli (d 1836), a music publisher
near Zurich, was active in agitating for school
music, especially advocating the application of
the new methods of Pestalozzi to the subject

In France, Guillaurne Louis Wilhclm (Boc-
quillon, tt 1842), known chiefly by his efforts
to promote popular teaching of singing, was
made director-general of music in the municipal
schools of Paris in 1819 He threw himself into
this cause with an enthusiasm which soon
produced striking results Besides the school
teaching, he had classes which gave instruction
to thousands of pupils, mainly working people,
and out of this presently grew the establish-
ment of the Orpheon, the vast organization

which has since covered France with singing
societies

The success of Wilhelm's work in France
stimulated similar movements in England
under Mr Hullah, who on Fob 1, 1841. opened
at/EXeter Hall a school for instruction 01 school-
frrastOTS of day and Sunday schools, in vocal
musi(£n>y a system based on Wilhelm's In
twenty -ytnirs, it is said, over 25,000 persons
passed through his classes

Tonic SoMa Method — A parallel move-
ment in popularizing music in England, which
grew to much greater importance, under the
lead of Mr John Curwen, began to attract
attention about 1850 It is based on a simpli-
fication of musical notation, the staff being
discarded and a letter notation being substi-
tuted in its place, indicating the i elation of
the tones in the key The emphasis of key
relationship of the three most important tones
in our harmonic system gave the name to the
method of Tonic Sol-fa

Galin-Chevi Method — A similar method
was being developed in France, although not
attaining the same importance, under the
name of the Galm-Cheve", in which, as in the
Tonic Sol-fa, the relationship of the tones in
the key was emphasized, only in this case
numbers were placed over tlip notes to indicate
this relationship

Public C7«.s<c Instruction — Still more im-
portant pedagogically was the change in
methods that ensued from passing from the
traditional custom of private or individual
instruction, which had been in use for genera-
tions in most musical subjects, to systematic
class instruction, particularly of singing in
chorus This is seen in the widespread in-
terest in choral societies of different sorts
that began to attain large proportions during
the first half of the nineteenth century in
Germany, France, and England Such enter-
prises, whether in schools or in communities,
stimulated the preparation of special literature,
— textbooks for learners, manuals for teachers,
graded material for the use of societies, — and
tended increasingly to induce many persons
to prepare themselves to become instructors,
tiamers, and leaders. Thus public school music
and public choral societies so closely connected
in the methods employed gradually became
distinct and significant movements

United States — The enthusiasm for the
popular teaching of music, which was being
felt so strongly on the Continent and in Eng-
land, was not lacking in the United States,
Under the lead of Lowell Mason (</v),who ls
well called the father of school music in America,
work was commenced in Boston that led
eventually to the adoption in 1837 of a resolu-
tion " That in the opinion of the school
committee it is expedient to try the experiment
of introducing vocal music, by public authority,
as part of the system of public instruction, into
the public schools of this city " Parallel to

350

MUSIC IN EDUCATION

the school work, like both Wilhclm and Hullah,
Mr Mason started an institution for giving
concerts and preparing teachers, known as the
Boston Academy of Music, established in 1832
Mr Mason was stiorigly influenced by the
teaching of Pestalozzi, and avowedly conducted
his work on his system of teaching The ex-
ampje of Boston was soon followed by such cities
as Cincinnati and New Orleans, and there has
been a steady advance toward the full recog-
nition of music as a school studv

The Social-Economic Phase —The trend
of the third phase in modern popular education,
which we have termed " the social-economic,"
is well illustrated by the tendency to slight
or diop music entirely in schools fitting stu-
dents for the higher institutions of learning

A glance at the courses of study offeied by
such institutions in Germany, France, England,
or the United States will show that less time
is given to music than formerly Highei
education tends to become more specialized,
and a subject like music, which shows perhaps'
less connection with a professional occupation
than does any other, now takes a less im-
portant position than m schools serving a
similar class of people fifty years ago, when
the cultural or general education was stronger
than the professional or economic

A second reason influencing the change is
the very great development of popular educa-
tion, making a demand for teachers from the
middle and lower classes who necessarily are
unable to put very much time on professional
training, so that, especially in America, a large
proportion of the grade teachers are musically
unable to teach the subject The preparation
of these teachers, demanding so much in the
line of modern practical subjects like physical
training, manual training, drawing, domes! re
science, and domestic art, tends to lea\e less
and less time to the preparation for teaching
music Along with this same pressure the
experiment of attempting to teach ever yhody
sight reading, that was so enthusiastically
supported in the middle of the last century, rs
not giving the expected results Not only
is the necessary drill proving irksome both to
teachers and pupils, but the slight mastery
gained is not proving of any great musical
value in the later experience of the pupil
Hence, the liberal educators are dividing the
time given to specific music study with what
might be called " appreciation work," the*
hearing of music performed, since the modern
mechanical means for reproducing music pro\ e
a very great aid to such work There is also
a distinct tendency to encourage instrumental
work in schools, although this is often supple-
mentary to the regular school work Espe-
cially striking is the work done in England
by what is known as the " Maidstone Move-
ment/' where fully half a million school chil-
dren of the British Isles are connected with au
orgaru/ation for playing the violin There

MUSIC IN EDUCATION

is a tendency in the extremely modern schools
to shift the emphasis in music from the pure
sight reading work of the earlier years to vari-
ous forms of what might be called creative work.
Under the theory that the pupils get the most out
of what they make themselves, they are en-
couraged to make up not only their words
but the tunes as well Finally, while the
place of music and the method of its study aic
changing, and the place it has occupied is
being contested by other subjects, yet this
very struggle is bunging about a larger view
as to its true value in education, and more
efficient methods as to its realization

Methods in School Music — Methods in
music teaching deal with two kinds of activi-
ties (1) What is necessary for producing the
music, such as the control of the instrument,
or voice, and the understandrng of the notation
(2) What is done under the term of " nuance,"
populaily called " expression," and the slight r
notation that indicates it The first may be
said to deal with the structure of music, the
second with its interpretation It is ob-
vious that the first application of a method
in music will be to produce tones, following
which there will be a constant effort toward
control for expression This is especially true
for the instrumentalist Even the voice
teacher spends the first few years in what is
called " voice-placing," practice for produc-
ing a good singing tone, before he does much
with song interpretation

In teaching school music, however, this order
of activities is reversed The voice in most
children, through the exercise of speech, is
already under wonderful control, so the aim of
school music is not to produce professional
singers with developed voices, or professional
playeis, but to cultivate a taste for music by
good singing and to prepare the individual to
aid in the social uses of music, and it is better to
commence with rote songs, or singing by imita-
tion Two things are thus of special impor-
tance in school music (1) the pupil must
know how to render many fine songs in order
to develop his taste and appreciation, and
(2) he must be able to read from notation

The instrumentalist, by the time he has
learned to play, has associated the action
necessary to produce the tones with the notes
on the staff that represent these tones, so that
when he sees the note he can produce the tone
lie can thus, unfortunately, especially if he
is unmusical, avoid the necessity of thinking
music The mental process of such a person
consists in thinking the physical motions
necessary to produce the tone called for by
the note, but riot the tone itself, which he
only hears as the result of his action On the
other hand, the singer has no definite move-
ment in his throat that he can associate with
a given note on the staff F and F sharp feel
the same to him The singer is obliged to learn
his notation not by connecting it with the

MUSIC IN EDUCATION

MUSIC IN EDUCATION

actions that produce the tones, but by connect-
ing the notation with the way the tones sound
The first few tones heard tend to establish a
key to which all the tones that follow are re-
lated, the task of the singer being; to associate
these tone relationships to the notation that
represents them His mental process, instead
of being connected with the physical move-
ment necessary to produce the tone, is a thought
process, for he must hear mentally the sound
that the note represents before he can pjoduce
the tone

Interpretation — Learning songs and learn-
ing how to sing them expressively in school
is largely carried on through imitation, the
pupil being required to match or imitate the
model tones given as well as the style1 or way
m which the songs are sung Supporting this
work, the thought of the text and the character
ol the melody are brought home to the student's
mind, so that his feeling for the thought and
the character of the song aids m getting the
quality and rendering desired Besides this
work, vocal habits are developed m the pupil,
based on the distinction between the chest and
head tones The former is what the child
or youth largely employs in his play, and thoie
is a natural tendency to do the same in music,
but when sustained pitch is attempted with
this register above B in the middle of the treble
staff, the tone becomes hard, and the vocal
mechanism strained The head tone that the
child naturally uses when singing above D of
the fourth line of the treble staff is clear and
sweet Vocal method in school music IK largely
concerned in strengthening this upper head
tone and developing it downwaids For this
reason most teachers agree that scale practice
and technical work should commence with the
upper part of the voice, with the head tone,
bringing this quality down as far as possible
and that the lower tone should be sung softly,
developing by constant practice an automatic
control of the voice Thus, the first method
in school music deals largely with musical
interpretation, and consists in (1) Imita-
tion of a good example (2) Attention to the
thought of the composition, both text and
style (3) Development of clear head tones

Structure — Turning now to the second
element in learning to read music, the starting
point here also lies in imitation Tone pro-
gressions, such as scales or simple songs, aie
first learned by imitation These are then
sung in connection with their notation, until
an association is formed between what is sung
and what isHseeri Such association is not as
simple as it seems, for the notation of music
presents three different kinds of tonal relation-
ships: pitch, duration, and metrical grouping
It is through the combination of these three
kinds of relationships that the pupil is able
to form a concept of the musical movement of
his tune. The problem here is essentially the
same as that of reading language From what

thb notes indicate, the pupil's mind must be
capable of forming concepts of the musical
movement sufficiently far ahead of what the
voice is producing not to interfere with the
even flow of the music Unlike language, the
signs and notes that represent these relation-
ships are not grouped into musical units as
letters are combined into words standing for the
same idea in whatever combination the words
may appear, but every musical unit has its
own peculiar combination The music reader
must think these musical units by combining
the separate relationships that go to make
them up The most complex part of the train-
ing, and the one that requires the closest atten-
tion in the methods employed, is concerned
with the problem of rapid conception of the
tune from its notation A musical child will
often make its associations between the ap-
pearance of the notes upon the staff and the
movement of the music, so that he is able to
read music fairly well, without being able to
tell definitely the separate intervals of duration
and pitch, icpresenting the musical thought

Key — The large majority ol people, how-
ever, need help in associating the position of
the tones in the keys with the notes Such
a device we have in the famous do re mi, or
syllable names, dating back to the eleventh
century, and attributed to Guido of Arezzo
This association is made possible when the
key is established, the tones of the scale tak-
ing on certain characteristics When, therefore,
a certain syllable is always sung to a certain
torn* in the key, when the sign for a syllable
is written, it suggests the relative tone in the
key it represents The principle underlying
this use of the syllable names had a revival
in France under the leadership of Pierre Galm,
a music publisher of the eaily nineteenth cen-
tury, who indicated the relationship of tones
by numbers In England John Curwen uti-
lized the4 sound names attributed to Guido
In the system thus developed, called the " Tonic
sol-fa," the fixed pitch representation of the
staff was ignored, and the first letter of the
syllables, r/o, re, mi, etc , were printed instead
of numbers, for example, rf, r, m The spacing
of these letters indicated the duration of the
tones These letters, like the numbers, drew
attention to the relationship of the sounds to
be sung, and not to any given pitch, and arc
evidently a vocalist's notation

The American methods follow the English
usage, and some places even adopt the Tome
sol-fa notation as an introduction to sight-
reading; but the ordinary practice is to use the
syllable names with the staff notation. This
brings about a complexity that does not exist
where the syllables are used with the Tome
sol-fa notation, for reading by note requires
a student of harmony to determine the proper
relative name from the fixed notation that the
staff represents, especially in modern music,
which tends to be more and more chromatic

352

MUSIC IN EDUCATION

MUSIC IN EDUCATION

and makes it difficult to determine what the
exact key relationship of a tone is Another
difficulty grows out of the constant use of the
Tonic sol-fa names, especially where the syllable
names have been too slavishly used The
tendency is to associate the tone to be sung not
simply with the sight or sound of the name, but
with its actual physical production, so that the
pupil is able to sing the tune if he can sing
sound names, but is unable to think the tune
apart from the names In order to avoid
this difficulty many schools use numbers in-
stead of sound names The objection to this
is that the number names do not lend them-
selves to good tone production, and when too
closely followed this method is open to the
same objection as the use of the sound names
The chromatic tendency of modern music
above referred to is making these methods less
and less effective

Interval — Besides thinking of tones in
their relation to key, we mav think of them as
determined bv their distance from each other
as intervals of seconds, thirds, and fourths
having certain common characteristics When
this has boon thoroughly grasped, one is en-
abled to sing those distances bv thinking the
nature of the interval Mr Samuel Cole
of the New England Conservatory in his sight
singing course has given specific names for each
interval By always using the name with the
interval whenever it occurs, associations are
formed between the interval character of tones
and the name, so that, when the interval name
is thought, the tones occur to the mind

Rhythm — The teaching of duration and
time grouping of tones does not present
such a variety in the methods employed The
demand on the pupil, unlike that of thinking
pitch relations, is identical for both singer and
player A few fundamental differences in
tone lengths are used ovei and over, whatever
the key, although confusion is caused to young
students by changes in the note used to jopre-
sent the beat This difficulty is being reduced,
there being a tendency among publishers to
use uniformly a quarter note to represent the
beat in simple time Besides boating the time,
other physical movements for strengthening
the feeling for pulse in music aro being employed
in a more varied way

In Europe much interest has boon awakonod
by the work of M Jacques Dal croze, who has
developed a remarkable feeling foi rhythmic
character through dancing and gesture Move-
ments of the march and folk danco aro ad-
vocated for developing rhythmic fooling as a
support for musical work

Present Procedure — The pressure of more
and more studies in the school is tending to
lessen the time given to singing A fair aver-
age allotted to this subject is one hour a week,
sometimes given in two half hours, sometimes
in fifteen-minute periods This hour is often
supplemented by another period of music

work and general exercises The music study
period generally commences with some breath-
ing exercises, followed by scale and vocal prac-
tice Then technical matter pertaining to
notation is followed by reading new music
or exercises, and the lesson ends with a review
of familiar songs

In the fust giado learning songs by imita-
tion, or " rote singing/' as it is called, is largely
emphasized, and in some schools this is carried
on in diminishing extent through the grades
This makes it possible to introduce a great
doal of excellent music, which might otherwise
bo too difficult to read On the other hand,
those schools employing sight reading do little
roto work aftor the first grado, paying much
rnoio attention to the singing of exercises in-
tended to improve sight reading This pro-
ceduie reduces the artistic musical material
used, but tends to increase the proficiency in
leading In either case, much depends upon
the amount of individual work demanded fiom
the pupils The great difficulty in accomplish-
ing any thoiough teaching along ordinary
linos lies in the fact that music is umvei sally
taught oolleeti\ely,thus i educing the individual
Josponsibility to a minimum, so that students
can go through eight years of grade work, and
at the end be unable to give the simplest de-
scription of what they have done

New Tendencies — The now trend in modern
education is bunging about a decided change
in the attitude toward the popular teaching
of music This change in aim puts the empha-
sis not so much on what is taught as on what
the pupil can do with what ho is taught The
point of interest is the pupil rather than the
subject Undoi this now influence the teacher
aims to make the tone quality, the dynamics,
the pronunciation, and the musical form, both
as to pitch and rhythm, glow out of one central
thought, — the expression of the feeling sug-
gostod by the words of the song The child must
sing it in a way to show that ho realizes the
significance of what ho doos

But this is not all, the child must not only
make the musical thought of another his own,
but ho must have experience in expressing his
own poetic and musical thought, not that in
so doing ho can express anything of value for
others, but foi the sake of the musical develop-
ment both in thought and taste that such
piactico brings about It is parallel to theme
work in the teaching of the mother tongue
This attitude toward music tieats it more as
a language, and seeks to make the form expres-
sive of the fooling In making a melody fit
the words of a song the child is constantly led
by the teacher to observe the relationship
between the music and the text. Such effort
on the part of the* pupil brings about the most
searching observation and thought with refer-
ence to the song he is producing, and when
such song making is the collective effort of the*
whole class, different members offering their

VOL. iv — 2 A

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MUSIC IN EDUCATION

versions of the wording and thought of their
couplets and their melodic expression, a much
more intensive exercise of aesthetic faculties
and discriminative thought is brought about
than ordinarily takes place by the old methods

Thus the new methods seek to develop the
poetic, imaginative, arid discriminative power
of the pupil in his relation to music, laying the
basis for musical appreciation, which after all
is the most important use to which the pupils
in our public schools will put their musical
education

Training for Teachers — Unfortunately for
music in American schools, the normal schools
have boon unable to give the necessary train-
ing, fivo hours a week for half a year being
the average time allowed to the subject
When this short amount of time is divided
between the development of the student's
own musical capacity and her training as a
teacher, the inadequacy of this woik will be
comprehended To meet this need the larger
publishing houses are conducting summer
schools for training music supervisors and
grade teachers, offering courses running in
some4 cases for three seasons The danger
in this work has been that methods advocated
have been too closely allied with the particular
publications of the house conducting the school
In spite of this, improvements in methods and
in material have been due to the far-sighted
enterprise of publishing houses rather than to
the school authorities. C H F

Music Schools and Conservatories — The
name Conservatory was first applied to orphan
asylums where children who where particulaily
fitted by virtue of superior talent received a
thorough musical education

Italy — The oldest known conservatories
wore founded in Naples during the sixteenth
century Four of these were combined by
order of King Murat (1808) into the now
existing conservatory San Pietro a Majelle.
The last director was Guiseppe Martucci (died
1910)

Rome — Conservatory of St. Cecilia,
founded in 1566, subsidized by the government.
Perhaps the most famous Italian music school
Tuition sixty lire a year

Palermo — Royal Conservatory, founded in
1615 Has at present twenty teachers and
about 150 students

Venice — Liceo Benedetto Marccllo became
a municipal institution m 1877 Present direc-
tor E Wolf Ferrari Tuition very moderate,
from 20 to 100 lire a year

France — Paris — Conservatoire National
de Musique (1795) is perhaps the best organized
music school in the world, and its standards
are therefore of the very highest Among
the instructors have been France's finest
musicians, — Cherubine, Auber, Thomas, Du-
bois, Faure*, Widor, Lavignac, Lasalle, Rose
Caron, Chevillard, Guilmant, Risler, etc. The
age of admission is from nine to twenty-six

There are about 800 students and eighty-five
instructors The highest honor obtainable is the
" grand Prix de Rome " Some of those receiving
this distinction were HaleVy, 1819, Berlioz, 1830,
Gounod, 1839, Bizet, 1857, Massenet, 1863,
Debussy, 1884 Branches of the Conservatoire
National dc Musique exist in the important
towns all over France The requirements
of scholarship vary with the different localities.
Noteworthy branches exist in Toulouse (1826),
Lille (1826), Boulogne-sur-Mer (1884), etc
Another important school is Ecole dc Musique
classique et re*hgieusc, founded by Niedermeyer
in 1853 A new school was founded in 1896
by Guilmant and D'lndy, 300 students spe-
cializing principally in organ and composition
based on modern tendencies

(rcrtnony — Germany has developed more
music schools than any other country Some
of these are under the patronage of leigmng
houses, others are endowed by individuals
or societies, but there are numberless private
schools existing and flourishing without any
financial tud from outside sources

Berlin — Komglicho Hochsehule fui Musik
It is divided into three sections The oldest
section is called Royal Institute of Chuich
Music, founded in 1822 It loceivos only
twenty students, and charges no tuition The
second section is called the Academic Master
School foi Composition (1833) The piesent
masters are Bruch, Humperdmk, and Gerns-
heim Tuition is free The third section,
which now is the Roval High School of Musi-
cal Art propei , was created in 1869 Joachim,
the famous violinist, was the first director
Students must be sixteen yeais and o\ei.
The entrance examinations are very severe
A nominal tuition is charged, vaiying from
$750 to SI 00 for the school year It is
interesting to know that each student, costs
the government on an average about $250
a year, and yet the average tuition charged
is less than $75 Excellent private con-
servatories in Berlin are the Klmdwortli-
Scharwcnka School of Music and Stern's Con-
servatory

Leipzig — The Royal Conservatory, founded
in 1843 by Mendelssohn, has financial guaran-
tees from the Saxon government and the mu-
nicipality It is perhaps still the most famous
conservatory in Germany There are at
present about 900 students and forty-five instruc-
tors Some of the great musicians who taught
at this school were Mendelssohn, Schumann,
David Hauptmann, Richter, Gade, Moscheles,
Reinocke, ladassohn Among the ^ present
teachers are Reger, Teichmuller, Hilf, Sitt,
Straube, Klengel, etc Famous pupils, Kirch-
ner, Bargiel, Brassm, ladassohn, Grieg, Sullivan,
Wilhelmj, Svendsen A peculiar position
is that occupied by the Thomas School in
Leipzig. Only boys with pronounced musical
talent (" absolute car " is one of the conditions)
are admitted. The boys form the choir of

354

MUSIC IN EDUCATION

MUSK1 IN EDUCATION

the Thomas Church The boys receive a com-
plete education without cost The most famous
director of this school was J S Bach

Munich — Royal Academy of Music (1846)
The best known tcacheis connected with this
school were and aie Hans Von Bulow, Corne-
lius, Rhemberger, Abel, Bussmeyer, Staven-
hagen, Mottl, Klose, etc Among its students
have been many Americans George W
Chadwick, Horatio W Parker, Fred Billiard,
Leo Lewis, Adolf Wcidig

Royal and ducal music schools of high stand-
ing exist in Dresden, Stuttgart, Wurzburg, Karls-
ruhe, Weimar, etc Private conservatories of
first rank are to be found in Frankfort, Ham-
burg, Strassburg, Wiesbaden, etc

Austria — Vienna — Conservatonum der
Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde admits pupils
from the age of ten to twenty-four years The
German language is obligatory The attend-
ance is about 1000 pupils, taught by sixty-four
instructors Among the teachers of the present
day are Godowsky and Sevcik

Prague — Conservatory of Music (1811)
Bohemians receive free instruction, but bind
themselves to stay six years Besides the
musical education, students receive instruction
in all the important liberal branches

Budapest — The Royal and National Aead-
emv of Music receives students from the age
of eight on The tuition fee is nominal, and
no tuition is charged tor students of wind in-
struments, double-bass, viols, etc

fttixxia — St Petersburg — The most im-
portant conseivatory was founded in 1862 by
the Royal Russian Music Society It is nchlv
endowed, and has about 200 scholarships The
average attendance is 800 students, under ninety
teacheis The curriculum comprises, besides
the study of music, a complete liberal education
The first dnectoi was Anton Rubinstein
Famous teacheis have been Glasounow, Rnnski-
Korsskow, Essipow, Auer, etc

Moscow — Royal Conservatory of Music,
founded by Nicolaus Rubinstein (1866), gives
courses similar to the conservatory in St
Petersburg Famous teachers have been Tane-
jew, Siif anow, etc There are sixty teachers,
and about 600 students The School of Music
of the Philharmonic Society (1878) leceived in
1886 the same official recognition as the Royal
Conservatories mentioned above

There are numerous schools of music in the
provinces which are considered branches of the
St Petersburg Royal Conservatory

Belgium —Brussels —The Royal Consei-
vatory of Music (1813) is one of the most
important of the European institutions Stu-
dents born in Belgium pay no tuition Those
born in other countries are admitted only if
acceptable to the director and the Secretary
of State Famous teachers were F£tis, Ge-
vaert, Tinel, De Benot, Vieuxtcmps, Leonard,
Ysaye, etc

Lidge. — The Royal School of Music (1827)

is also one of the important schools in Europe
Conditions are practically the same as in
Brussels

Antwerp — The Royal Flemish Conseiva-
tory (1867) is one of the laigest institutions, and
has about 1200 pupils and fifty tcacheih
Tuition fees aie veiv nominal The first
directoi was Petei Berioit

Netherlands — Amsterdam — The Conserva-
tory of Music is under the management, of
the Society foi Development and Protection
of Music (1862) Only about eighty students
over seventeen years of age are admitted
These are selected from among the pupils of
the preparatory school of music, which is
affiliated with the Conservatory Well-known
teachers are Zweers, Rontgen, etc

Rotterdam —The School of Music (1845)
is under the same management as the one in
Amsterdam It admits pupils fiorn eight
years on

Spam — Madrid — The Conservatono de
Maria Cristma (1830) is largely endowed by
the State There are about 1500 students
and sixty teachers Other important conser-
vatories are maintained in Barcelona and
Saragossa All are subsidized by the govern-
ment, and tuition is practically free to Spaniards

Portuqal — Lisbon — The Conservatono
Real (1833) is maintained by the government,
which pays all expenses There are about
300 students and thirty teachers

Scandinavia — Copenhagen — The Conser-
vatory of Music (1867) admits only fifty
pupils, according to its constitution This
restriction was made by its financial founder,
P W Moldenhauer Lately the government
has given a small subsidy, making it possible
to admit about twenty-five additional students
Teachers have been, among others, G Hart-
man 11 and N W Gade

Stockholm —The Royal Conservatory (1871)
is a government institution , no tuition is charged
except to a few aliens.

Christiama — The Conservatory of Chris-
tiania (1865) LS largely subsidized by a private
society and the State The tuition charged
is from five to twenty-five Kronen The pres-
ent director is Lindermann.

Switzerland — Geneva — The Conserva-
tory of Music (1835) has occasionally been
able to engage on its teaching staff some of
the best known musicians, i e Stavenhagen,
Marteau, Jaques Dalcroze The latter 's
Rhythnnc Gynniavtic bids fair to become a pro-
nounced factoi in the child's musical education
The Conservatory has about 1200 students and
fifty teachers

Basel — Music School, director, Hans Huber.

Zurich — Municipal Music School, director
Fr Hegar

Great Britain — London. — The Royal
Academy of Music (1822) was endowed by a
private society It is attended by 500 stu-
dents, and has eighty instructors. Among the

355

MUSIC IN EDUCATION

MUSIC IN EDUCATION

famous teachers who have been connected with
this school must be mentioned J B Cramer,
M dementi, Bennett, Macfarren, Mackenzie
The Guildhall School of Music (1880) is
perhaps the largest music school in the world,
and has approximately 4000 students and 150
instructors It receives a subsidy from the

The Royal College of Music (1883) maintains
perhaps the highest standards of all the English
conservatories It was founded by Arthur
Sullivan as the National Training School of
Music It is richly endowed, and possesses
one of the best libraries. Present director is
Ch II H Parry

Other more or less important schools in
London are the Royal College of Organists,
director, E H Turpin, National College of
Music, director, Dr Tmdall; London College
of Music, director, I I Karn, Birmingham
Midland Institute of Music, directors, Elgar
and Bantock; Manchester Royal College of
Music, director, Adolf Brodsky

Music Departments in Universities — Only
German, Austrian, and English universities
have music in the curricula While music
schools outside of universities make very few
demands on their students as to liberal educa-
tion, entrance into a university requires that
students shall have passed final examinations
in the gymnasium or preparatory college The
study of music in universities is confined to
history and theory The lectures on these
subjects may be attended by students who have
not passed the above-named examinations, but
are admitted as special students Only regu-
larly matriculated students may receive the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy, after sub-
mitting an approved dissertation dealing with
a mutiical subject and showing original re-
search The faculties of universities some-
times bestow the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
or of Doctor of Music on distinguished musi-
cians, but honoris eausa Chairs of music
occupied by prominent men of the "Science
of Music "are to be found in Germany in the
universities of Bcilin, Leipzig, Bonn, Gottin-
gcn, Halle, Heidelberg, Munich, Strassburg,
in Austria in Vienna, Prague, and Graz, in
England at Oxford and Cambridge, and in
Ireland at the University of Dublin English
universities confer the degrees of Mus Bac
or Mus Doc , after examination Examina-
tions also include the writing of Compositions
in various forms

-United States — It is possible at the present
time to secure a thorough musical education
in almost every state of the Union. This is
particularly true in the larger cities or in the
towns where the proximity to the larger cities
offers advantages in regard to hearing concerts
and attending opera But even in more iso-
lated places a good musical education has be-
come possible, as some members of the faculties
of educational institutions are, as a rule, ex-

cellent musicians who have received a thorough
education themselves as either instrumentalists,
vocalists, or theorists It is therefore no longer
necessary for music students to go to Europe
for study, although it^is always desirable to
become acquainted with musical conditions
of other countries No music student should
go to Europe until he has had a thorough educa-
tion at home, and he should never leave these
shores for further study abroad unless he
speaks one or two foreign languages fluently
While it is true that the English language is
spoken by almost every well-educated European
musician, yet this is a great disadvantage
to the American student, as it deprives him
of the possibility of a thorough appreciation
of European conditions, resulting frequently
in absolutely false perspectives arid erroneous
conclusions

Colleges and Universities having Depart-
ments of Music —Harvard Universitv —
A Music Department was established in 1862
on equal terms with the other departments
Credits of two points each in harmony and
counterpoints are allowed on entrance re-
quirements of twenty-six points Courses
offered are harmony, counterpoint, instrumen-
tation, composition, history of music The
degree granted is the A B , the requirements
for which are eight approved courses, five in
music and three in modern languages A M
arid Ph D candidates must be graduates of
approved colleges At least one year of resi-
dence at Harvard is demanded The exami-
nation requirements are a thesis on musical
aesthetics or historv and composition for chorus
and orchestra The annual tuition is $150
Special students are admitted, but are not
eligible for degrees

Yule Universitv, New Haven, Conn — The
music department was founded in 1894 The
courses offered are theoretical and practical
The former include harmony, counterpoint,
composition, orchestration, and conducting
The practical courses are organ, piano, string
instruments, singing, chamber music, and or-
chestral playing The degrees and diplomas
granted are certificates of proficiency in the
theory of music, and the B M on two years'
work, including two languages, one of which
must be modern Certificates are also awarded
to students of practical courses The tuition
ranges from $50 to $200 a year

Columbia University, New York, NY —
The music department was founded on an en-
dowment of $100,000, and the chair of music
first occupied by Edward McDowell in 1896
Extra credits are given in musical appreciation
or harmony — one point in a total of 14i
required for admission The courses offered
are harmony and history of music, and are
open to undergraduates as electives The
degrees of B A. and M.A. are conferred aftei
passing satisfactory examinations in comter-
point and composition.

356

MUSIC IN EDUCATION

MUSK1 IN EDUCATION

The following table gives a list of departments
or schools of music connected with universities
In all of them practical and theoretical courses
are given

Boston, Mass, New Kngland Conservatorv
of Music — Founded in 1853 by Eben Tourjee,
and incorporated in 1870, one of the best
equipped schools in the world, owning one

UNIVKHHITY

I

TlTLF !

1

T'OUNllfc-lJ

DEOREKH

KXPI.NHFB (TUI-

i ION AND BOARD)

Northwestern Univrrsit \ , Department

1S71 B A

it M A , HllHH

$.390 $GC!>

Kvanston, 111

18<

Michigan Umvermt>, Ann

Sehool

187.i, reorgan-

li V

si vrw a

course

Arbor, Mich

ized 18MO i

Oberlm, Ohio

Conservatory'

]8()7 MUH

B and '1'eaehers'

S.i.')()-$5(K)

Ce

rt iheate

Grmnell College, (innnell,

i

la

Si hool j

I87r> B \

$306— $430

Wisooumu Univernit\,

j

Madison, WH

Sehool

MUM

(Jrad

Syracuse University, Syra-
cuse, N \

Department ;

187.J ; B M

and Certihcat*

$32.r,-$500

IllmoiH Umvcrmtv, lTr-

I

bana, 111

Si hool '

1ST)

B.M

$280-

Boston Unnersitj , Boston,

MaHH

Courne

B A

Pennsylvania Univ(imt\,
Philadelphia, Pa

Department

lS7r>

B \

, MUH Bae

$,W a course

Music Departments in Colleges foi Women —
Wellesley College, Wellesley, Mass — No cred-
its are given for music in entrance requuements
Courses in theory and histoiy are open to all
students, and count toward the A B degree
Practical courses are given in piano, oigan,
violin, and voice and theoiy leading to B A
The length of the course is from four to five
years Special students are admitted, and mav
receive a certificate of the Department of
Music The expenses for tuition in practical
music and board in halls of residence is $450
per school year

Smith College, Northampton, Mass —
Courses in music may be taken in connection
with regular college work, and count toward the
degree of B A Music may count as one point
of credit in the entrance requirements

Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, NT Y — Only
regularly enrolled students can elect studies in
the music department, which mav count up
to one fifth of all studies required toward the
degree of B A

Independent Conservatories and Schools of
Music — These have become an important
factor in the musical development of Ameiica
Every large city has a number of schools com-
paring favorably with the best schools in Kuiope,
and there is hardly a town which does not sup-
port a school of music of its own Only the
most important are mentioned here

Baltimore, Md , Peabodv Consorvatorv of
Music — Founded in 1808 as a branch of the
Pcabody Institute, established in 1857 by
George Pcabody All branches of music are
taught in two main departments Prepara-
tory (elementary, junior, and mtei mediate),
and Conservatory (advanced, senior, and gradu-
ate). There are about 1400 students and
80 teachers. Tuition fees average about $125

year

of the finest buildings for the purpose The
consei vatory possesses, besides a large num-
ber of studios, two concert halls, a splendid
library, a collection of installments, eleven
pipe organs, etc Complete courses are offered
in all branches of music Candidates for grad-
uation must have been graduated from a high
school or must take work in hteratuie Privi-
leges are interchanged between Harvard Um-
versitv and the conservatory for qualified
students The unnersity credits certain con-
servatory courses toward the A B and M A
There are about 2700 students, with ninety
instructors The average cost of tuition for
the full course pci school year is $250

Chicago, 111 , American Conservatory of Mu-
sic, 1S86 — A school with a faculty of seventy-
five teachers and an attendance of over 2000
students All branches of music are taught,
enabling a student to become a practical and
theoretical musician The regular course re-
quires from three to four years of study After
successful examinations graduate and post-
graduate diplomas are issued Special features
are normal classes for teachers, a childicn's
department, and a students' orchestra De-
seivmg students are given scholarships at the
discretion of the board of dnectors Tuition
from $10 to $lf>0 pel term of ten weeks

Chicago, 111, Musical College — One of
the oldest pmate schools in the country,
founded in 1807 Its organization is similar
to that of the American Conservatory of
Music, without some of the special features
mentioned There are about 100 teachers
and 3000 students Among the teachers have
been some of the best known European musi-
cians

Cincinnati, Ohio, College of Music —
Founded in 1878 by Reuben R Springer, with
Theodore Thomas as the first director. All

357

MUSIC IN KDUC CATION

MUSirAL INSTRUMENTS

branches of practical and theoretical music
are taught by about forty teachers The
number of students is 650 Certificates and
diplomas are granted after successful examina-
tions Special features include a school of
opera, a students' oichestra, and a students'
chorus Tuition vanes according to insliuo-
tion selected

New York, N Y , Institute of Musical Arl —
Incorporated 1905 under a charter granted by
the board of regents of the University of the
State of New York It has an endowment of
$500,000, given by James Locb There are
seventy teachers and 600 students Certifi-
cates and diplomas are granted in all branches
of music study The tuition per school yeai
varies from $15 to $250, according to studies
selected

Other important schools of music in New
York are National Conservatory of Music,
German-American Conservatory, Virgil School
of Music; Guilmatit Organ School

Philadelphia, Pa, Combs Broad St Conser-
vatory of Music — Complete courses are given
in piano, violin, vocal, hand, and orchestra
instruments The following sections arc main-
tained introductory, advanced, teachers',
diploma, postgraduate, and artists', leading
to the degrees of M M and Ji M Reciprocal
relations are maintained with the Ilmversitv
of Pennsylvania, which offers to music students
English, French, and German, upon passing
satisfactory examinations for admission to
college in the subjects chosen, while the uni-
versity gives full credits for theoretical work
done at the conservatory Tuition from $40 to
$200 for the school year of forty weeks

A W
References —

History of the Teaching —

EDGAR, J. History of Early Scottish Education

(Edinburgh, 1893 )
GRANT, J History of the Burgh School of Scotland

(London, 1870 )
GROVE, SIR G Dictionary of Music and Musicians

(London, 1910 )

JEHSUPP, W A Social Praetors affecting Special Super-
vision in the Public Schools of the United States

(New York, 1911 )
KEHR, K Geschichte der Methodik, Vol IV (Gotha

1889)
LEACH, A F English Schools of the Reformation

(London, 1896 )
MEHTZ, G Das Schulwesen der deutschen Reformation

(Heidelberg, 1902 )

PRATT, W S History of Music (New York, 1908)
WATSON, F. Thf Beginnings of the Teaching of Modern

Subjects in England. (London, 1909 )

Sec also the following articles in periodicals and pro-
eeedmgB of associations

AIKEN, W Music in Cincinnati Schools Musician,

1906
American Institute of Instruction Lectures, Address

by J B Upham (1872 )

Boston School Committee Reports, 1837, 1848, 1867
General Association of Arts (London )
Musical Association, Proceedings (London, 1885-1886 )
National Educational Association, Proceedings, 1889,

,1891, 1910
National Music Teachers Association. U. S A., Pro-

ceedings, 1886.

United States Bureau of Education, Bulletins. 1886,
1908

Conservatories —

GROVE, SIR GEORGE Dictionary of Music and Mu-
sicians (London, 1910 )

LAVIGNAC, ALBERT Musical Education (New York,
1903 )

LEXIS, W Das Untcmchtswcaen im deutschen Reich,
Vol IV, Pt 2, pj) 216-228 (Berlin, 1904 )

MANCHESTER, A L Miihic Education in the United
States IT S Bur Ediu Bulletin No 6 (Wash-
ington, 1908 )

RIEMANN, HUGO Musik Lenkon (Leipzig, 1909 )

Catalogues and pamphlets of the institutions re-
ferred to

The Voice —

BATE**, JAMES The Care and Use of the Voice (Lon-
don )
ELLIS, A T Pronunciatimi for Singers (London

1888 )
HENDERSON, W J The Art of the Singer (New

York, 1906)
HOWARD, F E The Child Voice in Singing (New

York, 1898 )
JONES, DOHA DUTY The Technique of Speech (New

Yoik, 1909 )

MILLER, FRANK E The Voice (New York, 1910 )
Rix, FRANK R Voice Training for School Children

(New \ork, 1910 )
RUSSLLL, Louis A English Diction for Singers and

Speakers (Boston, 1905)
TAYLOR, D C The Psychology of Singing (New

\ork, 1910)

Methods

C ADY, CALVIN B Music Education in Outline (Chicago,

1902)
CRANE, JULIA E The Manual of the Music Courses

(Plattsburg, N Y )
FARNSWORTH, CHAS H Education through Music

(New York, 1909 )
GIDDINOS, T P School MUMC Teaching (Chicago,

1910)
HARDY, T MASKELL Practical Lessons in School

Singing (London, 1«M)(> )
NEWTON, E \\ Music in the Public Schools (New

York, 1909)
New York State Education Dept Syllabus for

Secondary Schools (Albany )
Rix, FRANK R Manual of School Music (New York,

1909)
SMITH, E The EUanor Smith MUMC Course Manual

(New York, 1908 )
TUFTS, J W A Handbook of Vocal Mu^ic (Boston

1896 )

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS, MECHANI-
CAL, AND EDUCATION. — Visual aids (qv)
to teaching have long boon used in almost
every subject and in greatest variety Auditory
aids have not been available until within the
last few years, when remarkable inventions have
provided such means These auditory aids
consist of the variety of mechanical musical
instruments such as the phonograph and
similar instruments for lepioducing sounds
and the pianola and similar mechanical
devices for operating pianos A third type
represented by the Welte-Mignon is just being
developed which provides for the actual re-
production of the interpretation of a virtuoso
or of any individual pcrfoimcr These three
types differ radically in their nature and in
the kind of educational opportunity they offer
The first type, by some contrivance of disks

358

MUSICAL INSTRUMENTS

MUSIC AT, INSTRUMENTS

grooves, and vibrating keys, reproduce more
or less accurately and with mechanical fidelity
any kind of musical sound, including the hu-
man voice. The second type operate mechani-
cally the piano and thus produce only one
type of music, but that with the instrument of
widest musical scope These lattei furnish
the technique of the peiformance, but allow
to the individual operator room foi the vaiietv
of expression and interpretation winch lendeib
music an art

But little use has been made of such instru-
ments in the school, and but slight lecogmtion
has been aroused until the last few yeais It
seems no exaggeration, howevei, to state that
they promise to do for musical education what
the various arts of illustration have done for
painting, and the art of printing itself has done
for general intelligence The fust great edu-
cational service which such inventions, es-
pecially those of the pianola type, seem to
furnish, is that of making musical appreciation
as common as the art of printing hah made
our appieciation of literatuie Not only tins,
but by means of the voice-reproducing mstiu-
ments, productions artistic both as legaids
tone and delivery can be given in the schools,
thus teaching by excellent examples and em-
ploying methods especially essential in the lower
grades There is no reason why a knowledge of
the finest music should not be consideied an at-
tubute of culture as well as a knowledge of the
best literatuie Long ago a German educator
said " The fundamental evil in music is the
necessity of reproduction ot its artistic creations
by perfoi ma nee Were it as easy to learn music
as words, the sonatas of Beethoven would
have the popularity of the poems of Schillei "
And little icason exists why in a coming
geneiation an ability to reproduce the best
music with fidelity and artistic expression
should not be within the power of any educated
person It seems no exaggeration to say that
what printing did for general intelligence, some
of these inventions promise to do for artistic
appreciation For by means of unlimited ie-
production, which such instiuments affoid,
the same advantage is given as by the punted
page For some generations now a recognition
of the place of music, especially of musical
appreciation, in education has been growing,
and many attempts have been made both foi
children and adults to develop such powei of
appreciation or performance Hut aside fiom
singing, these efforts have been limited,
especially with English-speaking peoples, to
adults Here it has appealed chiefly as an
expensive pleasure, limited to a favored few
Now, these mechanical devices remove the
difficulty of technique and afford the means of
repeatedly reproducing the entne subject
matter of music, and of giving the child 01
operator the pleasure and training of partici-
pating in this reproduction Even with the
favored few possessing a musical education, :i

large pait of the world's musical treasures aie
practically a scaled book, a book which may
in time, if the leal educational \alue is ob-
tained, bo opened to all

The talking machine has now become an
important part of the equipment of the schools
of perhaps 500 or more cities throughout the
country So rapidly has this innovation taken
place that few leahze the tremendous hold
that music has upon people, and the avidity
with which educators have seized upon this
really wonderful invention, which brings to
every child the hearing of the great music of
the world Special records for teaching pur-
poses, in all giadeb, — folk dances, interpreta-
tive dances, folk songs, songs of different
nations to correlate with the woik in history,
records showing the tones of all the instru-
ments of the orchestra, — ai e now to be had A
course of studv for high schools in history and
appreciation, using several hundreds of rec-
ords from the operas, oratorios, etc , has been
published These courses of study, copiously
illustrated by splendid repioductions of the
voices of the aitists, carry into the school-
room the cultuie and knowledge of real music,
and must piove a boon, especially to the rural,
village, and small city schools, where the chil-
dren never have an opportunity of hearing
the great artists, orchestras, and the opera

It is to be hoped and expected that the
schools will soon avail themselves more gener-
ally of these inventions and that music may be
given a place in American and English culture
as a social, moral, and aesthetic agency of vast
import as it has long been in some other civi-
lizations

A second service which the piano player
affords is of a more technical character in the
beginnings of instruction in piano playing
Hut as the most comprehensive of all instru-
ments and the one in most general use, this
service may be of no slight character, though
musicians are more divided or much less en-
thusiastic in their beliefs as to what mechanical
invention can do here than in the cultivation
of musical appreciation in general With the
mechanical piano player it is possible to carry
any parts of the composition by mechanical
means, while the learner may develop his
ability to play other parts of progressively
greater difficulty That is, a pupil can play
a hve-fingei exercise and at the same time so
operate the instrument with his feet that
interesting harmonies will be produced One
marked advantage which this scheme has is
that of having the child work on pieces of
inherent merit and attractiveness which other-
wise would be too difficult for him to attempt
Possessing both advantages and disadvantages
which are obvious, this use of the piano player
has not been sufficiently tested to enable
musical educators to form a judgment

While the use of the piano player as an aid
to musical instruction has had but slight use

359

MUSIC SCHOOLS

MYOPIA

in the public school, it has been recognized
quite generally in American colleges and
universities Not only are these instruments
used in many of the institutions as a means
to musical education of students, but the pro-
fessors of music of Columbia, Harvard, Michi-
gan, Oberlin, Smith, Tufts, Vassar, and leading
professional musicians have cooperated with the
manufacturers in working out elaborate courses
in the music of the greatest composers, such as
Bach, Beethoven, Chopin, Liszt, Schumann,
Wagner, and others as a means to a general
cultural education These courses combine
lectures and interpretation with selections

Thus the general public can obtain real
insight into great music by means of actual
auditory illustration and expert comment
It is the hope of these educators that in time
music may cease to be a special cult, as un-
fortunately it is in our civilization, and become
a matter of common culture depending, as do
other elements of culture, not upon a highly
technical ability but upon the intelligence and
sympathy of the individual

References —

.^Eolian Company. Music Lovers Library Volumes
on Bach, Brahms, Chopin, Handel, Haydcri, Mo-
zart, Schubert, Schumann, Mendelssohn, Wagner,
etc (New York )

The fjiaru>la, published by ^Eohan Company (Now
York, 1^112 ) H J Wood

FINCH, H T Twenty Musical Evenings <45ohan Com-
pany and lists prepared by Leo Rich Lewis, Tufts
College, Mass

KOBBE, GUSTAV The Pwnolist. (New York, 1912 )

MUSIC SCHOOLS —See CHORISTERS'
SCHOOLS, MIDDLE AGES, EDUCATION DURING,
THE SONG SCHOOL.

MUSKINGUM COLLEGE, NEW CON-
CORD, OHIO • — A coeducational institution
established in 1836 and now under the control
of the United Piesbytenan Synod of Ohio
Preparatory, collegiate, and music departments
are maintained The entrance requirements
are fifteen units The degrees of A.B , B S ,
Ph B , and A M are conferred The enroll-
ment in 1910-1911 was 610 The teaching
staff consists of twenty-seven members

MUSURUS, MARCUS — Sec RENAISSANCE
AND EDUCATION

MUTATION THEORY AND MUTANTS

— See HEREDITY, also ACQUIRED CHARAC-
TERISTICS, EVOLUTION, INSTINCTS

MUTISM —The inability to speak, due
to lack of cerebral development (in idiots),
to sensory disorders (as in deafness), or to
inhibition or negativism (in dementia precox,
(qv.))y or in hysteria (qv] The acquired
mutism is to be distinguished from aphasia
(qv), in which the ability to speak has been
lost Mutism is simulated by the apparent

lack of speech in melancholia (q.v ) in which
there is mental and motor retardation The
inabilities to speak following emotional ex-
citements, c g fear, are normal conditions.
Like mutism they are frequently found in
children, especially in those of nervous tem-
perament, and they are often the first symptoms
in the development of grave psychoses, c g.
dementia precox, hence their importance in
education

Deaf mutes may be educated to use the vocal
apparatus, arid the absolute mutism may be
replaced by speech There is, however, an
incoordination, for the sounds lack the modu-
lation to be found in the voices of normal
people This is because of the inability to
correlate the sounds with the movements of
the vocal apparatus Mutism in idiots is
incurable, but the mutism of imbeciles may, by
appropnate education, give way to a vocabu-
larv sufficient to indicate their wants and de-
sires The mutism in melancholia is only
temporary, and disappears with the improve-
ment in general condition The dementia
precox mutism is also temporary, and may be
improved by stimulation arid by appropriate
training to a slight extent, but the amount of
improvement depends upon the accessibility of
the patient S. I F.

See DE\F, EDUCATION OP; SPEECH DEFECTS.

MUTUAL AID — Sec PENSIONS.

MUTUAL INSTRUCTION, SYSTEMS

OF — See MONITORIAL SYSTEM; BELL, AN-
DREW, LANCASTER, JOSEPH.

MYOPIA (fiom late Greek fivoTna, from
/AuaM/r, from /xuW, to shut, arid oty, sight),
or more scientifically BUACHYMETROPIA or
BRACHYOPIA (from /fyxzxvs, short, arid aty,
sight) — That condition of refraction where
the antero-postenor diameter of the eye is
too great and parallel rays of light entering
the eye at rest come to a focus in front of the
retina. This defect has now been studied
in the eyes of hundreds of thousands of school
children, and as a result of the modern in-
vestigations the following facts have been
pretty well established There arc two kinds
of myopia. (1) myopia of high degree, a dis-
ease of degeneration more likely to be found
among the lower classes, (2) myopia of low
degree, the common form, known as functional,
frequently not appearing till puberty It is
not a disease, but a defect The distinction
between the two forms was recognized by
Dr Beger in a monograph on nearsightedness,
published in 1845

The question of the cause of myopia is still
a much-debated one Those who agree with
Cohn hold that the school witl] its unhygienic
conditions of work is the chief cause and point
out that in Germany not only the number of
cases but the degree of nearsightedness increases

300

MYOPIA

MYOPIA

with the age and grade of the pupils More
recent investigations (e g by Stciger, Miss
Harrington, and Karl Pearson) seem to show
that myopia, as well as other enors of refrac-
tion, are inherited On another point, also, mod-
ern opinion has changed, modern studies showing
that the defect of myopia occurs among primitive
as well as among civilized people The most
prominent lecent theory on the subject has
been formed by Stilling, who on the basis of
many thousand measurements of the cadavei,
maintains that myopia is caused pnmaiily
by innate structural peculiarities of the eve
socket, and that those who have a low orbit
have a tendency to myopia The practical
result of such a theory, on which a controversy
has raged for twenty years, would be to make
it possible from the shape of the skull and the
orbital index to pick out on the first day of
school those pupils who have a tendency to
myopia and to relieve them fiom the strain
of near work and later to determine the kind
of vocational training for which thev are fitted

In no pait of the held of school hvgicne, per-
haps, have more errors prevailed than in this
particulai chapter And among the many
investigations that have4 been made during
the last hundred years it is possible to find
statistical evidence foi almost any cunent
erroi Not only the teacher, but the specialist
himself must be on his guard against being
misled by the results of so-called studies of
this subject

Perhaps the best wav to surnman/e irnpor-
tant points, and to show briefly the cornplexitv
of the problems connected with the genesis
and development of myopia and the danger
of hasty inferences, is to enumerate some1 of
the errors that have prevailed and still survive
in some quarters Among these are the fol-
lowing * 1 The error of not distinguishing
the different, conditions of refraction and of
confusing weakness of vision from whatever
cause with nearsightedness, eg the cases of
hypeiopia, myopia, and presbvopia 2 Even
scientific writers often fail to distinguish be-
tween pathological myopia and ordinarv mv-
opia, which is merely a defect And even
to-day the usual form of myopia and the patho-
logical form are often not distinguished
3 Some writers like Cohn have believed that
the ordinary myopia may develop into the
pathological form The 'two, however, are
distinct, and it seems probable that the former
never develops into the latter In the patho-
logical form, as Stilling puts it, the eve is not
diseased because it is myopic, but it is myopic
because it is diseased 4 The error still
prevails that myopia is caused by the condi-
tions of civilized life, whereas it is found among
primitive peoples as well 5 The charge is
still made even by scientific writers in an in-
discriminative way that the school is the
cause of myopia. Studies by Steiger have
shown, however, that not only do cases of

myopia occur at the time when children enter
school, but that among nearsighted children
the percentage of cases of myopia of high degree
is enormously greater than among children
who develop nearsightedness later, say at the
age of twelve The pathological form of
myopia at least would develop in any case
whether children attended school or not.
Landolt, Hoor, and others have found myopia
of high degree among peasants and soldiers,
people who never used their eyes largely for
near work, and who never had attended
school 6 The error of supposing that be-
cause the number of cases of nearsightedness,
especially in Germany, is apt to increase from
the lower to the higher grades, the school is
responsible for this increase Tins inference,
plausible as it seems, is not justified by the
evidence cited Not only are many cases likely
to develop at the age of puberty, apparently
on account of the conditions of growth, but
no account is usually taken of the fact that
children who are myopic, lacking an interest in
outdoor occupations on account of their im-
perfect vision, aie more likely to become
interested in school work, and hence more
likely to remain to the higher grades of the
school 7 The error is widely pievalent that
myopia is caused primarily by near work,
whereas it seems to have been amply demon-
strated by the studies of Motais, Steiger, Miss
Barrmgton, and Karl Pearson that errors
of refraction are inherited And while the
use of the eyes for near woik is probably a
secondary cause deter mining largely the de-
velopment of the defect, it is not the primary
cause 8 The error of supposing that the
conditions of the human eye at birth is myopic
This en or was due in the first place to the old
investigations of Jaeger , who by some erroneous
method found that most of the cases of new-
born children studied by him had myopia in
some degree

A number of interesting correlations have
been strongly suggested, if not established, by
modern studies, among them the following
a correlation between the numbei of cases
and physiological development , between the
tendency to myopia and sex, girls being ap-
parently more likely to become myopic, be-
tween the number of cases and the geneial
environment, the percentage of cases being
often greater among the children of the well-
to-do, between the percentage of cases and
the intelligence of the pupils and their success
in school work, myopia occurring more fre-
quently apparently among the more successful
pupils, and a correlation according to the shape
of the skull, the brachyeephahc being prone to
myopia It is also maintained by some that
there is a correlation between the number of
cases and the degree of civilization in a country,
and likewise between the number of cases and
the hygienic condition of the schoolhouse and
school environment

MYOPIA

MYSTICISM

Very extreme views have been held by some
of the leaders of the controversies waged in
regard to myopia On the one hand, Sehmibel
and others have maintained that myopia is
a good thing, that it means the perfection of
the eye for the finer occupations and ncai
work requned by civilized life; while on the
other hand aie those who have taken an ex-
tremely pessimistic view and taught that
myopia is a disease, that all are liable to the
defect, and that all cases are liable to develop
into the pathological form

There arc many unsolved problems in regard
to myopia, and further studies are needed , but
those who would learn the present condition
of our knowledge in legard to this defect
should be suspicious of the popular writings,
and consult among investigators, not Cohn
and the older writers, but rather Steiger and
Karl Pearson

While the net result, of modern investigations
has been to show that heredity is the primary
cause of myopia, that it is probably in large
part due to innate structural peculiarities
of the eye, and that the school and near woik
are onlv in a secondary way responsible, these
results do not make the demands of hygiene
less important While it may be quite im-
possible to pievent the development of myopia,
it is a significant fact for hygiene that probablv
from ten to twenty-five per cent of the children
in any school are likely to have this defect or
else a tendency to it, and it is neeessaiy to
make the conditions hygienic for such myopic
eyes They should be tested by competent
oculists, fitted with suitable concave lenses,
the error of refraction fullv collected, and the
ordinary well accepted rules for the hygiene
of the eye should be observed W H B

See EYE, HYGIENE OF, ASTIGMATISM, HYPE-
ROPIA

References —

HARRINGTON, A and PEARSON, K A First Study of
the Inheritance of Vision and of tho Relative
Influence of Heredity arid Environment on Sight
Eugenics Laboratory Memoirs London, 1909,
No 5

CARTER, R B Report on the Vision of Children At-
tending Elementary Schools in London (London,
1896 )

COHN, H The Hygiene of the Eye English trans-
lation edited by W P Turnhull (London, 1NHO )

GULICK, L H and AYHKS, L P Medical Inspection
of Schools (New York, 190S )

Reports of the London Medical Officer (London, 1904 )

RLUTER, F. Kopffoirn uud Korperbau Arch IP f
Rabsen- und Oexdlschaft^- Biologic, 1908, Vol V
pp 449-477

RIVERS, W H R Vision Reports of the Cambridge
Anthropological Expedition to Torres Straits
Vol II, Part I, pp 8-140 (Cambridge, 1901 )

SCHNEIDER, R Pubertat wut Aufjc (Munich, 1911 )

SNEED, C M and WHIPPLE, G M An Examination
of the Eyes, Ears, and Throats of Children m the
Public Schools of Jefferson City, Mo The Psycho-
logical Clinic, 1909, Vol II, pp 234-288

STEIUEH, A Gcdanken uber die versehiedenen For-
men der Kuizsiehtigkeit Atchtv f Raswn- und
(Tcwll*chaftt>-Biolo(jut 1908, Vol V pp 32-15
Uber di< Itedeiitiing \<m VugenunteitiH liungi n fin

die Vererbungsforschung Archiv f Rassen- if rid
Gesellxchafh-Bwlooic, 1908, Vol V, pp 623-634

STILLING, J Die Kuizbichtirjkeif, ihre Entstehung und
Bedentuno (Berlin, 1903 )

TAUSSK,, A E The Prevalence of Visual and Aural
Defects among the Public School Children of
St Louis County, Mo. The Psychological Clinic,
1909, Vol III, pp 149-160

WINGEUATH, H H Kurzmchtwkeit und Schule (Ham-
burg, 1910)

MYSTICISM — Mysticism is that type of
religion in which the soul endeavors to appre-
hend eternal realities immediately by an inner
experience It places little emphasis upon
rites as a means oi influencing the deity or of
obtaining power and sanctity, or upon obedience
for the sake of rewards, but it endeavors to
obtain a present enjoyment or foretaste of
cteinal bliss by a suitable training of the soul
Togethei with the saciamental idea, mysticism
is present as a noimal religious phenomenon
in many highei forms of lehgion, especially
those m which asceticism is developed In
pumitive Ohiistiamty it finds its expression
in the New Testament in the writings of Paul
and John Although the name mysticism is
taken from the Greek mysteries, it was long
before they had any influence upon Christian
mysticism and early resemblances cannot
well be explained upon any theory of borrow-
ing In Chiistiamty mysticism took two dis-
tinct lines of development, a more emotional
and a more speculative In the East the former
is seen in Ignatius of Antioch (ob c 115) who
first de\ eloped the Johannine tradition, then
in Irenanis, Methodius, and Athanasiiib, and,
in a somewhat cliff eient form and more strongly
influenced by contempoiarv Hellenic philosophy
in C1lement of Alexandiia and Origcn In the
West this Mysticism found its first great
exponent in Augustine, who in his Confessions
passes far beyond any Neo-Platomc mysticism
he may have retained, for however much Neo-
Platonism influenced Augustine's doctrine of
God and of evil, his mysticism, anticipated
somewhat by Ambrose, has a different content
and establishes a new type of piety Its in-
fluence upon Western thought appears again
most impressively in Bernard of Clairvaux in
language which recalls both the rapture and
the diction of the Confessions The principal
source of speculative Christian mysticism is the
woiks of the Pseudo-Dionysius the Aieopagite,
written under the unmistakable influence of
Pioclus the Neo-Platonic philosopher These
works were written about the end of the fifth
century, purporting to be the writings of the
Athenian convert of St. Paul, and accepted
generally as such they profoundly influenced
religious thought Their authenticity is now
defended by no scholar The Arcopagite took
over the Neo-Platonic metaphysics of his
master and his practical method whereby the
soul after passing through stages of purifica-
tion, illumination, and completion became one
with the primordial being. These three stages

MYSTICISM

MYSTICISM

reappear in all systems of the Christian mysti-
cal theology. In thus adapting Neo-Platomsm
to Christian mysticism, the Pseudo-Dionysms
considerably Christianized it and Maximus,
the Confessor, who wrote a commentary
upon Dioriysius, carried the process still
further. The influence of the Areopagite in
the West dates from the ninth century and
John Scotus Enugena, who built for himself
upon him a system of pantheistic mysticism

After the introduction of Dionysius the
Areopagite into the West, mysticism, except
as the pious experience of saints such as Anselm
of Canterbury and Peter Daniuim, plays no
piommcnt part until the development of mysti-
cal theology in the twelfth century under the
general intellectual revival of that age From
the first in this revival both types of mysticism
are clearly developed and in the closest 'connec-
tion Hugo of St Victor (1078-1141) is the
first after Eriugena to comment on the Areop-
agite and also the first of the greater mystical
theologians, tracing clearly and successfully
the foundation of mystical theory and basing
it upon a psychological analysis of man's
religious nature and mental and moral powers
After him Richard of St Victor (oh c 1174)
and Bonaventura (1221-1274) develop the
system, building upon the foundations laid
by Hugo With these thioe the theory of
mysticism as worked out in the Medieval
Church is complete The metaphysical and
psychological basis of this theory always ic-
mains strongly tinged by the Neo-Platonism
of the Pscudo-Dionysms and the connection
can always be traced But the thcorv is by
no means merelv metaphysical, there aie
always two ways of attaining the goal of mysti-
cism, an ethical and an intellectual, which
ar^e only different sides of the same process,
for to know anything one must share in its
nature In this lav the basis for the union
of the various types of mysticism into one
general theory It, too, was derived from Neo-
Platonism

The significance of mysticism for pedagogy
is that in it, by an analysis of the soul's life,
a psychological basis was won for a religious
pedagogical theory which conesponded to the
ideals of life of the times This thcorv is not-
worked out systematically in any one treatise,
not even in Hugo's Eruditio didaxcalica or
Didascahcon de studio legend i, the most im-
portant educational treatise written by any
of the medieval mystics, but it underlies a
great mass of ascetic and devotional literature
and is not difficult to grasp This pedagogical
theory corresponds to the monastic ideal of
life, which till nearly the time of the Renais-
sance was dominant in Western Europe
Monasticism as it was organized by Benedict,
and even as it was reformed under the influence
of Cluny, provided little more than the out-
ward conditions for the higher religious life,
and it was only in and through mysticism that

monasticism received its higher pedagogical
principles arid was brought into vital relations
with the intellectual movements of the age.
While scholastic theology was a practical
science, mystical theology had always a practi-
cal end, a pedagogical puipose, for in tracing
the stages of the soul's advance to higher
spiritual experiences and to the end of all,
union with God, it provided means for a system-
atic training of the whole spiritual nature
In its Areopagitic form mystical theology re-
vealed a religious content and significance in
science This is cleaily bi ought out in Hugo's
Eruditw didabcalica, to which the other mysti-
cal and theological works of Hugo form a
useful supplement In form the Eruditio is
in imitation of the encyclopedic works of
Isidore of Seville, Ilrabanus Maurus,and others,
a comprehensive survey of the various piofane
and sacred sciences (See HUGH OF ST VIC-
TOR ) A pedagogical theory, which aims at the
cultivation of the purely spiritual functions,
comes into close contact with the science of
the times, in fact, brings it into its system

However much the intellectual side of
mysticism might be emphasized in a woik
which professedly tioated of the method
whcieby science might be used in mystical
training, the ethical side is as essential to
mysticism as it was to Neo-Platonism and was
closely connected with the cogitative process
and the way of purgation It is only less
psychological, and is more ascetic and devo-
tional The soul appioaches God by purifi-
cation of the heart, for one sees only as he is
what he sees In the case of God, he can know
God only as he loves God Therefore, by
ascetic training a man fiees himself fioiri the
external world and the life of the senses, with
its passions and desires He is trained in
viitue, and heie mysticism and theological
ethics are one This training diffeis from the
populai ethics in being a propaiation of the
soul rather than a means of acquning inent
The soul, thus prepared by ascetic discipline
intelligently directed, and by meditation upon
the facts of divine redemption, attains the
same icsult as in the intellectual training,
which it must always accompany In perfect
union with God, the soul loves nothing less
than God, loves all else than God only as they
are seen to be included in the love of God

In the hands of Bernaicl (q v ) who joins it
indissolubly with the monastic asceticism,
mysticism obtained a power of conviction
which left a permanent impiession upon
Western religion It does not lend itself
to any appropriation of contcmpoianeous
science, it cannot be formulated in a pedagogi-
cal theory, but it can be easily detected as
reenforcing the emotional side of mysticism
wluch was in danger of being lost in an intel-
lectual process It was of special value in
the icligious training of the age in revealing
highoi forms of sanctity attainable hv those

MYSTICISM

MYTHS AND MYTHOLOGY

who were not adepts in speculation Even
laymen, especially those who were affiliated
with monastic institutions, came to have a
place in the new training designed primarily
for monks This is especially clear in the later
mysticism of Germany On account of the
ascetic character of mystical devotion, mystical
writings are commonly classed as ascetic
writings They have nevei ceased in the
religious world Tne most remaikable of
woiks of devotion and courses of spiritual
training, the Spiritual Exerciser of Ignatius
of Loyola, is essentially a woik of mysticism,
and the methods of the Victonnes and Bona-
ventura are manifested throughout it

Only medieval mysticism is of special peda-
gogical significance* It alone conesponded
to the ideals of the times In the later Domini-
can mysticism, popularly known as German
mysticism, there is little distinctive that needs
to be noticed Notwithstanding Eckhart's
departure from orthodoxy, he stands for the
most part upon Thomas Aquinas He and
Tauler, together with several others, differ fiom
the older mystics principally in extending then
work beyond the monastic life and by writing
in the vernaculai This later mysticism,
although the little tieatise Tluologica Germun-
ica was highly esteemed by Luthei, ib not to
be regarded as leading the way to the Protes-
tant Reformation Its spirit is distinctly
medieval

Mysticism in the West is by no means con-
fined to the Medieval Church It constantly
appears in Protestantism, to mention only
in German the theology of Luthei and Pietism,
in the Anglican Communion, the mysticism
of Andre wes, Wilson, and Law and the rich
hymnodv of the Wesleys How widespread it
is in Protestantism William James shows in
his Varieties of Religious Experience In
Protestantism mysticism is Augustmian, larely
Areopagitic In the modern Roman Catholic
Church, mysticism has taken a new develop-
ment, especially in the hands of Gorres In
his treatment, the whole mass of " mystical "
phenomena is classified and the miraculous
element, little emphasized by earlier mystics,
is stressed Accoidmgly, mysticism is re-
garded as a higher knowledge made possible
by an imparted higher light and a higher, i e
miraculous, activity made possible by an im-
parted higher freedom, in the same way that
ordinary knowledge and activity are possible
by the light and freedom implanted in the soul
This explanation, established by a novel
analysis of the spintual and mental faculties,
gives an interesting explanation of the miracu-
lous, sees a new and wider scope in mysticism
which is recognized as a widespread religious
phenomenon, and distinguishes between true
and false mysticism, formerly a difficult
matter True mysticism, accordingly, is that
in which man actually stands in relation to
(rod and this is possible only when in his

ordinary religious consciousness he holds the
right conception of God But in all these
modern developments, wherever they appear,
mysticism has departed from the pedagogical
point of view which it may be said to have had
in the Middle Ages as a method of spiritual
training J C A , JR

See articles on the chief writers referred to
above, eg CLEMENT, for school systems,
inspired by the influence of mysticism See
BRETHREN OF THE COMMON LIFE; FRANCKE,
JESUS, SOCIETY OF, EDUCATIONAL WORK OF,
PIETISTS, PORT ROYALISTS, etc

References —

KLUNAKD OF OLAIRVATJX Opera, Migne, Patrologia,

Set t€8 Latino Vols CLXXXII-CLXXXV
Englibh translation of many works by S J Karles

(London, 1889-1896 )

7-i w> of Bernard by A Neandei, ed S H Doutnch
(Gotha, 1889), and bv Vacandaid (Paris, 1895)

(ioRRKS, J Die Christluhe Myxtik (Regeiibburg,
18M(>-1842, 2d eel 1879-1880 )

HUGEL, FK VON The Mystical Elcmtnt of Religion as
studied in 8aint Catherine of Genoa arid her Fnvndu
(London, 1(K)S )

HIH.O or Si VICTOR Opeta Migne, Patrologia, N<m&
Latina Vols CLXXV-TLXXV11

INUE, \\ R ('hnstian Myt>titit>m (London and Now
}oik, 1899)

JONES, K M titudut, in My^lual Rdigwn (Nc^
\ork, 1909 )

MJCJNON, A Lea Origins de In Scolat>tiqut cl Hugucs
de Xai?i( \ ictor (Pans, 1895 )

PRLUER, W (fisdnchtt du diukchin My^tik Vol 1
(ontain.s a good outline of the history of Mysticism
before- Echkart (Leipzig, 1*74 189.S )

RIDE i Li Mystique Divine, dmtingue( deft Contrt-
/tfforts diabohqmit (Parib, 1895 )

VAUUHAN, E Hotut, with the M jy,s/?ri> (London, 1888 )

The various histories of philosophy and of Christian
doctrine should be consulted Of the latter, the
best presentation of mvstu isrn IH that given by
Thomasms, Dogmf nytschichte, ed Seebeig (Er-
langen arid Leipzig, 1889) --See also Renter,
Augustwwche Studien (Gotha, 1887), and works
on Neo-Platonisui (q v ) and the School of Alex-
andria

MYTHS AND MYTHOLOGY — Defi-
nitions — Mythology may be said to be
the prehistone form of existing religions, just
as superstitions may be termed the survivals
of otherwise extinct beliefs Religious feel-
ing of some sort is common to all mankind,
but it has not developed equally or in the same
direction among every people It keeps pace
in general with the advance of civilization and
material prosperity The term mythology
has been applied to that form of belief which
has been developed especially under literary
influence, while religion commonly denotes the
serious belief of peoples as represented by the
Church, and superstition means the semi-
conscious beliefs handed down from generation
to generation by word of mouth

Each of these has its special devotees- the
poets love to dwell in mythological realms,
the philosophers explore the field of religion,
while the common people hold firmly to their
superstitions And all of these things have
probably been as true for thousands of years

364

MYTHS AND MYTHOLOGY

MYTHS AND MYTHOLOGY

as they are now. Any given legend, doctrine,
or superstition may usually be readily traced
back for centuries among the various peoples
having a historic past, and the same is doubt-
less true for the others without a known past
history

A myth is some particular religious legend
considered by itself, and hence it is the unit
from which mythology is constructed It
usually belongs in its most perfect foim to
a rather primitive stage of development in
the scale of civilization, as in later times it
is apt to become merged in a confused mass
of tradition It should further be obseived
that in a restricted sense and as commonly
employed the term " mythology " denotes the
legends told by the ancient Greek and Roman
writers concerning their gods and heroes, and
since their day perpetuated by literary men in
all the nations of the modern civilized world

Theories — Various thrones ha\e from tune
to tune been advanced by scholars to account
for the origin of myths and legends Some
have tried to see in them attempts at populai
etymologies, by which process some fanciful
tale was invented to account for an epithet
commonly applied to some deity Such
stones are best exemplified in the Mctamot-
phoxeb of Ovid, whose popularity has always
been deservedly great Otheis have wished
to account for their origin by referring them
back to the great natuial phenomena which
weie thoroughly appieciated in all their gran-
deui by early peoples This theoiv has of
late years been in special favoi with the modem
school of anthropologists Still others would
have it that they are but a generalization and
idealization of ordinary human activities and
attributes, thus offering a wholly latumal
explanation of a common mental phenomenon

In all cases of theorizing, howevei, it would
seem to be highly important to compaie the
mythologies of various nations in all stages
of civilization in order to gain a broader view
of the whole field than would otherwise be
possible This special phase of the subject
is denominated Comparative Mythology

Greek and Roman Mythology — In the
Golden Age of Greek and Latin literature,
which we commonly call the classical penod,
the old religious beliefs had lost their hold on
educated men, and thus it came to pass that
the poets of the time were wont to relate the
old mythological stories in a half credulous
fashion which was fortunately well adapted
to their artistic purposes And indeed mythol-
ogy was so closely interwoven with the whole
of classical civilization that it would have been
impossible for any one entirely to free himself
from its influence

With the coming of Christianity and its
rapid spread throughout the Roman Empire,
the old mythology was relegated more and more
into the background. It was afterward per-
petuated during the Middle Ages solely by

the efforts of literary men, until at the timo
of the Renaissance its cultural influence be-
came very strong, especially so in Italy In
more modern tunes mythology has once more
waned in popular estimation, being driven out
more arid more from the public consciousness
by the constantly increasing r61e played by
science Only in the realms of art and litera-
ture is classical mythology still an important
factor

Celtic and Teutonic Mythology — There is,
however, another influence in modern Europe,
whose mythological power is great, namely,
the traditions of the Celtic and Teutonic
peoples, whose ancient beliefs still form an
essential part of our intellectual life The
former is as beautiful and graceful as the Greek,
and it possesses an immense poetic power,
\\ith its direct appeal to the imagination, the
latter, with its crudeness and stern warlike
note, gives stamina to oui being, and fosters
the more practical qualities that have built
up Anglo-Saxon civilization For English
readers the Celtic gods and heroes are the
natural inhabitants of a British landscape,
especially so in the wilder and more moun-
tainous western section where the original
inhabitants of the land lingered longest Thus,
in the west of England, in Wales, in Scotland,
and especially in legend-haunted Ireland, the
hills and dales still keep memories of the an-
cient, gods

Teutonic mythology is closely akin to great
natural phenomena in then earliest attain-
able form Hut as civilization began to exert
an appreciable influence on the Northern
peoples, it was profoundly modified both by
the process of internal development and by
the external force of the Christian religion
At the present day the old mythology has
among the educated classes been relegated
largely to the nursery; but among the common
people its influence on their religious beliefs
is still powerful

Uncivilized Mythologies — A great deal of
attention has been paid of late years by an-
thropologists and students of folklore to the
religious beliefs of semi civilized, barbarous,
and savage peoples, and a vast amount of
material bearing on this subject has been
gathered up, chiefly from oral sources Inves-
tigations based on such material are of great
impoitance as showing the workings of the
human mind in the religious sphere, and as
throwing a strong light on the prehistoric
phases of our own beliefs

Mythology had its birth, unquestionably,
among uncivilized peoples There we find that
when the mind is fresh the mythical fancy
has its creative hour, and develops the most
varied and fantastic forms, and these manage
to perpetuate themselves long after their
original significance has been outgrown and
forgotten Thus we see that the myth-
making tendency is strongest, and exerts its

365

MYTHS AND MYTHOLOGY

MYTHS AND MYTHOLOGY

most effective influence, when a race is passing
through its formative stages such as are well
represented in the savage races of the present
day. Every student who attempts to pene-
trate back to the sources of a civilized people's
religious faith will find himself surrounded
by a luxuriant growth of mythological legends
which may seem weird and strange to him
merely by reason of their remoteness from the
mental life of modern times

In the western hemisphere the European
races have during the last few centuries been
brought into direct contact both with the
legends and beliefs of the aboriginal Indians
and with those of the negro races in the per-
sons of the numerous slaves imported fiom
Africa As modern civilization has inevitably
influenced both of these subject races (the
former but slightly, the latter profoundly),
there is presented to us the rather curious
phenomenon of the forcible grafting of one
system of mythology upon another older and
more primitive system, just as in England the
Teutonic mythology was superimposed within
historic times upon the Celtic mythology of
the subjugated inhabitants who had previously
been politically supreme in the island

Mythology in Schools — Of late years there
has been considerable discussion in educational
circles as to the relative value of history arid
mythology in the curriculum of the schools, —
of the facts of the past and of its legends The
extensive literature which has received its
chief inspiration from myths of all sorts, the
many classical dictionaries and textbooks
on the subject, all bear testimony as to its
importance as a study

In the use of mythology for this purpose it
is of the utmost importance to approach the
subject in the proper spirit, and to bear in
mind the particular needs as well as the stage
of mental development of the class to be in-
structed Take the story of Arachne, for in-
stance It may be used with very young
children as a nature myth, explaining in an
interestingly dramatic way the origin of the
spider and its peculiar characteristics Used
with older children, however, and emphasis
being laid on Arachne's pride and willfulness,
the same myth can be just as profitably em-
ployed to accomplish an ethical lesson The
same story with grammar-grade pupils might
also be treated as a bit of historical material,
showing how early man blended his religion
and the nature world. Or again, consider
the Tyrohari legend of the origin of flax, which
will serve to illustrate the many-sidedness of
myths and their adaptability to the various
other studies of the child This story, used
as a character study in a reading or language
lesson, may be correlated with the study of
plant life in science, or with the consideration
of raw products in geography, or in history
it affords a poetic explanation of the beginning
of one of Europe's greatest industries

To use a myth primarily for a reading or
language lesson would not be very purposeful
The most important use of myths at any tmifl
is to furnish thought food for that particular
period of the child's development Indeed
it is contended by many educators that history
proper appeals only to the understanding, but
that mythology, with its attractive legends,
stimulates the imagination of the pupil, and
that the one study is as essential in the develop-
ment of the student's mind as the other

G C K
References —

Origins and General Works —
BRINTON, D G Religions of Primitive Peoples (New

York, 1897 )
Cox, REV SIR G W The Mythology of the Aryan

Nations New edition (London, 1903 )
FRAZER, J G Totemism and Exogamy a Treatise

in certain early Forms of Superstition and Society

(London, 1910 )
HEWITT, J F The History and Chronology of the

Myth-Making Age (London, 1901 )
JORDAN, L H Comparative Religion Its Genesis

and Growth (Edinburgh, 1905 )
MULLER, F MAX Contribution* to the Science of

Mythology (London, 1897 )
Lat,t Essays, Series I Essay 'A on Language, Folklore,

etc (London, 1901 )
SWANTON, J R Practical ANpects of the Study of

Myths, Journal Am Folk-Lore, Vol XXIII,

P 1
SYMONDH, .1 A Nature Myths and Allegories, in his

Essay t>, etc , Vol 11, p 12d
WUNDT, W Volker psychologic Eine Unteri>uchung

der Entwieklugsgesetze von Sprache, Mythus und

Sitte Vol II, My thus und Religion (Leipzig,

1905 1909)

Grtt.ce and Rome' —

BULFINPH, T The Age of Fable, or Stories of Gods and
Heroes (Boston, 1855 ) (This book has become
a classic, and it has been re published and revised
a number of times Philadelphia, 1898, London,
1910, etc)

CAMPBELL, L Religion in Greek Literature A Sketch
in Outline (London, 189S )

HAKJH, E AGNEH R The Religions of Greece and
Rome Contemporaiy RIVHU\ Vol XCI11, p 32

HARRIBON, J A Myths and Myth-Makers of the
Mediterranean, Chautauquan, Vol XLII, p 213
Bibliography

LAWBON, ,J C Modern (V'mA Folk-lore and Ancient
Greek Religion A Study in Survivals (Cam-
bridge, 1910 )

PRELLEK, L Gruchische Mythologie (Berlin, 1894 ff )

STEWART, J A The Mytht> of Plato , tr with intro-
ductoiy and other observations (London, 1905 j

WIBHOWA, G Religion und Kultus der Romer (Mun
chen, 1902 )

Northern Mythologies —

CHANTEPIE DE LA SAUSBAYE, P D The Religion of
the Teutons, tr from the Dutch by Bert J Vos
(Boston, 1902 )

D'ARBOIH DE JIJBAINVILLE, H The Irish Mytholog-
ical Cycle and Celtic Mythology tr from the
French, with additional notes, by Richard Ir-
vcme Best (Dublin, 1903 )

HERBERT, A S The Fany Mythology of Europe in
its Relation to Early History Nineteenth Cen-
tury, Vol LXIII, p 221

MEYER, E H Germanische Mythologie (Berlin,

1891 ) (Student's Manual )

Mythologie der Germanen, gemeinfasshch dargestellt
(Strassburg, 1903 )

SQUIRE, CHAS The Mythology of the British Islands'
An Introduction to Celtic Myth, Legend, Poetry,
and Romance (London, 1905 )

366

NACEL'S TEST

NANCY

SWINEY, F. Ancient Faith of the Celt and the Briton.
Westminster Review, Vol CLXXV, p 178

In Schools • —

BOONE, GRACE R The Use of Myths with Children
Education, Vol XXV, p 303

PRENTICE, MAY H Myth and History in the Ele-
mentary Schools The Use and Limits of Kaeh,
Proc N E A , 1002, p 447

RANDALL, ALICE S The Function of Mythology in
the Teaching of Elementary English Education,
Vol XXII, p 166

Mythology for Children —

CLARKE, HELEN A A Guide to Mythology for Young
Readers (New York, 1910)

KINGSLEY, CH Heroes

MABIE, H W , ed Myths Every Child Should Know
(New York, 1<W)5 )

MANN, C E Greek Myths and their Art The Greek
Myths as an Inspiiation in Art and in Litaatun
(New York, 1907) (A supplementary nvuiei pie-
pared for use in the fourth, fifth, and sixth grades
of school )

PRATT, MARA L Greek Myths (Boston, 1900 )

SCHWED, HERMINE Ted in Mythland (New York,
1907 )

St Nicholas, Htones of Classic Myths, retold from

(New York, 1909 )
For a comprehensive bibliography of the subject see

Win Swan Sonnenschem, The Best Books, 3d ed ,

Part I, pp 353-390

See also the bibliography given above under FOLK

AND FOLKLORE , LlTEUATUUK, CHILDREN'S

NAGEL'S TEST. — Nagel's tost for color
blindness and lesser defects in color disci 1111111:1-
lion is doubtless the best simple test yet de-
vised It is specially valuable in testing laigc
numbers of persons quickly (railroad, army,
and navy service) It consists of two sets of
small cards on each of which thcic is punted
a series of colored dots, each about 4 mm
in diameter, arranged at equal distances on
the circumference of a circle The principle
of the test is, of course, to give the dots on
each caid colors peculiarly likely to be con-
fused, or perceived as identical in color, by the
color defective The first set has sixteen such
cards, these are spread out on a table befoie
the subject, in good daylight, and he is then to
view them from a distance of about J in (since
the dots should be seen in foveal MSIOII) and
indicate, first, all cards possessing reddish
dots and, second, all with only reddish dots
The same procedure is then repeated for green
and gray. By following the buef but ade-
quate directions accompanying the cards, any
experimenter of reasonable intelligence may,
by this first set of cards, in a short time elimi-
nate from a number of subjects the color de-
fectives The second set of four cards is
designed to determine the particular type of
color defect present It has been found that
the average person may be tested in less than
two minutes

The charts of Stilling may be used as pre-
liminary test, they do not, however, give
certain results On a sheet of nearly uniformly
colored dots there are intei mixed others, in
colors likely to be confused with these, ar-
ranged in the form of a letter or an Arabic

367

numeral The subject is required to decipher
the letters and numerals on the vaiious test
sheets Holmgren's test (q v )} or some
modification of it, and Stilhng's and Nagel's
tests are probably the thiee most used for the
testing of color vision for practical purposes
Of these the best is Nagel's Foi more detailed
laboratory investigation one should have re-
course to Bering's tests or to the spectral color
mixer For descriptions of these the literature
of the subject must be consulted R P A
See COLOR BLINDNESS
References —
LANDOLT Die opti.scheri Untersuchungsmethoden, in

Graefe-SaemiHeh, Handburh der ges Augen-

hcilkundt, Vol IV, I*t I, 1()()4
NAGEL, W A Fortgeaetzte Untersuehungen, etc

Zeitschnft fur Sinne^physioluyu, Vol XLI, pp.

li3°x-2H2 and 319-337, 1900

Nagel's Teat may be secured through the Arthur H
Thomas Co , Walnut Street, Philadelphia

NAGELI, HANS GEORG (1773-1836) —
Composer and teacher of music, bom in a vil-
lage of the canton of Zurich He studied at
home and at Zurich, where he later opened a
music store and lending library, and gave music
lessons In 1800 he issued a periodical dealing
mainly with music In 1810 with M T Pfeiffer
he published Die (rcsangbildungslehre nach
Ptbtalozzischen GrundMzcn (Theory of In-
struction in Singing on Pcstalozzian Principles).
This work had considerable influence on the
introduction of singing as a regular school sub-
ject both in Europe and the United States,
where the work was introduced bv Lowell
Mason (q v ) and W C" Woodbridge (q v )

See Mi sic

Reference —

BARNARD, H American Journal of Education Vol
VII, p 300

NANCY, UNIVERSITY OF, FRANCE —

The University of Nancy is the direct suc-
cessor to the university established at Pont-
a-Mousson by Papal Bull of 1572 on the peti-
tion of Duke Charles IV of Lorraine and the
Cardinal of Lorraine At first only the facul-
ties of theology and arts were organized and
placed in the hands of the Jesuits In 1582
the faculty of law was established and in J598
the faculty of medicine followed The uni-
versity met with great success and, with the
college or secondary school, numbered 2000
students, the majority in theology The
Tinrtv Years' Wai and the subsequent wars of
that century put an end to the progress of the
university In the eighteenth century the
dukes of Lonaine, especially Duke Stanislaus,
Mimed to promote highei learning ut Nancy
He established a public library, an academy,
and a medical college In 1768 the unive'r-
sity was transferred from Pont-a-Mousson to
Nancy and continued there until the time of
the Revolution (1793) It was not reestab-
lished in the reorganization of Napoleon. A

NANTES

NAPLES

medical course was, howevcj, conducted pri-
yately from 1822 to 1X13, when it became the
Ecole prtparatoire de MMeente el Pharmacie
In 1854, as a result of a public appeal, the uni-
versity was restored with faculties of letters
and science, in 1864 the faculty of law was
established, in 1870 the School' of Medicine
became a faculty The Franco-Prussian Wai
drove many members of the University of
Strassburg (qv) into exile, manv weie wel-
comed at Nancy and the whole medical faculty
was taken over in 187(> In a/ldition to the
four faculties there is also an Ecole ^npcnuue
dc Pharmacic The enrollment in 1911 was
2184 (law, 491, medicine, 440, science, 793,
letteis, 402; pharmacy, 58) The following
institutions at Nancy, some conducted bv mem-
bers of the university faculty, some independent,
may be mentioned Ecole Nationals de* Eaur
ct Fonts, Institut Ch unique , Institut Electiu-
techmque et de Mechamque Apphqnec , Insti-
tut Agncole , and the In, vtitut Colonial
See FRANCE, EDUCATION IN

NANTES, SCHOOL
AND PHARMACY — Sec

OF MEDICINE

above

NAPIER, JOHN, BARON OF MER-
CHISTON (1550-1017) —Scottish mathema-
tician, commonly known as the inventoi oi
logarithms (q v ) His name appeals in various
forms, as Neper, Neperus, Naper, Napiei,
Napeir, and Nepier He matriculated at the

first published in 1014 undei the title Minfici
Loqarithmorwn Co nouns Descnptio D E 8
Sec LOGARITHMS , NAPIER'S RODS

NAPIER'S RODS — In 1617 Napier (q v )
published at Edinburgh a work entitled
RabdologicB, seu Numeratioms per Virgulas,
lihn duo, in which he set forth a scheme of
multiplication and division by means of lods
rnaiked as shown in the accompanying illustia-
tion As ananged by Napier each rod was a
parallelogram with an angle of 45 degrees,
although those usually sold at present are
lectangular in form In the illustration here
given, one of the lods is shown with the
number 7 at the top, and the products of 7 !>A
the various digits below A group of lods is
also shown giving 734 at the top If we wish
to multiply this bv 568, we can at once read
off the partial products, so that all we need to
do is to anange the lods as shown, write down
the partial products, and add

Since the lods weie at first made of bone,
they are often called Napier's Bones They
nevei had any extensne use, but they can still
be purchased from ceitain dealeis As a
school device they add a little to the temporary
interest of the pupils, but their value ceases
here DBS

NAPLES, UNIVERSITY OF —Founded
in 1224 by Fredenck II, who forbade his sub-
jects to attend any othei institution for higher

University of St Andrews in his thirteenth
year Little is known of him, howevei, from
that time until the publication of his strong
anti-papal Plaine Discovery of the Whole Reve-
lation of 8 lohn, which appeared at Edin-
burgh in 1593 (second edition, with the title
as here given, 1611) He seems about this
time, or at any rate by 1594, to have been
occupied with his plan of simplifying numerical
calculations, particularly those that enter into
trigonometry His logarithmic tables were

learning Unlike the other universities of the
period, the University of Naples was thus
established by deciee of a monarch before there
was any organization of studies or students
The institution met with very little success
and was in abeyance and "reformed" several
times before it began to show signs of prosperity
under the encouragement of Charles of Anjou
and Pope Clement IV, who reorganized it in
1266 with all the faculties, including medicine
and theology In the last-named faculty
368

NAPOLEON AND EDUCATION

NAPOLEON AND EDUCATION

Thomas Aquinas was for a time lecturer.
Another feature which distinguished the Uni-
versity of Naples was the fact that control
was wholly in the hands at first of (he Royal
Chancellor and then of the Grand Chaplain
Examinations for the doctorate were superin-
tended by him and the diploma or license
was issued in the name of the king Such con-
trol retarded progress for some time Undei
the reorganization of 1860 the university has
made steady advance The following faculties
are maintained junspiudence, medicine and
surgery, physical science and mathematics,
philosophy and letters, and a school of phar-
macy The student enrollment in 1908 was 6602,
of whom 2627 were in the faculty of jurispru-
dence

See ITALY, EDUCATION IN

References —

CAPUANO, L Notizu intorno alia Ortgine, Fonnazione

e Stato presente della R Universita di Napoh.

(Naples, 1884 )
DENIFLE, H Die Entstehung der Universilatcn des Mil-

telalters (Berlin, 1SN5 )
Minerva Handbuth dtr Gclehrtcn Welt (StrtiH&burg,

1911 )
RASHDALL, H Universities of Europe in the Middle

Age* (Oxford, 1895 )

NAPOLEON AND EDUCATION —The
educational system which was introduced bv
Napoleon and which in its outline has sunned
in France to the present day is of interest as an
attempt to realize a dominating political ideal
through the schools Political aims and politi-
cal ideals could, according to Napoleon, only
be realized through a well-organized teaching
body " Of all political problems," he says,
" this is perhaps of prune importance An
established political state will be impossible
without a teaching body with established
principles " And elsewhere " My aim in es-
tablishing a teaching body is to have a means
of diiecting political and moral opinions "
The organization of the Jesuits to a laige
extent could have realized his objects, and he
would have put the schools in their charge,
if they had not been subservient to a " for-
eigner " Foi a time he and his advisers
thought of employing the Oratonans, or the
Congregations of the Doctrine, 01 the Bene-
dictines, or all three Later, howevei, he was
opposed to ecclesiastical teacheis, because
" priests look upon this world only as a vehicle
to conduct, to the next I want the vehicle to
be filled with good soldiers for my amnes "
Good soldiers and citizens loval to his person
were to be product of his educational scheme
The basis of instruction was to be (1) the
Catholic religion, (2) loyalty to the empeioi,
and (3) obedience to the statutes of a teaching
body. All alike, pupils and students, teacheis
and professors, were to be creatures of a large
administrative machine A curious omission
from Napoleon's scheme was the neglect of
a thorough provision of elementary education

Elementary schools are mentioned in the decree
of 1808, and their organization was promised for
the future, but little was done The Christian
Brothers (qv) weie to be allowed to conduct
their schools, provided they became members
of the university and took an oath of alle-
giance In this way Napoleon hoped both to
economize on the budget and to break the
independence of the Christian Brothers
Napoleon seems to have lepentcd of the omis-
sion, but too late, when he issued a decree in
1815 (Apr 27) " on the importance of primary
education foi the improvement of the condi-
tion of society "

By the Law of May 10, 1806, the Imperial
University wa.s cieated and charged with the
sole care of public instiuction arid education
The decree organizing the university was
issued on Mar 17, 1808, and contained the
following features All public education is in
the charge of the university No school or
educational institution could be opened outside
the university or without the authority of
its head No one could open a school or teach
publicly unless he were a member of the uni-
versity or a graduate of one of its faculties
The university for administrative purposes
\\as to be divided into academies, each with
its own faculty, hjcee*, thirty in all, for
instiuction in classics, history, rhetoric, logic,
and the elements of mathematics and physical
science ; colltge^, or municipal secondary schools,
giving but the elements of the curriculum of
the h/cecv without rhetoric and logic, private
institutions of secondary character, boarding
schools, and elementary schools to teach read-
ing, writing, and elements of arithmetic At
the head of the whole system was to be a
grandmaster assisted by a chancellor, or sec-
retary, and a treasurer, a University Council
of thirty members uas to be appointed partly
by the 'emperor, partly by the grandmaster
Each academy was to have a council of ten
The grandmaster was to appoint twenty to
thirty inspectors-general and rectors of acad-
emies Subordinate officers were to be acad-
emy inspectors, professors, principals, regents,
teachers, etc To provide teachers a normal
school for 300 students was to be created at
Pans The efficiency of the machine was to be
further secured by requiring celibacy from all
engaged in schools \vithout the rank of profes-
sors No member of the teaching body could
let-He the service without permission from the
grandmaster B\ a decree of Sept 17, 1808,
all institutions \\hieh were not provided with a
diploma from the grandmaster bv Jan 1, 1800,
\\erc to be closed In 1811 (decree of Nov 15)
the system was further extended by a proposal
to raise the number of lycfas to 100, by com-
pelling institutions and boarding schools in
towns where a lye fa or college already existed
to send their pupils to these schools and to
limit themselves to repetition of the school
work, by limiting the curriculum given by

VOL. IV 2B

369

NARCOLEPSY

NARRATIVE METHOD

institutions and boarding schools in towns
where a lycfo or college did not exist (For the
later development of the system see FRANCE,
EDUCATION IN )

The education of girls Napoleon did not con-

much discussion The fact that the stem and
leaves of the tobacco plant contain a poisonous
substance (nicotine) which in concentrated
doses quickly kills small animals, proves
nothing regarding the effect of smoking or

sider to be of importance For girls the desti- chewing tobacco, for in both of these ways of

"~^-- -1 " ~f -11 -- '— ~4 ^- using tobacco, the nicotine is exceedingly

diluted, as is the poison found in tea and coffee
It seems certain that indigestion, irritation
of the respiratory organs, and heart and ner-
vous disturbance may in some people result
from the use of tobacco, while others sho\\
no apparent effect All this refers to healthy
adult men, for many medical authorities agree
that tobacco is always harmful to growing boy&,
and interferes with their physical and mental
development The whole physiological truth
about tobacco so far as now known is that
(1) no one needs it except to satisfy an es-
tablished habit, (2) many adults are injured
by it, and no one knows just how much will
do haim to a particular person; (3) some
adults are apparently not harmed by limited
use, (4) it is decidedly injurious to growing
boys, (5) those who avoid establishing the
habit in youth do not as a rule care to learn
later, for there are no physiological reasons
whv any one should deliberately set out to
learn the use of tobacco in any form

It is now well known to physicians that tem-
perance is needed in the use' of tea and coffee
no less than with alcoholic drinks Their effect
is due to the presence of a powerful drug (c (j
caffeine), which acts on the nervous systeiii
Nervousness, insomnia, headache, and indi-
gestion aie common symptoms arising from
their excessive use Many people are m-
juiioush affected by tea and coffee, but others
aie apparently benefited by a limited use oi
these beverages However, they should never
be given to young children

Concerning the effect of various narcotic
drugs in common use there is no question as
to disastrous effects of such drugs as opium,
morphine, cocaine, laudanum, chloroform,
chloial hydrate, and \anous patent or seciet
preparations, when habitually used.

M. A B

See ALCOHOL, PHYSIOLOGICAL AND PSY-
CHOLOGICAL EFFECTS OF, TEMPERANCE IN-
STRUCTION

nation is marriage and " of all educations the
best is that of mothers " He seems, however,
to have been at, some trouble to prescribe the
curriculum for the school at Ecouen, a boarding
school for the daughters arid sisters of officers
of the Legion " Ilchgion is an impoitant
matter in a public institution for girls
Tram believers not reasoners," for religion will
supply qualities otherwise unattainable by the
weaker intelligence of women The secular
subjects were to include ciphering, the vernacu-
lar, orthography, geography, and history, a
little botany and natural science for the older
girls, music and dancing, but the chief at-
tention was to be devoted to the preparation
of mothers and home-makers, so that about,
three quarters of the day was to be given up
to the manual work connected with a home
The scheme seems to have been carried out,
but the seventy of the discipline and the burden
of the practical work seem to have made the
school distasteful to many of the pupils
References —

BUI&HON, F Nouvcau Dictionnaire de Pedagogic, B v.

Napoleon ler
DELFAU, A NapoUon Icr it V Instruction 2mkhquc

Bibliography (Pans, 1902 )
COMPAYRE, G Histoue critique dcs Doctrines dc V Kd-

ucahon en France, depuib le scizi&me Si&clt, Vol II.

(Parib, 1885 )

NARCOLEPSY --Is an abnoimal con-
dition of sleepiness in which the individual has
a tendency to go to sleep many times during
the day, the bleep lasting from one or two min-
utes to seveial hours The impulse or tendency
to go to sleep is so strong as to be almost
irresistible The condition is sometimes pio-
duced by physical causes, such as ocular
fatigue, anemia, diabetes, uremia, gout, and
certain drugs It is a common symptom in
hysterical persons, and is sometimes a psychic
equivalent for epileptic convulsions

Any unusual amount of sleepiness, espe-
cially in children, should be looked at with
suspicion, and an appropriate medical examina-
tion made to determine its cause If brought
about by a state of fatigue, whether from eye-
strain or from any other similar cause, due
measures may be taken to overcome it, and the
child will return immediately to a normal

NARRATION

POSITION

(Rhetorical) . — See COM-

, . T, ., . , NARRATIVE METHOD -In teaching 1ns-

condition If the narcolepsy be an epileptic lory in the primary and intermediate grades a

r\T n Araf nvi f> a 1 atrmT^ rktv^ i r\i\ i T» r\ -11 r i /-1 1 1«-> 1 •»»,••,, 4- ,.x x ±^^ i r -\ • , i

or hysterical symptom, the individual must
be treated for these diseases, and if it be found
in a child, due allowance must be made by the
teacher for the diseased condition
posite condition is called insomnia

NARCOTICS — Concerning the narcotic
effect of tobacco upon health, there has been

systematic study of history by topics or move-
ments is avoided The children lack the
motive for the study of historical facts so or-
Ihe op- ganized Hence, in the lower school grades
S 1 F a basis in historical fact is established through
a study of (1) the great personages of history,
and (2) the dramatic incidents and stones of
hist ory When events are grouped about a per-
^70

NASCENT PERIODS

NATIONAL COUNCIL

sonality, we have the " biographical method" ;
when the selection of historical facts is made
upon the basis of their contribution to an in-
teresting story, we have the " narrative
method " These methods are merely prelim-
inary to a more systematic historical study
and have a value (1) in interesting children
in history, (2) m acquainting them with the
main personalities and events of the past, and
(3) in giving the pupils a basis for interpret ing
and motivating later study of a more thorough
and scientific type H S

See HISTORY, TEACHING OF

NASCENT PERIODS —A term borrowed
from chemistry to indicate the periods in child
development when certain characteristics are
in process of formation

Human development, both physical and
mental, is not uniform, but subject to periods
of rapid and slow growth Many attempts
have been made to distinguish these stages of
development, the results differing according
to the points of view Thus some of tho classi-
fications have been built up upon the theories
of recapitulation and other similai theories
Others are based upon anthropological and
anthropornetnc investigations, and still others
upon the results of psychological observation
and experimentation

Vierordt distinguishes seven stages, based
upon measurements of the bodily organs
Thov are as follows (I) from birth to eight
months, (2) from eight months to seven or
eight years, (3) from so von or eight to fourteen
years, (4-) from fourteen years to twenty-one
or twenty-two, (f>) early adult, (0) later adult
to sixtieth year, (7) old ago Bagloy gives
throe periods of development during tho school
life of a child They are as follows (1) tho
transition stago, from the ago of six to eight,

(2) tho formative stago, from eight to twolvo,

(3) the adolescent stago, from twolvo to
eighteen

Kirkpatnck enumerates the following stages,
based upon a study of changes m social sen-
sitiveness in the various periods, (1) pre-
social, up to closo of first year, (2) imita-
tive and socializing stago, up to three years
of ago ; (3) individualizing stago, up to
six years , (4) pubcrtal or transitional, up
to eighteen, (5) later adolescence4, up to
twenty-four

It is evident that all such attempts at classi-
fication must vary with the characteristics
selected as the basis of the classification Fur-
thermore, the ages mentioned are only ap-
proximations, and cannot be expected to hold
generally Tho advantage to the educator
of knowing the stages of tho child's develop-
ment lies in the fact that changes are most
easily accelerated at the natural time of their
appearance and may even be impossible at a
later or earlier period It is also probable
that normal development in an earlier period

lays the proper foundation for development
in subsequent periods E H C

See GROWTH

References —
BAGLEY, W C The Educative Process, oh XII

(New York, 1906 )
BOLTON, F E Principles of Education, pp 167-171.

(New York, 1910 )
SANFORD, E C Mental Growth and Decay. Amer

Jour, of Psych , Vol XIII, 1902, pp. 426-449

NASHVILLE UNIVERSITY, NASHVILLE,

TENN — See PEABODY EDUCATIONAL FUND

NATAL (AFRICA) —See SOUTH AFRICA,
EDUCATION IN

NATAL UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, PIET-
ERMARITZBURG — Sec SOUTH AFRICA,
EDUCATION IN

NATIONAL ACADEMY OF SCIENCE

— See SCIENTIFIC SOCIETIES

NATIONAL AID TO EDUCATION —

See NATIONAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUC\-
TION, SCHOOL FUNDS, PERMANENT

NATIONAL CONFERENCE COMMIT-
TEE ON STANDARDS OF COLLEGE
ENTRANCE — See COLLEGE REQUIRE-
MENTS FOR ADMISSION, COLLEGE EXAMINA-
TION BOARDS

NATIONAL CONGRESS OF MOTHERS

— See PARENTHOOD, EDUCATION FOR

NATIONAL COUNCIL —An organiza-
tion, within the National Education Associa-
tion (qv), consisting of 120 members, elected
from the active and life members of the as-
sociation, and for six-year terms One half of
the membership is elected by the Board of
Directors of the National Education Associa-
tion, arid the other half by the council itself

The first proposal for 1he formation of such
a body was made in 1S79 in an editorial in the
National Journal of Education of Boston
The article awakened much interest, and a
number of State Teachers' Associations in-
dorsed the idea. The editor was invited to
read a paper on the subject before the Depart-
ment of Superintendence of the N E A , at its
winter meeting in 1880, and a committee was
later appointed to draw up a plan of organiza-
tion, to be reported to the directors of the
N E A , at the summer meeting The plan
was approved by the directors and by the
association, and the first council was appointed
in that year Since then there have been some
changes in the plan and constitution, and a
material enlargement of the membership, but
the purpose of the organization, as stated in
its constitution, has remained with but little

371

NATIONAL EDUCATION

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

change The membership was soon enlarged
from the original 51 to 60, at which it remained
until the Cleveland meeting in 1908, when it
was increased to 120

The National Council was intended to be
a small body of the older and more deeply in-
terested members of the association, who
should not only meet for the more seiious con-
sideration of fundamental educational ques-
tions but should also direct investigations and
conduct research The appointment of special
committees for this purpose was distinctly
authorized in the articles of organization The
council was also to recommend educational
questions or the results of investigation to the
directors of the National Education Asso-
ciation for their consideration, and was to make
a report to the association on the work of the
council for the year The recording and report-
ing of current educational progress was to bo a
part of its work During the first twenty years
of its existence the council rendered valuable
service, and the record of its discussions shows
that the members considered most of the
important topics of the day Many short but
important individual reports were made by
members and considered The Re pott of the
Committee of Twelve on Rural Schools, sub-
mitted in 1897, and the Repot t of the Commithe
on the Relation* of Public Libraries to Public
Schools made in 1899, were longei cooperative
studies During the past ten voars, however,
the council has considered few problems of
fundamental importance

This plan for a Council of Education has
been copied in more 01 less detail bv a number
of State Teachers' Associations, and in a few
associations such a body is still rendering im-
portant seivice The difficultv which con-
fronts such a selected body is that, under the
democratic methods of election which prevail,
and with election open to all members, persons
are elected to the councils because of other
considerations than ability and willingness to
work, the membership is enlarged to make place
for others, and the council loses its early vigor
and usefulness E. P C

NATIONAL EDUCATION.— The differ-
ent aspects of this problem will be found dis-
tributed under various topics, eg ENGLAND,
EDUCATION IN, FRANCE, EDUCATION IN, GER-
MANY, EDUCATION IN, SCOTLAND, EDUCATION
IN, and other national systems, where the de-
velopment of public education is given under the
historical sections For this country see under
COLONIAL PERIOD IN AMERICAN EDUCATION,
MASSACHUSETTS, STATE OF, and the historical
sections of the articles on the other state systems,
e g ALABAMA, STATE OF See also DEMOCRACY
AND EDUCATION, CITIZENSHIP AND EDUCATION;
FAMILY EDUCATION, SCHOOL AND LIFE , COURSE
OP STUDY, THEORY OF, COURSES OF STUDY, etc ,
and the articles on the more recent develop-
ments in special fields of AGRICULTURAL EDUCA-

TION; COMMERCIAL EDUCATION, INDUSTRIAL
EDUCATION. See further ATTENDANCE, COM-
PULSORY; CHILD LABOR, CHILDHOOD, LEGISLA-
TION FOR THE CONSERVATION AND PROTECTION
OF, etc The general development of the
principle of public education is treated under
FREE SCHOOLS, see also m this connection FEES ;
the general method of support is outlined under
TAXATION.

NATIONAL EDUCATION ASSOCIA-
TION — Sec TEACHERS' VOLUNTARY ASSO-
CIATIONS

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT OF THE
UNITED STATES AND EDUCATION —

The whole policy of national aid has been a
slow and a gradual development, but following
a slowly evolving plan The organization and
control of the educational systems themselves
have been left to the states, the national gov-
ernment merely aiding and encoui aging the
states by granting them educational endow-
ments from the vast national domain As a
total the aid gi anted has been large, but it
has been unevenly distributed

The large national domain was acquired as
the result of state cessions, purchase, treaty,
and the foi tunes of war The cessions west
of the Allegheny Mountains and east of the
Mississippi River, made by the original
states between 1780 and 1802, formed the
beginning of the national domain This was
added to by the Louisiana Purchase of 1802,
the Oregon boundary treaty settlement of
1846, and the outcome of the war with
Mexico, in 1848 After the consideration of
a number of proposals, the Continental Con-
gress, in 1785, adopted a system of rectangular
land survey foi the new domain, based in large
part on the old New England system of "town
planting," which, after slight modifications,
was adopted in final form in 1796, and is known
as the Congressional land survey Under it
the national domain has been laid out into
rectangular townships, six miles square, and
these have in turn been divided into sections,
one mile square From this form of survey
the lands have been sold and the endowment
grants made

Land Grants for Common Schools — Disposal
of the Lands —In April, 1783, Colonel Timo-
thy Pickering drew up certain propositions
for settling a new state in the national domain,
in what i£ now Ohio, the same to be settled by
officers and soldiers of the federal army The
proposal of Pickering is significant as containing
the earliest suggestion of national land grants
for education, as follows —

"Art 7 These rights being secured, all the surplus
lands shall be the common property of the State, and
be disposed of for the common good ; as for laying out
roads, building bridges, erecting public buildings, es-
tablishing schools and academies, defraying the expenses
of government, and other public useh "

372

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

Two years later the Ordinance of 1785, ordering
the rectangular system of survey, contained a
provision that " there shall be reserved the lot
No 16 of every township for the maintenance
of public schools within the said township "
Th» famous Ordinance of 1787 merely stated
in principle, for the entire Northwest Territory,
what had been specifically provided for in a
part of Ohio in 1785

In 1787 a New England companv, known as
" The Ohio Company of Associates/' purchased
1,500,000 acres of land on the Ohio, and in
arranging for this sale Congress agreed with
the purchasers to reserve Section 16 in eveiv
township for schools, and Section 29 for religion ,
and to grant, in addition, two complete town-
ships for the benefit of a university The

make additional concessions The new Con-
gress also lefused to giant lands to the Ohio
Company in lieu of those of Section 29 (lehgion)
which were found to have been sold, and the
grant of sections for religion nowhere appears
again In 1792 the new state of Kentucky
and in 1796 Tennessee were admitted to the
Union, but no land grants were made to them.
Ohio establishes a Type and a Policy —
With the admission of Ohio, in 1802, our land-
grant policy for education leally begins. A
definite precedent was here established, which
has been followed, and extended, in the ad-
mission of all subsequent states The ena-
bling act foi the admission of Ohio contained a
definitely proposed bargain, which, if accepted
by the state, was to be binding on Congress,

LAND (HAWS FOR COMMON SCHOOLS

16th Section . . .
16th & 36th Sections
Four section*. . .
Mb land <r«nte .

university lands were given to the care arid
management of the legislature of the futuie
state, but the control of the sections for schools
and religion was left undecided, Smulai terms
were made in the contiact for the sale of 1,000,-
000 acres on the lower Ohio to John C Sy mines
in 1788 In these laws and grants bv the
Congress of the Confederation may be seen the
beginnings of a national land-grant policy,
though it was some years afterward befoie a,
settled policy may be said to have been deter-
mined upon On the organization of the Na-
tional Government in 1789, many petitions
were presented to the new Congress for special
grants of land and for the sale of land at re-
duced prices, and it is greatly to the credit
of the Congress that it consistently refused to

and irrevocable If the new state would agree
bv ordinance to exempt fiom taxation all
public lands sold bv Congress within the state,
for five vears aftei sale, Congress agreed to
give to the new state certain salt springs, to
give to the state f> per cent of the net proceeds
of the sale of all public lands within the state,
and to give the 16th section for schools to
the inhabitants of each township This was
a, definite exchange of property and rights of
value, and Congress was actuated as much by
a desue to increase the market for national
lands as it was to aid in the establishment of
schools Nevertheless, this bargain inaugu-
rated a, policy which was followed in the ad-
mission of subsequent states, even after the
taxation e\emption provision was dropped
373

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

In 1803 Congress confirmed to Ohio all pre-
ceding grants for schools; extended the grants to
certain reservations not before included; granted
the state another township for a university;
declared the grants " to be for schools, and for
no other use, intent, or purpose whatever ";
and vested the control of the school lands in
the legislature, in trust for the purposes men-
tioned The same year the provisions of the
Ohio act were extended to the territory " south
of the state of Tennessee/' and in 1806 Con-
gress, in settling a dispute with Tennessee,
provided for the reservation of " 640 acres to
every 6 miles square " for schools, and granted
the state, in return for certain concessions,
100,000 acres for academies and a like amount
for two colleges. With the admission of In-
diana in 1816, Mississippi m 1817, Illinois in
1818, and Alabama in 1819, bai gains and grants
similar to the ono for Ohio were made by Con-
gress With the admission of Missouri in
1821 the grants for schools were extended to
tho Louisiana Purchase, as well as to the na-
tional domain derived from the state cessions
Louisiana had received no grant of school
lands on its admission in 1812, but in 1834 the
16th section was granted the state, " wherever
the same had not been sold." All states there-
after admitted received grants of lands for
schools, with the exception of Maine, which
was carved from Massachusetts, Texas, in
which the national government owned no
land; and West Virginia, which was carved
from Virginia

Three Types of Grants ; Leases — Three
types of grants were used before 1840 In the
Ohio type of grant the 16th section, or its pro-
ceeds, was " granted to the inhabitants of
each township, for the use of schools " In-
diana in 1816 and Mississippi in 1817 followed
the Ohio type of grant. With the admission of
Illinois in 1818, the 16th section was " granted
to the stato, for the use of the inhabitants
of such township, for the use of schools "
Alabama in 1819 reverted to the Ohio type
of grant, but Missouri in 1821, and Arkansas
in 1836 followed the Illinois type of grant
By the time Michigan came to be admitted
in 1837, the evils of both forms of grants had
become so apparent that the convention which
framed the constitution memorialized Congress
to grant the 16th section lands " to the state,
for the use of schools," and to be applied with-
out reference to township lines. To this
Congress assented, and this wise form of grant
has been followed in the case of all subsequent
states. By about 1850 the policy of making
grants for schools had become settled, and
after that time the reservations were ordered
at the time the survey of the territory was made,
the sections being held in reserve for the future
state

At first there was no permission to sell the
school lands, arid they were held under lease
This proved unprofitable, and in 1824 Ohio

led the way by memorializing Congress for
permission to sell her school lands. This was
granted in 1826, and similar permission was
soon granted to the other states. This led
to much waste and many abuses Beginning
with Colorado in 1876, Congress has imposed
increasing restrictions as to the sale price, so as
to insure proper returns.

Additional Section Grants — Up to 1850
all states admitted, beginning with Ohio, had
received the 16th section for schools, except
Maine and Texas. When the survey of the
Oregon country was ordered in 1848, Congress
departed from the previous policy and ordered
the reservation of sections 16 and 36 in every
township for the benefit of schools in the future
state or states California, entering the Union
in 1850, was tho first state to receive two sec-
tions, and two sections were granted to all
new states thereafter, except West Virginia,
up to 1896 When Utah was admitted in
1896, four sections in each township, the 2d,
16th, 32d, and 36th, were granted to tho
state for schools, and this form of grant was
also followed in tho admission of Arizona and
New Mexico In admitting Oklahoma in
1907 the most liboral of all grants was made
The state was granted tho 16th and 36th sec-
tions for schools, tho sum of $5,000,000 in
money, in lieu of grants in Indian Territory
lands; section 13 for normal schools, tho ag-
ricultural college, and tho university ; section 33
for charitable, penal, and reformatory insti-
tutions; and other acreage grants for individ-
ual institutions mentioned further on in this
article.

Value of these Grants. — The total of thoso land
grants for common schools is about 81,064,300
acros This is equal to an area about tho size
of tho states of Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois
combined, and, at tho traditional price of $1 25
per acre for government land, would be worth
about $100,000,000 As a matter of fact, the
grants have produced much more than this
amount, the sale price of lands in the newer
Western states being many times the old figure
Many of the earlier grants were grossly mis-
managed, and in some cases the money when
accumulated was borrowed by tho stato and
spent, leaving to-day only " a perpetual obli-
gation " on which the state pays interest from
the proceeds of general taxation. In the states
admitted since 1850, however, the land grants
have been looked after with greater care, and
since 1875 excellent results have been obtained
The accompanying map shows the distribution
of the grants, and the following tabulated sum-
mary shows the approximate values of them.
That a total permanent school fund of
$500,000,000 may in time be obtained from
these school-section grants seems probable,
while the amount may eventually prove still
larger Of this estimate of $500,000,000 but
$6,000,000 is in the old slave states; $35,000,-
000 is in Oklahoma; $27,000,000 is in the old

374

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

Northwest Territory states, two fifths of which is
land belonging to the city of Chicago, $157,-
000,000 is in the Plains states, $205,000,000
in the so-called Mountain states, and
$72,000,000 is m the three Pacific- Coast states

GUOUPS OF

Si ATFH

A CUES
RECFIVtD
IN

SKCTION

Gil A NTH

K(IN1>

nKurv hi>

l-HOM S\LK

(\l>j)n>\i-

\ ALUI

oj UNHOI D

( \pproxi-
nuttr)

1 1 atatpn adm
(> utateH adm
8 states adm
10 states adm

bofon 1S25
1825-1849
1850-1 889
188Q-1<)12

(>,4(»,"i, -J82
J,72G,l,->.{

S,7W'(MM)
.{.•),.">()(),( MM)
l,i, "»()(),()()()

1 $1 4,<)(M),(MM)
l^'AOCM)

To TALM

81,(Ki4,.i(K) *l()i,(K)(>,0()()|S41(),(K)0,(HM)

1 Three fourthi* of this amount in land belonging to tin nt\
of Chicago

Protest* of the Older Staler —It \ull he no-
ticed from the map of the United States, show-
ing the distribution of these land giants foi
common schools, that ceitain states leceived
no grants foi schools whatevei Tins has foi
long been a source of dissatisfaction and protest
on the part of the older states Mai viand in
1821 drew up a long and detailed statement,
which it transmitted to Congress and to each of
the states, setting forth the facts as to the
grants, declaring that each state in the Union
had 4t an equal right to participate m the bene-
fit of the public lands, the common proper t\
of the Union ", and requesting Congress to
make similar appropriations of land to each of
the other states The legislatures of Maine,
Vermont, Vow Hampshire, Connecticut, Rhode
Island, New Jersey, Delaware, and Kentucky
indorsed the Maryland memorial and a ho
transmitted to Congress carefully prepared
memorials praying for similar grants for com-
mon schools Ohio alone among the states-
opposed the grants The Committee on Public
Lands of the Seriate was " instructed to inquire
into the justice and expediency " of making
such giants, and reported adyerseh, holding
that the so-called grants had in realiU been
" sales bottomed on \aluable considerations,"
arid that to grant large areas of land to other
states would greatly impede the development
of the states in which the land was located On
the other hand, the committee stated that it
would be both " just and expedient to grant a
per centum on the sales of public lands for the
purpose of promoting education in such states
as had not received the aid of the government "
This was not done

The question has come up from time to time,
but no settlement has ever been reached One
of the most recent proposals was a bill intro-
duced into Congress in 1894-1895, proposing
to give sufficient land to the states to equalize
all grants to an equivalence of two sections for
all It was estimated that this would requite
about 28,000,000 acres, but no action was
taken It can hardlv be denied that the older

37;

states have not received their just share in
these grants from the national domain That
they would have wasted their share had they
been given section grants at the beginning,
seems probable The story of the waste of the
school lands by the states admitted before
1850, and the squandering of the Surplus
Revenue distribution of 1837 by most of the
older states, leaves little doubt as to what
would have been the result That these grants
have greatly stimulated an interest in education
in the newei states to the west cannot be ques-
tioned, and it is probable that national grants
to the older states, even now, might awaken a
new inteiest in the work of public education.

Other Grants for Common Schools — Saline
Grants* — In the bargain made at the time of
the admission of Ohio, certain saline lands
were given to the state, and these were m turn
put into the school fund, 24,21(i acres were
granted in all, and then final sale added
$41,024 to the school fund Indiana, similarly,
received 23,830 acres, from which about
$85,000 weie derived Shortly afterward it
became customary to grant two full townships
of saline lands to each state, on its admission,
to be devoted to any purpose the state saw fit,
though in the admission of all states after
Colorado (187(3), except Utah, the grant of
saline lands has been omitted In Utah all
saline hinds m the state were given to the state
lor the benefit of the state university. About
900, 000 acres of saline lands have been granted
to the different states, most of which have been
used foi educational purposes Some states
have1 added the proceeds to the permanent
school iund, some have used the lands to endow
the normal schools, and one or two states ha\e
added tin* lands to the university grants.
Just how much these saline grants have pro-
duced is not known, but probably something
o\er a million dollars

The Fire Per Cent Fund — In the enabling act
lor the admission of Ohio the plan of granting 5
pei cent of the net proceeds of the sale of all pub-
lic lands lying within the state, for internal im-
provements, was begun, and has since been con-
tinued in t he case of all new states, except Maine,
Texas, and West Virginia With the admission
of Illinois in 1818, a portion (three fifths) of this
fund was foi the hist time given for education,
and \vas used for the normal university. This
state, howevei, formed an exception, as the
fund was not again devoted to education for
nearly thirty years Since 1860 the grant has
boon uniformly gi\en for additions to the com-
mon school fund of the states, and, in the case
of all states admitted between 1845 and 1860
except Minnesota, the fundi has since been
diverted to education, with the permission of
Congress In all $7,187,316 had been added
to the permanent school funds of the different
ne\\ states from this source, up to 1910, and
foui fifths of this has been to the school funds
of states \vest of the Mississippi River

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

The Sur])lut> Revenue — The idea of devoting
a portion of the money derived from the sale
of public lands to the cause of education, and
of dividing it in some equal proportion among
the states, seems to have been often considered
In 1820 the Committee on Public Lands of the
House presented a report declaring that the
public domain constituted " a common fund
for the joint benefit of the states," and recom-
mended a distribution among the states of
a portion of the proceeds of land sales for the
support of common schools Between 1817
and 3X27 there was an annual surplus of na-
tional revenue of from two to six million
dollars By 1827 the extinction of the na-
tional debt seemed certain, and, as it was at that
time believed that the money could not be spent,

a presidential veto, it was put in the form of
" a deposit of money amony the states "
After reserving $5,000,000, all money remaining
in the Treasury on Jan. 1, 1837, was to
be deposited with the states, in proportion
to their representation in Congress, and in
four equal quarterly installments Only three
payments were ever made, as the panic of 1837
f^oon left the Treasury empty Altogethei,
$28,171,45386 was "deposited,1' the deposit
vaiymg from $286,751.49 to Delaware, to
$4,041,520 71 to New York The deposit was
everywhere regarded as a distribution, and none
of the moriev has ever been called for Of
the total amount distributed, approximately
$7,500,000 actually exists to-day, the interest
on all of which is devoted to schools Over

b% of Public Land Salce

Put into Internal Improvements

Tut itito School Jund, by
permlMion of Congress

Put into School Fund

No grant* made to etatet left white.

constitutionally, for internal improvements,
visions of a great annual surplus began
to appear As early as 1826 a bill to
distribute $5,000,000 among the states was
pioposed The bill failed to pass, but the idea
\va,s cherished In 1831 the legislature ot
Pennsylvania asked Congress for a distribu-
tion In 1833 Clay's bill for the distribution
of the land revenues among the states was
passed, but vetoed by President Jackson
The money was to be used for education, in-
ternal improvement, colonization, or the ex-
tinction of state debts The matter soon
became a political issue, and a feeling of injus-
tice on the part of the old states ran through
it all. Finally, in 1<S3(», the distribution so
long talked about was made, though, to avoid

half of this amount is that of New York
There is also an interest charge, in eight states,
on $6,405,837 74 of lost funds, raised by taxa-
tion and now devoted to the support of schools
The school funds of the different states
act null v leceived about one fourth of this
distribution, and to-day draw interest on about
half of it Almost all of the deposit not put
into school funds was squandered or lost

The Internal Improvement Act of 18^1. — One
section of this law (8) has been of much im-
portance to education By its terms, 500,000
acres of public land were granted to each
state admitted after 1800, except Maine, to be
selected bv the state, and the same grant was
made to all new states admitted thereafter up
to 1881), except Texas anil West Virginia

370

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

The land was at first given foi in tot mil im-
provements, hut after 1845 the grant was di-
verted to education in all cases except Minne-
sota Beginning with the states admitted in
1889 and after, Congress has made important
specific grants, ranging from 500,000 to
2,160,000 acres, to each new stale in lieu oi
this and the salt land grants A buef state-
ment of the amount and approximate value of
these 500,000 acre grants to new states, made

th< sjilch h.t\o ixeiagcd two to live times this
amount In Anzona and Now Mexico ceitam
lands cannot he bold for less than $25 an acre
The total of all the specific grants to the last
ten states admitted IH 11,248,080 acres Of
this amount (>,(>56,540 a< res have hee.ii for pur-
poses specified aho\e as educational The edu-
cational lands gi anted to the last ten states aie
worth fioin $40, 000, 000 to $00,000,000, at least.

tranij* Land (iiunt* --In 1S4() Congress
granted to the state of Louisiana, on its appli-

U.S. SURPLUS

REVENUE DISTSIBVTION

OF 1836-T

All Lost .
Largely Loot
Htv. Fund., .

Intr, for Iduc, T

now, . . *•

undei the provisions of the law of 1841, is as
follows —

1 Gfneral grants made to the states ad-
mitted before 1889 Put into the
common school funds of the states,
5,000,000 acres Minimum sale price
fixed by law, $1 25 per acre
Lands sold so far (about ^) have pro-
duced about $0,000,000
Lands still on hand, probably worth

about JS^fKKMMK)

Total gams to common school funds

from grants up to 1889, jbout $14,000,000

2. Specific grants foi educational purposes, 18S9 and
since, in lieu of the ,r>00,000 acre grant foi schools
-For universities, 1,040,000 acres, for schools
of mines, bHO.OOO acres, for agricultural colleges,
1,000,000 acres, for normal schools, l,2f>0,000
acres, for schools for the deaf, dumb, and blind,
500,000 acres, for reform schools, specifically,
230,000 acres, for ref ormatoi v, penal, and chant-
able institutions, 1,180,000 acres, and in Okla-
homa Section 1,'i (706,540 acres) was granted, i for
normal schools, \ for the university, and \ for
the agricultural college Other specific grants have
been for such purposes as insane asvlums, public
buildings, penitentiaries, hospitals, and irrigation
On most of this land a minimum sale price of
$10 an acre was placed, and in most of the states

cation, all of the swamp and overflowed lands
within the state, the proceeds to be used in
constructing levees and drains The follow-
ing year the law was made general, and many
states have shared The act applied only to
the new or public-land states Jn 1S57 all
lands so far selected weie confirmed to the
states In 1X60 Minnesota and Oregon weie
granted swamp lands, and in 1866 California
received such grants Since that date the
grant has not been made to any new state
\ number of the states have used this grant,
or the balance after paying for drainage work,
for education instead of for internal impiove-
ments, and have put either all, or the net pro-
ceeds, into the permanent state school fund
Illinois, for example, has received much of its
permanent school fund from this source, if
we omit the lands in the city of Chicago A
total of something over (U)", 000,000 acres of
swamp lands was granted to the states, about
three fourths of which grants were devoted to
educational purposes, and mostly put into the
common school funds These have probably
377

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

brought in from $12,000,000 to $15,000,000 for
educational purposes Perhaps two thirds of
this amount is m existence to-day, some of it
having been spent by the states, and an in-
terest charge being all that is left Some
swamp lands are still unsold

Forest Reserve Income — By an act of Con-
gress in 1908, Congress now makes grants of
25 per cent of the income of each national
forest reserve, for the benefit of schools and
roads within the county in which the forest
reserve is located This grant produced
$488,702 in 1909-1910, and in time will produce
very substantial incomes for certain counties
having national forest reserves within their
borders

grant was changed in purpose, on the request of
a number of the states Such of the saline-
land grants and the deposit fund as went
to education was so devoted by the states.

Between 1867, when Nebraska entered the
Union, and 1889, but one state (Colorado, 1876)
was admitted When Congress came to admit
the two Dakotas, Montana, and Washington
in 1889, and Wyoming and Idaho in 1890, the
national aid policy* as it had finally evolved,
is seen The two sections in each township
in the state (Indian reservations excepted)
were granted to the state for common schools;
the 5 per cent fund was also granted to be de-
voted to the same purpose; and, in lieu of the
swamp land grants and the 500,000 acre grant,

for Internal

Tut into School Tund, fcy
p«r»i»«i*n of Congr***

Given to School Fund . . . ffi^

R«coivod •ptoific fruits of_ —
land in ll«u of Act. . . \~£~

Stat«« in wfcite receive* no land

(Law of 1841)

The National Aid Policy as Finally Evolved —
Starting from a form of bargain for the sale
of land, the policy of making grants for educa-
tional purposes has gradually evolved into one
of very marked proportions Perhaps the
pressure of the new states for grants for educa-
tional purposes has done more to bring these
educational grants about than has the desire
of Congress to help education in the states
The 16th and succeeding section grants were
given for schools from the first, but the
form of grant was finally evolved under a re-
quest from a state. The 5 per cent fund was
at first given for internal improvements, but
was gradually diverted to education The
swamp land grants have been devoted to edu-
cational purposes by the states without sug-
gestion from Congress. The 500,000 acre

500,000 acres of land, to be located by the
state, were granted for specific educational
objects, such as the university, the agricultural
college, normal schools, a school of mines, re-
form schools, deaf and blind asylums, and
charitable and reformatory institutions. A
minimum sale price of $10 per acre was fixed,
freedom from sectarian or denominational
control for all schools was required to be
pledged by the state, and the state was re-
quired to pledge the inviolability of all the
educational grants These grants reached a
climax in the enabling act for Oklahoma in
1907, and attained a scale of munificence
equaled nowhere else (See special articles
on OKLAHOMA, STATE OF, for a detailed state-
ment of these grants; on the other state school
systems, for a statement of their grants, and the

378

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

NATIONAL GOVPJRNMENT

amount of their permanent school funds, and
on NEW MEXICO, STATE OF, for a statement
of the grants made to Arizona and New Mexico.)
The grants to Oklahoma totaled 3,876,163
acres, estimated as worth $20 per acre as a
minimum This is an area three fourths as
large as the state of Massachusetts

One new feature of all the recent (since 1889)
enabling acts is the grants of land for normal
schools, asylums for the care of defectives, and
charitable and penal institutions. A few
states, still earlier, devoted certain of their
land grants to the endowing of normal schools,
but it is only since 1889 that direct grants
for these schools have been made by the
National Government In all, something over
a million and a half acres of land have been

poses of seminaries of learning, were confirmed
to the state In 1806 Tennessee was granted
100,000 acres of land for two colleges, and a
similar amount for county academies The
enabling act for Indiana in 1816 granted the
state two townships " for a seminary of learn-
ing/' and vested their control in the legislature
of the state The enabling acts for nearly all
of the public land states admitted since have
contained similar grants, and, when omitted
from the enabling acts, equivalent grants have
been made at some other time All states
have received two townships (72 sections,
46,080 acres), and a few have received a larger
amount Beginning with the states admitted
in 1889, Congress has, in each case except
Wyoming, made bpecihc grants in addition to

Quota f.r e**k ih.-Wr *f
Specif- Gr«1* t*

4
«fcfr» ******

Grants «f land, in Ac** 9,
for a College

of .-

Agriculture ana Meckantc drt».

Land Grant 4ct of

used to form endowment funds for normal
schools. This is equal to an area of about
one third the size of the state of New Jersey
Of this, 95 per cent has been in the ten states
admitted since 1889, only two of which are
cast of the Mississippi River Each of these
new states should derive a fund from the grunts
of at least $1,000,000 for the endowment of
its normal schools, while Oklahoma should
exceed twice that sum

Aid to Higher Education. — Seminary Town-
ship Grants — The ordinance, passed in 1787,
for the sale of 1,500,000 acres of land to " the
Ohio Company of Associates/' made the first
grant of two townships for a university. On
the admission of Ohio as a state in 1802, the
three townships, previously granted for pur-

the state university, and often also for a school
of mines as well. In the case of Oklahoma one
section of land was granted in each township
(Section 13) for the further endowment of the
university and the state preparatory school (one
third), the agricultural college (one third), and
the normal schools (one third) A total of about
three and a half millions of acres of land has been
granted to the states for university purposes, riot
including the grants for colleges of agricultural
arid mechanic arts, to be mentioned further
on This is equal to an area of about two
thirds the size of the state of Massachusetts
These grants have produced actual funds of
about $5,000,000, and unsold lands have an
approximate value of $25,000,000 to $30,000,-
000, and may produce much more Nearly all of

379

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

the unsold land is in states to the west of the
Mississippi River

The accompanying map shows the distribu-
tion of these grants The old states, it will
be noticed, have never shared in these grants
From time to time proposals to make grants
of land to the old states as well have been up
for consideration In 1819 the Committee
on Public Lands of the House was instructed
" to inquire into the expediency of appropri-
ating 100,000 acres of land to each state, for
the endowment of a university in each state "
They reported against the plan, largely because
of the disturbance in land prices which would
be produced and the conflicts which would
arise between states from the location of the
grants If such aid were to be granted the
committee was of the opinion that " it should
be given in monev " These are the same
objections which were urged against the Mary-
land proposal in 1821, and against all othei
•similar proposals up to 1802

The Land Grant College* —In LS50 Michi-
gan petitioned Congress for a grant of 350,000
acres of public land to aid the state 1o endow
a college for the teaching of agriculture, but the
grant was refused In 1858 Michigan renewed
the petition, and in 1S59 a bill making such a
grant finally passed both houses of Congress
The bill granted to each state 20,000 acres of
public land for each senator and representative
in Congress, to which the state would be en-
titled by the census of 18fiO, to be used in found-
ing a college for instruction in agriculture and
mechanic arts The bill was opposed by the
Southern members, and was vetoed by Presi-
dent Buchanan, in a message which is an in-
teresting summary of the old objections to
such grants In 1802 a bill drawn on similar
lines, except that the grant was raised to 30,000
acres for each membei in Congress, and instruc-
tion in military science and tactics was added,
was passed and signed by President Lincoln
This was the famous Morrill Land Act By
subsequent legislation the time for accepting
the grant was extended to 1869, and the time
for opening the colleges to 1874 States yet
to be admitted, and states which had been in
rebellion, were specifically included in the
grants In all, including additions made by
recent enabling acts, a total of 11,367,832 acres
has been granted for colleges of agriculture
and mechanic arts as a result of the new policy
inaugurated in 1862 This is an area half as
large as the state of Indiana The map shows
the distribution of the grants, and it will be
seen that for the first time the old states re-
ceived a share Eighteen states added the
endowment to that of their state universities,
and combined the two institutions into one
Four states gave the grant to private colleges
or universities already established within the
3tate. The remaining states founded separate
higher institutions of learning (See special
article on AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION )

The financial returns from this large grant of
land for higher education have been very dis-
appointing, although the educational returns
have been large A compilation from the most
recent returns (1910) gives the following as
the results of the grant —

Total acres granted, law of 1862, and

subsequent grants . . 11,367,832

Total aeren Hold to date . 9,570,401

Total funds produced from the lands sold $13,736,178

Total annual income from these funds, for

all colleges . $823,400

Acres of land btill unsold, mostly western 1,797,431

Estimated value of these unsold lands $15,020,300

If sold for estimated value, total funds

would be . . . $28,756,478

This total is distributed as follows —

The 2S states to which land scrip was is-
sued, received 7,940,000 acres
These states still have unsold 47,f>00 acres
The fund produced in these states is $G,5(> 1,507
Aveiage sale price per acre $0 S.'{
The 20 states to which lands in place

were granted, received 3,653,200 ucres

These states still have unsold 1,707,431 acie.s

The lands sold have produced a fund of $7,171 ,671

Average sale price per acre $3 99
Estimated value, at minimum sale

price, of lands lomammg unsold $15,020 300

Piobable sale value, between $25 000,000

and $35,000,000

It is in the ten states admitted from 1889 on
that the large funds in the futuie aie to be
expected Of the 9,500,000 acies gi anted
before 1870, 8,050,000 acres, or 84 per cent,
were in land scrip The result was that all
of the states weie ti vmg to sell land at the same
time, the inaiket was glutted, the price of land
dropped to as low as thirty-five cents an acre,
and much of it was sold foi fifty cents to sixty
cents an acre Tin1 low average sale price per
acre shows the icsult

The results of these grants, educationally,
have been quite different Probably no aid
given by the National Government foi educa-
tion has ever proved so fruitful as have these
grants for colleges of agriculture and mechanic
arts Instead of causing the states to lean
upon the National Government for the suppoit
oi their educational systems, as feared by Presi-
dent Buuhanun, the result has been the oppo-
site New and vigorous colleges have been
created , small and feeble state institutions
have been awakened into new life, the agri-
cultural arid engineering professions have been
developed, and the states have been stimu-
lated to make large and rapidly increasing
appropriations to these colleges and to their
state universities

National Monci/ Grants — In 1887 addi-
tional grants were made to these land-grant
colleges, and a new departure in the matter
of government aid was made A direct ap-
propriation of $15,000 per year, " from the
proceeds of the sale of public lands," was made
from the National Treasury to each state for
the maintenance of an agricultural experimental

380

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

station, to conduct " researches or experiments
bearing directly upon the agricultural industry
ol the United States " What was for so long
regarded as wholly unconstitutional was now
accomplished in fact In 11)05 the amount
was increased to $20,000, and thereafter to
increase by $2000 a yeai for five yeais, or until
a maximum of $30,000 was reached (which
would be in 1910-1011), after which the annual
sum should be $30,000 Up to June 30, 1912,
a total of approximately $14,424,000 has been
paid directly to the states from the National
Treasury foi expeiimental woik in agriculture
These payments have been so carefully safe-
guarded that there has been no misappro-
piiation of funds, and the government makes no
payments to the states except upon the pro-

The College of Agn culture in the Territory
of Hawaii and the new University of Porto
Rico have been admitted to share in these
grants, making a total of fifty states and terri-
tories eligible, by 1912, for total grants of
$80,000 a ycai, 01 a total annual cash appropria-
tion to the agncultural colleges of $4,000,000
Up to June 30, 1912, the total cash grants under
this latter appiopriation have amounted to
$23,920,000, and unclei both forms of grant
to approximately $38,000,000

Certainly no grants which the National
Government has made to the states for educa-
tional purposes have been so well administered
as the agricultural grants, and probably no
giants have given so large a return in the ad-
vancement of scientific knowledge or the

Grants of Public Land
for a
or University

duction of evidence that actual expenditures,
for the purposes set foith in the ac+, have been
made

The results under this grant pioved so bene-
ficial that in 1890 what has often been called
"the second Mornll Act" was passed This
act provided for a direct annual grant to each
state, for maintenance arid for the further
support of the agricultural colleges The
grant began with $15,000 a vear to each state,
and was to increase by $1000 a year for ten
years, or until an annual grant of $25,000 was
reached In 1907 Congress further extended
it, and provided that the annual grant, then
$25,000, should increase by $5000 per year,
until a maximum grant of $50,000 to each
state was reached This will be in 191J-1912

general welfare of the nation This has been
in part due to better restrictions imposed by
the National Government in making the grants,
and in part to the fact that the grants have
been handled by the colleges themselves, and
not by the legislatures of the states

Proposals for Additional Grants for Public
Schools — The excellent results obtained from
the grants to the agricultural colleges have,
within lecent years, inspned a number of
proposals to extend such money grants to other
forms of public education The " Davis Bills,"
which have been before Congress in recent
years, have proposed to grant national aid
" for agricultural and industrial instruction in
secondary schools, for normal instruction in
agricultural and industrial subjects in normal

381

NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

schools, arid for branch agricultural experi-
mental stations " So far none of these bills
have succeeded in passing Congress, owing
to opposition to the endowment of one class
of high schools to the exclusion of other kinds
of such schools

Total of National Grants for Education —
While education has received but an insignifi-

cant fraction of the money appropriated for
all purposes by the National Government, the
total amount, spread over more than a century
of our national life, has in itself been rather
large Briefly summarized, it has been about
as follows, though in a number of cases the
figures given are not exactly accurate, but
rather the nearest possible approximations

GBANT AND PURPOSE

ACRFS GRANTED

FUND DERIVED
FROM SALES

PROBABLE FUTURE
INCOME *

TOTAL INCOME

1 For Common Schools
Sections for Schools . .
Saline Grants
Five Per Tent of Land Sales
Surplus Revenue
Internal Imp Act
Swamp Land Grants
Forest Reserve Per Cent

81,004,300
c 900,000

5,000,000
c 45,000,000

$103,000,000
c 1,000,000
7,187,316
c 14,000,000
c 0,000,000
c 15,000,000
e 1,000,000

$410,000,000
c 7,000,000

r 8,000,000
c 2,000,000
c 25,000,000 1

$513,000,000
1,000,000
14,000,000
14,000,000
14,000,000
17,000,000
20,000,000

Totals

9 A ,,/ trt t-Tirthnv Vrlunnlimi

c 1,11,964,300

c $147,187,310

c $452,000,000

*™«,ooo,ooo

University Grants
Land Grant Colleges —
Grants of Land
Exp Station Grants

3,407,04 i
1 1 ,307,832

c 5,000,000

13,736,178
r 14,000,000

Laws 1890 and 1907

23,920,000

Totals

3 Grant* for Other Typ(*> of School*
Normal Schools
Deaf, Dumb, and Blind
Reform Schools

14,775,475

( 1 ,500,000
500,000
< 500,000

r $56,656,178
c 2,500,000

Totals
4 Nummary of Grants

2,500,000
c 149,290,775

c $2,500,000
200,343,494

c 27,500,000

c 25,000,000
30,000,000 1
b2,600,0()0i

c $145,000,000

32,500,000

39,()00,(X)0
44,000,000
86,420,000

$200,020,000

c 17,500,000
5,600,000
5,000,000

20,000,000
5,000,000
5,000,000

c $28,100,000
725,100,000

$30,000,000
829,620,000

1 Calculated for twenty years into the future, at prenent rate of increase

The land grant policy was begun in the days
when land was about all that the National
Government had to give, the money grants
represent a much later development.

E P C and E. C E.

See also the article on NATIONAL TEACHING
INSTITUTIONS, and the types of schools and
institutions referred to in the text, especially
AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION; TECHNICAL EDU-
CATION, etc , the article on STATE vs. NATIONAL
EDUCATION deals with the development of
state education, see further articles on the
individual state systems, eg ALABAMA; AR-
KANSAS, etc For the relations between govern-
ments and education in foreign countries see
the articles on the national systems, e g ENG-
LAND, EDUCATION IN; FRANCE, EDUCATION
IN; GERMANY, EDUCATION IN

NATIONAL TEACHING INSTITUTIONS
OF THE UNITED STATES GOVERN-
MENT — In addition to aiding education in
the various states (see special article on NA-
TIONAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION), the
National Government maintains a number of
teaching and other institutions of an educa-
tional nature, and has rendered assistance in
the establishment of education in the terri-
tories apart from the mainland These may
be mentioned briefly here, and reference made

to other articles in which a more detailed state-
ment is made on the different institutions

In the District of Columbia —The free
public library of the city of Washington, the
free public schools of the District of Columbia
(gt>), the National Training School for Boys,
the Reform School for Girls, and the Industrial
Home Schools for both races are teaching in-
stitutions maintained within the District of
Columbia Appropriations are also made for
the instruction of the deaf, dumb, and blind
within the District. The expenses of all of
these institutions are met, half by the National
Government, and half by the District of Co-
lumbia Under the Department of the In-
terior, the Columbian Institute for the Deaf
and Dumb, and Howard University (q v ),
an institution for the colored race, are also
maintained by the National Government in
the District of Columbia The Library of
Congress (see CONGRESSIONAL LIBRARY), in the
city of Washington, is another educational insti-
tution maintained by the National Government,
the appropriation for its maintenance in 1910
being $841,755.18

War and Navy Departments. — The United
States Military Academy (q.v\ at West
Point, New York State, founded in 1802, is a
national college for the training of engineers
and officers for the army. The appropriation

382

NATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

NATIONAL HOME READING UNION

for maintenance in 1910 was $807,646 06.
The Army War College at Washington, the
Army Service Schools at forts Leavenworth
and Riley, the Army Engineers' School at
Washington, and various officers' schools at
military posts arc all forms of education for
the army maintained by the National Govern-
ment The total appropriation for all of
these institutions, including new buildings,
was $2,234,598 in 1910 (See MILITARY EDU-
CATION )

The United States Naval Academv at An-
napolis, Md., established in 1846, is a na-
tional college for the training of officers and
engineers for the navy The Naval War
College in Rhode Island and the Naval Train-
nig Schools in California, Rhode Island, and on
the Great Lakes are also forms of education for
the navy maintained by the National Govern-
ment The total appropriation for all of these
institutions was $1,028,094 in 1910 (See
NAVAL EDUCATION )

Under the Interior Department — This de-
partment maintains a number of educational
institutions The United States Bureau of Edu-
cation (q v ) is under this department, as well as
the Bureau of Indian Affairs The United States
Bureau of Education has charge of the educa-
tional work among the Indians of Alaska (q v ),
and the Bureau of Indian Aifairs has control
of the large number of Indian schools main-
tained by the National Government in the
different states. With one exception these
schools are located m the Central or Western
states The appropriation for education in
Alaska in 1910 was $200,000, and the appio-
priation for Indian education in the United
States was $4,566,021 97. (Soe special article
on INDIAN EDUCATION )

For a statement of the nature of the educa-
tional organization in our island possessions,
and the amount of national aid granted, see
special articles on the school systems of HAWAII,
GUAM, PHILIPPINES, and PORTO Rico

It will be seen from the above that the educa-
tional activities of the National Government
have never been organized into anv system,
but scattered among the different buicaus at
Washington, with the result that there is
little system or coordination of the educational
work of the National Government In most
cases Congress has done its work independently
of any organization or advice E. P C

See also SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION, UNITED
STATES NATIONAL MUSEUM

References —
ADDIS, WBLFORD Federal and State Aid to establish

Higher Education; in Rep U S Com Educ ,

1896-1897, Vol. II, pp 1137-1164
BLACKMAR, F. W History of Federal and State Aid

to Higher Education, in V S Circ Inf , No 1,

1890, U. S. Bureau of Education
BOURNE, E. G. History of the Surplus Revenue of 1837.

(New York, 1885 )

DONALSON, THOB The Puhlit Domain (1884 )
DRAPER, A S The Need of a Federal Plan, in Ann r-

ican Education, w 107-110 (Boston, 190<) )

DUTTON, S T , and SNLDDEN, D Administration oj
Public Edutation in the United States eh 111
and lefemuch there given (New York, 1910)

GERMANN, (j B National Legislation concerning
Education (New York, 1KW) )

JAMES, E J The Origin of the Land Grant Act of
1862. (Umv 111 Studies, Vol IV, No 1 )

KNIGHT, G W History and Management of Federal
Land Grants for Edueation in the Northwest
Territory, in Papers Am Hist AKSOC , 1, pp 79-
247 (New York, 1885)

POORE, B P Federal and Slalt Constitution* (1878),
U S Statutes at Large, since 1878, for Enabling
Acts (Washington, 1H98 )

State Constitution* ami Law* , for details as to use of grants

TREAT, P J Ttu National Land System, 1785-1820
(New York, 1910 )

U S Bur Edue Cirudars of Information, 1888
1908 IW vols A series of histories of education
in the different states

U S Bur Educ Rep Com Ed , Vol I, of each
year gives the annual appropriations for the dif-
ferent educational activities of the National Gov-
ernment

NATIONAL HOME READING UNION,
ENGLAND — An organization founded by
the late Dr J B Paton (qv], largely in-
fluenced by an article of Bishop Vincent's
on M Chatauqua, a popular University," which
appeared in the Contemporary Review in 1887
The Union was definitely organized in 1889
The purposes in vie\\, as stated in Sadler,
Continuation Schools in England and El^e-
wheic, were ah follows —

(1) To stimulate, encourage and direct home reading
in such a way as to make home reading educational in
the truest sense of the word (2) To give defimteness,
< ontmuit> , and sv stem to home reading, and to adapt
it to the divers needs and tastes of readers (3) To
give all practical help, in the most economical and effi-
cient wav, to those who engage in such reading
(4) By means of local unions, or associations of readers,
and the influences of a large organization, as well as hv
personal s\mpathv, to sustain the interest and confirm
the purpose of all who undertake a regular course of
home reading, and to unite them in honorable and
helpful fellow ship with each other

The reading is arranged in three courses
Young People's Section, General Section,
Special Supplementary and Introductory
Courses Two magazines, the Special (1ourae«
Magazine and the General COM rue Magazine,
appear monthly and contain articles on books
or subjects of interest, reviews, questions, and
news The Union sends out suggestive lists
foi reading with books of reference available
in local libraries, " in art, history, social and
political economy, poetry, science, explora-
tion and all the sides of human activity dealt
with in literature " The N H R U encour-
ages the formation of local reading circles for
study and discussion of books, and gives as-
sistance to members by correspondence It-
seeks to secure the cooperation between teachers
m schools and the libraries, and the formation
of reading circles among the senior pupils in pub-
lic schools The Board of Education in 1905
issued circulars calling upon local educational
authorities to pav the expenses of and librarians
to aid the organization of reading circles
Many schools and school systems are in active

NATIONAL MONEY GRANTS

NATIONAL SOCIETY

cooperation with the Union, and have adopted
its list of readings and have formed reading
circles, among these may be mentioned the
London County Council, Manchester, Leices-
ter, Glasgow, and many county authorities
Another phase of the work of the N IT R U is
the summer assemblies For a few years its
annual meeting was held for ton days at Black-
pool In 1892 a removal was made to
Bowness and the Lake District, and since thai
time the assemblies rune been held at points
of literary or historic interest, connected in
the main with the reading of the year The
lTnion is associated with the Home Music Study
(•nion For the purpose of encouraging the
wise use of holidays the N H H U also co-
operates closely with the Cooperative Holidays
Association ((/#), and many other associations
loi adult education

References —

National Home Reading Union, *SVw?e Account of its

WorL (London )
Prospectus (London, annual )

NATIONAL MONEY GRANTS —See
NATIONAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION,
SCHOOL FUNDS, PERMANENT

NATIONAL SOCIETY, ENGLAND —

The success of Joseph Lancaster (qv) in
establishing unsectaiian schools, especially after
the formation in January, 1808, of a committee
to help him, stimulated the bishops of the
Church of England to the formation of an as-
sociation for promoting the establishment of
sectarian schools Lancaster's schools at-
tracted public attention by the novelty of the
monitorial system on which they were con-
ducted, and public support bv the cheapness
which that svstem rendered possible In
Andrew Bell (q r ) the Church had ready to
hand a clergyman eager to be employed in
organizing monitorial schools that should rival
the otheis in attractiveness and cheapness
while excelling them in orthodoxy The vague
ideas of the bishops were made definite and
given a practical direction bv a sermon which
Herbert Marsh, Lady Margaret Divinity Pro-
lessor at Caml3ndge, preached in St Paul's
Cathedral on June 13, 1811

On Aug 27, 1811, "a number of gentle-
men, friends to the Establishment," met to
discuss the question of forming a society, and at
a larger meeting held on October 2] the " Na-
tional Society for promoting the Education
of the Poor in the Principles of the Established
Church" was actually formed The Prince
liege nt (afterwards George IV) " graciously
consented "to be the patron, and the Charter
of Incorporation, granted in 1817, prescribed
that the Archbishop of Canterbury for the
time being should be president, and the vice-
presidents the Archbishop of York, all the
bishops, and ten othei persons being either
temporal pvers 01 pi ivy councilors

No time was lost in getting to \vork At
the end of 1812 the society could report that,
with its help and encoui agcmcnt, 52 schools
attended by 8620 pupils had been opened
Next year there were 230 schools with 40,484
pupils To provide the necessary teachers a
model school was started on Holborn Hill, but
this was soon supplanted by a much larger
one in Baldwin's Gardens, Gray's Inn Lane.
Intending teachers did little more there than
master the mechanism of the monitorial system,
but in the course of years the need of a more
thorough training became evident, and the
society opened five colleges, three of which
(St Mark's, Chelsea, St John's, Battersea;
and Whitelands, Chelsea) are still in existence

In 1833 government grants were first given
towards the building of schools, in 1846, to-
wards the payment of pupil teachers and the
maintenance of training colleges, and in 1853,
toward the maintenance of schools Profiting
by these grants in aid of local effort and the
local effort which they evoked, the society
continued to extend its operations, in 1870
there were 6382 Chinch schools \\ith an aver-
age attendance of 844,334

Bv the act passed in 1870, if in any district
sufficient school accommodation were not pro-
vided bv voluntary agencies, a school board
must be elected to supply the deficiency at
the cost of the district As board schools
would necessarily be unsectarian the National
Society made a mighty effort to render them
unnecessary by establishing Church schools
The task was too great lor the effort to succeed
altogether, but it was far from failing altogether,
there were in 1902 11,711 Church schools with
an average attendance of 1,927,663

Part of the cost of maintaining both board
and voluntary schools had come out of par-
liamentary grants, the remainder for board
schools came out of rates, and for voluntary
schools out of subscriptions The act of 1902
abolished school boards, made the councils of the
counties and county boroughs the local educa-
tion authority, and gave all schools the same
support out of rates without depriving the vol-
untary managers of their power Some of the
councils, objecting to paying toward schools
which they were not allowed to control, tried to
differentiate in various ways between them and
the council schools The National Society
fought the battle of the local managers and by
a series of decisions in the law courts obtained
equal treatment for their schools.

In 1911 there were 10,952 Church schools
with an average attendance of 1,750,094 as
against 8006 council schools with an average
attendance of 3,962,819 The average council
school is thus obviously larger than the average
Church school, the reason being that many of
the Church schools are in rural parishes and
many of the council schools in towns or urban
districts D. SA.

See ENGLAND, EDUCATION IN.

384

NATIONAL SOCIETY

NATIONAL UNIVFKSITY

References -

BARNARD, H American Journal of Education, Vol X,

pp 466-570

GREGORY, R Elementary KducaHon (London, 1895 )
National Society, ete Annual Reports

NATIONAL SOCIETY FOR THE SCIEN-
TIFIC STUDY OF EDUCATION — See

HEIIBART SOCIETY, EDUCATION, ACADEMIC
STUDY OF; EDUCATIONAL ASSOCIATIONS

NATIONAL TEACHERS' ASSOCIATION.

— See TEACHERS' Von .\TAI« ASSOCIATIONS

NATIONAL UNION OF TEACHERS,
ENGLAND —The largest organization of
teachers, primarily those engaged in elemen-
tary school work, in England The Union
was founded in 1870 as the National Union
of Elementary Teachers, but the present title
was adopted in 1889, making the association
more comprehensive Among the objects of
the N UT in addition to the safeguaidmg and
piotection of the interests of members, are the
following —

To improve the condition of education in tho toun-
trv mid to obtain the establishment of a mitional
s\stem of education, coordinated and complete, aLso
to secure for all public elementary hchooK adequate
hnaiifial aid from public sources, accompanied In
Mutable conditiorib

To afford to the Hoard of Induration and to local
authorities for education, and other m sanitations --
public or private —which ha\ e relation to educational
affairs-— the afh ire and expciienct of the associated
tea< hern

To secure effective representation of educational
inteiests* in Parliament

To raise the qualifications and status of teachers
and to open to the beist-equipped members of the
piofession the higher pobtfl in the educational service
of the country, including the inspectorate of ac hools

A Teachers' Provident Society and Teachers'
Benevolent and Orphan Fund are maintained
A representative of the Union is supported
in Paihament Legal advice and assistance
are given to members Thiough an Examina-
tion Hoard the Union issues Teachers' Diplo-
mas in music, manual training, needlework, and
dressmaking The N U T has exercised and
continues to exercise considerable influence on
the administration of elementary education,
the training of teachers, and improvement of
codes and regulations, and teaching methods
The membership of the Union in 1910 was
(19,073 distributed among 516 local branches,
which in turn are grouped into fifty-seven
county associations The membership is
gradually being extended among other than
elementary teachers The Handbook of Edu-
cation, The Red Code (annual) are published
by the NUT, while the official organ of the
Union is the Schoolmaster (weekly) Sir James
H Yoxall, MA, M P , is the secretary

References —

National Union of Teachers, Annual Reports (London )
SANDIFORD, P. Training of Teachers in England and

Wales (New York, 1910 )
Schoolmasters1 Yearbook (London, annual )

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY — The estab-
lishment oi a national university, created
and supported by the federal government
and located at the national capital, has been
repeatedly proposed and much discussed since
the idea, was hist definitely expressed in 1790
The interest of (Jeoige Washington was keen
and persistent in the proposal to found a fed-
eral institution to which American youth
would come loi their higher education instead
of seeking it in Km ope, and in which would be
gathered students iiom all parts of the United
States, thus fosteiing that common national
feeling which he had seen developed in the
Continental annv dunng the Revolution He
referred to the matter of a national university
in his first message to Congress, and in his will
he gave fifty shares in the Potomac Company,
worth at that time about $25,000 toward the
endowment of such an institution, provided
Congress should " incline to extend a fostering
hand towaid it " Tins act Congress has never
been, persuaded to perfoim, though urged to do
so by Madison, in three messages, by John
Quincy Adams and Liter picsidents, and by
many other statesmen

The question of constitutionality was early
raised in connection with the proposes! estab-
lishment As a " loose const metiomst," Wash-
ington did not doubt the power of the fedeuil
government to provide such an institution,
Jefferson and his paity took the opposite view,
and a concessional committee in 1811 re-
ported that it would be unconstitutional foi
Congress to found, endow, or contiol such a
41 seminal v " K\en befoie bioad interpreta-
tion of the constitution finally tnumphed, the
practice of Congiess in \oting money foi the
establishment and suppoit of the militan
academy at West Point and the naval acadenn
at Annapolis, and in gianting lands to (Jeoigc-
town University and Columbian UmveisiU
in the Distuct of Columbia, went fai to settle
the theoietical question of power A senate
committee, hist a special " committee1 to es-
tablish the Umveisity of the United Slates "
to consider a bill introduced by Senator George
F Edmunds in 1890, and latei a standing com-
mittee, repoited in favoi of the creation of
such a university in 1893, 1894, 1896, and 1902

Numerous bills foi establishing a national
umverMtv have been introduced into Congiess,
some of them widelv mdoised bv college pies-
idents as well as by statesmen, ecclesiastics,
and professional men The aiguments against
the proposed institution have been based on
belief in its unclesirabihtv rather than the lack
of constitutional power to create it In 1899
a committee of fifteen " on the national uni-
versity project," organized by the National
Education Association and including the presi-
dents of Harvard, Chicago, Cornell, Illinois,
North Carolina, Michigan, and Washington and
Lee universities, agreed unanimously that the
federal government should aid, but not con-

iv — 2c

385

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY

NATIVISM

trol, the educational agencies of the eountiy,
that none of the bills presented in Congress
was entirely commendable, that " the govern-
ment is not called upon to maintain at the
capital a university in the ordinary sente of
that term," and that the most that should
be attempted was systematic cooperation in
the use of the opportunities for advanced in-
struction and research offered bv the depart-
ments and bureaus in Washington

The arguments for Ihe national university
are stated strongly in the appeal of the "na-
tional university committee of foui hundred"
in 1907, in resolutions of the National Educa-
tion Association, and in the bill proposed by an
almost unanimous vote of the National Asso-
ciation of State Universities in 1907 They
assume that it is to be a purely graduate in-
stitution, cooperating with other univeisities
and colleges, and with scientific departments
of the federal government, confnnng no
degrees, or only the doctoiate, ami devoting
itself wholly to higher instruction and research,
to promote the advance of science, pure and
applied, the liberal and fine arts, and the na-
tional welfare They declaie that- it would
vivify by its influence every part of the educa-
tional system of this countiv, gioutlv increase
present opportunities without interfering nec-
essarily with any now existing, attiact both
scholars and students from the widest possible
range, enhance scholarship in inanv fields,
and improve the service of the government,
and that its right to determine what institu-
tions should be recognized would raise and make
uniform the standards of collegiate institutions
in the United States without requiring con-
formity to particular methods or schedules
Much of the equipment ordinarily required
for the highest forms of research already exists
in Washington through congressional appro-
priation The Library of Congress, with
1,500,000 books and pamphlets, and other
libraries in departments, numbering almost
as many pieces more, including duplicates of
those in the Library of Congress, great col-
lections of the National Museum, the Smith-
sonian Institution, the Medical Museum, the
Patent Office, and the Corcoran Gallery,
magnificently equipped laboratories of bureaus,
such as those of Standards and of Chemistry;
the great observatories; the Geological Survey;
and opportunities for field service under the
most expert direction in every part of the coun-
try, — all these are instrumentalities which
might be utilized in considerable degree, with-
out interference with their proper service to the
public and to the government, by a national uni-
versity, wisely organized and judiciously directed
for instruction and for research. In fact, Con-
gress in 1892 and 1901 opened up the govern-
ment departments for the purposes of advanced
research. It is estimated that the equipment
and apparatus thus available represents a
valuation of not less than $60,000,000.

Something akin to the organization of facili-
ties for research and instruction here con-
templated is already carried on in a very lim-
ited, and often incidental, way in the medical
schools of the Army and Navy, in the Public
Health and Marine Hospital Service, in the
bureaus of Standards, Statistics, Plant Indus-
try, Soils, Fisheries, Entomology, and Public
Roads, and in the National Botanic Gardens.
Certain work done in some of these offices or
laboratories has been accepted in partial satis-
faction of the requirements for a degree by some
of the strong graduate schools C K. B.

References —

HADLEY, A T Facilities for Study and Research in
the Offices of the United States at Washington
Hitllftin No 1, U S Bur Eduo , 1909
Sixtieth Congress 1 Sexs Doc 143 Appeal in
behalf of the Proposed University of the United
States U S Bureau of Education Rep Com
Educ , 18M2-1HW, Vol II, pp 1293-1312, 1898-
18<M), Vol I, pp 061-071

NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF IRELAND.

— See IRELAND, EDUCATION IN.

NATIONALITY AND NATIONAL EDU-
CATION — See CITIZENSHIP AND EDUCATION;
IMMKJR \TION AND EDUCATION, NATIONAL
KiMH'YTioN, also NATIONAL GOVERNMENT

\ND ED

NATIONS —See UNIVERSITIES.

NATIVISM —A term applied to the theories
according to which the foundations of all
knowledge, or else the essential conditions of
some branch of experience, arc born in or with
the mind or agent It thus has close associa-
tions with the terms a priori, innate ideas, and
intuition (q v.) In psychology the term has
come to be applied particularly to those theo-
ries which i'jpld that the extensity of space
peiceptions ft an original, native element in
some at least of the sensational qualities, in
opposition to those theories which hold spread-
outness and depth to be the results of associa-
tion among qualities themselves lacking spatial
quality The most recent use of the term has
been much influenced by modern biological
theories of heredity The old tabula tasa con-
ception of sensationahstic empiricism has been
made an anachronism by the demonstration of
the number and variety of the instinctive non-
acquired tendencies It is only by a figure
of speech, however, that these tendencies can
be said to be innate in the mind — being rather
connate with the organism This conclusion
involves quite as complete a reconstruction
of the older type of nativism as of the older
type of empiricism The educational impor-
tance of the controversy gathers about the
question of the relative importance of Nature
and Nurture — the relative importance and func-
tion of the hereditary tendencies of the organism
as compared with the influence of the social

886

NATORP

NATURE

and cultural environment (See HERED-
ITY ) This question is thoroughly miscon-
ceived, however, when treated as a problem
of one versus the other The conditions of
the educative growth of an individual are
ultimately inherent in the organism, possessing
its native tendencies to act and to be suscepti-
ble This fact is all-important in contrast with
the belief of a number of eighteenth-centurv
theorists that practice and the influence of
economic and political conditions are omnipo-
tent It is also highly important in showing
the necessity of recognizing individual differ-
ences of capacity and aptitude But, on the
other hand, the direction given these native
powers, the kind of ends for which they become
effective, the ways in which they are used
depend upon nurture — that is, upon the in-
fluence of the social medium consciously and
unconsciously exerted J D

See ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS, GALTON,
HEREDITY

NATORP, BERNHARD CHRISTOPH
LUDWIG (1774-1846) —German educator,
the son of a Protestant clergyman, bom at
Werden in the Rhine province He studied
theology and pedagogy at the University of
Halle under A H Niemeyer (qv} In 1798
he received a call as a preacher to the city of
Essen, and there took a leading part in the
reform of the schools, which were reorganized
in accordance with his Grundnss zur Organisa-
tion allgemeiner Stadtnchulen (Plan of Organiza-
tion of Common City Schools, 1804), a work
based on the principles of (Ymiemus, Rousseau,
and Pestalozzi From 1809 to 1816 he super-
vised the schools of the province of Branden-
burg, where he did much for the improvement
of methods and the education of teachers
In 1816 he returned to Westphalia and for
thirty years more remained active in directing
the educational and ecclesiastical interests of
the province

His most interesting educational work is his
Brief ivechvel einiqer Schullehrer nnd Schul-
freunde (Correspondence of some School Teachers
and Friends of Schools, 1811-1816), in which
he develops his pedagogic principles in the foim
of personal letters between schoolmen An-
other work that may be mentioned is his
essay on Bell arid Lancaster (1817), in which
he shows the superiority of the German ele-
mentary school, founded on the principles
of Pestalozzi, over the much -advertised Bell-
Lancastermn monitorial system F M

Reference —

REIN, W Encyklopbdisches Handbuch der Pttdagoffik,
H v Natorp, Bern hard Chnntoph Ludwiy

NATURAL HISTORY — See
STUDY, ZOOLOGY

NATURE

ods of teaching in many subjects, frequency
as a trade name for textbooks with a par-
ticular system of instruction that supposedly
avoid artificiality The term is applied when
one of two characteristics is assumed to be
present in the procedure suggested- (1) When
the method is psychologically based, — i e,
takes account of the instincts and normal
interests of young children, — it is said to
be natural Such a natural method is op-
posed to one which is mentally artificial. If
words used in spelling arc selected and graded
according to the needs which develop in the
course of the child's attempt to express his own
experiences, the method is said to be natural.
If the words are chosen and arranged merely
from the standpoint of their frequency of usage
m adult life, and without regard to personal
motivation, the method is artificial (2) When
the method utilized conforms to usual pro-
cedure in social life, omitting special pedagogical
devices peculiar to schoolroom practice, it is
called a natural method Thus it is contended
that full written or oral computation of prob-
lems in arithmetic is an unnatural method,
while a combined written and mental method
of computation is said to be a natural pro-
cedure In recent years the reaction against
artificiality of school procedure of every sort
has been marked Teaching practice has
tended more and more to take account of
psychological lines of least resistance and to
avoid modes of work which differ greatly from
social practice Henee naturalistic methods
have characterized teaching leforin in all the
school subjects H S

NATURAL PUNISHMENTS. See RE-
WARDS AND PlJNlbHMENTS , SCHOOL MAN-
AGEMENT

NATURAL READING METHOD -See

READING

NATURAL SCIENCES —See BOTANY,
CHEMISTRY, GEOLOGY, GEOGRAPHY, etc , also
EXPERIMENTATION, NATURE STUDY, SCIEN-
TIFIC METHOD

NATURAL SELECTION — See ACQUIRED
CHARACTERISTICS, EUGENICS, EVOLUTION;
HABIT, HEREDITY, INSTINCTS

NATURAL SIGN —A gesture or other
form of expression which calls up an elaborate
idea through a reproduction of some portion
of the personal reaction that would be natural
in the presence of the object which it is wished
to call to mind C. H J.

See LANGUAGE

NATURALISM — See HUMANISM AND NAT-
URAI ISM

NATURAL METHOD — The term " nat- NATURE — Probably no philosophical con-
ural " has been applied descriptively to meth- ception has had a more general or widespread

387

NATURE

NATURE

popular influence than that of nature Its
intellectual career has been facilitated rather
than hindered by the variety and ambiguity
of senses attached to the term, especially as
regards the things to which it has been set in
opposition Recognition of the role of tins
uncertainty in enhancing the influence of the
idea is not necessarily cynical or skeptical
in character The more typical senses of the
term are sufficiently near to one anothei so
that they insensibly pass into each other ,
while all of the more fundamental idoas opera-
tive in human history have some vagueness
attaching to them, because they stand for deep-
lying practical aspirations and for intense
emotional attitudes as well as for rational
notions which may be accurately defined The
function common to the differing senses of
the term nature has been the demand for some
standard or norm for the regulation and \alu-
ation of human beliefs It designates whatever
is taken to be intrinsic and inevitable in exist-
ence and thought, in antithesis to what is
external, artificial, and factitious, leaving it
to the culture of the time to determine just
where the natural, the normal and normative
shall be looked for, and just what, in contrast,
shall be regarded as secondary and accidental

The classic conception of nature, as fixed by
Aristotle, was an aftergrowth (and to some
extent an outgrowth) of the inquiry rinsed by
some of the sophists as to whether religion,
morality, and the State exist by nature, or by
mutual agreement ('convention, tacit or express)
or by decree, bv enactment of superior author-
ity This led to an inquirv after the true na-
ture of tilings, their real essence Ktvmologi-
cally, </>wm, the Greek word tianslated " nature,"
was derived from the verb "to gun\," just as
the Latin not in a i* irom the verb u to be born "
Aristotle identified the nature oi a thing with
the thing in its full or completed growth, which
rs also the thing in its state oi lulled activity
or actuality The nature of an acorn it> the
oak, the true nature of the human body is the
intellectual activity in which the organic pro-
cesses are most fully realized; the nature of
the individual is the state in which alone dis-
tinctively human properties (rn contrast with
those of brutes and gods) come to realization
The distinguishing trait of nature is that the
process of realization, involving the four ulti-
mate principles or causes (qv), takes place
from within, in contrast to art (all products of
human invention and skill), where the move-
ment is initiated from without This meta-
physical and teleological conception of nature
was taken up into patristic and scholastic
philosophy The Stoics retained much of the
Aristotelian idea, but conjoined it with the pop-
ular sense of nature as the sum total of laws,
processes, and events that constitute the world
as an organized whole or cosmos, — hence the
precept of life in accordance with nature as
the supreme moral precept Through the

influence of the Stores upon jurisprudence, the
conceptions of a " state of nature," " natural
law," and " natural rrght " were introduced
as affording the norm of eternal justice m dis-
tinction from the positive institutions and civil
laws which represent the adaptatron of this
eternal law to temporary and local conditions

In modern times the conception of nature
was first affected by the rise of physical science.
It meant the sum total of laws which " govern "
natural phenomena Sir Isaac Newton con-
sidered these laws to present the drvrne legis-
lation for the realm of created things, expres-
sions of a rational will, so that nature might
almost be conceived as a divine vice-regent
This meaning was taken up by the Deists and
made the basis of a criticism of the miraculous
and the supernatural in religion As the in-
fluence of this mode of thinking spread into
France, the conception of nature was general-
ized and made an implement of criticism of
everything in the Church and State that ap-
peared to the philosopher to be irrational
Since these social institutions were historical
products, it is hardly too much to say that the
term nature as a eulogistic term was put into
opposition to history, and to everything whose
exrsterice depended upon historical traditions
rather than upon an enlightened reason

Rousseau agreed wrth the rationalists in
opposition to existing social institutions as
artificial and so unnatural, but attacked the
philosophers of the enlightenment by including
art and science as themselves artificial, sophis-
ticated, and misleading Nature, according
to him, was not to be looked for in conscious
reason, but rather in primitive, instinctive,
unreasoned impulses and emotions The nat-
ural is the origrnal in the sense both of the
primary in time and the creative, the origina-
tive The " return to nature," that concept
so influential in educational philosophies if not
in school practice, was a return to the primi-
tive untaught sources that condition all teach-
ing While there was much rn Rousseau which
would lead his followers to interpret the natural
as an idealization of the life of savages into a
poetic idyl, there was also much to call atten-
tion to the original instincts and principles of
growth in children Through the influence
of Rousseau upon Pestalozzi, Froebel, and
others, education rn accordance writh nature
came to mean that there were certain intrinsic
laws of development or unfolding, physical,
mental, and moral, in children, and that these
inherent principles of growth should furnish
t lie norms of all educational procedure

Meantime, the attacks by Rousseau upon
civilization in the name of nature called out
not merely the interest of Romanticism in pic-
turesque natural beauty untouched by human
hands, in folklore, primitive arts and poetry and
in peasant life (as more primitive, unsophis-
ticated and unconsciously creative), but also
that phase of German philosophy which de-

388

NATURE STUDY

NATURE STUDY

liberately set itself to justify culture as being
more truly natural than crude nature and than
original impulse and instinct This tendency
found expression m all of Goethe's later work,
as well as in the philosophers, Kant, Fichte,
and Hegel, and in Schiller's conception of art
as the great civilizing and moralizing agency
of humanity The same movement led to the
idea that the nature of man is found in humanity,
rather than in the individual, and hence to an
idealization of history, since it is in history
rather than in the consciously evolved ideas of
an individual that humanity is revealed This
movement culminated in Hegel's theory that
social and political institutions m their his-
toric manifestation are more truly real than
either phenomena of the physical woild or the
moral efforts of individuals in their individual
capacity — that indeed the entire education
of the individual consists 111 effecting in him an
assimilation of the spiritual products of hu-
manity in its historic evolution as a progressive
realization of spirit In this way, the criticism
of Rousseau's return to nature reached its cli-
max in a wholly antithetical theory J D

See CULTURE, HUMANISM AND NATUU\L-
ISM, ROUSSEAU

NATURE STUDY — A term which within
two decades has come into prominent use in
America and England to designate certain
studies of natural things, particularly in schools
of elementary grade Also, in a much more
limited usage, nature study means popular
study of animal 01 plant natural history out-
side of schools by children or adults The
term has been applied chiefly to elementary
studies of living things, but within recent
vears many lessons dealing with inorganic
nature have been introduced into the nature
study of elementary schools As a matter
of convenience, some writers distinguish be-
tween biological nature study for living things
and inorganic or physical nature study in-
cluding lifeless objects and the processes of heat,
light, etc

The term nature study was for many vears
criticized, because etymologically it suggests
all scientific studies of natuie, and hence is
coextensive with the combined natural sciences ,
but this objection is no longer urged by promi-
nent scientists, for it is now generally under-
stood in both England arid America that nature
study means a special type of study adapted
primarily to pupils of elementary school age

The fact, that nature study and natural
science deal with the same objects and pro-
cesses has led to much investigation and dis-
cussion of possible differentiation in educational
practice It is now agreed among the leaders
of the nature-study movement that a satisfac-
tory division of the field between nature study
for elementary schools and science courses for
higher schools has been found in theory and
is rapidly becoming successful in practice

Briefly, this diffeientiation is along the follow-
ing lines Science, in the strict sense, is con-
cerned with knowledge organized under prin-
ciples or generalizations, c g evolution, cell
doctrine, and other principles of biology, atomic
theory of chemistry, and conservation theories
of physics The best science courses in high
schools and colleges are no\v presented so as
to set forth the fundamental principles, and
the natural materials are studied chiefly as
illustrations of principles In short, the present-
day courses in science revolve around the prin-
ciples which he at the very heart of organized
knowledge

Now, most of the great principles empha-
sized in courses of science m high schools and
colleges are admittedly beyond the mental
grasp of elementarv school children This
is one suggestion looking towards differentia-
tion, arid it has proved the most useful Nature
study, independent of the generalizations
which characterize science in the strict sense,
has come to deal with nature as it touches our
daily lives directly Here, then, are the
essential differences between nature study foi
elementary schools and science for highei
schools (1) the material for study may be
the same, (2) the observational method of
study differs only in degree of advancement,
(3) but the point of view is radically different,
for science aims primarily at scientific princi-
ples, while nature study avoids these and deals
with natural things and processes as they
directly concern dailv life Of course, science
study of the " applied " type does not eliminate
every-day human interest, but this is reached
somewhat indirectly in that the first aim is for
pimciplcs, and, secondarily, these are applied
to practical life It is most useful in practice,
however, to recognize that nature study for
elementary schools and science for higher
schools differ chiefly in that nature-study lessons
are not organized with direct reference to the
characteristic principles of science

Nature study, however, should not be unoi-
gamzed and without continuity of lessons, that
is, mere object lessons of the old type It may
be independent of the organization of science
and still have an efficient organization foi edu-
cational ends For example, a study of useful
tiees and elements of forestry may be educa-
tionally organized for pupils who are too im-
mature to compiehend the principles of botany

It should be noted that there can be no sharply
defined line between nature study and science
so far as practice m our school system in its
entirety is concerned In the uppei elemen-
tary grades and first year of the high school
the best nature study gradually leads the way
into more and more advanced lessons which
are designed to point directly to the great
generalizations of science But the line can
be drawn sharply enough for all practical
purposes, and there is no longer any suffi-
cient excuse for duplicating in nature study

389

NATURE STUDY

NATURE STUDY

the work already well done as science in high
schools

The distinction between nature study and
science may be summarized in the following defi-
nitions. " Nature study is primarily the simple
observational study of common natural objects
and processes for the sake of personal acquaint-
ance with the things which appeal to human
interest directly and independently of rela-
tions to organized science Natural science
study is the close analytical and synthetical
study of natural objects and processes pri-
marily for the sake of obtaining knowledge of the
general principles which constitute the founda-
tions of modern science."

As to the educational values of nature study,
it is now commonly recognized that they relate
to discipline and information, discipline in
habits of thoughtful observing, and information
which has aesthetic, moral, practical, and in-
tellectual influence in the every-day life of the
average individual To develop these values
the teaching should be directed by certain
definite aims; and summarizing the predomi-
nating tendencies of the present time, the great-
aims are in essentials as follows (a) To give
pupils general acquaintance with and interest
in common objects and processes in nature
(6) To give the first training in accurate ob-
serving as a means of gaming knowledge direct
from nature, and also in the simplest comparing,
classifying, and judging values of facts in other
words, to give the first training in the simplest-
processes of the scientific method (c) To give
pupils useful knowledge concerning natural
objects and processes as they directly affect
human life and interests

There is quite general agreement that there
is one fundamental method of teaching nature
study that consists in getting the pupil to sec
and think for himself, and this is observation
m the scientific sense Upon this depend two
of the three aims above stated, the aim for
sympathetic acquaintance and the aim for train-
ing in methods of observing Books and lec-
tures cannot suffice for those, as possibly they
might for giving useful information There
is now little dissent from the proposition that
true nature study cannot be primarily book
study Rather should nature study aim to
make the pupil learn to study nature in the
absence of books, thus preparing for the usual
condition in our every-day life Hut although
emphasizing observation as the essential basis
of nature study, it is coming to be accepted
widely that books for supplementary study are
desirable This refers to elementary scientific
books, and not to the so-called nature stories,
fables, and poems, which may well be read and
explained as part of correlated language les-
sons, but not as nature study

With regard to the selection of materials
for study, there is universal agreement that we
should, first of all, select the most common and
the most interesting from the viewpoint of

every-day life The application of this prin-
ciple is responsible for much of the apparent
lack of uniformity in courses of nature study.
The geographical distribution of natural things,
particularly the living, ip highly variable, and
hence the selection of common things for nature
study must vary

Much study is now being devoted to the
problem of organizing nature-study courses.
The pioneer work was largely stimulated by
enthusiastic scientists, some of whom went so
far as to advocate entire freedom from organi-
zation, but gradually the subject is now coming
under the influence of specialists in education
who are applying the general principles ac-
cepted for all other phases of elementary edu-
cation.

At present many science teachers are much
interested in the problem of adding to nature
study many studies of inorganic nature in
correlation with the biological work, which has
long been so prominent that many educators
have regarded nature study as an elementary
phase of biology There is a widespread tend-
ency in America towards making grammar
school nature study largely inorganic So far
most of this has been called " elementary
science," and is largely an extract from college
physics and chemistry, but much dissatisfac-
tion points towards reorganization from the
standpoint of nature study In addition to
such inorganic nature study in one or two gram-
mar grades, there is need of some simple prob-
lems on the same line in even the first primary
grades

School gardens have proved a very important
phase of nature study, especially because they
combine in such a natural way the animal,
plant, and inorganic aspects of nature Most
school gardens which have well-developed
educational aims are conducted in harmony
with the established principles of nature study
(See GARDENS, SCHOOL )

Perhaps the most important of the present
problems of nature study in America is that
of connecting physiology arid hygiene with
nature study There is a widespread opinion
that hygiene should be taught on the obser-
vational basis of nature study The following
will suggest some of the possible correlations
between nature study and hygiene, but the
details of the plan will necessarily depend upon
the course in nature study In nature study
work with squirrels, rabbits, or other common
animals, the form and uses of mouth, jaws, and
teeth may be made to lead to comparison with
human teeth, their use and their care Thus
all the elementary hygiene of the mouth cavity
may be correlated with nature studies of ani-
mals Likewise, the hygiene of human skin,
hair, and nails may be connected with studies
of these structures in various animals The
hygiene of clothing is naturally referred to in
connection with nature-study lessons on the
fur or wool of animals, possibly with silk and

390

NATURE STUDY

NAVAL EDUCATION

cotton, and also with lessons on heat in the
inorganic nature study The useful hygiene
of the eyes and ears may be introduced in con-
nection with simple experiments with light and
sound. The question of food, which is so
prominent in elementary books of hygiene,
may be associated with lessons in domestic
science, and also with nature-study lessons on
animals and plants which are used for human
food Those are simply suggestions of pos-
sible correlations which would involve the most
valuable hygienic teaching in the elemen-
tary schools. Such correlations would un-
doubtedly make the hygiene vastly more inter-
esting to pupils, and at the same time avoid
a separate time assignment It is doubt-
iul whether there is any hygiene useful for
pupils in any of the first six or seven grades
of the elemental y school which it is not pos-
sible to bring into close relation with biological
and physical nature study

Concerning tho relation of nature study to
geography, it is obvious that the two subjects
touch in the homo, industrial and physical
aspects of geography Tho nature study of
the earliest grades should include topics which
will pave the way for home geography. The
first formal work in geography usually relates
to the home environment, and, in so far as the
observational method is used, such home goog-
niphy is good naturo study Moreover, tho
nature study of the same year should center
around topics especially related to homes,
.such as ornamental plants, building materials,
simple sanitation, and local food-supply

Many of the topics m the industrial aspects
of geography suggest correlations with naturo
study For example, fisheries, lumbering, ag-
riculture, and mining, in industrial geography,
suggest nature study of certain aquatic ani-
mals, lumber-producing trees, elementary gar-
dening, and elementary mineral studies Fi-
nally, the physical aspects of geography demand
correlation with inorganic naturo study For
example, weather studies on an observational
basis are good nature study; and exponmoiits
with air, water, light, heat, and electricity are
needed in correlation with physical geography
The geography of foreign countries offois no
useful opportunities for correlation with natuio
study, which deals primarily with the homo
environment. Lions, tigers, plants pioducing
tea and coffee, and other foreign materials
had better be observed as illustrative of geog-
raphy lessons.

The recent movement in America towards
industrial education has resulted in much
agricultural instruction in rural schools of
elementary grade. In some places it has been
called " agricultural nature study ", in others,
" elementary agriculture ", and in still others
" nature-study agriculture " Elementary ag-
riculture tends to be a weak imitation of the
vocational aspect of high school agriculture ;
while agricultural nature <*tudy or nature-study

agricultuio is practically nature study includ-
ing many natural things connected with agri-
culture The nature-study point of view is
most desirable in the elementary agricultural
teaching It is commonly admitted that in
the first six grades agricultural nature study
should deal with the common things of country
life, but from the viewpoint of general nature
study which is not limited to the utilitarian
aspects of agriculture With regard to tho
grammar grades of rural schools, there is a
strong movement towards including the ele-
ments of agricultural science. This is open
to criticism because its vocational value for
young pupils is doubtful, it presents only the
commercial side of country life, it displaces
hygienic and chcmico-physical studies of great
value to all grammar school pupils, and as
general education is inferior to advanced les-
sons from tho general field of nature study

In America, nature study in the widest
sense is fostered by the American Nature
Study Society, founded in 1908 and with about
one thousand members, including all educators
who are prominently identified with the move-
ment. The Nature Study Renew, founded in
1905 and " devoted to all scientific studies of
nature in elementary schools," IK the official
journal In England the School Nature-
Study Union, organized in 1903, publishes
School Nature-Study M A B

See AGRICULTURAL EDUCATION, GARDENS,
SCHOOL; CHEMISTRY, GEOGRAPHY, HYGIENE,
OBJECT TEACHING, PHYSICS

The Nature Study Idta (Now Yoik,
Handbook of Nature Study. (Ithaca,

References
BAILEY, L II
1909 )

COMBTOCK, A

N Y , 1911 )
Cornell Nature Study Leaflets (Republishcd at Albany,

N Y)
COULTER, J M and J (i , arid PATTLBHON, A J

Practical Nature Study (New York, 1909 )
OTTMMINUH, H II Nature Study by (trades Three

books (New York, 1 90S)
DEARNEK.S, J How to teaeh the Nature Study Conine

(Toronto, 1905 )

Hampton Leaflit* (Hampton, Va )
HODGE, C F Naturt Study and Life (Boston, 1902 )
HOLTZ, F L Nature Study Contains bibliography

(New York, 1908 )
Mo MURKY, O A Special Method in Elementary Science

(New York, 1905 )
McMuRRY, L B Nature Study Ltj6«o//« (New York,

1905 )
Nature Study Rwitw The annual volumes, beginning

with 1905, summarize- all recent advances (Chicago,

111)

School Nature Study (London) Six volumes com-
pleted (1911)
U S Bur Edue Bibliography of Science Teaching,

gives a fuller list of references on the subject
See also References under GARDENS, SCHOOL

NAUTICAL SCHOOLS AND ACAD-
EMIES — See NAVAL EDUCATION, SEA-
MANSHIP, TRAINING FOR

NAVAL EDUCATION — That form of edu-
cation which hts officers and men for service

391

NAVAL EDUCATION

NAVAL EDUCATION

in the navy While jt embraces also nautical
education, the lattei relates mainly to peaceful
pursuits on the sea The principal commercial
lines arrange for the training of their young
officers in the vessels of the regular service, 01
in some cases in school ships, and there exist in
some of the states, as a part of the local school
system, school ships in which young men are
trained for the merchant marine The technical
schools and colleges also provide couises in
such subjects as nautical astronomy and na\i-
gation, and in all branches of marine engineer-
ing. In this article only that form of naval
education which equips officers and enlisted
men in the navies of the chief countiies will
be dealt with

United States — Enlnted Men — The mam
body of the naval force consists of the enlisted
men. In early days their education was simple
A merchant sailor was quickly at home in a
man-of-war The sails arid rigging were gen-
erally similar to those in a merchantman, and
the ordnance of the day did not present any
difficulties that could not be mastered after a
brief apprenticeship In a modern man-of-war,
however, while the engines and boilers ma}'
resemble those of a liner, the ordnance and other
mechanisms are complicated in the extreme and
need the services of a highly trained personnel
With progress in machinery and gunnery it
was seen that the enlisted men would need to
be trained in their specialties. The enlistment
of boys as naval apprentices was undertaken
before the Civil War, but the early attempts
to establish a training system did not prove
successful. A reason frequentlv assigned for
early failures was that although the hope was
held out to the boys that they might win a
commission, only few did so, and the rest were
disheartened A way should always be open
for subordinates to rise, but this should not. be
held out as the main inducement in the training
of seamen

The present system dates from 1875 afloat
and 1881 on shore The early idea was to
embark the boys in cruising training ships
arid there give them the rudiments of a man-
of-war's man's education Later a shore head-
quarters was established at Newport, where the
boys were received, and from which they weie
transferred to the cruising ships for further
training Then came a parallel system of train-
ing for landsmen, with entry at eighteen, the
apprentice boys entering as young as fourteen
The landsmen spent onlv a short time at the
training station and were then drafted to general
service The present system is an evolution or
development It combines in a measure the
two earlier ones The recruit is received as
early as seventeen and is called an apprentice
seaman He serves about four months at the
training station, where he is given preliminary
instruction The cruising training ships have
now entirely disappeared from the system, the
apprentice seamen going from the training

.stations directly to general service. Besides
Newport, there are now training stations at
Norfolk, San Francisco, and North Chicago.

The instruction of the apprentice seamen at
the training stations is necessarily elementary
The reciuit is put into uniform, taught neatness
and cleanliness in person and clothing, learns
to sleep in a hammock, to pull an oar, to box
the compass, heave the lead, also a certain
amount of knotting and splicing, signaling,
boat sailing, swimming, the sails and rigging
of a ship, gunnery, infantry drill, and last, but
not least, discipline After leaving the train-
ing station and joining a cruising ship, the edu-
cation of the apprentice seaman is entirely
practical He learns his duties in the mam
by doing them and seeing others doing similar
duties, though all the men are under the super-
vision of, and are instructed in their duties by,
their officers When qualified, he is promoted
to higher ratings

Artificer and Special Branches — In addition
to the seaman branch, there are the artificer
branch, which includes the machinists, firemen,
electricians, carpenters, and the like , and
the special branch, which includes yeomen
(writers), the hospital corps, stewards, cooks,
bakers, musicians The specialty classes at
one or more of the training stations include
yeoman classes (correspondence and account-
ing), musician classes, schools for hospital
apprentices and foi cooks, bakeis, and com-
missary stewards These schools are entirely
practical, the methods and appliances being
identical with those to be found on boaid ship

It is thus seen that opinion has varied in the
past as to the advantage of one1 01 other of two
systems, the first a special training of some
length, in cruising training ships, the second,
a short stay at a tramme, station, for organ-
ization and rudimentary training, with com-
pletion of the training in the ships of the regular
service. Whatever the merits of the two sys-
tems, the second is largely the method in the
civil trades, but the controlling reason in any
case is that the first system requires too large
a training service, perhaps as many as thirl y
special ships, which is prohibitive The nrn y
itself is now the training school

In addition to the training system as above
described, there are several service schools for
enlisted men The seaman gunners' class is
made up annually of deserving men in their
second enlistment and under thirty years of age
One branch of the class is at the Gun Factory
in Washington, where instruction, combined
with practical work, is given in ordnance and
mcchamsnis The other branch is at the
Torpedo Station at Newport, where the men are
instructed in torpedoes and diving These
courses last six and eight months, respectively,
the graduates becoming gunner's mates

The electrical school is at New York The
course here is about five months, and includes
the theory and practice of electricity and elec-

392

NAVAL EDUCATION

NAVAL EDUCATION

trical mechanisms and of wiieless telegraphy
Besides class work and lectures the students
engage in practical work in the shops The
appliances are similar in all respects to those
to be found on board ship

The machinists' school is at Charleston,
S C , arid is made up of deserving men undej
thirty years of age who have mechanical knowl-
edge or have shown mechanical ability There
are two classes, accoidmg to the knowledge
and reqiinements of the men The course
includes bench work, practice with machine
tools, and running and icpainng marine en-
gines It lasts about sixteen months

Artificers' schools give practical instruction
to carpenter's mates or shipwrights, black-
smiths, plumbers, painters, and ship fitters
The subjects include the practical work of these
seveial trades, in which the men have already
had some experience and practice The course
lasts for three months

Fiorn the above, the instruction of enlisted
men is seen to be on a very satisfactory basis
Recruiting is not difficult, owing to the bene-
fits offeied and to the fact that the positions
are open to landsmen as well as to men with
nautical knowledge On leaving the seivice,
the ex-sailors are sought after in civil occupa-
tions, as they have all acquired knowledge
which is as useful in mil life as in the navy.
The time spent in the navy is thus a tiue train-
ing in character, resourcefulness, and knowl-
edge, and is of advantage to the country and
would be desirable entirely apart from the
service rendered by the navy

Officer — The education of officers offers
problems of a fat more serious natuie than that
of enlisted men The line of the navy may be
taken up at first Line officeis entei as boys,
midshipmen, with the intent of making a life
ciucer of the navy In old times they received
their appointments at an early age, from twelve
to fifteen, and went at once to a cruising ship
Here they picked up readily all mannei of prac-
tical information about the ship, but had no thor-
ough grounding in geneial education or in the
higher arts of their profession The instruc-
tion they obtained in the service was scant, and,
besides that received from the schoolmaster,
if there was one on board, was due in the main
to the kind-hearted interest perhaps of the
chaplain or of the older officeis Their ad-
vancement in knowledge depended mainly on
themselves, and it is to their everlasting credit
that they developed into the characters that
make up our early naval history

The Naval School at Annapolis, was estab-
lished in 1845 by George Bancroft, the his-
torian, at the time Secretaiy of the Navy The
object, in his own words, was " to collect the
midshipmen who from time to time are on shore,
and give them occupation during their stay
on land in the study of mathematics, nautical
astronomy, theory of morals, international law,
gunnery, use of steam, the Spanish nnd French

languages, and other branches essential in the
present day to the accomplishments of a naval
officer " The title of the school was changed
in 1850 to the United States Naval Academy,
which it has since retained

Midshipmen entered the school originally at.
from 13 to 17 years of age This was changed
later to 14 to 18, then 15 to 20, and is now Iti
to 20 These last ages are generally regarded
as too old, and the lange is too great It is
proposed now to make the entrance ages 15 to
18

The earlier classes of midshipmen had already
been at sea when the school was established,
but it was found more satisfactory later to enter
them at the school, where they were retained
for one or two yeais, followed by three years
at sea, then one or two more yeais at the school
This plan was not followed for long, and gave
way to the system of foui continuous years at
the academy The summers were given up
alternately to practice cruises and leave of
absence This is still the general plan, though
since 1873 the course has been six years, the last
two at sea in ships of the regular sei vice, with a
final examination at the end of the six years
In 1912 the course was changed back to four
years, at the conclusion of which the midshipmen
arc commissioned in the regular service

The best method of educating midshipmen
has been the subject of much discussion Had
ideas on education in general been moie settled,
it might have been simplei to establish a satis-
factory course at the Na\ al Academy Educa-
tion develops the mind and character and also
imparts information This information may
be either generally useful in life, or useful in
some walk of life. If the latter, it may be
designed to cover the whole field of the voca-
tion, or it may simply fit the student to begin
life in that particular field These considera-
tions all affect the character of the Naval
Academy education, and the weight given at
various times to one or the other of the ac-
knowledged objects has produced correspond-
ing variations in the subject matter of the
course All admit the necessity of developing
mind and character, and thcic is sufficient una-
nimity on the subjects to be icquired in the
earlier years of the course to satisfy a general
education There remains the propel division
of theoretical and practical subjer-ts included
in the naval profession between those covering
the whole field and those required to fit the
midshipman to begin his life in the navy To
this question is due whatever diversity of
practice that has existed in the past Such will
also probably be the case in the future.

The following considei ation must be borne in
mind. The young officer must be prepared to
begin his career aboard ship To develop into
a successful naval officer he must study all the
rest of his life He should learn the rudiments
of the whole piofession at such time as he has
the opportunity to pursue- a systematic couise,

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that is, at the Naval Academy He should
learn thoroughly the duties he will have to
take up on graduation. The time that can be
devoted to the course at the Naval Academy is
limited. If criticisms have been made at any
time, it is that possibly too great an effort has
been made to impart detailed knowledge that
would be useful to higher officers, but could
not be employed by a midshipman on gradua-
tion And on the other hand, it is only within
a few years that the subject of naval strategy
has been included in any form in the course of
instruction Midshipmen are not expected to
exercise naval strategy, but they are entitled
at least to know that there is such a subject,
before discovering it for themselves, if their in-
clinations lead them to the study of the ait of
war

Another matter is the correct adjustment
of the relative weight of theoretical studies
and practical exercises Many good practical
officers in the navy have not been strong in
studies The navy needs both types, practical
officers, and also officers capable of independent
theoretical research, arid it needs more of the
former than of the latter If a sufficient
number of practical ofhcers is developed, there
will be inevitably among the number enough
officers of scientific attainments to supply
the needs of the navy. On this principle,
a large weight should be assigned to practical
exercises designed to develop the greater
proportion of naval officers

A correct utilization of the available time at
the Naval Academy would require, therefore,
thorough instruction in all the duties of the
young officer, and, so far as the remaining
time would permit, elementary instruction
in every professional subject

Candidates for the service are admitted to
the Academy by nomination and on passing
the required mental and physical examinations
Each senator, representative, and delegate in
Congress is allowed two (after June 30, 1913,
only one) midshipmen at the Academy ; and five
each year, appointed by the President, are
allowed for the United States at large One
midshipman is maintained from Porto Rico
by the President Two entrance examinations
are held each year The mental examination
covers punctuation, spelling, English grammar,
geography, United States history, world his-
tory, arithmetic, algebra through quadratics,
and plane geometry. The maximum mark is
4 00, the passing mark 2 50 No candidate is
admitted without passing the physical examina-
tion before a board of three navy surgeons

The present course at the Naval Academy
includes the following- —

Mathematics, first two years, algebra, geometry,
trigonometry, calculus, analytic geometry, spherical
trigonometry, stereographic projection

English, first two years, rhetoric, composition, litera-
ture, naval history

Modern languages, first two years and last half of last
\ c;u , French and Spanish

Marine engineering and naval construction, whole
course except first half year, mechanical drawing,
mechanical processes, principles of mechanism,
marine engines and boilers, naval construction,
engineering mechanics, experimental engineering,
gas engines, turbines

Physics and chemistry, second year, elementary phys-
ics, chemistry, physics

Seamanship, last two years, boats, ships, naval tactics,
naval warfare, international and military law

Ordnance and gunnery, last two years, infantry,
artillery, gun drills, torpedoes, mines, elastic
strength of guns, exterior ballistics, range tables,
fire control, target practice

Mechanics, first half of third year; theoretical and
applied mechanics

Electrical engineering, last two years, electricity, mag-
netism, electromugnetism, electrochemistry, direct
and alternating currents, dynamo-electric machines,
heat, power, light, wiring, testing, communications,
devices and instruments, wireless telegraphy, and
telephony

Navigation, last half of third year and fourth year;
astronomy, theory and practice of navigation,
compass deviation, surveying

Naval hygiene, first half of fourth year, effects of
alchohol and narcotics, first aid to injured

In addition to the instruction and recita-
tions in the above subjects, which take place
during the regular study hours, there are
every afternoon of week days (mornings on
Saturdays) drills and exercises in all profes-
sional subjects These exercises include all
the subjects that have been enumerated in
the training of enlisted men, also the practical
work of every sort that is performed bv or
comes under the supervision of officers in their
daily duty aboaul ship This practical work
is further supplemented by the summer prac-
tice cruise, in which all the midshipmen take
part, with the exception of the new entering
class, who engage in practical work at the
Naval Academy In 1912, for the first time,
the two senior classes are embaiked in ships
of the regular fleet, the third class going in a
practice ship as before

The Naval Academy course thus gives
officers a grounding in all the professional
work of the navy It does not train them to
be specialists in the vanous subjects This is
reserved for further, or postgraduate courses.

Postgraduate Courses — Officers not above
the rank of lieutenant who make a specialty
of marine engineering join an engineering
class with headquarters at Annapolis The
course includes design of engines, shop practice
and management at private establishments, ex-
perimental engineering, and mechanical appli-
ances The chief engineers of the larger ships
are usually selected from officers who have
taken this course. A further course in elec-
tricity is also to be established for officers.
The ordnance specialists also have a post-
graduate course. A class of young officers
is made up annually to go more thoroughly
into such matters as gun design, interior and
exterior ballistics, the chemistry of explosives,
metallurgy, torpedoes, experimental work, shop
practice Officers selected for the Construc-
tion Corps, from Naval Academy graduates

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who have had a short sea experience, go first
to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
at Boston for a course m naval architecture
and kindred subjects, on completion of which
they are commissioned assistant naval con-
structors A law course is followed by officers
detailed for duty in the office of the Judge
Advocate General, unless they have previously
taken such a course Foreign languages are
studied by young officers detailed as attache's,
assistants to the naval attache", iit the embas-
sies and legations in various foreign countries
Assistant surgeons on first appointment follow
a course in the Naval Medical School This
insures uniformity of instruction and enables
the young medical officers to learn something
of naval practice Assistant paymasters have
a short course of instruction in the Bureau of
Supplies and Accounts and in the Treasurv
Department Officers selected for the Civil
Engineer Corps follow a course at the Reiis-
selaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, N Y The
work is kept up later by a correspondence
course directed by the Bureau of Yards and
Docks Young marine officers follow a course
in military practice arid duties at the Marine
School of Application at Norfolk, Va

An examination of these courses will show
that all the technical work of the navy result-
ing in the finished ship and her equipment is
performed by graduates of the Naval Academy
All the officers concerned in this work are line
officers except the naval constructors Until
1899 the engineer officers belonged to a separate
corps, but at that time thev were merged with
the line

A principle that has been gaining strength
recently is that all combatant officers should
belong to one corps and that all technical
work in connection with the finished ship
should be performed by specialist officers of
this one corps Line officers at present are
responsible for all design and work in connec-
tion with machinery, ordnance, electricity,
torpedoes, wireless telegraphy The principle
stated would require them to take up construc-
tion work also, and it would also involve the
merging of the pay corps into the line The
surgeons and chaplains are non-combatants
under the conventions of international law
and would retain their present status The
principle has given excellent results with refer-
ence to ordnance, engmeeermg, torpedo, and
electrical work, and it is logical to carry it to
its conclusion. It is of course not intended
that each line officer should take up all spe-
cialties, but that specialization should occur
in the line instead of m separate corps, and
that all line officers should take up at least
one specialty

Naval War College — A school of a different
scope from any of the above is the Naval War
College at Newport, R I This school was
established in the early eighties mainly through
the efforts of Rear Admiral Stephen B Luce

Its purpose was to afford an opportunity to
officers of mature years to study the art of
war It was the first war college proper for
naval officers to be established by any nation
Since that time all the leading 'nations have
established similar colleges Rear Admiral
Mahan was one of the early lecturers His
works, delivered first as lectures, have made
him and the college famous, and have in effect
crystallized the art of naval warfare The
course comprises lectures on naval history,
tactics, strategy, logistics, international law,
and includes so-called war games, which are
exercises m tactics and strategy The tactical
game is played on a table divided into squares
to scale Small ships of lead arranged in
divisions, squadrons, and fleets are maneu-
vered as in action, one move on either side
representing a certain number of minutes at
a known speed The effect of gun fire is esti-
mated according to range and the strength
of the .ships in offense and defense, and is
counted up for each move Torpedo fire is
estimated in a similar manner Each ship
has a life of so many units, and is disabled or
destroyed according to the units scored against
her The strategical game is plavcd with the
aid of charts Each side has a separate room
or rooms, and the umpire another room
Each move represents a certain interval of
tune and is communicated to the umpire, who
in turn informs the opponent of so much as he
would be supposed to see for himself m actual
maneuvers

The course consists of a summer conference
of officers of all ranks lasting for four months
There is also a so-called long course, made up
of selected officers of the conference, which
continues on through the winter and the fol-
lowing summer conference, or sixteen months
in all The permanent staff of the college
consists of a president, a director, a secretary,
and officers for the different departments
Their usual term is three years

Information was formerly imparted largely
through the common efforts of the conference,
with a discussion of all subjects that came up
in connection with the assigned problems
This method of work was more congenial
to the older officers than would have been in-
struction in classes, such as is usual in schools
Another reason was that at the start the in-
structors were riot much farther advanced than
the students But the development has now
reached a point where it saves time to give
regular instruction in methods and principles
that have found general acceptance.

The War College is more than a school of
instruction in the science of war, that is, in
a knowledge of principles, it also imparts
something of the art, which may be defined as
the aptitude of experience. Naturally there
can be no experience of actual war gained at
the college, but the tactical and strategical
exercises are of such a character that the

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student must reach a decision and must act
on his decision, which is, of course, the essence
of experience, in war as in other occupations

The Wai College also makes theoretical
studies of wai plans, not as a part of its work
of instruction, but because t he lines are parallel
The situations that are brought up for exercise
need often only the attaching of names and
dates to convert them into plans of campaign
This work is assigned to the War College,
not because it is directly connected with the
instruction of officers, but because the perma-
nent staff of the college gams familiarity with the
conditions involved while in the performance of
their regular duties This work thus becomes of
mutual benefit to the college and to the divi-
sion of operations of the Navy Department

The War College is thus the culmination of
education in the navy Seamen apprentices
and midshipmen have to be trained to give
them a start in their career Enlisted men and
officers have to pursue f urther courses in special
technical matters, but the art of war itself,
without a knowledge of which all the rest
would be energy misapplied, is reserved for
the mature deliberations of the War College,
which is therefore one of the most important
institutions of the navy

England — Enlisted Men — The Royal Navy
is recruited from boys (sixteen or seven-
teen), youths (seventeen or eighteen), men
(eighteen to twenty-throe), all of whom bind
themselves for twelve years, in the fleet or in
the reserves The boys and youths who are
not found suitable are discharged, whereas the
men (eighteen to twontv-threc) serve only a
part of the time in the fleet, with exceptions,
then go to the reserves The men of long
service who reengage become entitled to a
pension in time, whereas the men discharged
early or transferred to the reserves are not so
pensioned The pensions, therefore, are ac-
cepted as the cost of good men, while the gov-
ernment saves on those who are discharged
early The reserve men are paid an annual
retainer and continue to reengage up to the
age of forty-five to fifty

Boys on entry are given an elementary course
of several months in gunnery, seamanship, and
mechanical work There are several training
stations, the principal one being at Shotley,
m Suffolk After leaving the station they
go to sea in a cruiser and keep up their work
in the same subjects, to which is added a course
of stokehold training This work may occupy
a year in all, when the boy is drafted to a sea-
going ship At the age of eighteen he becomes
an ordinary seaman Thereafter he continues
his training in the above subjects, with torpe-
does and field training added, and he must
qualify in all of them before becoming an able
seaman The training of the youths (seventeen
or eighteen) is similar to that of the bovs,
except that the time is shorter The subse-
quent career is 1he same m oithei case

Special Schools — There are special gunnery
and torpedo schools for enlisted men at the
principal home ports Of these, Whale Island
at Portsmouth is the typical gunnery school,
and the Vernon, likewise at Portsmouth, the
typical torpedo school The men are trained
for the respective rates of seaman gunner and
seaman torpedo man The course is largely
practical, designed to give the men a complete
working knowledge of the weapons and their
mechanisms, ammunition, the methods of
target practice, and kindred subjects A
qualifying examination is required before pass-
ing. Signal schools for officers and men exist
at the principal home ports, where is taught
all manner of signaling, including wireless teleg-
raphy

Physical training has taken a prominent
part in the British service of late years In
the days of masts and sails no further training
was required other than that necessary in the
handling of the ship Sailing training ships
were retained probably longer than their use-
fulness warranted, almost entirely from the
advantages they offered in this direction " No
amount of dexterity on the mam royal yard
would make a seaman a good gunner or tor-
pedo man, although the physical exercise which
the old sailing ships offered was undoubtedly
beneficial, but as physical exorcise can be in-
troduced in other more useful ways, and in a
more scientific manner, it was needless to adhere
to it in this form " (From Parliamentary Return,
Admiralty Policy, 1905, p 19 ) This quotation
is an apt summing up of the whole situation as
regards sailing training ships, a question that
has vexed the navies of other nations as well

The present physical training is largely on the
Swedish system The gymnastic instructors of
the fleet are required to go through a special
course at a school on shore — the principal one
is at Portsmouth — and the naval regulations
require sufficient time to be devoted to the
exercises in every ship of the fleet.

The engine-room personnel also have then
training schools, one at Devoriport, for stokers,
who after a two years' course become mechani-
cians, and may eventually become warrant
officers. Another school is that for boy-ar-
tificers, with branches at different dockyards
They enter at fifteen or sixteen and are four
years or more under training In the first half
of the course the subjects are. practical mathe-
matics, English, elementary science, heat In
the second half they are: applied mechanics,
workshop appliances, electricity, marine en-
gines and boilers, mechanical drawing On
completion of the course these boys become
engine-room artificers, and may eventually
become warrant officers

Officers — The method of entry of midship-
men m the early days is known to every
reader of Marryat's novels The first regular
school was the Naval Academy at Portsmouth,
which was established about 1730, and edu-

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cated a limited number of midshipmen, the
rest entering the service directly. The age
of entry was eleven to fifteen and the length
of the course was about three years, after
which the pupils went to sea as midshipmen
In 1806 the institution was enlarged and the
title changed to Naval College The number
of students was about 100, which still did
not include all entries The course was two
to three years A few lieutenants on half-
pay were also in attendance The college
continued as such until 1837, when it was
discontinued Thereafter for twenty years all
midshipmen entered the service directly, as in
the old days

The next school for midshipmen, or naval
cadets, as they were now called, was established
aboard the Illustrious at Portsmouth in 1S57,
and was transferred to the Britannia in 1859
Captain Robert Harris was the first head
Under the new plan all candidates for midship-
man passed through the Butamua, entering
between twelve and fourteen and remaining
a yeai The ages have since been increased
and the course has been lengthened to two
years The Britannia was moved to Poitland
in 1862 and to Dartmouth in 1863, wheie it
has since remained The Britannia provided
only for the entry of executive officers,
what Americans call line officers The other
branches, that is, engineers, surgeons, chap-
lains, paymasters, marines, entered under sep-
arate rules and at various ages

In 1903 there was put m effect a system
for the common entry and training of execu-
tives, engineers, and marines By the new
regulations the old system of nominations and
competitive entrance examinations was re-
placed by an interview before an interview
committee and a qualifying examination, thus
doing away to some extent with the old " ciain-
mer " Cadets now enter between twelve and
thirteen, spend two years at the Naval College
at Osborne, then two years at the Naval
College at Dartmouth, and six months in a
cruiser, after which they become midshipmen
The midshipmen keep up their studies for three
years longer in the regular service and then
become sublieutenants. About two years
are spent in this rank, after which the officer
is promoted to lieutenant

The instruction of the naval cadets during
their course on shore and on board ship in-
cludes mathematics, geometrical drawing, phys-
ics and chemistry, mechanics, applied mechanics,
applied electricity, engineering, mechanical
drawing, seamanship, gunnery, navigation,
French, German, English grammar and composi-
tion, English literature, history, naval history,
geography, Bible study, drills, physical train-
ing The course in all the technical branches
is both theoretical and practical, with labora-
tory and shop work, and practice in steam
and motor craft

The midshipmen at sea devote their time

to purely professional and practical subjects,
in which they are instructed by the ship's
officers The subjects include officers' duties,
seamanship, gunnerv, torpedoes, navigation,
pilotage, engineering, about one third of the
whole time being given to the last-named sub-
ject The sublieutenants continue the same
general subjects, certain of them being selected
for a further six months' course at the Royal
Naval College at Greenwich (mentioned latei),
and all perform a stipulated sea service

On reaching the rank of lieutenant, at twenty-
two or twenty-three, officers continue executive
(line) duties or, after a total of one year of
watch duty at sea, take up one or another spe-
cialty, all of which require additional courses,
varying in length according to the subject
The symbols (G), (T), (N), (E), (M) before
an officer's name indicate that he has qualified
as a specialist in gunnery, torpedoes, navi-
gation, engineering, and military duties, re-
spectively It is the intention that this
specialization shall not be permanent, with
possible exceptions, but that officers shall
keep up their knowledge of line duties and
eventually return to the line

The Royal Naval College at Greenwich is an
advanced post-graduate school where officers of
the lower ranks are sent to complete certain
required courses, and where officers of all
ranks may pursue particular lines of study
Assistant naval constructors here receive their
education, which extends over a number of
years and is specially thorough The courses
at the college in general are professional,
technical, and mathematical, and mainly theo-
retical

The Royal Naval War College at Portsmouth
was established about 1905 The course is
for flag officers, captains, and commanders
It consists of playing the tactical and strate-
gical war games, the solution of problems
arising out of the strategical conditions of the
present day, lectures on naval history, naval
architecture, steam, international law, the
law of evidence, wireless telegraphy, coast de-
fense Army and marine officers may attend
these courses

The most noticeable conclusion on studying
American and English naval education is the
growing opinion in both countries that the
education of all combatant officers should be
in common, that they should all belong to
one corps, arid that specialization should take
place as necessary in the corps, instead of in
separate corps The Americans took the lead
in this direction and have gone further at
present than the English, but there arc many
evidences that the same practice will eventu-
ally be reached in both countries

France — Enhsted Men — The European
countries in general have the conscription
system, which simplifies all matters of entry
and education The greater part of the French
bluejackets come from the maritime insmp-

397

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tion, the rest voluntarily from the general con-
scription The men from the maritime in-
scription may enter as young as eighteen
They are sailors by trade and do not need the
same training as the conscripts The latter
come in as young as twenty The special
ratings are practically the same as in other
services, and all have their special schools,
located in the principal naval ports, where the
courses average six months. These are natu-
rally preliminary courses only for the lower
ratings Instruction for the higher ratings
goes on continually in active service

Officers — The French Naval Academy is
at Brest. It used to be on board the Borda,
which was to the French midshipman what
the Britannia was to his English confrere.
Appointments are usually by competitive
examination of boys sixteen to nineteen years
of age The course at the school is two years,
when the scholar becomes a midshipman
second class and goes aboard a school ship for
a year, after which he becomes a midshipman
first class and joins the regular service

The subjects taught include the French,
English, and German languages, naval history,
geography, mathematics, mechanics, physics,
electricity, astronomy, navigation, naval archi-
tecture, steam machinery, seamanship, ord-
nance, infantry and artillery, torpedoes The
time devoted to ordnance and engineering has
lately been increased

Besides the Naval Academy, there are special-
ist schools at the naval ports for oidnance
officers, torpedo officers, infantrv instruction,
besides service with the board on ordnance
The courses are of various length, aftei which
the officer takes a qualifying examination

The Superior School of the Navy is at Paris,
and is open to lieutenants The courses are
on professional subjects, including tactics and
strategy, though the school has little in com-
mon with the American and English war
colleges The graduates aie placed on a
special list, one of the objects being to furnish
officers for the staffs of flag officers

The French have been through the same
discussions as other nations as to the unsatis-
factory results of having permanently separate
corps of officers aboard ship and at the dock-
yards The idea of the common entry and
training of officers is making headway, but the
stumbling block at present seems to be the
absorption of the engineers, about, two thirds
of whom come from below decks, that is, the
ranks There will not be the same difficulty
with the other branches

Germany — Enlisted Men — Conscription is
here in full effect, and, theoretically, whatever
training is the best is the one to be adopted.
Many boys volunteer for the navy before the
age of military service The intention is to
train these boys for the seamen, petty officers,
and warrant officers of the fleet The age of
entry is fifteen to eighteen, and they bind them-

selves to serve to the age of tVenty-eight.
They are assembled on shore and receive some
preliminary instruction, but the greater part
of their work is in the practice ships, which are
used also for training cadets. After about two
years the boys are rated seamen. Training
now begins in the various specialties, or, for the
men with no specialties, with service in the fleet
Conscripts begin their training with infantry
drill and later are sent to general service All
conscripts with seafaring knowledge are re-
quired to perform their service in the navy.

Gunnery, torpedoes, engineering, and other
specialties are taught in separate schools in
which the instruction is very thorough The
petty and warrant officers come principally
from the men who enter as boys

Officers. — Cadets enter before the age of
eighteen, receive a short military training on
shore, and then go to sea for a year in one of the
practice ships (used also, as has been seen, for
the apprentices) This cruise is followed by a
year at the Naval School, formerly at Kiel,
now at Flcnsburg-Murwick Then follow
courses in ordnance, torpedoes, and military
duties, after which comes a final veai in the
fleet, making four years in all The principal
postgraduate courses for officers are in torpe-
does and gunnery An examination of the
various courses for cadets and line officers
would indicate that the Germans do not attach
as much importance to theoretical subjects
as some other nations, but they encourage ini-
tiative and insist that officers shall be practical
and shall be able to handle the ships and the
mechanisms The courses for warrant officers
are thorough and practical, producing men in
these grades who by training and experience
are noticeably competent

The seagoing engineers are of a separate
corps, with suitable training, as are the surgeons
arid paymasters There are also a nonsea-
going machinery construction corps and a
naval construction corps Both of these are
civil corps. The subject of common entry
and training for all combatant branches has
been discussed in Germany, but has not made
much headway

Other Countries. — The principles of edu-
cation that appear in the navies of the United
States, England, France, and Germany are
found also in one form or another in all navies
A cosmopolitan influence is always at work
in these organizations, owing to their foreign
cruises and the knowledge they thus obtain of
each other. The effect is noticeable in many
ways, from their uniforms, which are all much
alike, to their education and training, which are
always tending m the same direction, though
some nations lead and others follow R. C. 8.

References —

Admiralty Circulars. (London.)
Admiralty Navy List (London, quarterly )
Annual Register U S Naval Academy. (Washington,
annually )

398

NAVIGATION

NEBRASKA, STATE OF

BENJAMIN, lUiuc. The United Mates Naval Academy.

(New York, 1900.)
BRASBEY, LORD The Naval Annual (Portsmouth,

1886 to date)

Bulletin Officiel de la Marine (Paris, current )
CHADWICK, F E Training of Seamen in England and

France (Washington, 1HHO )
Histoirc de I'Ecole Navale (Parw, 18S9 )
How to become a Naval Officer (London, 1911 )
Journal of the Royal United Service Institution (Lon-
don, 1858 to date )

Marine- Tanchenbuch (Berlin, current )
Manneverordnungyblatt (Berlin, ( urrent )
MARSHALL, E C History of the P N Vara/ Academy.

(New York, 1862 )

Orgamzatorische Bestimmungen (Berlin, current )
Parliamentary Returns (London )
Public Schools Yearbook. (London, annual )
SULEY, .1 R Foreign System* of Naval Education

(Washington, 1880 )
STATHAM, E P Story of the ''Britannia " (London,

1904 )

Thi'MakingofaMan-oJ-Warnrnan (Washington, 191 1 )
U S Naval Inntituh, Proceedings (\nnapohs, 1874

to date )

NAVIGATION, TRAINING IN — See SEA-
MANSHIP, TRAINING IN

NEAL, EDWARD DUFFIELD (1823-
1893) — Educational writer, was graduated
at Amherst College in 1842, arid later studied
theology at the seminary at Andover He
engaged in the ministry of the Presbyterian
Church, and was active in the organization of
the first public school at St Paul He was the
first territorial superintendent of public in-
struction of Minnesota (1851-1858), and he was
chancellor of the University of Minnesota
from 1858 to 1861. He was one of the secre-
taries of President Lincoln during the Civil
War, and from 1873 to 1884 he was president
of Macahster College at St Paul, which he had
helped to found He was the author of a num-
ber of historical works and several monographs
on the history of American education

W S M.

NEANDER (NEUMANN), MICHAEL
(1525-1595) — One of the most famous
teachers in Germany, regarded as second to
Meianchthon (q.v ). He was bom at Sorau
and studied at Wittenberg, taking lectures with
Luther and Meianchthon In 1545 he became
assistant, then corrector, at Nordhausen, and in
1550 went to the cloister school at Ilfeld, where
he became rector in 1559 and was active for
forty-five years. Neander is a typical rep-
resentative of the best educational ideals of the
Renaissance-Reformation period. His first task
at his school was to produce order out of chaos,
and he then applied himself to reforming the cur-
riculum. Dissatisfied with the prevailing curric-
ulum, which devoted most of the pupils' time to
a dry study of grammar and left them ignorant
in the end, he set before himself the task of in-
culcating a feeling of reverence for God and a
knowledge of letters, languages, arts, physics,
history, geography, ethics, and the principles
of medicine. He claimed that he could teach
in half a year more than other schools taught

in two years His grammars and textbooks
covered ail the subjects which he attempted
to teach He published thirty-nine books
during his lifetime and left fourteen others in
manuscript His educational aims and prac-
tice are formulated in a pamphlet, published
in 1590 Bedenken an einen Guten Hen en und
Fieund Wie cm Knabe zu lei ten und zu untei-
weixen, doss a ohne grown Jagcn, Treiben, -und
Ellen nut Luxt and Liebe vorn 6 Jahi seines
Alter* tnu auf da\ 18 wohl und fertiy leinen moge
PietateHi, Linguam Latin am, Graeeam, He-
braearn, Artcs und endhch Philosophiam
(Thoughts to a Gentleman and Friend How
to direct and instruct a Boy so that he may with-
out much Hurrying, Pressure, and Haste leani
well and readily with Pleasure and Love, from
htx ujrth year to hi* eighteenth, Latin, Gieek,
Hebiew, the Aits, and finally Philosophy)

References : —

MERTZ, G Das Schulwesen der deutxchen Reformation

(Heidelberg, 1902 )
SCHMID, K A Ge#chicht< der Erziehung, Vol 11, pt »

(Stuttgart, 1X9J )

NEARSIGHTED NESS — See EYK

NEBRASKA, STATE OF —Originally or-
ganized as a territory by the Kansas-Nebraska
Act of 1854, and admitted as the thirty-seventh
state in 1867 It is located in t he western half
of the North-( Vntial division, and has a land
area of 76,808 square miles In size it is one
fourth larger than the six New England states,
and nearly as large as England, Scotland, and
Wales combined For administrative purposes
the state is divided into ninety-two counties, and
these in turn into over seven thousand school
districts In 1910 Nebraska had a total popu-
lation of 1,192,214, and a density of population
of 15 5 pei square mile

Educational History — The first school law
was enacted and the first school opened in
1855 The State Librarian was made ex of-
ficio State Superintendent of Public Instruc-
tion, and each county was directed to elect
a county superintendent, who was to establish
school districts, examine teachers, and look
after the interests of the schools A district
school tax, the rate bill, and a county school
tax of three mills were provided for Few
schools were organized under this law Three
colleges were chartered by the first legislature,
only one of which was ever organized. The
report of the ei officio State Superintendent to
the legislature in 1857 showed that there were
four county superintendents, seventeen school
districts, and six schools in operation in the state
In 1858 a new school law, based on that of Iowa,
and with the township instead of the school
district as the unit, was adopted in place of
the law of 1855 The county supenntendency
was abolished, and a territorial school com-
mission was created The law was cumber-
some, unsuited to the needs of the time, and

399

NEBRASKA, STATE OF

NEBRASKA, STATE OF

education made but little progress under it By
1860 but twenty-nine schools were reported to be
in operation. In 1801 the office of the Territorial
Commission was m turn abolished, and the
Territorial Auditor was made ex officw School
Commissioner In 186(5 a school was organized
at Peru, which in 1867 was deeded to the state
for a state normal school

The new constitution of 1807, adopted on
the admission of the state, contained but little
mention of education The legislature was
directed to provide for " an efficient system of
common schools throughout the state," and
the use of public school funds for secondary
schools, or the sale of school or university
lands for less than $5 per acre, was foi bidden.
The first legislature of the new state, acting
partly in response to the demands of the first
state convention of educators, adopted a new
school law, which went into force in 1869 The
district system of school administration was
reestablished, and this has remained to the
present time The office of the State Super-
intendent, of Public Instruction was created,
and county superintendents weie piovided
for The State Superintendent was directed to
examine teachers, recommend textbooks, and
apportion the school funds to the counties on
the school census basis Within the counties
the present form of distribution was provided
for Township high schools were permitted
in 1858, but few, if any, were organized From
1867 to 1873 a few high schools were organized
by special legislative acts, and in 1873 the first
general high school law was enacted The
University of Nebraska was chartered and
began instruction in 1809

In 1875 a new constitution, which is still in
force, was adopted by the people This made
much more detailed provision for education
than had the earlier one of 1867 Except for
a few minor amendments, these provisions have1
since remained A State Board of Commis-
sioners for the control of the school lands and
school funds was created; a minimum sale
price of $7 per acre was fixed for all educa-
tional lands, the school funds were defined,
the sources for increase were enumerated, the
use of the income specified, and all educational
funds were declared to be trust funds, to remain
forever inviolate and undiminished, the legis-
lature was directed to provide for the free
instruction of all persons five to twenty-one years
of age, reformatory and parental schools were
permitted, and the government of the Uni-
versity of Nebraska was provided for No
important changes in the school laws followed,
and almost no legislation of importance took
place during the next fifteen years

Beginning in 1891, a series of important acts
were adopted, which have materially improved
the educational conditions of the state In 1891
the free textbook law was passed In 1893 a
new law provided for the permissive attendance
of pupils at some other school than that of

their district, under certain conditions, and
this was extended in 1895 to include transpor-
tation across county lines In 1895 the first
of a series of laws was enacted having for its
purpose t he provision of free high school edu-
cation to all children in the state, arid this was
followed in 1899, and again in 1901, by other
laws of similar intent, though all three were
declared unconstitutional by the courts Fi-
nally, in 1907, a law was enacted which has
stood. In 1897 a transportation law was
enacted, and the certification of graduates
of the University of Nebraska on credentials
was provided for In 1889 a compulsory educa-
tion law and a child labor law were enacted, un-
dei the provisions of which education was made
compulsory and labor of certain kinds was foi-
bidden for children between the ages of seven
arid fourteen years These laws were amended
in 1 907 to increase the age in all cities to six-
teen vears In 1901 attendance at teachers'
institutes was made compulsory; elementarv
agriculture was made a required subject in the
teachers' examinations for a first-grade county
certificate, the number of third-grade county
teachers' certificates allowed to any one per-
bon was i educed from three to two, and a
union rural high school law was enacted In
1903 an additional state normal school was
provided for, Junioi Normal Schools weie
created, and the giving or sale of cigars, ciga-
rettes, or cigarette paper to any one under eight-
een years of age was forbidden In 1905 the
certification law was revised, and a partial state
system of examination and certification was
provided for Questions were to be prepared
and all answer papers graded by the state
office, and all teachers in high schools were
required, after 1907, to be graduates of a uni-
versity, college, or advanced course of a Ne-
braska normal school, or to hold a professional
state certificate In 1907 a number of impor-
tant laws were enacted A free high school law
was passed for the fourth time, county high
schools were provided for, normal training
in the high schools of the state was authorized,
$50,000 of state aid appropriated for such, and
a state examination and approval of all such
schools required, $50,000 was appropriated
from the state treasury to enable all school
districts in the state to provide a seven months
school (raised in 1909 to $75,000 and the mini-
mum term reduced to five months), the stale
school tax, previousl3r levied, was repealed,
the number of Junior Normal Schools was in-
creased from five to eight, and the summer
term of such reduced from ten weeks to six or
eight weeks, school district libraries were
created, and the compulsory education law was
extended from fourteen to sixteen years for the
cities of the state A number of minor changes
and revisions in the laws were made in 1909 and
191 1 In 1911 the minimum salaries of county
superintendents were fixed and very materially
increased; new standards for city certification
400

NEBRASKA, STATE OF

NEBRASKA, STATE OF

were created , and a state fire day, to give
instruction and drill in combating fires, was
provided for.

Present School System — At the head of
the present state school of Nebraska is a State
Superintendent of Public Instruction, elected
by the people for foui-vear terms, and receiv-
ing a salary of $1800 a year. His duties are
to visit the schools, to decide all disputed
points in the school Jaw, his decisions being
binding until overruled by the courts, to
prescribe forms for all blanks and reports, to
publish the school laws; to outline a state
course of study for the schools, to prepare all
questions for the examination of teachers, and
to oversee the grading of all examination papers,
to make rules arid regulations for the guidance
of county superintendents, to apportion the
state school funds, to organize teachers' nor-
mal institutes (Junior Normal Schools) when
and where deemed desirable, to provide the
instructors for them, and to outline the instruc-
tion, to designate high schools in which normal
instruction may be given, to outline the course,
and to inspect and approve the schools, and
to make an annual report to the governor
He also serves, ex officw, as a member of the
Board of Control for the state normal schools,
and as a member of the State Library Com-
mission

For each county 1 here is a county superin-
tendent of schools, elected bv the people, for
two-year terms To be eligible for the office
the candidate must hold a hrst-grade county
teacher's certificate in all counties having a
population of over 1000 inhabitants, and his
salary, as determined bv law, cannot be less
t half from $1000 to $2200, according to the
size of his county It is his duty to visit each
.school in his county annually, to hold each
summer a teachers' institute of one week
duration, to forward all blanks and the state
course of study to trustees and to teachers,
and to exjiimne and correct their reports when
made to him, to change the boundaries of the
school districts, and to transfer individual
children, to adjudicate district disputes, to
act, in general, subject to the instructions of
the State Superintendent, to act for the state
in holding examinations of teachers, and in
issuing certificates to those1 \vho pass the exami-
nations, to act as one of the Board of Regents
for any county high school formed in his
county, and as one of the board of district
trustees for any school district in Ins county
having less than three voters in the district ,
to certify to the State Superintendent the num-
ber of districts in his county entitled to state
aid to enable them to maintain a five-months
school; to assist in the enforcement of the
compulsory education law, and to make an
annual report to the State Superintendent

Each county is divided into a number of
school districts, there being about 7000 in the
btate, each of which is a body corporate Foi

each of these the people elect, in annual school
meeting, a board of three district school trustees,
electing them specifically as moderator, treas-
urer, and director The moderator presides
at all district board meetings; the treasurer
has the custody of all district funds, and the
director, or clerk, transacts most of the busi-
ness for the district The director has general
charge of the schoolhouses and grounds, draws
all orders on the district funds, takes the an-
nual school census, may hire the teacher,
under direction, and sign contracts, prepares
an estimate of needs for the annual district
meeting, and presents an annual report to
the county superintendent The district
boards have general care of the schools, grade
and classify them to fit the course of study as
outlined, adopt and furnish free all textbooks,
and may sell the same at cost to any pupil,
may admit nonresidents, and expel pupils,
may, by a two-thirds vote, contract with an-
other school district 01 with a high school
district to educate part, or all, of their pupils,
and may provide transportation for part or
all of the pupils The annual district meeting,
held in June of each year, votes the annual
district tax, may vote a tax for a schoolhouse
fund, determines the length of the school
term, if any, beyond the minimum set by law,
and determines all questions relating to select-
ing the school site or moving the schoolhouse
All residents of the district, owning property
or having children, aliens and women included,
may vote at these district meetings The
county superintendent, on petition of one
third of the voters, may change the boundaries
of a district, and on petition of one half may
divide a district or consolidate two or more
districts, except that no new district may be
formed if it contains less than four sections of
land or unless its valuation exceeds $15,000
Any district having 150 children of school census
age (five to twenty-one) may elect- a board of six
trustees, who then designate their own officers,
grade and classify the schools, may establish
a high school, may prescribe the course of
study and textbooks for the schools, and have
general supervision of the schools They pre-
sent a report and estimate to the annual dis-
trict meeting, which then votes the amounts
required Cities having 1500 or more in-
habitants may be erected into separate1 city
school districts, with similar powers

Secondary Education — In addition to the
above, for districts having more than 150 school
census children, any two or more rural districts
may vote to unite to form a union rural high
school, which is then supported by the districts
so uniting in proportion to their assessed
valuation Any county may also vote to
establish a free county high school, which is
under the charge of a board of regents, consist-
ing of the county superintendent of schools
the county tiensurer, and three trustees elected
by the district school directors of the countv.

VOL. IV — 2 D

401

NEBRASKA, STATE OF

NEBRASKA, STATE OF

This board employs all teachers, estimates
the amount needed each year, up to five mills,
and certifies the same to the county commis-
sioners for levy, arid has the usual district
powers for organization and control The
school must have five acres of land, and must
teach manual training, domestic science, and
agriculture in the ninth and tenth grades, and
agriculture and normal training m the eleventh
and twelfth grades Diplomas of graduation
are valid for teaching in the county for three
years

The free high school law also makes provi-
sion for four years of free high school education
for all children in the state Any pupil hold-
ing a certificate of graduation from the eighth
grade may be admitted, on application of his
parents to the county superintendent of schools,
to any high school, if there is room The dis-
trict receiving such pupils receives seventy-five
cents per week per pupil from the free high school
fund of the district from which the pupil
comes This is an added tax and must be
levied for the purpose, unless such district is
unable to provide a nine-months elementary
school The schools follow courses of study
made out by the State Superintendent of Public
Instruction and the Universitv of Nebraska

Teachers and Training — The system of
certification for teachers is a state system in
process of evolution Both state and county
forms of certificates are issued, but the ques-
tions for the county examinations are now
prepared and the answers read and graded in
the State Superintendent's office The county
superintendent still issues the certificates, but
on the basis of grades reported to him from the
state office, and the county certificates are
valid, at the discretion of the county super-
intendent, for a variable period Within recent
years there has been a marked extension of the
principle of granting teachers' certificates on
the basis of credentials from educational insti-
tutions, until now the provisions for this are
very liberal The state also has made a com-
mendable beginning m the interstate recogni-
tion of credentials To teach in a high school,
the teacher must hold a first-grade county cer-
tificate, or be a graduate of a normal school,
college, or university Fees are charged for
all teachers' examinations and registering of
certificates, to pay for the expense of grading
papers, and to provide a teachers' institute
fund

For the training of future teachers the state
maintains three state normal schools, at
Kearney, Wayne, and Peru These are large
schools. The state also maintains eight so-called
"Junior Normal Schools," located in eight cities
in different parts of the state. These hold ses-
sions of six to eight weeks during the summer
months, enroll from 100 to 250 students, and
one week of the session constitutes the summer
institute of the county where held The pub-
lic gchool buildings and apparatus are used

for the sessions, the instructors are appointed
by the State Superintendent, and the course
of instruction is that of the elementary course
of the state normal schools, in which propor-
tionate credit is given for the work done in
these summer schools

For the training of teachers for the rural
schools the state grants $350 per year to all high
schools providing normal instruction in the
eleventh and twelfth grades, when approved by
the State Superintendent Graduates of these
schools receive a second-grade county certifi-
cate, and the number of such schools and
graduates is increasing rapidly In 1908, 65
approved high schools graduated 550 teachers;
in 1909, 98 schools graduated 763 teachers; m
1910, 109 schools graduated 894; and m 1911,
1 12 schools graduated approximately 1025.
These schools arc rapidly raising the standard of
efficiency of the rural schools of the state

School Support — Nebraska originally re-
ceived the 16th and 36th sections for schools
on its admission to the Union, a total of 2,702,-
044 acres The 500,000 acres of land granted
to new states for internal improvements, and
the 5 per cent from the sale of government
lands within the state, were also added to the
school fund About one half of this grant has
been sold, and almost all of the remainder is
under lease The present fund stands at about
seven millions, and the probable future of the
fund is about twenty-five millions The in-
terest on this fund is apportioned to the counties
on the sole basis of census, and from the coun-
ties to the districts, one fourth equally to all
districts and three fourths on census. Almost
the entire support of the schools of Nebraska
comes from local taxation, which may go as
high as 25 mills in districts and 3 5 mills in
cities, but with the proviso that m districts
having four children or less the total tax must
not exceed $400, and m districts of five to six-
teen children it must not exceed $50 per child.
Additional taxation, up to 10 mills, may be
levied for a schoolhouse building fund In all
districts levying the maximum tax, the state
will grant additional aid to enable them to
maintain a five-months school, provided the
total annual expense does not exceed $275.
For this purpose the state now appropriates
$75,000, and a similar sum is appropriated for
normal training in high schools These sums
arc regarded as in part compensating for the
state school tax of one half cent, withdrawn m
1907 Fines and liquor licenses go to the local
government unit imposing them

Educational Conditions — The state is es-
sentially a rural and an agricultural state.
There are few large cities, and three fourths
of the people live in the rural districts; 99
per cent are white, and about 85 per cent
native born The illiteracy in 1900 waa
the lowest (23 per cent) in the Union. The
conditions for education are j$ood. The state
has recently become deeply interested in the

402

NEBRASKA, STATE OF

NEBRASKA, UNIVERSITY OF

teaching of agriculture and domestic science,
and these subjects, begun in 1905, are being
rapidly introduced into the schools Boys'
and girls' clubs have been formed in many
places, the enrollment in 1910 being over
32,000 High schools have experienced a rapid
development within the past decade, and the
training of teachers has made rapid progress
•School libraries have recently been provided
for, and ten cents per pupil may be set apart
each year for a library fund. A state li-
brary commission of five suggests books for
purchase

The state has a fairly good compulsory
education law, which all districts must enforce
There is also a reasonably good child labor
law. Children seven to fifteen, in all districts,
must go to school at least two thirds of the
school term, and riot less than twelve weeks
each year, and, in cities, children seven to sixteen
must go to school all the time the schools are
in session Deaf children, seven to eighteen,
must attend the state school Exemptions are
granted for good reasons, attendance at paro-
chial or private schools may be accepted, the
school may appoint physicians to examine as to
health and disabilities, and children fourteen to
sixteen may work, if attending evening schools
All cities must appoint truant officers, and
may provide truant schools All other districts
must enforce the law, and may call upon the
county superintendent to assist The school
census, when taken, must be taken with a
view to assisting in the enforcement of the
compulsory education law All children of
paupers in county poorhouses must be sent to
school at the expense of the county

Higher and Special Education — The Uni-
versity of Nebraska, a large and rapidly growing
institution (qv), in Lincoln, stands as the
culmination of the public school system of
the state This institution includes both the
university proper and the Agricultural and
Mechanical College, though the legislature of
1911 voted to establish another agricultural
college m the western part of the state Be-
sides the state university, the following insti-
tutions of higher learning exist within the
state, all being open to both sexes —

NAME

LOCATION

OPENED

CONTKOL

Doane College
Hastings College

Crete
Hastmgw

1872
1882

Coiigr
Presbv

Bellevue College

Bellevue

1883

Prosby

Nebraska Wesleyan

University

University Place

1888

M E

Cotner University
York College . . .

Bethany
York

1889
1890

Chr

U B

Union College .

College View

1891

7th D Adv.

Grand Island College

Grand Island

1892

Bapt

The state maintains, as special institutions,
the Girls' Industrial School at Geneva; the
Nebraska State Industrial School for Boys at
Kearney; the Nebraska Industrial Home at

Milford, the Nebraska Institution for the
Blind at Nebraska Til y, the Nebraska School
for the Deaf at Omaha, and the State Institu-
tion for Feeble-minded Youth at Beatrice

K P. (\
References —

CALDWELL H W Edmatum ni Nebraska IT S

Bur KdiK , Cirt Inf No *
Bit n Kept* Htat< Xup< nntcnntnt Public Inntriutwn,

1868 to datr
Nebraska School Lawi>, 1'Ul edition

NEBRASKA, UNIVERSITY OF, LIN-
COLN, NEB -—A state institution established
by act of legislature m JH09 It consists of
five colleges (graduate, arts and sciences,
teachers', engineering, law) and tv\o schools
(pharmacy and practice high school), situated
on a six-block campus only three blocks dis-
tant from the business centei of the capital
city of Lincoln, a college of agriculture and a
school of agriculture located on a 320-acre
campus two miles and a half east of the citv
campus; a college of medicine located in the
state's metropolis of Omaha, and a second school
of agriculture recently located at Curtis, in the
western portion of the state In addition, the
university is affiliated with the Lincoln Dental
College, and several of the departmental ex-
perts of the university have been made cr
ojficio specialists in the general employ of the
state The university also has supervision
over experiment stations at Lincoln, North
Platte, Valentine, Scotts Bluff, and Culbertson

The university has its general outline pre-
scribed by the state constitution, and the de-
tails of its organization determined by various
acts of the state legislature Administrate
control centers in an elected board of six re-
gents and a chancellor chosen by the board of
regents, but the development of educational
policies within the university is largely left
in the hands of a senate consisting of heads of
departments and the deans and faculties of
the various colleges

The chief source of revenue for maintenance
of the university is a legislative tax of one mill
upon the grand assessment roll of the state
Additional revenues are derived from lease
arid sale of lands granted to the state by the
federal government, from federal money grants
under the congressional acts of 1887, 1890, and
1906, from interest on permanent fund invest-
ments, and from various small fees paid by
students

In 1912 the equipment of the institution
consisted of nearly thirty buildings of various
sizes, the instructional staff numbered over
three hundred, the student registration to-
talled 3657, the number of graduates for the
year was 375, and the alumm roster showed
an accumulation of over 5000 names The
entrance requirements are fifteen units of high
school work The usual university degrees
arc conferred on the completion of the appro-
priate courses C. E. P.

403

NEBRASKA WKHLKYAN UNIVKHSITY

NEGATIVE NUMBERS

NEBRASKA WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY,
UNIVERSITY PLACE, NEB — An institu-
tion under the control of the Methodist Episco-
pal Church, organized in 1887 by a union of
the denominational institutions founded earlier
at York, Baitlev, and (Vntral City In place
of these struggling; institutions there now exists
one vigorous umveisitv having, in 1912, an
enrollment of neailv 1000 The campus con-
sists of foity-four acies, including tin athletic
paik The mam buildings aie four in numbei
The total equipment is valued at .1*350, OCO
The productive endowment is $350,000

The departments are as follows college of
liberal arts, teachers' college, academy, conserv-
atory of music, school of expression and oratory,
and school of art Among these departments,
the college of liberal arts has the highest en-
i ollment, numbering three hundred and seventy-
three. The faculty consists of forty members

F A. A.

NEBRESSENSIS (DE LEBRIXA), AN-
TONIO. — See RENAISSANCE AND EDUCA-
TION

NECESSITARIANISM —See DETERMIN-
ISM, WILL, FREEDOM OF THE WILL

NECKER DE SAUSSURE, MME
ADRIENNE ALBERTINE (1765-1841) —
Fiench wntei She was married to Jacques
Necker, nephew of his more famous namesake
of the Revolutionary period, and is known in
the educational world largely on account of
her L'&liication jtrogjeixive, ou etude ,s//r h
e0u/.s du la vw (1828-1838), crowned by the
Academy (1832) This is one of the most
interesting contributions to French educational
literature. Like so many similar undertakings, —
a work in several volumes whose publication
drags out over apeiiod of years,--- it is charac-
terized by a lack of unity. The point of view
changes several times, although in the end the
author pursues her original purpose and con-
fines herself to " the education of women "
All her writings are dominated throughout
by a strong religious influence Her work was
translated in part into English soon after its
appearance bv Mrs Willard and Mrs Phelps
(Boston, 1835), and in 1839 two volumes were
translated anonymously in London. F E F.

Reference —

BUIHHON, F Dictionnairc de Pedagogic, s v Necker
(A tfa iitsx HJI, Mmc

NEEDLEWORK — See HOUSEHOLD ARTS.

NEEF, JOSEPH (1770-1854) —A col-
league of Pestalozzi who established the first
Pestalozzian schools in the United States.
He was born at Soultz, Alsace, Dec 6, 1770
He was educated for the priesthood, but gave
up the notion of taking oiders and entered the
army of Napoleon Fie was wounded in the

404

battle of Arcole, Italy, in 1796, and three years
later joined Pestalozzi as instructor of gymnas-
tics in the institution which the great Swiss
educator was conducting at Burgdorf In 1808,
at the request of Jullien and other French
apostles of Pestalozzi, Neef was sent to Paris
to open a Pestalozzian school Here three
years later he was engaged by William Maclure
(qv). an American philanthropist, to come
to Philadelphia and establish a Pestalozzian
school The school at Philadelphia was in ex-
istence for several years, when it was removed
to Village Green, Delaware County, Penn
David Glasgow Farragut, subsequently the
famous American admiral, was a pupil in the
Village Green school Later Neef moved to
Louisville, Kv , where he engaged in educa-
tional work With the establishment of the
social colony at New Harmony, Ind , by
Robert Owen (q v ) and William Maclure in
1825, Neef was invited to join the community
in the capacity of schoolmaster When the
colony broke up in 1828, he went first to Cin-
cinnati and later to Stcubenville, Ohio, where
he conducted schools In 1834 he returned
to New Harmony, where he died April 8, 1854
In his educational labors in Ainenca, Neef
followed in the mam the methods of Pestalozzi
He abolished books from the lower classes and
gave instruction by oral means, he taught
nature and geographv by field lessons, music
and gymnastics weie given important places
in his educations 1 scheme, and pupil govern-
ment administered the necessary discipline
His Plan and Method of Education, published
at Philadelphia in 1808, was the first strictly
pedagogical work in the United States published
in the English language It is a comprehensive
survey of the aims and methods of education
in a stvle that is singularly clear and forceful,
although written by a foreigner In 1809 he
published an English translation of the logic of
Condillac, and in 1813, Method of instructing
Children rationally in the Art* of Reading and
Wutmg W S M

See MACLURE, WILLIAM, PEHTALOZZI

References —

BAKNAKD, H American Journal of Education Vol
XII, D n39, XXX, p 564

CiARDKTTK, C D PohtnlOZZl HI America, (hlld D/

August, 1867, Vol IV
MONROE, WILL S History of th< Pcvtalozzuui Mow-

mini in Iht. United Ntalv* (Syracuse, 1907)
Joseph Nt'ef and Postalnzzianiutii in America Kdu-

catMi, April, 1894, Vol XIV
WOOD, r H First Disciple of Pentalozzi in America,

Indiana School Journal. No\ ember 1892 Vol

XXXVII

NEGATIVE NUMBERS. — Among the
artificial numbers (see NTJMBEK) is a domain
of negative numbers If 2 -f x - 0, x is evi-
dently not a positive integer, and neither can
it be* a positive number of any kind It must
be such a number as will cancel 2 when added
to it, and it is called a negative number Be-

NEGLECTED CHILDREN

NEGRO

cause 2 — 2 = 0, it has come to be the custom
to represent x in this case by — 2, where the
negative sign is a symbol of quality and not
one of operation Hence we have two meanings
for the negative sine, as, indeed, we have for the
positive sign.

Negative numbers were slightly recognized
by Diophantuh (q v ) and the Hindu algebra-
ists (see ALGEBRA), but it was not until Des-
cartes (qv) had woikcd out his suggestion
for analytic geometry (qv) that they came to
be well understood Since the seventeenth
century they have been generally recognized
as valuable adjuncts to work in algebra, al-
though an occasional mathematician (like
Frend, the father-in-law of De Morgan) has
declined to use them Their value in physics
has now been so fully recognized that they
have an added importance in algebra

The negative number is, at present, generally
introduced eaily in algebra This was not
formerly the case, but so many simple and
practical illustrations of these numbers aie
now known as to make their eaily use entnely
feasible Among the simple illustrations arc
noith and south latitude, cast and west longi-
tude, above and below zero on the thermometer,
assets and debts, weight and the upward pull
of a balloon, and the " tug of war " in pulling a
rope Pupils in algebia have no difficulty
in comprehending the significance of these
numbeis if they aic illustrated m such a
manner

Some effort has been made to use different
symbols for the negative as an adjective and
the minus sign as indicating subtraction
Thus we have ~a for the foirner and — a for
the lattei The effort has not, however, met
with much favoi in the mathematical world

A slight efiort has also been made by teachers
to use the expression " negative a " instead of
" minus a" 111 speaking of the quantity, re-
serving " minus " for the operation only
This effort has never commanded much atten-
tion, although it is a rather harmless distinc-
tion foi a beginner to make The fact is that
mathematical usage allows " minus a " and
does not adapt itself readily to the longer
expression " negative a " D E S.

NEGLECTED CHILDREN — See CHILD-
HOOD, LEGISLATION FOR THK CONSERVATION
\ND PROTECTION OF; CRIPPLED CHILDREN, EDU-
CATION OF, JUVENILE DELINQUENCY, PENOL-
OGY, EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS OF; REFORMATORY
EDUCATION

NEGRO, EDUCATION OF THE — The

English people who sent out the first colonists
were interested in the religious education of the
Indians When the number of slaves increased,
they became interested in the education of
the negroes, who were then also a " heathen
people " The first public school in Virginia,
established about 1620, was for the benefit

of these Indians and negroes This school
was destroyed in the Indian war of 1622 and
little or nothing was clone to educate either
of them until the year 1701, when a society
was organized in England to carry the gospel
to the Indians and the negroes in America
In 1702 Samuel Thomas, the first missionary
of the society stated that he had taken much
pains to instinct the negroes and taught
twenty of them to read Elms Neau, a French
Protestant, in 1704 established a catechizing
school for the Indian and negro slaves in New
York, which continued successfully for a num-
ber of yeais

The Moravians, in 1738, established missions
exclusively for negroes In 1745 the Society
for Propagating the Gospel m Foreign Parts
(q v) established a school in Charleston Its
pupils at one time were as many as sixty, and
about twenty were sent out annually " well
instructed in the English language and the
Christian faith " When slavery was intro-
duced into the colony of Georgia in 1747,
representatives from twenty-three districts
met in Savannah and drew up resolutions in
regard to the conduct of masters towards their
slaves It was declared " that the owners of
slaves should educate the young and use
every possible means of making religious im-
pressions upon the minds of the aged " In
1747 the Presbyterians began the religious
instruction of the negroes in Virginia

In 1750 the Rev Thomas Bacon, himself
a slaveholder, established in Talbot County
a mission foi poor white arid nogio children
The Methodist Conference of 1700 raised the
question, " What can be done in order to in-
struct poor childien, white and black, to read? "
The reply was, " Let us labor as the heart and
soul of one man to establish Sunday schools
in or near the place of worship Let persons
be appointed by the bishops, elders, deacons
or preachers, to teach giatis all that will attend
from six in the morning till ten, and from two
in the afternoon till six, where it does not inter-
fere with public worship The council shall
compile a proper schoolbook to teach them
learning and piety."

There was, however, some opposition to the
education of slaves This opposition grew
as slavery became more of a political than an
economic institution In 1740 the colony of
South Carolina passed a law imposing a fine
of one hundred pounds upon any one who should
teach any *' slave or slaves in writing in any
mariner whatsoever " Georgia, in 1770, passed
a similar law, which imposed a fine of twenty
pounds upon any person teaching a slave to
read and write

Immediately after the Revolutionary War
there was a feeling all over the United States
that slavery was soon to pass away The
invention of the cotton gin, however, increased
the value of slave labor, caused the belief
that it was necessary to the economic growth

405

NEGRO

NEGRO

of the South, and finally this belief to be-
come a conviction that slavery was to be a
permanent institution in the Southern states
This change in public opinion was reflected
in the laws Virginia, in 1819, passed an act
prohibiting all meetings of slaves, free persons,
and inulattoes in the night or in any school or
schools for teaching them reading and writing
In 1829 Georgia passed a law forbidding any
person of color to receive instruction from
any source In 1830 Louisiana passed a law
forbidding free negroes entering the state
and persons of color being taught North
Carolina, in 1835, abolished the schools for free
persons of color, and enacted a law that no
descendants of negro parents to the fourth
generation should enjoy the benefits of the
public school system Mississippi and Mis-
souri passed similar laws In spite of these
severe laws, negroes in one way or another
managed to receive some education In New
Orleans, Charleston, Savannah, and other
places there were clandestine schools attended
by the children of free negroes and sometimes of
slaves Schools for free colored people were
never abolished in Marjdand, Kentucky, Ten-
nessee, Florida, and Texas

Up to a few years before the Civil War, there
was almost as much opposition to negro educa-
tion in the North as in the South In 1831, at
the First National Convention for Colored
People, steps were taken to found a college for
colored youth In the course of the next year
three thousand dollars was raised for estab-
lishing " a school on the manual labor plan "
Several acres of land were bought in New
Haven, Conn , for this purpose The citi-
zens of that city, however, raised a great
cry and protested vigorously At a public
meeting piesided ovei by the mayor it was
resolved by a vote of seven hundred to four
that " the founding of colleges for educating
colored people is an unwarrantable and dan-
gerous undertaking to the internal concerns
of other states and ought to be discouraged,"
and that " the mayor, aldermen, common
council and freemen will resist the establish-
ment of the proposed college in this state by
every lawful means " On the 3d of July,
1835, a town meeting was called in Canaan,
N.H., and a committee chosen to remove
Noyes Academy because it had enrolled sev-
eral colored students About a month later,
the committee, aided by three hundred per-
sons and a bundled yoke of oxen, literally
carried out the instructions of the town
meeting Because Prudence Crandall, in
1833, at Canterbury, Conn , admitted colored
girls to her boarding school, a law was passed
making it a crime to open a school for negroes
in that state, and she was imprisoned and
mobbed In spite of the opposition to negro
education, the number of negro schools, primary
and secondary, steadily increased Of the
secondary schools there exist . the Insti-

tute for Colored Youth, Cheyney, Penn.;
the Avcry Institute, Allegheny City, Penn. ; and
the Ashum Institute, now Lincoln University,
Chester, Penn.

The outbreak of the Civil War increased
the negroes' opportunities for education Al-
most as soon as any portion of the seceding
states was occupied by the Union Army, efforts
were begun to give the refugees some schooling.
In September, 1861, under the guns of Fortress
Monroe, a school was opened for the " contra-
bands of war " In 1862 a number of similar
schools were operated in Virginia, North Caro-
lina, and South Carolina. On Dec. 17, 1862,
Colonel John Eaton was ordered by General
Grant to assume general supervision of freed-
men in the departments of Tennessee and
Arkansas Under him, schools multiplied
In October, 1863, General Banks created com-
missioners of enrollment, who established
the first public schools in Louisiana March 22,
1864, he created a board of education " for
the ludimental instruction of the freedmen "
In December of this same year this board re-
ported 95 schools, 162 teachers, and 9571
scholars Education was also going on in the
negro regiments, where thousands of soldiers
persuaded their officers to become school-
masters, and in this way learned to read, write,
and cipher.

Congress on March 3, 1865, created the
Freedmen's Bureau (q v ) It was authorized
to cooperate with benevolent or ichgious
societies in the education of the negro Num-
bers of these societies had done good work
before the establishment of the buieau, and
afterwards continued their work Some of these
organizations were the American Missionary
Association, Western Freedmen's Aid Commis-
sion, American Baptist Home Mission Society,
and the Society of Friends After the sur-
render of Yicksburg and the occupation of
Natchez, other teachers were sent by the United
Presbyterians, Reformed Presbyterians, United
Brethren in Christ, Northwestern Freedmen's
Aid Commission, and the National Frecdmen's
Aid Association Apart from the general
government, the American Missionary Asso-
ciation was the chief body that supplied the
educational needs of the negro Up to 1866
the Freewill Baptists, the Wesleyans, the Con-
gregationahsts, and Friends in Great Britain
sent their aid through the American Missionary
Association.

After Appomattox the whole race started
to school The freedmen could not wait for
schoolhouses to be built or for teachers to be
provided. School was held anywhere and
everywhere The enthusiastic learners got
up before day and studied in their cabins by
the light of pine knots. They sat up until
late at night, drooping over their books trying
to master the secrets they contained. By a
fire m the woods at night, a dozen or more
people of both sexes and of all ages sat about

400

NEGRO

NEGRO

with books in their hands studying their lessons
Sometimes they would fasten their primers
between their plow handles, so that they could
read as they plowed Negro coal miners tried
to spell out the words of a little leading book
by the dim light of a miner's lamp, hundreds of
feet below the earth In the early days of
freedom, public schools were not/ infrequently
organized and taught under a large tree
Some of the early schoolhouses consisted of four
pieces of timber driven into the ground and
brush spread overhead to keep out the sun
and rain Night schools were veiy popular,
men and women, after a hard day's work in
field, shop, or kitchen, would spend two 01
three hours at night in school Many got Uieir
first lessons in reading and wilting in the Sun-
day schools, which frequently had moie spell-
ing books than Bibles The teachei was likely
to be any one who knew something some one
else did not know It sometimes happened
that those who could read better than they
could write became teachers of leading, and
those who could write bettei than they could
read, teachers of writing

The number of regular schools rapidly in-
creased; white teachers of all classes and both
sexes came from the North There were also
numbers of negro men and women who, haMiig
escaped from slavery and gained some educa-
tion in the North, now returned to become
teachers of their race There were also many
Southern white people who, being left without
occupation duectlv after the war, \vore glad
to teach the freedmen in order to eke out a
livelihood In 1806 there were 975 schools
and 90,77S pupils, the next year theie were
1839 schools and 111,142 pupils Ten years
from this time the number ol colored children
enrolled in public schools of the sixteen former
slave states and the District of Columbia was
571,506 In 1908 the number was 1,712,1:37,
and the number of public school teachers was
30,334

Immediately after the war many schools
for higher education were established In
1865 the Sixty-second and Sixty-fifth United
States colored regiments generously contrib-
uted from their wages $6000 to found Lincoln
Institute at Jefferson City, Mo The same
year Shaw University was started at Raleigh
Hampton Institute (<//>) was founded in 1866
by General Samuel Chapman Armstrong Fisk
University was established at Atlanta, Biddle
University at Charlotte, and Howard Univer-
sity, named after General O O Howard, at
Washington, D C In 1869 Straight University
was established at New Orleans; Tougaloo
University at Tougaloo, Miss ; Talladega Col-
lege at Talladega; and Claflin University at
Orangeburg, S C (qq v ) At present (1912) the
United States Commissioner of Education re-
ports 189 institutions devoted to secondary and
higher education No one of these institutions
is devoted entirely to collegiate work, but in all

of them are found some students of secondary
grade, and in the most of them students of ele-
mentary grade In almost all of these institu-
tions some form of industrial training is given
There were, in J910, 2941 teachers, and 57,915
students, of whom 23,896 were oi elementary
grade, 19,654 of secondary grade, 13,124 of
collegiate grade, and 2080 professional students;
29,954 of the students were receiving mdub-
tiial training, 11,943 males and 18,011 females
The Helen B Cobb Industrial Institute, at
Barnesville, Ga , Ingleside Seminary, Burkes-
ville, Va , Mary Allen Seminary, Crockett, Tex ;
Mary Holmes Seminary, West Point, Miss ,
the Hartshorn Memorial College, Richmond,
Va , Scotia Seminary, Concord, N C , Spel-
nran Semmaiy, Atlanta, Ga , and St Frances
Academy, Baltimore, Md , are devoted ex-
clusively to the training of females Gammon
Theological Seminary, Atlanta, Ga , and Still-
man Institute, Tuscaloosa, Ala , are exclusively
theological seminaries Thirteen other insti-
tutions have theological departments Two
institutions have departments of dentistry,
t hiee of pharmacy, four of law, and seven schools
oi medicine

Special funds which have done much for the
promotion of negro education are the Peabody
Fund (</*'), created in 1867 and 1869, and
devoted to the education of whites and blacks
rn the South, the4 John F Slater Fund (q v ),
created in 1882 foi the puipose of "uplifting
the lately emancipated population of the
Southern states and their posterity ", the
Daniel Hand Fund, created in 1888 to aid the
American Missionary Association in its work
in the South, and the Anna T Jeanes Fund
(q v ), created in 1907 to aid in the maintenance
and assistance of elemental y schools for negroes
in the South

When the negro was emancipated, probably
not more than 5 per cent of the race could read
or write In 1900, after less than forty years
of freedom, 55 J per cent could both read and
write In 1910, 305 of the negro popula-
tion is illiterate Although the negroes con-
stitute over 11 per cent of the population and
still have the largest proportion of ignorance,
yet they receive only about 2 per cent of the
total amount expended foi education The
total yearly income of all negro schools for
industrial and higher education is not more than
t\vo and a quarter million dollars, which is less
than the income of Harvard University in 1908
The yearly expenditure per capita of total
school population for common schools is $15,
for colored schools it is $1 71

The most pressing needs of negro education
are better common schools, particularly in the
rural districts There should be more careful
and complete supervision of the common
schools and more teaching of the fundamental
industries, agriculture, cooking, sewing, etc
Some of the larger institutions should be
endowed so that, by means of extension work

407

NEGRO

NEO-PLATONISM

and continuation schools, they would be able
to come into touch with the actual needs of
the masses of the people There should be
more technical and mdustiial schools Par-
ticularly is there need of a normal high school
where teachers may be thoroughly prepared
to do the work of supervision in the common
schools and where they may learn by actual
practice something of the methods winch are
J3eing worked out in various parts of the coun-
try for carrying the influence of the1 schools
outside of school buildings and connecting
it with the practical work and life of the
community See SCHOOL PLANT, WIDER USE
OF

The present tendency of negro education is
to develop along those lines that numstei to
the actual needs of the people This is seen in
the growth of medical and nurse tunning
schools, the attempt to adjust the courses of
colleges and universities to present-day needs,
and the growth of what is known as " extension
work " In this connection it should be re-
membered that negro education has alieadv
contributed something to the people of the
United States Before the beginning of Hamp-
ton Institute, no educational institution gave
anv systematic instruction in the industries
Industrial education for the negro antedates
oven manual training, which was not intro-
duced into the United States until 1876 The
success of Hampton arid Tuskegee institutes
and of other and similar negio schools has made
industrial education popular, and hah not only
changed the sentiment of the masses of the
negro people m regard to labor with the hands,
but has also helped in introducing it into
Northern schools and white schools of the South
The present tendency is to connect all forms
of education in some way with the daily life
and needs of the people B T W

References —

American Miseionan Association, History of
ANDREW, C C History of New York African Free School
Atlanta Uinvcibity Publication No 5, College Bred

Negro (Atlanta, 1900 )

No 6 Negro Common Kchool* (Atlanta, 1901 )
Hricf Sketch of School t> for Black Proph ui 1770

(Philadelphia, 1S67 )
COON, C L Pubbr Taxation ami Negro Schools,

Committee of Twelve (Ch«yno\ , Pa, 1909)
CURRY, J L M Education of Ntgro Since I8fi()

(Baltimore, 1894 )
EATON. JOHN Grant, Lincoln, (nul 1h< Fnedmen

(Now York, 1907)
Fwdmon's Bureau Rcpoitx
(}UNWY, A A \({jto Educntwn in the South (Now

Orleans 1S9U )
HMWIHON, W B 7V/c O'OX/M/ timony »S/aws (Nanh-

\illr, IVi in , 1MW )

HOWARD, O () Autobiography (New York, 1907 )
INULK, E Ncgrovtt ni Dustrut of Columbia, Johns

Hopkins University Studies, Vol XI, NOH 3-4
OLMHTEAD, F L The Cotton Kingdom, Vol II (New

York, 1862 >
Public Schools in District of Columbia, SIM wl Report*

on, I860 atid 1871

•Southern Educational Conference, Annual Report*
Twenty-two Year* of Hampton Institute (Hampton,

Va, 1893)

WASHINGTON, B T The Future of the Negro. (Bos-
ton, 1901 )

Working with the Hands (Now York, 1904 )
The Story of UK Negro (New York, 1909.)
WILLIAMS, G W History of the Negro Race in Amer-
ica

WKIOHT, R U V tyro Ed tt( at ton in Gioryia
WKIOHT, K H , JR Self -Help in Negro Education,
Committee of Twelve (Cheyney, Pa , 1909 )

NEO-HUMANISM —A term sometimes
applied to the revival of the Hellenic ideal in
German thought in the latter part of the eight-
eenth century It differed from the human-
ism of the fifteenth century in its attachment
to Greek rather than Latin culture; in a
greater interest in Greek antiquities and art
in general as compared simply with literary
records, and in appeal to Greek culture as
affording an ideal concept ion of life Serenity,
balance, a recognition of the inevitable limi-
tations of life, the stuvmg for a symmetrical
development within these limits, the idea of
the central place of a free play of the intellec-
tual powers in securing this proportionate de-
velopment of all human poweis, are some of
the traits emphasized and attributed to the
Greek view of hie To these must be added
the claim of spuitual and intellectual kinship
with the Greeks which the Gennans put for-
ward Win ckcl maun and Goethe are the
chief names in this new humanism, the former
with his archaeological researches, and the
latter m his leaction against romanticism
signalized by his Italian Letters In nineteenth-
century English thought, Matthew Arnold is
a typical lepresenlative of the spirit of Neo-
humamsm in his conception of culture and his
appeal foi recognition of Hellenism as well as
Hebraism

In the gymnasiums and universities of Ger-
many, Neo-hinnamsm exercised a powerful
influence A new vigor was imparted to the
classical studies, but moie especially to the
study of Greek No longer content with the
meiely linguistic, an effoit was made to imbibe
the Greek spurt by a study of Greek life and
literature m all its phases In Germany this
is the period of her most brilliant classical
scholars J D.

See CULTURE, HUMANISM AND NATURAL-
ISM; GEHMAN\, EDUCATION IN; GOETHE,
HERDER, WOLF, F A., etc.

References - -

FKANCKK, K Hixlory of German Literature (New
York, 1905)

PMTLHEN, F German Education, Past and Present

Tr by T Loronz (Now York, 1908 )
(tLtschichte dci> gelehrtfm Untcrricht* (Leipzig, 1896.)

SANDYH, J E History of Classical Scholarship, Vol
III (Cambridge, 1908)

SPKANOBK, E Wilhelm von Humboldt und div Reform
fle8 BildungxwwctiN Contains Bibliography. (Ber-
lin, 1910)

NEO-PLATONISM — Neo-Platonism is the
final form of Hellenic philosophy as it
employed, in the latest or religious phase of

408

NEO-PLATONISM

NEO-PLATONISM

ancient philosophy, the leading principles of
Platonism, though not a little modified, com-
bined with elements derived from Aristotle,
Stoicism, and Neo-Pythagoreanism, and pos-
sibly even from the East, to solve, by a philos-
ophy resting upon a religious basis, the
problems of knowledge and virtue which later
Stoicism had presented but could not answer
The ethical philosophies of the period immedi-
ately before and after t he ( 'hrist lan era had ended
in the confession of the impossibility of man's
attaining virtue by his own effort, on account
of the inherent evil in his nature, and a skep-
tical tendency as to the attainment of ultimate
tiuth by any puiely rational process Neo-
Platornsm attempted to overcome this result
by a metaphysical system which at once ex-
plained it and showed the way to attain the
highest knowledge and good bv a supraru-
tional experience in which the individual ob-
tained an immediate experience of the divine
The elements not proper to Greek thought
appealing in Neo-Platomsm are in harmony
with the religious speculation current in
Alexandria and derived possibly from oriental
religions They certainly first appear in the
philosophy of Philo, and although no direct
i elation between that Jewish philosophic] and
Neo-Platomsm can be tiared, the resemblance
must be more than a chance coincidence

There are three schools of Neo-Platomsm
distinguished as to lime, locality, and charac-
ter Of these the Alexandrian is the earliest
and most important in the history of thought
It is the creative period of Neo-Platomc specu-
lation and finds its expression in the works of
Plotmus (204-270) and his disciple Porphyry
(233-c 304) It was at Alexandria that Plo-
tmus developed the first elements of his system
under the influence of Ammonms Saccas, the
traditional founder of Neo-Platomsm It was
at Home, however, that Plotmus lived and
taught in his school of philosophy Here also
Porphyry lived, editing the works of his master
and teaching philosophy, not merely that of
his master, but that of Aristotle, on whose woik
he wrote valuable commentaues The Roman
period of Neo-Platomsm is by fai the most
interesting, as its aims were predominantly
metaphysical and ethical Religious as it
was in its fundamental principles, it yet did
not surrender philosophical interests to furthci
positive religion The Syrian school of Neo-
Platonism is represented by its founder lam-
bhchus ((/ 330), who degraded Neo- Platonism
by exaggerated emphasis upon the magical 01
theurgic elements which had only been lightly
touched upon in the works of Plotmus In
this phase, Neo-Platomsm became less a phi-
losophy and more a religious dogmatic system,
a justification of theurgy and a guide to pro-
ficiency in magical arts The Athenian school
is represented by a group of teachers at Athens,
the leading seat of the later study of heathen
philosophical classics, and it flourished until

409

the closing of the school in 529 by Justinian.
Of these teachers by far the most important
was Proclus (410-485) one of the scholarchs.
In his works we have a quasi-scholastic attempt
to weld into a consistent body of doctrine the
teaching of the various philosophers of the
school, avoiding the alliance with positive
heathen religion, as there was not longei any
hope for its resuscitation Proclus gave the
form through which Neo-Phitomsm affected
Christian Mysticism (See MYSTICISM) But
though these three phases arc* clearly distin-
guishable in the history of Neo-Platomsin, the
movement was very widespread, and schools ol
philosophy were to be found in many cities
sharing the common impulse given by Plotmus
to metaphysical speculation and diffenng in
many minor points

Neo-Platomsm came into conflict with Chris-
tianity first in the period just bcfoie the end
of the heathen empire, when Porphyry at-
tacked Christianity with vigor and groat cnti-
cal ability Yet Porphyry himself turned with
increasing hostility against the crudities of
heathenism and was as unsparing as any Chris-
tian apologist in denunciation of the immoral
mythology of heathenism He acknowledged
the personal worth and character of Christ,
but denounced the practice of Christians of
worshiping him The Christian writings were
to him base forgeries But the breach between
the two systems, which in metaphysical out-
lines had been hardly appiehended as hostile,
widened, and, under the influence of la mbhchus
and his teaching, Neo-Platonism began to
associate its foi tunes with the fort lines of
paganism, and everything was done to establish
paganism upon a speculative basis

Neo-Platomsin failed in several points as a
system likely to become generally acceptable
Its appeal was necessarily restricted to a select
few However low it might descend with
lambhchuB, it always remained a metaphysical
system It failed to meet the simple popular
demand for an mstonc personality to whom the
heart could tuin In this the nearly allied
system of Nco-Pytliagoreanism had an ad\jui-
tage And the attempt to employ Apollonius
of Tyana as such was based upon sound judg-
ment Then, again, the doctrine of Cod in
Neo-Platomsm was so transcendent, colorless,
and vague, so much like an hy postal ized zeio,
that it could not touch the heart Jhon when
the language of St Augustine (q v ) is strongly
reminiscent of Plotmus, there was always the
personal touch established by the Incarnation
and the personality of God The ecstasy of
Neo-Platonism might be an experience for the
intellectual elite, but it had no promise for the
multitude

Although Neo-Platonism was always limited
in its appeal, even in the school of lambhchus
its enthusiastic adherents had hopes of making
it a universal religion under the patronage of
Julian (361-363) But though the philosophi-

NEO-PLATONISM

NERVOUS SYSTEM

cal religion of that emperoi ga\e free play to
the superstitious and polytheistic elements of
paganism, Neo-Platonism proved a dismal
failure as a popular religion It was naturally
hated and despised by Christians, but it was
ridiculed and contemptuously rejected by the
heathen. The dull ceremonies and joyless
services prescribed by Julian after a Christian
model failed to satisfy their religious cravings
and habits oi worship Its interminable phil-
osophical haiangues in imitation of Christian
sermons gave nothing their minds could giasp
The very failure of Julian's attempt to make
Neo-Platomsm the State religion led to a le-
action and to that relative* sobriety which
characteiized the later school of Athens and
found its expression in the writings of Proclus

Though Neo-Platonism failed as a religion,
as a philospohy it left a permanent impress
upon the Christian world In the East, the
Pseudo-Dionysms made it the basis of his mys-
tical theology In the West, it- left an abiding
impression upon the theology of St Augustine
and his followers, especially in the doctrine
of God and the negative character of evil It-
was revived repeatedly by both heretics and
teachers of unblemished orthodoxy in the
Middle Ages, being identified with Platomsm
Elements weie introduced tlnough the Aia-
bians, Avicenna and Avenoes At the time
of the Renaissance it was studied afresh in the
original documents Of its teachers undei the
Medici, the Greek philosopher Gcmistus Pletho
was the most important Marsihus Ficinus
(qv) translated Neo-Platonic works Pico
di Mirandola and Rcuchlin also studied it
Giordano Bruno and Jacob Bohme show its
influence4 Fichte and Hegel, and especially
Spelling, show many affinities with the spec-
ulative elements and methods of Neo-Plato-
msm, and it has become a common posses-
sion of various forms of mysticism

J C A , Ju

See INNATE IDEAS , MYSTICISM.

References —

BKMJ, C Nvu-Platotnttn (London, 1895)

Thf Christviu Platonics of Alexandria (Oxford,

1S86)
Dictionary of Christian Bioyraphy, s w. Dionyxm^

th( Aieopafjitt, lamhlnhut, Nut-Plntnnt^m , Pl<>-

tinus, Prod it*, Porjtfujri/
Hrn i/( lopiedia Byitannica, * v Nio-Ptatoni&tn, M(.»<»

also tho RI tides ou the lo.idmg Nco-Platonists
Plotinut*, Selected Work* Trans by T Tn,\loi, in

Bohn'h Lihiaiy Contains un excellent bibliogiupln

on Plotmuh (London, 11H)0)
Porphyry Translations b\ T Tuvloi (London, IS2'-J),

and A Zimmern (London, 1SM6 )
REVILLE, .1 Jjn Kfhyion dc Rome sou« /<tv 86ri'rcs.

(Pans, 18S(> )
VACHEROT, E Histotre critique dt I'Ktolr d Alex-

andrie (Puns, 1840-1851 )

WHITTAKER, T The Neo-PlatoniRtK (London, 1901 )
ZELLER, E IJte Philosophic dcr Grin hen, Vol III

(Leipzig, 1WW )
The histories of philosophy should bo consulted, e**-

pccially thoue of Erdmann, UeberweR, and Windol-

band; and the histories of Christian Doctrine,

especially that of A Harnack

NEPOS, CORNELIUS —A Roman histo-
rian of the first century B c (c 100-24), wrote,
among other works a series of paiallel biogra-
phies of famous Greeks and Romans in six-
teen hooks (De vtns illustnbun) There re-
main only the part treating of foreign gener-
als, arid the lives of Cato and Atticus

These biographies are as a rule very brief
and have long been a favorite material to put
into the hands of young students of Latin
The style, however, is riot pure, and the tend-
ency to abstract analysis of character renders
the mill adapted to children Their contents,
too, aie often dull and uninspiring Partly
foi these reasons, Nepos has been read less
and less in schools in recent years, except
for supplementary study When read he
belongs to the second year, alongside of
Oa*sai There is no lack of adequate echool
editions An exhaustive study has been
made ol his stylo by Lupus (Dcr Sprachge-
brauch t/c.s Cornelius Nepox, Berlin, 1876).

G. L.

NERVE — See NERVOUS SYSTEM

NERVE IMPULSE

TEM

See NERVOUS SYS-

NERVOUS CHILDREN —See DEFEC-
TIVES, NEURASTHENIA

NERVOUS DISEASES —See MIND, DIS-
EASES OF, NEURASTHENIA

NERVOUS SYSTEM —All nervous tissue
in the body, whether in the nerves or in the
nerve centers, forms a single connected system
Formerly the u sympathetic system," with its
ganglia and nerves supplying the viscera,
blood vessels, etc , was regarded as relatively
independent of the ceiebrospmal system, but
present information indicates that the sympa-
thetic is simply an adjunct of the other
The sense organs, though not reckoned as
parts of the nervous system, are connected
with the sensory or afferent nerves — the
retina with the optic nerve, the organ of Corti
with the auditory nerve, the taste buds with
the nerves of taste, and the touch corpuscles
and other sensory end-organs in the skin and
throughout the body with numerous sensory
nerve fibers in the mixed neives The muscles
and many of the glands are connected with the
motor or efferent nerves Thus the si/stem,
as a working whole, contains, besides the ner-
vous svstcm, the " receptors," through which
the environment acts on the organism, and the
" effectors/' by which the organism reacts upon
the environment The part played by the
nervous system is primarily that of affording
a quick means of communication between the
receptors and the effectors

Spinal Cord — From the brain and spinal
cord, nerves ramify to all corners of the body.

410

NERVOUS SYSTEM

NERVOUS SYSTEM

The brain, pi elected by the skull, and the
cord, extending down the back within the spine,
are continuous with each other through a hole in
the base of the skull. The cord appears like a

large nerve, one half
to one third of an
inchmdiameter,with
"enlargements" at
the height of the
shoulders and at that
of the loins The
upper enlargement
is the source of the
neives to the arm,
and the lower en-
largement of those to
the legs , and they
are the lower or local
centers for leflexes
of the limbs

The cord is white
outside, as the nerves
are, but a cross sec-
tion reveals some-
thing not found in
the nei ves, namely,
gray mattei The
cord is nearlv div ided
into right and left
halves by grooves
or fissures extending
along both its dorsal
and its ventral sur-
face, but there re-
mains a connection
or " commissure "
between the two lat-
eral halves In each
half, the gray matter
shows dorsal and
ventral portions or
" horns," the ventral
being, in the enlarge-
ments, large and fat,
while the dorsal horn
is always rather
slender The nerves
come off from the
cord by the dorsal and ventral u roots," of
which there are a whole scries on either side of
the cord. It is a remarkable fact that though
the nerves as they run through the limbs and
other parts of the body
are " mixed nerves,"
containing both sensory
and motor constituents,
these are segregated on
entering the cord, and
all the sensory nerve
fibers enter the dorsal
root, close to the dorsal
horn of the gray matter, while all of the motor
fibers enter the ventral roots In fact, during
the embryonic growth of the nervous system,
the motor nerves grow out from the ventral

horn of the gray matter, while the sensory
nerves grow, not out from the cord itself, but
from the " spinal ganglia," masses of nerve
cells lying close outside the dorsal portion of
the cord

The white matter of the cord, lying outside
the gray, is spoken of as divided into " col-
umns," dorsal, ventral, and lateral The dorsal
columns are direct continuations of the dorsal
roots, and consist, therefore, of sensory fibers
which have come in from the nerves and are
proceeding towards the brain The lateral
and ventral columns contain many sets of
fibers, some conducting upwards and some
down, some being short and others long

Brain — The brain consists of the "brain
stem/' a continuation of the cord, and two
large outgrowths, the cerebrum and cerebel-
lum The brain stem lies along the floor of
the skull, from back to front Its rear or
lower portion, next to the cord, is the <l me-
dulla" or "bulb", in front of this is the "pons"
and next the "midbram", then the "inter-
brain " or " thalamus," and finally the basal

portion of the " end-brain." The great bulk
of the end-brain consists of the cerebral hemi-
spheres, which arc outgrowths from the more
primitive basal portion of the end-brain; the
cerebellum is an outgrowth from the pons

The nerves of the head issue from the brain
stem, that to the nose from the end-brain,
that to the eye from the mtcrbram, those to
the muscles of the eyeball chiefly from the
midbram, that to the skin of the face from the
pons, those to the ear and to the throat and
rear of the mouth from the medulla Where
the nerves from any part enter, there are the
lower centers for that part The medulla
receives the " vagus " nerve, which supplies
the heart, lungs, and stomach, and the medulla
accordingly contains the respiratory center
and the cardiac center, as well as a vasomotor
center which regulates the constriction and
dilatation of the blood vessels, and a center
which influences the activities of the stomach.
The medulla, it will be recognized, is an ex-
tremely vital part, without it, respiration is
impossible, and accordingly destruction of the
medulla is, in one form or another, a favorite
means of capital punishment

The end-brain, or cerebrum, is almost scpa-

411

NERVOUS SYSTEM

NERVOUS SYSTEM

rated into hemispheres, these are, however,
joined at the base, and are connected also by
the " corpus callosum," a large bundle of nerve
fibers, which practically unites the hemispheres
into one organ In the cerebrum, as well as
in the cerebellum, the arrangement of white
and gray matter is different from that which
obtains throughout the cord and brain stem, in
that the gray matter lies on the external surface,
forming a bark or rind or " cortex " The ex-
ternal surface of both the cerebrum and cere-
bellum is much folded, with the result that the
area of the cortex and the amount of gray
matter arc much larger than would be the case
with a smooth surface The surface of the
cerebrum is spoken of as divided into the
frontal, panetal, occipital, and temporal lobes,
the frontal and parietal being separated by the
central fissure (or fissure of Rolando), and the
frontal and temporal by the lateral fissure (or fis-
sure of Sylvius) There are many minor fissures,
subdividing each lobe into convolutions or gyres
Thus, from above downward, the frontal
lobe contains the first, second, and third frontal
convolutions, and the temporal is similarly
divided The precentral and postcentral con-
volutions border the central fissure These
subdivisions have value as landmarks, but
do not usually indicate inner or functional
division of the brain

Growth of the System — The development
of the nervous system begins, very early in
embryonic life, with the appearance of a
" neural groove " extending along the back,
and a little later arching over into a tube, the
" neural tube " It is the outer layer of the
embryo from which the neural tube originates,
but this is crowded inwards and surrounded
by the growth of muscle arid bone The neural
tube at its forward end becomes expanded into
a senes of five vesicles, which develop into the
five principal parts of the brain end-brain,
interbrain, midbram, hind-brain (including pons
and cerebellum), and aftor-bram or medulla
In spite of the complicated form into which it
grows, the neural tube remains always a tube,
with a hollow extending along the spinal cord
and brain stem and into each cerebral hemi-
sphere The hollow of the tube is expanded
into the " ventricles " of the brain Along
with the neural tube, there arc infolded two
little strips of the external surface of the em-
bryo, and these give use to the sensory and
sympathetic nerves and ganglia The motor
nerves arise from the neural tube itself It is
interesting to note that the retina, the sensitive
surface of the eye, arises from the neural tube,
and is therefore to be regarded as part of the
brain, it has indeed a distinctly nervous
structure.

Nerves. — The minute structure of the
nervous system is more important to under-
stand than the gross structure which has al-
ready been sketched Microscopic study of
the nerves shows them to be bundles of fibers

running parallel to each other, like wires in a
telephone cable The white matter of the cord
and brain is essentially the same as the nerves,
being composed of nerve fibers. The unit is
the fiber, which, on microscopic examination,
is seen to consist of a central core, called the
axon, surrounded by one or two sheaths. In
most of the nerves, each axon has two sheaths,
called medullary and primitive, the latter being
outside In the white matter of the cord and
brain, the primitive sheath is lacking, but the
medullary is present, while in sympathetic
nerve fibers the reverse is true The medul-
lary sheath is composed of a white, fathke
substance, which has some of the physical
properties of an
insulator arid may
have a somewhat
himilai function
It is this substance
which gives white-
ness to the white
matter

The gray mat-
ter differs from
the white in the
absence of the
medullary sheath,
and in the pres-
ence of nerve
cells, which are
absent from the
white matter and
from the nerves,
except for the
sympathetic and
spinal ganglia at-
tached to the
nerves The fine
branches of the
nerve cells and
of the fibers are
also confined to
the gray matter.
The gray matter
consists of numer-
ous nerve cells
embedded in a
meshwork of mi-
nute fibers. It pre-
sents a most complicated problem to the micro-
scopic anatomist who would analyze it, but, con-
sidering the difficulties involved, extraoidmary
progress has been made It is found that every
nerve cell, if at all fully developed, sends out
a long, slender branch, the axon, which, becom-
ing invested with a medullary sheath, emerges
from the gray matter into the white, and ap-
pears there as a nerve fiber The axon, in
other words, is a branch of a nerve cell, and
there seems little reason to doubt that all the
axons of the nerves and white matter originate
from cells in the gray matter Besides the
axon, the nerve cell has other branches of a
different sort, short and branching like a tree,

412

NERVOUS SYSTEM

NERVOUS SYSTEM

from which fact they have received the name
of " dendntes " These differ from the axon,
also, in receiving no medullary sheath and in
never extending beyond the bounds of the gray
matter The axon, in general, branches much
less than the dendritcs, and its brandies (called
" collaterals ") are slender and usually at
right angles to the main trunk But the axon,
and each of its collaterals, finally comes to an
end in a tuft of fine branches, always turning into
the gray matter to terminate m this manner,
there are no terminations of axons within the
white matter Apparently the numerous fine
fibers of the gray matter are accounted for as
dendntes and fine terminations of axons, and
if so, we can conceive the gray matter as con-
sisting of nerve cells embedded in a dense mat
of their own brandies and of the branches of
other cells and axons

Under high magnification, the inner struc-
ture of the nerve cell shows a nucleus, similar
to that found in every living cell, and — what is
peculiar to the nerve cell — numerous delicate
fibrils, coursing in different but definite duec-
tions through the cell body and out into
the axons and dendntes In the axon, these
fibrils run strictly parallel to one another.
It is believed by some authorities that the
fibrils are the ultimate conducting agents
The cell body and larger dendntes show an-
other feature that is absent from the axon:
granules of triangular or spindle-shaped out-
line, called the chiomatic bodies The sub-
stance which gives this mottled 01 " tigroid "
appearance to the neive cells may be of the
nature of fuel, at least, it has been observed
to become diffused throughout the cell during
prolonged activity, so that the fatigued nerve
cell shows a diffused instead of a mottled color
Certain drugs and abnormal conditions also
produce this condition, which is called chroma-
tolysis

Neurones — A nerve cell, with its axon and
dendntes and all the lamifi cations, is often
called a neurone This term is bound up with
the " neurone theory," according to which the
neurones remain separate one from another,
and are not united into continuity In em-
bryonic development, the nervous system
starts as a collection of unbr 'inched cells,
which later put forth axons and dendntes,
and the question is whether the branches of
different cells unite in the course of their devel-
opment into a continuous meshwork The
best methods yet available fail to show any
anastomosis of the branches of different nerve
cells, though there is sometimes close adhesion
But some authorities oppose to the neurone
theory a " fibrillar theory," according to which
the minute fibrils already mentioned pass
freely from one neurone to another, and, pos-
sibly, form in the interstices between neurones
a network of the utmost tenuity, which, these
authors think, is worthy to be called the es-
sential part of the gray matter, since it would

be the means of making connections between
different nerve fibers and so between different
parts of the body As the evidence stands to-
day, the neurone theory has a better standing
and wider acceptance than the fibiillar theory,
for the passage of fibrils from one neurone to
another, or their presence in the spaces between
neurones, has not been demonstrated

Function of Nervous System — The primary
function of the nervous system is, without
doubt, to conduct not materials, as the circula-
tion does, but something in the nature of mes-
sages or stimuli, capable of arousing activity
in the organs to which the nerves run The
11 message " carried by the nerve is called, in
the absence of any sure knowledge of its ical
character, the " nerve impulse " It may be
an electrical change that moves along the
nerve, since such a change can be detected in
an active nerve, and nothing else — movement,
heat, or chemical action — has been demon-
strated The speed of the nerve impulse can
be measured, but in man the values obtained
have varied all the way from 100 feet to 350
feet per second, with the more recent and im-
proved methods favoring the higher values

The function of the nerve fiber, and accord-
ingly of the nerves and white matter, is cer-
tainly to conduct and nothing rnoie. Axons
appear to be insulated one from another in
the nerves and white matter, so that no com-
munication from sensory to motor, no switch-
ing or distribution of impulses, occurs except
in the gray matter It is likely, though not
universally believed, that all nerve fibers act
much alike, being indifferent conductors What
is called the " specific energy of a nerve "
refers to such facts as that a jarring or any sort
of stimulus to the optic nerve produces only
sensations of light, but the specific energy
may reside not in the optic nerve, but in the
visual area of the cortex to which the nerve
leads. The white matter and the nerves seem
to be mere passive conductors Everything
that is active or variable with conditions or
modifiable by experience is an affair of the gra}r
matter An adequate conception of the action
of the gray matter can certainly riot be formed
in the present state of knowledge, but what
seems a probable outline of its mechanism
can be based on its structure along with the
notion that the fundamental function of all
nervous tissue is to conduct impulses

Where formerly the nerve cells were looked
upon as the essential things in the action of
the gray matter, of late the view has gamed
force that they are nutritive in function, serving
to keep their branches alive and in good working
condition, and that the branches which inter-
lace in the gray matter do the actual work
There is, in any minute portion of the gray
matter, an intermingling of the dendrites of
the cells located there with the terminations
of axons which enter from other parts For
example, the axons coming into the cord or

413

NERVOUS SYSTEM

NERVOUS SYSTEM

brain stem from a sense organ terminate within
some mass of gray matter, in close contact
with the dendntes of the cells of that gray
matter, and in some cases it is perfectly clear
that the incoming axons must transmit their
activity (their " messages ") to the den-
dntes of these cells It is probable that the
dendntes are receptive and the terminations
of axons excitory or transmissive, so that a
nerve impulse, entering the gray mattei by
an axon, passes from the terminations of this
axon to the dendrites of another cell, and thence
to the axon of that cell and so away to some
other part of the gray matter or to some organ
outside. The function of the terminations
of axoris and of the dendrites seems, therefore,
to be that of effecting connections

Since an axon, in its termination, may make
connections with the dendrites of several cells,
there is a chance for that distribution of in-
fluence which is the essence of coordination
Since several axons may terminal e in proximity
to the dendrites of a single cell, there is oppor-
tunity for the convergence and combination
of impulses The importance of a convergence
of neural paths is especially seen in facilitation
and inhibition Two stimuli, acting on differ-
ent sense organs, may reenforce or facilitate
each other's action, or, one stimulus may
prevent or inhibit the action of another
Thoughts and emotions, having their seat
in the cerebrum, may either hasten or slacken
the rate of breathing, and this means that they
have reenforced or inhibited the reflex effect
of sensory stimuli reaching the respiratory
center in the medulla There must be in all
•such cases a convergence of influences from
two or more sources upon that part of the
gray matter which is directly connected with
the effector organs

Sleep, drowsiness, and unconsciousness un-
der the influence of drugs are conditions
primarily of the gray matter, and are probably
to be conceived as a temporary impairment
of the connections between axons and den-
drites Learning, a process which seems to
concern almost entirely the cerebral cortex,
may be conceived as consisting in the improve-
ment of connections through use, and forget-
ting as an atrophy of connections through
disuse Exercising dendrites or the termina-
tions of axons may probably cause them to
grow and improve in condition for work, as is
known to be the case in muscular tissue

The neurone theory, though primarily con-
cerned with the structure of the gray matter,
has proved a great aid in reaching a conception
of the function The name synapse has been
applied to the junction, without continuity,
of the termination of an axon with the dendrites
of another cell The proximity of the two may
be very great, yet it does not amount to con-
tinuity such as holds between different por-
1ions of the same neurone There is always a
breach of continuity, or " surface of separa-

tion " between the interlacing branches of two
neurones. Hence, it is probable that conduc-
tion through the gray matter is much slower
than along a nerve fiber, and that impulses
go m only one direction through the gray
matter The synapse has a sort of valve action
on nerve impulses, permitting them to pass
only in the direction from termination of axon
to dendntes The synapse is the susceptible
part of a neural path or connection, where
varying influences, such as are seen m facilita-
tion and inhibition, take effect The synapse
it is, according to this conception, which is im-
proved by learning and which deteriorates by
disuse

Since all sensory axons lead into the gray
matter, and all motor axons originate in gray
matter, the simplest form of action involving
the nervous system is the reflex, in which a
stimulus to a sense organ, acting through a
sensory nerve, arouses to activity the gray
matter from which issue the motor nerves to
the reacting muscles The " reflex arc " con-
sists of the sensory or afferent nerve fiber, the
synapse between this and the dendrites of a
motor nerve cell and the axon of this cell
This is the simplest possible reflex arc, but it
is probable that most reflexes have longer and
more elaborate paths than this

Localization of Functions — It is clear from
all that precedes that the nervous system does
not act as a mass, in the way that the liver may
be thought of as acting, but in detail, by means
of particular paths and connections. Hence
a large share of the vast amount of study that
has been given to the brain and cord is con-
cerned with the localization of function In
the white matter attention has been directed
to disentangling the tangle of bundles that
course through it, and that are called tracts
Purely anatomical methods need to be supple-
mented by physiological and pathological
methods in order to trace out a tract from its
origin, i e the portion of gray matter contain-
ing the cells from which its axons arise, to its
termination, i c the portion of gray matter
which its axons finally enter and where they
terminate. Among sensory tracts in the cord
may be mentioned the dorsal columns, which
are apparently concerned with the muscle
sense and not with the cutaneous senses, and
the " spmo-thalamic tract " in the lateral
column, which is apparently the path of
cutaneous sensation Among motor paths,
the one best worth mentioning is perhaps the
cortico-spmal or pyramidal tract which, origi-
nating in the giant cells of the motor area,
passes down through the brain stem, " decus-
sates " or crosses, for the most part, in the
medulla, and runs down the cord m the lateral
column, terminating all the way along in con-
nection with the motor cells of the ventral
horn " Decussation " is a curious fact re-
garding the tracts that lead into or out of the
cerebrum The decussations occur in various

414

NERVOUS SYSTEM

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

parts of the cord and brain stern, but all have
for their effect to bring; the right half of the
body into connection with the left hemisphere
and the left half of the body with the right
hemisphere Therefore, the left hemisphere
controls the movements of the right hand, and
also receives sensations from it

The first indication of a localization of func-
tions in the cerebral cortex — since the eailier
effort of the phrenologists to localize the various
faculties had proved aboitive — was Hroni's
announcement that the third frontal convolu-
tion in the left hemisphere was connected with
speech, and that its injury entailed aphasia
(qv). Next, the "motor area" was loughlv
located, and since then areas for vision, hear-
ing, touch (in the broad meaning), and smell
have been determined These sensory and
motor areas are directly connected bv fibers
with the lower centers, which in turn are directly
connected with the sense organs and muscles
The visual area, adjoining the calcanne fissure
on the median surface of the occipital lobe,
receives impulses from the retina, and any
seen object that influences the cortex acts first
on this area, and then, by association fibers,
on other parts of the cortex All sensory im-
pulses first reach the cortex in certain limited
areas and radiate thence bv the very numeious
association fibers to other parts The motoi
area, extending along the front side of the
central fissuie, is the origin of the coitico-
spmal and similar tracts, and the principal
gateway through which the influence of the
cortex is exeited on the muscles The motor
area must be aroused by association fibers
\vhenever the movement of the hand is directed
by the eye or ear, or by some internal thought
The visual area in the occipital lobe, the audi-
tory area in the first temporal convolution,
the " touch " or " somesthetic " area just
behind the central fissure, and the olfactory
area m the pynform lobule, along with the
motor area, cover only a small fraction of the
cortex, and the remainder is by no means so
certainly mapped out In general, it appears
that regions immediately adjoining a sensory
area have functions closely related to that of
this area, but " higher " or more intellectual
Thus the recognition of familiar objects bv
sight, reading, etc , depends on the occip-
ital lobe; and the understanding of heaid
speech and the appreciation of music depends
on a temporal region near to the auditory
area. The region immediately behind the
somesthetic area seems to be concerned with
the perception of form, texture, size, weight,
otc , by touch; and the region just in front
of the motor area may have, besides its func-
tion of speech, control of writing and other
similar coordinations Even with these vaguer
localizations added to what is clearly estab-
lished, a large share of the cortex still leinains
uncharted

The size or weight of the brain probably

41

influences mental capacity, though the corre-
lation is far from close The brain develops
earlier than any other organ except the sense
organs, it is always forward in fcetal life, and
at birth has fully a quarter of its adult weight,
this increases to two thirds during the first
year, and to nine tenths at four years, after
which there is a slow increase to about the
fifteenth year The adult weight vanes con-
siderably in different individuals, with an
average not far from 1400 grains (50 oz ),
in women it is about 10 per cent less (See
GROWTH ) Studies of the cortex at different
ages seem to show that the little fibers — den-
dntes and terminations of incoming axons —
which constitute the working parts continue
to grow till the fortieth year at least In old
age there is a shrinking in the weight of the
brain R S. W

References —

BALDWIN, J M Dictionary of Philosophy and Psy-
chology, Vol III, Ft II, pp 1111-1121

BARKER, L F The Nervous fiyt>tem (New York,
1KW )

OAMPULLL, A W Histological »SVu</ics on ihe Local-
ization of Cerebral Function ((^urnhndgf, 1905 )

DONALDHON, H H Tht Growth of the Biain (Nov*
York, 1S9S )

L\DT>, G T , and WOODWOKTH, H S Physiological
Pwholoyy (Now Yoik, 1911 )

SciitrEit, E A , and SYMINGTON, J ED Quain'-s
Anatomy, llth ed , Vol III, Ni urology (London,
1909 )

SH&HKINGTON, O S The Integratwc Action of the
Nervous System (New York, 1906 )

NERVOUSNESS — See NEURASTHENIA

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN THE

— The Kingdom of the Netherlands is divided
into eleven provinces, namely, North Brabant,
Guelders, North and South Holland, Zealand,
Utrecht, Fneslaiid, Overyssel, Gronmgen,
Drenthe, and Lunburg The names recall
the independent dukedom, bishopric, and coun-
ties whose contests mark the early history of
the country The area of the kingdom is
12,648 square miles, and its population m 1910
was 5,945,429 It is a kingdom of laigc
towns, having no less than thirty with popula-
tions above 20,000 The colonial possessions
of the Netherlands, which have been a source
of wealth, comprise an area of 783,000 square
miles and a population of approximately
38,000,000

The religious denominations have exercised
great influence in educational mat tens The
royal family and the upper classes, generally,
belong to the Reformed Church, which num-
bers above 2,588,000 adherents; other Protes-
tant denominations comprise 746,000. The
Roman Catholics number 2,052,781; Jews
106,402, Jansemsts, 10,082 Complete religious
liberty prevails, and each denomination re-
ceives un annual subvention from the treasury
The people of the Netherlands are nearly
all natives by birth and ancestry, foreigners
fonning only 1 per cent of the total

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

Historical Development — The first school
within the limits of what is now the Nether-
lands, so far as the records show, was estab-
lished at Utrecht by Willebrord, missionary
from England to the Frisians He was 01-
damed Bishop of Utrecht in 695 at the instance
of Pepm, father of Charlemagne, who desired
to found a bishopric in that part of Fnesland
which had been brought under the Frankish
rule Thus Utrecht became a center of en-
lightenment in the empire of Charles the Great
The monastery schools of Egmond, Nijmwegen,
Middleburg, Zealand, and Adouwert weie
famous in the ninth eentury The breaking
up of the Empire after the death of Charles
the Great was followed by invasions of the
Northmen and the consequent rise to power
of the great nobles who opposed their ravages,
and of the towns to which the people fled for
safety It was in the eleventh centuiy that
the Count of Holland by his successful resist-
ance to the Emperor, Otto II, gamed over-
lordship in Nether-Lothanngia , and from
William I, the Count of Holland who bore a
notable part in the fourth crusade, the chief
towns secured charters that guaranteed civic
liberty and privileges to the burgheis Among
the latter was the right to establish schools, and
thus early in the thirteenth century, beside
1 lie Cathedral and monastery schools, appealed
" public " 01 town schools. These were styled
School en Schnjfambacht, tichoolen en Kotfcin
(school and \\ritmg office, school and clerks'
houses). The school mij^ters (schoolmasters)
were looked upon as professional men Tliev
formed distinct guilds and fraternities and were
highly respected by their fellow citizens Public,
•schools were divided into grootc en bijsdioolcn
(higher and lower schools) Latin was taught
only in the higher schools, which had generally
the largest number of pupils One of them, the
school of Zwolle, numbered 1000 pupils from
the Netherlands and Germany The Brethren
of the Common Life (q v,\ whose first school
\vas founded by Gerhard the (treat of Deventer
(1340-1384), did much for the promotion of
education in different Euiopean countries.
Thus the different classes of schools which
maintain their distinctions under the present
system of public mstiuction, namely, church
schools, town or public schools, and schools
belonging to private societies, all originated
before the close of the fourteenth century

In the century following, the provinces weie
controlled bv the Dukes of Burgundy, but
although their political life \vas stifled, the arts
and the learning of the Renaissance flourished,
especially in Flanders and Brabant The
States-General of the provinces, instituted
by Philip of Burgundy, became, in time, the
embodiment of their national will and purpose.
From the last of the Burgundian rulers, the
Duchess Mary, the cities secured the " Great
Privilege11 (1477) which affirmed their right
to hold diets, reserved to the Estates a voice

410

in the declaration of war and the imposition of
taxes, established one high court of justice
for Holland, Zealand, and Friesland, and made
Dutch their official language. Thus the lead-
ing provinces entered upon the century of
struggle against Charles V and Philip of Spain
with a measure of internal union This period
was maiked by a wonderful outburst of talent
and learning The fame of great scholars,
Erasmus, Grotius, Barneveldt, to name only
those who most profoundly affected human
thought, is linked with that of William the
Silent, founder of the Dutch Republic, and of
his son Maurice, its military genius The
University of Leyden (q v ), the bulwark of
Protestant doctrine in the United Provinces,
was founded by Wiliam the Silent in 1575 to
commemorate its heroic defense against the
Spanish besiegers Ten years later (1585)
a second university was created at Franeker,
and in the seventeenth century three univer-
sities were added, namely, Utrecht, 1638,
Gronmgen, 1044; and Herderwijk, 1648
Franeker and Herderwijk were closed in 1811

The fall of the Dutch Republic is connected,
indirectly at least, with the bitter controversy
between the extreme Protestant sects, the
Armmians and the Calvimsts, which broke
out in the University of Leyden early in the
seventeenth century The rivalries and con-
tests of the different provinces completed the
disaster, and the political life of the United Prov-
inces became inextricably mingled with that of
neighboring Powers Nevertheless, a certain
distinction was preserved to the Provinces by
the achievements of their university teachers and
by the refuge they afforded to men of science
and learning exiled from their native lands

Antecedents of the Present Sy&tem of Primary
Education — The early zeal for education in
this kingdom had little effect upon the common
people, the first movement in their interests
was begun by John Nieuvenhuysen, a Mennon-
ite clergyman of Gronmgen, who founded in
that city, in 1784, the Society of Public Good
(Maatschappij tot Nut van't Algemeen), whose
object was to promote elementary instruction
— moral, social, and religious The society
established schools, published simple textbooks,
an/1 awakened great interest in the subject
of popular education

At this time the provinces were comprised
in the Republic of Batavia (179&-1806), and
the political spirit gave impetus to the efforts
of the society. A special commissioner, the
celebrated Van den Endc, was appointed to
devise means for promoting the general in-
struction of the people. The outcome of his
labors was the law of 1806, which forms the basis
of the primary school system Napoleon had
already extended his conquests to Holland, and
a few months after the promulgation of the
law the Emperor made his brother Louis king
over the province Fortunately, however,
Louis had no disposition to interfere with the

NETHEK LANDS, EDUCATION IN

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

educational movement. In 1810 lie abdicated,
and Napoleon then incorporated the provinces
into the Empire and took measures for assimi-
lating their educational system to that of the
Imperial University. The report of Cuvier,
one of the two commissioners appointed for
this service, was so favorable to the system of
primary education that it was continued with
Van den Ende as its chief After the fall of
Napoleon and the establishment of the kingdom
of the Netherlands, comprising Holland and
Belgium, a decree was issued (March (>, 1S15)
which ordered that the school law of 1800
should be the basis for further regulations con-
cerning public instruction This early measure
settled for the Netherlands the principle of
public inspection of schools. It provided for
the appointment of school inspectors who were
to constitute in each province a permanent
school board The largest communes were
required to form local school boards No
school could be established without the special
permission of the provincial or communal
authorities The course of primary instruc-
tion comprised reading, writing, arithmetic,
Dutch, French or other modern language,
geography, and history Schools were to be
entirely independent of ecclesiastical influence
The schoolbooks were to be authorized by the
school boards Nobody was allowed to teach
without passing the prescribed examinations

The intenention of the State in education
and the prohibition of religious teaching in
the schools were vehemently opposed by the
Roman Catholics, who formed the majority
in the southern provinces (the present kingdom
of Belgium) Their dissatisfaction grew from
year to year, and finally gave rise to the revo-
lution of 18.30, which was followed bv the per-
manent separation of Belgium from Holland
Before this event the school system had re-
ceived two important extensions In 1816,
through the influence of M Van den Ende,
a normal school was established at Haarlem
as an integral part of the system, and govern-
ment recognition was extended to the normal
school at Groningen, previously established
by the Society of Public Good Up to this
time the teachers of Holland had been trained
by serving an apprenticeship, from the age
of fourteen to sixteen or eighteen, as assistants
m the larger schools During the same tune
they were given instruction for an hour every
evening This pupil-teacher system, which
was subsequently introduced into England,
never developed its worst features in Holland
and in a restrained form is still employed t here
as a means of training The pupil teachers
form no part of the regular school staff

The second measure of extension was the
establishment of a higher class of primary
schools, the burgcrscholen, to meet the demand
of the middle classes that the State should
provide schools suited to their children The
law of 1806 had placed public schools and pri-

vate schools on the same; basis as regards in-
spection by the state and the qualification of
teachers. Fees were charged in the public
schools, but free provision was authorized for
poor children, and thus the public schools
became in practice charity schools, arid the
middle classes, who bore the greater part of
the school tax, were forced to patronize the
more expensive private schools The higher
order of public schools, established in response
to the natural demand of the middle classes,
included modern languages, French and Eng-
lish, as well as the sciences, in their curriculum
These burgher schools were condemned in
Cuvier's Report as superficial and tending to
draw students away from more solid branches.
Time has shown that they anticipated, in a
measure, the modern type of secondary school
which is now found in every country

Although the northern provinces weie
strongly Protestant, there was a Roman Catho-
lic minority which showed the same opposition
as the Belgians to the purely secular school
system The ulti a- Protest ants were in accord
\\ith them on this point and both togethei
succeeded in restoring a measure of clerical
influence to the schools A royal decree of
January 2, 1842, ordained that the religious
faith of candidates for the teaching service
should be taken into account, and authorized
the examination of textbooks by the clergy
before they should be adopted Religious
instruction was still excluded from the course
of study, but the clergy were allowed the use
of the school] ooms for that purpose before
or after the school hours

The constitution of 1848, which replaced the
earlier constitution of 1815 and is still m force,
comprised the following clauses respecting
education Public instruction shall be an ob-
ject of incessant care on the part of the govern-
ment Public instruction shall be regulated
bv law, with due deference to all religious
creeds The legal authorities shall provide
for sufficient public elementary instruction
throughout the kingdom Instruction is free,
and it is to be under the supervision of the
secular authorities, whose functions shall be
regulated bv law A report on the state of
higher, middle class, and elementary instruc-
tion shall be submitted to the States-General
(legislature) every year by the Crown (Art 194)

The School Lair (1857) — In accordance
with the constitutional provisions, reports arid
projects of law for the regulation of elementary
schools were submitted, but it was not until
1857 that a law dealing with the subject was
successfully earned through the legislature
The undei lying principles of the law as regards
the scope and support of elementary schools
and the qualification of teachers are as follows

Art 1 Elementary instruction is divided into or-
dinary »md more extended instruction Ordinary
instruction includes reading, writing, arithmetic, the
Dutch language, history, the rudiments of natural

VOL. iv - 2 E

417

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

philosophy, and Hinging The more extended instruc-
tion is considered to include the rudiments of modern
languages, of mathematics and agriculture, gymnastics,
drawing, and needle work

Art 2 Elementary instruction may be given either
in HthoolH or in the dwellings of the parents or guardians

Art 3 Public schools are those established and main-
tained by the communes, the provinces, and the govern-
ment, severally or in common, all otheis aie private
schools Subsidies may be granted to private schools
on the part of the communal, provincial, or state au-
thorities Schools thus assisted shall be open to Jill
children, without distinction of religious < reed

Ait 6 Nobody is allowed to give elementary in-
struction who does not possess the proofs of capacity
and morality Foreigners must have a special per-
mission from the government

Art S Any person giving elementary instruction
without being qualified shall be prosecuted

Art 12 For the education of teachers theie shall
be at least two state training schools The education
of elementary school teachers shall be promoted by the
government as much aw possible

\rt 16 In every commune elenii ntary instruction
shall be given in n certain number of schools, sufficient
foi the numbei and requirements of the population, and
the schools shall be open to all children without dis-
tinction of religious creed

In addition to the essentials set forth in the
articles above quoted, the law authon/ed the
State to mteivene if communes neglected its
demands, determined the maximum number
of pupils allowed for one teacher, the minimum
salary for head teachers and ior assistant
teachers, and the mode of examining and cer-
tificating teachers, both men and women
The appointment of teachers was left to the
communal authorities, but they were legarded
as State officials and were entitled to pensions
iiom the government under the following
piovision of the law.

Art 2f> The right to a pension is acquired after an
honorable discharge at the age of sixtv-fiv<, <iml after
forty years' service A pension may also be gi anted to
those who after ten yearb' service have become invalid
Those who have not received an honorable discharge
forfeit their right to a pension.

The expenses of elementary schools were to
be borne by the communes, fees were author-
ized in all schools, but free tuition was required
for indigent children. It was further pro-
vided that the State should give special aid
to poor communities for the establishment of
primary schools

The system of school inspection provided
by the earlier law of 1806 was continued and
strengthened under the law of 1857 The gen-
eral supervision of education throughout the
kingdom was committed to the Minister of the
Interior, who is represented by provincial and
district inspectors in the exeicise of the super-
visory functions The duties of inspectors,
both 'State and local, were minutely prescribed
in the law

When the law of 1857 was pending in the
legislature, the question of religious instruction
was the chief subject of discussion In the
end the nonsectarian character of the schools
was maintained; but it was expressly provided
in the law that:

The system of education shall be made conducive
to the development of the intellectual capacities of the
children and to their training in ail Christian and social
virtues The teachers shall not teach anything in-
consistent with the respect due to the religious opinions
of others Religious instruction is left to the several
lehgious denominations The schoolrooms shall be at
then disposal for that purpose out of the regular school
hours [Art LM ]

With a single exception the mam provisions
of the law of 1857 have proved satisfactory
to all parties, and the subsequent laws of August
17, 1878, and December 8, 1889, have simply
improved the system by strengthening the
inspection service and raising both the standard
of qualification and the minimum salaries for
teachers

The status of private schools, as determined
by the law of 1857, has been the subject of bitter
controversy and has been modified lepeatedly as
the opposite parties, Liberal and Conserva-
tive, have come into power The law of 1878,
enacted by the Liberals, ordered that eveiy
school recemng a subsidy fiom the State,
howevei small, should be considered a public
school and should be subject to the same
i emulations The pait of the State in the
s< hool expenses was fixed at 30 per cent foi
all schools classed as public The Conserva-
tive party came into powei in 1883, but it
pioved difficult for them to obtain subsidies
for sectanan schools In 1889 this was m-
dncctly accomplished by including the pio-
posals'm a financial bill This measure pro-
vided that the State appiopiiation, which had
been fixed at 30 per cent of the total school
expenditure by the law of 1878, should be pro-
portioned to the number of pupils, alike in
public and in private schools Fees aie
icquired in all schools, but not to exceed the
actual cost per pupil and are to be remitted
in case of necessity The additional appro-
priation for school buildings was fixed in every
case at 25 per cent of the total cost While
State subsidies were thus sanctioned for pn-
vate schools, the communes were prohibited
from making appropriations to them The
immediate effect of this measure was to in-
crease the number of parochial schools and
reduce the attendance upon public schools

The denominational difficulty having been
settled by the law of 1889, support was secured
for the 'compulsory pnnciple which was in-
troduced by a law'of July 7, 1900, carried by
the Liberals Parents and guardians were re-
quired to secuie the education of their children
and the duties and powers of school attendance
committees were accordingly extended

Elementary Education — School admimxtoa-
twn and supcrmwon. — The State administra-
tion of schools is in charge of the Minister
of the Interior, at the head of the inspection
service are three general inspectors, and
subordinate to them are twenty-five district
inspectors; ninety-four inspectors of arron-
dissements, and from 200 to 300 communal

418

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

committees All those officials are appointed
by the sovereign and receive their salaries
from the State The communal committees
maintain close relation with the local school
boards and local supervisors and report to the
provincial inspectors The latter make annual
repoits to the Minister of the Inteiior, and at
his summons meet as an advisory council to
deliberate upon the interests of' elementary
education

The local administration of the schools rests
upon the local civil authorities, communal
burgomaster and council The law requires
that a school board shall be formed in every

commune, but small communes may unite
to form a board in common The school
board maintains constant supervision over the
schools and reports to the communal council
their condition and needs

Statistics — Pumary instruction (lager On-
derwijs) includes day schools for children of the
obligatory age (seven to thirteen years), repe-
tition or continuation schools; and evening
schools Elementary schools for defective chil-
dren and infant schools are partly supported
by public funds, but they do not come under
the same regulations as the ordinary schools.
The following statistics pertain to the latter only.

DAY SCHOOLS

NUMUKR
OP SCHOOLS

ENROLLMENT

TEACHERS

Boy B

Girls

Total

Men

11,100
4997

Women

Total

Public . .
Subsidized private
Non-subsidized private ....

Total

5220

1889 \

._ !27_L.

7215

313,000
150,347

249,824
190,971

562,824
341,318

5201
4775

16,301
9772

4W.347

440,795

904,142

10,097

9970

26,07.*

The 2016 private schools in the above table
were classified as — Chanty and orphan schools.
Protestant, 30, Roman Catholic, 31, Jewish,
2 Corporate schools: Protestant, 949, Roman
Catholic, 867, Jewish, 2 Private schools
Piotestant, 54, Roman Catholic, 10, other
schools, 71

The riumbei of children between the ages of
seven and thuteen enrolled in the schools
January 15, 1910, was 727,854, winch was 95
per cent of the total number of children of the
ages named The small number of children
between seven and thirteen years of age not
enrolled on the date mentioned were under the
supervision of the school authorities The
total number of pupils having free instruction in
1909 was 277,792 or 30 per cent of the total
enrollment Boys and girls attend the same
school and are instructed together

The classification of the teachers and number
in each class were as follows —

PUBLIC SCHOOLS

MfcN

Hoad teachers
Teachers

between 41 and 90 there must be a second
teacher, if from 91 to 144 a third, and for
every additional 55 pupils, an additional
teacher The minimum salaiy for head teach-
ers ranges from 750 fl ($301 50) to 950 fl
($382), for teachers from 500 fl ($201) to
700 fl ($281 40) The salaries depend in a
measure upon the number of pupils

All teachers wht) have reached the age of
sixty-five years, and those who are mentally or
physically disabled, after ten years' service,
are entitled to pensions The pensions are paid
quarterly, and amount to one sixtieth of the
annual salary for each year of sei vice, but must
never exceed two thirds of the former salaiy

The enrollment in the other schools included
in the piimary system, 1910, was as follows —

WOM*N

3195
7905

Head teachers
Teachers

63
5138

PUPILS

EVENING SCHOOLS

- —

- - —

Male

Female

Total

Public
Private

Total

2796
1477

21*2

1055

4928
2532

4273

3187

7450

PRIVATE SCHOOLS

The pupils m the elementary evening schools
are generally also attending day schools, hence
the former are an adjunct to the lattei.

MEN

1148
3517

WOMEN

Head teachers
Teachers

Head teachers
Teachers

535
4240

The regulations call for one head teacher Total
for every school, if the number of pupils is

419

CONTINUATION SCHOOLS

PUPILS

Male

Female

Total

Public
Private .

20,169
5344

13,360
1374

39,529
6718

Total

31,513

14,733

46,247

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

The regulations require that primary schoolb
shall be open without intermission the whole
year, except on holidays. During class hours
the master shall be present from the opening
of school to closing; he must not engage in
extraneous duties, nor absent himself except
in oases of absolute necessity. Pupils must
be enrolled, as far as possible, for fixed
terms An examination is held once a year
at each school and qualified pupils are then
promoted from the lower to the higher
grades, if circumstance permit, rewards are
given for diligence and merit. A deserving
pupil, when leaving school after completion
of the course of study, is presented with
a certificate of honor A code of regulations
must be drawn up fox4 each school, and this,
whether written or printed, is displayed on
the board, hung up in the classroom, and
from time to time is read and explained by
the master. School savings banks are main-
tained in nearly all schools

Religious Instruction — The lessons m reli-
gion are intrusted entirely to ministers and
special teachers of theology Regular teachers
must refrain from teaching, doing, or permitting
anything at variance with the respect due to
the religious convictions of other sects A
teacher guilty of offense in this respect may
be suspended for a term not exceeding one
year, but in case of repetition of the offense
he may be suspended for an indefinite peiiod
from the duties of a public-school teacher
The introduction of leligious mstiuction into
common schools is no depaiture horn the
principles of the law It has been allowed
on account of the difficulties experienced
by parents who cannot obtain leligious in-
struction ior their children in other suitable
places, but precautions are taken so that
religious teaching shall riot interfere with other
lessons

School Buildings — The modern school build-
ings are commodious and well planned and the
furnishings excellent The sanitary conditions
of the buildings are strictly regulated, and in
a few cities the schools are supplied with bath-
ing facilities In fifty-eight communes medical
inspection of schools is maintained

Expenditure for Elementary Schools — The
total expenditure (current and capital) for
elementary schools amounted in 1909 to
33,790,839 fl ($13,583,917) Of this amount
the State bore 62 per cent, the communes 28
per cent; and school fees, examination fees,
etc , the remaining 10 per cent. The fees
are small, often as low as four cents a
week, and ranging up to twenty cents The
expenditure was equivalent to $14 18 per
capita of the enrollment (957,839) in the ele-
mentary schools, i e day, continuation, and
evening, and to $2 32 per capita of the popula-
tion. There were also expended 39,124 fl
($15,728) in the support of four public, and
three private schools for the feeble-minded, and

20,908 fl ($8,405) foi a school for idiots Of
the latter amount only 6000 fl were from public
appropriations

The provision of elementary instruction is
completed by infant schools (Beiuaarscholeri)
which are chiefly private in character In 1910
they numbered 165 public, enrolling 30,073
children, and 1092 private with an enrollment of
102,970 This would raise the total number of
children at school to nearlv 18 per cent of the
population

Normal Schools — The need of special
preparation foi teachers was recognized by
the Society for Public Good and was impressed
upon the authorities from the time public
elementary schools were first established. The
school law of 1857 provided that two State
normal schools should be maintained, and sub-
sequent laws, supplemented by general regu-
lations, have greatly increased the provision
for this work In addition to the normal
schools and normal classes maintained by the
State, both schools and classes of this order
are established by communes and by private
bodies These receive aid fiom the State
if they comply with the official requirements
The impoitancc of the service is recognized
by the entrance examinations arid by the final
examination which entitles to a diploma The
standard of qualification for directors and
teachers, and in the case of State normal schools
appointments to these positions, must be con-
firmed by the sovereign

The courses of study and training in a com-
plete normal school cover four years The
subjects included are writing, arithmetic, com-
position, the Dutch language, general and na-
tional history, geography, natural science,
singing, violin and piano, principles of the
French, German, and English languages, mathe-
matics, pencil drawing, gymnastics, agriculture,
theory of teaching and pedagogy Teachers
must require all students to attend religious
instruction, which is given at stated hours, and
also their respective churches Books and
school material are furnished free of cost
Normal schools for young men are day schools,
those for young women are generally boarding
schools

Statistics — The salient particulars respect-
ing these schools and classes as repoited for
1910 are summarized in the tables on following
page

There were in addition to the above fifty-nine
students (forty-five young men, fourteen young
women) in training under the liead teachers of
schools. Of these seven men and one woman
passed the diploma examination

Special courses of training are maintained
by the State, communes, and private associa-
tions for those intending to qualify as teachers
of gymnastics, drawing, manual work, agricul-
ture, etc Candidates for appointment as
principals of schools must pass a higher exami-
nation than that for ordinary teachers

420

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

NORMAL SCHOOLS

i AMOUNT or

CLABB

No OF
SCHOOLS

ENROLLMENT

NUMBKR o* ^STUDENTS

4.T FlN\L Ex \MIN\TtON

STATE APPRO-
PRIATION (UNm D
STATEH

CURRENCY)

Men

Women

Total

Men

Women

Number
passed

State

7

50.1

81

586

115

20

119

$199,50d

Communal

3

59

225

284

10

57

3«»

17,531

Private

Protestant

12

308

,171

7.1<>

08

.10

47

29,000

Roman Catholic

37

492

15,11

202.1

KM)

205

263

90,379

Others

0

14

2294

2.108 4

80

59

18,01.1

Total

64

1430

4504

5940 1 .10,1 i 452

547

$300,432

NORMAL COURSES

AMOUNT or

CLABB

No

ENKOLLMkNI

NUMBER OF STUDKNTK

APPROPRIATION

CUKRKNCY)

Men

Women

Total

i
Men Women

Numbe r
passed

State

80

1550

1858

3414

314 4Jr>

463 $208. 02 i

Communal . . .

4

113

240

,15.1

11 ! 39

44

9000

Private

12Q

lr>15

1JOO

2875

230 219

267 48,162

Total

219 3184 3458

OG42

558 083

774 $265,192

At Ley den there is a college for the training
of kindergarten teachers, the only school of
this class which is subsidized by the State
It receives from this source 3500 fl ($1407)
annually and from the city 2000 fl ($800) In
consideration of these funds, the college supplies
teachers for the kindergarten schools of the
city without charge In addition to twenty-
five resident students there is an average at-
tendance of seventy day students A notice-
able feature of the training ih the adaptation
of the Froebehan methods and material to the
conditions of child life in the kingdom

Secondary Education — Secondary educa-
tion (middelbaar Onderwijn) is organized in
accordance with a law of May 2, 1863, amended
by laws of June 28, 1876, and April 25, 1879
Included under this head are, the burgher
schools, higher burgher schools, agricultural
schools, and industrial, trade, and technical
schools As m the case of primary schools,
the secondary institutions may be of either
public or private origin

Supervision — The Minister of the Intenoi,
the supreme educational authority, exercises
his control of this department through the
agency of three general inspectors who are
appointed upon his recommendation by the
sovereign, one of these has special superin-
tendence of the State agricultural schools
Local committees are appointed by the com-
mercial councils with the approval of the minis-
ter, for the immediate supervision of public
secondary schools In the case of industrial
or technical schools for girls, women are gener-
ally appointed on the boards The supervision
of the higher burgher schools is committed to
their respective directors.

Teochei * — Only persons holding a diploma
from a university or from a Slate examining
board, and a testimonial of good moral stand
ing, as required by law, are allowed to engage
in secondary instruction From this rule are
exempted (1) persons who instruct children of
one family only, (2) those who do not make
teaching their piofession but have obtained
royal authority to teach without remuneration
(membeih of religions orders) Directors and
teachers of secondary instruction must receive
authorization from the Minister of the Interior
before they can be appointed to a position in
any public or private institution, or for giving
private lessons Directors and teachers of higher
burgher schools supported by the communes
are appointed by the local council from a list
of eligible candidates recommended by local
authorities Only male teachers arc employed
in the higher burgher schools The teachers
of secondary schools receive pensions upon
practically the same conditions as those of
primary schools

Scope oftheBurghd and Higher Buighei School*
— The burgher schools, intended particularly
foi the children of tradesmen, mechanics,
and agriculturists, are divided into day and
evening schools The course of study of the
day schools extends through two yeais and em-
braces the following branches Mathematics
physics, chemistry, theoretic and applied me-
chanics, natural history, elementary principles
of technology and agriculture, geography, his-
tory, the Diitch language, political economy,
drawing, and gymnastics In each community
of 10,000 inhabitants or more, one burgher
school at least must be established by the com-
munal authorities, but the burgher day schools

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

are giving place to highci burgher schools and
hence the lower grade is represented chiefly
by evening schools

The higher burgher schools are divided into
schools with five years' course and schools wit h
three years' course The law requires that there
shall not be less than twelve higher State burgher
schools in operation in the country, and in
at least five of these the course must be of five
years' duration The schools are fully equipped
with laboratories, and with illustrative museums
and are distinguished for the methods and
thoroughness of the instruction in science and
modern languages The actual scope of the
schools of this class is illustrated by the typical
program given below

PROGRAM OF THE STATE HIGHER BURGHER
SCHOOLS AT UTRECHT

CLASHES AND HOURS VLB WFFK *

SUBJECTS

--

-

____

I

II

III

IV

V

Totals

The Mother Tongue

3

3

2

2

2

12

French

4

3

i

2

2

14

German

3

3

i

2

2

13

4

4

3

2

2

16

English

4

4

2

2

12

4

4

2

2

\i

History

3

3

3

2

2

13

16

Geography

3

2

2

1

1

I)

Communal, Prov and

National Institu-

tions

1

1

1

3

0

1

i

2

Political economy

1

1

2

i

i

i

Mathematics

7

8

6

G

3

30

7

A

o

4

i

21

Mechanics

2

2

4

2

2

4

Phjsica or Technol-

ogy

2

2

4

8

2

i

4

V

Chemistry

4

4

8

s

4

7

Biology or Geology

2

2

1

1

1

7

i

i

2

2

2

8

Cosmography

1

1

2

1

1

2

Commercial Law

1

1

1

2

f

Bookkeeping
Cahgraphy

1

1

1

2
1

2

Freehand Drawing

2

2

2

1

1

8

i

i

i

3

1

i&

Geometrical Drawing

1

1

1

3

Gymnastics

2

2

2

b

2

2

2

2

2

10

Totals

30

32

32

32

32

158

tificale which has great value for those seeking
commercial or civil appointments

For the latest year reported (1910) there
were 81 higher burgher schools, of which 27
were State schools, 47 communal, and 7
private The total number of pupils was
10,663, of whom 2347 were girls For the
final examination 1839 pupils were presented,
the number who passed was 925, including
146 girls The number of teachers was 1402,
of these 395 had the Doctor's degree, 21 that
of candidaat (corresponding to the French
1 ice net), 869 had special diplomas There
were also 15 secondary schools for girls main-
tained by communes or private bodies, en-
rolling 1646 pupils This makes a total of
3993 girls in the secondary grade of studies

The salaries of directors of the higher burgher
schools range from 2750 fl to 4000 fl ($904 80
to $1608), salaries of teachers from 1000 fl
($402) to 3050 fl ($1225) The total expendi-
ture for the schools of this class in 1909 was
1 ,922,770 fl ($772,954) Of this amount 12 6 per
cent was covered by State appropriation; the
balance, by communal appropriations and fees

The diploma of the higher burgher school is
required as a preliminary qualification for en-
gineers, architects, and technologists who aspire
to enter the State service The diploma admits
to the polytechnic school at Delft, to the special
course of the Indian service schools at Delft
and Leyden, to the military school at Haarlem,
and to the artillery course at Delft

Industrial and Technical Schools — The
higher burgher schools are the only institutions
comprised in the division of nuddlcbaar Ondcr-
wijs which are intended for general education
of the secondary type The term, in fact,
pertains to administrative rather than to scho-
lastic relations and the gieat proportion of
schools belonging to this department are in-
dustrial or technical in character Hence they
may be considered as forming part of the system
of technical instruction Many of these schools
are burgher evening schools, others belong to
special classes of technical schools As regards
control they may be public, i c established and
maintained by communal authorities, or pri-
vate In any case they may receive State
subsidies The scope and variety of the schools
of industrial arts are indicated by the following
particulars of those maintained in two towns
selected from a list of sixty-foul institutions

1 The smaller figures in the columns are from other pro- _

grams They serve to illustrate the slight differences that exist

Candidates for admission to the higher
burgher schools must be at least twelve years
of age, and must pass an entrance examination
Promotion from one class to a higher is made
by examination, and at the termination of the
course the students are examined by a govern-
ment board: if successful, they receive a cer-

422

COMMUNE

NAME OK SCHOOL
(ENGLISH EQUIVALENT)

No OF
TEACHKKS

No OP
PUPILS

(1) Evening drawing school

for manual workers

27

554

(2) Industrial school of the

society of workers

13

IOC

AMSTERDAM

(3) School of drawing for

the artistic industries

13

350

(4) Seminary for mechanics

21

175

(5) Industrial school for

voung women

24

282

HERTOQEN-

(1) Royal School for useful

BOSCH

and hno arts

11

219

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

In all the schools of this class, drawing oc-
cupies the chief place, mathematics and the
mother tongue come next in importance,
other branches respond to local needs

Of the more highly specialized schools, the
Trade School (Ambachtsschool) at the Hague
('s Gravcnhagc) may be taken as a typical
example It was established in 1X7,'$ by an
Association for the "Advancement of the Build-
ing Trades " It receives municipal support
and is amply equipped for the accommodation
and instruction of 300 boys To the general
subjects mentioned above, the Trades School
adds special courses in wood and metal work
and construction. The program coveis three
full years

The specialized schools include eleven schools
of navigation and ten for training fishermen
Commercial education is provided for bv courses
in the higher burgher schools and by special
classes maintained by private societies, chain
bers of commerce, etc

The schools of household mdustiy for girls
form one of the most important gioups in this
department They number thirty, established
by communes or by private associations and
all but four subsidized by the State Nineteen
of the number are day schools, the remainder,
generally, have both day and evening sessions
The duration of the course of tiaming varies
from one to three years, the lange of fees
is from 25 francs to 050 francs ($5 to $130)
a year

Included in this same administrative de-
partment are the communal institutions for the
deaf-mute at Rottcidam and (riomngen and one
for the blind at Amsterdam, all subsidized by
the State The children committed to their
charge receive their living and tuition gratu-
itously, excepting those whose parents are
able to meet the expenses " St Michiel's
Crestel " is an institution for the deaf-mute
maintained by the Catholic Church, but re-
ceiving state appropriations

The department of rmddclbaar Oudcnvij^
includes also several schools of a professional
character which do not, however, require the
same order of preliminary training as the uni-
versity faculties Among these schools are
(1) The State Academy of Applied Arts at
Rotterdam; (2) the state schools for the
training of drawing teachers at Amsterdam
and the Hague, (3) state training schools for
midwives at Amsterdam and Rotterdam,
(4) military and naval schools

Agricultural Education — The system of
agricultural education in the Netherlands,
\vluch has attracted wide attention, forms a
subdivision of this same department (middd-
baar Onderwjs), although its transfer to the
department of agriculture has been under con-
sideration In all matters relating to agncul-
tural education the government is advised and
assisted by the general Inspector of Secondary
Education in charge of agricultural schools

The system includes (1) state establishments,
(2) courses of instruction, theoretic and prac-
tical, maintained by the Provincial Agricul-
tural and Horticultural societies, with the
assistance of state subsidies The state estab-
lishments are (1) the Agricultural College at
Wagenmgen, (2) the Agricultural and Horti-
cultural winter schools, (3) the Veterinary
College at Utrecht, (4) Instructors of Agricul-
ture and Horticulture appointed by the gov-
einment in the various provinces, to give in-
struction in their respective subjects

The well known State Agricultural College
at Wage ni ngen consists of four sections
the Agricultural School, the Horticultural
School, the High School, the High School for
Agriculture arid Forestry An important fea-
ture of the institution is the thorough course
in colonial agriculture intended for students
who desire to go out as assistants or man-
agers of sugar, coffee, tea, and other plantations
in the colonies (Java), and who require, in
addition, an elementary knowledge of colonial
agriculture, laws, and customs The college
is controlled by a board consisting of the direc-
tors of the four sections One member of the
board is appointed by the Government as
president with the title of Hoofd-directeur (Chief
Director) He acts as the executive officer of
the college There are forty professors and
teachers and an average of 250 pupils The
annual expenses of the college are about 1,100,-
000 fl ($442,200)

Higher Education — The present system
of higher education (hooqer Ondenmjx) is based
upon the law of April 28, 1876, amended and
modified bv laws of May 7, 1878, June 2S,
1SSI, June 15, 1883, arid \July 23, 1885 The
institutions included in tins department aie
either of public or private origin The former
are established and maintained by communes
and the State, separately and conjointly, the
latter may be subsidized from public funds
In accordance with the law of 1876, the publu
institutions are the gymnasia and Latin schools,
the tlnee state universities, and the communal
university of Amsterdam, the denominational
44 semmana " and other private institutions
answei to the universities, but only the latter
can confer academic degrees The fundamen-
tal law established the principle of liberty in
higher education, but all persons engaged in
this service are subject to supervision by the
educational authority Foreigners must ob-
tain authorization from the sovereign before
thev can be employed as teachers of the higher
branches, in either public or private institutions

Thi (ri/mnaxia — The classification of the
gymnasia under the head of higher educa-
tion is a peculiarity of the Netherlands system
which follows historic precedents The gym-
nasia have replaced in the modern system the
classical schools which were preparatory to the
universities The higher burgher schools,
classed as secondary, start at the same level as

423

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

the gymnasia and admit pupils at the same
age, i.e twelve years To a certain extent
the courses of the two classes of schools arc
parallel, as is shown by the programs But
the graduates of the higher burgher schools
cannot enter the university faculties without
at least a year's preparation in Latin and
Greek Authorities m Holland are divided
in their opinion as to the wisdom of maintain-
ing this distinction of degree between the
burgher schools and the gymnasia, but so far
the advocates of Latin and Greek an affording
a higher order of intellectual discipline than
the modern studies have prevailed

The law requires that every community of
over 20,000 inhabitants shall equip and main-
tain a gymnasium, other communities may
take the same action The supervision of
each gymnasium devolves upon a communal
council, styled College of Curators The head

of a gymnasium, the Rector, and also the Co-
Rector must possess the doctor's degree in class-
ical philology, the professors must have either
a university diploma or certificate from the
State Examining Board. Appointments to these
positions are made by the communal authori-
ties j if the institution receives a state subsidy, the
choice must be approved by the Minister of the
Interior The professors arc present simply for
their class instruction, and their salaries are reg-
ulated bv the number of hours' instruction which
they must give The government inspectors
report annually to the Minister of the Interioi
as to the condition of the public institutions
of this order Private gymnasia exist, also
under authorization from the Minister, to
whom they must send an annual report The
public gymnasia follow an official program,
which is given below The private institutions
are independent in this respect.

CURRICULUM OF THE GYMNASIA

CLABHKH AND HOUKH PKU WEEK

a

_

I

II

111

IV

V

VI

Hum'

All

Real 8

Hums

All

Real*

Hum

Real

Greek

!/' »

0

7

2

4

3

4

32

27

Latin

8

6

fi

6

3

.-;

4

4

42

35

Dutch

3

2

2

2

2

1

12

12

French

4

2

2

2

1

1

12

12

(lerman

3 J

o

2

2

1

9

q

English

3

3

2

1

9

0

History

4

3

3

3

1

1

1

2

18

10

(ieoRraphy

^

2

1

1

7

7

Mathematics

4

.}

,j

3

2

,j

2

3

17

23

1'hysics

o

1

2

1

4

tt

Chemistry
Natural History

2

2

1
2

1
2

4

2

8

Total

28

28

2S

2K

27

28

28

27

26

106

106

1 Eight hours per week for part of year, five hours for remainder Similarly as regards 0 and 3 in Class II
1 Extra for humanists » Extra for "real " students

Statistics — There is a public gymnasium
in each of the thirty principal cities of the
kingdom and thirty-one additional private
gymnasia The former had in 1910 a total
of 2250 students (1647 young men, 003 young
women). The private gymnasia had m the same
year 2048 students Altogether there were
4298 students in this stage of higher education.
The teaching force of the public institutions
numbered 456 professors; of these 240 had the
doctor's degree, fifty-five the title of decent,
the remainder had certificates from state
examining boards. The expenditure for the
public gymnasia in 1910 amounted to 907,-
594.54 fl. ($364,853) to which the State con-
tributed 262,319 fl , or 28 percent.

The Universities — There are three state
universities, Leyden, Utrecht, and Gronmgen,
comprising each the five faculties of theology,
law, medicine, science, letters, and philosophy.
The internal administration of each university

is m charge of a college of curators, the mem-
bers of which are commissioned by the sovereign
The university senate, which determines the
scholastic arrangements, consists of members
representing the several faculties, the choice
being in each case sanctioned by the Minister
of the Interior The curators through theii
secretaries make detailed reports of the affairs
of their respective institutions to the Ministei
of the Interior and submit each year an esti-
mate of expenditures for the coming year
The Minister, in turn, presents the estimate
to the legislature and disburses the appro-
priation allowed

Professors in the state universities receive
their appointment from the crown and may be
suspended or dismissed by the Minister for
mcompetency or misdemeanors On reaching
the age of seventy, university professors are
pensioned. The amount of pension is deter-
mined by the number of years of service, but

424

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

NETHERLANDS, EDUCATION IN

it may not exceed the sum of $1200 per annum
Professors in the higher institutions belonging
to the Catholic Church are also pensioned by
the government

STATISTICS OF THE UNIVERSITIES, 1910-1911

NUMBkK

EXPENDITURE

UNIVERSITY

No or

STUDLNTS

OF PBO-

FFBBOR8

AND

VI

U H

TLAcm-ns

Equivalents

State

Leyden

1105

76

1,119,260

$482,102

Utrecht

1082

69

1,061,774

426,833

Gronmgen

651

51

817,519

328,643

Communal

Amsterdam

1139

109

632,500

254.265

Total

3967

299

3,711,053

$1,491,843

The faculty of medicine has the largest
registration in all the universities Leyden
is particularly distinguished for law, which
claims the greatest number of students after
medicine Utrecht leads in theology The
Doctor's diploma, which is conferred bv the
universities, carnes mention of the Faculty in
which the student has completed his studies

The universities all have extensive libnuies
and arc well equipped with laboratories and
museums Clinical facilities are afforded the
students of medicine, in hospitals connected
with the universities

The provision for higher education is com-
pleted bv a private university at Amsterdam,
arid about twenty-six denominational institu-
tions in various places, some of winch receive
subsidies from the State They are designated
as seminaries, colleges, Latin schools, training
schools Their aim is generally the training
of young men to serve as ministers in their
respective churches and as teachers of higher
branches

The Polytechnic School — The Polytechnic
School at Delft affords the highest order of
technical training for engineers, architects,
and architectural engineers The number of
students in 1910 was 1235, including 705 not
following a complete course The faculty
numbered fifty-four professors, there were also
six private docents and eight assistant pro-
fessors The expenditure was 680,803 fl
($273,683) Every student of the polytechnic
school pays $80 in advance for the annual
course, which entitles him to all the advantages
of the school Those taking elective studies
pay only for the subjects chosen, at the rate
of $4 per annum for each study, with one recita-
tion per week For four or more recitations
per week the fee is $16 per annum for each
study. The students who have taken the
course of the polytechnic school at Delft, and
wish to go to the East Indies as government
officials, prepare themselves for such positions
by taking a two or three years' course in the
school at Leyden for the training of officials

in the East Indian service Here they are
taught the Java, Malay, and Boegine languages
The instruction is under the general super-
vision of a college of curators, and the head
master and teachers are appointed by the
sovereign The yearly program arranged by
them must be submitted to the Minister of the
Interior for his approval. The total expenditure
for higher education in 1909 was 5,773,138 41 fl
($2,320,802) derived as follows —

FL

PER CENT

State appropriation . .
Province of North Holland
Communes

4,634,8(37 2,3
10,000 00
1 128 271 18

80.2
0,3
19 5

5,773,13841

Summary — The system of education in the
Netherlands is marked throughout by the har-
monious action of somewhat incongruous ele-
ments combined in a rather loose organization
The effective working of the system is due. first,
to the inspection service, second, to the high
standard of the teaching force, third, to the
examination te.sts which meet the student at
every important stage of hih progress It is
noticeable further that while the highest order
of intellectual discipline is fostered, provision
is made for training even aptitude which
finds its exorcise in the varied industries of
modern life A T. S & (1 FI P

References —

BARNARD, II National Education in Euro pi (pp
595--o 1 8) , includes cxtnuts from BarheV Report
on Education in Europe (1 838), and from W E
Iliekson's Account of (hf Dutch and Gtinuin School*
(1840) (Now York, 1854 )

BunniNGH, L Gtschiedenii von Opvotding (n Ondtr-
wija (n ck Nederlanden (\s Gra\ engage, 1*43 )

COUHIN, VICTOR DC rin^truttum pubhqw <n Hol-
la ndt (Pans. 1837 ) Tr hy Horner, Leonard
(hi th( State of Education in Holland, a« regards
tit koala foi thi Working Cla^t s and for tht Poor,
by M Victor Cousin Translated with prelimi-
nary observations (London, 1838 )

CRAMER, F (Hotchichtt der Eiziehung und den Un-
terricktb in d^ Nicderlandrn wdhrvnd dtx Mittcl-
alt(r8 (Stralsund, 1S43 )

DOUMA, H Get>chied<nib van tut lager Ondtrwijs en
Sthool Opvoeding in Ned(rland (Parmerend,
1{>()0 )

England, Board of Education Special Report* on
Educational Subjects, Vol VIII. pp 293-440
Primary Education in th( Nttherlandv Vol
VIII, Suppl Ed motion in tin Ndherlands (Lon-
don, 1902 )

KOKHMA, F M r E Htt KamUu can lut openbaar-
lager Ondtrwij^ (Utrecht 1SSS )

LAVBLEYE, EMILE DE Dtbat* 8\u V Enseignement
priwairt dans lua Chambrea Hollandaises Ses-
sion do 1857

Maatnchappij tot Nut vari't Algemeen, (Amsterdam)
Stukken het Schoolwezen betreffen.de, uitgegeeven
dooi de Maatsckappij tot Nut van't Algemeen, 1-14
(Levden, etc, 1791- )

MOYERSOEN, HOMAIN Du Regime legal de lEnseigne-
went pritnairc en Holla nde (Pans, 1895 )

Netherlands (Nmimissie, Wereld TentoonstellunR
te Philadelphia Die Elementar- und Mittelschulen
im Konigreiche der Niedcrlandt, und dcren Ent-
L>A

425

B

PLTHH,
//

(

NETHKRLANDH, COLONIES OF

wicklung rmr// dcr Kinfiihniny dci Gtbtczt pom 13 lcn
August, 18/57 (Ehnuntar-sthuh) und vom "2trn
Mai 18bS (Mittel- und tnhmt>che Srhult) Hrsg
im Auftiugo do.s Mimsttis <l<i-t Innciu (Lcyclt'ii,
1873)

Netherlands, Mmist^i of the Interior Vndnu van
den fttaat dcr hoogi , rniddlthaic tn la(j<t< Si hoi en in
hct Koninknjk dir Nuicilandcn (Latest, 1909-
1910)

Netherlands Rapport van dc tftaalb-comrrnssic voot
dc Reorganization van het Ondcrwijs, inyistcld bij
Koninklijk B( slutt van 21 Maait, UJO1, Na 49
PARVK, D J S Organisation di Vlnstiuction jnnnam,
lain ct xupci n tin dans Ic Roj/auinc dt», Pays-
Onrra(jc puhln sons Its Ausjn«s d< la Com-
tn nnjah nurlandaisc pout /' Kx position um-
M///< di 187S (Leyden, 1S7H )
, .,, (1 Ji Education in th< Ntthn lands, //A
! story and patent Condition U S Bm Ediu ,
.Yr Inf, No 2, 1K77, contains epitome in English
of the School Law of 1S57 (Washington, 1877)
A\K, PAUL L( R6gimt lignl dt I' Ent>iit/nt merit
tn Holland* (Pans, 1910)
Vcrslao omtrcntde IniichtiHQ ooor Doofatonnmn ondcrwijs

to Kottirdam (Annual )

WOLTJEH, J Ed L' Ensagni merit tn Hollandc For
Brussels Exposition (GroiimKen, 1910 )

NETHERLANDS, COLONIES OF, EDU-
CATION IN THE — With the exception of
the British Empire of India, the colonial
possessions of the Dutch in Malaysia form the
greatest empire of dependent people in the
world This territory includes the major part
of the two largest islands of the world, New
Guinea and Borneo, the richest and most
populous island, Java, and the famed and
long-coveted " Spice Islands/' the Moluccas
Four fifths of the entire Malay race inhabit
these islands, and nearly three fourths of the
entire number, or about 30,000,000, are on the
island of Java, which is the scat of the Dutch
administration The smaller islands of the
group are inhabited by black people Arab
settlements are found in important ports like
Batavia, Samarang, Surabaya, and Makassar,
or journeying as traders and proselyteis
Through their religious faith, which they have
communicated to the Malay race, they possess
great influence over the entire population
The other important foreign clement is the
Chinese, who are settling in nearly all the
towns ot the archipelago, although restricted
as to dwelling and place of business to certain
quarters They number about half a million,
the majority of them residents of Java

Until near the middle of the last century the
education of the natives received little atten-
tion But m 1848 after the Dutch States-
Gcneral obtained control of the government
of the colonies, an appropriation of 25,000 fl
was made for native education In 1854, the4
Rcgecnngs Regie ment provided that the gov-
ernor-general should establish schools for the
native population, but the provision was vague
and practically inoperative for many years
At last interest awoke, the4 Department of
Education, Worship, and Industries was created
in 1868, and about 1872 the organization of
schools for the native people began in earnest
Jn 1884 a reaction set in and progress ceased

NETHERLANDS, COLONIES OF

But a reorganization ol the education work wae
finally seen to be necessary, and in 1892 and
1893 there was sanctioned and put into effect
a scheme of native instruction which had been
proposed some years earlier by the director
of education, Mr W P Oroeneveldt Under
this scheme two kinds of public instruction
arc maintained, one patterned upon the Eu-
ropean system (Europeebch Onderwijs), the
other native education (Ondcrwijs vooi In-
landers)

European Schools — Schools for the Eu-
ropean population have long been provided
Under the new conditions they are more closely
organized and arc4 assured of government
supervision and support Their character-
istic features are similar to those of the schools
in the mother country The public lower
schools, in 1909, numbered 190 with 732 Eu-
ropean teachers and 21,714 pupils Of these
9120 weie boys, and 7371 girls of European
birth, 3693 were* natives, 3190 being male,
1530 were Asiatic foreigners, largely Chinese,
1101 being male There are also 40 private
European lower schools aided by the govern-
ment, with over 5000 pupils, mostly girls

The rapid increase4 oi native attendance in
the European schools was one cause of the
establishment of the native schools Com-
pared to the* number of European or mixed
European people4 for whom the former schools
are created, the system must be regarded as
exceedingly liberal This population was reck-
oned a few years ago at 80,000, and its children
were in public or private primary schools to
the number of over 20,000, or more than 25 per
cent of the coriespondmg population

For secondary education of the Euiopean
type, there are several schools, of which the
most important is the Gymnasium William III
at Batavia This institution has a five years'
course corresponding to that of the higher
burgher schools in Holland, and in addition
a special course preparing students for the
civil service The studies pertain to the lan-
guages, the geography, and ethnology of the
Indies Similar schools are founded at Sura-
baya and Samarang The Queen Wilhclmma
School is the name applied to a group of schools
at Batavia giving secondary instruction of a
technical character

Native Schools — The schools for Europeans
are all open to natives, but they reach only a
very small proportion of them The scheme
that was put into operation in 1892-1893
piovidcd foi a system of lower primary schools
for natives only These schools are of two
classes first and second The latter offer a
four years' course only m the common branches,
instruction being given m the native dialect
and Malay The first-class lower school offers
a six years' course and, besides instruction in
the native dialect and Malay, gives three years'
instruction in Dutch The introduction of
Dutch marks the return to a policy abandoned

NETHERLANDS, COLONIES OF

NEUCHATEL, UNIVERSITY OF

twenty years ago The language has proved
Indispensable as a basis for higher training,
especially on administrative, technical, and
professional lines, as well as for the intellectual
development of the native The authorities
are convinced that the diffusion of the Dutch
language among the peoples of their great
Empire will be a political factoi of the highest
value, hence they have dehbeiately given up
the former policy of discouraging its use in
native education

These graded schools will be located chiefly
in the moie populous places, but in 1906 a
plan was adopted for establishing rural schools,
dessa schools, within reach of every hamlet,
for it is admitted that until the rural popula-
tion is taught to read, wiite, and keep accounts
the mass will icmain incapable of fuither
advance In accordance with this plan, schools
are being rapidly established in all the islands
It is estimated that Java alone will require
30,000 dcssa schools This development will
call for an increased number of teachers from
Holland and renewed efforts for the tiaming
of native teachers

Normal Schools — In the leaction of 1884
the number of normal schools lor natives was
reduced to foui, situated respectively at Ban-
doeng and Probohiiftgo in Java, Fort de Kock
in Sumatra, and at Amboma, a fifth school
was added at Djokjakarta in 1897 and a sixth
at Oenarang in the residency of Samarang in
1905 In these schools the government fur-
nishes free instruction to students and provides
them with furnished rooms and an allowance
of 10 fl ($4 20) a month for food and clothing
The course of study in the normal schools is
arranged for five years and comprises the Dutch
language, Malay, and one other natne tongue,
arithmetic, geometry, land measuring and sur-
veying, including leveling and waterways,
geography, history of Netherlands-India, natu-
ral sciences, including elementary physics and
meteorology, plant and animal life, writing
in Arabic, in Javanese, or other native char-
acters, and in Roman letters, music, and very
thorough work in drawing, which is pursued
for five years In the fourth and fifth years
instruction is given in pedagogy and school
administration, the sixth and last year is
devoted to general review and to practice teach-
ing in a well-organized training school

JSchoolfi for Native Officials — Another im-
portant feature of the system is the establish-
ment of training schools for native officials
The idea is not new, as schools of this class
were created as early as 1878, but the entire
character of the training has been changed,
and to the four older schools, three new schools
have been added since 1909 In several of the
schools a normal department for training native
teachers is included, and in the higher section
the student pursues jurisprudence, public and
administrative law of the Indies, political
economy, land surveying, waterways, line and

map drawing In 1909 a professional school
intended to prepare native magistrates was
opened at Batavia It forms with the medical
school at Batavia, which was reorganized in
1902, the nucleus of a native university

Chinese Schools — Special mention should
be made of the Dutch-Chinese schools in-
tended for the children of the extensive Chinese
population by whom the practical value of
education is fully realized as shown by their
attendance upon the European schools Such
schools were organized m 1908 at Batavia,
Samarang, Surabaya, and Makassar. In 1909
seven more were opened, at Menado (Celebes),
Bandjermassin (Borneo), Singaraja (Bali),
Padang (Sumatra), and at Malang, Surakarta,
and Bandoeng, Java These schools have the
same organization and offer the same course
as European lower schools

Cost of Education — The government ex-
penditure for public schools in 1907 amounted
to 2,678,353 fl ($502,252) The estimated
cost for 1910 was 3,570,200 fl ($2,158,820),
including subsidies to private schools These
sums do not cover the cost of construction of
new buildings, which, except for dessa schools,
is borne by the^State, and will amount in the
next few yeais to large sums annually

ATS
References —

BARROWH, D P Education in the Netherlands-India
Set-rotary of Public Instruction, Philippines, Ninth
Annual Report, also U S Bur Educ , Rep Com
Ed , 1911, Vol I (Washington, 1912 )
liibtitut Colonial international L' Enseigncmcnt aux
Indifftnts Documents officicls preredCs de Notices
hutoriques (Brussels, 1909-1910)

NEUCHATEL, UNIVERSITY OF, SWIT-
ZERLAND — Although the present univej-
sity was only ei rated in 1909, the municipal
and cantonal authorities have for the last two
centuries stnven to provide an institution of
higher learning In 1659 a proposal was made
to the town council to appoint instructors and
profcssois to teach philosophy In 1712 the
council ordered four ministers to diaw up a
plan foi the appointment of a professoi of
philosophy, and in 1731 Louis Bourget was
appointed to this position In 1737 a professor
of literature was appointed Hut there was as
yet no definite institution It w is not until
1830 that serious efforts began to be made to
establish an academy, inspired by the general
movement to provide higher education in
Switzerland In 1838 it was proposed to
found an academy to give course's piopanitory
to the universities and professional studies
In 1839 public lectuie courses were given,
and in 1841 the academy was established with
seventeen piofessors in arts, science, and law,
and additional chans were provided in the
next few years Only the faculties of arts and
science granted degrees It is interesting to
note that both Agassiz and Guyot (qqv)
were members of the teaching staff at this time.

427

NEURASTHENIA

NEURASTHENIA

The academy, however, wa& closed in 1848,
only to be reestablished on a more permanent
footing in 1866, with the same three faculties,
and gymnasiums or secondary school depart-
ments. The latter were organized into a can-
tonal gymnasium in 1872 In 1874 a faculty
of theology was established, and 1883-1884
the faculty of law was empowered to giant
degrees In 1878 a couise in French for for-
eigners was organized and later was converted
into the titniinairc de Fran^aix moderne pour
titranger* (1892) In 1886 a building was
erected for the academy, and in 1887 the first
laboratories were added But in spite of the
uipid progress, the academy did not yet possess
the same* rank as other Swiss universities and
still continued to give what properly belonged
to the secondary schools In 1894 a reorgani-
zation took place, and this deficiency was
remedied to meet the standards generally pre-
vailing m the country In 1896 the labora-
tories were increased in numbei, and vanous
collections were acquired In 1909 the acad-
emy was raised to the rank of the university,
with faculties of letters, science, theology,
and law One year's work is given for medical
students The Sew mat re for foreign students
has giown in popularity and attracts many
foieigners A Diplome poai r Enscigncmctit
du Ff(jn,(ai^ moderne a V Etr anger is given after
a course of two semesters in the 86mmaire
The enrollment in the sunirnei semester of
1911 was 226 matriculated students and 76
auditors

References —

Mmtrva, Handhm h dcr grlrhiten Welt, Vol 1 (Struss-

burK, 1U11 )
TRIBOLET, M DE L' Acadtmie d'hier et I' Acad&nw

d'aujourdhw (Neuch&tel, 1905 )

NEURASTHENIA —According to Beard,
the first to describe the disease, " neurasthenia
is a chronic functional disease of the nervous
system the basis of which is impoverishment
of nervous tissues in excess of repair," and,
according to Ziemmsen, " it is a functional weak-
ness of the nervous system varying fiorn the
slightest degree in certain localities to an entire
loss of strength m the whole nervous system "
No disease is as prevalent as neurasthenia, if
with it we group its mental counterpart which
is discussed under the title psychasthema (q v ).
Although neurasthenia has been consideied a
typical American disease, it is not confined to
those Americans who lead fast, energetic lives,
but is found at all ages and among all civilized
races

Neurasthenia is a most insidious affection,
since the symptoms resemble so much those
which are to be found in normal children and
adults as the result of ordinary work and
fatigue In fact, the symptoms in neuras-
thenia are principally those corresponding
with fatigue and exhaustion The individual

who suffers from neurasthenia has these
toms, extending, however, over comparatively
long periods, and it is because of the long-
continued character of the symptoms that we
consider them a disease

The symptoms in neurasthenia are both
subjective and objective, but it is upon the
subjective ones that the diagnostician must
depend for his chief information The indi-
vidual feels worried, he has a feeling of hope-
lessness or sometimes a simple and vague
depression similar to that which is found in
melancholia Associated with these we find
obsessions or fixed ideas In connection with
these subjective feelings we find an apparent
lack of strength; there is less movement on the
part of the individual and when movements
are produced, they soon lead to weariness or
fatigue, usually the appetite fails and there
is a loss in weight As an evidence of the lack
of control of the nervous system, we find varia-
tions in the vasomotor system The heart also
is affected, we find cardiac palpitations and
quickenings, sometimes a weakening of the
force In another field we find hyperesthesia,
which is evidenced by restlessness 01 nci-
voiiMiess, the individuals are irritated by the
slightest stimulation; parathesias are frequent
^feelings of itching and of burning, e g animals in
abdomen, etc ) Headache is common, some-
times localized above the eyes, but most often at
the occiput and extending down the spine along
its entire length We find on the motor side,
a slowing in movement (retardation), the in-
dividual does riot want to move, he takes a
long tune to start a particular movement, and
when the movement is performed it is usually
slow and of little force

In the disease, fatigue is commonly noticed
in the morning after sleep (morning tiredness)
This is replaced after some hours with the
ordinary feelings, so that the individual in the
morning is less capable of carrying on work
than in the latter portion of the day. Neu-
rasthenia is especially common in women and
children At times when the demands upon
the nervous system and the body are greatest,
it is most likely to occur, e g at puberty.
Although neurasthenia may arise in an other-
wise healthy individual, it is usually to be
found in individuals of nervous type, and in
those upon whom hereditary influences are
acting The treatment of the disease is mainly
that of rest.

Since many of these conditions start as the
result of excessive stimulation and of excessive
work during periods of strain, it will be under-
stood that the condition is to be found com-
monly associated with the periods of growth
and of great functional activity. At such
times children should be protected as far as
possible from excessive fatigue, and they should
be permitted to carry on a minimum of school
work, lessons should be short and easy and
long periods of rest should be taken between

428

NEUROLOGY

NEVADA, STATE OF

them Such children must be kept out of
doors as much as possible, and should be com-
pelled to take a midday rest and go to bed
early The time lost in this way is really a
gain because it prevents a general breakdown
which may require a complete cessation of all
activity for six months or a year The per-
mitting of such children to try for prizes in
school is hygiemcally criminal Children who
show symptoms of fatigue beyond the normal
from the work of the school day should be
referred to the school physician for a care-
ful examination Their condition should be
reported to the parents with a recommendation
regarding the stopping of the school work

The neurasthenic state is commonly found
as a prodrome to many mental diseases
Whenever the symptoms arc found they should
be considered with suspicion, because if thev
are not neurasthenic they are generally the
symptoms of disease of a grave character It
should be noted that the feeling of early weariness
and of fatigue with depression are commonly
early stages in a number of diseases, such as
measles, scarlet fever, etc , and the reference
by the teacher of such a pupil to the .school
physician will sometimes help to prevent an
epidemic in her class or in the school

8 I F

NEUROLOGY —See MEDICAL EDUCATION,
PHYSIOLOGY

NEURONE —See NERVOUS SYSTEM

NEUROSIS —A term used to designate
a nervous state In combination, as psycho-
neurosis, to indicate a disease that has nervous,
in contradiction to mental, symptoms in ad-
dition to the mental Among the best known
psycho-neuroses may be mentioned epilepsy,
(q v ), hysteria (q v ), and neurasthenia (q v )

S I F

NEVADA, STATE OF — Organized as a
territory in 1861, and admitted to the
Union as the 36th state in 1864 It is
located in the Western Mountain Division,
and has a land area of 109,821 square miles.
In size it is about the same as the combined
areas of the states of New York, Pennsylvania,
New Jersey, and Maryland For school
administration the state is divided into 5 super-
visory districts, and these in turn into 15 coun-
ties and about 325 school districts In 1910
Nevada had a total population of 81,875, a
school census (5-18 years) of 12,319, and a
density of population of 0 7 per square mile
Though exceeded in size by but five states, Ne-
vada has the smallest population and the small-
est number of people to the square mile of any
state in the Union

Educational History. — The first territorial
legislature in 1861 enacted as the first school

429

law one which contained all the provisions
necessary for the beginning of a state system
of schools, arid laid down the fundamental
outlines of the subsequent school system of
the state. To a Territorial Superintendent
of Public Instruction, to be elected in 1862,
was given the general oversight of the educa-
tional system of the state To assist him, an
ex officw State Hoard of Education, composed
of the Territorial Superintendent, Territorial
Auditor, and Territorial Treasurer, was created
For each county a county superintendent of
common schools was to be elected for two-year
terms, to have general oversight of the schools
of his county, and the usual administrative
duties He was to divide his county into
school districts, for each of which three trus-
tees were to be elected, to have general supei-
vision of the schools of the district Thev were
to provide for the school, elect the teacher,
take a school census, levy taxes, arid visit
and inspect the schools A permanent state
school fund, to be cieated from the sale of
lands, was piovidcd for, and fines were to
be added to it The system as thus early out-
lined has persisted in its main outlines until
within the last ten years

By the constitution of 1864, under which
the territory was admitted to the Union, and
which, with minor amendments, still stands,
rather full provision was made for the futuie
state school system The legislature was en-
joined " to promote intellectual, literary, scien-
tific, mining, mechanical, agricultural, and
moral improvement" and a uniform system of
schools, with a term of six months as a mini-
mum, was to be established in each school
district of the state A State Superintendent
of Public Instruction was ordered to be elected,
all school lands were declared to be an invio-
lable trust, sectarian aid was forbidden, a
state university was to be established, and a
state tax provided for it, and power to
establish a normal school was granted The
first school law under the new constitution,
enacted in 1865, carried these provisions into
effect, and in addition created a State Board
of Education, county superintendents for the
counties, and county boards of examination,
composed of the county superintendent and
two persons appointed by him The revisions of
the school laws made in 1873, 1877, and 1879,
made only minor changes, retaining the es-
sential outlines of the system The law of
1873 contained the first compulsory school law
for the state The State Teachers' Associa-
tion was first organized in 1880.

The University of Nevada was created in
1873, to be located at Elko A state normal
school was also created in 1887, to be a depart-
ment of the State University

As a state, Nevada has had a slow and ir-
regular growth, and this has influenced the
development of the state's educational system
At the time of the admission of the state, the

NEVADA, STATE OF

NEVADA, STATE OF

school census, 6-1S years of age, was but 2,601
This increased slowly up to 1880, when Ihe
school census reached 10,592. After this a
slow decrease in school census set in, owing to
the decline in importance of the mining in-
terests. After 1890 this decrease became a
little more marked, the lowest figure, 8,996,
being reached in 1898 Since 1903, through
the opening of new mines of importance, the
building of a number of new railway lines, and
the development of agriculture through irri-
gation, the state has begun to increase in popu-
lation more rapidly than at any time in its
previous history The number of school census
children is now close to 12,500

It is only since the recent increase in popu-
lation and business that any real interest in
educational legislation and development has
been shown During the period of decline
and stagnation little was done, and some back-
ward steps were taken In 1887 the county
supenntendency and the county boards of
examination were abolished, and the county
district attorney was made ex officw county
superintendent, but without salary This vir-
tually abolished all supervision. For the
twenty-five years between 1880 and 1905, one
State Superintendent after another recom-
mended new legislation and asked for a new
school code in vain Minor changes were
made from time to time, mostly relating to
teachers' certificates, but no legislation of a
fundamental or markedly progressive order
was obtainable It is practically only since
1907 that any marked progress has been made
State Teachers' Institutes were created in
1893, and state aid was granted to them In
1895 a county high school law was enacted,
but it was more than ten years before more
than one school was established tinder this law
In 1903 the Virginia City School of Mines at
Virginia City was created by the State, and
placed under the control of the State Board of
Education In 1905 a public school library
law was enacted

In 1907 and 1909 important educational legis-
lation was enacted and in 1911 a new School
Code These are embodied in the present
system

Present School System — At the head of
the system is an ex ojjiao State Board of Edu-
cation, consisting of the Governor, the Presi-
dent of the State University, and an elected
State Superintendent of Public Instruction
The State Board of Education must meet at
least twice yearly, prescribes the course of study
to be followed in all the schools of the state,
appoints all Deputy State Superintendents, on
recommendation of the State Superintendent,
and may similarly remove the same for cause,
prepares all questions for the examination of
teachers, and grants all teachers' certificates;
determines the amount of money to be ap-
portioned to the school district- library funds;
approves all apportionments to districts from the

State Emergency School Fund, appoints trus-
tees for all free county libraries established,
and acts as a Board of Trustees for the State
School of Mines at Virginia City. The State
Board also acts ex officw as a State Normal
School Training Board, for all high schools
offering normal training, and determines the
qualifications for admission, establishes the
course of study, grants the diplomas of gradua-
tion from the normal course, and makes rules
and regulations for the management of such
schools Together with four others, principals
or superintendents of schools, to be appointed
by the Governor, the State Boaid unites to
form a State Textbook Commission, which
adopts all textbooks for the state for four-
year periods, and contracts with publishers for
the same

The State Superintendent of Public Instruc-
tion is elected for four-year terms, and receives
a salary of $2,000 a year and an allowance of
$400 for traveling expenses On his recom-
mendation the State Board appoints a State
Deputy Superintendent for each of the five
supervisory districts into which the state is
divided They receive the same salary, a
traveling allowance of from $800 to $1*200,
and fiom $400 to $600 for office expenses The
State Supeimtendcnt is required to visit each
county at least once each year, to prescribe
forms, to make minoi mles and regulations,
to apportion the school funds to the distncts,
to approve all schoolhouse plans, to recommend
the consolidation or enlargement of school
districts, to make arrangements with Cali-
fornia or Utah for the schooling, at state ex-
pense, of all deaf, dumb, or blind children in
the state lie also must hold a State Teachers'
Institute biennially, for which $200 is appio-
pnated by the state, and a district institute in
each supervisory district in alternate years,
for which $150 is appiopnated He may also
hold county institutes if the county commis-
sioners approve, and will pav for the same
He must make a biennial report to the Go\-
ernor, and edit and print the school laws

Each deputy superintendent must be a resi-
dent of his district, must hold a high school
teacher's certificate, must have had forty-five
months' experience (nine in Nevada), and must
devote his entire time to school supervision in
Nevada He must visit each school in his dis-
trict at least twice yearly, examine all records,
advise teachers, hold teachers' meetings, confer
with trustees, examine all records and ac-
counts of the district, and may suspend
teachers or certificates for cause He also
acts as a deputy examiner at teachers' examina-
tions, as a member of the State Boaid of Edu-
cational Examiners, and assists the State
Board in preparing the state course of study
for the schools He attends meetings of the
State Board, to advise as to affairs in his dis-
trict, and acts for the State Superintendent in
educational matters as directed.

430

NEVADA, STATE OF

NEVADA, STATE OF

There are no county school officials, except
county boards of education in such counties
as have voted to establish county high schools
Where this has been done, a county boaid of
three is elected to manage the high school,
under the supervision and direction of the State
Superintendent and the State Board of Edu-
cation, and their powers are about the same as
those of district boards of school trustees
For each school district a board of three district
school trustees is elected, one for two years and
one for four years, at each biennial election
To these boards are given the power to employ
teachers and to fix their salaries, to visit the
schools, to enforce the course of study, and
the adopted textbooks, to provide supplies and
apparatus, to suspend and expel pupils, to
enforce discipline and sanitary regulations, to
provide for the schooling of indigents, to ap-
point a school census marshal each year, and
to levy an annual district tax, up to 2,5 cents,
for maintenance If the district has 300 chil-
dren, a kindergarten may be established, if 10
or more teachers, a superintendent may be
employed, and if 1500 census children, a board
of trustees, numbering 5, is to be elected
Vacancies, if not filled by election, are filled
by appointment by the Deputy State Super-
intendent for the district

School Support — The state received the
16th and 36th sections of land for schools on
its admission to the Union In 1882 these
lands, less a small amount sold, were exchanged
with the government for 2,000,000 acres, to be
located by the state on any free government,
land The 500,000 acres of land granted to
new states, the 5 per cent of public land sales,
and all fines collected under the penal laws
were also added to the permanent state school
fund This fund now amounts to approxi-
mately 2^ million of dollars, and the income,
due to the small state school census, gives a
large per capita apportionment Tin* salaries
and expenses of the state office and deputies,
the Emergency Fund, and the library fund, are
all deducted before apportionment In addi-
tion a state school tax of 10 cents on the $100
(raised from 6 cents in 1911) is levied and
added to the income from permanent funds
The distribution is made semi-annually to
the counties on the basis of census children,
6-18 years of age State money can be used
only for teachers' salaries A county tax oi
from 15 cents to 50 cents (average 25 cents) is
also levied for contingent expenses, and a
special district tax up to 25 cents may also be
levied All state and county school monev is
distributed to the districts within the count v on
the basis of 70 per cent on teachers (1 teacher
calculated for every 30 census children, oi frac-
tion thereof) and 30 per cent on school census
Also a sum of from $3 to $5 per teacher and, in
addition, from 5 cents to 10 cents pei census
child, as determined by the State Board of Educa-
tion, is apportioned for school library purposes

Teachers and Training -- The state has
about 500 teachers, few of whom are paid less
than $70 per month, and salaries of $100 and
$110 are common Primary, grammar, and
high school certificates are granted upon exam-
ination, though the primary certificate is fast
passing out The standards for these examina-
tions are high A State Board of Educational
Examiners, composed of two from the State
Board of Education, the five deputy state
superintendents, and thiee others appointed
bv the State Superintendent, examine and grade
all examination papeis, and report to the State
Board of Education, which then grants the
certificates to teach About 40 per cent of
the teachers certificated for the state ha\e been
certificated on credentials (normal school,
college, or state life diplomas) from othei
states The state is relatively liberal in the
matter of inter-state recognition of diplomas
and credentials from other states The state
normal school is a department of the Univer-
sity of Nevada at Reno The state has also
recently begun the establishment of normal
school classes in the high schools of the state
for the training of teachers for the uiral schools
This course1 must- be thirty-six weeks long, the
candidates for entrance must ha\e a high school
diploma or a primary teacher's certificate, and
at graduation a three-years' certificate, not
renewable, and good in only a one-room school,
is granted

Secondary Education — Within recent yeais
there has been a marked gain in the numbei of
high schools in the state In 1890 there were
7 district high schools in the state, in 1900
there weie 9 district high schools and 1 county
high school, while in 1910 there were 11 dis-
trict and 10 count> high schools The numbei
of secondary school students has increased
much faster than the number of secondary
schools, and piactically all of the schools now
have a four -years' high school course County
high schools may be formed in any county by
petition oi one fourth of the voters, and a
majority vote at an election For these4 a
countv board of education of three is elected,
\vho manage the school, under the direction
of the State Board of Education, and deter-
mine the annual tax for the same Such
schools are open to any eighth-grade graduate
in the county

Educational Conditions — - Educational con-
ditions in the state are now \ery good The
state system of supervision and inspection is
efficient , there is a higher degree of centializa-
tion of authority than is found m many states,
the school laws as a whole aie good, and good
provisions for the education of all children are
made Whenever five childien can be found
near enough together to maintain a school, the
state sees to it that one is provided The
staridaids for teachers' certificates are higher
and better than in most eastern states, the
salaries paid are good, and the instruction

431

NEVADA, UNIVERSITY OF

NEW HAMPSHIRE, STATE OF

offeied i^ veiy good, considering the sparse
population There aie a number of good high
schools in the state School libraries exist in
each school district, and fiee textbooks may
be provided by yote of the district A six
months' term of school is mandatory on all
districts, and eight months if the funds at
hand will provide it The educational obli-
gations of the state aie well recognized in the
large state and county taxation foi education
Four cities and towns have city superintend-
ents Of the total population, S3 7 per cent livo
m ruial distncts K P C1

References —

Bien Repts Supt Publ In^li , Nuxulu, 1S(l9~dutc
The School Lair of Ntwda, 1M11 cd

NEVADA, UNIVERSITY OF, RENO,

NEV — The State University and the only
institution of higher learning in the state It
had its inception m the Fedeial land grants to
Agricultural and Mechanical Colleges and Uni-
versities There was no immediate demand for
such a college, and it was not until 1873 that
the State Legislature provided for its estab-
lishment at Elko The University was opened
in 1874 and existed for twelve yeais as a pre-
paratory school with but few pupils In 18S6
the school moved to Reno, where after a lapse
of one year it opened with the title University
Since then the growth has been gradual At
present the University comprises the follow-
ing schools and colleges college of arts and
science, college of agriculture, including the
schools of agncultuie and of domestic science,
the college of engineering, including the Mackay
school of mines, the school of mechanical en-
gineering, the school of civil engineering, and
the college of education The University
campus coveis an area of 49 acies, on a site
which gives a commanding view of the city,
valley, and mountains The buildings numbei
15, all built by the state except the Mines
Building, the gift of C H Mackay The value
of the University grounds and buildings is
$78,197 for grounds, $528,476 for buildings,
of which sum $72,266 is for dormitories The
total receipts for the biennial period 1911 and
1912, according to the regular appropriations,
exclusive of additions and buildings, will be
$412,180, of which sum $220,000 is from Federal
grants and $192,130 from state appropria-
tions The enrollment of University students
in 1912 was 223. The faculty numbers 48

G. O.

NEVIN, JOHN WILLIAMSON (1803-
1886) — College president; was graduated
from Union College in 1821, and the Princeton
Theological Seminary in 1826. He was pro-
fessor at the Western Theological Seminary,
Allegheny, Pa., 1820 to 1&40, at the German
Reformed Theological Seminary, Mercersburg,
Pa., 1840 to 1853, and president of Franklin

and Marshall College, 1866 to 1876. He was
the author of several religious works.

W. S. M.

NEW ATLANTIS. — See BACON, FRANCIS;
UTOPIAS, EDUCATION IN.

NEW BRUNSWICK, EDUCATION IN.

— See CANADA, EDUCATION IN

NEW BRUNSWICK, UNIVERSITY OF,
FREDERICTON, NB -—Founded in 1800
as the College of New Brunswick. From 1805
the institution received annual grants from the
Provincial Treasury, and from 1829 grants from
the Crown A Royal charter was obtained in
1828, incorporating the College as King's
College. In 1845 all religious tests, except for
the professor of theology, were abolished.
Aftei a commission of inquiry had reported,
the University of New Brunswick was es-
tablished in 18.59 in place of the College.
Four-year courses leading to the B A. and B Sc.
degrees are offered to students, men and
women, who have satisfactorily passed the
entrance examinations The courses are di-
vided, according to the English system, into
ordinary and honoi courses. In the de-
partment of applied science courses are oifered
in the various branches of engineering and in
forestry and lead to the degree of B Sc The
University also confers all the usual higher
degrees, including the B C L and D C L.
The University is affiliated with the univer-
sities of Oxford, Cambridge, and Dublin.
The enrollment in 1910-1911 was 241

NEW CALEDONIA —See FRENCH COLO-
NIES, EDUCATION IN.

NEW COLLEGE —See LONDON, UNI-
VERSITY OF

NEW ENGLAND ASSOCIATION OF
COLLEGES AND PREPARATORY

SCHOOLS — See COLLEGE EXAMINATION AND
CERTIFICATION BOARDS, COLLEGE ENTRANCE
REQUIREMENTS.

NEW ENGLAND COLLEGE EN-
TRANCE CERTIFICATE BOARDS —See
COLLEGE EXAMINATION AND CERTIFICATION
BOARDS

NEW ENGLAND JOURNAL OF
EDUCATION. — See JOURNALISM, EDUC\-

TIONAL

NEW GUINEA, EDUCATION IN —

See NETHERLANDS, COLONIES OF, EDUCATION
IN THE

NEW HAMPSHIRE, STATE OF —

Originally a part of Massachusetts, but or-
ganized as a separate territory in 1680 En-

432

NEW HAMPSHIRE, STATE OF

NEW HAMPSHIRE, STATE OF

tered the Federal Union in 1788 as one of the
thirteen original states It is located in the
North Atlantic division, and has a land area
of 9031 square miles It is about one fifth
the size of the state of New York, and about
three fourths as large as Holland For ad-
ministrative purposes the state is divided into
ten counties, but these have no educational
significance The counties are in turn divided
into 231 towns and 20 originally independent
school districts, arid these are the educational
administrative units of the state In 1910
New Hampshire had a total population of
430,572, and a density of population of 47 7
per squaie mile

Educational History — The famous Mas-
sachusetts laws of 1642 and 1647 applied to
New Hampshire, and continued to be in foice
for nearly a century Dover, Exeter, and
Hampton early provided for schools, and,
what was unusual at that time, for girls as
well as for boys In 1680, the year of separa-
tion from Massachusetts, the first school law
was passed, requiring the selectmen of the
town to raise money, by assessment, for elect-
ing and repairing houses of worship, pai son-
ages, and schoolhouses, arid for securing a
teacher for the town The old Massachusetts
laws were continued in force, by common
consent, and in 1719 the Massachusetts law
of 1647 was definitely reenacted, but with the
fine increased from £5 to £20 Two yean*
later it was enacted that selectmen failing to
enforce the law should be liable in their per-
sonal estates

During the first fifty years of the independ-
ent existence of the territory, the Massachu-
setts policy of granting land for education
was continued, and grants of a school lot in
each township were made quite generally
In a few towns there are local funds which aie
the product of these grants

Education in New Hampshire, as elsewhere
in New England, declined during the eighteenth
century. Little was done in the matter of
schools, few grammar schools were in existence,
fines were cut down, and laws were not en-
forced The first state constitution of 1776
made no mention of education New state
constitutions were adopted in 1784 and 1792,
and in each of these the general section relating
to the encouragement of literature and learn-
ing, embodied in the Massachusetts constitu-
tion of 1780, was incorporated with only two
words changed, and this has remained to the
present as the sole constitutional require-
ments with reference to education

In 1789 the first state law with reference to
education was enacted, and all former laws
were repealed The rate of school tax which
a town must raise was fixed for the first time,
at the ratio of $5 for every $1 received from
the state; an English Grammar school was
ordered to be established in the smallei towns,
and a Latin Grammar school in the larger

VOL. IV— 2 v 433

towns, and an examination of teachers, by
ministers, college professors, 01 schoolmasters,
was instituted for the first time In 1791 the
rate of town taxation was changed to 7 J to 1 ;
in 1795 to 35 to 1, in 1S04 to 45 to 1, in 1806
to 75 to 1 , in 1808 to 70 to 1 , in 1818 to 90 to
1, and in 1840 to 100 to 1. By 1855 it had
reached 200 to 1 , by 1870, 350 to 1, and now
stands at 750 to 1 This reveals how the
burden of school support has gradually been
shifted to the towns, until to-day the share
earned by the state ib very small Only
within recent years has the state begun to make
special subsidies and equalization grants to
overcome some of the defects of this method
of school maintenance

Up to the nineteenth century the town had
been the unit in all school administration, but in
1805, following the lead of Massachusetts,
the towns were empoweied to subdivide into
school districts. Town unity was partially
retained for a time by the law of 1808, which
directed that each town at its annual meeting
should elect a school committee of thiee or
more to visit and inspect the schools Should
the town fail to elect, the selectmen were to
act as a school committee In 1827 the num-
ber was fixed at three to five, and a distnct
committee of one, to be chosen by the towns,
was to be appointed to look after the schools
in each district To the town school com-
mittee was given the power to examine all
teachers foi the towns, to dismiss incompetent
teachers and unruly pupils, to determine the
textbooks to be used, to make an annual
wiitten report to the town meeting, and
they were directed to visit and inspect the
schools twice yeaily, to encouiage scholars
to attend The fiist statistics date from this
time. In 1829 the town control was still
further undermined by a law which authorized
each school distnct to appoint its own district
committee, of from one to three lesidents, and
to give to this district committee power to
select teachers, to provide board and fuel, and
to supervise the school In 1833 the cul-
mination of the district system was reached
in a law which permitted the towns, on ac-
count of expense, to dispense with the super-
intending town school committee, and thus
leave the schools under district control This
condition of affairs continued for fifty years.
A few of the cities escaped by organizing under
special laws, Portsmouth in 1826 being the
first In 1857 two or more contiguous dis-
tucts were authorized to unite. In 1870
permission to return to the town system of
school administration was granted to the
towns, and in 1885 the district system was
abolished by legislative act, i educing at once
the number of districts and district boards
fiom 1890 to 275, and lesultmg in the im-
mediate abandonment of 495 small schools.

In 1826 school mistic&ses were first recognized
in the law, and in 1858 they were required to

NEW HAMPSHIRE, STATE OF

NEW HAMPSHIRE, STATE OP

moot the same standards as men for certifica-
tion In 1$27 children whose parents did not
provide books might be suppl ed by the school
committee, and in 1X33 the law directed school
committees to provide destitute children with
free books In 18X3 towns and districts weie
authorized to supply free textbooks to all *
In 1829 the Literal y Fund, established in 1X21
by a tax on banks, foi the endowment oi a
college, was ordered distiibuted among the
towns, on the basis of state taxes paid, foi
the support of free* public schools In 1847
the basis oi distribution was changed to school
enrollment

In 1X30 the first high school was established
at Portsmouth, in 1X48 the third district of
the1 town of Soinersworth was permitted to
establish one, and later in the same vear any
district was authorized by vote to establish
and maintain a high school, and to elect a
high school committee of from five to seven
In 1840 towns were permitted to contnbutc
as much as 5 per cent of their school money
for the aid of teachers' institutes, which were
then first established by law In 1851 this was
reduced to 3 per cent, and in 1857 to D per cent,
and in 1XG1 they were abolished as ineffective
In 186X they wore again oidered held, and state
aid for them was granted, but in 1X74 they
were once more abolished In 1X83 ihev were
again reestablished and have since remained.
A State Teachers' Association was organized
in 1X54

The beginnings of state school supervision
were made in 184o', when a State School Com-
missioner, to be appointed by the Governor
and Council, was authorized He was to
spend twenty weeks each year among the coun-
ties, encouraging education, was to collect edu-
cational statistics, and was to make an annual
report to the General Council In 1850 the
office was abolished, and county commissioners,
one for each county, took his place as super-
visory officers, and together they consti-
tuted an ex officio State Board of Education.
Despite efforts to reestablish the state office,
this system of county supervision continued un-
til 1867, when the county school commissioners
were legislated out of office, and the office of
State Superintendent of Public Instruction
was established The new Superintendent
was to be appointed by the Governor for two-
year terms, and the State Superintendent,
Governor, and Council together were to con-
stitute an CJL officio State Board of Education
In 1874 the State Board was abolished, but
the State Superintendent has been continued
to the present time

In 1848 the first law relating to truancy was
enacted, and all childicn working in factories
were required to have had three months'
schooling each year In 1870 all children
eight to fourteen years of age were required
to attend school for twelve weeks each year,
gj\ weeks of which must be consecutive The

law was further amended in 1901 to make it
practically conform with the truancy and child
labor laws of the other New England states
In 1866 the State Agricultural College was
established as a department of Dartmouth
College, but in 1891 the connection with
Dartmouth was severed, and the College was
moved to Durham and given an independent
status In 1870 a state normal school was
established and located at Plymouth In
1X95 the State Superintendent was authorized
to institute a system of examinations for state
teachers' certificates In 1895 the employ-
ment of a supeimtendent by two or more
towns was authorized, and in 1899 supervisory
unions of two or more towns for the purpose
were provided for, and state grants for the
partial payment of the salary of the superin-
tendent were begun In 1899 annual state
appropriations were begun, from the state
treasury, to be used in equalizing the local
tax rate for schools in those towns where the
burden was excessive, and in making state
grants in aid of supervision In 1901 towns
not maintaining a high school were required
to pay the tuition of then pupils in high
schools elsewhere, and state aid for the purpose,
to those whose tax rate exceeded a certain rate,
\\as begun These grants have since been
materially increased

Present School System — At the head of the
school system is a Superintendent of Public
Instruction, appointed by the Governor for a
two-ycai term To him is given general super-
vision and oversight of the educational in-
terests oi the state He is authorized bv la\\
to prescribe the forms of blanks, reports, and
registers to be used in the state, to receive
and preserve all school documents, to investi-
gate educational conditions in the state, to
visit the schools and lecture in the towns,
to hold at least one institute in each count v
each year, to audit the expenses for such, and
to draw on the state treasury to pay for the
same out of the income of the institute fund,
to recommend to school boards desirable books
for instruction in temperance physiology and
hygiene, to prepare a biennial report of
his work and to issue biennially the school
laws of the state He also approves high
schools for tuition grants and supervisory
unrons for supervisory grants, holds examina-
tions for and grants state certificates to teacher s ,
acts ci officio as one of the Board of Trustees
for the state normal school, and as regent
(secretary) of the State Board of Medical
Examiners

Below the state are 231 towns and twenty-
six independently organized districts Since
1885 each town has been constituted a single
school district, except that the independent
school districts in existence at that time were
permitted to continue, unless they voluntarily
gave up their existence And united with the
town Each district is required to hold an

434

NEW HAMPSHIRE, STATE OF

NEW HAMPSHIRE, STATE OF

annual school meeting for the election of officers,
hearing the annual reports and voting funds
Women may vote at these meetings The
meeting each year elects a moderator, clerk,
one or more auditors to examine all books
and accounts, and one member of a school
board of three, to serve for a three years' term.
Any district, by vote in annual meeting, may
require the trustees to employ a superintendent
of schools, and two or more towns having
twenty to sixty teachers may unite to form
a supervisory union for the same purpose
If a high school is maintained, there may also
be a high school board of three, six, or nine,
as determined by vole, or the high school dis-
trict may be consolidated with the district
or town and placed under the control of the
school board

Distnets (or towns) may raise money for
current expenses, buildings, repairs, equip-
ment, and debts, may borrow four fifths of
1he nioncv necessary to erect a building, pay-
able in five years' time, mav vote to main-
tain a high school, or unite with another town
in doing so, or contract with a high school,
academy, or seminary to educate their high
school pupils loi them, mav determine the
conditions of admission to the schools, and
must raise by local taxation a sum not less
than $750 for every $1 of money received from
the public treasury

The district or town school boards are to
select, employ, and for cause dismiss all
teachers, must provide a sufficient number of
schools, and may expend 25 per cent of the
money raised foi the conveyance of pupils,
must include temperance physiology and hy-
giene and the constitutions of the United States
and of New .Hampshire among the required
studies in the .schools, must provide free text-
books foi pupils, and fix prices at which parents
wishing to provide their own may buy them,
aie supposed to hold examinations for teachers
in June or July of each year, issuing one-year
local certificates to those found satisfactory,
must visit the schools twice each term, must
appoint tiuant officers foi one-year periods,
and fix their compensation, and must prose-
cute violations of truancy or child labor laws,
and must make annual reports to the select-
men of the town and to the State Superin-
tendent, of Public Instruction If a supenn-
tendent of schools is employed, most of the
duties devolving on district boards are dele-
gated to him On a petition of 5 per cent of
the voters in any district of 5000 inhabitants
or over, evening schools must be established
for the education of children over fourteen

School Support — The state received no
land for education from the general govern-
ment, and the Surplus Revenue distributed in
1837 was spent for general state purposes The
state has never established a permanent com-
mon school fund The proceeds of some state
lands, ordered to be sold in 1867, now known

as the Institute Fund, constitutes the only
permanent state fund, and the annual income
from this is used to defray the expenses of
teachers' institutes The Literary Fund is
the proceeds of an annual tax levied on bank,
building and loan, and trust company de-
posits of persons not resident in the state, and
at present produces about $40,000 each year
This is distributed to the towns on the basis
of the number of children enrolled in the
schools for at least two weeks each year, and
is worth about sixty cents per pupil Any
districts existing within the towns receive
their proportion on the basis of valuation
The state also makes grants annually to assist
poor towns in paying the tuition of high
school pupils; for assistance in paying the
salaries of superintendents (the state paying
one half the salary), and for giving extra aid
to towns having less than 3500 total popula-
tion, arid whose valuation is less than $7000
per child in average daily attendance This
last is granted to the towns in direct propor-
tion to the average daily attendance, and in
inverse proportion to the valuation per child
All other school expenses arc paid by the
towns and districts, and the amount so raised
averages about one half more that that re-
quired to be raised

Of all school revenues raised during the last
year for which statistics are available, 7
per cent came from state sources, 88 2 per
cent came from local taxation, and 4 8 per
cent came from local funds, tuition fees, gifts,
excess of dog taxes, town treasury payments,
and other miscellaneous sources The in-
equalities under this system, due to inequal-
ities in wealth, are large, and these inequalities
the state has attempted to equalize in part
by a wise system of state aid

Educational Conditions — Of the total pop-
ulation of 1910, 22 4 per cent were of foreign
birth But few of the native-born popula-
tion are illiterate; but for the foreign born
about one fifth are so classed Of the foreign
born, 50 per cent were French Canadians,
16 per cent were English Canadians, and 90
per cent were from Canada or the British
Isles The percentage of children five to
eighteen years of age in the total population
is lower than m any other state of the Union
except Nevada There are practically no
negroes in the state, the whites constituting
99 8 per cent of the total population , 40 8
per cent of the people live in rural districts,
and 42 per cent in cities of over 8000 inhabit-
ants The attendance and child labor laws
are good Truant officers must be appointed
by each town and district, and they may be
directed to inspect factories Three state
inspectors also assist in the enforcement of
the truancy and labor laws No child under
twelve can work at all in any manufacturing
establishment, and no child under sixteen
during the hours the schools are in session with-

435

NEW HAMPSHIRE, STATE OF

NEW JERSEY, STATE OF

out au age and schooling certificate, showing
that he can read and write the English lan-
guage. If over sixteen and unable to read
and write, such pupils must attend evening
schools, up to twenty-one, unless excused on
account of health All children under sixteen
must attend school unless employed. At-
tendance at a private school is accepted only
when the school is taught in the English
language, arid has been inspected and approved
as equal in instruction to the public schools of
the town, and when attendance is looked after
as required by law

There arc no statutory school studies, aside
from temperance-physiology and hygiene,
humane education, and the constitutions of
the United States and of Now Hampshire.
About 60 per cent of the schools of the state
are classed as graded schools Four cities
maintain evening schools, and about twenty-
five supervisory unions have been formed
The laws for the location of schoolhouses,
change of property from one district to another,
power granted to the annual district meeting,
etc.; show the same oversensitiveness for the
feelings of communities and for a small and
aggrieved mmoiity that characterizes much
of the New England school legislation

Teachers and Training — Teachers' cer-
tificates are of two kinds The local certifi-
cates, granted by local school boards, sup-
posedly on an examination in the subjects
which the teacher is to teach, but m practice
usually without an examination, and valid
for one year and only in the district, constitute
one kind, and are held by most of the teachers
of the state

The other kind is granted on the basis of
a written examination, given under the direc-
tion of the State Superintendent, and to
graduates of the normal school Thin form
is required of all district superintendents, and
is valid anywhere in the state The local
district examinations are so easy or so nearly
extinct that there is little to impel teachers
to attempt these state tests

For the training of new teachers, the state
maintains the normal schools at Plymouth
and Keeno, and four cities (Concord, Man-
chester, Nashua, and Portsmouth) maintain
city training schools For the training of
teachers in service the State Superintendent
is directed to hold at least one teachers' insti-
tute m each county each year, or to appoint
the principal of the normal school to do so,
to audit the expenses, and to draw on the state
treasury to pay the same from the income of
the Institute Fund. From twenty to twenty-
five one-day teachers' institutes are held each
year, with about one half of the teachers in
attendance. An institute for superintendents
is also held, and an eight weeks' summer in-
stitute at the normal school. Attendance
ni a teachers' institute is optional, though
teachers may close their schools and attend

one day each term, and receive pay for attend-
ance. The last report of the State Superin-
tendent shows that from thirty-nine towns no
teacher has attended an institute in two years,
from nine towns in four years, and from six
towns in six years. Many other towns have
been represented by one, two, or three teachers
only

Secondary Education — Seventy-two public
high schools were reported in 1910 as existing
in the state A high school, once established,
cannot bo changed in location or discontinued
except by order of the Superior Court for the
town, and on petition of the school board
To be approved, a high school must maintain
at least one four-year course, embracing such
subjects as are required for entrance to colleges,
and including the constitution of the United
States and of New Hampshire In special
cases, the State Superintendent may approve
partial courses for partial state aid A number
of academies and seminaries have been ap-
proved for the attendance of pupils at public
expense

Higher and Special Education — The New
Hampshire College of Agriculture arid Mechan-
ical Arts at Durham is the only higher institu-
tion supported by the state This institution
offers instruction in general science, agricul-
ture, and engineering, arid is the only college
in the state open to women Dartmouth
College (qv), at Hanover, a nonsectariari
institution opened m 1709, and St Anselm's
College, at Manchester, a Roman Catholic
institution opened in 1893, are two additional
higher institutions, for men only The State
Industrial (Reform) School, at Manchester,
is the only special institution maintained bv
the state ' E P. C

References —

Annual Reports State School Commissioner, 1847-1850

Annual Reports Secretary State Board of Education,
1851-1807

Annual Reports State Superintendent Public Instruction,
1868-1894.

Biennial Reports Statt Superintendent Public Instruc-
tion, 1895-1 896 to date

BUSH, GEO G History of Education in New Hamp-
shire Circ Inf U S Bur Educ , No 3, 1898
Contains a two-page bibliography

Compiled Laws of New Hampshire relating to Public
Schools, 1911 od

SIMONDS, J W Schools as they wore in New Hamp-
shire, m An Kept Supt. Publ Instr t N H , 1876.

NEW HARMONY — See PESTALOZZIAN
MOVEMENT IN THE UNITED STATES, OWEN,
ROBERT.

NEW JERSEY, STATE OF. — One of the
thirteen original states. It is located in the
North Atlantic Division, and has a land area
of 7514 square miles. It is about one seventh
the size of the state of New York, and about
one half as large as Switzerland. For admin-
istrative purposes the state is divided into

436

NEW JERSEY, STATE OF

NEW JERSEY, STATE OF

twenty-one counties, and these in turn into
458 cities, independent boroughs, and school
townships. In 1910 New Jersey had a popu-
lation of 2,537,167, and a density oi popu-
lation of 333 7 per square mile Except-
ing Rhode Island and Massachusetts, it
is the most densely populated state in the
Union

Educational History — Situated near the
center of the different colonies, the develop-
ment of education m New Jersey was the
product of a number of influences The
Dutch crossed from New Amsterdam, the
English came from Connecticut, Scotch and
Scotch- Irish Piesbvteriaus came from Great
Britain, the Swedes settled along the Delaware,
and the Quakers came over from Pennsylvania
The population was thus a compound of these
\arious elements The first school was es-
tablished by the Dutch at Bergen in 1661 or
1662, and in 1073 it was ordered that all the
inhabitants be compelled " to pav their share
toward the support of the precentor and school-
mastei," thus making it a publicly supported
school There seems to have been much
difficulty in enforcing this, howe\er, as the
people " obstinately refused to pay their
quota " After the transfer of New Amster-
dam to the English in 1664, the English soon
extended their control over northern New
Jersey, and the English language and Eng-
lish methods niled in the schools See
section on eaily education in NEW YORK,
ST\TE OF

As earl) as 1665 an English colony had
settled at Elizabeth, and in the founding of the
neighboring town of Woodbndge in 1669,
JOO acres of land weie set apart for education
A school was established here in 1689 In
1666 the to\vn of Newark was settled by two
migrations from the towns of Milford, Bian-
ford, and (Juilford, Connecticut, and ten years
later a schoolmaster was appointed by Newark
" to do Ins faithful, honest, and true endeavor
to teach the children or servants of those us
have subscribed, the reading and writing of
English, and also anthmetick, if they desiie
it , as much as they are capable to learn and
he capable to teach them within the compas
of this yeai " Other early settlements were
made at Muldletown, Freehold, Shrewsbury,
Piscatavvay, and Perth Aniboy

In 1693, and in amended form in 1695, the
East Jersey Assembly, at Perth Amboy,
enacted " An Act for establishing schoolmas-
ters in this province/' which authorized the
inhabitants of any town, under warrant of
a justice of the peace, to meet and choose
three men of the town " to make a rate for
the salary and maintenance of a school-
master " The consent of a majority was to
make the rate a binding one on all What
proportion of the towns established schools
under the provisions of this law we do riot
know

In 1682 the Assembly of West Jersey granted
the island of Matimcunk, located in the Dela-
ware River, being about 300 acres in extent,
to the town of Burlington, " from hence-
forth and foiever hereafter for educational
purposes " The early Quaker settlers of
this western province were a well-educated
people With them the schoolhouse was the
general accompaniment of the house of wor-
ship Schools and meeting houses were ac-
cordingly soon established by them in their
towns, and the schoolmaster was generally
appointed by the church session, instead of
the civil authority, as was the case in early
Massachusetts history See MASSACHUSETTS,
STATE OF, DISTRICT SYSTEM

In 1702 the two provinces of East and West
Jersey were united and placed under the Gov-
ernor of the colony of New York For the
following seventy-five years, up to the Revolu-
tionary War, during all of which time this
arrangement continued, there was almost no
legislation relating to education (See NEW
YORK, STATE OF, EDUCATIONAL HISTORY )
Schools were still maintained in many of the
colonies, but they were of a voluntary and pri-
vate rather than a public nature A subscrip-
tion elementary school was maintained in a
small number of the towns, a few private
grammar schools (of which the Log College of
Wm Tennent, at Nashamany, was a type)
were provided, and the Friends, in Yearly
Meeting, in 1746 and again in 1787, laid down
directions concerning education In their res-
olutions they declared that " the education of
our youth in piety and virtue, and giving them
useful learning under the tuition of religious,
prudent persons/' was extremely desirable,
and they therefore urged that the Society's
meetings " be excited to proper exertions
foi the institution and support of schools "
The main acts of educational importance in
New Jersey during the first three fourths of
the eighteenth century were the establishment
of the College of New Jersey, now Princeton
University, in 1746, the founding of Rutgers
College, at New Brunswick, m 1766, the con-
firming in 1769 of the 100 acies for schools,
granted a century earlier to Woodndge town-
ship by George III, and the appointment of
a Board of Trustees for the management of
the lands, to insure their application to the
original purpose of the grant The War of the
Revolution put an end to English control and
to the early colonial schools

New Jersey adopted a state constitution
in 1776, but this contained no mention of
education The Federal Constitution was
ratified in 1787, but no new state constitution
was adopted at that time A new interest
in education seems to have been awakened
after the establishment of the new Federal
Government, and many academies were
founded m different parts of the state It
was not until 1816, howpver, that any official

437

NEW JERSEY, STATE OF

NEW JERSEY, STATE OF

state action was taken In this year an act
was passed which made the beginnings of a
state school fund for the support of schools
An annual state appropriation of $15,000 was
made to start the fund This was to be in-
vested in United States 6 per cent bonds, and
the interest was to be added to the principal
and reinvested In 1818 the chief state
officers were made trustees for the growing
fund, in 1824 this was changed to an annual
addition of one tenth of the income from state
taxes, and, in 1829 it was further provided
that taxes from banking, insurance, and other
corporations should be added to the fund
In 1820 the townships (or towns, us they were
frequently called) were first authorized to raise
money by taxation for school purposes, though
until 1838, excepting the one year from 1830
to 1831, money raised for support was limited
to the education of " such poor children as are
paupers " In 1828 townships were further
permitted to raise money, by vote at town-
ship meetings, for the erection and repair of
school buildings

An extensive investigation was made m
1828, which showed that one third of the school
children of the state were growing up without
any chance of an education The law of 1829,
the first to provide any organized plan for a
school system for the state, was the result of
this investigation Each township was to
elect a school committee who should divide
the township into school districts, examine
and license teachers, visit the schools, at least
every six months, and make a leport to the
annual school meeting and to the Governor
of the state Three trustees for the districts,
a district school census, and annual district
meetings wore provided for, and a state appro-
priation of $20,000 annually for support was
made. This latter was to be distributed to
the counties on taxables, and to the districts
on census The next year, however, this
newly established school system was abolished,
largely through the influence of the friends of
private and church schools By the laws of
1830 and 1831 the old limitation of support
to the education of poor children was rees-
tablished, the distribution of the state appro-
priation was so changed as to include all private
and parochial schools, as well as the township
schools, and both district lines and the ex-
amination of teachers were abolished. It was
not until 1838 that these reactionary laws
were finally repealed In that year a conven-
tion of the friends of public schools free from
all denominational control, issued an ad-
dress to the people, and the result was such
a popular manifestation that the legislature
repealed the law of 1831 and enacted a new
one, which contained many of the features
of the law of 1829. The religious orders were
still aided, the licensing of teachers was made
optional; the mention of pauper children as the
only ones entitled to state aid was finally

abandoned, and the annual state appropria-
tion was increased to $30,000.

In 1844 a new constitution was adopted
for the state, and in this, under the head of
legislative powers, a paragraph was inserted
which declared the school fund to be a per-
petual fund, and the income to be appro-
priated only for the support of public schools
In 1875 this was further amended by insert-
ing the word " free" between " public " and
" schools," and adding a mandatory clause
requiring the legislature "to provide for the
maintenance and support of a thorough and
efficient system of free public schools for the*
instruction of all children in the state between
the ages of five and eighteen years " These
remain the only constitutional provisions
relating to education which the state has over
adopted

In 1845 the beginnings of state supervision
were made by the passage of a law permitting
the appointment of a State Superintendent of
Public Schools for the counties of Essex and
Passaic, with liberty to the other counties
to avail themselves of this state supervision
The following year a new school law was
enacted which extended state supervision to
the entire state, provided for local super-
vision by townships, by supplanting the town-
ship school committees by a town school
superintendent, made the licensing of toachois
obligatory, and required the townships to
levy a local tax double the amount of any state
school funds received From 1846 to 1866
the State Superintendent was elected bv the
Trustees of the School Fund, but since I860
he has been elected by the State Board of Edu-
cation Only four different men have served
the state as State Superintendent during the
forty-five years from 1806 to 1911 In 1848
the townships were permitted to use the in-
terest on the Surplus Revenue for schools,
in 1851 the state appropriation was increased
to $40,000, and a limit of $3 per census child
placed on district taxation, m 1854 teachers'
institutes were first established, and a state
appropriation of $100 for each was made,
in 1855 the first state normal school was es-
tablished, and in 1858 the state appropriation
was further increased to $80,000 Hero mat-
ters rested until after the Civil War.

In 1866 an ejc officio State Board of Educa-
tion, consisting of the Governor and state
officers, was created, and the State Superin-
tendent was changed to bo its executive
officer and secretary In the following yoar
a new school law was enacted, which practi-
cally created the modern system, and has
formed the basis for laws since that time.
The State Board of Education was recon-
structed and given enlarged powers, county
superintendents were created to supersede
the township superintendents; state, county,
and city boards of examination were provided
for, and a certificate from one of the three

438

NEW JERSEY, STATE OF

NEW JERSEY, STATE OF

required of all teachers, the various district
trustees in each township woie constituted
a township board of trustees, corporal punish-
ment was forbidden, the state appropriation
was increased to $100,000 annually, and the
limitation of $3 per census child on district-
taxation was removed In 1871 the rate bill
(q v ) was finally abandoned and the schools
made entirely free To accomplish 1his and
to provide a nine months' teim as lequned,
a state tax of two mills was imposed, in addi-
tion to the appropriation, and additional
township taxes were permitted, >\hen neces-
sary, to meet the demands of the \n\\ In
1874 a compulsory education la\\ was enacted,
and in 1876 all slate1 aid to pmate 01 parochial
schools \\as finally forbidden

In 1881 the hrst of a long series of const mc-
tive legislative acts was passed, wheieby any
district, raising by subscription or taxation
a sum of not less than $3000 a veai and not
over $5000 for industrial training, was to
receive an equal amount from the state, for
the same purpose In 1887 the same pro vi-
sions were extended to districts raising fioni
$500 to $5000 a year for manual training
In 1888 the school districts of any township
were permitted to consolidate and to provide
a township form of organization, and in 1894
transportation was permitted The same year
the district system, except for cities and boi-
oughs, was abolished by law, and a foini of
the townships-countv system was instituted
In 1894 scientific temperance was leqmied
in all schools, and a free textbook law enacted,
and in 1891) the State Hoard of Education
ordered a uniform course* of stuch and unifoim
standards of pmmotion to be instituted bv
counties In 189f) a teacheis' retnenient law
\\as passed In 1898 the State Board of Edu-
cation established ;i " Bureau of Tnforin.it ion
for Teachers and School Officers," which it
has since conducted

Beginning with 1900, constructive legislation
has been even moremaiked than during the pie-
vious decade In that yeai the, State Board ap-
pointed a supervising architect, and began the
state supervision of all school house1 plans, and
annual giants of $600, to any district or town-
ship which appointed a superintendent of schools
or a supervising principal, were begun County
superintendents were requned to hold a state
teachers' certificate, and their salaries were
changed from a school census to a teachei em-
ployed ($7 per teacher, m 1902 increased to $8)
basis, and materially increased; the noimal school
course was extended and improved, a more1 lib-
eral policy in the recognition of diplomas and
training in place of examinations was begun,
and kindergarten classes were first authorized
In 1901, after ten years of investigation of the
results of the school census, the state school
tax was increased to two and three fourths
mills, and the basis of apportionment changed
from school census to a combination of teachers

and attendance In 1903 all school districts
were made coiporations, independent of the
local municipal governments, thus erecting
the school system as a state rather than as a
local undertaking In 1904 the State Board
of Education appointed a high school in-
spector, and began the inspecting and grading
of high schools In 1905 county superin-
tendents \\eie given a unifoim salary of $2000,
and schooling foi all children in the state
until twenty years of age was made possible
In I90() an additional source of state taxation
foi education \\as pumded, which has doubled
the state appropriation foi schools, in the
foi in of a rail\\a\ tax on all mam-stem and
first -class railwav piopeitv in the state With
this increase in funds, the appropiiation for
teachers in high schools was doubled, and a
grant of $25 of state aid pei pupil was made to
all districts sending pupils to schools elsewhere
A neu state normal school was also established
at Mont clan in this same year In 1909 a
teachers1 tenure act was passed, giving in-
definite tenuie to teachers after three years
of continuous employment In 1911 an im-
portant law i ('constructed the State Board
of Education, abolished the office of State
Superintendent of Public Instruction and
created instead the office of Comnnssionei
of Education, with Assistant Commissioncis.
as outlined below All city boards of educa-
tion weie made appointive by the mavoi,
instead of in part elective, provision was
made for the instruction of sub-normal and
defective children, city teachers' certificates
weie abolished, and tenure and the civil
service act were extended to all employees
of school departments

Present School System — The New Jersey
system, as it exists at present, is a somewhat
closely organized state school system At the
head is a State Board of Education of eight
members, appointed by the Governor with the
concurrence of the Senate, and for eight-year
teims (after the first appointments) The
general duties of this State Board are to make
rules and regulations for the carrying out of
the school laws, for the management of teachers'
institutes, and foi the examination and certi-
fication of all teachers, to appoint all county
superintendents, and to approve their ex-
pense accounts, to prescribe a uniform system
of bookkeeping, to hold hearings, to appoint
a supervising principal for union schools,
and to consolidate or discontinue high schools,
\\hen deemed desirable, and to determine
tuition rates and compel districts to receive
pupils In its power to make such rules
and regulations as from time to time are
found necessary, or deemed important in
carrying out the provisions of the school
laws, the State Board is enabled to deter-
mine many details m the administration
of the school system of the state which in
nearly all other states require legislation

439

NEW JERSEY, STATE OF

NEW JERSEY, STATE OF

The State Board also acts as u Board of
Trustees for the two state normal schools,
for the New .Jersey School for the Deaf, for
the State Manual Training and Industrial
School for Colored Youth, for the summer
school for instruction in manual training,
agriculture, and home economics, and the
Farnum Preparatory School The Board ap-
proves all books and apparatus to be bought
for schools, approves the course of instruc-
tion and giants of money to schools ottering
courses in manual training or industrial
vvoik, and appro\es the courses of instruc-
tion in high schools, and inspects and grades
the schools

Piobablv the most important function of
the State Board of Education is the selection
and appointment of a Commissioner of Edu-
cation for the state, who acts as the executive
officer of the Board He receives a salary of
$10,000 a year, is appointed for hvc-year
terms, and no residence restrictions are to be
insisted upon in making the appointment
With the advice and consent of the State
Boaid, he appoints four Assistant Commis-
sioners at $4500 salary, and the State Board
also appoints an Inspector of Buildings and an
Inspector of Accounts, each at $2000, the first
of whom approves all school plans and build-
ings, and the other inspects the accounts of
the district, officers Three of the Assistant
Commissioners act as inspectors of high schools,
of elementary schools, and of industrial and
agricultural education, and the iouith Assist-
ant Commissioner bears all controversies and
decides all appeals on school law questions
The specified duties of the Commissioner of
Education are to ascertain whethei the system
of education provided is thorough and efficient;
to prescribe a minimum course of study for
both elementary and high schools, to pre-
scribe rules for the promotion of pupils in the
elementary schools, and to pi escribe uniform
examinations for eighth-grade graduation and
admission to the high schools, which shall be
open alike to public and private school pupils,
to prescribe the Bmet, or other tests, for use
in the schools, to withhold funds from any
school district not obeying the law, to provide
instinct ors and lecturers foi teachers' insti-
tutes, to hold an annual convention of all
city and county superintendents, to make
a monthly report to the State Board of Edu-
cation, and an annual report ioi the Board
The State Commissioner acts CJT offiao as a
Trustee of the State School Fund, and appor-
tions the income to the counties, as a member
of the State Board of Examiners, arid as a
member of the Board of Trustees for the
Teachers' Retirement Fund

For each of the twenty-one counties of the
state the State Board of Education appoints
a county superintendent of schools The ap-
pointment is for a three-year term, the ap-
pointee must hold a state teacher's certificate,

and a uniform salary of $2000 is paid to each,
by the state, with an added allowance for ex-
penses and clerical assistance Each county
superintendent has the general supervision
of the schools of his county, cities under city
superintendents exeepted, is to visit and exam-
ine all schools, and to note the condition of
the school property, is to advise and counsel
with the boards of education within the county,
may recommend, with reference to courses
of instruction, methods, management, or
buildings, appoints members of Boards of
Education, when the people fail to elect,
carries out the instructions of the state office,
and makes an annual report to the State School
Commissioner

Each township is a school district, but any
city, incorporated town, or borough may be
organized as a separate school district For
each, a board of education of nine members is
elected or appointed for three-year terms, one
thud going out of office annually In all
cities the board is appointed by the mayor
(since 1911), and in all townships, towns, or
boroughs the members are elected by ballot
at an annual school ('lection The general
powers of all such Boards include the powei
to employ and dismiss teachers, to make
rules and regulations, not inconsistent with
law or the rules and legulations of the State
Boaid, to purchase, lease, and sell school-
houses, and to condemn land for school pur-
poses, to select and provide textbooks and
supplies, to admit and expel pupils, and to
make an annual report to the county superin-
tendent Township, town, and borough
boards may also appoint a supemsmg prin-
cipal, or superintendent, or urirte with other
such boards to do so, and all such boards must
meet together, semiannuallv, with the count A
supeimtendent for the consideration of school
matters Two or more townships, towns,
or boroughs mav hold an election and vote
to consolidate their schools, the board of edu-
cation for the consolidated district having
the same powers as the boards of the districts
voting to unite Similarly, boards of educa-
tion in two or moie adjacent school districts
mav unite to provide a union graded school

Boards of education in cities must appoint
a city superintendent, who has the right of a
seat and speech in the meetings of the board,
but no vote City boards of education aie
also to appoint a business manager to have
general charge of all matters relating to school
buildings, and a secretary, who acts as a secre-
tary and general accountant for the school
system Each head of a department appoints
all of his subordinates The board may also
appoint, on nomination of the superintendent,
such assistant superintendents as it may desire,
and fixes the salaries and tenure of all em-
ployees The board must print an annual
report and make an annual report to the State
Commissioner A board of school estimate,

440

NEW JERSEY, STATE OF

NEW JERSEY, STATE OF

consisting of two members of the city board of
education, two members of the city council,
and the mayor of the city, determines the rate
of city school taxes, which the council must
levy, regardless of any charter restrictions

School Support — The school fund, begun
in 1816, now amounts to about \\ millions of
dollars, and produces an income fixed by law
at $200,000 Any deficit is made up from the
state treasury The surplus revenue of
1S37 was distributed to the counties and in
part used up, but the interest on the total
received is a charge for which each county
must provide The income from this source
is about $28,000 a year, and is used foi schools
The chief support of the schools comes from a
state tax of 2J mills on all property, and from
state railroad and canal taxes This property
tax is materially reduced each year by an
appropriation, made by the legislature from
the state treasury Approximately 5 million
dollars came from this source in 1910, and
2^ millions of this came from state railway
taxes Excepting 10 per cent of the 2^ mills
.state tax, which is set aside as a reserve fund,
all state money is distributed to the counties
on the basis of their taxable wealth The
10 pei cent is also distributed to the counties
by the State Board, in such a mariner as in
their judgment best equalizes the inequalities
of the distribution of the other 90 pei cent

Within each county the county superin-
tendent apportions the school money to the
different townships, towns, boroughs, and
cities on the followrng bases* —

For each superintendent or supervising principal $000
For c'uh assistant superintendent or supervising

principal 400

For each teacher in a four-y< ars' high school 400

For oath tear her in a three-yea? s' high school .iOO

For eji( h teac her in till other kinds of .schools 200

For each temporarv teaehei, for 4 months or more HO

For each evening sc hool teacher SO
For each pupil attending high school in another

district 25
For each pupil attending elementary school in

another district ... 5

For each teacher dispensed with bv transportation 1*00
For transportation to other district, if school not

close, 7."i per cent cost

All that remains after setting aside the above
.sums is apportioned equally on the basis of
attendant e, and at the rate of so much per
pupil per day These apportionments provide
lor a very good equalization of burdens and
advantages within the different counties Any
township, town, or borough may vote addi-
tional sums foi maintenance, and city boards
of school estimate may levy additional sums,
as needed All state money can be used only
tor salaries, fuel, transportation, and the pay-
ment of tuition

In addition to the above, the state makes
a number of annual grants, each one of which
must be preceded by the district concerned
raising an equal sum These annual grants
are as follows —

441

For school district libraries, $20 the first >ear, $1(1

yearly theieafter
For teachers' libraries, $100 the first ycai, $50 yearly

thereafter

For manual or mdustnal training, from $250 to $5000.
For evening schools for foreigners, over 14 years old UD

to $5000 '

Educational Conditions —The conditions
surrounding education in New Jersey may be
said to be good The state is densely popu-
lated Only about one fourth of the 'popula-
tion live outside of cities and towns of 2500
inhabitants and ovei, while one half of the
total population live in cities of over 25,000
inhabitants Three arid one half per cent of
the total population is negio, and 25 9 per cent
is foreign bom; 75 2 per "cent live under urban
conditions The state is largely a manufac-
turing one, with many residential towns and
extensive country estates

The school system is one of the better cen-
tralized state systems, and the county is an
important unit The school laws make good
provision for education A nine-months'
school term is required of all districts Suit-
able accommodations and proper sanitaiy
appliances must be provided by each district'
All schoolhouse plans must be approved by
the State Board of Education, and may be
obtained from the state free Definite stand-
ards and requirements as to school build-
ings are insisted upon Any board may
establish kindeigaitcns, evening .schools for
pupils over 12 years of age, or for foreign born
over 14 years, and any city of over 10,000
inhabitants may establish schools for working-
men Every board may employ a medical
inspector Vaccination is insisted upon, un-
less excused for certain statutory reasons, and
the cost of this is to be paid by the school
authorities, if the parents are unable to pay.
Textbooks and supplies must be provided free
in all schools All children in the state must
be provided with free education, between the
ages of 5 and 20, and no exclusion from any
school may be made on the basis of race,
religion, or color Free high school education
must be provided for all children applying for
it, within or without the district The kinder-
garten has made great headway since its
adoption as a part of the state school system,
and 30 pei cent of the childien now have been
kindergarten trained Corporal punishment
is forbidden in all schools, public and private
All state prisons must pi ovide schools offering an
elementary school course, to be approved by
the State Board of Education All children,
7 to 17 years of age, must attend school regu-
larly Pupils over 15, properly employed,
and who have completed the grammar school
course, may be excused, but if under 17 and
unemployed, they must attend a high school
Truant officers and parental schools are pro-
vided for, and any county may establish a
school for the detention of juvenile offenders
A State Board of Children's Guardians exists

NEW JERSEY, ST VTE OF

NEW MEXICO

for the* care of indigent, helpless, dependent,
abandoned, friendless, and poor childien

Teachers and Training —A State Boaid
of Examiners, consisting of the Commissioner
of p]ducatiori, the principals of the normal
schools, and one other appointed by the State
Board of Education, examines candidates
and grants all state teachers' certificates
Diplomas of a university or college may be
accepted in any examination in lieu of subjects
covered Three grades of state certificates
are issued. Normal school and teacheis'
college diplomas, and state certificates fiom
other states are recognized A Bureau of In-
formation for Teachers and School Officers,
serving as a state teachers' bureau, is main-
tained by the State Board of Education

Each county may have a county board of
examiners, consisting of the county supenn-
tendent and three teachers appointed by him,
for one-year terms, who then conduct thiee
examinations yearly, foi the thicc giades of
county certificates issued The examination
and certification of teachers is done under rules
and regulations of the State Board, and little
is specified in the law In 1911 the city
boards of examination and city ceitification
were abolished All city school teacheis must
now hold a county or state certificate All
superintendents and assistant superintendents
of schools, both county and city, must hold
state teachers' certificates Seventy -five pei
cent of the teachers in the state have1 hud nor-
mal school or college training, 01 have advanced
by study and hold a state teacher's certificate
For the training of future teacheis, the state
maintains two state normal schools, at Trenton
(1855) and Montclan (1906), and the cities
of Elizabeth, Jersey City, Newaik, arid Pat-
erson also maintain city normal schools
Each Board of Education may make its own
rules and regulations regarding the employ-
ment and tenure of its teachers, though,
theoretically, teachers are supposed to have in-
definite tenure after three years of service in
any one position There is a state salarv
schedule, fixing reasonably good salanes foi
all positions, which may be aelopted by any
city by a leferendum vote A State Teachers'
Retirement Fund has been created, by winch
teachers paying 2 per cent (in some cases as
high as 3 per cent) of their annual salaries
may be pensioned after 20 years of service, it
incapacitated A city may retire any teacher
on half pay after 35 years of service, 20 of
which have been in the city

Secondary Education — Of the 45S school
districts of all kinds in the state, 109 had
approved four-years high schools, at the date
of the last report, and 51 other districts had
partial high schools Most of these schools
arc large and well equipped The state in-
spection and approval is more thorough than
is found in most states Any private high
school may be inspected, on application, and

if approveel may be registered, which enables
its graduates to be admitted to the state nor-
mal schools on the same terms as pupils from
approved public high schools

Higher and Special Education — New Jer-
sey maintains no state university, the two
state normal schools being the culmination of
the public school system of the state The
agricultural college grant is given to Rutgers
College ((/?'), where the state maintains 120
state scholar strips, and pays Rutgers $15,000
annually for the purpose These are com-
petitive, and county superintendents conduct
examinations foi them, each county being
allowed as many appointments as it has mem-
bers in the state legislature

The following private institutions provide
for the collegiate instruction within the state,
though all are for men except the last, which is
coeducational * —

LOCATION

OPENED

CONTROL

FOR

i

1
i Princeton

1746

Nonsect

Men

New Bruiinwick

1760 Reformed

Men

1 South Orange

1856 IR C

Men

'Hobokon

1871

Nonaect

Men

1 lersev City

1878

R C

Men

Komlwortli

1893

Luth.

Both

sexes

INHTIIUI ION

Rutgers College
Seton II'ill College
Stevens Irintitute of

Technology
Si Peter's College
Upsnla College

As institutions for the education of special
classes, the state maintains the New Jersey
School for the Deaf, at Trenton, the New
Jersey Training School for Feeble-Minded
Girls and Boys at Vmeland; the State Home
for the Care and Training of Feeble-Minded
Women at Vmeland, the State (reformatory)
Home for Boys at Rah way, the State (re-
formatory) Home for Girls at Trenton; and
the State (secondary) Manual Training and
Industrial School for Colored Youths, at
Bordentown K P C

References -- -

APU \n, E A HiHtory of the New Jersey School System ,
in Kept N J St Bd Educ, 1879, pp 33-02
(Covers period 1629-1879 )

M \YO, \ D Hibtoru al <SA < t< he» of New Jersey School* ,
in R< pt* V »S' Cotm Educ 1 During First
half century of Republic, Kept for 1895-1890,
Vol I, pp 247-255 II From 1830 to 1805,
Kept for 1897 1898 Vol 1, pp 405-472

MURR\Y, D\vin Hiuttny of Education in New J<r-
sfV/ U S Bur Educ , Circ Inf No 1, 1899

Now Jerne\ An Kept* tiupt Puhl Instr , 1847-
1911, and An Kept 8 State Board of Education,
1807-19 11 (Combined birice 1867 )

New Jersey School Lawn, 1908 Codt , with amend-
ments and additionH to 191 1

NEW LANARK — See OWEN, ROBERT

NEW MEXICO COLLEGE OF AGRI-
CULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS, ME-
SILLA PARK, N MEX —A coeducational
institution established by the legislative as-

442

NEW MEXICO, STATE OF

NEW MEXICO, STATE OF

sembly of New Mexico in J889 under the
provisions of the Morrill Act of 1862 The
nucleus of the College which was opened in
1890 was the Las Cruces College, organized
in 1889 The College receives the usual
federal appropriations for agricultural and
mechanical institutions and an annual state
appropriation. The following courses are
given: agriculture, mechanical engineering,
electrical engineering, civil engineering, house-
hold economics, commerce, general science.
In addition, college preparatory and industrial
courses in agriculture, mechanics, domestic
science, and business of high school grade are
provided Musical and preparatory depart-
ments are also maintained The enrollment
in all departments in 1911-1912 was 372, of
whom 66 wore in the college courses The
entrance requirements for the college courses
which lead to the B S degree are fifteen units
of high school work

NEW MEXICO, STATE OF — Ceded
to the United states by Mexico in 1848, and
organized as a territory in 1850 In 1863 the
territory of Arizona was oigamzed from the
western half of New Mexico terntoiv In 1912
New Mexico was admitted to the Union as the
forty-seventh state It is located in t he Western
Division, and has a land area of 122,503 square
miles In size it is twice as large as the six
Now England states combined, and about the
same size as the British Isles For adminis-
trative purposes the state is divided into 27
counties, and these in turn into school districts
In 1910 New Mexico had a total population
of 327,301, and a density of population of
2 7 persons per squat c mile

Educational History. — When the United
States acquired New Mexico in 1848 the people
spoke only the Spanish language, and there
were few, if any, schools in the territory The
Mexican government had made small annual
appropriations for schools in six of the towns,
but these grants ceased with the passing of
sovereignty Such schools as were provided
for the next decade, at least, were provided
by the Catholic Church In 1859 St Michael's
College, a school established bv the Christian
Brothers (q v ), was opened in Santa Fe*

The first mention of education by the
legislative assembly of the territory is m
a memorial to Congress in 1853, asking for
a penitentiary, roads to the state, and
" the creation and support of public schools
throughout the territory " Congress taking
no action, the legislature memorialized Con-
gress again in the following year, appealing
for adequate assistance in starting a school
system The memorial recites that there
are but one or two schools in the territory,
and these private; that the reserved sixteenth
section lands are of no value, and that there
are 25,000 adults in the territory (seven eighths
of the population) who cannot read or write.

The legislature asked for an annual appropria-
tion, which was not made The first school
law, passed at the session of 1855-1856, provided
for schools to be supported by taxation, for
county boards of education, schools in each
county, compulsory education, and fixed the
salaries for teachers. A referendum was
allowed in four counties, which later rejected
the law by a vote of 5053 to 37 The next
year the law itself was repealed by the legis-
lature, and the taxes collected weie returned
to the people who had paid them In 1857
the territorial legislature again memorialized
Congress, this time asking for a grant of $500,-
000 to establish a school fund, and offering
to pledge the school lands as collateral secur-
ity, but again without avail In 1860 a new
" Act providing means foi the education of
children " was passed This law lequired
the justices of the peace of each plaza to act
ex officio as school trustees, to employ teachers,
and to provide a six-months' t erm of school, and
also provided for salaries, compulsoiy edu-
cation, and free schools Very few, if any,
schools seem to have been organized under this
law In 1863 an ex officio Temtoiial Board
of Education was created, with the Bishop of
New Mexico as one member, with authoiity
to make rules and icgulations and to requne
schools to be established in each county The
Governor was also to appoint a Tenitonal
Superintendent of Schools, to supervise the
schools, and to report to the Teintonal Board
and to the Governor The Tenitonal treas-
urer was made custodian of all school monies
In 1863 another memoiial, asking for money
to establish schools, was sent to Congress
with a statement that 60 per cent of the people
could not read or write, and that " there is
not a public common school in the Teiritory "
This and subsequent memorials met the same
fate as the preceding. In 1867 a new law made
the probate judges ex officio county superin-
tendents of schools, and the justices of the
peace ex officio school superintendents of their
election precincts, each of which was consti-
tuted a school district Two persons in each
county were to be appointed to solicit sub-
scriptions from the wealthy, and all fines for
the violation of the school law weie to be
used for schools

In 1872 laws which really fiist oigamzed
the school system were passed By these a
state tax of J of 1 per cent was levied for school
purposes, — the first taxation ioi education,
— and a poll tax for schools was specified,
It was further provided that if any county had a
surplus of $500 or more in its treasury, after pay-
ing all current expenses, the surplus should be
used for schools A board of supervisors and
directors of schools was to be elected in each
county, and they, together with the probate
judge, were to have the establishment and
management of the schools of the county.
A number of counties took advantage of this

443

NEW MEXICO), STATE OF

NEW MEXICO, STATE OF

law, and proceeded to the organization of
public schools In 1S74 the law was amended
to require the making of full annual reports
by the county boaids to the Territorial Su-
perintendent; to provide for the election of
school officers and the Territorial Superin-
tendent of Public Schools was also desig-
nated as ex oflmo Territorial Librarian at a
salary of SI 50 a year In 1876 a number of
fines were designated to be used for the support
of schools By 1X75 reports show that there
were 138 schools in the territory, with 147
teachers employed Most of the schools were
still for boys only, and were in part religious
schools A bill providing for a nonsectanan
school system was considered, but defeated
in 1875 The above legislation practically
established the public school system in the
territory, and no further legislation of any
importance occurred until 1884

In 1884 the old laws were repealed, and a
new school law was enacted creating the
school district in place of the election pre-
cinct, and establishing the district system of
management. County superin tendencies were
created, arid the school studies specified
In this condition the educational organiza-
tion remained until 1891 In 1891 a new
school law was passed, which not only inau-
gurated the present school system, but mav
be said to have created a real school system
for the first time Previous to 1891 " there
were not 50 public schools in the territory
under the contiol of competent teachers, and
in which the English language was taught,"
while in 1893 the Superintendent reports
519 such schools Church schools and acad-
emies supplied much of the instruction
The New-West Educational Commission also
did valuable work in providing schools, both
before and for some time after the territory
really began the work of education By the
law of 1891 a new Territorial Board of Educa-
tion was created, and a new Territorial Super-
intendent of Public Instruction superseded
the old Territorial Superintendent of Schools
Instruction in English was made obligatory,
and all teachers were required to hold county
teachers' certificates, obtained on examination
before a county board of examiners In addi-
tion, the College of Agriculture and Mechanical
Arts was established in 1888, the Univer-
sity of New Mexico, and the New Mexico
School of Mines were established in 1889, the
State Deaf and Dumb Asylum in 1891, two
state normal schools in 1893, and the State
Military Institute in 1895 In 1893 teachers'
institutes and m 1897 territorial normal in-
stitutes were authorized In 1897 the annual
appointment of indigent students to the state
institutions was begun.

In 1901 the legislature further revised and
amended the school laws The Territorial
Board of Education was enlarged, the prep-
aration of all questions for the examination

of teachers in the territory was given to the
Board; the attendance of teachers on county
institutes was made compulsory; teachers in
districts where Spanish is spoken were required
to be able to speak both Spanish and English,
distinctions based on race or nationality were
forbidden, vaccination was required; and
increased taxation was provided. Between
1901 and 1909 a large amount of minor leg-
islation was enacted, but little that changed
the form of administration A Spanish-Ameri-
can normal school, for the education of Spanish-
speaking young men and women as teachers,
was also established m 1909. As the state
had been expecting statehood for some time,
but little educational legislation was enacted
during the last few years under the territorial
government

Territorial School System — The terri-
torial school system as it existed at. the close
of the terntoiial period, in 1911, was as
follows There was a Territorial Board of
Education, consisting of the Governor and
the Superintendent of Public Instruction, as
president and secretaiy respect ivelv, ex offiao,
and seven additional members, appointed by
the Governor Five of the seven were to be
selected fiom the heads of the territorial
educational institutions, the president of St
Michael's College of Santa Fe", and the citv
superintendents of the foui largest cities in
the territory One other membei was to be
a county superintendent of schools The
remaining member was not to be a teacher
This Board apportioned the territorial school
fund, specified the duties of county superin-
tendents, prepared all questions for the exam-
ination oi teachers, selected the uniform
textbooks for the schools, and had control
of the county institutes The Territorial
Superintendent of Public Instruction was ap-
pointed by the Governor, with the consent ot
the council, for two-year terms He visited
the various counties in the interest of educa-
tion, conducted teachers' institutes, outlined
the courses of study for the territory, and
acted as secretary of the Board of Education
His salary was $3000 per year

For each county there was a count v supei-
mtendent of schools, elected bv the people
for two-year terms His salary was based on
a combination of the number of schoolrooms
in session for at least three months each year,
and upon the amount collected in his county
fiom the three-mill territorial tax, but with a
maximum of SI 200 per year He had charge
of the interests of education in his county,
apportioned the school fund to the school
districts of his county; visited the schools;
and looked after the enforcement of the school
laws For each school district there were
three school directors, one elected each year
for a three-year term It was their duty to
care for the school property of the district,
to provide teachers, and to perform the com-

444

NEW MEXICO, STATE OF

NEW MEXICO, STATE OF

mon duties of u school trustee Cities and
towns were permitted to organize as such and
to elect boards of education of two from each
ward, who were to organize, supervise, and
maintain a graded system of schools, and levy
needed special taxes for maintaining the same
The Enabling Act — In 1898 Congress
granted the territory the 16th and 32d sec-
tions, and 500,000 acres of land for its public
institutions, and in 1908 further granted the
light to locate indemnity lands By 1908
one fourth of these lands were under lease,
and beginning to bring in some income foi
the support of public schools In 1910 Con-
gress passed an Enabling Act for the admission
of New Mexico as a state, and granted to the
state sections 2, 16, 32, and 36 in each congies-
sional township, as a permanent endowment
fund for common schools, - - a total of 8,618,-
736 acies Lands in pastern New Mexico
were not to IIP sold for less than $5 pei acie, in
western New Mexico for less than $3 pei acre,
and lands capable of irrigation foi less than
$25 pei acre The 5-per-cent fund (see NA-
TIONAL GOVERNMENT AND EDFC \TJ()NT) was

also given foi common schools, 1,160,000
acres additional were also given to the stale
foi the endowment of its highei educational
institutions, and for public and charitable
purposes, and on the same conditions A
permanent common school fund of from thntv-
hve to forty-five millions of dollars should even-
tually be built up fiom these grants, and from
twelve to fifteen millions additional from the
grants for highei educational institutions

A state constitution was fiamed by a con-
stitutional convention in 1910, and latihed by
the people in 1911 The educational system
provided for the new state in this constitution
does not differ matenallv fiom the teintonal
school system Women are eligible for school
offices and may vote at school elections on
the same tcims as men, unless a majority of
the voters file a protest in writing A uni-
form system of public schools, sufficient for and
open to all children of school age, must be
established and maintained and a five-month
school term is made mandatory for all schools
Textbooks are to be uniform throughout the
state, and not to be changed oftener than once
in six years The permanent school fund is
specified, state and local taxation are per-
mitted, and the income from the peimanent
school fund arid from taxation is to be appoi-
tioned to the school districts on school census
A sufficient reserve fund is, however, to be
withheld to provide all school districts levy-
ing the maximum local tax sufficient funds to
provide the required five-month term of
school State educational institutions of all
kinds must forever remain under the exclusive
control of the state, and no school funds may
ever be used in aid of any sectarian, denomina-
tional, or private school A compulsory edu-
cation law and a child labor law are to be

enacted by the legislature A State Board of
Education, of seven membeis, is to have the
control, direction, and management of all
public schools, under such regulations as may
be provided by law The Govcinor arid State
Superintendent are to be ex officio membeis,
and the other five are to be appointed by the
Governor, with the consent of the Senate Of
the five one must be the head of some state
educational institution, one a county super-
intendent, and a third a person engaged in
educational work Other school officers, sub-
ordinate to the State Board of P]ducation, and
either the district or other form of organiza-
tion, are to be provided for by the legislature
Normal schools aie made mandatory No
religious test is ever to be required of any
teacher or student in any public school or
state institution Children of Spanish de-
scent are never to be denied admission to any
public school or educational institution, or to
be classified in separate schools All terri-
torial educational institutions previously es-
tablished are confirmed as state institutions,
and for each a bipartisan Board of five Re-
gents is to be appointed by the Governor A
state department of agriculture, under the
control of the Regents of the College of Agri-
culture and Mechanical Arts, is to be created
All school section lands, not contiguous to
other state lands, are not to be sold within ten
years for less than $10 an acre

Educational Conditions - Considering the
difficulties undei which the new state has
labored, the schools maintained aie very good
The seven incorporated cities and thnleen
additional towns maintain schools which will
compare favorablv with those in other parts
of the country Fightv-five and eight tenths per
cent of the population live in countiy distiicts,
and in these misonably good schools aie pro-
vided The state has a large number of persons
of Indian and Mexican birth, or descent, and
these greatly complicate the educational prob-
lem An effoit is being made to require that
all noimal-tramed teachers are able to speak
Spanish, and the abihtv to speak both Spanish
and English is required by law foi irany districts
The school laws and a guidebook for school
directors aie still punted in Spanish, as well
as in English, editions Two Indian mission
and twelve Government Indian schools were
maintained in the territory in 1910 With the
development of the public schools, both the
Protestant and Catholic Indian schools have
decreased much in numbers arid in importance,
although twenty such schools were still main-
tained in 1910 by five different denominations
High schools are being developed in the towns
and cities, there being eleven four-year high
schools and seven shorter-course schools in
1910, as against six and two nine years before

Teachers and Training —About 1600
teachers are required at present for the dif-
ferent public schools of the territory A

445

NEW MEXICO, UNIVERSITY OF NEW TESTAMENT, PEDAGOGY OF

state professional certificate is held by 6 per
cent of the teachers, while the remainder hold
one of the three grades of county certificates,
or are teaching on permits For the training
of future teachers the state maintains three
state normal schools at Silver City, Las Vegas,
and El Rito, but both the attendance and
number of graduates of these schools are small
A teachers' institute of at least two weeks'
duration must be hold by county superin-
tendents annually, and all instructors must
hold certificates granted by the Territorial
Board of Education

Higher and Special Education — The state
maintains the following higher and special
educational institutions University of New
Mexico at Albuquerque, the New Mexico
College of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts
at Mesilla Park, the New Mexico School of
Minos at Socorro, the New Mexico Military
Institute, a boarding school of secondary
grade, at Roswell, the New Mexico Asylum
for the Doaf and Dumb at Santa F6, the New
Mexico Institution for the Blind at Alatno-
gordo, the New Mexico Orphan Childrcns'
Home at Belen, tho New Mexico Orphans'
Homo and Industrial School at Santa Fe*; and
the New Mexico Reform School at Springer
There are no private or denominational in-
stitutions of collegiate rank in the state

E P C

References —

Compilation of the School Laws of the Territory of Niw

Mexico, 1909

Constitution of 191 1 Enabling Act of 1910
HorxiiN, O E Early School Laws of New Mexico

Bui Uriiv New Mexico, No 41, 190(>
Kept* Ter Supt Publ Inntr , Annual, 1891-1906 ,

Biennial, 1907-8, 1909-10

NEW MEXICO, UNIVERSITY OF,
ALBUQUERQUE, MEX — Established by
an act of the Legislature The first depart-
ment organized was a normal school which
opened in 1892 In the same year the pre-
paratory school was opened and the commer-
cial school added in 1893 Tho Hadloy
Laboratory was erected in 1899 Tho uni-
versity at present consists of a college of
letters and arts, a college of science and en-
gineering, a commercial school, a school of
education, a school of music, a sub-freshman
division and the summer school Tho plant
consists of seven buildings Owing to tho
extremely favorable situation of the uni-
versity, many students have come from time
to time from distant states and countries

The university received a grant of 11,000
acres of public land and the grant of the saline
lands of the tcrntory for university purposes
By the enabling Act of 1911, a further grant
of 200,000 acres was made to the institution
and the saline grant was withdrawn from entry
Tho present appropriation granted by tho
territory to tho university is $32,000 Tho

institution is coeducational, tho number of
students of each sex being about the same
The registration for 1910-1911 was 137

E. M. G.

NEW ORLEANS EXPOSITION —See
INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES OF EDUCATION

NEW ORLEANS UNIVERSITY, NEW
ORLEANS, LA — An institution founded in
1872 for tho education of the colored youth
It is under the auspices of the Methodist
Episcopal church and is one of the twenty-
two schools maintained by tho Froedman's
Aid Society of the church In 1878 the first
class was graduated from the College of Liberal
Arts The number completing this course
has been small. In 1887 the first class was
graduated from the professional teachers'
course From tho beginning this has supplied
a great need, for tho demand for trained
teachers is practically unlimited In 1889 tho
medical college was opened, and schools
of pharmacy and nurse training are row
maintained In 1898 a hospital in connection
with tho professional schools was opened
Classes in Biblical instruction have boon main-
tained with more or less permanency since
1890 Tho University now owns piopoitv
worth $150,000 and has an oniollmont of
between five and six hundred pupils Its
curriculum embraces tho entire range of studios
from the grades up through tho normal, col-
logo preparatory, and college courses, in addi-
tion to the professional courses above men-
tioned C. M M.

NEW SCHOOLS — A term applied to a
series of schools which have boon established
within tho last twenty years in many Euro-
pean countries and are organized so far as
possible in accordance with results of recent
studios in child life They all arc characterized
by groat freedom from the national adminis-
trative authorities, by greater attention 1o the
individuality of pupils, and by their location
in the country, they are close to nature Among
these schools may bo mentioned Abbotsholmo
and Bodales (qq v ) in England, kcok den Roches
(q v ) in Franco, and the Deutsche Landcrzie-
hurtgKhcirtie (</#), established originally in
Germany by Dr Liotz and now copied in
Switzerland, Russia, and Denmark

Sec also HOARDING SCHOOLS, EXPERIMEN-
TAL SCHOOLS

References —

Sec the references Riven under the articles of which
mention is made above

NEW SOUTH WALES, EDUCATION

IN. — See AUSTRALIA, EDUCATION IN

NEW TESTAMENT, PEDAGOGY OF

THE — It would be idle to sock in tho Now

NEW TESTAMENT, PEDAGOGY OF NEW TESTAMENT, PEDAGOGY OF

Testament a technical pedagogy, although
it is doubtful whether any literature of
similar origin and character recognizes more
practically the importance of instruction
The new religion of Christianity was educa-
tional in that it strove to socialize ideals of
conduct and to train the Christian communi-
ties in the significance of these ideals This
general educational tendency is appaient in
the New Testament, the most important lit-
erary fruit of the life of the churches

Education in New Testament Times
This is treated in detail in the article1 on JEW-
ISH EDUCATION It is enough to recall the
following points (a) By the tune the New
Testament hooks were written there weie
Jewish schools throughout Palestine either
in connection with the synagogues 01 inde-
pendent therefrom (cf Josephus, Ag Ap
2 16) Whether or not these schools existed
in the smaller towns 01 in fact in any of the
towns outside of Jerusalem during the life-
time of Jesus himself is uncertain, but that
Jewish youths leceived fonnal training in their
national laws and customs is plain from the
statements of Josephus and from references
in the Mishnah (b] In the Hellenist ic world
educational methods were well deA eloped,
though higher forms of instinct ion were largely
in the hands of independent philosophers
like Epictetus (c) The age was not without
a gerieial pedagogical philosophy, as is clear
from our knowledge of the Cheek and Roman
literature (cf Plato's Republic) as well as
from the writings of Justin Martyi and other
early Christian authors (d) Memonter
methods were highly developed This fact
is characteristic of all periods in which text-
books are not readily available Oriental
training emphasizes verbal memory and ex-
tended compositions are preserved unwritten
by the students of successive generations
The Jewish scholars furnished no exception to
this rule, the Mishnah, for example, not being
reduced to writing for centuries This habit-
enabled the early church to preserve the
memorabilia of Jesus in a quasi-systematic
way for approximately a geneiation before
they were reduced to writing and the various
streams of tradition were combined into our
present gospels

The Method of Jesus — Jesus has uni-
versally been regarded as one of the world's
great teachers, but such an estimate has been
based on the substance rather than upon the
methods of his instruction It would be
incorrect to think of Jesus as a teacher in the
sense of a schoolmaster who gave systematized
instruction in the elements of culture He
was more of a preacher and conversationalist
than a teacher, arid his teaching was exclusively
ethical and religious Thus he would natu-
rally be classed with the rabbi and the itinerant,
philosopher. Unlike Paul, however, he seems
never to have received definite rabbinical

training (cf Jn 7 15) The fact that by
occupation he was an artisan, very probably
a carpenter (cf Mk 6 3), did not detract
from his dignity as a teacher, for all the rabbis
had some trade That he was not uneducated
is to be infeired from the fact that he was able
to read the Hebrew Scriptures (Lk 4 17-20),
although Hebrew was no longer the current
language It is further significant that, so
far as we have any record, there was no oppo-
sition to his being called " Rabbi," although
in his case the term may have been little more
than a polite term of address

Beyond these general conclusions, how-
ever, particularly regarding the chronology
and language of his sayings, it is impossible to
speak with absolute precision Painstaking
criticism alone will enable us to allow for the
apostolic reworking of Jesus' teaching, and
even after the most methodical handling, we
find ourselves still facing questions of details
Yet thanks to modern scholarship we are able
to leproduce with great probability his teach-
ing a.s a whole and to estimate the methods
which Jesus as an instinctive and natural
teacher adopted In general his methods
were those of other moral teachers of Judaism,
although he differed widely from them in
technique and spirit Jn his method — or
more truly, his manner of teaching — we can
discern the following characteristics —

7/?s tench nig //w occasional and conversa-
tional lathei then formal and systematic —
The Sermon on the Mount as at present ar-
ranged in both Matthew and Luke has, it is
true, a considerable unity of structure, par-
ticularly in its Matthean form It may be
questioned, however, whether this unity is
due to the compiler of his savings or to Jesus
himself Probabl\ a middle view is prefer-
able, to the effect that Jesus at some time set
forth in orderly fashion his position on cer-
tain points of Jewish ethics and that gradually
other sayings of his were nucleated about this
material into what, appears now as a consider-
able discourse Hut the arrangement of the
sayings of Jesus was certainly very unlike the
discussions attributed by Plato to Socrates
Even less were they the product of a literary
process To a considerable extent they were
the outgrowth of eontioversj and generally
were the apparently unpremeditated" expres-
sion of his convictions regarding definite
matters proposed to him by either friend or
enemy Yet it would be unfair to say that,
while his teachings were thus occasional
rather than systematized, they lack unity
either in point of view or 111 substance Their
spontaneity and almost anecdotal quality
give them much of their charm and efficiency
without detracting from the unity of impres-
sion due to their radiating from a central
conviction However various the circum-
stances which occasioned their utterance, the
savrngs of Jesus are astonishingly easy to

447

NEW TESTAMENT, PEDAGOGY OF NEW TESTAMENT, PEDAGOGY OF

group schematically, for his thought was
lucid and consistent The repetition of im-
portant truths not only was necessitated by
this occasional method, but serves to give
the student the perspective of his thought, at
least as it appeared to his immediate hearers,
for repetition is one of the most common modes
of emphasis in earnest instruction

His teaching was analogical and poetic
lather than literal and scientific — Speaking
generallv, Jesus has left us no sayings dealing
with the woild of nature except as illustiative
of moral and religious truths His central
positions are expressed more hterallv than are
their amplifications, bu1 his method is not
that of scientific exposition Compare only
his teaching as to virtue with that of Anstotle's
Ethics Judaism had developed a literary
form of power and beauty in i1s Widsom lit-
eratuie This equivalent of the Greek poeti-
cal composition had a dofmiteness of structure
marked by parallelism and strophic arrange-
ment Such teaching was highly figurative
as well as epigrammatic and mav be illus-
trated bv the sayings of Jesus concerning the
supremacy of the eternal life over all physical
goods (Mk 9 47 sq ) The use of this lit-
erary form was in thorough accord with the
anti-legalistic, inspiring spirit of Jesus himself

Another type of such analogical teaching
is the parable Such a form was not unknown
to the rabbis, but in its use by Jesus it reached
an incomparable literary beauty As a peda-
gogical device a parable is a story of facts,
judged to be real or at least not impossible
by the speaker and hearers, which is used to
enforce or illustrate a spiritual truth It is
generally introduced by some word of com-
parison such as " like " This form of leach-
ing is of particular value in bringing unacc us-
tomed truths home to men in that it appeals
at once to their experiences It furthei serves,
as Jesus himself seems to say (Mk 4 11),
to lodge a truth in the mind of one's auditors
even before i1 is fully understood The anal-
ogy is thus made germinal conviction, — and its
use thus appears an element of a consciously
adopted method of teaching This method of
instruction .Jesus seems to have used almost
exclusively during the few months of relatively
peaceful instruction after the Galileans began
to legard him with favor, and while he was
beginning to unfold his constructive ideals

Other forms of his analogical teaching are
similes and the apocalyptic imagery of his day
On this lattei point it is not necessaiy to
dwell as criticism shows that Jesus used the
form only rarely, and then as a point of con-
tact with his Jewish hearers

Hiv teaching wax progressive and to .some
extent cumulative — If one will compare the
teachings of Jesus as he took up his work with
those which he utteied in the latter part of his
ministry, it will be appaient that he passed
fioin the heralding of the message that the

Kingdom of God was immediately to come to
the less dramatic exposition of the bearing
of his central position of God's Fatherhood
upon social relations as well as of the indispen-
sable virtues of love and forgiveness In this
transition a genuine progress can be seen from
the appeal to the preconceptions of his un-
lettered audience to the inculcation of his
characteristic positions Its justification in
large measure lay in the fact that he had
gathered about him a group of disciples who
wore increasingly sympathetic with his own
aims, and, despite the persistence of their
earlier naive expectations, were ready to accept
his teachings as authoritative In the fourth
Gospel (Jn 16 12) we have preserved a dis-
tinct tradition of a saying of Jesus to the effect
that he had practiced self-restraint in his
teaching and that ho mus1 leave the comple-
tion of his instruction to the work of the Holy
Spirit in the hearts of his disciples Such
progress made possible the most valuable
of the1 contributions of Jesus to religious
thought He might have left others, if only
the disciples had been capable of abandoning
more completely their inherited prejudices
In a number of instances Jesus speaks of the
disciples' slowness and dullness shown in
grasping his real meaning Like1 any other
teaehoi, Jesus found himself handicapped
by the incapacity of those whom he instructed
e g by the fear of his own disciples to ask
questions concerning even so vital a matter
as his announcement of his approaching death
Thanks to this timidity on the part of his
disciples, the world has never known precisely
how Jesus himself mterpieted his death

His teaching was conditioned hi/ the degiee of
intimacy which euiitcd between Him and those
whom He inducted — On the outside of his
circle of friends weie the Pharisees To them
Jesus stood in unalteiable and fundamental
hostility He never undeitook to instruct
them On the contraiy, in order to exhibit
distinctly the difference between their legal-
ism and his own belief in religious freedom,
he cuticized them mercilessly and endeavored
to make himself a friend of those who were
morally discontented But within the circle
of his friends theie were successive grades
of intimacy and a consequent scale of more
advanced instruction Jesus, like the Jewisli
teachers, drew about him a group of disciples
To those " who were without " his instruction
was given in parable, both for the protection
of himself and his cause and for the advantage
of the disciples themselves To these latter
were given explanations of his parables in
order that they might know the " mystery
of the Kingdom of God " How far this
esoteric teaching of Jesus, which is the heart
of the gospel, was shared by others than his
immediate disciples is ol course difficult to
say Yet just, as the influence of Judaism
extended far beyond the synagogue, and manv

448

NKW TESTAMENT, PKDAdOOY OF NFAV TKSTAMKXT, PKDAGOCJY OF

Greeks \vho hud not accepted it as a cult were
affected by its religious teachings, it is riot
improbable that his influence was much more
widespread than even his popularity among
the masses might argue Ongen (Ag. Celsus
I 22, 31, 12 21, rf 1 7, 12, 24/25, 29)
speaks of the two boits of leaching gn en by
Jesus but leaves us in doubt as to whether
he is speaking as an historian or as a com-
mentator

The Teaching of Jcxm wv/s Pragmatic —
Starting with the experiences of those to whom
he spoke, whether those of the farmei, the
fisherman, the shepherd, or the housewife,
he helped them recognize the essential unity
of life in the natural and spiritual realms
Jesus thus grounded authority ultimately
in the reality of experience By yirtue of
las own experience he assumed a highly
authoritative attitude and seldom aigued
as to the truth of his teachings They weie
lather to be subjected to the test of practical
value The evidence of then truth lay in
the peace and joy which then acceptance
brought, just as evidence of genuine disci pie-
ship lay in a willingness " to do the things he
commanded " In this connection also should
be noted Jesus' habit, of adducing principles fiom
concrete events — an element of method to be
expected in one whose teaching was so vivid and
vital as his He does not, howovei, geneiahze
so much as interpret the episodes he thus uses

Jet>us' Polemical Teaching — Such teaching
is bv no means infrequent in the gospel records
and may be fairly said to constitute an essen-
tial phase of method The attitude of Jesus
was one of criticism of the highly technical
and legalistic religion which had grown up
about the Law and the Temple It is not-
dim cult, however, to find in his polemic the
constant endeavor to recall those whom he
addressed to the finality of the spiritual values
of their faith That in the case of the ecclesi-
astics he failed is not surprising, but his failure
was a means by which thousands of men and
women have been brought into the larger
freedom of the spirit which legalism of anv
sort tends to crush If, indeed, Jesus were a
critic of existing institutions and beliefs, he
was also able to substitute foi that which he
destroyed a new group of truths which should
lead their possessors into an enriched spiritual
life

The Method of the Apostles — The prob-
lems which confronted the apostles were in
many ways different from those which con-
fronted Jesus Jesus never organized his
followers into a precisely defined group After
his death, however, his disciples immediately
undertook the work of propaganda, and like
their master were forced to face abuse and
suffering Yet they were able to carry the
power of the gospel into the most ordinary
affairs of their individual life In so doing
they organized those who accepted their

M)L TV — 2o 449

preaching into little gioups of men and women,
— the primitive churches With the rise
of such institutions, many of them on heathen
soil, there was need of a more definite instruc-
tion, first as regards the gospel, second as re-
gams Jesus, and third as regards the Christian
life The teadiet thus was differentiated
from the e\ angel ist

Instruction given converts to the new "faith
was in two fields (1) The facts of Jesus' life
and teaching The rimstians who had never
seen Jesus especially needed such instruction
The evangelist 01 apostle who brought to them
the message of salvation through him doubtless
gave a ceitain amount of information con-
cerning his life in Galilee and particularly
concerning his death and resurrection This
seems to have been the message Paul himself
uttered when he first came to Corinth The
gospel which he dehveied was the one which
he had himself icccivcd and it dealt with the
historic facts of Jesus' life us well as the impli-
cation of these facts (\ Cor 15 1-7) At,
this point it is tiue one enteis a much debated
held, but it \\ouldseem possible, if not piobable,
that the " immstei '' Mark \\honi Paul and
Barnabas took \uth them on then first mis-
sionary journey had for his duty the instruc-
tion of these eaih convex Is in the facts of
Jesus' life The fact that his name was at-
tached to a gospel containing just the soit
of information which the ne\\ conveit needed
argues strongly that it is a fair sample of the
sort of material used foi the purposes of
instruction bv those \\ho, unlike the apostles
and the e\angehsts, dexoted themselves to the
painstaking and minute instruction of the ne\\
converts in the facts uhich justified their
faith (cf Lk 1 1-4)

(2) The bearing of the Clnistian hope of a
new age and the Kingdom of (rod upon con-
duct The early Chnstians believed that
they were waiting foi the appearance of a
great spiritual kingdom which would enieige
out of the sky and would reeen e them into
itself They were, theiefore, not interested
in the refoiming of society They had, hou-
ever, to live in the midst of heathen sui round-
ings, and this was a task of no small magnitude
Paulinism from ceitam angles might be de-
scribed as the application of the Gospel to
human affaus Paul's letters face the peren-
nial difficulty of bringing home to men and
women hardly freefiom the control of heathen-
ism the Christian ideals of family and other
forms of social life. His instruction is not
formal, but consists largely of treatment of
specific problems such as marriage, business
slavery, the personal appearance and habits
of men and women, etc , from the new point
of view In the course of time there developed
what was known as the Apostles' Teaching and
this became more or less systematized in the
Didachv, but it would certainly be a very
serious error to t hink of the work of the apostles

NEW TESTAMENT, PEDAGOGY OF NEW TESTAMENT, PEDAGOGY OF

as in any sense that of University Extension
lecturers on the science of ethics They were
rather ecclesiastical statesmen engaged in
organizing communities and instructing them
as to the practical duties of everyday life
uo w revolutionized by the supremacy of
eschatological and " spiritual " values

The apostolic teaching was both deductive
and affected by the habits of thought of the time
Paul, in particular, proceeded with consider-
able logical severity from the general position
which faith in Jesus as Christ involved The
Messianic program which Jesus was expected
to fulfil upon his leturn from Heaven, earned
with it certain implications relative to social
life This belief in the speedy return of their
Messiah became less a source of moral renova-
tion than of conservatism The institutions
and interests of the present historical order
were soon to come to an end, and in consequence
were to be endured rather than transformed
Consequently the teaching of Pauline and later
New Testament literature is essentially un-
social so far as the nonrehgious relations in
life are concerned

To justify, e g the subjection oi women, the
maintenance of slavery, arid the submission
to government, the apostle makes use of the
methods of exposition of his day as they ex-
isted among the nibbinical teachers Cer-
tain parallels, it is true, may be found bet \veen
his thought and that of Stoicism, but they are
hardly more than the expression of general
principles which all ethical thought has lecog-
nized It is impossible to find in his letters
any controlling influence of such university
training as he may have obtained in Tarsus
On the contrary, Paul manifests a decided
hostility towards philosophy, insisting that
the " wisdom of this world " is foolishness in
the eyes of God and that he has a spiritual
wisdom, " not of this world," which he can
share with the perfect Just what this wisdom
really was his letters do not enable us to say,
but it may be surmised that it was allegorical
interpretation similar to that which he occa-
sionally used

Under the influence of his rabbinical train-
ing Paul does not hesitate to argue in a way
all but unintelligible to persons trained in
Greek methods of thought Such methods
are to be seen in controversies with Jewish
opponents as in Gal. 3 15-22, 4 21-31 In
similar accord with his teachers is his con-
stant use of the Old Testament As the au-
thoritative oracles of God, the Old Testament
literature was to Paul, and indeed to all the
early church writers, a court of appeal as truly
as to the rabbis. Quotations from the Scrip-
tures are often arbitrary, the sentences being
detached from the context, but the early
Christians who thus were under the influence of
contemporary theological methods seem never
to have doubted the value of the method arid
in some cases approved what we must believe

were the even more pronouncedly Alexandrian
methods of Apollos, who is said to have been
" mighty m the Scriptures "

Occasional lack of proportion both in the
treatment and method of Paul is accounted for
by the fact that most of the teaching was the
outgrowth of definite problems and sometimes
definite questions Occasionally he recurs to
the teaching which he himself had received,
but this itself v\ as probably not very systematic
As an Apostle he claimed original authority
in that he had not been instructed by the orig-
inal Twelve and in that his gospel came to
him directly by the revelation of the Christ
The letter to the Romans is the most syste-
matized and academic of his writings which
have survived, but it is an oratorical treatise
rather than a pedagogical exposition In it
the characteristics already mentioned appear,
though less pronouncedly than in Galatians
Most of his extant writings, however, are com-
posed of independent treatments of specific
problems, such as marriage, the resurrection,
the position of women, justification by faith,
current philosophies, and gifts of the Spirit
In them it is possible to discover that germinal
system of thought which the theologians have
made the vertebral column of the Christian sys-
tem, but there is little of strictly pedagogical
method The nearest approach to the rec-
ognition of pedagogical principles is apparently
to be seen in his refusal to give his advanced
views to those who, like the Corinthians, were
prepared only for the " milk " of his teaching

This recognition of the need of progress in
Christian thought becomes more apparent
in the later New Testament books, such as
the Epistle to the Ephcsians and the Letter to
the Hebiewb In the latter book the unknown
author distinctly states that he intends to
proceed from the " elements " of the Chris-
tian system to "perfection," ? e to a sort of
Christian gnosis But the other New Testa-
ment books are religious tracts rather than
educational treatises, and show no marked
variation from the method of the preacher as
distinguished from that of the teacher In
them all there is an exclusion of philosophical
and revolutionary doctrines, an inculcation
of patience pending the " day of the Lord,"
encouragement to maintain the hope of the
approaching glorious deliverance, and exhor-
tation to be among those who were to share
in the triumphs of the returning Christ

The Beginning of the Organization of Edu-
cation — In the New Testament, however,
there are hints of more systematic instruc-
tional methods than the practical doctrinal
exposition of the apostle would seem to indi-
cate Christianity is as much a creature of
an institution as of a group of doctrines In
fact, it may fairly be said that its practices have
generally preceded its doctrinal formulations

(n) Teaching and Prophesyi,ng . — While we
find in Paul no organized system of Christian

45<

NKW TESTAMENT, PEDAGOGY OF

NEW YORK, CITY OF

instruction we do find references to the " gifts "
of teaching and prophesying At this distance
it is impossible to discover with absolute pre-
cision just what these " gifts " were, but the
term at least indicates a differentiation of
function due to abilities which were attributed
to the inworking of the spirit of God The
teachers undoubtedly were those who had the
ability to set forth the supportable implica-
tions of Christian hope in some more or less
systematic fashion The prophets seem to
have had the capacity to set forth something
similar, but doubtless with less reliance upon
logic and more trust in the inspiration of the
moment Paul distinguishes both functions
sharply fiom that of the " gift " of " tongues/'
which he regards as not intended for "edifica-
tion " In the words of the new prophets thcie
lay the possibilities of convincing the minds
of the non-believers In the work of the
teachers, there lay means of supplementing
the practical instruction which Paul himself
gave in his letters

(b) A professional Teaching Body — The
development of the church further tended to
differentiate a group of people whose business
it was to teach in spiritual matters These
Paul announced were worthy of being paid.
Such persons were evidently not priests but
doubtless resembled the synagogue preacher
und the modern pastor How far their in-
struction went and how early they became a
distinct class it is now impossible to say, but
that there was some instruction in Christian
facts and doctrine of a formal sort seems
to be evident from Galatians 6 6, and
particularly from Luke 1 4, in which
Theophilus is said by Luke to have been in-
structed (catechized) Reference has already
been made to the possibility that Mark may
have belonged to a class of church workers
called the " ministers of the word," but there
remains a great obscurity as to the exact
meaning of the title By the beginning of
the second century it is clear that instruction
was already pretty general in the churches
To the need of such instruction is doubtless
to be attributed the reduction to writing of
the traditions carried memonter Variations
in the synoptic gospels mav fairly well be
accounted for by the assumption that they
represent the types of such instruction given
in different parts of the Roman Empire With
the reduction of the oral traditions of Jesus
to writing (a process which was doubtless in
the main complete before the destruction of
Jerusalem in 70 AD), the possibility of
genuinely catechetical instruction was estab-
lished and such instruction may be assumed
to have begun We have, however, no con-
clusive evidence of any particular instruction
of the young in Christian doctrine.

Summary — The pedagogical methods of
the New Testament, in so far as they are any-
thing other than those of practical counsels,

may be said to have been empirically well
adapted to conditions Their subject matter
was not general biblical or scientific informa-
tion, but rather practical directions for living;
as such they utilized the experiences of both
teacher and those taught and set forth the
principles of the New Christian idealism in
accordance with current methods of thinking
but without formal institutions or methods
for instruction The extraordinary success
of the new faith must be accounted for not so
much by any novelty in its pedagogical
methods as by the {Applicability of its tenets
to the Grspeo-Roinan world ' 8 M

See CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS, CATIX HUMENAL
SCHOOLS; CHRISTIAN EDUCATION AND THE EARLY
CHURCH, JEWISH EDUCATION

References —

ELLIS, G H The Pedagogy of JOSUH, Ped Kcm.

Vol IX, pp 441 159
REIN, W En(yklopttdi8che* JIandhuch der PbdaQogik,

s v Je^us als LehriT
SCHMID, K A. EncyUo/Mdic d«> (jfsarnten, Erzuhu7i(jt>-

und Untfrruhtswcsent*, HV l^adayogik dc$ nines

Testaments

NEW YORK, CITY OF — The present
city of Greater New York, as formed by con-
solidation in 1897, includes (he borough of
Manhattan, or New York proper, the borough
of the Bronx, to the north and easl of Man-
hattan, the borough of Biooklyn, formeilv
the independent city of Biooklyn, and itself
a consolidation of a number of towns, the
borough of Queen's, being a pait of Queen's
County, on Long Island, and including Flush-
ing, Hernpstead, Jamaica, Long Island City,
and Newtown, arid the borough of Richmond,
coterminous with Staten Island, in the lower
bay. The combined city has an area of 320
square miles The population of Greater
New York City in 19JO was 4,766,883, or
practically the same as for the state of Ohio

Educational History — The history of edu-
cation in the state of New York during the
colonial period, both under the Dutch and
English rule, has been traced under the his-
tory of education in the state of New York
(See NEW YORK, STATE OF ) The hist free
school in the city after the Revolutionary
Period, was opened in 1787 by the Society for
Promoting the Manumission of Slaves, with
twelve coloied pupils in attendance In 1794
the school was incorporated as the African
Free School and a few years later a school-
house was built in Cliff Street By 1797 small
grants were made to the school by the city
corporation The first fiee school for white
children, enforcing no religious restrictions,
was opened in 1801 by the Association of
Women Friends for the Relief of the Poor,
organized in 1798 by a group of women con-
nected with the Society of Friends

The Public School* Society — In 1805 a
similar society was organized by a number

451

NEW YORK, CITY OF

NEW YORK, CITY OF

of philanthropic citizens and chartered by
the legislature as the Free School Society of
New York, and its powers were extended to
include in its educational work " all children
who are the proper objects of a gratuitous
education " For the next few years the
Society Deceived aid and grants from the city
and from the state legislature and in 1815
participated in the new State Common School
Fund. (See NEW YOKK, STATE OF ) By
1826 eight schools, with separate departments
for girls in nearly all of them, en railing 345
pupils, were in operation and gave instruction
in reading, writing, figures, and icligion (the
children attending some place of worship
regularly as a condition of admission) The
Lancastenan system was employed from 1817
on In 1818 Lancaster (g v ) lectured undoi
the auspices of the Society, which in 1820 pub-
lished A Manual of the Lancastenan System
But in spite of the progress of the Society,
many children were still unprovided for In
1829 an inquiry, made by the Common Council,
showed the following as the status of education
in the city —

PUPILS STUDYING

SCHOOLH

TEACH-
ERS

First
Ele-
ments

Gram ,
Anth

Higher
Branches

TOTAL
PUPILS

430 Private and

Church schools

132

6907

7214

1809

15320

3 Incorporated

schools

6

220

841

270

1081

19 Charity schools
11 Public schools

25
21

2430
6007

060
475

15

2545
6007

As early as 1822 the Society had considered
the advisability of organizing instruction in
the higher branches for the more promising
pupils, but no action was taken toward ex-
tending the Society's work until after the
reorganization in 1826 The years 1822 to
1824 were marked by the first of the So-
ciety's struggles with the religious organiza-
tions which for so long had controlled the
educational situation in the city The Society's
work was largely cut into by some church-
supported Lancastrian schools The matter
was carried to the legislature, and, after a
long struggle, the basis of apportionment was
changed by giving all of the New York City
school money to the Common Council for
distribution as they saw fit The Council,
after deliberation, unanimously decided to cut
off all church schools from the grants, and the
year 1824 thus marks an important step in
the establishment of a non-denominational
public school system for the city

In 1826 the Society changed its name by
charter from the Free School Society, to The
Public School Society of New York, and was
authorized to charge tuition fees for instruc-

tion, and to grant remittances of fees to those
too poor to pay Large numbers of parents
who had previously sent their children to the
Society's schools found themselves now " too
poor to pay and too proud to confess their
poverty " The result was that the schools,
which at the beginning of the experiment had
enrolled 3457 children, in six months fell off
to 2999, two thirds of them being pay pupils
In 1818 the legislature had granted the Society
aid from the license money paid by dealers
in lottery tickets, and in 1829 a property tax
of one eighth of a null was granted in addition
for maintenance With increasing revenue,
it was soon decided to make the schools free
to all

In 1827 the Public School Society organized
a " junior department " in School No 8, with
a woman as teacher, ioi children of three years
and upward, and taught on the Lancastenan
system In 1828 the Infant School Society,
which had opened its first school in 1827, was
permitted to establish its second school in
Public School No 10 In 1829 a report was
made to the Board favoring the infant school
system of training, and in 1830 the junior
department of No 8 was converted into an
infant school The new designation of pri-
mary department was now applied to such
schools, and women teachers were decided upon
for them From this time on, the primary de-
partments became an important part of the
Society's work The Society in 1830 had
eleven buildings, containing twenty-one schools,
and having an attendance of 6178 Two of the
schools were infant schools, and three were
coeducational In 1832 the monitorial system
was in large part abandoned A committee
on prnnarv schools was appointed by the
Society, and it was decided to organize ten such
schools, under women teachers, for children
four to ten years of age, and after the Boston
plan, where the committee had visited and
inspected the schools In 1833 the first free
evening schools were established, but they were
abandoned a few years later. In 1834 the
Manumission Society turned over its buildings
arid equipment to the Public School Society,
and these schools became the African (in
1838 changed to colored) schools of the citv
In 1834 also a special Saturday school, for the
instruction of the female monitors employed
in the primary schools and departments, wab
established, and in 1835 similar schools foi
the monitors in the boys' schools were provided
In 1828 the Society had appointed a " visitor "
to look after attendance, and, in 1833, the
title was changed to " agent " and he was
also made a business supervisor for the city
In 1837 the office of superintendent of repairs
was created, an office which gradually devel-
oped into that of school architect

Creation of the Board of Education. — In
1842 the first board of education was created
as a result of the claim of denominations which

452

NEW YORK, CITY OF

NEW YORK, CITY OF

desired to share in the school funds of the
Society, city, and state. Each of the seventeen
wards of the city was created a separate school
town, and a board of education, composed
of two commissioners for each ward, was to
be elected by the people. Each ward was also
to elect two inspectors and five trustees to act
as a local school board Existing schools
were not disturbed, but public funds could
not now be granted to any school or society
" in which any religious sectarian doctrine
or tenet shall be taught, inculcated, or prac-
ticed "

The new Board of Education began opera-
tions in 1842, opened its first school in 1S43,
and by 184S had twenty ward schools, two
primary schools, and two colored schools in
operation The new system was cumbersome,
imperfect, and lacked the intelligent direction
of the old Public School Society, but made
very substantial progress For some years
the two school systems existed side by side,
with more 01 less friction Under the new
system the old monitorial plan of instruction
was cither greatly restricted or entuelv
abandoned The buildings erected by the
Board had more and smaller classiooms and
more teachers, and this and othei popular
features of the ward schools, as they wcie
called, gave them a great advantage over those
of the Public School Society In 1848 the*
right of the Society to build any additional
schools was questioned by the Boaid, and later
prohibited by the legislature This placed
the old Society at the meicy of the new Board
of Education, and in 1853 the two weie con-
solidated The Public School Society passed
out of existence after forU -eight years of serv-
ice, tuinmg over to the city school piopeity
valued at $604,820 46 During the period of
its existence the Society had educated over
600,000 children and more than 1200 teachers
By the terms of the consolidation act, fifteen
members of the Society were elected to seats
in the Board of Education The new Board
assumed control of a school system consisting
of 214 looms or departments, twenty-one of
which were for colored childien

Woik of the Board of Education — The
Boaid of Education from the first began an
active campaign to establish schools DuTing
the first ten years of its existence the city in-
creased 60 per cent in population, while the
schools mci eased 120 per cent In 1847 even-
ing elementary schools weie reestablished, and
in 1849 a free academy which in 1866 became
the College of the City of New Yoik (q v )
In 1841 a county superintendent of schools,
elected by the county board of supervisors,
had been created, and in 1851 the legislature
granted the Board permission to appoint a
city superintendent of schools, one or more
assistant superintendents, and a superin-
tendent of school buildings By 1860 the
Board had under its control forty-seven gram-

mar schools foi boys, forty-he von grammar
schools for girls, eighty-seven primary schools
and departments, and eleven colored schools,
a total of 192 schools, employing 1548 teachers,
and having an average attendance of 55,050
pupils Bv 1870 there were 190 schools,
2407 teachers, and an average attendance' of
85,307 pupils The population of the city at
this time was 942,292, and the school popula-
tion about 200,000 In 1866 the evening
school system was remodeled, and the first
evening high school was established In
1869 a Female Normal and High School
was authorized and established, which, in
1888, was transformed into the City Normal
College In 1869 corporal punishment was
prohibited, in 1871 the first law permitting
the issue of school bonds was enacted in
1873 the Nautical School was established,
in 1874 the first compulsory education law
was passed, and a supervisor of truancy was
appointed the following year, in 1884 the
separate colored schools were abolished, in
1888 the free public lecture1 system was es-
tablished, and in 1887, 1888, and 1890 addi-
tional evening high schools were created
The period from I860 to 1890 has been termed
the period of peaceful expansion Only minor
improvements were made during this period,
the chief legislation during these three decades
relating to the composition of the governing
bodies, with the district trustee system as the
chief point of issue In 1871 a Department
of Public Instruction, as a branch of the city
government, was provided for, with a Board
of Education of twelve, all appointed by the
mayor These two laws appear to have been
in advance of the public sentiment of the time,
and in 1873 they were repealed, and the law
of 1864 virtually reenacted This reestab-
lished the district boards, and, in part, the dis-
trict system of school control The Board
of Education of twenty-one members was to
be appointed by the mayor, and the Board was
in turn to appoint the ward boards of five
district triihtees each The Board of Educa-
tion became a legislative and supervisory
body, and the district trustees appointed
teachers, looked after the school property, and
lecommended principals and vice-principals
to the central Board for appointment In this
condition the organization of the New York
City schools remained until 1896

The ward system at its best was unsatis-
factory as a system, and gave rise to much
complaint In the selection of the boards
it was generally believed that religious and
lacial questions, rather than educational effi-
ciency, were dominant The schools were
criticized as narrow and partial, and were
often suspected of proselyting the children
who attended them The criticism rose to
such an extent that the legislature directed
the mayor to appoint a commission to
revise the school organization for the city

453

NEW YORK, (TTY OF

NKW YORK, CITY OF

and to report to the next legislature The bill
proposed failed of enactment at the sessions
of 1894, 1895, and 1896, the district trustee
system being the center around which the
battle was waged Finally, a substitute bill
was adopted which abolished the trustees and
created a board of superintendents, the latter
to have the power to nominate all principals,
vice-principals, and teachers, to recommend
the course of study, to manage and supervise
the schools, and to examine and license
teachers No change was made in the Board
of Education itself or in the manner of its
appointment, except to make it more in the
nature of a board of trustees, with power to
legislate and approve, but with little power
to initiate This law was the most important
reform accomplished in the New York City
school department 111 half a century, and, with
the district trustees abolished, the way for
future progress was at last clear Nearly
all of the important progress in the city school
system has been made since this elimination
of the district system in 1896

Brooklyn — In Brooklyn, as in New Amster-
dam, the minister preceded the schoolmaster
Probablv the first school on Long Island was
provided at Flatbush, in about, 1653, though
the first, regular and full appoint merit as school-
master appears to have been in 1660 The
first school tax was levied in 1661 for a school
opened in Breucklyn A third school was
opened in 1663 in Bushwick (later reorganized
as the first school in Wilhamsburg), arid a
fourth school was opened the same year in
Bedford Other schools were first organized
in Flatbush in 1675, Gravesend in 1728, and
New Lots in 1740 Two other schools were
organized at Wallabout Creek and at Gowanus
before the Revolution All of these schools
later became a part of the public school system
of the city of Brooklyn The Dutch language
was employed at first, but from 1758 up to
1800 both the Dutch arid the English language
were used In the Bushwick school Dutch
was taught up to about 1835. As lute as 1770
the town of Brooklyn contained onlv one school,
with nineteen pupils In that year a school-
house was built by subscription, and the sub-
scribers elected trustees to manage4 the school
and to admit free those unable to pay tuition
It is claimed that the Gownnus school (later
Brooklyn No 2) was organized as a school
district under the new State School La\\ of
1810. In 1815 the first distribution from the
State Common School Fund was received, and
in 1816 Brooklyn levied a village tax of $2000
to open another school At that time there
were 552 children in the village not attending
private or church schools Six other schools
are reported as having been organized in the
village before the incorporation of the city
of Brooklyn in 1834

On the organization of the city, the Com-
mon Council was given power to organize the

schools This was then done on the district
system plan, the Council appointing three
trustees for each school in the city, who were
in turn to select the teachers and to manage
the school For the city as a whole the Council
also appointed three inspectors and three
commissioners, by way of integrating and har-
monizing the district' control This form of
organization continued up to 1843, when the
first governing body for the schools of the
whole city was created The Council was
created a Board of School Commissioners,
with power to appoint two or more persons
from each school district, for three-year terms,
to constitute, with the mayor and the county
superintendent of schools, a city Board of
Education In 1847 the Board of Education
was authorized to appoint a Superintendent
of schools for the city In 1854 the city of
Wilhamsburg and the town of Flatbush wore
consolidated with the city of Brooklyn, and
the membership of the Board of Education
was increased to forty-five, at which it re-
mained during the rest of its history In 1862
the mayor was given the power of nomination
of members, and in 1882 he was given full
power of appointment In 1873 the schools
were organized under the Department of Pub-
lic Instruction of the city government, and
the title of the superintendent was changed
accordingly

Beginning with the organization of the
Board of Education in 1843, the important
steps in the evolution of the Brooklyn school
system may be briefly traced After several
attempts to conduct Saturday normal classes,
a teachers' training school was established in
1885, with a one year's course of instruction
The first uniform course of study was prepared
in 1866, and remained almost unchanged for
twenty-one years In 1874 the first unifica-
tion of the grammar school work was made
by a provision for uniform examinations for
the completion of the grammar schools In
1876, following the enactment of the fiist
compulsory education law in 1874, a superin-
tendent of truancy and five agents were ap-
pointed, in 1878 two attendance schools wore
provided, and in 1895 a truant school was
created by the Board In 1851 the first
evening high school had been established, and
in 1880 a second evening high school was pro-
vided for In 1883 a head drawing teacher
was appointed, in 1890 a supervisor of drawing
and in 1896 a director of sewing and four
sewing teachers In 1897 the first public
kindergartens were opened In 1878 the Cen-
tral Grammar School, with a two years'
course, was opened, in 1887 the course was
extended to three years; and in 1890 a four
years' classical course was first outlined In
1891 a Boys' High School and a Girls' High
School were evolved out of the Central Gram-
mar School In 1894 the Manual Training
High School was created, and in 1895 the

454

NEW YORK, (TTY OF

NEW YORK, CITY OF

Erasmus Hall Academy in Flat bush was
accepted and transformed into the Erasmus
Hall High School. In 1883 the Brooklyn
Bridge was opened, and led to the rapid growl h
of Brooklyn

From the organization of the city in 1834
the Council had been permitted to appoint
boards of school trustees of three to look after
and manage each school In 1S51 this \\as
definitely transformed into the '4 Local Com-
mittee System," of three trustees foi each
school. When high schools and tunning
schools were established, local committees foi
these were also established, and in time t lie sys-
tem grew so formidable that substantial prog-
ress under it was very slow, if not almost
impossible The local committee system and
the unwieldiness of the large Board of Educa-
tion were subjects of discussion and criticism
foi years, and in 1894-1895 efforts were made
to secure a more centralized administration
and a Board of Education of fifteen members
Before anything was accomplished, howevei,
Biooklyn in 1897 became a part of the citv
of Gi eater New York

Present System — The Greater Xew Yoik
charter of 1897 provided for the consolidation
of the old city of New York, including the
Bionx, the city of Brooklyn, a part of the then
Queen's County, and all of Richmond County
into one greater city orgam/ation The Now
York and Brooklyn Boards were continued
without change, the different to\\u and county
school organizations in Richmond County
were consolidated under one Board of Educa-
tion, and the same was done for that pait of
Queen's- County \\hich was annexed The
city superintendents of New York and Brook-
lyn became borough superintendents, and
borough superintendents weie to be appointed
for Richmond and Queen's A Central Board
of Education of nineteen membeis \\as to
be constituted, bv representation fiom each
of the boroughs The result was a federation,
with no more disturbance of existing conditions
than was necessary, and with no great povms
lodged with the Central Board In Brookh n
the local committee system was cxpies.slv
continued, and this was not abolished until
the new Charter of 1901 The Cent ml
Board was made the custodian, also, of all
school moneys, and was required to appoint
a School Treasurer and to establish a dis-
bursing office.

The disadvantages of haying four borough
school boards and a loosely organized central
body were so many that, after four years of
trial, the plan was abandoned In 1901 a
revised charter was obtained for the greater
city which unified the different parts of the
school system for the first time, and with
certain minor changes still continues

The school system as at present organized
is directed by a Board of Education of forty-
six members, appointed by the mayor Of

these, twenty-two are appointed from tfij
Borough of Manhattan, fourteen from the
Borough of Brooklyn, four from the Borough
of the Bronx, four from the Borough of Queen's,
and two from the Borough of Richmond An
executive committee of fifteen directs much
of the work of the Board, and fourteen com-
mittees look after various special lines of woik
The city is divided by the Board of Education
into forty-six school districts, for each of which
a board of five citizens is appointed by the
boiough president One member of the Board
of Education, designated by its president, and
the distuct superintendent of schools having
supervision of the district, are also members
of each local board These local district
hoards are largely advisory in function, but
have some important supervisory powers over
the school property of the district

The Board of Pkiucation appoints a superin-
tendent of schools for the city, and eight
associate superintendents, who together con-
stitute the board of superintendents, and, on
their recommendation, the Board appoints
the district superintendents, of whom there
are twenty-six The initiative in practically
all educational matters is given to this board
of superintendents, and its educational powers
are large A board of four examiners has
control of the examination and certification
of all teachers and principals The Boaid
ot Education appoints a superintendent of
lectures, who has charge of the free lecture
system (q r ) of the city, a superintendent of li-
braries, who looks after the libraries and library
work in connection with the schools; and a
board of retirement, to admmistci the Teach-
ers' Retirement Law

The Board of Education is allowed the pio-
ceeds of a three-mill tax for salaries, but all
other expenses are wholly within the discre-
tion of the Board of Estimate and Apportion-
ment for the City, to whom the Board must
apply for funds The Board of Education
possesses by law such general powers as aie
necessaiv to establish and control a complex
city school system The city superintendent
of schools has a seat in the Board, with the
light to speak but not to vote He is charged
with the enforcement of the compulsory edu-
cation laws, and nominates all attendance
officers for appointment He assigns then
duties to his subordinates, and oveisees their
work He presides ovei the board of super-
intendents and the board of examiners The
board of superintendents nominates all district
superintendents, principals, heads of depart-
ments, and teachers, selects all textbooks, ap-
paratus, and supplies, nominates the directors
of the special blanches of insti notion, and as-
signs the assistants to their woik, recommends
changes in grades, classes, and courses of study,
and determines all promotions and transfers
of teachers and supei visors, subject to the
approval of the Board oi Education The

455

NKW YORK, CITY OF

NEW YORK, THE COLLEGE OF

district superintendents aie assigned to the
supervision of different, districts of the city,
or to different branches or divisions of the
educational work

Scope of the School tiyxtcm — In size and
complexity the school system of the greatei
city is virtually a great state school system
in a condensed form The city of New York
enrolls a larger number of children, employs
four fifths as many teachers, and expends
half as much again for education as the
state of Ohio The school census of the
city exceeds a million and a half of children,
about 800,000 children are in average daily at-
tendance at the public schools, a city college,
a large normal school, and branch training
schools, twenty-two day high schools and a
dozen evening high schools, about two hun-
died day and about fifty evening elementary
schools, trade schools, a system of vacation
schools and playgrounds, a nautical school,
and an extensive evening lecture system are
maintained, about 18,000 teachers, and a thou-
sand supervisory officers are employed, and
the current expenses total about thirty-five
millions of dollars, and are increasing con-
stantly and rapidly The College of the City
of New York (q v ), located in Manhattan,
is one of the large and important colleges of
the United States The city normal school
is also a large and an important institution
Training schools are also maintained in Brook-
lyn and Queen's The high schools employ
about 1500 teachers, and enroll about 40,000
students They represent different lines of in-
struction, there being manual training, com-
mercial, arid vocational high schools, as well
as high schools of the more traditional types
A number of evening high schools of different
types are maintained in the different boroughs,
the evening vocational or trade schools being
of an excellent type

Educational Conditions — The greater city
has recently made very remarkable endeavors
to meet the educational needs of a very com-
plex and difficult educational situation Most
of the important progress has been made since
the elimination of the district system, and the
inauguration of the present system of school
control. Owing to the very rapid growth of
the city from births and immigration, the
struggle to provide4 seating accommodations
for all has been a long and as yet an unsuccess-
ful one, despite the erection of numbeis of
excellent new buildings The buildings erected
within the past fifteen years are among
the best of their kind The educational prob-
lem is rendered especially difficult by the fact,
that New York City is one of the 'most cos-
mopolitan cities in the world, and hence has
large numbers of children of foreign parentage
in the schools Over one third of the total
population is foreign born, and about three1
fourths of the population is of foreign parent-
age The (rermans, Irish, Italians, Russians,

Austnans, and English, in the order given, are
the leading foreign nationalities, though al-
most every foreign nationality and race is
represented in the city's population This,
with the congestion of population, the large
amount of poverty, and the absence of the
wholesome home restraints to which the chil-
dren of these foreign peoples are accustomed
in Europe, makes the educational problem
in the city especially difficult The peculiai
conditions call for a centralized educational
administration and for a high quality of educa-
tional leadership To cope better with the
truancy and child labor situations new legis-
lation of an impoitant kind has recently been
obtained, and the metropolitan school census
law recently enacted, under which the police
make an annual house to house investigation,
gives the city of New York the best school
census law to be found in the United States
As might naturally be expected in a city where
the schools were for so long relatively poor
and the public school system incomplete, and
in a city possessing so large a foreign element,
the private school and (he parochial school
abound, though these schools have not in-
creased so rapidly since the public schools
have come to represent a higher type of public
education R P (1

References -

Anjiual Riport* of the Fret (aftrr 182(i the Public}
School Sooety of New York, 1S05-1S.W

Annual Reports of the Boaid of Kdutation of the City
of N*w Yoik, !S4,i-lS^7

Annual R< port^ of th< Suptuntt n<i< nt of I'uhltf I n^h ac-
tion of HiooUtfH, 1H5»{-1S()7

Annual R< port*, of the Dcpartitunt of Education, City of
New Yoik, lS<)H-dato

BOLSE, TIIOH ljnl>lu Kducahon in the ftf// of \'ar
York, it,s History, Condition, and StatitttuK (New
\ork, 1S(>» )

BOURNE, W O History of th< Public School So^idy of
the City of N(w York (No\v Yoik, 1H73 )

PALMEH, A K The New York Public School, A His-
tory of Fret Education in Nar York (New York,
1905 )

RANDALL, S S History of the Common School Synt< m
in the State of New York (New \ ork, 1S71 )

R( port of (\)innuttit on Investigation of tin Puoln School
Sy^tun (Ne\v York, 1<M 2 )

NEW YORK, THE COLLEGE OF THE
CITY OF —The capstone of the fiee public
educational system of New Yoik City In
i espouse to the repeated proposals to found a
Latin School or an Academy, a committee was
appointed by the legislature of 1846 to study
the advisability of such a step The plan for
an institution of higher learning was submitted
to the people in the election of 1847 and was
carried by an overwhelming vote The Free
Academy opened its doors with 143 students
and a faculty of nine, under the leadership
of President Horace Webster The Free
Academy was an attempt to evolve an insti-
tution that combined both high school and
college, and proved most successful Its
students and its faculty gradually increased,

450

NEW YORK, TPIE COLLEGE OF

NEW YORK, THE COLLEGE OF

its standards wore steadily raised until it
reached the level of the best of the eastern
colleges

In 1866 the name was changed to The College
of the City of New York, a title more in keep-
ing with the rank and the scope of its work
Under the direction of its second president,
General Alexander S Webb, the sphere of
work of the college increased in such propor-
tions that annexes were built and temporary
quarters were hired in adjoining buildings
By the close of the century, the pressure of a
rapidly growing student body made it evident
that new quarters were imperative The cilv
provided $5,000,000 for a new home of five
buildings on Washington Heights, with an
equipment unsurpassed In 1908 these new
structures were given over to a student body
of over 4000, including the propaiatory classes,
an instructing corps of about 230 under the
presidency of John Finley Thr college not
only provides tuition for 1300 college students
and over 2500 preparatory students, but also
special instruction for ovei 3000 teachers of
the city schools and foi 500 evening students,
and musical recitals and lectures foi the pro-
motion ot higher musical interests to tons of
thousands All these activities are carried
on through an annual appropriation of about
$000,000

The aim of the college is to enable all am-
bitious young men, propeilv prepared, to
obtain the cultural advantages of a higher
education, to fostor in them a civic and social
conscience, to develop an ideal citizen body
A free education of college grade is open to all
the city's sons, irrespective of nice, creed, 01
class Unlike the civic univeisities of England,
often placed in the same class, the College col-
lects no fees, makes no charges for books and
apparatus, and does not depend upon the
bounty 01 the philanthropy of any private
individual (See MUNICIPAL COLLEGES AND
UNIVERSITIES )

The present organization of the College
dates back to 1900 Prior to that year the
trustees of the College were also the members
of the Board of Education of the city schools
Occupied with the vexing problems rn the
education of 750,000 children, the Board could
not properly direct the policies of this single
institution In 1900 the Legislature gave
the College a separate board of nine trustees,
who weie to be appointed by the Mayor of the
Crty foi a definite term Beneficial results
soon followed in the wake of this change, for
it brought increased familiarization with the
needs of the College, arid concentrated effort
towards the realrzatron of the cherished plans
for a new and fitting home

The standards of admission are on the same
high level as those in the leading eastern col-
leges Students are admitted by a certificate1
of the College Entrance Board, or by a di-
ploma of the city high schools or of Townsond

Hams Hall, the Preparatory Department of
the College

The spirit infused by the early authorities
reflected their West Point training The
College is still characterized by severe dis-
cipline, rigorous mental work, a strict markrng
system, an emphasis on those subjects that
give mental fiber The classics are studied
very intensively, and more mathematics is
usually required than by other colleges in the
country The existing curriculum is an at-
tempt to retain the rigor of the old course
and ratronal latitude for personal choice
Six courses are offered these are grouped
under two heads, viz those leading "to the
BA degree, — classical, Latin-French, modern
language, and those to the B S degree,—
general science, biology-chemistry, mechanical
All work is prescribed through the sophomore
year In the junror and the senior year
ample opportunity is given, through electives,
for the pursuit of special interests and the
cultivation of individual powers The Col-
lege was the first to establish a chair in Erig-
hsh as well as the first to organize a Depart-
ment of Mechanic Arts It was one of the
pioneers m the movement to introduce the
sciences and place them on a par wrth the
classics It responded to the pressure of
needs of the day bv organizing in the last-
decade departments of public speakrng, physr-
cal tiarnmg and hygiene, education, econom-
ics arid social science, and music

In addition to the regular college course,
the College cares for a Preparatory Depart-
ment, Townsend Harris Hall, with more than
2500 pupils In the hope of reachrng those
worthy young men who through force of crr-
cumstances were denied the benefits of a col-
lege education, the Evening Sessions were
oigamzed in 1910 A freshman class of over
200 enrolled, each meeting the same entrance
requirements as those which govern admis-
sion to the day sessrons Over 500 evening
students are at present pursuing regular studres
of college grade, strrvrng either to complete
an interrupted course, or merely for personal
development In order to meet the needs of
those teachers of the city school system who
are endeavorrng to rmprove their professional
standmg, it offers under its auspices regular
courses in education, English, comparative
literature, science, etc Over 3000 teachers
are in regular attendance The successful
completion of these courses entitles the teacher
to partial exemption rn promotion examina-
tions given by the Board of Education of
New York City

The student body rs different from that
which one finds in the average eastern college
The enormous populatrori of the city furnishes
the students There rs no dormitory life
The young men scatter over the city each day
when college labors and activities are ovei
The great majority of these students would

457

NEW YORK SCHOOL JOURNAL

NEW YORK, STATE OF

be denied a college education if it weie riot
for the opportunity which the College extends
to them. Social life and social spirit, how-
ever, are not absent The students form
their friendships in one of a large number of
literary, debating, or science societies, and in
the round of popular fraternities Though
the* institution is nonsectarian, it is not ir-
religious, the Y M C A, Y M H A, the
Newman Club, the Menorah Society, keep
alive the leligious spirit which mauv students
bring to the College

A municipal college, more than any other,
must constantly be alive to its obligations to
the community The College of the citv of
New Yoik, in its attempt to meet its social
responsibility, has given its best graduates
to the city school system. In the capacity
of teachers, principals, superintendents, su-
pervisors of evening education 01 of free public
lecture centers, those who gained their inspira-
tion at the College are striving in the colossal
task of Americanizing the cosmopolitan and
foreign population of the city The College
has its full quota of leading members of the
New York Bar, of eminent- surgeons, of il-
lustrious crigmeeis, of expeits in sanitation, of
leadeis in architecture and in eveiy phase of
human endeavor J H F

NEW YORK SCHOOL JOURNAL —

See JOURNALISM, EDUCATIONAL

NEW YORK, STATE OF. — First settled
by the Dutch in the early pait of the seventeenth
century; it was surrendered to the English
in 1664, and remained under their rule until
the Revolution In 1788 New Yoik entered
the Union as one of the thirteen original states
In size, the state is the largest east of Illinois
and north of North Carolina Its area is
47,654 squaie miles, which is about the same
as that of England. The total population in
1910 was 9,118,614, which was greatei than
that of any other state, and in its density of
population, 191 2 per square mile, the state
ranks fifth For administrative purposes the
state is divided into sixty-one counties, arid
these in turn into supermtendency districts,
cities, towns, and school districts.

Educational History — Under the Dutch.
— New Netherlands was founded by the Dutch
West India Company as a commercial venture.
New Amsterdam (now New York City) was the
seat of the goveinment and the principal
settlement By the time of the English oc-
cupation about a dozen villages had been
settled, principally on western Long Island
and along the Hudson River So far as is
known, the first school of the colony was
opened at New Amsterdam in 1638 by Adam
Roelantfien (the formerly accepted date of
1638 is now considered to be unauthorized)
Phis school, as was Ilie custom in the Nether-
lands, was a parochial school, the joint con-

cern of the civil authorities (the West India
Company) and the Reformed Dutch Church.
The former paid the salaries and exercised the
principal control, the latter licensed the school-
masters and exercised a certain supervision
over the teaching The schoolmaster was
(generally) also the reader (voorlezer) and
precentor (voorsanger) in the church, and
often acted as sexton besides. In addition
to his salary from the company he received
tuition fees from all the pupils except the poor,
who were taught free. In 1653 New Amster-
dam received a city charter, and the school
came more under the control of the city gov-
ernment. This school appears to have been
maintained continuously from its foundation
and is now probably the oldest elementary
foundation existing in America The out-
lying villages for the most part conducted pa-
rochial schools similar to that of New Amster-
dam In the case of these, howevei, the West
India Company did not pay the salaries
(though occasionally rendering assistance),
nor did it exercise control The support and
control in each village lay in local court and
church In 1652 a trivial (Latin) school
(q v ) was opened by the Company in New
Amsterdam, but lapsed in a shoit time In
1659 another Latin school was opened under
the joint support and contiol of the city and
the Company Private schoolmasteis weie
found in New Amsterdam from an eailv date
These had to be authorized by the dnector
and council In the elementary schools the
curriculum consisted of reading, writing, lest
of the arithmetic, the catechism, and certain
prayers Gnls attended on equal terms with
the boys Besides the various Dutch settle-
ments certain English-speaking villages were
chartered Possiblv many of these had schools,
but little is known of them

Under the English — Aftei the Knghsh
occupation the schools of the Dutch com-
munities continued, in most cases, as public
parochial schools until about the Revolution
Among the English inhabitants the principle
of private enterprise in school affairs on the
whole prevailed, as elsewhere in the colonies
Teachers were in theory licensed by the Gov-
ernor or the Bishop of London. In New York
the city authorities and the several churches
did a little for the education of the poor by
way of charity In 1702 " An act for encour-
agement of a grammar free school " was passed,
which provided foi the appointment, by the
Governor, of a schoolmaster to instruct the
male children of French, Dutch, and Eng-
lish parents in reading, writing, English,
Latin, and Greek The school was to be sup-
ported by taxation, and the schoolmaster
to be licensed by the Bishop of London or the
Governor of the colony The law was in
force for a period of seven years, and at its
expiration the school lapsed It was not until
1732 that any further legislation took place.

NEW YORK, STATE OF

NEW YORK, STATE OF

Private instruction and private schools sup-
plied such secondary, as well as elementary,
schools as existed during the interim. Trinity
School, in New York, dates from 1710 In
October of 1732 " An Act to encourage a
public school in the city of New York for
teaching Latin, Greek, arid Mathematics/'
was passed The school was to be supported
by the income from licenses issued to hawkers
and pedlers, and was to be under the visita-
tion of the justices of the supreme court, the
rector of Trinity Church, and the aldermen
of the city, who could remove the school-
master, for cause, and appoint his successor
Twenty free scholarships, distributed among
the various counties, were provided This
law was also for a term of seven vears, and
after eight yeans this school, too, was dis-
continued, and the colonv once more fell back
entirely on private tuition and patronage

The Society for the Propagation of the Gos-
pel (q v ) early organized elementary schools
which in this colony formed no inconsiderable
part of the elementary education of the Eng-
lish-speaking villages Its first school in the
colony was organized at Rye, in 1704, and be-
tween then and 1775 about sixty teachers
were employed, schools being maintained at
Albany, and in arid about New York

In 1746 the legislature passed " An Act for
raising the sum of £2250 by a public lotteiy,
for this colony, for the advancement of learn-
ing and toward the founding a college within
the same " This was the first act looking
to the foundation of a college for the colonv,
and the final outcome, aftei much discussion,
was a royal chaiter from King George II, in
1754, creating King's College, afterwards
Columbia University (qv) Instruction was
organized at once, and continued up to the
Revolution and the occupation of New York
by the British A grammar school was main-
tained in connection with the college.

Early State Legislation — The first state
constitution was adopted in 1777, and amended
in 1801, but neither the original nor the amend-
ments contained any mention of education
There was little of an educational nature left
in the state at the close of the Revolution
A few private and parish schools, a few acad-
emies, and a defunct college were about all
Excepting the college, the colony had never con-
sidered education as a public function

In January, 1784, two months after the
British left New York, Governor George
Clinton, in his message to the legislature,
gave the first official expression of the need of
educational institutions for the state, and
recommended " the revival and encourage-
ment of seminaries of learning " The recom-
mendation received prompt attention, but
the final result was a bill to establish a state
university. The friends of the defunct King's
College now presented a petition for its reor-
ganization, which was substituted for the

proposed bill, and the result was the creation,
on May 1, 1784, of the Board of Regents
of the University of the State of New York,
with King's College, now revived and renamed
Columbia, as the central feature of the plan.
The Regents, of whom there were 31, though
the number was further increased to 64 later
in the same year, were empowered to found
schools (seminal les 01 academies) and col-
leges in any part of the state, and to endow
them, and eveiy such school or college was
to be deemed a pa it of the University During
the next three vears the reestabhshrnent of
King's College (Columbia) occupied the entue
attention of the Regents, and practically
nothing was done toward establishing acad-
emies (or colleges) elsewhere in the state.
The dissatisfaction atismg from this con-
dition oi affairs led to the passage of a new
bill, in 1787, under the title of " An Act to
institute a university within this State, and
for other purposes " All previous acts were
repealed, Columbia College was set off, under
a separate Board of Trustees, to work out its
own development, though regarded as a part
oi the new and more comprehensive University,
and a new Board of Regents of the University
of the State of New York of 21 members was
created, to whom was given the visitation,
inspection, and oversight of " all the colleges,
academies, and schools which are or may be
established in this State," with power to make
by-laws, confer degrees, receive and apply
funds, and incorporate colleges arid academies
All colleges and academies were to be under
their own Boards of Trustees, and all colleges
were to have the same corporate rights as
Columbia The Ihmersity of the State of
New Yoik, as thus constituted, has since
continued, and has exerted an important in-
fluence in the incorporation of academies and
colleges within the state On Novembei 15,
1787, the first, two academies (Erasmus Hall
and Clinton Academy) were chaitered Since
1787 an annual report of the work of the col-
leges and academies has been regularly made
to the legislature, and since 1835 the condi-
tion of the colleges and academies has been
published with increasing detail The Uni-
versity has devoted its energies to examining
and supervising, and has not engaged in
teaching In 1863, however, the plan of an
annual convocation was instituted, and rn 1881)
university extension was recognized as one
of its proper functions Professional and
technical education, libraries, and museums
have also been included

The bill reconstituting the Regents provided
only for secondary and higher education In
1787 the Regents, in a carefully piepared re-
port, called attention to the deficiencies in
their articles of organization, and expressed
the feeling " that the erection of public schools
for teaching reading, wilting, and arithmetic
is an object of very great importance which

459

NEW YORK, STATE OF

NEW YORK, STATE OF

ought not to be left to the discretion of private
men, but be promoted by public authority "
Again in 1793, 1794, and 1795 the Regents
called the attention of the legislature to the
desirability of establishing elementary schools
Tt was not until 1795 that any definite action
was taken by the legislature, and the schools
created then were organized independently
of the authority of the Regents.

Aside from the constitution and reconstruc-
tion of the Board of Regents, the first legis-
lative act relating to education was that of May
JO, 17S4, directing the Commissioners of the
Land Office to lay out the unappropriated
lands of the state into townships, six miles
squaie, and to icserve m each a lot of 300 acres
for the support of a minister of the Gospel,
jtnd one of 090 acres for the support of a school
01 schools This act must be regarded as
merely one of encouragement to religion and
learning, and not as a recognition of the prin-
ciple of public support of schools In 1790
the legislature made the beginnings of the
Literature Fund by authorizing the Regents to
take possession of and lease out certain state
lands, applying the income to aiding colleges
and academics In 1791 an act was passed
which authorized six men, in the town of Cler-
mont, to receive certain excess excise fees
and fines collected in the town, and " not
wanted for the relief of the pool," and with
such funds to build a schoolhousc and main-
tain an elemental y school

The First School Law — In 1795, perhaps
hugely in response to an uigent recommenda-
tion of Governor Clinton in his annual mes-
sage of that year, an " Act for the Encourage-
ment of Schools " was passed This was the
first general school law enacted by the state It
was m the nature of an experiment and was to
run for five years only The sum of £20,000
was apportioned from the state treasury, an-
nually foi five years, " for the purpose of
encouraging and maintaining schools in the
several cities and towns in this state, in which
the children shall be instructed in the English
language, or be taught English grammar,
arithmetic, mathematics, and such other
branches of knowledge as are most useful
and necessary to complete a good English edu-
cation " The quotas of the counties weie
indicated, and within the counties the distri-
bution was made to the towns on the basis
of taxable wealth Each town was to select
from three to seven commissioners, who were
to supervise the schools and apportion the
money among the districts The inhabitants of
the different sections of each town were to
associate themselves together for school pur-
poses, and to elect two or more of their numbei
as trustees to employ teachers and to confer
with the town commissioners on all school
matters The town school money was to be
apportioned to each distuct on the basis ol
the number of da\ > 1 aught in e-ich, but no

apportionment was to be made unless the town
commissioners approved of the teachers se-
lected for the schools. Here may be seen the
beginnings of the certification of teachers in
the state of New York By 1798 sixteen of the
twenty-three counties organized at that time
reported 1352 schools, and 59,660 children
in attendance An effort to extend the law
in 1800 failed, and the law expired by limi-
tation It was not until 1812 that common
schools were again organized

In the meantime certain other important
legislation was enacted In 1799 four suc-
cessive lotteries to raise $100,000 were au-
thorized, $12,500 was to be paid to the
Regents for distribution among the academies,
while the remainder was to be placed in the
treasuiy for the use of the common schools,
and in such mariner as the legislature might
later direct. In 1801 another lottery, to
laise $100,000, one half of which was to be
similarly put into the treasury for the common
schools,' was authorized In 1803 the Comp-
troller was directed to invest the common
school money in good real estate Each year,
from 1800 on, the Governor of the state urged
the legislature to reestablish the common
school system, and m 1805 Governor Lewis
sent a special message in which he recom-
mended the appropriation of all state lands to
a school fund, and the creation of a common
school system, to be under the supervision
of the Regents Twenty-one academies had
been incorporated by this time, but no com-
mon schools The Regents also made similar
recommendations to the legislature for three
successive years The result of all these rec-
ommendations was the creation of a permanent
state school fund by the legislature m 1805
The act as passed provided that the net pro-
ceeds of the 500,000 acres of vacant state lands
hist sold should be applied as the basis for a
peimanent fund for the support of common
schools The income was to be safely invested,
and no distribution was to be made until the
annual interest should amount to $50,000 ti
year In 1805 the legislature also chartered
the " Public School Society of the City of
New York/' the purpose of which was to es-
tablish free schools in the city " for the edu-
cation of such poor children as do riot belong
to or are not provided for by any religious
society " This Society began to receive aid
from the school fund in 1812, was granted a
city tax in 1831, and was dissolved in 1853,
after having educated over 600,000 children
and accumulated property worth $450,000
(See NEW YORK CITY.) It rendered very
valuable service to the city and to the state
Further legislation m 1805, 1807, and 1808
added the lottery money and certain bank
stock to the permanent school fund. By
1810 the annual income from the fund
amounted to about $26,000, and in 1811 the
Governor was authorized by law to appoint

460

NEW YORK, STATE OF

NEW YORK, STATE OF

a commission of five to report a system for
the organization arid establishment of common
schools for the state. This commission made
a careful inquiry and reported in 1812 Thev
also submitted the draft of a bill which con-
tained the main features of the law of 1812,
and of the common school system up to 1838
By the law of 1812 the several towns of the
state were to be divided into school districts
by three town school commissioners, elected
as town officers; each district was to elect
three district trustees, who were to care for
and superintend the school of the district,
the interest of the school fund was to be ap-
portioned to the counties and to the towns on
the basis of their population by the last U S
census, and from the towns to the .school dis-
tricts according to the number of childien in
each, five to fifteen years of age, each town must
raise locally as much money as it received
fiom the state, and all state and local taxes
were to be used for teachers' salaries Tin1
system of common schools thus established
was placed, not under the Regents, but under
a new official to be known as a Superintendent
of Common Schools, to be appointed bv the
Council of Appointment Thus arose the
dual system of school administration which
characterized New York up to 1904 In
1811 each town was furthei authorized to
elect six additional inhabitants to act with the
town commissioner, as school inspect ois, and
one of their duties was to examine and license
teachers In 1818 the state library was es-
tablished, and in 1836 the New York State
museum In 1844 the library was placed
under the control of the Regents, and in 1889
a library school was established In the same
vear the state museum was made an integral
part of the university In 1821, hugely in
indignation at the removal of the verv efficient
first Superintendent, Gideon Hawley, the
office of Superintendent of Common Schools
was abolished, and from then until 1854 the
Secretary of State acted ex officio as Super-
intendent In 1819 the annual state appro-
priation for schools was raised to $80,000,
and in 1819, 1826, and 1827 the school fund
was increased by various additions from stocks,
land sales, fees, etc The new constitution of
1822 further devoted the proceeds of all lands
belonging to the state to the permanent hind
for common schools By 1831 a fund of
$1,096,74366 had been built up In 1822
the State School Department was clothed
with the important power to hear and decide
appeals on questions of school law In 1826
Governor DeWitt Clinton (q v ) recommended
the establishment of a seminary for the train-
ing of teachers, and this recommendation
was renewed by Governor Flagg, in 1830
By 1828 the income of the Literature Fund
had reached $10,000, arid this was distributed
to the forty-four academies then existing By
1839 there were 106 academies reporting

46

In 1830 the first conxenhon of teachers as-
sembled at Utica In 1835 the school district
library system was inaugurated by authorizing
a district tax, therefore, of $20 the first year,
and $10 yearly thereafter

New Interest in Education — In 1837 New
York leceived $4,014,52071 fiom the U S
Treasury as the state's share of the U S De-
posit Fund (Surplus Revenue of 1836), and this,
together with the new movements in Massa-
chusetts and other states, seems to have stimu-
lated a new interest in education in New York
(See articles on separate states ) It was
decided at once to devote the income from
the Deposit Fund to schools Of the income,
$110,000 was appropriated for common schools
This was to be distributed in the same manner
as the income from the state school fund, but,
to share in it, districts wcie now required to
extend the school term from three to four
months, $55,000 was also to be distributed
in the same mannei , to be used for school
libraries only until 1842, and thereafter foi
libraries or teachers' salaries; $28,000 a vear
was to be used by the Regents to aid acad-
emies, and the balance of the income was to
be added to the principal of the permanent
school fund Fallowing this a numbei of
important laws were enacted, looking toward
free schools and supei vision, which finally
culminated in the rate bill compromise of
1850 and the rcestablishrnent of the office of
State Supcnntendent of Schools in 1854

In 1839 the appointment of unsalaried
county boards of visitors marked the beginning
of count v supervision They were to make
suggestions for impiovement, and as a result
of their supervision, the law of 1841 provided
for a Deputy Secretary of State for Schools,
and fot a deputy superintendent of common
schools for each county These latter were
to be appointed by the superwsois of the
county, were to examine and certificate
teachers foi the county, and weie to have
geneial supervision of all the schools of the
county, subject to the rules and regulations
of the state office The town inspectors weie
reduced to two, and the certificates issued by
the town authorities were limited to the town
In 1843 both the town commissioners and in-
spectors weie abolished, a town superintendent
of schools succeeded to their duties and func-
tions, and the name of deputv superintendent
was changed to that of county superintendent
of schools The Secretary of State was made
ex officio a Regent in 1842, and in 1843 was
also granted powei, on proper recommenda-
tion or evidence, to grant state teachers'
certificates In 1847 the office of county
superintendent was abolished, in 1854 a
separate state department of public instruc-
tion was created and a State Superintendent
of Public Instruction appointed, and in 1850
the office of town superintendent of schools was
in turn abolished and the office of school eom-
1

NEW YORK, STATE OF

NEW YORK, STATE OF

missioner (one for each legislative assembly
district, to be elected by the people for three-
year terms) was in turn created. At this point
the system of supervision created remained
fixed until very recently.

The period up to 1854 was also character-
ized by new undertakings with reference to
teachers and their training, and the impulse
given then has continued down to the present
In 1834 the first teachers' training classes had
been established, one in each oi the eight
judicial districts of the state The academies
were appointed to give the instruction, and
the first classes were opened in 1835 This
was probably the first public provision for
the professional training of teachers in the
United States An appropnation of $500
for books and apparatus, and $400 annuallv
tor an instructor, was made by the state foi
each Senatorial district Aftei ten yeais, all
state aid to the academies for training classes
was withdiawn, and the state established its
first- normal school at Albany (1844), but
after another five years, the demand for local
training classes became so strong that they
were reestablished, and the aid leext ended in
1849 has nevei since been withdiawn In
1877 high schools and academic depail rnents
were also admitted to the privilege of main-
taining training classes A second state nor-
mal school was established at Oswego in 1803,
thiec additional schools at Portland, Fredoma,
and Potsdam in 1866, throe moie at (ieneseo,
Brockport, and Buffalo in 1867, three moie at
New Paltz, Oneonta, and Plattsburg between
1886 and 1892, and a twelfth state school
at Jamaica in 1893 Tri 1881 some stand-
ards for the admission of pupils to the
normal schools were imposed, and these have
since been very materially added to In
1843 the first teachers' institute was held at
Ithaca, and in 1847 teachers' institutes were
placed under state control and the fust state
aid to them ($60 to each county organizing)
was granted In 1859 this was doubled, and
in 1860 the appropriation for the state was
fixed at $8000 In 1862 local authorities
weie permitted to pay teachers their salaries
while attending, in 188 1 a state corps of in-
stitute conductors was organized, in 1885
attendance was made compulsory, and in
1892 a state bureau of institutes and training
classes was organized under the State Super-
intendent The state appropriation for in-
stitutes steadily increased up to 1910, when
thev weie abandoned

Battle for Free Schools — The application
of the U S Deposit Fund to education, and
the various state and contemporary move-
ments for educational improvement, seem to
have stimulated an interest in providing free
common schools for all, and the next decade
witnessed a great struggle for free schools In
the c6n vent ion which formed the new state con-
stitution of 1846, a clause providing for free

schools, to be supported by general state taxa-
tion, failed by a narrow margin. In 1849 the
Secretary of State made a strong plea for the
abolition of the rate bill (</0.) and for free
schools for all, and that year " an Act estab-
lishing free schools throughout the state "
was passed The act, however, was not to be
effective unless approved by a referendum vote
of the people at the November elections. The
result was a vigorous campaign for free schools,
and the election was carried by a vote of
249,872 for and 91,951 against 'Schools were
to be made free to all children, five to twenty-one
years of age, county supervisors were to levy a
county tax twice that received from the state,
and any needed balance was to be raised by
district taxation So vigorous were the oppo-
nents of free schools, however, that the legis-
lature of 1850 called a second referendum on
the repeal of the free school law This the
people failed to favoi by a vote of 184,308 for
repeal and 209,316 against Strong objections
still existed, and the legislature was flooded
with petitions for the amendment or the re-
peal of the free school law Finally, in 1851,
a compromise bill was enacted, entitled " an Act
to provide free schools throughout the state "
Schools were declared free to all children, five
to twenty-one years old, and an annual state
tax of $800,000 was to be levied on all property
for their support The proceeds of this tax,
together with the income from the state school
funds (then $300,000 a yeai), was to be dis-
tributed to the different school districts of the
state maintaining a six months' term, one third
to all equally, and two thirds on their school
census Any additional money needed was to be
obtained by the rate bill, though all indigcnts
were to be exempt In 1853 the free school
law of 1849 was declared unconstitutional,
though this decision, owing to the compromise
of 1851, had little effect The cities generally
refused to employ the rate bill, and early made
their schools free In 1857 the state tax was
changed to a three fourths of a mill tax, which in-
creased the state aid one third Still, in that
year, $427,956 was collected from rate bills
Finally, in 1867, the state tax was increased
to 1^ mills, and the rate bill was abolished in
the state

Other Legislation — Some other significant
school legislation was also enacted during the
period of struggle to establish school super-
vision, the training of teachers, and free
schools In 1846 the first provision by the
state for the education of Indian children was
made, and in 1856 the Indian schools were
placed under the charge of the State Superin-
tendent of Public Instruction In 1853 the
first compulsory school law was passed The law
provided that vagrant children, five to fourteen
years of age, could be taken before a magis-
trate and their parents compelled to agree, in
writing, to send them to school four months each
year until they were fourteen years old. Mas-

462

NEW YORK, STVTE OF

NEW YORK, STVTE OF

sachusetts alone was earlier in the enactment
of such a law Public sentiment was against
it, however, and the law but little enforced
In 1853 the union free school law was passed
Under this, any district, or union of districts,
could provide a free school, levy taxes foi the
same, and establish academic (secondary)
departments when deemed necessary or desir-
able. The elementary schools were 'under the
supervision of the state, county, and local
school authorities, but any academic depart-
ments established were subject, to the inspec-
tions and regulations of the Regents These
schools materially helped the movement for
free schools, though their dual form of super-
vision later led to conflicts between the two
state systems arid emphasized the need for a
unification An attempt at this unification
was made in 1836 and 1837, but the movement
failed In 1870 a bill providing for uniformity
was passed, but was vetoed by the (Jovernoi
Here the matter rested until* 1898 In 1805
the Regents' preliminary examinations weie
held foi the first time, and in 1878 the first-
advanced examinations In 1860 the power
to condemn land foi school purposes was
given to the local school authorities, and in
1868 a state institution for the blind was
established at Batavia

The period from 1868 to 1886 has been
termed the period of quiescence in the history
of the New York school system Theie was
but little legislation, and none of any funda-
mental importance No extension of the
powers of the State Superintendent took place,
during this period, and the increase in both
state and local taxation barely kept pace with
the increase in population In 1874 a second
compulsory education law was passed, this time
requiring attendance of all children, eight to four-
teen years of age, for fourteen weeks each year,
eight of which must be consecutive The local
authorities were empowered to enforce the law,
but little was accomplished under it In 1875
it was provided that the State Supeimtemlent
should issue life diplomas only on examination,
instead of upon recommendation In 1876 the
counting of private or parochial school pupils
for public school purposes was prohibited In
1883 the rule of the Court of Appeals, requir-
ing intending law students to pass an exam-
ination, was enforced by the Regents, and in
1889 intending medical students were also
required to pass the Regents' examination

From 1886 to 1904 — Beginning about
1886, and continuing down to the present, the
renewal of interest in educational legislation
and the extension of the central control have
been marked In 1885 religious instruction
and exercises had been prohibited in the
schools, and in 1887 the wearing of any dis-
tinctive garb was also prohibited In 1887 a
uniform system for the examination of teachers
was adopted by the State Superintendent
This was at first acquiesced in by the school

commissioners of the state, but uas made man-
datory by law in 1894 The same year in-
stitutes weie changed from county institutes
to school-comrmssioner-distnct institutes In
1889 the supervision of all teachers' training
classes in the high schools and academies of
the state was transferred from the Regents
to the Superintendent of Public Instruction
In 1889 the laws i elating to the powers and
duties of the Regents enacted duimg the previ-
ous centun were revised and consolidated
In 1890 better regulations foi the government
of the normal schools were provided In 1891
the university extension department was es-
tablished by the Regents In 1892 the old
district library law was revised, and distncts
were required to duplicate the state giants
Specifications and plans foi schoolhouses, vary-
ing in cost from $600 to $10,000 weie also
secured and furnished by the state office fioin
this year on

In 1894 a new state4 constitution \vas
adopted This made the first definite consti-
tutional provision for a state school s'sstem,
made the Regents a constitutional bod> ,
safeguarded the different funds, and pro-
hibited aid to denominational schools In
the same year the u Consolidated School Act,"
the first consolidation and le vision of the
school laws since 1864, became a law A ne\v
revision of the compulsory education act,
which changed this into an effective law, and
the creation of a Board of Examiners and the
placing of full control of all teachers' examina-
tions in the hands of the State Supciintendcnt,
were also enacted in 1894 In 1895 a law \vas
passed requiring that all teachcis employed in
elemental v schools, after 1897, must have
taught thiee years, 01 be giaduates of a three
years' course in a high school 01 academy and
have had a course of thirty-eight weeks in a
teachers' t r airung class Teachei s in city schools
must have had a two years7 training course The
Biennial School Census Act and the HOT ton
Act were also passed in 1895 Undei the
Hoi ton \ct, the Regents were given an auto-
matically increasing appropriation to enable
them to aid pioperly the academies and high
schools of the state The result of this law
was a marked increase in both the number of
such schools and the annual appiopriations
for them In 1896 school distncts weie per-
mitted to contract with other districts for
the education of their children, city institutes
and state summer institutes were established,
and all teacheis' certificates weie to be made
to expire at the end of the official school year
In 1900 new uniform regulations for the grant-
ing of teachers' ceitihcates went into effect, and
all certificates granted in the future were to be
based on the use of the same questions as for a
first-grade certificate. In 1903 the compulsory
attendance law was again revised, and made
more effective In 1904 a Teachers' Informa-
tion Bureau was established in the department

463

NEW YORK, STATE OF

NEW YOKK, STATE OF

Unification; Recent Advances — The year
1004 saw the final unification of the two edu-
cational departments of the state school sys-
tem, and the ending of more than a quarter
century of friction After J870 no attempt
at unification seems to have made any head-
way until about 1898 In this year a large
number of bills for the unification of the two
departments, or for a clearer demarcation
between them, were introduced in the legis-
lature, but no action was taken In 1899 the
Roosevelt Commission was appointed to study
the situation It reported a bill for the uni-
fication of the two departments in 1900, but
the bill failed of passage By 190»3 the feeling
had become so bitter that there was a deluge
of bills on the subject, none of which passed
Instead, the legislature appointed a joint corn-
mitteee to study the question and to report to
the legislature the next year The result was
the Unification Act of 1904, providing foi a
reduced Board of Regents, for membership
for limited terms instead of foi life, and ioi
essentially the present form of state educa-
tional organization The first Commissioner,
however, was to be elected by the legislature
instead of by the Regents This law took
effect April 1, 1904, and since then the Re-
gents and Commissioner have construed the
law liberally, and in the interests of the schools
of the state A state educational building,
to house the departments, the state library,
and the state museum, was provided for in
1906; trade schools were authorized, and the
new school census law was passed in 1908,
and the compulsory education law, as it le-
lated to cities and school systems having a
superintendent, was further revised and
strengthened m 1909 In 1909 the consoli-
dated school law, as codified and consolidated
by the State Board of Statutory Consolida-
tion, was passed, and the further revision,
recodification, and elimination of this, as made
by the Education Department, was accepted
by the legislature in 1910 In this the working
arrangements of the Regents and Commis-
sioner, as practiced since 1904, were incor-
porated into law The most important leg-
islation in 1910 was the substitution of dis-
trict superintendents of schools (beginning
January 1, 1912) for the old popularly elected
school commissioners, in existence since 1856
About twice as many district superintendents
as school commissioners were provided for,
so as to reduce the size of the supervisory unit
one half The legislature of 1910' also
amended the industrial education law, by
including agricultural instruction; passed a
retirement law for teachers in certain state
institutions; and abolished the teachers' in-
stitutes, formerly conducted by the state
The most important legislation of 1911 was the
teachers' retirement fund law Two other im-
portant laws permit courts to legalize proceed-
ings for school bond issues, and create a state

advisory board in relation to agricultural edu-
cation and country life advancement

Present School System — The Board of
Regents for the University of the State of New
York, and their executive officer, the Commis-
sioner of Education, ha\e a centralized control
over the educational system of the state to
a degree found in scarcely any other state
Educational functions, which in other states
are intrusted to county superintendents arid
county boards of education, are here given
to the Commissioner of Education The only
local unit possessing much power is the school
district, which in New York still exercises
rather large powers

The Boaid of Regents, as reorganized in
1904, now consists of twelve members, elected
by joint ballot of the legislature and in the
same manner as Senators are elected Their
term of office is twelve years, one member going
out of office each year The officers of the
Board are a Chancellor and a Vice-Chancelloi,
elected from their own number and serving
without salary, and a Commissioner of Educa-
tion, who is to be " the chief executive officer
of the state system of education and of the
Board of Regents "

The Board of Regents form a supervisory
and examining body for the entire secondary,
higher, and professional school system of the
state, and possess rather unusual powers
The University of the State of New Yoik is a
comprehensive term, the University including
all schools under the supervision or control
of the Board of Regents The University,
as such, employs no professois, however, and
does no teaching The annual convocation
is a meeting held for the consideration of educa-
tional problems, and at this meeting the Re-
gents may confer honorary degrees The
Regents possess legislative power, subject to
the constitution and laws of the state, over the
educational system of the state They may
incorporate and charter, according to law, any
institution or association for the promotion
of literature, art, science, history, or similar
purpose, and no such institution can be in-
corporated by a general law without, the con-
sent of the Regents The state library and
the state museum, including the office and
staffs of the State Geologist, State Paleontol-
ogist, State Botanist, and State Entomolo-
gist, are departments within the university,
and the Regents may establish other depart-
ments or divisions as they deem useful or
expedient. It is unlawful to use the name
college or university within the state, except
as authorized by the Regents; no institution
in the state may confer degrees unless it has
$500,000 in resources; and the selling or grant-
ing of degrees by unauthorized institutions
is prohibited All entrance to the professions
of medicine, pharmacy, and optometry must
be by Regents' examinations, law alone not
being under their control. The Regents also

464

NEW YORK, STATE OF

NEW YOKK, STATE OF

examine and approve for practice all nurses
and public accountants They establish
standards and examinations foi graduation
from the secondary schools of the state,
issuing Regents' certificates showing the sub-
jects passed and the " counts " or units made
They may register foreign and domestic in-
stitutions of learning of all kinds, and may
evaluate their diplomas in New York terms
They aie authorized to extend increased
educational facilities to the people in such
foims as they deem wise, and to this end are
authorized to buy and loan books, maps,
lantern slides, pictures, etc All academies,
academic (secondary) depaitments of public
schools or other institutions, and all hbuuies
rind museums must report to the Regents
annually, and the Regents' rules and regula-
lioris must be complied with if such institu-
tions are to share in the financial giants
Money grants made to libraries can be spent only
for books approved for purchase by the Regents.
All institutions under the supervision of the
Regents must be open at all times lo inspec-
tion of the Regents or their lepresentatnes

The Commissioner of Education holds
office at the pleasure of the Regents, and is
paid $7500 salary, and $1500 additional in lieu
of all traveling expenses In his selection,
residence within the state is not essential
As the chief administrator and executive
officer for both the common schools and the
secondary and higher schools of the state, he
possesses large powers The Regents mav
decide policies, but the Commissioner executes
all policies once decided upon, and enforces
all the educational laws of the state and the
rules and regulations of the Regents Pie has
general supervision over all schools and insti-
tutions of an educational nature, rnav Msit
and inspect them as he deems best, and mav
advise the officers of any schools He is
also given supervision of the different normal
schools and the normal college of the state,
determines the number of teachers foi each,
and their salaries, approves all appointments
to the different faculties, countersigns all
diplomas, and appoints the local boards which
have immediate control of the different
schools Ex officio, he is a trustee of Cornell
University, and he diiects the annual examina-
tions for state scholarships in the urmeisity
lie may remove from office any school officer
rn the state for neglect or willful violation, and
may also withhold state school money from
any school districts for the same cause He
has power to require information and evidence,
administer oaths, and to bring proceedings
to enforce the educational laws or the orders
of the Regents He is given and may execute
such further powers and duties as the Regents
may charge him with He prepares all regis-
ters and blank forms for teachers and school
officers, all school officers must report to him
annually, and as requested; he approves all

plans foi new school buildings 01 additions to
buildings, except in cities of the first and second
classes. He makes inles and regulations for
the examination of teachers, with the approval
of the Regents, keeps in his office a lecord
of all diplomas and certificates in force, and
may annul, for cause, any teacher's certifi-
cate or diploma He maintains a legal divi-
sion for the decision of all appeals on school
questions, and his decisions have the foice
of law He designates all academies, union
free schools, and high schools in which teachers'
training classes may be organized, prescnbes
the conditions of admission and the course
of instruction, makes rules and legulations for
their government, and approves the money
grants to such schools He apportions, ac-
coiding to law, the state aid to common schools,
academies, high schools, hbianes, and in-
dustrial schools, and in making appointments
is allowed certain discretion He may with-
hold one half of the state money from the
district winch fails to enforce the compulsory
education law The Indian schools of tin-
state are under his sole junsdiction He is
responsible for all books and records in his
department, and also for the proper adminis-
tration of the offices He is assisted in his
work by three assistant commissioners, the
dnectors of the state library and the state
museum, and nine chiefs of divisions, as
follows * administration, attendance, educa-
tional extensions, examinations, inspections,
law, school libraries, statistics, trade schools,
and visual instruction

There are no counts supei intend ents in New
York In then place ^vefmd (beginning Jan 1,
1912) district superintendents, elected by a small
body of town school direct ois for five-year
terms' Each town in each supei visor y district
of a county was to elect two persons, in 1910,
to be known as school directors, one for three
years and the other foi a five-yeai term, and
theieafter, as their terms expire, their successors
are to be elected for frve-year tcims These
school directois, in 1911 and every fifth year
thereaftei, are to meet and elect the division
superintendent, this being their sole duty
Women are eligible for the office, and the su-
perintendent elected need not be a resident of
the district 01 county.

The fifty-seven non-city counties of the state
are di\ided, according to size, into 207 superin-
tendency districts, as follows —

1 district

2 districts
•S districts

4 distncts

5 distnc ts
G districts

7 districts

8 districts

to the
to the
to the
to the
to the
to the
to the
to the

county ,
countv,
county,
county,
county,
county,
county,
county,

4 counties.
8 counties.
IS counties.
13 counties.
7 counties
4 ( ounties
2 counties.
1 county.

No city or district employing a superintendent
of schools is to be included in a superintend-
cncy district. These districts arc to be con-

VOL. iv — 2

465

NEW YORK, STATE OF

NEW YORK, STATE OF

tiguous and compact, and no town is to be
divided in their formation The salary of each
district superintendent is $1200, paid bv the
state, with $300 for travel mg expenses, and
as much moie as the supervisors of the towns
in the districts see fit to add Each superin-
tendent must hold a state teacher's certificate,
and a special certificate in the supervision of
agriculture, and he must devote his entire tune
to the work of supervision He succeeds to
the powers and duties of the school commis-
sioners These powers and duties are to keep
a record of the boundaries of the school dis-
tricts, to conduct local institutes, to appoint
district trustees, in case of a vacancy, if the
district fails to elect , to inspect any teachers1
training classes in his district, and report on
the same to tho Commissionei of Pxlucation,
to meet with the school trustees of the dis-
trict, and to advise with them as to details
of school management, to administer oaths,
and to tiansmit testimony in appeal cases
to the Commissioner of Education, to act
for aiiothei district, supeimtcmlent on request,
or when directed to do so by the Commissioner,
to examine and license teachois, to conduct
examinations foi the State Depaitment, and
to revoke the certificates of teachers in his
district, for cause, to make investigations and
report to the Commissioner of Education, as
requested, and to act subject to the rules and
regulations of the Commissionei He may order
repairs to any schoolhouse up to a cost of $200
or to furniture up to $100, may order nuisances
abated, and may condemn schoolhouses If
a school is condemned, a district meeting is
called, at which the district superintendent
piesents an estimate of needs Tins estimate
cannot be scaled down by the meeting to
exceed 25 per cent, and, if no district action
is taken within thirty days, the trustees must
proceed to build a building, which must cost
not less than 75 pei cent of the estimate
presented by the district supcnntendent He
may organize new school districts, and may
dissolve or consolidate districts, as educational
interests seem to require, though an appeal
from his decision may be taken to the Commis-
sioner of Education

Each county is also divided into a number
of towns, and these in turn into school districts
For each town there is a representative super-
visor and a town clerk, both of whom possess
some educational functions The supervisor
has control of any gospel or school lands or
funds possessed by the town; receives all
school moneys due to Ins town from the county
treasurer, and pays out the same on orders
from the districts, if the districts elect a
treasurer, he then turns the money over to
him, and he acts as a general supervisor of the
different school districts in all money matters,
making an annual report on finances to the
county treasurer The town clerk acts for
the town in all school matters as an interme-

diary between the district superintendent
and the school trustees of the districts, seeing
that notices are given, reports made, records
preserved, etc

A town unit of school administration has
not yet been evolved, and town consolidation
of schools has not as yet been begun, except
in so far as districts are allowed to contract
for the education of their children instead
of maintaining a school themselves, and ex-
cept as a town mav be a city or a union free
school district Otherwise, the towns are
divided into a number of school districts, each
with its own officers A district may have
one trustee, elected annually, or three trustees,
elected for three-vear terms, one going out of
office each year A district also has a district
clerk and a district collector, arid it may, in
addition, elect a district treasurer to take
charge of its funds and pay all bills These
officers are elected in annual meeting for one-
year terms The trustees are to insure and
care for the property, make up the tax lists
for collection, purchase or lease sites, and
erect buildings, as directed, make repairs
and abate nuisances, employ teachers, pre-
scribe the studies to be taught, make rules
and regulations, issue orders on the funds for
salaries and other bills , establish branch
schools, when needed, and make annual and
other reports to the division superintendent
and to the annual district meeting An
annual meeting is held in May in each district,,
and special meetings may be called The
meeting hears the icports of the district
trustees, elects a new trustee and the other
school district officers, designates and changes
all textbooks, can select a schoolhouse site,
and must vote, bv ballot or by aye and nay,
all taxes for maintenance, library, schooling
elsewhere, high school tuition, repairs, or new
buildings Women mav vote on the same
terms as men at such meetings

In any district, on petition of fifteen in-
habitants, or on petition of fifteen inhabitants
in each of two or more contiguous districts,
a school meeting may be called to vote on
the question of forming a union free school
district and electing a board of education
This is an old institution in the state of New
York, and has rendered valuable service in
providing free schools and secondary educa-
tion Similarly, a union free school district
mav call a meeting to dissolve into its original
districts, though in this case, the district
superintendent may veto the proposal Each
free school district has a board of education
of from three to nine, one third going out of
office each year If there are 300 children in
the district, an election by ballot takes the
place of a school district meeting election.
If the union free school district is cotenninus
with a city, the city treasurer acts as treasurer
of the district, but if the bounds do not coin-
cide, the school district elects its own treasurer.

466

NEW YORK, STATE OF

NEW YORK, STATE OF

Boards of education in all free school districts
have, in addition to the powers of district
trustees, the power to adopt textbooks, to
establish an academic department (high
school), kindergartens, or a night school; to
provide medical inspection, appoint a truant
officer; and, if the district has 5000 population,
they may appoint a super intendent of schools
Instead of establishing a high school, the dis-
trict may vote to adopt an existing academy
as its academic department The board
must present to the annual distiict meeting,
or to the proper city authorities, il a city, an
annual estimate of the money needed ior
teachers' salaries, contingent expenses, and
other items The voters, or city authorities,
cannot decrease the amounts for teachers and
contingent expenses, but may decrease or
increase all other items

An important part of the school system of
the state of New York is the large cities, most
of which operate under special charters, and
maintain extensive and important school
systems Three of these, Albany, Buffalo,
and New York City, are descubed in special
ai tides (q v ) About 60 per cent of the people
of the state reside in cities of over 100,000
inhabitants, and 52 per cent are in the city of
New York

School Support — The permanent common
school fund and the literature fund foi aiding
academies each produces but relatively small
amounts, and the total value of all permanent
school funds in the state is only a little over
nine millions of dollais The income demed
from these foiins but a small part of the annual
state appiopnations, and beais no relation
to the rapid increase in the cost of education
During the past twenty years the cost oi main-
taining schools in the cities has quadrupled,
and doubled in the towns In lieu of state
taxation, annual appiopiiations for education
are made by the legislatuie These aie con-
stantly increasing and are calculated in advance
so as to meet legal needs The st ate appi opna-
tion foi the maintenance of common schools
is now about five millions annually, and this
is apportioned in such a manner as to <li\ide
it about equally between the cities and the
towns As the cities spend aboul thiee times
the total amount spent by the towns, the state
grants pay about one twelfth of the cost, oi ed-
ucation in the cities and about our fourth of
the cost of the towns The balance is paid by
local taxation in the school districts, theie
being no county school taxation in New York
This system of distribution is the result of a
wise but somewhat complex plan for the appor-
tionment of school money, in which the teacher
is made the unit and in which poor and small
districts are given an initial advantage over
large and wealthier ones Orphan asylums
may share, under certain conditions Every
city or district having over 5000 inhabitants
and employing a superintendent of schools,

also receives a superintendent's quota of $800
The state appropriation for academies, high
schools, and libraries is now about three
quarters of a million dollars annually, and this
is apportioned in a still moie complex manner
In 1910, JO per cent of this appropriation was
given as a school quota, 25 pei cent was for
books and apparatus, 35 pei cent was for the
instruction oi non-residents, and 30 per cent
was given on the basis oi average daily at-
tendance Academies and high schools main-
taining an approved course for the training
of teacheis receive $700 additional, and the
city training schools aie paid on the basis of
average daily attendance The salaries of
district superintendents and the expenses
of Indian schools are paid by the state In
addition, the annual appropriation foi salaries,
traveling and miscellaneous expenses, examina-
tions, and books foi the state educational
department now exceeds ttu'00,000

Educational Conditions — The state has
many cities and a very cosmopolitan popula-
tion Two thirds of the total population live in
cities of over 8000 inhabitants, while only one
fifth live in country districts A little over one
fourth, 29 9 per cent, of the total population is
foreign born, and in the cities the percentage
is much higher The city school systems are
well developed and offer good instruction
The compulsory education and child labor
laws are good, and the school census law for
metropolitan cities, \\huh may be adopted
by any other city, is one of the best in the
United States But 1 5 per cent of the total
population is of the negro race, though in the
large cities this percentage inns much higher
No exclusion from any school is permitted on
the basis of race or ( oloi , though the inhabit-
ants of any district nr<\\ pi (rude separate
schools for those of the colored race Since
1S95 the money spent foi public schools has
increased rapidly, being t\\o and a half tunes
as much in 1910 as in 1S()5 The total value
of the public school buildings has trebled in
the same time, while the average value has
a little more than doubled ($2(518 in 1910)
During the same period the total school en-
rollment has increased 22 per cent and the
number of teachers employed, 57 per cent
The rural schools have made much less prog-
ress than the city schools during the past two
decades, pei haps in part due to the strength
and conservatism oi the district form of con-
trol The consolidation of schools and the
transportation of pupils has as yet made no
marked headway in the state, though some
800 districts now employ the contract system,
in whole or in part There arc still 10,565
school districts (1910) in the state, as opposed
to 11,089 fifteen years ago, and 11,262 twenty-
five years ago The school term has remained
nearly stationary at an average of about
thirty-five weeks per year for the past twenty
years Recently it has advanced to thirty-seven

467

NEW YORK, STATE OF

NEW YORK, STATE OF

weeks. A state syllabus (course of study)
covering the eight years of the elementary
course was issued in 1904, and a revision,
covering only the first six years, was issued
m 1910. School libraries, traveling libraries,
the division of visual instruction (for the loan
of pictures, charts, lantern slides, and specimens
to the schools), and the extension division are
marked features of the New York school
system and do much to increase its efficiency
(See MUSEUMS )

Teachers and Training —Of the 45,076
teachers employed in 1910, 60 per cent wore
employed in the cities Of the total teaching
body in 1910, 7 per cent were college and pro-
fessional school graduates, 20 per cent gradu-
ates of normal schools, 28 per cent graduates
of teachers' training classes, 6 per cent held
state teachers' certificates, and 37 per cent
had been certificated by the local authorities.
All new teachers for elementary schools must
be experienced or have had professional
training, and the equivalent of a high school
education. All examinations for teachers'
certificates are now conducted by the division
of examinations of the State Education De-
partment, under rules arid regulations pre-
scribed by the Commissioner of Education,
arid with the approval of the Regents State
normal school diplomas and state certificates
from othei states may be accorded equal
privileges in Now York For the training
of future teachers, the state maintains ton
state normal schools, the Albany normal
college, and, in addition, extends aid to mnetv-
five high schools and academies and to fifteen
cities for offering teachers' training courses
Teachers' institutes, which have previously
been under the state department and in charge

of institute conductors, are to be discontinued
after 1911, the new district superintendents
being expected to conduct local teachers'
meetings on Saturdays, or at other times
when the schools are not in session.

Secondary Education — The development
of secondary schools has been especially
marked since the passage of the Horton aid
law in 1895, the number of academies having
increased from 131 to 167, and the number
of high schools from 373 to 702 since then
The number of students and teachers has also
undergone a rapid increase In addition,
199 private high schools made reports in 1910
Since 1895 the Regents' academic examinations
have been based on the completion of a four-
year high school course Syllabi (courses
of instruction) are issued by the state depart-
ment and inspections of work are made, though
there has been a tendency to decrease the
rigidity of the state requirements since the
unification

Higher Education — The state maintains
no state university, in the sense that the west-
ern states do It has been proposed to evolve
the University of the State of New York into
a graduate institution for the study of history,
politics, economics, education, and science
(Sherwood), to evolve Cornell University from
the position of a semi-state university to that
of a real state university, and to evolve1,
instead, a senos of municipal universities,
extending across the state (Diapoi) The
land grant for a college of agriculture and
mechanical aits (law of 1862, 990,000 acres)
was given to Cornell University, at Ithaca
In return for this, the university receives
froo of tuition ono student each year from
each legislative assembly district in the state,

NAMH-

LOCATION

OPENED

CONTROL

Foit

Columbia University

New York Cit j

1754

Nonsect

Men

Union University

Schenectady

1795

Nonsect

Men

Hamilton College

Clmte)n

1812

Nonsect

Men

Colgate University

Hamilton

1819

Nonsect

Men

Hobart College
Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute
New York University

Geneva
Troy
New "V oik City

1 J822
1824
1832

Nonsect
Nonsect
Nonsect

Men
Men
Beith sexes

Alfred University

Alfred

Nonsect

Both sexes

Fordham University

New \ork City

1841

R C

Men

St Francis Xavier Ceillege

New York City

1847

R C

Men

College e)f the City of New York

Ne\\ York City

1849

City

Men

University of Rochester

Rochester

1850

Bapt

Both se^xcs

Polytechnic Institute

Brooklyn

1851

Nousect

Men

El mini College,

Elmmi

185'>

Presby

Women

Niagara, L'mversitx

Niagara

185h

R C

Women

St Lawrence University

Can tern

1858

Umv

Both sexes

St Francis College

Brooklyn

1859

R C.

Men

St Bemaventure 's College

St Bonaventure

1859

R C

Men

St Stephen's College

Annandalc

1860

P E

Men

Manhattan Ceillege

New Ye>rk City

1863

R C

Men

Vassar College
Wells College

Poughkeepsie
Aurora

1865
1868

Nonsect
Nonsect

Women
Women

Cornell University
Cams i us College

Ithaca
Buffalo

1868
1870

Nonnect.
R C

Both sexes

Syracuse University
Barnard College
Keuka College-
Ade<lphi Ce»llcge
Clarkson School of Technology

Syracuse
New York City
Keuka Park
Brooklyn
Potsdam

1871
1889
1890
189<>
1896

Meth
Nonsect
Free Bapt
Nonsect
Nonseot

Both sexes
Women
Both sexes
Both sexes
Men

College of St Angela

New Rochelle.

1904

R C

Women

468

NEW YORK TEACHER

NEW YORK UNIVERSITY

the appointments being awarded on the basis
of competitive examinations The state lias
also recently established three additional
schools of agriculture, foi elementary and pr<tc-
tical investigation and instruction, the work
to be coordinated with that of Cornell Uni-
versity These are at St Lawrence University,
in northeastern New York (190(5), at Alfred
University, in western New York (1908),
and at Moriisville, in cential New Yoik
(1908)

The work of providing higher education
for the state of New York is earned on by a
nurnbei of institutions, on which separate
articles will be found, as shown on the pievious
page

Special Education — The state maintains
sixteen special institutions for the caie and
education of the deaf, dumb, blind, feeble-
minded, and for tiuant and incorrigible chil-
dren, and makes amtngements with a numbei
of other institutions of a .semi-private nature,
but open to state visitalion and inspection,
for the care of some of its deaf, dumb, and blind
Orphan asylums aie also gianted, on inspec-
tion and approval, teachers' quotas in the
annual state apportionment of school money
A few of the cities also maintain truant and
reformatory schools, though the city truant
or parental school has not as yet been much
developed b> the cities of the state

K P C
References —

I)K\PMI, A S OIII/IH and Devdopmcnt of (h( Common
School Si^t<tn of tin Stall of New York (1S90 )
New ^ oik ( "ollrtfos and the State System of
Education, in Ri pi Educ Dipt, NY/]niO, pp
7JO-7.W

Public School PioneeiiiiK in Massachusetts and Now
>ork, in Kdui R< v , Vol III, pp 31b-^f>, Vol
J\, pp LM1-25J, Vol V, pp .J45-3G2

FAIHLIK. .1 A The (\ntiahza1ion of Adm initiation

in Neir Yoik State, ch n

RiLPATKK'K, \V H Dnt(h Schools in New Nctherland
and Colonial ACT/' York U S Bur Educ Bul-
letin, No 1J (Wabhnitfton, 1(H2 )

MARTIN, Ci H Replies to the above, htuting claims of
MtishachiihcttH, Ibid , Vol IV, pp 34-4(>, Vol V,
pp 232 212 (1S92-1S(M )
New \ ork An 7fr/>/s R((j(nt\ of the Unio of the

Matt of Niw Yoik, 17S8-1904

An Rcpts State Supt Common School*, 1814-181M.
. 1 n R< pt* S( ( of Stnt( , *• roff , 1 S22 -1 S54
An Repii* Supt Publ Inslr , 1S55 1004
An Reptt, Education Dtpartnunt, l()0.j-date
Education Law, 1910 Ed , and 1011 Amendments
PKATT, D J Annals of Public Education in thi State
of New YofL, in An Reptt* Regent*, 1S(><), 1K70,
lS7,i, 1S71, 1S7(>
RANDALL, S S The Common School System of the

Stati of New York. (1851.)

SHERWOOD, S The University of the State of New
York U S Bur Educ , Circ Inf No 3, 1900

NEW YORK TEACHER

ISM, EDUCATIONAL,

• Soe JOURNAL-

YORK UNIVERSITY — New York
University was founded in 1831 through the
influence of a group of men in New York City

who conceived the idea of a university that
should seive all classes of people and all pro-
fessions The plan oi the founders contem-
plated a college, engineering school, school
of law, school of medicine, school of educa-
tion, school of agriculture, and graduate school
The first Chancelloi was the Hev James M
Matthews, D D The site at Washington
Square was acquired in 1833 and the corner -
stone of the first university building was laid
in the summer of that year The institution
opened with the regular college courses and
with special courses in mathematics and science
for engmeeis The law school was established
in 1835 and the medical college in 1831)
Through lack of funds the institution did not
progress beyond these begin rungs for the first
half century of its histoiy This early period
was rendered distinctive however by the ability
and achievement of rnembeis of the Univer-
sity's faculty Professor Samuel F B Morse
invented the recording telegraph and Dr
John W Draper perfected Dagueue's system
of photography and took the tirst pictuie
of the human countenance within the Uni-
versity walls during this peiiod, while Dr
Valentine Mott as dean of the medical
college and Benjamin Butlei as principal of
the law faculty lent luster to the professional
schools

The expansion of the institution into its
present organization of 10 faculties, 370 in-
structors, and 4400 students, has taken place
within the past twenty-five years under the
sixth Chancellor, Dr Hemv Mitchell Mac-
Cracken Undei hih efficient administration
the magnificent site at Unnersitv Heights was
acquired in 1891 and was gradually incieased
until it reached its present extent of forty
acres The three original schools have been
reorganized and new schools founded until
now the instiuction is carried on at four
different center s as follows —

At University Heights — The College of Arts
and Pure Science (1831), the School of Applied
Science (1802) and the Summer School (1895)
At Washington Square — The Graduate School
(1886), the School of Pedagogy (1800), the
School of Commerce, Accounts, and Finance
(1900), the Washington Square Collegiate
Division (1903) and the Woman's Law Class
(1890) At First Avenue and Twenty-sixth
Street — the University and Bellevue Hospi-
tal Medical College (1841) At 141 West 54th
Street, the New York American Veterinary
College (1899)

This lack of concentration of all the schools
at one common center is not the result of
chance but is due to the policy of the Univer-
sity to carry its educational facilities to the
people and to offer it at centers that are most
advantageous and most accessible. As a
logical outcome of this policy the University
established the extra-mural division in 1909,
the first department of its kind in America,

409

NEW ZEALAND, EDUCATION IN

NEW ZEALAND, EDUCATION IN

and this division now gives University in-
struction at various centers outside the Uni-
versity walls.

The corporation of the University is the
Council, a self-perpetuating body of thirty-
two members, one fourth of whom go out of
office annually The Women's Advisory Com-
mittee, consisting of women appointed by the
Council, was organized in connection with the
founding of the School of Pedagogy in 1890
and has done effective service in the Univer-
sity's work for women, aiding in the raising of
endowment, furnishing of equipment, and the
establishing of new courses The University
Senate, consisting of the chancellor, the deans
of the schools, and one professor from each
faculty, takes action regarding matters com-
mon to all the Schools and makes recommen-
dations thereon to the University Council
The administrative officers are five in number,
viz The chancellor, the syndic, the bursar,
the registrar, and the secretary to the chan-
cellor Each faculty has its dean and secre-
tary The dean is 'the medium of communi-
cation between the faculty of his school and
the chancellor, the chancellor is the medium
of communication between the several faculties
and the Council Dr Elmer Ellsworth Brown,
formerly United States Commissioner of Edu-
cation, is Chancellor G C 8

NEW ZEALAND, EDUCATION IN —

This system can best be understood when it is
lecollcctcd that the eountiy, now a federated
dominion, was formerly divided into provinces
under scpaiate governments This was the
case fiom 1853 to 1876. In each of the princi-
pal provinces, between the years 1855 and 1857
a system of public elemental y education was
established The schools were conducted by
local committees and a central boaid at each
provincial capital, and were variously sup-
ported bv tieasury grants, fees, charges on
householders, donations and rates on property.
The provincial system of public education
survived the provinces themselves, which
were abolished m 1876, but in 1878 a system,
free, compulsory, and secular, was established,
although provincial boai ds and inspectors were
and are still retained

The present system of administration of
public instiuction'm New Zealand is described
in an official account " The Dominion is
divided, for purposes of primary education,
into thirteen education districts, generally
coextensive with the old provinces or with
subdivisions of them. The education dis-
tricts are subdivided into a large and increas-
ing number of school districts, in each of which
there is a School Committee of five to rime
members elected annually by the householders.
In each education district there is an Education
Board of nine members, elected three every
year for terms of thiee years by the members
of the School Committees Under an Act

of 1905 every education district is divided into
three wards, each of which returns three of
the nine members of the Board Subject
to general supervision and control by the
Board, and to inspection by the Board's In-
spectors, the Committee has the management
of school business within the school district
The Board appoints and removes teachers,
but only after consulting the Committee

The Education Department, which is pre-
sided over by the Minister of Education, is
charged, in the first place, with the general
supervision and control of the system of pri-
mary instruction, and, further, with the develop-
ment and extension of a general system of
sccondaiy and technical instruction Also
with the direct control of the system of public
school cadets, of the schools for children of
the Maori race, the special schools for deaf and
for mentally d elective children, and the schools
for destitute, neglected, and criminal children
Incidentally it has the administration of the
Act for the protection of infant life It takes
an active interest in the education of the blind
It distributes the grants made by Parliament
to public libraries In order to provide
suitable reading matter for the children in the
public schools the Depaitment prepares and
issues a free School Journal The Minister
is required by statute to report to the Governor
every year on the progress and condition of
public education in the Dominion

The piccise manner in which the provisions
of the vaiious statutes that relate to the
public pi unary schools shall be carried out
is fixed from time to time by regulations made
by the Governoi in Council Among the
matters so conti oiled bv regulation are the
following Attendance registers and returns,
the authorization of class books, the inspec-
tion and examination of schools, teachers'
certificates, training colleges for teachers,
pupil-teachers, examinations for scholarships
tenable at secondary and technical schools,
for entrance into the public service and for
promotion in it, manual and technical instruc-
tion, scholarship, public-school cadet corps,
staffs of schools, and salaries of teachers, the
payment of grants to Education Boards and
the auditing of Boards' accounts

One of the principal functions of the De-
partment is to distribute to the Education
Boards and other educational authorities, in
the manner prescribed by law, the grants
voted by Parliament for the salaries of teachers
and for the maintenance of primary schools
and training colleges, and secondary and
technical classes, and for the erection and
repair of school buildings and for higher edu-
cation.

The status and progress of public elemen-
tary education in New Zealand may be best
illustrated by the following table compiled
by the Education Department at Wellington,
New Zealand.

470

NEW ZEALAND, EDUCATION IN

NEW ZEALAND, EDUCATION IN

1870

1900

Population, exclusive of Maoris

417,622

908,718

Public primary schools

730

1,847

Children on the school rolls

55,088

139,302

Teachers, male

(>48

1,314

Teachers, female . .

449

1,887

Pupil-teachers, male

82

153

Pupil-teachers, female .

221

518

Total teaching staff

1,400

3,872

Inspectors

10

32

Of these 139,302 children on the rolls,
72,917 were hoys and 66,385 were girls The
total expenditure of the education department
on all accounts for the year ending the 31st
March, 1907, amounted to £923,574

The official account of primary education
in New Zealand will show how the situation
differs from that in the Australian states,
wheie public education is supported and con-
trolled by the state from the consolidated
revenue, without any form of local control
or support

" From 187S to 1901 the public schools were
maintained mainly by a statutory grant out
of the consolidated revenue of the colony at
the rate of £3 15* a yeai for every unit of
the average daily attendance, supplemented
by additional capitation allowances varying
from 4,s to 10-s , and by grants averaging about
£45,000 a year for the erection and mainte-
nance of school buildings During that time
every Board had its own scale of staffs and
salaries, and there was considerable inequality
in the remuneration of teachers under different
Boards But ' The Public-School Teachers'
Salaries Act, 1901,' fixed the relation of the
number and the pay of the teachers in a school
to the number of the pupils, and the Boards
are now paid sums sufficient to cover the statu-
tory salaries of their teachers, they also
receive* capitation of ll.v 3rf for general ad-
ministration and local expenses, and l,s 3</
for secondary scholarships, and vauable smaller
grants for other special purposes Chants are
also made for school buildings as before, but
upon a much more liberal scale About two
thirds of the total income of the Boards is
absorbed in the payment of teachers' salaries
The remainder forms the fund out of which
the Board maintains its schools and other
buildings, pays the salaries of its inspectors
and of its office staff, and grants certain allow-
ances to the committees for fuel, cleaning, and
incidental expenses, and for school libraries
The fund at the disposal of a Committee may
be supplemented by donations and sub-
scriptions, and by fines recovered for truancy
The sums granted to the Boards in 1906 for
all purposes connected with primary instruc-
tion amounted to a total of £668,440, which
is equal to a capitation of £5 9,s 7\d on the
average attendance "

No fees aie chargeable for primary instr uction
at the public schools Neither members of
education boards nor members of school
committees receive any lemuneration for
their services

The schools are open to all children between
the ages of five and fifteen, arid attendance
is compulsory from seven to fourteen The
instruction is entirely secular, though religious
instruction may, with the consent of the com-
mittee, be given in the school building out of
school hours The subjects of instruction are
reading, writing, arithmetic, English grammar
and composition, geography, history and civic
instruction, moral instruction, nature-study
and elementary science, drawing, vocal music,
the principles of health, physical and military
drill, handwork, and, for girls, needlework

Free passes by rail are given to pupils not
over fifteen years of age traveling to attend
schools for primary instruction, to pupils
not ovei nineteen years of age who are holdeis
of free places at secondary schools, to pupils on
the rolls of primary or secondary schools
traveling to attend classes for manual or
technical instruction at centers specially
equipped for the purpose, and, without re-
striction of age, to holdeis of free places at
technical schools Commutation and season
tickets at liberal iat.es are given to other atten-
dants at secondary and technical schools

There is no public institution in the Domin-
ion for the instruction of children under five
years of age, but free kindergartens have been
established by private promoters in some of the
largest towns On attendance at such schools
capitation is, by special arrangement, payable
by the Government at the rate of £2 per
annum per unit of average, subject to certain
conditions which provide for a minimum limit
in salary payments, and further require an
equal sum t<> be furnished from other sources,
c q from donations and subscriptions

In the field of secondaiv education, there
are twenty-eight high schools or colleges in
the dominion, which in almost every case
derue a part of their revenue from public
reserves At the end of 1906 these schools
employed 154 resident and 54 visiting teachers,
and had as pupils 2528 bovs and 1742
girls Schools for boys and grrls are usually
separate Fees averaging eight to ten guineas
a vear are charged, but many free scholarships
are allowed In addition to these secondary
schools of the more ambitious kind, theie
are also more than sixty public schools which
have free high school departments

Manual and technical instruction is advanc-
ing rapidly, the total government expenditure
in this direction in 1906 being £63,255 There
is a flourishing cadet system in connection
with the public schools There is a superan-
nuation fund foi teachers, to which teachers
may subscribe if they please from 8 to 10 per
cent of their salaries, in return foi which they

471

NEW ZEALAND, UNIVERSITY OF NEWFOUNDLAND, EDUCATION IN

are entitled to a pension or superannuation
amounting to one sixtieth of their total salaiies
paid during the years in which they have been
contributors to the fund

Higher education is conducted by a chartered
University of New Zealand, which is an exam-
ining body to which four other institutions
are affiliated, namely, the Umveisity of Otago,
founded in 1869, at Dunedm, Canterbury
College, founded in 1876, at Chnstchurch,
Auckland Ilmveisity College, founded in
1882, at Auckland, and Victona College,
founded in 181)7, at Wellington By a curious
system the Umveisity of New Zealand sends
its final examination papers for degrees to be
examined in the universities of the United
Kingdom

Native schools to the numbei of 100 are
provided for the benefit of the Maoris in
places wheie no public schools have been es-
tablished by the boards In 1906 these
schools were attended by 2275 bovs and 1899
girls In 10 per cent of these childien Euro-
pean blood predominates, and 10 pel cent weie
Europeans

Among the other public educational insti-
tutions of New Zealand aie numbei ed an in-
stitution for the blind, anothei for the deaf
and dumb, many public libraries subsidized to
the extent of £3000 a yeai, and seven govern-
ment industrial schools foi the maintenance
and education of destitute, neglected and
criminal children Tn 1906 there weic on the
books of these industrial schools 2075 children,
only 681 of whom were resident, while others
boarded out 01 were at service Fuller in-
formation may be obtained from the official
account of the Kdncatwn Ni/btcm <>f Uu Domin-
ion of New Zealand, issued bv the Department
of Education at Wellington F H C

NEW ZEALAND, UNIVERSITY OF —

See NT<:W ZEALAND, EDUCATION IN

NEWBERRY COLLEGE, NEWBERRY,

SC — A coeducational institution founded
in 1832 at Lexington, S C1 , as the Classical and
Theological Institute of the South Carolina
Synod In 1856 the College obtained a charter
with power to confer degrees and was removed
to Newberry From 18G8 to 1877 the College
was located at Walhalla, SC Freparatory
and collegiate departments are maintained
The lequirements for admission aie eight units
The degrees of AB and AM are conferred
In 1912 the faculty consisted of fourteen mem-
bers and the students numbered 255

NEWCASTLE COMMISSION — See

FARLI YMEXTARY EDUCATION COMMISSIONS,
KVOLYND, EDUCATION IN

NEWCASTLE - UPON - TYNE, ARM-
STRONG COLLEGE, ENGLAND —An

institution founded in 1871, as the College

of Fhysical Science, " to promote the educa-
tion of persons of both sexes and the study
and advancement of science, philosophy,
hteratuie, and the fine and mechanical arts
or othei kindred branches of learning " The
College is an incorporated Society, registered
under the Companies Acts, and all subscribers
of certain amounts are styled Governors To
these aie also added the peers and members
of Parliament of the local counties The
College has ten icpresentatives on the Senate
of the University of Durham of which since
1909 it is an integral part The following
faculties are maintained pure science, ap-
plied science, arts, letters The College has
a Marine Laboratory at Cullercoats, and
directs the Northumberland County Council
Agricultural Station A Day Training De-
partment is also maintained in connection
with the Board of Education Work is given
in dav and evening classes to students over
sixteen who have passed the matriculation
examination of Durham University (q v ) or
some equivalent standard, if they wish to
stndv for a degree The College itself does
not grant degrees, but the degrees of Durham
University in science, letters, and in engineering
are open to its students The College giants
diplomas in agriculture, engineering, naval
architecture, and mining The chemical, phys-
ical, and engineer ing laboratories, which are
among the finest in England, give ample
oppoit unity lor practical work The College
receives grants from the Durham UmveiMtv,
from many neighboring city and county coun-
cils, which also maintain many scholarships
and pn/es at the College, and from the Treas-
ury, the Board of Education, and the Board
of Agriculture and Fisheries The enrollment
of students in 1910 was 000 in the day and 475
in the evening classes with a faculty of sixty-
one members

See DURHAM UNIVERSITY

Reference —

England, Board of Education, ttcporh Jrow ('mvtr-
xitici and University College* (London, annual )

NEWELL, McFADDEN ALEXANDER

(1S24-189M) —Normal school principal and
state super mtendent, was educated at Queen's
College, Belfast, and Trinity College, Dublin
He was professor in Baltimore City College
( 1 S4S- 1 S50) , in Laf ayett e College ( 1 850-
1854), principal of the state normal school
of Maryland (1865-1868), and state superin-
tendent of Maryland (1868-1893) He was
the author of a series of school readers

W S M

NEWFOUNDLAND, EDUCATION IN —

The development of education in Newfound-
land is similar to that of the eastern provinces
of Canada (q v ) The present system was
organized by acts of 1874 and 1876, which

472

NEWFOUNDLAND, KDIVATION IN

NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY

rendered it completely denominational 'Flic
public schools MIC in charge of thiee separate
boards rep resen ling the three religious de-
nominations. Methodist, Episcopalian, and
Roman Catholic The governoi in council
has power to appoint in each educational
district a boaul of five or seven members of
the respective denominations, on which the
senior of supeiior clergymen resident 01
officiating in the distuct shall be one, to manage
and expend all monevs, etc Such boards
in SI John's, and in distiicts in which aie
•superior, or high, schools, may consist of nine
membeis Vacancies occurring by death, resig-
nation, 01 absence iiom the colony Jor
twelve months may be filled by the governor
in council Similar boards are appointed in
like manner foi the foui colleges, but the nomi-
nation of members is with the respective
denominations Each denomination has a
general supenntendent of education to which
the conesponding boards make then annual
repoits

The education boaids have control of then
icspectne schools, appoint the tcacheis, de-
termine the salary, tenuie, etc The couise
ol instruction in public schools is arranged
for six grades 01 standards, sectaiian teaching
is allowed, but the lights oi dissenting minor-
ities are protected by a conscience clause in
the school law Bv'the act of 1874 $40,000
was piovided foi school houses and school
property and arrangements made for sub-
division of propei ty on an equitable basis,
which was in due course accomplished without
difficulty By the 1S7(> act $88,252 was
annually provided for all pui poses, which
amount has been mci eased, from time to
time, according to increase in population
The government grant is dnided among the
school boards on the basis of a specified late
per capita of the attendance in their respective
schools The attendance at board schools
in 1907 was 48,311 distributed as follows
Church of England, 14,983, Roman Catholic,
14,721, Methodist, 13,092, others, 1015
The total expenditure, including government-
grants and fees, was $281,655 Additional
grants are made in aid of pool districts, ior
high schools, and for the support of colleges

The high schools piepare pupils ior admis-
sion to the colleges, in which provision is made
foi teaching advanced classes in ordinary
commercial subjects, in Latin, Greek, French,
German, algebra, geometry, mensuration and
land surveying, chemistry, magnetism and
electricity, free-hand and geometrical draw-
ing, trigonometry and navigation, shorthand,
music, and school management In fact the
colleges perform the double function of business
colleges and classical colleges They are all
under government inspection, and reports
of their condition and progress and a detailed
account of income and expenditure must be
transmitted by their respective superintendents

to be laid befoie the legislature, in accordance
with prescribed forms Students who com-
plete the prescribed courses are pieparcd for
matriculation in the Dominion universities

A. T. S.

NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY (1801-1890)
— Divine, and educational writer, born in
London, ISO], the son ol a banker said to luue
been originally of Dutch extraction and pos-
sibly of Jewish descent Ills mother belonged
to the Huguenot iarrnly Fouidnmer He was
brought up from a child to take great delight,
in reading the Bible At the age oi seven, he
was sent, to a well-known private school kept
by Dr Nicholas at Ealmg In his childhood
the Wawilcy AWc/.s, then appealing, and
Scott's poetry had a gieat influence upon his
imagination, which dwelt much upon magical
powers, talismans, and other mysterious in-
fluences At fourteen he read Tom Fame's
Ttact\ against the Old Testament and found
pleasure in thinking of the objections con-
tained in them He also read Hume's essa\s
and remembered copying out some French
verses against the immortality of the soul and
saying to hrmseli, ' How dreadful, but hou
plausible ' In 1816 a gieai change of thought
took place in him and lie fell undet the influ-
ence of the Christian faith, receiving into his
intellect impressions of dogma never after-
wards effaced or obscured. Cahuiist pi each-
ing and sermons helped in this conversion

Newman went into residence at Tmut\
College, Oxford, June, 1817, becoming a scholar
in 1818 In 1819 his father's bank stopped
payment, and in the same vear he took a
Second Class in the Final Schools After
graduating B A Newman took some private
pupils in Oxford and was elected a Fellow ol
Oriel College, April 12, 1822 At Oxford
Newman came under the influence of John
Keble, Hawkins, Whately, and Richard Hun ell
Froude In 1830 he definitely bioke with the
evangelical party and abandoned Calvinism
As a tutor of Oriel his mind was turned much
to the theory and practice of education, the
intimate connection of \\hich with religious be-
lief he strongly maintained Newman's fust
public wrrtrng on education is found in his
review of the works of John Davison (1744-
1834), Fellow of Oriel College During a
visit to Sicily, 1833, Newman neaih died of
fever On his homeward journev in an orange
boat, between Palermo and Marseilles, lie
wrote Lend, Kindh/ Isiqht The years 1833-
1845 were full of momentous controversy on
spiritual questions, ending in hrs reception into
the Roman Catholic Church at Littlemore,
near Oxford, October 0, 1845 After a Msit
to Rome he returned to England in 1847 with
a commission from Pope Pius IX to introduce
into England the use of the Oratory founded
bv St Philip Nen, whose beautiful character
and educational devotion especially attracted

473

NEWMAN, SAMUEL PHILLIPS

NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS

him. He established the Oratory m Birming-
ham and resided there for the rest of his life
In 1854 he went, at the invitation of the Irish
Roman Catholic Bishops, to Dublin as Rector
of the then recently established Catholic
University The University was, however,
a failure, partly through lack of State recogni-
tion and partly through Newman's own in-
capacity foi organization But his experience
at Dublin flowered in the publication of his
Discoursed on University Teaching, ihbiied
subsequently under the title of The Idea of a
Ifmverxity Defined and Illustrated In these
discourses occurs the famous passage in which
Newman says that if he had to choose between
two University courses, one non-residential
but intellectually exacting, the other resi-
dential but intellectually disorganized, he would
without hesitation give preference to that Uni-
versity which provided no teaching but brought
together into personal companionship " a multi-
tude of young men keen, open-hearted, sym-
pathetic, and observant, gaming for themselves
new ideas and views, fresh matter of thought,
and distinct principles for judging and acting
day by day Such a youthful community
embodies a specific idea, adininisteis

a code of conduct, furnishes principles

of thought and action It gives birth to ;i
living teaching which in coarse of time

takes the shape of a self-perpetuating tradition
or a genius ha, . which haunts the home
where it has been born and which imbues more
or less arid one by one every individual who
is successively brought undei its shadow "
(Discourse VI) The school for bovs con-
ducted at the Oratory in Birmingham under
Newman's presidency has done educational
work of high value In 1879 Newman was
created Cardinal, with the title of St George
in Velabro He died at Edgbaston on August
11, 1890 M. K. S.

References : —

Catholic Encyclopedia, s v Newman, John Henry
CHURCH, H W The Oxfoid Movement (London, 18*H )

Dictionary of National Biography
NEWMAN,,! II Apologia pro Vita J^uo (1S64)
An Enwy m Aid of a (frammar of Assent (JEspo-
< uilly important for its psj fhological au.ilvsis of
English habits of thought (pp 76-HO) find of
English education (pp °-()-9S)

Fifteen Mentions preach* d hefore the U HI privity of ()r-
ford (especially Sermons on the Contest between
Faith and Sight, and on the Theory of Deploy-
ments in Religious Doctrine)
The Idea of a Umwrvity Defrud and III initiated
WAUD, W Life of John Henry Caidinal Ntwmau.
(London, 1912 )

NEWMAN, SAMUEL PHILLIPS (1797-
1842) — Principal of one of the first American
normal schools, was graduated at Haivard
College in 1816 He was a private tutor for
two years in Kentucky, and fiom 1818 to
1839 he was a professor in Bowdoin College
He was elected principal of one of the first of the
Massachusetts normal schools organized by

Hoi ace Mann in 1839 The school was
located at Barrc but later removed to West-
field This post he held until his death. His
publications include a rhetoric, which passed
through sixty editions, a textbook on political
economy, and a series of school readers.

W. S M.

NEWNHAM COLLEGE, CAMBRIDGE,
ENGLAND -- An institution for the highei
education of women In 1871 Miss A J
Clough (q r ) took a house at Cambridge for
five women students who wished to attend
lectures there The number grew rapidly,
and in 1875 Newnham Hall was opened
Through the combined efforts of the authori-
ties of Newnham Hall and the Association for
Promoting the Development of Higher Edu-
cation for Women (f at Cambridge in 1873)
Newnham College was established in 1880
The College now comprises the following
buildings Old Hall (1875), Sidgwick Hall
(1885), Clough Hall (1889), Pfeiffei Building
(1893), Kennedy Building (1906) The second
of these Halls was named in honor of Pro-
fessoi Henry Sidgwick who played an impor-
tant part in promoting the higher education of
women and in the founding of the College
Like (lirton, Newnham College has had a very
piommerit place in the history of women's
education JM England The enrollment of
students in 1910-1911 was 213

See WOMEN, EDUCATION OF

NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS,
COLLEGE AND SCHOOL — More than
400 newspapers and periodicals are regu-
larly issued at colleges and universities in the
United States If to thus number there be
added the nuinbei of newspapers and periodi-
cals issued by the high and elementary schools
and the number of high school, college, and
university yearbooks or annuals, which are
more or less journalistic in character, the
total number would exceed a thousand. The
list of publications includes dailies, semi-
weeklies, weeklies, monthlies, bimonthlies,
and quarterlies It includes periodicals which
are devoted to literature with no admixture
of news, and periodicals which are devoted
entnely to news, others that publish news and
literature, and yet others, treating the lighter
side of college lite, that are devoted to humor.
Many of these publications are illustrated
Most of them are financially profitable They
are to the undergraduate world what the daily
or weekly newspaper is to the world outside
the colleges They give the news of the col-
lege campus and comment upon it

The college or school newspaper is generally
issued by the students, under some form of
faculty supervision or control. In a few cases
it is issued directly by the faculty representing
the institution. The students, through their
own organization, incorporated or otherwise,

474

NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS

NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS

select the editors and reporters In most
institutions, the- editorship of the newspaper
or magazine is regarded as one of the highest
honors which the undergraduate may attain
Often the selection of associate editors and
reporters is by competition, and there are many
more applicants than there are positions to
be filled In some institutions, academic
credit is given for such activities, and in otheis
the higher editonal positions usually are
accompanied by special society or college
honors

The college publications are not new in
America. The earliest appeared at Dart-
mouth with Daniel Webster as editorial writer
The college daily came latei The Cornell
Da di/ Sun was the first issued by an incor-
porated organization Now daily newspapers
are published at all the larger univeisitics

Students who plan to entei journalism (q v )
or literature usually seek positions on college
journals Where courses arc given in jour-
nalism the college journals afford a laboratoiy
for students taking such courses

W W.

England — There are few secondary schools
in England that cannot boast of at least one
official school magazine, published as a lule
once a month during the school yeai From
time to time othci sheets raise then diminished
heads, eithei as representatives of .special
interests, of a special group, 01 of some fonn
of the school But these rivals raiely come
to maturity, for not uncommonly they depend
for their existence on the enthusiasm, lively
but evanescent, of a few boys Even the rec-
ognized school magazine frequently vanes
in quality, through the changing and shifting
character of its staff As a general uile the
school magazines in England are conducted
almost wholly by a committee of masters and
boys or of boys alone under the general and
benevolent supervision of a master The
content and arrangement are in most cases
the same occasional notes, honors and dis-
tinctions, news of old boys, a poem 01 two (in
modern or classical language, original or trans-
lated), a few articles by piesent or old boys,
and reports of school activities (different
school societies, and athletics) A charge is
invariably made for the magazine Many
school efforts have been wrecked on this
financial rock, but compulsory subscriptions
or advertising mattei have been called in to
aid Within recent years the school magazine
has tended also to become the official organ
of old boys' associations, and in this way the
list of subscribers is substantially increased

The history of school publications is recent,
even in the oldest schools Occasional efforts
appear to have been made at the beginning
of the nineteenth century to launch school
papers but rarely with success The causes
are not far to seek, the cost of printing must
have been high, and corporate school spirit as

it is now understood was perhaps only in the
early stages of its development But here and
there boys who not infrequently made their
mark later in the literary world would seek
to give rein to their genius while still at school.
At Eton the earliest recorded magazine was
the Microcosm, edited in 1786 by George
Canning, John Smith, Robert Smith, arid
John Hookham Ficre The next publication
in 1804 was the Miniature, of which thirty-four
numbers were issued in twelve months After
an interval of a few years there appeared,
about 1818, a number of manuscript publica-
tions, all of which were shortlived In 1819
appeared perhaps the most famous of Eton
magazines, the Etonian, in the management
of which W M Praed was the leading spirit.
Many of Praed's contributions attracted con-
siderable attention The Eton Magazine,
which appeared in 1827, is notable mainly for
the fact that W E Gladstone was one of the
editors After a desultory period of nearly
thirty years another crop of ephemeral maga-
zines appeared, the Adventurer, which lasted
from 1867 to 1872, being the longest lived
Most of the publications, however, were hardly
school magazines in the sense described above
They aped or imitated the literary reviews of
their day and afforded for many years an op-
portunity foi the bovs to exercise their literary
ability in the vernacular before English com-
position became a school subject The first
grammar school magazine — a record of school
activities — was the Eton College Chronicle,
which appeared in 1863 and has continued
up to the present At Harrow the first maga-
zine, the Tnuniviralf, appeared in 1859, in
1863 its title was changed to the Tyro, in 1S69
it was again changed to the Hanovian, and
from 1883 to 1888 was published outside the
school under the title Harrow Note* In 1888
the magazine was again restored to the school,
and since that time the Harrovian has been
the recognized school organ At Rugby the
earliest publication was the Rugby Magazine
(1835), mainly a literary work, followed ten
years later by the Rugby Miscellany, contain-
ing essays and poems, giving occasional
glimpses Of school life and Arnold's work
The New Rugbeian, which appeared in 1858,
ran through three volumes Other ephemeral
magazines al Rugby have been the New
Rugby Magazine (1864-1865), the T V W.
(1877-1878), the Leaflet (1883-1886), and
Sibyl (1890-1895) The Meteor, the first
paper which churned to be nothing more
than a chronicle, appealed in 1867 and is still
flourishing At St Paul's School, London,
a magazine, Hermes, appeared before 1832,
but little is known about it About the same
time (1831), showing how readily a stimulus
works in school, appeared the Pauline, which
died an early death, was revived for a short
time in 1836, and again in 1882, since which
time its existence has been unbroken As in

475

NEWTON, SIR ISAAC

NICARAGUA, EDUCATION IN

other schools the Pauline has had to face
upstart competitors, but these have not been
able to survive the departure of their editors
from the school

It thus appears that the essential qualities
of a newspaper are not the literary produc-
tions but the appeal to the generality; school
news and full reports of school activities, lib-
erally interspersed with the names of youth-
ful aspirants to distinction, are the means to
assured success. A few magazines of other
prominent schools may be mentioned Char-
terhouse, Carthusian (1872), Shrewsbury, $a-
lopian (1834, 1860), Winchester Wykehamist
(I860), Wes minster, the Elizabethan, Mer-
chant Taylors, the Taylonan; Bedford, the
Ousel, Bradford, the Bradfordian; Chelten-
ham, the Cheltunian , Clifton, the Chf toman;
Marlborough, the Marlbunan, Manchester,
Ulula, Rossall, the Rowalhan, Scdbergh,
the Sedberghian ; Tonbridge, the Tonbndgian

See STUDENT LIFE; JOURNALISM, EDUCA-
TION IN, also PUBLIC SCHOOL, etc

References —

NORWOOD, (/ , arid HOPE, A H Higher Education of
BuU» in England, pp 477-4HO (London, 1<W) )

Pabh( Schools Yearbook, contains a list of the maga-
zines published by many English and Scottish
Horondary schools (London, annual )

NEWTON, SIR ISAAC (1642-1727) —
One of the greatest of the world's mathema-
ticians and physicists He was born in humble
circumstances, and as a boy was rathei back-
ward in his studies He lived on a faim, and
the surroundings were not conducive to seiious
study. He had an uncle who agieed to send
him to college, and so he prepared for entrance
and was admitted to Trinity College, Cam-
bridge, in 1660. Within six yeais after en-
tering the college he had proved the binomial
theorem for the gcncial cast1, laid the founda-
tions of the calculus, and begun his great work
on the study of the attraction of planets
Newton seems to have found the principles
of the calculus in or before the year 1665
(See CALCULUS ) In 1667 he became a Fellow
of Trinity College, and in 1669 he became
Lucasian professor of mathematics, being then
less than twenty-seven years old. His greatest
works are the Pnncipia (1(>87), Optics (1704),
Anthmctica Uniwrxalix (1707), Analysis per
Equations Numcro Terminoium Infimtas
(1711), DC Mundi Xyxtcmatc (1728), and Op-
tical Lectures (1728, posthumous)

He also contributed many memoirs to the
Royal Society from 1703 to the time of his
death He was knighted by Queen Anne in
1705. D. E. S.

NEWTON THEOLOGICAL INSTITU-
TION, NEWTON CENTRE, MASS —An

institution for the training of students for the
Christian ministry m Baptist churches,
founded in 1825 A course of three vears

leading to the degree of .D B is offered to
students who have already some college degree
or its equivalent Women who intend to
devote themselves to missionary woik are
admitted to the lectures In 1907 the Gordon
Bible and Missionary Training School of
Boston, founded in 1889, was consolidated
with the Theological Institution as the Gordon
School A summer school is also conducted
by the Institution The faculty consists of
nine members and there is an annual enroll-
ment of about seventy-five students

NIAGARA UNIVERSITY, NIAGARA
FALLS, NY — An institution located on
the New York bank of Niagara River, founded
in 1856 and conducted by Priests of the Con-
gregation of the Mission, a body of religious
educators established in seventeenth century
by St. Vincent de Paul Chartered as the
Seminary of Our Ludy of Angels in 1863, the
institution was erected into a college as Ni-
agara University by the Regents of the State
of New Yoik in 1883 The physical plant
includes a campus of 300 acres, a gioup ol
buildings, including a museum, scientific lab-
01 atones, auditoimm, literary society parlors,
and a libraiy of 35,000 volumes It offers
full college courses, and, in addition, has a
theological seminary The President is Very
Rev Edward J Walsh, CM E J W. '

NICARAGUA, EDUCATION IN —Nica-
ragua, the largest of the Central Amencan Re-
publics, extends over an area of 49,200 square
miles and has a population of 600,000 (esti-
mated, 1910) About one thiid of tins popula-
tion is comprised in 13 towns, of which the
largest is Leon, the former capital, having a,
population of 62,500 The present capital,
Managua, has a population of 34,872 It is
the center of the country's activities and exer-
cises wide influence through its daily papers,
morning and evening issues. The mass of
the population consists of aboriginal Indians,
negroes, and mixed races The Europeans
and their descendants are estimated at less
than 2000 The prevailing religion is the
Roman Catholic, the entire country forming one
diocese under the Bishop of Leon, a suifiagan
of the Archbishop of Guatemala The country
is organized in thirteen departments and two
comaicas, each under its own executive who
has independent management of its internal
affairs The president of the Republic is
assisted by a cabinet of ministers, one of whom
is charged with the interests of public instruc-
tion His authority in this matter, however,
is limited by the independence of the depart-
mental chiefs He may require reports from
each department as a basis for the distribution
of the government appropriations for schools,
but beyond this he has little more than ad-
visory functions

In a recent report, the minister of public

476

NICOLAUS VON CUSS

NICOMAUHUS

instruction deplores the low condition of
primary education in the Republic Five
times as many schools as have been piovicled,
he declares, are required in order to meet the
actual needs of the population Theie are
about 350 primary schools, em oiling 23,000
pupils or less than 4 per cent of the popula-
tion

For secondary instruction there aie four
subsidized schools, namely, for boys, three,
situated respectively in Managua, Leon, and
Granada, and a normal school for voung women
in Managua These schools enroll about 900
pupils and for each the State pays at the rate
of $5 a month Private secondaiy schools
follow the same programs as the public, all
non-classical The couise in the normal school
includes methodology, pedagogy, Spanish,
mathematics, zoology, botany, di awing, phys-
ical sciences, and singing

Higher education is represented by two
University faculties of law, and by a faculty
of medicine and suigery The law course is
very comprehensive, including philosophy of
law, civil, comparative, and constitutional law,
criminal law and criminology, medical law,
statistics, and academic courses in Spanish and
American literature, in history and political
economy There is an agieement with the
other Central American States by virtue of
which degrees granted in any one of them are
lecogrmed in Nicaragua as of equal weight
with its own Possessors of degrees granted
in foreign countries must pass a brief exami-
nation and prove the authenticity of their
diplomas

The chief educational influences now working
in the Republic come from the increasing le-
lations with the other Latin American States
and with the United States, and the impetus
thereby given to the commercial, agricultural,
and mining industries of the country An
evidence of the growing desuc for harmonious
relations among the Central American States
is afforded by the appointment of a committee
to draw up a manual of civic instruction
adapted to each one

The national museum of commerce and in-
dustry at Managua illustrates the increasing
interest in the conditions that make for eco-
nomic prosperity A O S

References —

Boletin de Estadi^tica do la Repubhca de Nicaiagua
(Managua, 1908)

Bulletins of the Bureau of Amcnutn Republut* (Wash-
ington )

Nicaragua MmiHterio do Instruction publira Memo-
nu, 1900, 1<)()4, 190S (Managua)

U S Bur Kduf , Rep Com Educ 1910, Vol 1, Ch
IX (Washington, 1()1() )

NICOLAUS VON CUSS (NICHOLAS OF
CUSA, NICOLAUS CUSANUS) —A fif-
teenth century scholar and writer He was
born at Kues on the Mosel in 1401, and died

at Todi, in Umbna, August 11, 1464 One
of his biographers has thus tersely summed
up his position " Nieolaus wished to be a
medieval philosopher, but with more liberty,
he was, without wishing it, a modern phi-
losopher, but with more reserve " His name
was Nicolas Ohrypfs, and he was son of a
humble fisherman In the patois of the
Mosel valley, Chrypfs is the same as the Ger-
man Krebs (crab) and hence he is known also
by the Latin name of Nicola us Cancer lie
was educated at Heidelberg, and went from
that university to Padua where, in 1424, he
took the degree of doctor of laws Returning
to Germany, he made his first legal effort at
Mainz, lost his case, and thereupon determined
to devote himself to theology and science
In 1436 he presented to the Council of Basel
a plan for reforming the calendar So suc-
cessful was he in diplomacy that Eugene IV,
Nicholas V, and Pius II employed him on
important missions, and in 1448 Nicholas
elevated him to the position of (animal, a
very rare honor for a German in those days
Because of this unusual faet, he was known in
Italy as Cardmalis Teutonicus His works
relate to questions of theology and meta-
physics, the reform of the calendar, to the
principles and value of mathematics, and to
similar topics Although not himself a teacher,
by his writings he exerted a powerful influence
upon the teaching of his day His works had
much to do with leading Leonardo da Vinci to
maintain the theory of the plurality of worlds

D E S

NICOLE, PIERRE (] 625-1095) —One
of the most famous writers of Port Royal
(q v ) Among his more important works
are Logiqur (1662), #.s,s(n.s de morale (1671-),
25 vols , in the second volume of which occurs
his Tfaite de I' education d'un prince

F. E. F.

References —
LANJUINAIR, J D Ktudcs biographiqua* ct httcraires.

(Pans, 1S2,3 )
SAINTE-BEUVE, Port-Royal

NICOMACHUS —The greatest writer on
theoretical arithmetic among those whose
works appear in Greek He, however, was
not a Greek, but a Jew He was born at
Gerasa, 50 A D , and died about 111 AD His
work is not that of a great mathematician, but
is rather a compilation of the knowledge com-
mon to teachers of the subject in his time
The object of the book is the study of the prop-
erties of numbers, particularly as they had
been studied by the Pythagoreans for some
centuries, and as they were being taught, by
the neo-Pythagoreans in his day For exam-
ple, he classifies numbers as odd, even, prime,
perfect, and so on, and studies with some care
the various polygonal and solid numbers.
Ratios, proportions, and progressions occupy

477

NICOMEDES

NIETHAMMER

considerable of his attention From his work
Boethius (q v ) derived much of the material
for his textbook on the subject, a book that
for a thousand years was the classic in theo-
retical arithmetic His work was edited by
Hochc, in 1866 D E S

NICOMEDES — See GEOMETRY

NICOTINE —See TEMPERANCE, TEACH-
ING OF

NIEDERER, JOHANNES (1778-1843) —

Swiss educator and one of Pestalo/zi's assist-
ants Educated and trained for the ministry,
Niederer heard of Pestaloxzi's work about 1800,
resigned his pastorate at Apperizell and joined
Pestalozzi at Burgdorf, where he had special
charge of religious instruction In this field
he showed exceptional ability But he was
interested also in language and literature and
in the broader social and philosophical aspect
of education He became indispensable to
Pestalozzi as adviser and collaborator m Ins
writings, arid edited much of the hitter's
work between 1807 and 1811 But with
a scientific and philosophical mind such as he
possessed Niederer was not suited to interpret
Pestalozzi and later some of his additions and
interpretations were repudiated Niederer
edited the Wochenschnft fur Men^chenbildung
(1808-1812), Das Pcxtalozzutche Imtitut und
dax l*ubhkum (1811), Pestalozzi x Erziehung*-
unternehmung wi Vcrhaltniss zm Zcitkulttir
(1812-1813) The recall of Schinid, however,
led to a breach between Niederer and Pestalozzi
m!817 which continued until the latter's death
In 1828 Niederer wrote Pextalozzixche Blattei
Niederer's wife, Rosalie Kastenhofer, conducted
the girls' school established by Pestalozzi at
Yverdun and removed in 1827 to Geneva,
where a seminary was also opened for the
tiaimng of teachers Mme Niederer was the
author of Bhcke in das Wesen der weibh chert
Erziehung Fur gebildete Mutter und Tochtcr
(Glances at the System of Female Education
For educated mothers and daughters, 1828),
and of Diamatische Jugendspiele (Dramatic
Games for the Young, 1838).

References —

B \HNAHD, H Pestalozzi and Pesialozzianism (New
York, 1862 )

I)K (iTiiMPH, II Pestalozzi, his Life and Work Ap-
pendix I, Niederer's Literary Collaboration (Now
York, 1807 )

NIEMEYER, AUGUST HERMANN

(1754-1828) — German educator, born at
Halle, a direct descendant of August Hermann
Francke (q v ), whose work he continued
His parents died while he was very young, and
he was brought up by Fran Lysthenius, a lady
of great culture and refinement He received
his earlv education in the schools founded by
his gieat-giandfather, and at the age of seven-
teen entered the University ol Halle, where he

studied theology and philology. In 1775 he
published his first work, Charakteristik der
Bibcl, which at once made his name known all
over Germany In this book he showed how
to use the biblical characters for moral in-
struction In 1777 he began his academic
career at Halle, in 1779 he was made professor
of theology, and in 1785 he was appointed
one of the directors of the Franckc Founda-
tions He infused new life into these institu-
tions which had declined under his predecessor
In 1806, the university was closed by the order
of Napoleon I, arid Halle annexed to the
Kingdom of Westphalia Niemeycr not only
lost his position, but together with some other
citizens of Halle was forcibly removed to
Pans, where he had to remain for several
months On his return he succeeded in his
efforts to have the University of Halle restored
and was placed at the head of the institution
with the title of Chancellor and Perpetual
Rector He resigned this position in 1815,
but remained active in lecturing at the Uni-
versity and in the administration of the
Francke Foundations until his death

Niemeyer's most important work LS his
Grundsatze der Erziehung und r/c'.s (Juternchtf*
(Principles of Education and Instruction, 1796 ,
Ed G A Lmdnci, Vienna, 1877-1878) It-
was highly iccommended by such a competent
authority as Herbart, who found in it "the
whole summary of contemporary pedagogy
and a broad and firm empirical basis for the
theory of education " Up to the time of the
authoi's death, nine different editions of this
work had become necessary F M

See HISTORY OF EDUCATION

References -

DICESTCN, T August Hermann Nicrnc^ers Vcrdienste

um dan iSV/m/?/>fsra (Leipzig, 18(J2 )
REIN, W Encyklojmd 'u>thet> Ilandbut h der Pcidayugik,

sv Nienuyer, August H< rmann

NIETHAMMER, FRIEDRICH IMMAN-

UEL (1766-1848) —A German schoolman
born in Beilstem, near Heilbronn, Wurttem-
berg, studied philosophy and theology at the
University of Tubingen, then lectured at the
University of Jena, where he became ac-
quainted with Schiller, Goethe, and Fichte
In 1804 he was appointed professor of theology
at the University of Wurzburg, and in 1808
he was called to Munich to assist in the reform
of the Bavarian gymnasia. In 1817 he became
a member of the board governing the Protes-
tant churches of Bavaria (Oberkonxistonalrat)
and devoted the rest of his public activity
to ecclesiastical affairs

Niethammer is best known as the author
of the essay Der Streit dcs Philanthropinismus
und Humanismus ( The Conflict of Philanthrop-
inium and Humanism, Jena, 1808) in which he
defended the claims of the classical studies
against the realistic studies favored by the
Philanthropmists (q v ). P M.

478

NIETZSCHE

NIGHTMARE

NIETZSCHE, FRIEDRICH WILHELM

(1844-1900) — German philosopher horn at
Rockcn, Germany He received his prelimi-
nary education at Naumburg, and in 1864
.entered the University of Bonn as a student
of philology and theology, the latter of which
he discontinued at the end of the first semestei.
After a year at Bonn he went to the University
of Leipzig, where he spent the greatei pait of
four years, and where he busied himself with
philosophy as well as with philology In
18(>9, upon the recommendation of the dis-
tinguished plnlologian Rilschl (q r ), he was
appointed to the piofessorship of classical
philology at Basel, and the University of
Leipzig at once made him a doctor of phi-
losophy without a thesis or examination
The next ten years were dexoted largely to the
work of teaching In 1879 ill-health forced him
to lesign his position and to go from one health
resort to another In 1889 he became hope-
lessly insane, and lived at his sister's home in
Weimar until his death, August 25, 1900 His
principal writings are Die Gebuit dcr Tragodic
(The Buth of Tiagcdif], 1872, Men.^ehluhes
allzu Meiibchlirhcx (Human all too Human),
Vol I, 1878, Vol. II, 1879 and 1880, Alw
tiprach Zmathu^tra (Thus ,s/wAf Zaratlu^tia],
hist complete edition, 1892, Jctixeitf* von (iut
und Bow (Beyond (food and AW), 1880, Zm
(lencalogw dcr Monil (The Genealogy of Morale),
1887, (Jotzendamniei ung (The Twilight of the
Idol*), 1889

Although Nietzsche's writings are classed
under the general heading of philosophy, thev
do not belong there in any technical sense of
the term He did not wnte systematic tiea-
tises, but devoted himself to the const iiiction
of biilbant aphorisms, and thus could discuss
in (puck succession subjects widely sepaiated
from one another During the years oi his
creative activity his standpoint undeiwent
frequent changes, but everywhere then4 may
bo found one unifying principle Nietzsche's
philosophy is always a philosophy of cultuic,
as it pieseuts itself to the man of marked
aristocratic tendencies The central pioblem
is that concerning the nature of the ulti-
mate good If hie is worth living, what
makes it so? What is the supremely valuable9
During his first period Nietzsche found the
justification of the world, if it has one, in the
aesthetic concept of beauty, then his standard
of valuation became posit mstic and he sub-
jected everything to the intellectual test,
rejecting much of what is usually regarded as
true, finally he came to question the validity
of the concept of truth itself, and the only valu-
ation left him is ethical in nature Although
the writings of the first and second period
offer much that is interesting and suggestive,
Nietzsche's most characteristic theories are
to be found in the books published aftei 1882.
In them he preaches a "traiisvaluation of
values/' condemning the present-day morality

as that of slaves and exalting all the qualities
belonging to self-assertion The ultimate
reality in the universe and the chief good for
the individual is the will for power Nietzsche
makes no attempt to show that all human
actions and toolings arc at bottom selfish He
admits the existence of disinterestedness and
deplores it All history and all social oiganiza-
tion find then one justification in the produc-
tion of a few great personalities, whose one
aim is the attainment, of power rathei than
of happiness Egoism is not so much a fact
as an ideal Closely connected with the pos-
sibility of its leahzation is the doctrine of the
Superman, which piesents both mystical and
evolutionary scientific elements The Super-
man is related to man as man is to the ape,
and man should be glad to give place to his
own supeiior, the incarnation of the egoist's
ideal As a means to its attainment every
kind of struggle and difficulty should be in-
creased and intensified " A good war sanc-
tifies every cause "

Although during the entiio course of his
hteiary activity Nietzsche occasionally wioto
upon the subject of education, always advo-
cating cultivation rather than learning, his
vio\\s have not mot wth much attention and
piosent no great originality His real in-
fluence, which has been almost unparalleled in
his own country and in othei parts of Europe,
is due rathei to his general position He is
t he plulosophci of revolt He encourages
opposition to religion, to the accepted morality,
and to intellectual and social customs and
traditions Self-assertion is the first dut>
of man, and with this end in view, education
must be so leniade as to encouiage rather than
to stifle the few great poisonahtios How
can we hope for a (Vsaro Borgia or a Napoleon,
if we teach and enforce commonplace stand-
ards'? G N D

References -

BALDWIN, ,T M Dictionary of Philosophy and 7V
chnlixiij. Vol III. nt 1. ni> 3 So .'*87

ALDWIN, , icionary o iosop

ctioloui/, Vol III, pt 1, pl> ;*sr> :*87
BOOENK, J Nu'tzsohe'* Educational Idea* and IdcuN

Ediu RiP, Vol XXXVII, pp 55-70
DOLHON, G N Thi Philosophy of Nu'tz^hi (Ncv\

York, 1900 )
HUNEKKK, ,1 Ruhatd »S/raMss and Nntz^chi, in M(z

zotint^ in Modem MII^K (Now York, 1S99 )
LirHTKNUMioKR, II Ln Philn^ophit d< Nictz^rhi

(Paris, 1S<)9 )

,

(Paris, 1S<)9 )
iiTbit, \{ F j\'ntZ
(Leipzig, 1<H)<) )

ttL und \tin Wuk

NIGER — See FRENCH ( COLONIES, EDUCA-
TION IN

NIGHT SCHOOLS — See EVENING SCHOOLS.

NIGHTMARE — A dream (q v.) of a fear-
ful or horrible nature supposed to be due to
abnormal cerebral stimulation. These often
have the nature of a phobia (q.v , also FEAR).
These are always contributary evidence of a

479

NIS1B1S, SCHOOLS OF

NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY

disordered nervous system, and are of great
importance in the elucidation of nervous
conditions in childhood They are found
principally in epilepsy ('/"), hysteria (qv),
and neurasthenia (q v ) The nightmare may
be replaced by pavoi noclumu*, in which the
dream ideas are lacking, and the child has only
a vague fear or apprehension, but wakes shout-
ing or screaming and is pacified with great
difficulty S I F

Reference —

JONEB, E On the Nightmare. Amcr J of 1 man ,
1910, Vol LXVI, pp 383-417

NISIBIS, SCHOOLS OF. — See CATECHET-
ICAL SCHOOLS

NOBILITY, SCHOOLS OF —See (1mv-
ALiur EDUCATION, FURSTENSCHULEN, GEN-
TRY AND NOBLES, EDUCATION OF.

NOISE — Noises may he said to be blurred
tones They correspond to aperiodic vibra-
tions, and arc classified as simple and com-
pound A simple noise is due to a momen-
tary and inegular set of vibrations, foi example,
a tap, a flick, a thud, a click, etc A compound
noise is made up of repeated simple4 noises,
usually in connection with tonal elements, c y
the hiss, the roar, the rumble, the rattle, the
crash, and the murmur Many of the laws
oi tone sensations apply also to sensation of
noise C E S

NOISE-PROOFING IN SCHOOL BUILD-

ING — See ARCHITECTURE, SCHOOL

NOMENCLATURE — The technical termi-
nology relating to any subject See TERMI-

NOMINALISM —See IDEAS, IDEATION
AND IDEALISM, IDEALISM AND REALISM IN
EDUCATION, MIDDLE AGES, EDUCATION IN,
SCHOLASTICISM

NONCONFORMISTS IN EDUCATION.

— See DISSENTERS IN EDUCATION

NON-DIACRITIC METHOD — In teach-
ing reading and spelling, moie paiticularlv
t he former, diaciitical marks ha\e been much
used in dealing with phonetic difficulties
Phonetic methods which depend upon the
analysis and synthesis of sound units by means
of syllables, phonogiams, and word wholes, to
the complete elimination of all artificial marks
and symbols, have been called rion-diacntic
methods They represent a naturalistic tend-
ency in instruction which constantly finds
increased acceptance among progressive teach-
ers. H S

See DIACRITIC METHOD.

NON-EUCLIDEAN GEOMETRY —The
geometry of Euclid (q v ) contained a certain
postulate (sometimes known as the fifth
postulate and sometimes as the twelfth axiom)
to the effect that only one line could be drawn
through a given point and parallel to a given
line The postulate read as follows " That,
if a straight line falling on two straight lines
make the interior angles on the same side less
than two right angles, the two straight lines,
if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on
which are the angles less than the two right
angles " The postulate was apparently very
unsatisfactory to Euclid himself, for lie avoids
using it whenever possible Numerous effoits
were made bv his successors to prove it,, but
no really scientific attempts to investigate
its validity were made until Saccheri (1773),
an Italian Jesuit, endeavored to prove it by
a rediictw ad absurd uni In attempting to
show the absurdities that would follow if the
postulate weie not sound, he really developed,
without appreciating it, a body of theorems
that would be valid if the postulate were not
accepted Lambert, in a posthumous work
of 1786, questioned the validity of the postu-
late A little later, Gauss (q v ) became in-
terested in the question, but not until aftei
others had set forth the real problem involved
did he seriously attempt to consider it The
credit of definitely asserting that the fifth
postulate is not in the same category as the
others, and of building up a geometry based
upon its opposite, in other words a " Non-
Kuchdean Geometry," is due to Johann
Holyai (1802-18(50) and Lobachevsky (1793-
185b') Bolyai was a Hungarian mathemati-
cian, and his ideas on the subject appear in
brief in a letter written when he was only
twenty-one years of age, that is, in 1823
Lobaehcvsky (q v ) was apparentlv working
on the theory at the same time, and entirely
independently of Bolyai Bolyai committed
his theory to writing in 1825 and published it in
1832 Lobachevsky did not publish his work
until 1835 The subject first atti acted wide-
spread attention in the publication of Riemann's
memoir in 1854, in which he distinguished
two kinds of non- Euclidean geometry, namely,
the Bolvai- Lobachevsky type and his own
To these Klein (1871) gave the names of Ellip-
tic (Riemann's) and Hyperbolic (Bolyai-
Lobarhev skv's), Euclid's geometry being called
Parabolic In Euclid's geometry the sum
of the angles of a triangle is two right angles,
in the Hyperbolic geometry it is less than two
right angles, and in the Elliptic geometry it
is more All three geometries are entirely
self-consistent and arc logically valid Within
the limited space in which we work there is
no practical difference m results, but in the
domain of abstract mathematics the various
geometries lead to conclusions that are widely
different D. E S

See GEOMETRY; LOBACHEVSKY; PARALLELS

480

N( >N-MKTII( )D K KADKRS

NORMAL SCHOOLS, JUNIOR

NON-METHOD READERS — Reading
books for children which are graded merely
with reference to their literary content, dis-
regarding phonetic and spelling difficulties,
are called " thought " or " non-method "
readers H S

See BASAL READERS, METHOD READERS

NORM — See STATISTICAL METHOD

NORMAL ART SCHOOLS —See ART
EDUCATION

j NORMAL CLASS IN HIGH SCHOOLS
— See HHJH SCHOOL NORMAL CLASS

NORMAL COLLEGE OF THE CITY

OF NEW YORK. — Established February 1,
1870, and received its charter from the stale in
18SS Thomas Huntei, LL D , was its fiist
president It is a college for women and grants
the degree of A B upon the satisfactory com-
pletion of a four years' course of study It is
supported by the city of New York with
annual appropriations, that for 1912 being
approximately $400,000 Tuition and text-
books are furnished without charge Students
must be residents of the city

Admissions and graduations are made twice
a yeai Candidates for admission must pie-
sent fifteen units The curriculum is ai ranged
according to the elective group system and
provides strong optional courses in education
for those students who desii • to enter the pro-
fession of teaching in either secondary 01 ele-
mentary schools The equipment ol the Col-
lege is being renewed, and new buildings arc1
being erected at a cost of $2,500,000 The
students number about 1250 The teaching
staff comprises thirteen professors, ten asso-
ciate and assistant professors, and seventy-
one instructors A high school and an ele-
mentary school, which are distinct and separate
organizations from the College, serve as model
and practice schools for students intending
to teach George Samler Davis, LL 1) , is
the president G S D.

NORMAL SCHOOL —An institution
for the preparation of candidates for the teach-
ing profession The English term is borrowed
directly from the French icolc noimulc In
1794 (Get 30) the Convention decided to
create in Pans "an Ecolc Not mole where
citizens of the Republic already instructed
m the useful sciences should be taught to
teach " The course was to last five months
and the students wore to return to their own
districts and there open other normal schools
The school was opened on Jan 20, 1795, and
closed on May 15 of that year La grange,
Laplace, Berthollet, and Bernard in de Saint-
Picrre were on the faculty ficoles normales
became the established name for the institu-

tions foi the t laming of teachers The term
was transferred to England in the thirties.
In 1833 Roebuck (q v ) urged the importance
of Pleating "normal schools" for training
masters, arid in a Minute of Committee of
Council of 1839 the establishment of a national
normal school was advocated " to found
H school in which candidates for the poorer
classes may acqune the knowledge necessary
to the exercise of their future profession, and
may be practiced in the most appioved
methods of icligious and inoial training and
instruction " The scheme fell through, how-
ever, owing to the opposition of the National
Society and the British and Foreign School
Society

The importance of professional tiaimng of
teachers had received sporadic attention in
the United States from the latter part of the
eighteenth century The numerous academies
((/ v ) which formed so conspicuous a pait
of the educational system of the times included
in their function the preparation of teachers,
NO far as they were prepared In the charter
oi the very first of these institutes, the "Acad-
emy and Charitable School of Philadelphia in
Pennsylvania " the training of a number " of
the lessor sort " as teachers was specified as one
of its functions With academies the training
of teachers was incidental and could hardly
be termed professional, at least not until
after the adoption in 1834 of the New Yolk
system of dividing portions of the state funds
among the academies for this specific pur-
pose When the importance of special pro-
fessional training began to be recognized, the
term teachers' seminaries was applied to the
institution \\luch wa>s advocated, though acad-
emy foi teachers was also used \\ ith the
publication in translation of Cousin's (q r )
Report on the State of Publ\< Education in
Pn/s.s/rt in 1834 and Calvin E Stowc's (q />.)
Repott on V'/wss/aw tichool* in 1837, the use
of the term Normal School as distinctive be-
comes quite general, though it is not used m
the report nor in the statutes framed by the
Massachusetts legislation committee in 1838,
which resulted in the first normal school in the
United States The term, however, was applied
to the resulting institutions, opened at Lexing-
ton (later at West Newton), 1839, at Barre (later
at West hold) and at Bndgewatcr in 1840 The
New York Normal was established in Albany
in 1875, the Pennsylvania one at Philadelphia
m 1848, the Connecticut one at New Britain
m 1849, and the Michigan one at Ypsilanti in
1850 The entire subject is discussed under
the caption TEACHERS, TRAINING OF
\

NORMAL SCHOOL OF THE CONVEN-
TION — See FTUMCE, EDUCATION IN, NOR-
MAL SCHOOLS

NORMAL SCHOOLS, JUNIOR. — See

JUNIOR NORMAL SCHOOLS.

VOL. iv — 2 1

481

NORTH CAROLINA COLLEGE

NORTH CAROLINA, STATE OF

NORTH CAROLINA COLLEGE OF
AGRICULTURE AND MECHANIC ARTS,
RALEIGH, N.C. — Founded m 1889 It is
one of the land grant colleges provided for
in the Morrill Act of 1862, and is therefore a
federal as well as a state institution The
college offers degree courses in agriculture,
civil engineering, mechanical engineering, elec-
trical engineering, chemistry, and textile iri-
dustiy The enrollment has reached 630 stu-
dents, 240 of whom are in the agricultural
courses It has 587 graduates The college
owns about lour hundred acres of land, a
mile and a half west of Raleigh The build-
ings number nineteen, and, with the farm,
aggregate in value $850,000 E B O

NORTH CAROLINA STATE NORMAL
AND INDUSTRIAL COLLEGE, GREENS-
BORO, NC —Was established in 1X91 by
the State for the higher education of the white
women It is supported by legislative appio-
priation The board of directors is appointed
by the State Board of Education Tuition
is free to those who agree to teach two years
m the state The usual undergraduate courses
are offered leading to the bachelor's degree in
arts, science, pedagogy, music, and home
economics Admission is by certificate of an
accredited high school or by examination
The Faculty, including instructors, numbers
sixty-five; total number of students is 650
Extension woik in elementary agriculture,
education, and home economics, is conducted
by lectures, correspondence, bulletins, and held
woik There are fourteen buildings on a
campus of 100 acres, valued at $650,000 The
annual state appropriation is $87,000 J J F

NORTH CAROLINA, STATE OF ~ One

of the thirteen original states, having ratified
the Federal Constitution in 1789 as the twelfth
state It is located in the South Atlantic
Division, arid has a land aiea of 48,740 square
miles, 01 about the same size as the state of
of New York For administrative purposes
the state is divided into ninety-eight counties,
and these in turn into cities, towns, and ruial
school distiicts, though the township as an
intermediate government unit is also used
in a number of the counties In 1910 North
Carolina had a total population of 2,206,287,
and a density of population of 45 tf persons
per square mile

Educational History — Educational devel-
opment in the colony was slow, owing to bad
government and the slow growth of popula-
tion The first professional teacher, Charles
Griffin, opened a school in Pasquotauk county
about 1705 In 17()cS this school was turned
over to a representative of the English Society
for the Propagation of the Gospel (q.v ) In
1712 a school was opened at Sarum, and the
Society sent over a number of parish libraries
Little was done under the proprietary form

482

of government, which ended in 1729, or under
the earlier period of royal control. In 1736
the colonial Governor urged the establishment
of schools in his message, but no action was
taken At that time the colony did not possess
either a printing press or a printed edition of
its laws, and schools were naturally not re-
garded as important In 1745 the first school
law was enacted This merely granted to the
town of Edenton the right to build a school-
house by means of donations and subscrip-
tions, but there is no evidence that it was ever
built School laws were proposed in 1749
and 1752, but were icfused passage In 1754
George Vaughan, a London merchant, pro-
posed to give to the colony £1000 to propagate
the Gospel among the Indians This was met
by a counter-proposal, that if changed to a
public school or a seminary of learning, the
colony would add £6000 to the bequest
This was done that year, but soon aftei the
lund was spent for defense in the French and
Indian War, and the plan came to naught
In 1766 an act incorporating a Society foi
Promoting and Establishing the Public School
in Newbern was passed This was prac-
tically the first law passed in the province
foi the encouiagement of public education
Tiustees were to be chosen, their duties speci-
fied, and a duty of one penny a gallon on all
liquors imported into Neuse Rivei was levied
for the next seven years, to provide free educa-
tion at the school foi ten poor children The
teacher was to belong to the Church of Eng-
land, and to be licensed by the Governor In
1767 and 1768 similar bills to establish a school
in Edenton were passed, but vetoed because
the assembly refused to require the teacher
to be a member of the Church of England
In 1771 the people accepted this condition,
and a school was established Only English
Church schools, either public or private, were
allowed in the colony during the period of
English control All schoolmasters were re-
quired to be licensed by the Bishop of London,
to conform to the Anglican liturgy, and to have
received the Sacrament in some Anglican
Church within a year, under penalty of three
months' imprisonment, a similar penalty and
perpetual disbarment from teaching was im-
posed for attending any other form of worship
This law was enforced in the eastern part of
the state, which was largely English, but in
the western part, where there were many settle-
ments of Germans, Scotch, Scotch-Irish, and
Quakers, many parochial schools were estab-
lished in connection with their churches
Presbyterians from New York and Pennsyl-
vania, and graduates of Princeton College
not only gave an impetus to elementary re-
ligious instruction, but also began the founding
of the academies which later were such a
marked feature of education in the state.
Tate's Academy at Wilmington, established
about 1760, was the first Crowfield Academy,

NORTH CAROLINA, STATE OF

NORTH CAROLINA, STATE OF

Caldwell Academy, Poplar Tent Academy,
Clio's Nursery and Academy of the Sciences,
and Queen's College (afterwards Liberty Hall
Academy) were established before the Revo-
lution

In 1776 the state adopted its first constitu-
tion, and in this was incorporated a provision,
copied from the Pennsylvania constitution,
directing that a school or schools should be
established by the legislature, " with such
salaries to the masters, paid by the public, as
may enable them to instruct at low prices, "
and that all useful learning should be promoted
" in one or more universities " In 1789 the
University of North Carolina was chartered,
and organized in 1795, but no action was
taken toward the establishment of public
schools until 1816 Private academies were
chartered, however, in numbers By the close
of the eighteenth century, legislative charters
had been granted to thirty-two academies,
up to 1810 to seventy, by 1815 to 102, and
by the close of 1825 to 171 The earlier
academy charters were almost all alike A
number of individuals were given corporate
powers, and absolute control over the estab-
lishment and management of the academy
In the earlier charters it was specified that
such schools were not to be considered as the
institutions of learning provided for in the
constitution Freedom from taxation and
the light to raise money by a lottery were
sometimes given The first school society
for the education of females was chartered
in 1811 After about 1815, the stock company
form of charter appeared, and library societies
and benevolent educational societies also began
to be chaitercd

In 1804, 1800, 1811, 1815, and 1816 the
different governors recommended to the legis-
lature that they make some provision foi the
education of the people, but it was not until
1816 that the legislature took any action
The result was the adoption of a resolution,
authorizing the appointment of " three persons
to digest a system of public instruction,
and to submit the same to the consideration
of the next general assembly " This was
done, and the plan submitted to the legisla-
ture of 1817 It provided for the creation
of a state School Fund, a Board of Public
Instruction to manage the fund and carry
the plan of public instruction into execu-
tion; a system of schools, embracing primary
schools, academies, and the state university ;
outlined the course of instruction, the method
of instruction, and the form of school govern-
ment; provided for the free education of all
poor children in the primary schools, and for
the brightest in the academies and the uni-
versity; and for an asylum for the education
of the deaf arid dumb The expense involved
made the plan prohibitive; its friends de-
manded its adoption entire or not at all, and
the result was no action. Nothing further

483

was done until 1824, when a new commission
was appointed to prepare a feasible plan A
bill providing for the education of the poor
was the result, but it was not adopted

In 1825 the beginning of a state school sys-
tem was finally made, with the creation of
the literary fund, and the beginning of an
effort to carry out the mandate of the consti-
tution of 1776 was made It was not until
1839 that an elementary school system was
finally provided for The act of 1825 created
a permanent fund, consisting of certain bank
and navigation companies' stock held by the
state, all liquor licenses and land entry fees,
and the swamp lands of the state, created an
ex ofliao board, known as " The President
and Directors of the Literary Fund," to man-
age the fund, and decreed that the income
should be applied " to the instruction of such
children as it may hereafter be deemed expedi-
ent by the legislature to instruct in the common
principles of reading, writing, and arithme-
tic " The principal of the fund was about
$50,000 in the beginning The income was
added annually to the principal, and by 1836
it had reached $242,045 All but $300,000
of the Surplus Revenue (q v ) received in
1837 was added to the fund, in 1838 the fund
was reported as $1,732,485, and in 1840 as
$2,241,480 In 1831 an act to raise a fund
to establish free schools in Johnston county,
and an act piohibitmg the teaching of reading
or writing to slaves were passed In 1832
there was some agitation for the establishment
of a monitorial system of education for the
state In 1835 the constitution of 1776 was
revised, but with no change or addition to the
clause relating to education In 1837 the
Literary board was changed to one consist-
ing of the Governor and three appointed by
him, and $208,000 were appropriated from the
fund to dram the swamp lands of the state
It was riot until 1839 that the first law pro-
viding for the organization of schools was
passed

In 1838 the directors of the Literary Fund
made a detailed report to the legislature, and
submitted a plan for the organization of
public schools In 1839 a law was hnally
passed, providing for the election of from five
to ten persons in each county, by the county
courts, to act as superintendents of common
schools They were to divide the counties
into school districts, not over MX miles square,
and to appoint three to six school committee-
men for each district County courts were
to levy a school tax of $20 per district, and the
state was to grant $40 per district from the
Literary Fund A school census was also
provided for A referendum on the law was
provided for, and it was not to go into effect
in any county until adopted by the voters
In 1839-1840 sixty districts in four counties
received grants, and these were the first pay-
ments from state funds made by the state.

NORTH CAROLINA, STATE OF

NORTH CAROLINA, STATE OF

These marked the beginnings of public common
schools in North Carolina

From 1840 to 1852 has been called the ex-
perimental period In 1840 the law of the
preceding year was revised and improved,
The board of county superintendents was to
elect one of their number as chairman, and this
step marks the beginning of the county super-
intendency The income of the Literary
Fund was now to be apportioned to counties
accepting the law, in proportion to the fedeial
census, and then to the districts by the board
of superintendents The census of 1840 shows
that there were then in the slate two univer-
sities, 141 academies and giammar schools,
632 primary and common schools, and 19,483
pupils in attendence at the 775 schools of
different kinds ^ By 1850 there were 2657
schools and institutions, and 104,095 pupils
In 1844 the system as established was some-
what crippled by an increase in the number
of school districts, accompanied by a decrease
in the taxes By 1846 the laws of 1839 and
1840 had been finally adopted bv all of the
counties, though a number still did not levy
a local tax. In 1849 the first edition of the
school laws was printed and distributed In
the same year the legislature authorized the
appointment of county superintendents In
1852, aftei some years of effort, a law was
secured providing for the appointment ol
a State Superintendent of Common Schools,
to be chosen by the legislature, for two-year
terms, at a salary of $1500 Up to tins time
the directois of the Literary Fund had exer-
cised all the state supervision there had been
The first appointee, Dr Calvin II Wiley,
occupied the position until legislated out of
office in 1866, and to his efforts the reorganiza-
tion and development of the system are laigcly
due The eleven annual leports made by
him during his term reveal a constant increase
in schools, attendance, and interest in public
education In 1855 the school law was re-
vised and reenacted By 1858 a four months'
average term of school was maintained in the
state, and by 1860 there were six colleges for
males, thirteen for females, 350 academies
and select schools, arid 4000 pumary schools
in the state, with a total enrollment of 177,400
The school system of North Carolina was at
this time, perhaps, the best of any of the slave-
holding states, and compared favorably with
some of the northern and western states

The Civil War stopped this development.
In 1861 the counties were given permission
to omit taxes for schools during the War,
although most of them did not do so As
late as 1863 fifty counties report 1076 schools
as still in existence, and in 1864 an act to grade
the common schools was passed. At the out-
break of the War, the Literary Fund amounted
to over $2,000,000, and it is much to the credit
of the state that the integrity of this fund was
respected throughout At the close of the

War the bank stocks, in which more than one
half of the fund was invested, were worth-
less, and the other assets were finally sold for
a fraction of their former value The proceeds
were invested in North Carolina special tax
bonds, but these were later repudiated by the
state, and the remainder of the fund was lost
The only asset of value remaining was the
swamp lands, and out of these the present
fund has been almost entirely built up In
1873 the fund was only $23,307, in 1910 it
was $456,471, with some swamp lands still
unsold The loss of the school fund caused
the schools to close in 1865, and they were
not reopened again until 1870 The Uni-
versity of North Carolina continued open
until 1868, was closed during 1868-1869, was
opened again during 1869-1870, and then was
closed until 1875

A new state constitution was prepared in
1866, but rejected by the voters Another
was prepared in 1868 and adopted This
provided for a fully organized state school
system for all clnldien in the state A State
Superintendent of Public Instruction, elected
by the people for four-year terms, superseded
the Superintendent ol Common Schools, and
an ex offino State Board of Education super-
seded the old President and Directors of
the Literary Fund A state school fund was
provided for, succeeding to the assets and in-
come of the old Literary Fund The district
school system and a four months' school were
ordered, and a compulsory education law
sanctioned Detailed constitutional provi-
sion was made for the University of North
Carolina, and for the establishment, later,
of an agricultural department Some schools
were opened, but they did not prosper The
state was impoverished, the insistence upon
equality for the colored children was offensive,
and the appointment of a negro as Deputy
State Superintendent did not improve matters
In 1876 the people, having passed through
the Reconstruction period, adopted another
new constitution The educational provisions
of the constitution of 1868 were continued in
the new constitution with but few changes
Equality of privilege, but separate schools
for the two races, were made mandatory
The Superintendent of Public Works was
dropped from the State Board of Education,
the detailed provisions for the University of
North Carolina were omitted; and the legis-
lature was directed to establish a normal, as
well as an agricultural department, at the
university

For some time schools and school expenses
increased very slowly After about 1880, the
state began to recover somewhat from the
devastation of the War, and educational con-
ditions began to improve, though it was not
until about 1900 that the expenditures for
school purposes, schoolhouse valuations, at-
tendance at school, and length of term began

484

NORTH CAROLINA, STATE OF

NORTH CAROLINA, ST \TK OF

to increase at all rapidly SHUT 1900 progress
has been marked The most serious draw-
back to educational development, aside from
the comparative poverty of the state, has been
the constitutional limit placed on local taxa-
tion. This was not removed until 1907
During these early years much valuable assist-
ance was received from the Peabody Fund
(q v ), and some assistance is still received from
this foundation and from the General Educa-
tion Board (</ v ) In 1870 the fust city school
system was organized undei a special act of
the legislature, so as to permit of the levy of a
local tax By 1880 eight such acts had been
passed, by 1890, sixteen, and by 1900 sev-
enty-eight. Special taxing districts have also
been formed by law in almost all of the coun-
ties In 1870 the first two normal schools,
one for each lace, were established, and in
J881 two more for each race4 were created
The number for colored teachers finally rose
to seven, but in 1903 these were consolidated
into four In 18.S] a new consolidated school
law was enacted, the state tax for education
was increased to twelve and a half cents, and
county superintendents of schools and count v
teachers' institutes were created In 1885
County Boards of Education were also created,
and in 1909 those were improved by having
the terms of members lengthened from two
to six years, one, instead of all, going out of
office each biennmm In 1889 an Agncultuial
and Mechanical College for whites and in
1891 a similar institution for colored students
were established A state institution foi the
deaf and dumb was also created

In 1899 the first state appiopnation of
$100,000, to aid in securing the four months'
school required by the constitution, was made
by the legislatuie, in 1901 this was doubled,
and in 1909 further increased to $225,000, and
its method of apportionment much improved
In 1901 the rural school library law was en-
acted, and in 1903 the law extending aid to
established libraries was added In 1903 the
policy of using the State School Fund ( Literal v
Fund) as a loan to the districts to build school-
houses, at 4 per cent interest, one tenth re-
payable annually, \vas begun The Appala-
chian Training School for white teachers was
also established in this yeai In 1907 the
high school law with state aid of $45,000
annually (since increased) was enacted, high
school courses were to be prescribed bv the
State Superintendents, high school teacheis'
certificates were first provided for, the first com-
pulsory education (an optional law) and child
labor laws were passed, the education of the
deaf and dumb was made mandatory, the p]ast
Carolina Teachers' Training School was es-
tablished, and subcomnussions of teachers,
to assist the State Textbook Commission in
adopting textbooks, were provided for In the
same year the Supreme Court of the state
reversed a former decision, and made possible

:i count > tax foi s< hools, even though the ordi-
narv tax limit had been teiched In 1909
the legislature enacted a county school tax
law, permitting a count v tax for schools up to
five cents, and fifteen cents on the poll, and the
legislatuie of 1()11 increased (he limits si\
times In I MO*) teachers' institutes were made
mandatory for each county, at least bienmallv,
and in 191 1 all teacheis weie required to at tend
a summer institute 01 a summer school at
least once in t\\o years In 1909 count \
boards of education were authon/cd to oidei
the enforcement of the compulsoi v education
law at their discretion without waiting foi
local adoption In 1911 the "County Farm-
Life1 Schools " law was passed

Present School System. — At the head of
the present school system is an ( r offiatt State
Board of Education and a State Superintend-
ent of Public Instruction The State Board
consists of the Go\ ernoi , LieutennnM IOA ei nor,
Secretary of State, Treasurer, Auditor, Attorney-
General, and the State Supeimtendent The\
ha\e corporate powers, the general go\ em-
inent of the schools and the State School Fund,
and succeed to all the powers and duties of
the President and Directors of the Literarv
Fund The Board is also ci officio a State
Textbook Commission, has control of the
colored normal schools, and selects trustees
for white normal schools It makes all loans
from the permanent school fund to the county
boards for building schoolhoiises, as proMded
for bv the law of -1(K)3, may increase the
statutorv studies for element arv schools, and
approves the establishment of high schools in
counties The State Superintendent of Public
Instruction is elected bv the people for four-
year terms He is er o{Jicio a member of the
State Board, a'id also acts as its executive
officer lie publishes the school law, signs
the orders for all state money paid out, has
the general direction of the school system of
the state and the1 enforcement of the school law,
and all school officers are to obey his instruc-
tions and interpretations, he appoints in-
stitute conductors, and detei mines the time
and place of holding the count v institutes
prescribes the course of studv lor the high
schools of the state, and inspects state-aided
schools, makes rules and regulations, prepares-
lists of books for the inral school libraries,
and approves all schoolhouse plans He
is required to know educational conditions in
all paits of the state, to keep in touch with
educational progress in other states, and to
mak( a biennial report to the Governor He
acts as Secretarv of the State Board of Educa-
tion and of the State Textbook Commission;
as a trustee1 of the State Library and of the
Appalachian Tiaimng School, is President
of the Board of Trustees (or Directors) of the
State Normal and Industrial College, and of
the Faster n Carolina Training School, is
chairman of the State Board of Examiners,

485

NORTH CAROLINA, STATE OF

NORTH CAROLINA, STATE OF

has supervision and control of the normal
department of the Cullowhce High School,
and is a member of the Advisory Board on
farm life education, which outlines the course
of study for the County Farm Life Schools

For each county there is a county board of
education, and a county superintendent of
schools The county boards of three members
are elected by the legislature, for six-year
terms, one each bicnmuni. Vacancies are
filled by the State Board of PMucation Mem-
bers are paid $2 per day and mileage, and no
teacher is eligible for appointment The
county boards have corporate powers as to
acquiring, holding, and disposing of school
property, have power to make rules and regu-
lations for schools, teachers, pupils, and attend-
ance, determine the time for opening and clos-
ing the schools; contract for and direct the
building of all new schoolhouses, and may
condemn land for the same, may pay one half
the cost of the same from the building fund;
control all loans from the state fund to the
districts for building, estimate the annual
county tax needed to maintain a four months'
school, may create, abolish, and consolidate
school districts, and provide transportation
for pupils of either race, have power to enforce
the school law in their county, may remove
any teacher or school committeeman, for cause,
on complaint of the State Superintendent,
may remove the county superintendent, or
one of its own members, approve the annual
report of the county superintendent , publish an
itemized account of receipts and expenditures ,
appoint all school committeemen, except in
cities under special charter, appoint a cus-
todian for the district libraries, and control
their establishment and aid, may establish
and maintain county high schools, with the
consent of the State Board of Education, may
arrange for free tuition of pupils in existing
high schools, have control of the enforce-
ment of the compulsory education law, ap-
portion the county school funds, and may call
elections for the establishment of County
Farm Life Schools, or for the voting of a
county school tax They elect the County
superintendent of schools, who acts as their
secretary and executive officer He is elected
lor two-year terms, and need not be a resident
of the county when elected He must be " a
practical teacher, and have had two years'
experience " He must devote his entire
time to the work, arid his salary is determined
by the county board He must attend the
annual state meeting of county superintend-
ents and the district superintendents' associa-
tion. He advises with the school committees,
exercises a general supervision over the schools,
examines teachers for county teachers' certifi-
cates, is ex officio a member of the Board of
Trustees for the County Farm Life School, arid
supervises the work of the school, and makes
an annual report to the State Superintendent

In some counties the township system of
control prevails, arid in others the district
system For each township or school dis-
trict in the county the county board of edu-
cation appoints three persons, for two-year
terms, to act as a school committee. They
are to care for the property of the township
or district, and have immediate control over
the same, they take a biennial school census,
purchase school supplies, up to $25 a year, on
the order of the county board, they employ
all teachers for the schools for a maximum
term of two years, and they may contract
with a private school in their township or
district (if not sectarian or denominational)
for the education of the public school pupils
Such a school then becomes a public school
The county treasurer is treasurer of each town-
ship or district, and pays out funds on orders
from the school committee

Cities arid towns operate under special
charters, have their own superintendents, and
are not under the control of the county boards
of education, except in a general way, although
most general school laws apply to such special
districts as well Town and city school
committees consist of five to seven members,
and are appointed by the boards of aldermen
The town or city constitutes one school dis-
trict, and the school committee provides such
schools for each race as seem equitable arid
just Any union of two or more districts, a
town, or a city may employ a superintendent
of schools, if the county board of education
consents Textbooks, uniform for the state,
are adopted by the State Textbook Commis-
sion

School Support — Until recently the schools
have been greatly retarded by lack of suffi-
cient funds State aid was not granted until
1899, and as yet is small In 1907 a favorable
Supreme Court decision opened the way for
the first time for adequate county school
taxatron An annual state appropriation of
$125,000 is distributed to the counties on the
basis of school census A further state ap-
propriation of $100,000, less $7,500 for aiding
rural school libraries, is apportioned to the
counties levying a county school tax, and in
such a manner as to duplicate sums raised
locally, secure a four months' school, and
equalize terms Under the new law of 1909
it is the duty of the county board of education
to estimate the amount of money needed each
year to maintain a four months' school uni-
formly throughout the county, and it is the
duty of the county authorities to levy the
amount estimated, up to a tax of five cents on
the $100 and a poll tax of fifteen cents Under
the 1911 law they may also request a general
county election to vote an annual county tax
in any amount up to thirty cents and ninety
cents poll All proceeds of estrays, fines, for-
feitures, liquor and auctioneer licenses, and
three fourths of the general poll tax of $2 also

486

NORTH CAROLINA, STATE OF

go to the county school fund In apportioning
this fund to the districts, the county board
may set aside from 7£ per cent to 20 per cent
as a Building Fund, and the remainder must
be so apportioned to the different townships
and districts as to enable all to provide an
equal length of term While the census basis
is to be used as a first approximation, it may be
ignored entirely if necessary to equalize edu-
cational advantages throughout the count v
Cities and towns may vote a local school tax
up to thirty cents, and ninety cents poll
Special tax districts may also be foimed by
the county boards of education, without
reference to township lines, foi the levying
of a similar tax In 1900 there were but
30 such special tax districts, in 1904, 228,
and in 1910, 995 In addition any township
may vote a special township tax of from ten
to thirty cents and from thirty to ninety cents
poll for a township high school In all cases
a petition is presented and an election called
If the proposition is earned, then the tax be-
comes an annual tax, the school committee
of the district determining the amount each
year, up to the maximum limit \otcd

Educational Conditions — Ten years ,Mgo
North Carolina was one of the most backward
states educationally in the Union, but the last-
decade has witnessed a wondeiful change and
impiovement The gieat mciease in local
taxation, as well as the beguiling of state
grants for elemental v schools, high schools,
and libraries, are imuked featmes oi the leeent
development Expenditures for education
have trebled in ten yea is, while the school
population has increased but 5 pei cent, The
average teim has been inei eased from 77
to 102 days in the same peiiod, school
property greatly impioved, about 2500 ruial
school libraries have been created, high schools
developed in rieaily every county, some mai ked
progress has been made in the consolidation
of rural schools, and a strong sentiment awak-
ened in favoi of bettei education in the state
A State Inspector of Rural Schools has been
provided by the Peabody Fund (q v ) , \ he-
state has provided a supei visor of institutes,
reading circles, and normal training, and a
state supervisor of agneultuial instruction
and extension work has been provided by the
General Education Board (q v ) Instiuction
in domestic science is provided foi in the
colored normal schools from the Slater Fund
(71;) The State Boaicl of Health has coop-
erated in giving instruction in hygiene and
public health The Committee for the
Promotion of Public Education in North
Carolina, aided by the Southern Education
Board, has carried on a vigorous educational
campaign in the state Aided by the Pea-
body Fund, the Woman's Association foi the
Betterment of Public School Houses and
Grounds has kept a traveling representative
in the field.

NORTH CAROLINA, STATE OF

One third of the total population is of the
negro race, and in a icw counties these out-
number the whites The negroes own very
little property, yet the state attempts to pro-
vide equality of term and opportunity for the
children of the two races The state main-
tains schools for Indian children in three coun-
ties, although there are but about 1000 of
these, and also an Indian Normal School
The state has no loreign population to con-
tend with, less than \ of 1 per cent being
foreign born In illiteracy the state has in
the past ranked rather high, but a determined
effort has been made to stamp this out by
providing equal educational advantages for
all, and by compulsory education The state
is essentially rural and agricultural About 85
per cent of the total population live in country
districts, there arc no large cities in the state,
and manufacturing has not as yet developed
to any large extent

Secondary Education — A strong effort
to develop high schools has been made* within
recent years The high school law of 1907,
the requirement of high school teachers'
certification, and the inspection and approval
of the course of instruction by the State
Superintendent have done much good The
hrst year after the passage of this law 156
high schools were established, and by 1910
the number had reached 170 In addition, one
white school in five and one colored school
in twenty-five arc reported as offering some
high school instruction Any county board of
education may establish one or more high
schools in a county, and appoint a high school
committee of three to manage each school,
or may arrange for free tuition of pupils in
existing town schools All such schools must
have at least three teachers, one of whom
must be engaged wholly in high school work
Many of these schools are in part grammar
schools, offering only the first two years of
high school instruction Schools, outside of
towns of 1200 or more inhabitants, may re-
ceive state aid under rules and Regulations
adopted by the State Board of Education, and
any school may be aided for tuition pupils
received, the state paying one half of the ex-
pense up to $500 per school All high schools
must provide a rive-months' term Secondary
education for the colored race is provided in
the state normal schools, the State Normal and
Industrial School at Burgah, the State Agri-
cultural and Mechanical College at Greens-
boro, and in some twenty other institutions
oi secondary rank, mostly denominational
in control, a number of which are industrial
in type

The new County Faim Life Schools (1911)
are also an interesting secondary school de-
velopment One is to be established eventu-
ally in each county, at the rate of ten a year,
and each is to receive $2500 aid annually
Each school must have twenty-five acres,

487

NORTH CAROLINA, STATE OF NORTH CAROLINA, UNIVERSITY OF

dormitory, barn, dairy, and school building,
offer instruction in practical farm life and home-
making to both sexes, and short courses and
extension courses to farmers and their wives
An ordinary high school department is also
to be maintained, and all teachers must hold
high school certificates Counties are to
vote to establish such schools, and issue bonds
to equip them To govern these schools, the
county board of education is to appoint one
person from each township in the count v to
act as a boaid of trustees, with the county
superintendent as an ex officw membei

Teachers and Training —Of the 11,216
teachers employed in 1910, one fourth were
in schools foi the colored race Of the white
teachers 31 per cent had had normal tunning,
and 20 per cent held college diplomas, while
of the colored teachers 46 pei cent had had
normal training, and 15 per cent held college
diplomas For the training of futuie teachers
the state maintains three normal schools foi
white students, one for Indian students, and
three for colored students All teachers'
certificates must be obtained on examination,
as the law distinctly provides that no diploma
of any college or normal school shall give the
holder the right to teach in the state without
submitting to an examination

Higher and Special Institutions — The Uni-
versity of North Carolina at Chapel Hill,
founded in 1789, the Noith Carolina College
of Agriculture and Mechanical Arts for white
students at West Raleigh, founded in 1889,
and the Agricultural and Mechanical College
for the Colored Race at Greensboro, founded
in 1894, stand an the culmination of the
public school system of the state In addition
to the above, eight collegiate institutions foi
women, four ior men, and seven for both sexes,
mne of which were founded before the Civil
War, also assist in the work of highei education
in the state Some half do/en additional
institutions, mostly denominational, offer col-
legiate instruction for the colored race, the
most important of which is Shaw University
(q v ) at Raleigh K PC

References —

BATTLE, K 1* Sketches of Old 01 Extinr-t \rudcmips
in the Counties of N Tai , in Bten Rept Xupt
Publ Inxh V Cai , 1S97-1S9S. pp 57d-7.SU

COON, C1 L The B< (jinn nig* of Puhl Kduc in N
Car, 17M)-18't() N Car fftvl Commit on
Pubs, I

MAYO, A D Tho Am Common School m tho S
States, 1790-1840, Rtpt T N Com Educ ,
1895-189C), Vol I, pp 281-1388

The Organization and Development of the Am
Common School in the So States, 1830-1800,
Kept U S Com Ed in , 1S<)Q ]<)(JO, Vol I, pp
448-460

MEBANE, C H Historical Sketch of the Office of
Supt of Publ Instr in N Car , in Bun Rept Supt
Publ Instr N Cat , 1897-18Q8, pp 410-427

North Carolina An Rept^ Supt Common School?,

1853-1866 (11 Reps issued)

Bicn Repts Supt Publ Instr , 1871-1872 to date
The Public School Law of N Car , 1911 ed

SMITH, U L Histoty of Educ , in N Car U 8. Bur

Educ , Circ Inf , No 2, 1888
WEEKS, S B Calvin H Wiley, and the Organization

of Common Schools in N Car , Rept U. S Com.

Educ , 1896-1897, pp 1379-1474
WILEY, C H Sketch of the Hist of Educ in N Car. ;

in Bicn Rept Supt Publ Instr , 1897-1898, pp.

428- 497

NORTH CAROLINA, UNIVERSITY OF,
CHAPEL HILL, N C — The oldest of the
state universities, in the actual teaching sense,
chartered in 17S9 The first session began
in 1795 Aiound the Umveisity spiang up
the town of Chapel Hill The first president
of the University was Joseph Caldwell, a
graduate of Princeton, and in the beginning it
was patterned aftei that institution While
established and controlled by the state, no
direct appropriation was made either foi
buildings, equipment, 01 support during the
hi si mnetv \ears of its existence It was de-
pendent upon donations, certain escheated
pmpeitv and the fees of the students Still
it flourished and was progressive and vigorous
undei Picsident Caldwell The first state
geological survey was organized in 1823 by
membeis of its faculty, and the first college
observatory was built there in 1827

On the death of Caldwell in 1835 David L
Swam became president Undei him various
buildings were added and an endowment oi
seveial bundled thousand dollars accumulated
The University expanded until by the opening
of the Ci\il Wai it was attended by 430 stu-
dents, about half of whom came from outside
the state, lepiesentmg every Southein state
Dining this fust half centuiy of sei vice ithadfiu-
nished one president of the United States and one
MCC president, many senators, representatives,
members of the cabinet, and other national
officials, besides some 60 per cent of all the lead-
ing officials, civil and judicial, in its own state

The sacuhce and the loss of this institution
in the Civil Wai is perhaps unparalleled
Fourteen members of the faculty volunteered,
se\en gave up their lives About 45 per cent
of the living alumni entered the service, and
nearly 30 per cent of these were killed or died
in the service Moie than twenty geneials
weie furnished to the Confederate armies and
one to the Union About half of the regiments
furnished by Noith Carolina were commanded
by the University's alumni The close of the
war saw the University practically beggared
Under order of the court all of its property
except the immediate buildings and such wood-
land as was necessary for furnishing fuel was
sold to meet its bonded arid other indebted-
ness In 1869 President Swain died The
University dragged through two or three years
of the Reconstruction Period as a sort of high
school and was then abandoned, losing most
of such apparatus as was left, its buildings lying
open and uricaied for Only its books and
collection of portraits were preserved.

488

NORTH CENTRAL ASSOCIATION

NORTH DAKOTA, STATE OK

Reopened in 1875, friends and alumni
contributed for its repair The state paid
for its support the interest on the Land Scrip
Fund amounting to $7500, the state treasury
having been looted of the ongmal fund
This payment was discontinued in 1SS7 when
the Agricultural and Mechanical College was
established at Raleigh In 1876 Kemp P
Battle was elected president and continued
in office until 1891, the University thus almost
rounding out its first century' under three
presidents

The struggle with poverty and against
strong denominational antagonism was seveie,
the rebuilding was slow and aiduous All
hope of regaining the huge patronage fiom
other Southern states was gone In 1S81 the
state began to make appropiiations foi main-
tenance and a little latei foi icpairs and ordi-
nary equipment, but the first appropnation
for a building was made in 1905 — just 110
years after the opening of the University
It has a campus of fifty acres, home twentv
odd buildings, a library of 65,000 volumes, and
all together property approachrng $1,500,000 in
value Its total income amounts to $175,000

The University has grown into an institu-
tion with a faculty numbering nearly 100 and
more than 800 st udents It cornpnses a college
of liberal arts and a college of applied science
and well-developed schools of giaduatc studies,
law, medicine, and pharmacy The entrance
requirements are fourteen units y 1* V

NORTH CENTRAL ASSOCIATION OF
COLLEGES AND SECONDARY SCHOOLS

— See EXAMINATION AND CERTIFICATION Bo VKDS

NORTH DAKOTA, STATE OF — Or-
ganized as a Territory bv Congress in 1861,
and at that time embracing 850,000 square
miles In 1864 Montana Territory, and in
1868 Wyoming territory \vere set of], and in
1889 the Teiiiton was further dmded, and
admitted as two states of almost equal si/e, —
North Dakota as the thirty -ninth state, and
South Dakota as the fortieth North Dakota
is located in the western part of the North
Central Division of states, and has a land area
of 70,183 square mile*-* It LS about the same
size as the six New England states and New
Jersey combined For adminixt rative pur-
poses the state is divided into forty-six coun-
ties, and these in turn into townships, though
five of the older counties still retain in part
the district foim of school organization In
1910 North Dakota had a total population
of 577,056, and a density of population of
8 2 persons per square mile

Educational History — At the first Legis-
lative Assembly in 1862 " An Act for the Regu-
lation and Support, of Common Schools " was
passed This provided for the appointment
of county superintendents, the division of
counties into school districts, the election

of boards of three trustees for each district,
an annual district tax, a three months' tenn
of school in each district, the examination and
certification of teachers, and ior graded and
union schools It is doubtful whethei many
school officers were appointed or any schools
were opened under this law The ^Territory
had but few people, and the Indian massacres
and war of 1862 left Yankton (S Dak ) the
only settlement In 1864 an ex ojjicio Tern-
tonal Board of Education was created, which
was to appoint a Territorial Superintendent
of Public Instruction In the first report of
this Hoard in 1864, no public schools (though
a^ few private schools) aie mentioned in the
Territory, and but few counties had appointed
county superintendents In 1865 there were
but four legally organized school districts in the
Territory, and a few private schools, with a
total combined school enrollment of 382 pupils,
and a school census of 621 In 1866 the ex
olhcio Territorial Board was replaced by one
of three specified persons, who, however,
i ailed to qualify Irr 1868, and again in 1869
and 1871, the school law was revised and re-
enacted, though without substantial changes
In 18(>7 the office of Territorial Superintend-
ent was made elective, and for two-year terms,
and a county school tax of two mills and $1
poll \vere added to the previously authoiized
district taxation In 1S67 teachers' institutes
of from four to ten day's duration were au-
thorized, in 1878 optional county teachers'
institutes were permitted, and in 1875 the terri-
torial teachers' institutes wore restored. In
1871 a Deputy Territorial Superintendent for
the northern part of the territory was provided
for by the ne\\ law In 1873 the 100 schools
reporting had an attendance of 2006 children,
out of a total school population of 5312 in the
Territory In 1875 the school law was again
reused, the old provisions for union graded
schools dropped out, and a list of textbooks
adopted for the schools by name and by general
law In lcS77 the Territorial Superintendent
was changed from elect r\e to appointment by
the Governor and Council, as had originally
been the case

Up to about 1879 the growth in population
in the territory had been slow, but during the
next fue years the school population almost
trebled, and educational development was
correspondingly rapid After 1880 the idea
of separate statehood for the two parts of the
Territory seems to ha\e taken root, and school
statistics are reported separately after 1883,
for North and for South Dakota In 1879
women were permitted to vote at school elec-
tions, and m 1881 they were made eligible
for the office of county superintendent. Bonds
for school ho uses up to $1500 were first author-
ized in 1881 In 1881, also, two Territorial
Normal Schools were created; in 1882 the
University of Dakota at Vermilion (now the
University of South Dakota), whose charter

489

NORTH DAKOTA, STATE OP

NORTH DAKOTA, STATE OP

dated back to 1862, was opened for in-
struction; in 1883 the University of North
Dakota at Grand Forks, and the Territorial
Agricultural College at Brookmgs (now the
S. Dakota College of Agric and Mech Arts),
were chartered In 1885 a State School of
Mines was established at Rapid City, arid this
is now the South Dakota School of Mines

The school law was completely revised
again in 1883, and made into almost a new
law School districts were abolished, and the
township form of school organization sub-
stituted in all except eighteen of the older
counties, and in these exceptions the Boards
of County Commissioners were authorized
to put the law in force, if they saw fit Three
of the eighteen counties adopted the township
form, so that in 1884 there weie sixty-five
counties under the township form of organi/ji-
tion, and fifteen under the district. The act
also increased the salaries of county supei-
intenderits from $600 to $1500; made the
beginning of the appropriations for holding in-
stitutes by making an annual grant of $000,
provided for county institute funds, to be
derived from fees for examinations for teachers'
certificates; and provided for the compulsoiy
education of all children, ten to fourteen years
of age, for at least twelve weeks each vear
Another new school law was enacted in 1887.
A Territorial Board of Education of three
members was created and given important
supervisory authority; normal teacher^ in-
stitutes were provided for, with state-appointed
institute conductors; a state course of study
was to be outlined by the Territorial Boaul
of Education, and the Territorial Superin-
tendent was authoiized to designate4 private
institutions and to grant aid to them for the
training of teachers for the territory

In 1889 Congress passed an Enabling Act
for the formation of a constitution and for
the admission of Dakota Territory as two
states (For the subsequent educational his-
tory of South Dakota, see special article on
that state.) North Dakota framed arid
adopted a state constitution, and was admitted
as a state in the same year At the time of the
admission as a state, the North Dakota public
school system consisted of 35 graded and
1366 ungraded schools, with high schools
m the cities and in some of the villages There
were also a state university and one state
noimal school in operation

The Enabling Act made large grants of
land to the new state for various educational
purposes, and demanded that the state should
guarantee the safety of the grants, and provide
for the establishment and maintenance of a
system of public schools, open to all children,
and free from denominational or sectarian
control The new state constitution guar-
anteed the safety and proper application of all
grants made, and made mandatory the estab-
lishment of a system of free public schools,

" extending through all grades up to and in-
cluding the normal and collegiate courses "
The state university at Grand Forks and the
normal school at Valley City were perpetu-
ated as state institutions, and the following
new state educational institutions were created
and located by constitutional provision:
a state school of mines, to be located in con-
nection with the state university at Grand
Forks; an agricultural college at Fargo, a
second state normal school at Mayville, a
school of forestry, in one of four specified
counties, a state scientific school at Wahpeton,
an industrial school and school for manual
training at Ellendale, a reform school at
Mandaii, a school for the deaf and dumb at
Devil's Lake, an asvlum for the blind in Pem-
bina county, and a department for the train-
ing of the feeble-minded, in connection with the
state insane asylum. The constitution further
provided that " no other state institutions of
a character similar to any one of those created by
this article shall be established or maintained
without a revision of this constitution " All
lands granted (Sec NATIONAL GOVERNMENT AND
EDUCATION) were carefully safeguarded as to
sale and sale price, the different funds were
declined inviolate, detailed provisions were
made for the safeguarding of the lands and
funds, and the legislature was forbidden to
divert any fund, even temporarily, the interest
on the permanent school fund was made distrib-
utable on school census alone, a State Board
of Umvoisity and School Lands Commis-
sioners, consisting of the State Superintendent
of Public, Insti notion, the Attorney-General,
the Secretary of State, and the State Auditor,
was created to control the appraisement, sale,
and lental of the school lands, and the invest-
ment of the proceeds, a State Superintendent
of Public Instruction, and County Superin-
tendents of Schools, to be elected by the people,
for two-year terms, were made constitutional
officers, women were made eligible to vote for
anv school officer and to hold any school
office, sectarian aid was prohibited, and
legislation relating to the prevention of illiter-
acy and the " securing of a reasonable degree
of uniformity in course of study, and to pro-
mote industrial, scientific, and agricultural
improvement," was permitted The consti-
tution, in its educational provisions, is one of
the most elaborate, specific, and mandatory
of any framed by the states

The state legislature of 1890 put the consti-
tutional provisions into operation by the enact-
ment of a new school law, which outlined a
good state system of education A State
Board of Education not having been provided
for in the constitution, the State Superintendent
succeeded to the powers and duties possessed
by the old board He was also charged with
the preparation of all examination questions
foi teachers' certificates in the state, state
professional certificates were provided for,

490

NORTH DAKOTA, STATE OF

NORTH DAKOTA, STATE OP

and the organization arid management of the
State Teachers' Reading Circle was placed
under his direction The new law, dealing
with the question of the school unit and com-
pelled to provide for a uniform system, created
the district as the unit, but provided that
district lines should conform to township lines
wherever possible This permitted conditions
to remain as they were, thirty-three counties
in the new state using the township as the dis-
trict, and five counties having the school dis-
trict form of organization In 1911 new
legislation permitted the reairangement of dis-
trict lines m these five counties, with a view
to a partial abolition of the district unit

The first few ycais of statehood were a
trying period, and little new legislation was
enacted, although steady educational progress
was made In 1895 a health and decency hiw,
a law pei nutting any city, town, or school
district to provide fiee textbooks, and a law
creating a State High School Board, consisting
of the Governor, Superintendent of Public
Instruction, and the President of the University,
to inspect and classify the high schools, were
enacted Within two years one thud of the
schools of the state had voted to provide free text-
books and supplies A state high school eoui so
of study was issued in 1895, and a state elemen-
tary course in 1897 In 1S9S the State Superin-
tendent began to send out traveling school
libraries, and in 181)1) the plan was established
and provided for by law In 1907 a State
Public Library Commission was provided for.
In 1905 the teachers' examination la\\ was re-
\ised, third-grade count v certificates weie
abolished, and a minimum teachers' wage law
was enacted In 1907 counties were permitted
to organize a thiee to four weeks' summer
teachers' training school, in place of the re-
quired county teachers' institute, and by 1900
twenty-four counties had adopted this plan
State aid to accredited high schools was first-
voted in 1899, the state two-mill tax was
changed to a two-mill county tax, the con-
solidation of schools was authorized, the pro-
vision of free textbooks and supplies, on a
two thirds petition, was made mandatory on
school corpoiations, and increased aid was
extended to the county teacheis' training
schools A State School Law Commission
was created in 1909 to revise and recodifv
the school laws of the state, and a revised
school code, detailed below, was enacted by
the legislature of 1911 The legislature of
1911 also enacted a number of important new
school laws The State High School Board
was reconstructed, and a State Agricultural
and Training School Hoard was created
Appropriations were made for a State Inspec-
tor of Rural and Graded Schools, and a State
High School Inspector State graded and
state rural schools, of two classes each, and
state consolidated schools, were defined, the
requirements and course ot instruction for

state approval named; and definite state
grants to each provided for on inspection and
approval The grants to the regular high
schools were increased, and their inspection
and approval also provided for The introduc-
tion of agriculture, manual training, and domes-
tic science into the regular high school courses,
and the affiliation of rural schools with sucji
a central high school, were also provided foi,
and state aid for them voted A State Edu-
cational Commission was also created, to re-
port in 1912

Present School System — At the head of
the present school system of the state is a
State Superintendent of Public Instruction,
elected by the people The election is for
two-year terms; women are eligible for the
office, and the person elected must hold the
highest grade of state professional certificate
He appoints his deputies, who must possess
similar qualifications, and his clerks and office
force The work which in a number of states
is performed either by a State Supciintendent
or a State Board of Education, or by the
two working together, is here split up among
the State Boards of Land Commissioners,
Library Board, Board of Examiners, High
School Board, Normal School Board, Agricul-
tural and Training School Board, and the State
Superintendent Each of these boards has
special parts of the school system to supervise
The State Superintendent is ex officio a member
of each of these Boards To the State Superin-
tendent is given the general supervision of
the school system of the state. He advises
with the county superintendents, decides dis-
puted questions undei the school law, holds
conferences with school officers, prepaies and
furnishes all blanks and forms, apportions the
State Tuition Fund to the counties, edits the
school laws, and makes a detailed biennial report
t o the Governor He also issues plans for one-
arid two-room schoolhouses, approves all school-
house plans, prepares and prescribes the course
of studv for the common schools of the state,
and prescribes rules and regulations foi teachers'
institutes, outlines the eoui so of instruction
for them, and appoints all institute coriduc-
tois He appoints a State Inspectoi of Rural
and Graded Schools to act for him in their
examination and approval, and the State High
School Board appoints another deputy to
act, as a State Inspector of High Schools

For each county a county superintendent
of schools is elected by the people for two-
year terms He, or she, must be a college
or normal school graduate, or hold a state pro-
fessional certificate, and must have had at
least two years' experience as a teacher
There are no county boards of education in
the state The county superintendent has
general supervision of the schools of his county,
and must visit each school at least once each
year, and advise with teachers and school
officers Once each year he holds a conven-

491

NORTH DAKOTA, STATE OF

NORTH DAKOTA, STATE OF

tion of school officers, may hold monthly
meetings with his teachers; and holds an
annual teacheis' institute, or a teachers'
training institute of three to four weeks' dura-
tion He keeps a corrected map of the school
districts of his county, apportions state and
county funds to the districts, appoints school
directors to fill vacancies, decides school
controversies, though appeal to the State
Superintendent is allowed, and makes an
annual report to the State Superintendent
With the County Superintendent of Health
he inspects schoolhouses, may order needed
sanitary changes, and approves minor altera-
tions He also acts as an agent of the State
Board of Examiners in the conduct of examina-
tions for teachers' certificates, approves pe-
titions for organizing state graded schools,
rural schools, and township high schools,
and acts, ex officio, as a member ol the board
of trustees, if a county agricultural and train-
ing school is established in his county

The school unit below the county is the
township, although in five counties the ^dis-
trict system is still used extensively. The
1911 legislation was intended to make these
counties in part conform to the plan followed
elsewhere in the state There are in the state,
then, school districts, in the ordinary sense
of the term, township districts, and certain
segregated districts (towns or cities) known
as city districts, special districts, or independ-
ent districts These latter segiegated city and
town districts aie uridei boards of education For
all other school districts a board of three school
directors is elected, one each year, for three-
year terms The people oi each district also
elect a treasurei, toi two-year terms, and the
board appoints a clerk, not one ol their number,
who holds office at the pleasure of the board
There must be four regular meetings of each
board each year, and in the cities twelve meet-
ings Kach board of school directors has
general charge and management of the schools
under then charge, the care of the school
property, the making of repairs, and the sup-
plying of necessary equipment They em-
ploy all teachers for the schools, may admit
non-resident pupils , may add branches
of instruction, with the approval of the
county superintendent, may call an election
to vot-e money for buildings or to buy
sites, up to five acres in extent; and may
levy distiict school taxes up to thirty mills
They must make such repairs and alterations
in buildings as are ordered by the county
board lor sanitary inspection (Co Supt of
Schools, and Co Health Supt ), and can only
purchase such books for the school library
as have been approved by the State Superin-
tendent They must organize schools within
the district (township) wherever there are
nine children without school facilities They
determine the time and length of the school
term, which must be equal for all schools

in the district, and not less than seven months
in any school They may, and on petition
of one third of the residents must, call an
election to vote on the question of consolidat-
ing the schools, and they may provide stables
at the consolidating Center If the district
contains sixty children of school age, the board
may, and on petition of ten residents must,
call an election to decide the question of
providing high school facilities for the district.
An annual school census must be taken ^ by
the clerk, and he must also make a detailed
annual report, to the county superintendent
Each board must see that all records, reports,
and instruction are in the English language.

Cities and incorporated towns may organize
as independent districts, and segregate them-
selves from the township district A board
of education of five is then elected, in place
of the three school directors City districts,
formerly organized under special laws, may
reorganize as independent school districts,
under boards of education with a member-
ship based largely on ward representation
For all such districts the general school laws
apply, and the boards of education have the
same powers and duties as boards of school
directois In addition, they may establish
graded schools, high schools, and such other
schools us may be desired, must maintain
a term of from seven to ten months; may
purchase, sell, and repair schoolhouses, may
employ a district school superintendent, and
may levy local school taxes, up to thirty mills

School Support — On the admission of the
state in 1889, the state received the sixteenth
and the thirty-sixth sections in each township
for schools, a few Indian reservations cxeeptcd,
and has since been granted the sections in some
of these The total grant to the permanent
school fund of the state was approximately
two and a half millions of acres, on which a
minimum sale price of $10 an acre was placed.
About two fifths of this has since been
sold, and at an average price of about $15
an acre, while recent sales have been for
much larger figures The 5 per cent of land
sales grant was also given to the permanent
school fund, and this, up to 1910, had pro-
duced $433,905 In all a total permanent
school fund of about $16,000,000 has so far
been produced The land remaining is con-
servatively estimated as worth $18,000,000
more, and will probably bring $25,000,000.
In all a fund of $40,000,000 lor common
schools seems probable from the proceeds of
the enabling act grants for common schools
alone In addition, 500,000 acres, to be
selected by the state, were granted for the
higher, reformatory, charitable, and public
institutions in the state, as follows : state
university, 40,000 acres, school of mines,
40,000 acres; agricultural college, 40,000 acres;
state normal schools, 80,000 acres, reform
school, 40,000 acres, deaf and dumb asylum,

492

NORTH DAKOTA, STATE OF

NORTH DAKOTA, STATE OF

10,000 acres, public buildings, 50,000 acres,
and for other educational or charitable pm-
poses, 170,000 acres The minimum sale
price on all of these lands was placed at $10
an acre, and they should bring two or three
times this amount The income fiom each
grant is to be used for the support of the in-
stitution for which it was granted

The income from the peimauent stale school
fund, together with all state fines, is appor-
tioued quarterly to the counties, and by Hie
counties to the districts, on the sole basis oi
the school census, six to twenty-one years of
age In addition, each county must le\v a
two-mill county school and a county poll tax,
the proceeds of which aie distributed to the
districts on the same basis Counties estab-
lishing a county agricultural and training
school may levy, as needed, foi its mainte-
nance In addition, any school district 01
school corporation may levy a district tax in
any amount up to tlnity mills, for further
maintenance and equipment Moreovei, the
state makes special appropriations ior aid
to high schools, to state graded and state
rural schools, and fot instiuction in agncul-
ture, domestic economy, and manual training
in regulai high schools, levies a state tax oi
one fifth of a mill for county agricultural and
training schools, and a state tax of one mill,
to be divided among the different state higher
institutions

Educational Conditions — The state is es-
sentially a rural and an agricultural state,
89 per cent of the people living in niral dis-
tricts Then* are no cities as large as 15, 000
population in the state The population is
almost entirely white There are a few
Chinese and Indians, but practically no negroes
in the state About one third of the total
population is foreign born, Norwegians, Eng-
lish-Canadians, Russians, Germans, and
Swedes, in the order named, being the predomi-
nant foreign peoples and constituting about
75 per cent of the foreign born These have
settled in the rural districts and taken up
farming The large educational funds, the
liberal taxation, and the large per capita
wealth of the people make the maintenance
of a good system of education easier than is
the case in many other states, and good laws
tend to secure these results (iood schools
are maintained generally throughout the state,
and the sentiment of the people is strongly
in favor of good schools Expenditures for
education have multiplied four times in the past
eleven years, though the school population
has only doubled School libraries are found
in all districts, and $25 per year may be spent
from the public funds for books Free text-
books are furnished in about two thirds of the
schools of the state Any school commission
or board may employ a medical inspector, and
require the examination of its school children
The teaching of agriculture, domestic science,

and manual training has recently been taken
up with much enthusiasm, and the teaching
of agriculture in cential schools, to which
rural schools may be affiliated, has recently
been provided for Standards for state
graded and state rural schools have been
formulated, and a state inspector of rural and
graded schools appointed The state has a
good child labor law, and a, reasonably satis-
factory compulsory education law.

Secondary Education — High Schools are be-
ing developed very rapidly in the state, especially
within the past five years By 1011 the number
oi appr oved high schools in the state had reached
ninety-five, and the total number was much
larger A Stale High School Board, consisting
of the State Superintendent, the Presidents of
the State University and of the Agricultural
College, two city superintendents of schools,
and one citi/en, the last three appointed by
the Governor, exeicise the functions of a
State Bonn! of Education for high schools
They appoint a State High School Inspector,
who acts as then executive officer, and ap-
proves high schools for state aid Courses
ol two, three, and four years may be approved
A State A&ncultuial and Training School Board,
consisting of the State Superintendent, Presi-
dent of the Agncultural College, and three
practical farmers appointed by the Governoi,
act as it State Board of Control foi, and
determine the qualifications of teacheis and
principals in, the new county agricultural and
training schools authorized by the law of 10J1
These schools must be provided with a good
equipment, and must offer agricultural in-
struction correlating with that gueii in the
Agricultural College State aid, up to one
half, and a maximum of $3000 a year, will be
granted to such schools State aid was also
provided, to begin in 1912, for regular high
schools which add instruction in agriculture,
manual training, and domestic science The
State School of Science at Wahpeton, the
State School of Foiestiy at Boftmeau, and
the State Industrial and Manual Training
School at Ellendale aie state schools of
secondary grade The encouragement given
to communities to form graded schools, and
to gradually develop these into two-year
high schools, the provision for the gradual
evolution of these into three- and four-year
high schools, and the strong emphasis placed
on instruction in agricultuie and domestic
economy are strong points in the Noith
Dakota plan for secondary instruction

Teachers and Training — A State Board
of Examiners, consisting of the State Super-
intendent as secretary, and four teachers or
superintendents appointed by the Governor
as additional members, prepares all questions
for the examination of teachers, oversees the
grading of the answer papers, and grants all
teachers' certificates in the state, with the one
exception of teachers and principals in the

493

NORTH DAKOTA, STATE OF

NORTHEND, CHARLES

county agricultural and training schools
This board also serves, ex officw, as a State
Teachers' Reading Circle Board, and controls
both the teachers' and the pupils' reading
circles for the state These have both been
in existence for a number of years, arid have
rendered valuable service Four grades of
teachers' certificates are issued, and form a
graded series, each requiring increasing knowl-
edge and experience and having increasing
validity, the highest is issued only to college
graduates Special certificates may also be
issued in special subjects. Graduates of the
University of North Dakota, of the Dakota
State Normal Schools, and of other colleges
and normal schools within the state offering
equivalent instruction may be certificated
without examination and on similar terms
For the training of future teachers the state
maintains two State Normal Schools at May-
villc and Valley City, and graduates of high
schools which offer a four-year course, with
certain review and professional subjects in
the last year, may also receive a teachers'
certificate on graduation. A State Normal
School Board looks after the normal schools
of the state So far as it apphos, work in
summer sessions may also bo accepted in lieu
of examination subjects

County superintendents may, if they desire,
hold teachers' meetings one Saturday each
month, which teachers outside of cities and
high schools must attend Supeimtendents
may also hold an annual teachers' institute, or
instead may organize a county teachers'
training school, of from three to four weeks'
duration. State aid of $100 a year is given
each county for teachers' institutes, and, if a
county training school is organized, the county
must appropriate a sum equal to twice the
number of teachers who have taught for four
months in the county the preceding year A
portion of all teachers' examination fees also
goes to the teachers' institute fund. Teachers
are paid for one week for attendance A state
minimum wage law requires a minimum wage
of $35 a month The average wage for 1010
was $51 80

Higher and Special Institutions — The Uni-
versity of North Dakota and the State School
of Mines at Grand Forks, and the State Agri-
cultural College at Fargo, stand as the culmina-
tion of the public school system of the state
Fargo College (Cong ) at Fargo, Wesley Col-
lege (ME.) at Grand Forks, Grand 'Forks
College (Luth ) at Grand Forks; and the
Presbyterian College at Jamestown assist
in the work of collegiate education in the
state.

In addition to the above institutions, the
state also maintains the State School for the
Deaf and Dumb at Devils Lake, the state
secondary schools, mentioned above, and the
State School for the Blind at Bathgate

E P. C.

References —

Annual Reports of the Territorial Board of Education,

1864-18<>6
An Rep* Territorial Supt Publ. Instr., 1870-1888.

(Not all published )

Bicn Rep Territorial Bd of Ed uc , 1887-1888
Bif-n 72eps State Supt Publ Instr., 1889-1890 to

1911 1912

(Itneral School Lawn of North Dakota, 1911 ed.
Reports of Inspectors aiid State Boards.

NORTH DAKOTA, UNIVERSITY OF,
GRAND FORKS, N D — Established by
act of the Territorial Assembly Feb 23, 1883, and
opened its doois in September, 1884 In 1911
there were thirteen buildings, representing
in their construction and equipment an ex-
penditure of $700,000 The student body
numbers 972, of these 495 are in the colleges,
348 in the summer session, and 129 in the
Model High School The teaching staff con-
sists of 105 members, thirty-seven of whom are
of professoiial grade The university main-
tains six colleges Liberal Arts, Teachers,
Mining Engineering, Mechanical and Electrical
Engineering, Law, and Medicine, a mining
substation at Hebron, N D , and a biological
station at Devils Lake, N D The State
Public Health Laboratory and Geological
Survey are under the authority of the Board
of Trustees The general and departmental
libraries contain 45,000 volumes

The university at the time of its establish-
ment received 126,000 acres of land which,
\vhen finally sold, will give an endowment of
$2,000,000 The assets of the university
in 1911 amount to $2,400,000, the annual
income is made1 up of payments fiom contracts
and interest on land sales, the proceeds of the
iVff mill tax, special appropriations for main-
tenance, and payments of fees and rents The
income in the year 1911-3912 was $373,000,
of which $32,600 was for buildings, and $41,000
for operation of the University Commons,
leaving for the conduct of the university and
its stations $229,400

The principle of affiliation of church colleges
with the state university was first inaugurated
at the University of North Dakota in 1904,
resulting in the maintenance of Wesley Col-
lege, a Methodist school m affiliation with
the university

The university has had the following presi-
dents Di William M Blackburn, 1884, Pro-
fessor Henry Montgomery, acting president,
1885-1887, Dr Homer B Spraguc, 1887-
1891, Dr Webster Mernfield, 1891-1909,
Dr Frank L McVey, 1909- F. L. M.

NORTHEND, CHARLES (1814-1895).—
Educational writer, was educated at Dummcr
Academy and Amherst College He was prin-
cipal of the first grammar school at Danvers,
Mass (1836), and was afterwards superin-
tendent of schools at Danvers and at New
Britain, Conn. He was for many years

494

NORTHFIELD SCHOOLS

NOKTHWKSTEKN UNIVERSITY

secretary of the American Institute of In-
struction, and was active in other educa-
tional associations His publications, include
Teacher and Parent arid The Teacher V Assistant.
These books passed through many editions,
and for more than thirty years they ranked
as the most popular educational books He
was also the authoi of Letter to Patent*,
Exercixcx in Dictation, and numerous articles
in educational journals W S M

NORTHFIELD SCHOOLS —Those in-
clude Northfield Seminary for young ladies,
at East Northfield, Mass , founded in 1879,
and Mount Hermon Boys' School, four and
one half miles distant, founded in 1881 Both
schools are of secondary grade and prepare
for college They were established by the
late D L Moody, to meet the needs of young
men and young women of limited means who
were ambitious to acqune the benefits oi a
thorough Christian education In addition
to this characteristic, two additional features
are piorninent (1) The Bible is emphasized
in every course of study, and each student
is required to take a minimum of two recitations
a week in this subject, under systematic in-
struction (2) Each student is required to
discharge some assigned duty each day in the
dormitories, in dining hall and kitchen, 01
farm The grounds and buildings of the
seminary repiesent an investment of $910,174,
and the school has an endowment of $575,188
Mount Hermon Boys' School has invested in
grounds and equipment $1,007,707, with a
further endowment of $627,823

NORTHRUP, BIRDSEY GRANT (1817-

1898) —State Superintendent of Schools,
was graduated from Yale College in 1841 and
from the Yale Theological School in 1845
He taught in the public schools of Connecticut ,
was agent of the State Board of Education oi
Massachusetts (1857-1867), agent of the State
Board of Education of Connect icut ( 1 867-1 873) ,
and Secretary of the State Board of Education
(State Superintendent of Schools) of Connecti-
cut (1873-1883) His publications include
Education Abroad, Forestry in Europe, and
Lessons from European Schools, Mid numerous
reports on education W S M

NORTHWEST TERRITORIES, EDUCA-
TION IN —See CANADA, EDUCATION iv

NORTHWESTERN COLLEGE, FERGUS
FALLS, MINN —A Lutheran denomina-
tional institution founded in 1900 The
college grounds include eight acres located about
half a mile from the center of the city of Feigus
Falls The institution comprises the follow-
ing six departments collegiate, normal,
preparatory, commerce, music, art The
course of religious instruction is obligatory
upon every regular student There arc (1912)

nine instructors The student body numbers
119 E J

NORTHWESTERN COLLEGE, NAPER-
VILLE, ILL — A coeducational institution
established at, Plamfield in 1862 by the Evan-
gelical Conferences of Illinois, Iowa, Indiana,
and Wisconsin as the Plamfield College, the
present name being adopted in 1864 The
college was moved to Naperville in 1870 The
following departments aie maintained acad-
emy, college of hbeial arts, German, commeice,
music, ait, physical culture The entrance
requirements to the college are fifteen units
of high school woik The degrees of A H ,
B S , and B L are conferred The faculty
consists of twenty-five members, and the
student enrollment ^n 1911-1912 was .396

NORTHWESTERN COLLEGE, WATER-
TOWN, WIS —An institution founded in 1865
by the Evangelical Lutheran Synod of Wis-
consin and comprising preparatory, collegiate,
and business departments The entrance re-
quirements to the college are equivalent to the
woik of the preparatory department The
college course leads to the degree of A B
There is a faculty of twelve members, and the
enrollment of students in 1911-1912 was 204

NORTHWESTERN UNIVERSITY,
EVANSTON, ILL —A coeducational insti-
tution, iounded " in the interests of Christian
learning," and chartered on Jan 28, 1851
The charter provides that a inajontv of the
board shall be members of the Methodist
Episcopal Church, but no religious test* are
required of students The trustees chose as
the first president (lark Titus Hinman The
university pur chased 3()7 acres of land twelve
miles to the north of the center of Chicago on
the shores of Lake Michigan Here the uni-
versity was established and opened for instruc-
tion in 1855 The place1 was named Kvanston in
honor of Di John Evans, president of the corpo-
ration The College of Liberal Arts was the only
department of the institution until 1869, when
the Chicago Medical College became a depart-
ment of Northwestern University The Law
School, founded in 1859, became a department
under sole control oi the university in 1891
The College of Engineering was established
in 1907, although for many years the uni-
versity had offered courses in engineering in
the College of Liberal Arts The^ School of
Pharmacy was incorporated in 18S6 and be-
came a department of the university the same
year The Dental School was organized in
1887 and was made a department of the uni-
versity three years later In 1895 the School
of Music was 'established, the School of Com-
merce in 1908 A preparatory department
was established at Evanston in 1859 On the
campus, also, is Garret! Biblical Institute in
close affiliation with the university.

The total enrollment of the university, 1911-

495

NORTON, CHARLES ELIOT

NORWAY, EDUCATION IN

1912, including the cm oilmen! in the affiliated
schools, was 4344 The total em oilmen! in
1855-1856, fifty-five yeais previous, was ten
The growth of the university has kept pace
with the development of Chicago, the citv of
its birth Onlv one of the institutions of the
Middle West that existed in 1850 has now a
larger enrollment The increase in material
equipment is not less inaiked In the first
year the trustees collected on " the scholar -
ship plan" $90,000, which repiesented practi-
cally their entire assets Sixty veuis latei
the assets amount to about $9,000,000

Expenditures for 1910-1911 weie ^740,297
The assets of all kinds for 1911 amount to
$9,098,821 The value of buildings and
grounds used for educational pm poses, includ-
ing libraries, museums, and sundiv equipment,
was $3,376,130, and trust funds, in addi-
tion to educational property located in the
center of Chicago, was $4,555,766 The cash
gifts foi the yeai amounted to $288,175

In Kvanston are located the College of
Liberal Arts, the School of Music, the College
of Engineering, (iaiiett Biblical Institute, the
School of Oratoiv, and Kvanston Academy
On the south side of Chicago is the Medical
School, and in Northwestern Univeisity Build-
mg, situated in the heait of Chicago,* are the
Law School, the School of Pharmacy, the Den-
tal School, and the School of Commerce In
the Northwest ern University Building is also
the (Jarv Library of Law, one of the largest
law libraiies in existence Northwestern Uni-
versity Settlement is situated in a congested
(list net on the noithwest side of Chicago

^ c B

NORTON, CHARLES ELIOT (1829-1908)
— Professor of the history of art at Harvard
University and man of letters After gradu-
ating at Harvard in 1846, he joined an East
India counting house in Boston, he was sent,
in 1849, to India and returned bv way of Eu-
rope in 1(S51 In the following vear he pub-
lished anonymously Five Christmas Hymns
and in 1854 a Book of H(/mn\ for Young
/YrsvjN.s He still intended at the time to
enter the ministry In 1855-1857 and in 1868-
1873 he was in Km ope and made the acquaint-
ance of the leading men of letters in England,
including Cail vie, Ruskm,and Fit/gerald He
was a frequent contributor to the Atlantic
Monthly almost from its establishment, and
with Lowell he took charge of the Noith Amer-
ican Review from 1864 to 1868 In 1860 he
wrote Note* of Tuivel and Study in Itali/ He
was appointed professor of the' history of art
in 1875 and held this office until he became
professor emeritus in 1898 He organized
exhibitions of drawings of Turner (1874) and
Ruskin (1879) His reputation rests mainly
on his work as an inspiring teacher and on his
Dante studies and translations He trans-
lated the Vita Niwva (1860 and 1867), and

the Diruia Commedia (1891-1892) In ISM
he founded the Dante Society His other
works include Historical Study of Church
Budding in the Middle Ages Venice, Siena,
Floiencc (1880), Letters of Carlylc and Em-
fjsoH (1883), Carlyle\ Letters and Reminib-
(enees (1886-1888), Letter** of Lowell (1894);
and as literary executor for Ruskin he wiote
introductions to the American edition of hi*
wor ks

NORTON, WILLIAM AUGUSTUS (1810-
1883) -—Textbook author and scientist, \\iis
graduated irom the United Stales Military
Academy at West Point in 1831 He held
piofessorship in New York University, Dela-
ware College, Brown University, and Yale
College He published textbooks on astion-
omv (1839) and natural philosophy (1858),
and made numerous researches in molecular
physics and terrestrial magnetism W. S. M.

NORWAY, EDUCATION IN —Norway,
a constitutional monarchy, having an area of
124,1297 square miles and a population of
2,392,698 (1910) The mil divisions for
local go\ eminent, which are also areas oi edu-
cational administration, are eighteen counties
(amta), towns, and rural communes (henedei) ,
the latter are generally parishes or subparishes
The capital, Christiania, has a population of
243,801, Bergen has 76,917, and Tiondhjern,
45,228 There are all together sixty-one urban
communes During the Middle Ages Norway
formed an independent monarchy In 1397
it enter (M! the Calrnai union with Sweden and
Denmark, and when the union was broken
(1527), Norway remained with the latter
Bv the terms of the peace of Kiel (Jan 14,
1814) Norway was transferred from Denmaik
to Sweden The union was effected only
through the person of the King, Norway re-
taining its independent legrslatuie In 1905
the union with Sweden terminated, and the
present King, Haakon VII, a son of the King
of Denmaik, was called to the throne The
Reformed Religion (Lutheran) was intro-
duced into the kingdom in the fifteenth cen-
tury and has exercised great influence upon
the educational development

Educational History — Education was orig-
inally under the control of the Church, and
it was the duty of the parish clergy to see that
children were instructed in religion and in
letters up to the time of then confirmation
When the constitution of 1814 was adopted,
there were four classical (cathedral) schools
in the kingdom, but even in these schools the
mothei tongue was treated as a separate
branch, for Norway was never dominated by
the classical spirit An act of 1827 provided
that theie should be a permanent school near
every principal church in the country, and am-
bulatory schools for isolated districts There
was, however, no marked educational move-
ment before the political awakening in the

496

NORWAY, EDUCATION IN

NORWAY, EDUCATION IN

third decade of the nineteenth century Then
arose the demand that national culture &hould
reflect national ideals, and that it should rest
upon a firm basis of elementary education
supported by public authorities 'in 1848 an
act was passed by the Storthing providing for
public elemental y schools in the towns This
was followed in I860 by a new act regulating
ruial schools, and in I860 by legal provision
for continuation schools Those acts weio
finally replaced by that of 1889, earned by the
Liberal paity, which pei tamed to both towns
and rural parishes This measure not only
required that elemental y schools should be
piovidod, but piescnbed in detail the oigamza-
tion and programs of the different grades of
schools, for although local authorities are
responsible for the establishment and main-
tenance of schools, the law has left, nothing
essential to their unlimited choice

Under the awakened consciousness of na-
tional life and needs, the classical schools were
the chief subjects of criticism, and the conflict
between the older humanities and scientific
and modern subjects was worked out thiough
a series of laws and experiments, beginning
with the law of June 17, I860, and culminating
in that of July 27, 1896, which determines tho
present orga.ru/ation of the middle and sec-
ondary schools

Present System — The national system of
education in Norway is similar in many re-
spects to the system of Sweden and Denmark,
(qq v ), but places greater emphasis upon prac-
tical training and modem subjects It is
noted for the complete provision of schools,
for their adaptation to the different classes of
society and the close coordination of the sev-
eral orders of education

The Department of Education and Ecclesi-
astical a flairs has control of tho system The
administration of primary schools is committed
to school directors, one for each of the six
dioceses of the kingdom Bishop and Dean
take part in the general supervision of the
schools, and the clergy may supervise the
religious instruction

The Primary Schools — In each municipality
(town 01 division of a county) there is a local
board (sLolestij) ct) which consists of a priest , the
chanman of the municipal council (or one of t he
aldermen), one of the teachers chosen by the
body of teachers, and additional members (men
and women) chosen by the municipal council
In the towns, at least one fourth of the mem-
bers so chosen must be parents who have
children in the primary schools The school
board, which elects its own chairman, has
charge of all the arrangements for the schools
of the municipality, / c choice of sites, build-
ing plans, appointment of teat hers, etc Every
year the board submits to the municipal
council an estimate of the expenditures for the
coming year

The inspection of the primary schools is

intrusted to a committee consisting of one
member oi the school boaid as chairman, and
thiee members (men or women) chosen in
towns by the parents of the children attending
the school, and in the country by parents
and the ratepayers in a school district This
committee maintains constant supervision
of the schools and of children of school age
The school board and the board of inspection
in the country districts may bring the affairs
of the primary school before a meeting of the
ratepayers of the district and parents of chil-
dren attending the school, \\lio h\e in the
district (Yrtam questions must be discussed
tit the district meeting before they can be
decided, eg whether corporal punishment may
be administered, changes in the district regu-
lation, etc In the large towns, the school
board appoints professional inspectors, arid
where there are several schools, as a rule, a
headmaster to each

Foi every county, there is a county school
board, consisting of three members chosen
by the county council This board has charge
oi the common educational matters of the
county, and makes proposals to the county
council concerning the income and the expen-
diture for county schools

School I'lovibuni —In the countiy, e\ery
district included in a municipality must have
a primal y school with at least two classes,
one lor children from seven to ten years of age
(infant school), and one for children from ten
to fourteen On account of the distances, the
districts in many places are again dmded into
several infant school districts In the towns,
the primary school is divided into three divi-
sions, intended respectively for children seven
to ten years of age, ten to twelve, and twelve
to fourteen Each of these divisions may
again be divided into several classes

School Building^ — Special buildings must
be erected or rented for primary schools In
the countiy, howe\er, in the infant school
districts and in primary school districts that
have less than twenty children of school age,
school may be held in rotation in the houses
of the inhabitants of the district, wheie suffi-
cient room can be procured These '* ambula-
tory schools " are steadily decreasing in num-
ber

Pioguim of Studies and Time Allotment. —
The subjects of instruction required by law
for primary schools and the distribution of
tune are shown bv the table on the following
page, which comprises a typical program for a
country school of two divisions and for a
graded city school

If optional blanches are added to the reguhu
program, instruction in these must be given
in extra hours In the city schools, foreign
languages may be included and elaborate
l)ro vision is generally made for domestic
subjects for girls In the most northerly
counties, where the Finns and Laps are found,

VOL. IV — 2K

497

NORWAY, EDUCATION IN

NORWAY, EDUCATION IN

their native languages may be used as auxiliary
to the Norwegian

WEEKLY TIME-TABLE SHOWING THE
DISTRIBUTION OF HOIKS

COUNTRY

Cm SCHOOL

Divisions

OBLIGATOKY

SUBJECTS

DlVlHlOtlH

~i

2

3

—

Class

Class

Class

1

2

1

2

3

4 5

6

7

Religion
Norwegian

7
S

?

(
12~

b/2
10

0/21 4 > 4

H .-> r>

4
,5

<

Arithmetic l

5

6

5

4

i

1 L$

,3

i

Writing

5

4

4

4

.i 2 1

1

1

Geography
History

3

2
2

*

2

1 1

2 1

1

1

1
1

Natural sciences

2

1 2

2

2

Singing

2

2

1 1 1

1

I

Gymnastics

Ik

2/2; - *

2

2

Drawing
Manual work

H

, 2 2
2

2
2

2

2

Total hours

30

30

21 24

24

24 21

24

2.i

1 Geometry is taken in the upper classes of the city schools

The distinctions between city and imal
schools illustrate the flexibility of the system
In the countiy, boys and gnls aie generally
taught in the same class, in the city, in sepa-
rate classes, with modified piograms for the
girls The classes in the country schools
should have a minimum of thirty-five pupils
and should not exceed forty-five, in the city
schools, the lange is liom forty to fifty The
number of school hours a week in country
schools exceeds the number in the city schools,
but the annual session in the country is shoitei ,
comprising from twelve to eighteen weeks as
against forty weeks in the city

The standard to be attained by the primary
school is fixed by law for religion only In this
subject a thorough knowledge of 1he main
facts of Bible histoiy and Church history, arid
of the Catechism, accoiding to the FA angelical
Lutheran creed, is required In the other
subjects, it is left to the school boaid to fix
the standard, in most of the rural municipali-
ties, however, the standard of the various
subjects, and the time-table, aie determined
in accordance with the " Normal Plan,"
which after the passage of the act of 1889
was sent out by the Cential Department as
a guide. Its lequnements are indicated by
the model time-tables The examinations
and form of leaving certificates are determined
by the local boards

The educational movement in Norway was
marked from the first by regard for physical
development and training The Swedish or
Ling system of gymnastics was early intro-
duced into the teachers' colleges and adopted
in the city schools Great attention has also
been given to hygienic conditions, and the
school buildings of Christiania, of Bergen, and

of other populous centers are models in arrange-
ment and in their equipment of baths, of
gymnasiums, and rooms for manual training
and domestic aits The spirit and methods
of instruction in the schools are also decidedly
modern

Instruction is free in all classes of public
primary schools Needy children receive their
schoolbooks and material from the municipal-
ity In Chiistiama of late years the mu-
nicipal council has also voted the necessary
funds for supplying all needy children with a
meal every school day

Tearheib — Teachers of primary schools
are appointed by the local school boards
Both men and women are eligible for appoint-
ment, and in town schools there must be one
teacner of each sex Only those can receive
permanent appointment who have completed
the twentieth year of age, belong to the
Established Church, and have passed a
teachers' examination About one third of the
situations, however, may be filled on terms of
three months' notice, and for these appoint-
ments, and for visiting and assisant teachers,
no examination is required There are two
grades of teachers' examinations The lowei,
which coiresponds to the entrance examination
oi training colleges, covers what is requisite
for i\ permanent appointment in an infant
school in the country The higher teachers'
examination, or leaving examination at the
training colleges, is required for a permanent
appointment in the town primary schools,
and in the second division of the country
primary schools The examinations are in
charge of a committee consisting of three
members, who also inspect the teachers'
training colleges

Theie are at present ten colleges for the
training of teacheis for the primary school,
of which six are public, one for each diocese,
and four private The public colleges are free
In the private colleges, by the aid of govern-
ment grants, a considerable number of free
students ate admitted Candidates foi ad-
mission, both men and women, must be at
least in then eighteenth year, must pass an
examination in the primary studies, and offer
testimonials of good character The course
of training covers three years and includes all
the subjects taught in the primary schools
To each of the public colleges is attached a one-
year preparation class for teachers of infant,
or lower primary, schools The public colleges
legister about 520 students, the private col-
leges about 400

For the training of teachers (men and
women) in sloyd, needlework, domestic econ-
omy, gymnastics, drawing, singing, and writing,
courses are held at longer or shorter interval,
according to requirement Holiday or " con-
tinuation " courses lasting five or six weeks
are also held for teachers of the primary schools
In these courses, of which there is one in each

198

NORWAY, EDUCATION IN

NORWAY, EDUCATION IN

diocese, particular attention is given to Nor-
wegian history and natural science, and edu-
cational matters are discussed Since 1894
summer courses of twelve days7 duration ha\e
also been held annually at the University and
at the Bergen Museum, these courses are
especially intended to instruct- teachers in
natural science The Government votes an
annual sum, which of late years has amounted
to 10,000 krones ($2680), towards traveling
scholarships for primary school teachers
Several municipalities also provide traveling
scholarships

Salaries — The salaries of teachers, which
vary greatly in different places, aie naturally
highest in Chnstiania In this citv the head
teachers receive1 2600-3800 krones ($744-
$1087), free residence and wood foi fuel or
compensation for it, calculated at 900 kiones
Assistant men teachers receive 1400-2600
krones ($400-1744), women teacheis 900-
1500 kronos ($258-$429) For the country
the minimum salary is in the infant school
fourteen kronos ($4) foi each school week with
thirty hours' instruction In the higher divi-
sions 18 krones ($5 15) for each school week
of thirty-six houis' instruction In addition
to this teacheis in the country, who give at
least twenty-foui weeks' instruction in the
year, enjoy four increases of salaiy, each of
sixty krones (ft 17 10) veaily in the infant
school and 100 kiones ($2860) vearlv in the
highei divisions, after respectively four, eight,
ten, and fifteen years' service Moreover, one
teacher, at least, in each commune must be
fuinished, without chiuge, a house IUK! a
piece of land Teacheib are pensioned bv the
state

Statistics of Primal y Schools — The efficient
administration of the system is indicated by
the large enrollment in the schools, jtbout
370,000 pupils at the latest date reported
(1909) or 15J pei cent of the population Of
the total 92,950 weic in city schools The
teaching force numbered 8106, of whom 5611
(4183 men, 1428 women) weie in the rural
schools, or one teacher to e\eiy foitv-scven
pupils; the city schools employed 2495 (856

men, 1639 women), one teacher to thirty-three
pupils.

The expenditure for the public elementary
schools was 13,047,210 krones ($3,731,562),
equivalent to $10 per capita of enrollment and
to $1 54 per capita of population Of the
amount 42 7 per cent went to the support of
city schools The State appropriated 4,256,-
749 krones, equal to 32 per cent, of the total
expenditure

Sources of Support — The State contributes
one third of the regular salaries paid to teachers
of primary schools The remaining expenses
fall upon the communes and the county funds
The latter, however, are derived from State
giants to the amount of three fourths the total;
the remaining fourth comes from the county
i e venues These funds defray extra expendi-
tures, i e increase of teachers' salaries for long
services, aid toward the erection of school
buildings, and provision of land for teachers
or compensation for the same, educational
apparatus, aid for poor municipalities, ex-
pense foi substitute teacheis to replace regular
teachers in case of long illness, for continua-
tion schools and artisan schools (arbeidskoler)

The annual expenditure fiom public funds
for teachers' colleges (lacrei skoler) not included
in the totals above given is about 255,000 kr
($73,000). A small pioportion of this amount
goes to private training colleges

Schools for Defectives — Public provision
for the education of children is completed by
schools for defectives, i e the deaf, blind, and
imbecile children This woik, which is under
a director attached to the central department
of education, isi emulated by a law of 1881 and
subsequent amending laws In lespect to
general instruction, the aim of the schools foi
defectives is the same as that of the pi unary
school; in addition the pupils aic educated
foi a practical life The school couises extend,
as a rule, over eight years Deaf children are
admitted at the age of seven, blind children at
the age of nine, and imbeciles, at present, at
the age of fourteen or fifteen

The latest statistics relating to these schools
ai e as follows —

INSTITUTION H

PUPILS

TLACHERB

Classification

Number

Boys

Girls

Total

Men

Women

Total

For the Deaf
For the Blind
For the Feebleminded

5

2
J

171
<)()
259

157
52
238

328
142

497

36
13
20

31
10
53

67
23
73

The institutions considered are all main-
tained by the State, which also supports a
school for blind adults

Abandoned and Vicious Children — By the
act of June 0, 1898, which went into effect-
in 1900, Norway took an advanced position

499

in regard to neglected children and those who
need special restraint The age of criminal
responsibility was raised by this act from ten
to fourteen years and it was required that
young criminals below fouiteen instead of
being punished should be brought under moral

NORWAY, EDUCATION IN

NORWAY, EDUCATION IN

influences and properly instructed. Children
who commit crimes after having completed
their fourteenth year, are liable to punishment,
but until they reach the age of sixteen, educa-
tional measures may be employed with them.
The act is applicable, also, to children who are in
danger of becoming burdens to society either
as lazy idlers or as criminals and convicts
Such childien under specified conditions may
be placed in the caie of the State The chaige
of children who come within the provisions of
the act is committed to boaids of guardians,
formed in every municipality and consisting
of a judge, a clergyman, and five members
chosen for a period of two years by the mu-
nicipal council One of these members must
be a medical man living or practicing in the
municipality, and one 01 two must be women

The boards of guardians have authority to
remove a child from his parents and place
him in a trustworthy family, or home, or in
an institution, such as a reformatory school,
or a skolehjem If the board of guardians con-
sider that the child may be left with his par-
ents, they mav warn both him and his
parents and in certain cases may punish the
child as merited

A reformatory school may be erected by a
single municipality or by several in conjunc-
tion Its plan must be approved by the King.
Children that are so depraved morally that
their attendance at the ordinary school would
lie injurious to other children mav be com-
mitted to a bkuh'hjcm Those institutions
aie of two classes, one for specially depraved
children, and one for the wayward The
former are erected by the State, for boys and
girls separately At Bast, near Chnstiania,
one has been built, to accommodate 150 boys
A similar establishment for girls has been
founded near Chnstiama The more lenient
institutions may be private or municipal, but
must conform to the legal lequircments.

The state charge of children that are re-
moved from their parents ends when the cause
ceases and as a rule is not continued after the
child has completed his eighteenth year
Childien that have been placed in reformatories
of the strictest kind may, however, be kept
Uieie until they havo completed their twenty-
first year The supervision of this class of
children pertains to the Ecclesiastical and
Educational Department The cost of the
work is divided between the State and the
municipalities

Continuation Schools — Provision for con-
tinuing the education of youths and adults after
the period for attendance upon primary schools
is made by a variety of agencies the ordinary
continuation schools (Fortsaettelscsskolcr] with
sessions of from one to six months a year are
intended for young people, fifteen to sixteen
years of age, who have been out of school for
a year or two and who wish to review their
studies. These schools in 1909 numbered

166 with 2455 pupils (1628 males, 827 females).
The expenditure was 68,613 krories ($18,388),
of which 65 per cent was from public funds.
Evening schools, intended for pupils seventeen
to nineteen years of age, offer special courses,
covering, on an average, instruction for fifty
hours in the year They numbered 569 in
1908 with 8299 pupils (of which 5516 were
young men) The expenditure was 52,240
k rones ($14,940), of which 88 per cent was from
public funds

County schools are similar in purpose to
People's High Schools which weie introduced
from Denmark (q v ) The former, however,
which are maintained by public authorities,
place special emphasis upon practical or techni-
cal subjects, i c in the schools for men, or
mixed schools, upon drawing and sloyd, in
the schools for girls only, upon needlework
and domestic arts The teachers of these
schools are generally taken from the staff of
the pnmary schools or, for the higher studies,
from the force of secondary professors The
annual session is from six to seven months,
schools for women only three months The
latest statistics show thirty-nine county schools
with 1580 pupils (881 men, 099 women) and
fifteen People's High Schools with about
650 pupils, of these a little more than half
were men The state subsidizes both classes
of schools.

City evening schools and the county .schools
in some cases have developed into what are
termed Working Men's Colleges In these
institutions adult men and women are in-
structed in the phenomena of nature, in the
duties and relations of social life, and in the
progress of knowledge and its industrial
results The first college of this class was
erected in Chnstiania in 1885, and this example
has since been followed in several towns and
rural districts The public libraries, which
number about 700, cooperate with this work

Secondary Education — Public secondary
schools arc under the general direction of the
Department of Ecclesiastical and Educational
Affairs. For the inspection of the schools and
the arrangement of the leaving examinations,
there is a council cf seven members competent
in matters of higher education; in respect to
hygienic matters an expert is called to the
assistance of the council

The public secondary schools are either
state or municipal schools Each of the
former is managed by a special board consist-
ing of the head master, one member appointed
by the Department, and three by the munici-
pal council The municipal secondary schools
may be managed by the local school board,
or by a special board The principals and
permanent teachers of the state schools receive
their appointments from the King and are
goveinment officials The municipalities pro-
vide the school premises, buildings, and equip-
ments; the current expenses are met by gov-

500

NORWAY, EDUCATION IN

NORWAY, EDUCATION IN

eminent grants, fees, and endowments The
municipal schools arc also supported in part
by government grants Their principals and
permanent teachers are appointed bv the
Department of Public Instiuction and then-
qualifications and salaries are practically the
same as for tcacheis of the state schools

There are also many piivate secondary
schools of the same standing as the public
schools.

By the law of 1896 provision is made for
two orders of secondary instruction, the lower
based upon the primary school, the higher
leading up from the lower to the university
In its complete form, the lower secondaiy
school (tniddehkole) comprises four progressive
classes, the course terminating with an exam-
ination (middehkoleeksamen) This school is
cooidmated with the second division of the
city primary schools, the age for entiance
being eleven years, if the school has less than
four classes, the age and standard are coire-
spondmgly highei

The gymnasium (higher secondaiy school)
comprises three progressive classes leading to
the cxamcn artutrn which is lequned for ad-
mission to university studies To entei the
gymnasium, the applicant must be at least fif-
teen years old and must have passed the middcl-
\kolcek\awcn The course of the gymnasium
is uniform for the first class, at the end of
which there is bifurcation into the modern
side and the linguistic-historical side The
latter mav include a Latin section, although by
the law of 1896 the classical languages (Latin

and Greek) are relegated to the university.
In connection with the first class of the gym-
nasium, or with the lower secondary school,
there may be arranged a one year's course for
pupils who intend soon to enter business life.
Both classes of secondary schools are, in gen-
eral, coeducational The girls gam relief
from excessive work, either by spending two
years in a class or bv taking only one foreign
language and a short course in mathematics,
a privilege accorded to boys also The pro-
grams of the two ordeis of instruction are
shown by the following time-tables- —

SPECIMEN TIME-TABLE FOR A
MIDDELSKOLE

CLASHEM

R nrrr

1

2

3

4

Religion . 2

2

2

1

Norwegian | 5

4

4

4

German . 6

5

5

">

EngliHh !

5

5

5

History i 3

2

3

3

Geography 2
Natural Science A

2
2

2

2

,i

Arithmetic and Mathematics 5

5

5 f>

Drawing ' 2

2

2 2

Writing 2

1

i

Gymnastics 3

3

3

4

Manual Work 2

2

2

2

Singing 1

1

1

Number of hours a week j 3o

3b

36

36

I

Girls are uiHtructed in domestic economy in extra hours

SPECIMEN TIMK-TVBLE FOR A GYMNASIUM

MODJ..KN COUHHI-

LlNt»UI8T HlMT

LlNGUIWT IIlflT

COUHHE WITHOUT

COUKHA WI1H

J^ATIN

JMTIN

(Classen

Classes

Classes

i »

s

1

2

3

1

2

3

Religion . ...

1 1

.,

1

1

2

1

1 2

Norwegian

4 r>

4

4

b

~i

4 > r> 4

German ...

3 ' 3

3

3

3

3

3 3 3

English

2

2

4

7

7

4

2 2

French

2

2

4

3

4 r,

I A tin

7 11

History . .

] {

{ 3

.")

3 3

3

Geography

1

2 | 1

1

2

1

2

2

Natural Science

5

5 1

1

1

4

1

1

Arithmetic and Mathematics

1)

<> 4

j

2

4 J

Draw mg

2 2

1 2

2

Gymnastic s 1

i. jj

(> ti

.

^

.

,
"

K

Hinging '

*

Number of hours H week

36 3<>

*r~

.«, • .«, .«,

.to

,16

36

Tho division of the time assigned to gymnas-
tics and singing is left to the managers of the
different schools

The vacation amounts to twelve to thirteen
weeks in the year, of which seven weeks are in
the summer Every school day comprises six
periods of forty-five minutes each Six hours

in the week, as a rule, one hour a day, must
be given to physical exercises, manual work,
arid singing

Teacher* — The staff of the state secondary
schools consists of principals (Rektors), head
teachers, and assistant teachers, men and
women There are also special teachers for

501

NORWAY, EDUCATION IN

NORWAY, EDUCATION IN

gymnastics, singing, sloyd, domestic economy,
etc. The teachers acquire their theoretical
training at the university The course of
training which covers about six years is ter-
minated by an examination (laercreksamen) .
After passing this examination the candidates
must take a half-year course at the pedagogi-
cal seminary of the university, and are then
examined in pedagogics, school method, and
psychology. Simultaneously with this course
the candidates gain practical experience in
teaching at an appointed school
The salaries are per annum —

Normal
A0c

17-18
16-17

For principals
For ncad touchers
Foi aMHintunt teachers
For womeu teachers .

4(>()0-r>40() kr i (SimtoSnil) IK iti

3200-4400 kr f $ <) 1 5 to * 1 25N) ' J ~ ' °

2200-3200 kr (* (>2U to $ <»1 r>)

1200-1700 kr ($J43 to $4W>; ^ jg

1 Also free residence

Statistics of Secondary School* — There are
14 state, 5 communal, and 7 private schools
having gymnasium classes and authorized to
prepare pupils for the exameti ajfunn , in ad-
dition there are 52 schools (45 communal and
7 private) that stop with the middle school
examination The total number of pupils in
all classes of secondary schools in 1909 was
17,104, distributed as follows Gymnasium
classes, 1725 (of these 444 were girls), middle
schools, 11,435 (girls, 5333), one year pre-
paratory, 3944 (girls, 2252) The number
of teachers in the secondary schools was 1313,
including 813 men and 500 women

The expenditure for the public secondary
schools of both orders is met by state and
local appropriations, endowment funds, and
tuition foes The fees are fixed for each school
according to circumstance's In 1909 the ex-
penditure amounted to 2,203,225 ki ($630,-
122) Of this amount the State bore 35 per
cent and the local appropriations 16 per cent
or a little more than half the whole amount

In addition to the schools referred to above,
there are several municipal and private schools
without the examination rights, in which in-
struction is given beyond the scope of the pn-
mary school These schools have a freer
arrangement than the middehkolcr, and have
as a special object provision for the higher
education of girls In 1909 there was one
communal school of this class in Christiama
with 40 pupils (all boys) and 89 private schools
Of the latter there were, for boys only, 9
schools with 416 pupils, for girls only, 4
schools with 244 pupils, and 76 coeducational
schools with 2890 pupils (1634 boys, 1256
girls).

CoSrdination of Schools and Higher Institu-
tions — The system of public education is
completed by the universities and by special
technical schools. The close relation of the
various classes of schools to each other,
which facilitates the passage from one to
the other, is illustrated by the accompanying
diagram

13-14-
12-13
11-12
10-11
9-10
8-9
7-8

6-7

Technical Education — Technical schools,
which are found chiefly in the towns, are of
two orders, the lower technical schools which
pupils may enter from the elementary school,
and a higher order based upon thr middclshoh'
The lower technical schools include (1) tech-
nical evening schools with three-year courses,
comprising annual sessions of 8 months with
instruction for 10 hours a week, (2) public
drawing schools; and (3) industrial schools
for girls with one-year courses in handicraft,
and domestic arts To this order belong also
the Christiama Technical School, School of
Mechanic Arts of Skiensfjorderi; School for
Wood and Metal Work at Bergen Of a some-
what higher or more specialized character than
the above named schools are the following:
middle technical schools at Trondhjem, Chris-
tiama, and Bergen, having four-year courses and
requiring for entrance the leaving examina-
tion of the lower secondary schools (middel-
skoleeksamen) ; an elementary mining school
at Kongsberg with a course of two and one
half years and twelve hours' session a week
(age of entrance, eighteen years) ; commercial
gymnasiums at Christiama and Bergen with
courses of two years for men and one year for
women ; 22 schools of navigation ; for the pro-
motion of rural industries the following: agri-
cultural schools, 19; schools of gardening, 16;
dairy schools, 6; 1 agricultural high school.

502

NORWAY, EDUCATION IN

NORWAY, EDUCATION IN

The technical schools of the highest class
comprise 6 schools of engineering, and a
technical institute of dentistry For pro-
motion of the hue arts there aie two na-
tional schools, the Royal industrial art school,
arid the conservatory of music, both at Chns-
tiania

The University — The Koval Fiedenck
University at C'lmstiama was founded in
1811, and began its opeiation in 1813 with 11
professors, 3 lectuiers, and 18 students In
1912 it had 70 professors, 14 " docents," 19
fellows, and 1500 students The umveisitv
comprises five faculties, each of which elects
its own piesident, or dean, foi a teim of two
yeais The deans foim the academic council
which constitutes the umveisitv's boaid of
management subordinate only to the Eccles-
iastical and Education Department The
university professois receive then appoint-
ments fiom the King The minimum sahuv
is 4500 ki (1>1206) with tluee additions oi
50 kr ($134) each aftei 5, 10, and 15 yeais'
service The 20 oldest professors, moieoxei,
have an addition of 6*0 kr each The u do-
cents " aie also a])pomted by the King The
follows, who ha\e only a limited amount ol
lecturing to do, aie appointed foi one yeai at
a time, by the umveisitv council

The gymnasium leaving examination (M-
<imcn ditiuni} is required loi admission to the
university The instruction is fiee, but foes
are paid foi admission to the vaiioiis examina-
tions (from .V) 30 to MO 72) Hofoie students
can go up to any of the minor sit v degree
examinations, the> must ha\o passed a pie-
paratoiv examination, ciannn j)/nlo^t/)hi( inn
In this examination, philosophx is a oompul-
soiv subject , the fno lemaming .subjects \\\t\\
be chosen bv the candidate fioni soionco,
languages, hist on, mathematics, H< The
time of pioparation foi the <i(ini(n plnlo^u-
phicuni is 2 01 3 terms The a\eiage time
required to woik up foi the vaiious examina-
tions is as follows 9 tenns for theology, 8 foi
law, 14 foi medicine, 10 foi philologA and
10 foi " leal students" Clinical facilities
are afforded medical students in two gtnern-
mont hospitals whose head physicians aie
university piofessors Theological students
get then special training at a theological col-
lege connected with the nnuorsitv Thoie
are various collections, laboratonos, and scien-
tific institutions belonging to the mmoisitv
Among them aie the I'nivorsitv Libiaiv
(350,000 volumes) which is also the National
Library, with a reading room open to any one
for several houis daily the Botanical (laidens,
the Historical Museum, the Astronomical
and Magnetic Obsenatory, the Meteorologi-
cal Institute, and the Biological Marine Sta-
tion at Drobak The income of the university
for 1910-1911 was 910,280 ki ($243,955) Of
this amount 64 per cent was supplied by the
state appropriation There was also an ap-

propriation of 225,000 kr. for the library and
of 7400 kr for new laboratory buildings

The principal scientific societies are the
Royal Liteiary and Philosophical Society at
Trondhjem, founded in 1760, which has a
hbiary of about 7000 volumes, and the Lit-
orary and Philosophical Society at Christiama,
founded in 1857, with which is associated the
Fndtjof Nansen Fund for the promotion of
science, the capital of the fund, at piesent,
amounts to about 450,000 crowns ($120,600)
The Bergen Museum, founded in 1825, is a
center of scientific activity in the western part
of Norway It possesses valuable collections,
especially of natuial history, a scientific hbiary,
and a biological station with laboi atones,
aquaria, etc Theie are also Museums at
Tiomso, Stavangei, and Arendal, with natural
history and historical antiquarian collections
For the preservation of " Ancient Norwegian
Monuments " there is an association, founded
in 1844, supported by a government grant

The Norwegian National Museum, founded
in 1891, at Chnstiama, collects and exhibits
everything throwing light upon the culture
life of the Norwegian people The industrial
aits museums at Chiistiama, Beigen, and
Tiondhiom possess \aluable collections and
have had gieat influence in promoting beauty of
design in the embioideiies, copper utensils,
silver jewelry, etc , for which Norway is noted

The public expenditure for education in
1 909 was 20,307,886 kr equivalent to $5,442,514
Of tins total the state treasury furnished
8,955,2S9 kr 01 44 per cent. ' ATS

References

B\rx R X h(iindtmin< A political History of
DinnHirh, \rnnrny, and Swrdin, t,~) 15-1 <)()() (Cam-
bridge, 1<W> )

England, lioairl of Education Special Reports on
Educational Kithjtrh, Vol VIII, 1<M)J, pp 1-<>S,
Tht \riir Lntr f<» tin tircotidai ij Schools of Norway,
pp (><) ()(>, Ed mot ton in Norway in th< Year 1900
(transited from La \orvlyt), Vol XVII, 1907,
pp HO ()."> (SV/<oo/,s Pnhlic and Private in the North
of Einojn

La \vivtnt Oftuiul Publication for the PariH Ex-
position Education by J V Hoibertf, Agncul-
tuic, (J T.indbrr^ English translations in Board
of Education, Spinal Rtpoit*, Vrol VIII (Chns-
tumia, 1(MK) )

\oi\\av Kirkc ojr rndcrviHinnKhclcpartcnientct
K(ntnni(] oin »S'Ao// mjxt>< mi^ Til^tand i Kongrriget
Xoillit* JsinfM^trdf for Aatcm 18V4-1866, (1867-
/<V?,S), og Ri(jffx Kjobhtcrder off Ladtxtcdci for
Aartt 1M>? (1K70, 1S75-1S7S) 1,3 \ in li
(Chnstiania, l^W 1SSO ) ( Norgr * o fiddle Matwtik,
<ildr< R<ihk<, \ No 1 ) Title vanes nliRhtlj IMf)
(out. mis \tin<jr( a Id titntiatiyuu ojffuit'lli con-

l( ndiif In Tmtimlion fiangaibi dt1 1° Loi du Jutllft
/fS'^S s/;/ [' KHVI i(jm ni< nt du Ptupl( dan* /< s vdh'*f
.tn Lot dn 1<> Afdi tSHO .s//r V Eiwt igncmtnt du
l>(npl< ci hi Cain pay in, tf° Loi BUppU'ntfntaire dc*
Laivdu 1h Mm I8*)O *ui /' KmtQifftiement du Peuplc
a In CfimfKif/nr rt dn 1 j J uillet 1848, ^° Lvi dc
l< fmn f8()(* \nt I** Kroff^ publiqus pour I' Efr-
\eilimnnnf Miondum, '7° Loi du J7 Juiti 186ft
\ui r Exam Hi Art i urn

Aorys itjjnwllv Ma tut ill (annual), oBperiallv Bciet~
n i n(i <nn tikoletWM net* Tilstaiid i Kongenget Norgo
tor \nr<t, 1895, \o 3U), 1<)OS, No 130 (Ohris-
ti.inia )

NORWICH UNIVERSITY

NOSE, HYGIENE OF THE

SCHRODER, L Den Nordmke Folkehojskole, Bidrag til

dens Historic (Copenhagen, 1905 )
Umversitete OQ Skoleannaler (Annual )

NORWICH UNIVERSITY, NORTHFIELD,

VT. — The earliest of American military col-
leges after West Point, was opened at Noi-
wich, Vt , by Captain Alden Partridge in
1S20, located at Middletown, Conn , 1825-
1829, returned to Norwich in the latter
year, and lemoved to Northheld, Vt , in
1857 It was chartered under its present
name in 1834 Its founder Bought to enrich
the curricula of his day by adding thereto
physical training, laboratory and field prac-
tice in science, engineering, agriculture, the
mechanic arts , and militaiy science and prac-
tice undei military discipline (See Lecture
on Education, 1819) Much of this he pul
into practice at Norwich and some came
quickly into use elsewhere, although agricul-
ture and the mechanic arts lagged forty yeais
before they were adopted Of Norwich stu-
dents of 1835-1865 living in '01, with records
now known, 69 pei cent found service in the
armies and navies of '61 -'65, 58 pei cent as
officers The Norwich Hisloiy, covering the
lecords of its students, evidences the founder's
wisdom and foresight in departing iiom the
conventional college plan of his day The
essentials of his plan ha\e been retained but
modified as experience has dictated, save that
the elective system, which he was among the
first to adopt, has long since passed awav
According to the history named, the total
enrollment to date has been 3853, graduates
809 Students now enrolled number 183,
professors 14 The departments of instruction
lead to the Bachelor degrees in Aits, in Science
and Literatim1, in Chemistry, in Civil and
Klectr real Kngmeei ing

C H S
Reference - -

DODUL, (J M , and EL.LIH, W R Hmtory of Norwich
VHivintty (Concord, 1912)

NOSE, HYGIENE OF THE -The nose
may be called the hygienist or health inspect 01
among the senses In normal condition it
tests the sanitary condition of the environment ,
of the air we breathe, and the food that we eat
Also it warms and moistens and purifies the an ,
and nasal respiration is essential to the proper
nutrition of the brain. Inits care cer t am oln ions
rules of hygiene are important Children
should be taught proper habits and methods
of cleanliness, not to blow their noses violently,
and not to put things into them Injuries to
the nose should be attended to ; for accidents,
blows on the nose, falls from trees or walls
or gymnastic apparatus, may cause deviation
of the septum.

Anything that causes partial or total oc-
clusion of the nostrils, like injuries to the
septum, deformed growth, adenoid growths,
hvpertiophv of the faucal tonsils, the swelling

of the mucous membrane in colds, or the
like, is hygiemcally a serious matter, since it
is likely to cause defects of speech, defects of
hearing, interference with the brain activity
and with giowtli and development and the
health in general The most common cause
of defective hearing is probably some nasal
trouble, especially an adenoid growth Nasal
breathing is of primary impoitance not only
for the health of the pupil but foi efficient
school work The improvement in the mental
ability after the lemoval of adenoids (</»),
causing mouth breathing, has been a commonly
of)ser\ed result, and special tests made by
the German specialist Kafemann, in whicli
the ability of his subjects to add simple num-
bers was tested, in one series of experiments
with the nostrils open, and in another with
the nostrils occluded artificially, showed that
the occlusion interfered with the mental ac-
tivity and less work could be done

It is import ant for the teachei to know the
essential facts in regard to the hygiene of the
nose A child suffer ing from adenoids, foi
example, is liable to be tieated unjustly and
unwisely on account of in it ability or disoi-
derlv conduct The child is likely to be inat-
tentive and backwaid in school work. Parents
mav be ignorant of the child's condition, and
neglect is likely to mean a serious handicap in
mental and physical development, speech de-
fects, constant danger from colds, and ulti-
mately deafness (See ADENOIDS )

The mam points emphasized by recent in-
vestigations may be summed up brief!} as
follows (1) The hygiene of the nose is of
prime importance both for the health of the
mdn idual pupil and for the sanitation of the
schoolroom, and the obvious rules in regard
to cleanliness, care for injuries, and the hkcaic
emphasi/cd (2) Health inspection should
always include careful examination of the
upper air passages, the nose and naso-pharynx,
(3) Nasal breathing is an important condition
of efficient brain activity, and occlusion of
the nose from any cause should receive special
attention (4) The most common permanent
cause of occlusion of the nostrils is hyper-
trophy of the nasal pharangeal tonsil, the so-
called adenoid growth This trouble is likely
to be found in at least o or 0 per cent of the
school children in perhaps most of the schools
of this country (5) While there is no con-
sensus in regard to the specific cause of ade-
noids, the growth is apparently connected
with the greater activity of the lymphoid
tissue in childhood (6) Adenoids are apt to
occur m the early years before the age of six,
and frequently they are found at birth (7)
The operation for adenoids is usually success-
ful, it should not as a rule be performed before
the child is six months old, but it is very
desirable that the adenoid should be removed
at least before the age of six years, in outer
that healthful development may not be hnir

504

N088, THEODORE BLAND

NOTATION

dered. (8) It- is deniable that caieful examin-
ation of the nasal cavities should be made in
the case of all children on entering; school life.
When adenoids or the like are found, parents
should be advised of the condition of their
children and the need of proper tioatment
(9) No child should be sent to a school for the
feeble-minded or the like without hist being
Tested by a competent specialist to determine
whether the mental retardation be not caused
in part by an adenoid growth (10) The
hygiene of the nose and nasal breathing is of
such importance for the actual work of the
school that all teachers should be taught the
main facts in regard to the subject

W H B

See ADENOIDS; EAR, HYC.IENE OF, MEDI-
CAL INSPECTION

References —
BURNHAM, W H The Hygiene of the Nose P,<t

8em , 1908, Vol XV, pp 155-1 6<>
CROCKETT, E A Some biscasi-.s of tin Nos< :iud

Throat of Interest to Teachers Pun V K A ,

1903, pp 1028-1031
KRPKLY, K Sind die adenoiden WutheruiiKen unge-

boren' Jahrb f Kintterhnlkunth , 1(>11, Vol,

XXXII, pp fill (>2<)
(hiOHON, C P Tin Discamx of th< VMS', Thnx.it,

and Ear (Philadelphia, IWO )
( lu i /MANN, H liber iloien und Veistelieu Z< tl

f ang PMJ and i>sy Samwflfort>(hnn(j, 1*108,

Vol I, pp 183-503

K \l-KM ANN, H Scfntfuntrtiuihunfji n (h v Kuidlufnti
Vamn- und RdLhcjinunm* an 211H Kinder n

Uber die BeeinfliiHsung geistipei LeiMtuiigon duidi
BehindoruriK tier N.isrnathmuiiK P*\1 Aibtittn,
1M04, Vol IV, pp H5-4,r)3

LOK«, H W, Kdr Annals of Otoloyy, Rhinology, and
LurynQoUwu (St Louis, Mo, 1SM1-)

Mot'TON, .1 M C Dni Yprosethia. imhalis IKU S< hul-
kindern Z< it f tfchulfjrsundhitt^/tjltw, 190 i,
No 1, pp 71 SO

\TbUM \YElt, H Hyowni do Awsf, dt s fan Inn1* und
Kehlkojjfr* (Stuttgart, n d )

\LVRHLK~i, M \n Investigation into th< Occurrence
of Adenoids in Three of the London Count > COUIK il
Elementary Schools British Journal of Chil-
dren'* Diseases, Fob and March, 1()08 Re\u wed
in School Hyyiem, London, 1410, Vol 1, pp
280-287.

NOSS, THEODORE BLAND (1S52-
1909) — Nonnal school principal, was gradu-
ated from the Shippensburg (Pa) Noinial
School in 1874 and fioiu Syiacusc University
in 1880 He aubHcqueiillv «1uduMl :it th(k
Universities of Jena and Berlin in (ieiinany and
Pans in France1 He was one of the foundeis
of the Herbal t Society in Ameiica and was
active in movements conceined with the scien-
tific study of education He was piincipnl
of the Stale Normal School at California,
Pa , from 1883 to 1909, having previous to his
appointment as principal been an instructor
in the institution His publications include
Outline** of Psychology and Pedagogy (1890),
Child Study Record (1900), and numerous
articles in educational reviews He was the
editor of School Year Books, a series ef man-
uals for teachers in the elementary schools.

W S M

NOTATION --A word used in uiithmetic
to mean the writing of numbers, as distin-
guished from numeration, which is taken to
mean the reading of numbers This distinc-
tion is a modern one and is of no paitieular
value, representing as it does the tendency to
extreme classification of the eighteenth and
nineteenth centuries rathei than any educa-
tional necessity Notation comes fiom nol<i,
a word used bv medieval wnteis to indicate
a numeral in the Hindu-Aiabic system Thus
Ohchtoveus (1503 edition) and Tzwivel (1507)
speak of the nota circulate for /eio, and Novio-
magus (1589) has a ehaptei l)c noti\ mnne-
i or urn

At present, in the teaching of arithmetic,
it is common to speak of Arabic notation and
Roman notation, meaning theieby the writ-
ing of the Hindu- Arabic and the Roman nu-
merals. There are, however, many numerals
besides these, not only those of the paM but
also those used in many parts of the woild
to-day In our American and European
schools, however, only these two aie taught,
and the Roman system is rapidly losing its
importance

Roman Notation — The late Romans used
the symbols I, V, X, L, C, D, and M They
had no generally recognized system for 1he
writing of large numbers, although Pliny and
occasionally other writers used a bai over a
numeral to increase its value a thousand fold.
Thus X meant ten thousand In geneial,
however, large numbeis were written out in
words The Romans made some use of the
subtract i\e principle, IX meaning 10 — 1, while
XI meant 10 + 1 This pimciple sometimes
extended to a double subtraction, as in the
case of IIXX foi eighteen (duo de vtginti).
On the othei hand, it was larely used in the
case of foui, ITI1 being prefened to IV, as the
clock face still witnesses The subti active
principle appears in the case of XIX for
nineteen, but laiely in the case of CD for
400, the Romans piefeinng CVCC The form
M(1M foi 1 900 is puiely modem, the Romans
using MlHXVr

The origin of the Roman notation has been
:i matter of much speculation In general,
lunve\ei, the symbols aie thought to come fiom
certain (lieek letters that wen* not used in
making up the Latin alphabet In particulai,
L is thought to come fiom *, C from ®, and
M from $ I) (for 500) is half of the early
form foi 1 000 Possibly V was suggested by
a cancel mark acioss Till, and X is two V's;
or X may be deiived from crossing out ten
J's, and V may be half of it This latter seems
probable, since the five is occasionally found
as an inverted V, thus A Theie are various
other theories, but nothing in the early in-
scriptions thus far known has developed any-
thing definite beyond the one above given

The late Ronian numerals differed consid-
erably from those of the classical period, as
">05

NOTATION

is seen from the following table from the
Mysticw numerorum ^ignificatioms liber of
Bvingus (Bongo), published at Bergamo in
1583-1584.

CID

00 H

m

HIM

CD CD

CO D5

$999.

+000.

NOTATION

undoubted inscription in which zero appears,
however, is found in Gwahor, India, and dates
from 876 of our era, although there is one
manuscript that probably antedates ;this in
which a dot is used for zero. By the time the
place value was established the numerals had
changed to such forms as the following. —

IDO
IDD
ICC
VCD

VM

fOOO.

if

DO*

oo

VII CD

DO CD CO

IOD

CID

OO 00 CCD3

4909.

?999.

f »o».

"7

"/. 2. 3 4 ^ if 7 V
* * ^ / f 6 >> *

4 r s

The Hindu-Arabic Notation —What are
commonly called the Arabic numerals are of
Hindu origin The earliest trace we have of
them is in certain inscriptions of the third
century B c , cut on stone in India in the tune
of King Asoka The following table shows
some of the earliest forms —

123 45 6 789 10 20

250 B.C I || III 11(1

100 BC. | H IIIX1XHX XX ? ?

1>50 B c. I || -f /t>

150 B.C. -= ¥> <f> 1

. 200 AD -==

It will be observed that the zero does not

It is uncertain when the numerals began to
be known m Europe, but by the tenth century
they had reached Spain and probably were
somewhat known in Italy The forms
H .70 »» ,«, .»*» *™'Jppno(, ,,lffpl 801Iiewhnt from those

of India, as may be seen fiom the table
on the following page

Among the earliest writers of promi-
nence to recognize the value of these
numerals was Fibonacci, Cierbert, and
Sacrobosco (qq v ) After printing from
movable type was invented, in the
fifteenth century, the forms of the nu-
merals, like those of the letters, became
quite definitely fixed, although there is
still some variation in different countries,
particularly in the written notation
Scales of Notation — Our common system

appear, but that separate symbols for 10, 20, of notation is based upon the scale of ten.
or^ Cr. ™ QTP nop.psKn.rv. This was the case For examnle. 2405 means 5 units -f 0 tens -f 4

and so on are necessary. This was the case;
in many ancient systems of notation

Without the zero it is impossible to have a
place value, and since the oldest inscription in
which the place value is evident dates from
595 of our era, we may say that the zero was
a product of the sixth century. The earliest

For example, 2405 means 5 units 4-0 tens -f 4
times the square of 10 + 2 times the cube of
10 This comes from the fact that we have
ten fingers, and the fingers formed the primi-
tive abacus (See ABACUS, FINGER RECK-
ONING ) It is apparent, however, that sys-
tems of notation might be devised on various

506

NOTEBOOK METHOD

NOTKER

EARLIEST MANUSCRIPT FORMS

/B

L

lo

ID ID

SH

SL

scales For example, if the scale of twelve
were selected, we should need two more nu-
merals, say / for ten and c for eleven Then t he
numbei 9t3e would mean 11 -f 3 12+ 10 122
-f-9123, and this would be 17,039 on our
ordinary scale of ten In some lespects the
scale of twelve would be more convenient than
the scale of ten For example, when we i educe
the most commonly used fractions to decimal
forms we have \ - 0 5, \ - 0 3333 + , I -- 0 25,
I = 0 G666 + , I - 0 75, J = 0 125, and so on
But these fractions aie expressed more easily
on the scale of twelve, thus J^0(5, ^=04,
J = 0 3, I - 0 S, f = 0 9, I - 0 16, and so on

Educationally, the study of different scales
of notation has no place in the element aiy
school It is an interesting geneialization
in algebra, but its value to the average pupil
is easily exhausted D. K S

References —
HILL, (i F On the Early USP of Arabic Numerals in

Europe ArcfuFoloyia (London, 1910 )
SMITH, D E, and KARPTNSKI, L C Hindu- Arabic
Numeral* (Boston, 1<M1 )

NOTEBOOK METHOD —Many secondary
schools and some elementary schools are plac-
ing an inci eased emphasis upon the notebook
as a means of recording observations and
readings in history, geography, nature study,
elementary science, and other subjects It
is a successful device foi holding the student
responsible for results and for directing him
toward definite and accurate impressions and
ideas As a method, given undue importance,
its use possesses several distinct dangers
The pupil may become mechanical in the

recording of notes, without bringing reflection
to the organization of his experiences, his note-
taking may become a mere copying of the
statements of teachei 01 text, and lead to waste
in recording facts which are unimportant save
as preliminaries in obtaining fundamental con-
clusions H S

NOTION —The teim is closely related
to the term idea, but usually refers to an idea
which is not clear, or to that aspect of an idea
which is not explicit One says that he has
a notion of what the author means, but no
clear idea The teim is very little used in
technical writings C H J

NOTKER — The family name of a number
of famous scholars of the Middle Ages, all of
whom are probably related to one another The
eaihest of these was Not her Bulbulux, or the
Stammerer (c 840-912), who was educated
at St Clall and theie studied Greek, Latin,
music, poetry, and the Scriptuies He became
master of the school and foi a time was li-
braiian lie was the composei of poems and
songs, including, it was thought, the anthem
Mcdni Vita in Mortc Ruinu*, and intioduced
the sequences into Germany lie was the
teachei of Notkcr Pht/xicub, who showed great
ability in music, painting, wilting, and medi-
cine, and won favor at the couit of Otto I

The most famous member of the family
was Notkcr Labeo, 01 the Thick-lipped (c
950-1022), a nephew of Ekkehard I He was
a good student of music, poetiv, mathematics,
astronomy, the Scriptuies, the Church Fathers,
the classics, and the vernauilai He was re-
garded as the greatest scholai of his day, but
his chief title to fame was his encouragement
of the use of the veinacular lie himself
translated a numbei of works into Old High
German, e g Boethius, DC conwlatiotu phi-
losophice , Capella, DC nuptii* Phdologuv et
Mcrcurn , Aristotle, De catcgouis , the Pxahns ,
Terence, Andna, Vergil, Eclogues He was
also the author of an essay in German on musi-
cal instruments The surname Teutomcus was
given to him in recognition of this woik In a
letter found at Brussels Notkei recommends
the study of the classical works as a prepara-
tion for the study of ecclesiastical writings,
and urges the translation into the vernacular
for greater ease of comprehension

Of greater influence than his predecessors
was Notker (c 940-1508), Bishop of Li6ge,
formerly Provost of St Gall, with which he
seems always to have been in touch. He was
an enthusiastic teacher and was always sur-
rounded by a group of scholai s over whom he
exercised an excellent influence and to whom
he willingly gave his books Pupils flocked
to the Cathedral School at Ltfge, where pro-
vision was made for externs or lay students,
and interns, or students who looked to the
priesthood, whither they were sent by the

507

NOTRE DAME, SCHOOL SISTERS OF

NOTTINGHAM

parents and clergy Liege thus became a
center from which teachers were sent to most
parts of northern Europe Of the pupils
who had studied under Notker seven attained
to bishoprics

References —

Catholic Encyclopedia, s v Notker, and the references

there given
CRAMER, F Gettchichtc der Erziehung und des Unt(r-

nchtft in den Niederlanden, pp 94-100 (Strul-

»und, 1843 )
MKIEK, G Notker Balbulas AusgewUhlte Kchnften

BLbliothek der katholiachen Ptldagofjik, Vol III

(Freiburg im Brcisgau, 1890 )

NOTRE DAME, SCHOOL SISTERS OF

— See RELIGIOUS TEACHING ORDERS OF THE
ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.

NOTRE DAME, UNIVERSITY OF,
NOTRE DAME, IND —One of the most
famous Catholic institutions of higher learn-
ing It was founded in 1842 by the Very Rov
Edward Sorin and was chartered in JH44 by
the Legislature of Indiana The University
is conducted by the Congregation of the Holy
Cross. Until 1865 only a college of aitb and
letters was maintained In that year the col-
lege of science was added In addition there
are colleges of engineering (1872), airhitecture,
and law (1869), and a preparatory school
Students are admitted to the college after
graduation from a four-year high school The
usual degrees are conferred on undergraduate
and graduate students on completing the ap-
propriate courses (three years in the college
of law, four years in the other colleges)
Twenty buildings, valued with thoir equip-
ment and apparatus at $2,800,000, are de-
voted to university purposes Fiom the
University Press is issued The Ave Mar HI, a lit-
erary and religious magazine with contribu-
tions from the best writers in Europe and
America Notre Dame also awards each year
the Laetare Medal to some Catholic layman
for distinction in some branch of learning The
faculty consists of 85 members. In 1911-
1912 the enrollment of students was 987

NOTT, ELIPHALET (1773-1866) —Col-
lege president, was born at Ashford, Conn ,
June 25, 1773. He was privately educated
and was graduated from Brown University
in 1795 For two years he was principal of
the academy at Plamfield, Conn Later he
went as a missionary to Chenv Valley, N Y ,
where he established an academy and served
as both pastor and teacher After a brief
pastorate at Albany he accepted in 1804 the
presidency of Union College, which he held
until his death. Although the institution was
established nine years before he became its
president, Dr. Nott was the virtual founder
of the college He was a member of its board
of trustees from the first; and it was during
his administration that it rose to collegiate

rank The engineering school, the medical
school, and the Dudley observatory were
organized during his administration. The
discipline of the college under his presidency
was parental He made military drills a fea-
ture of the collegiate work for purposes of
physical training; and he introduced courses
in gardening and agriculture He was active
in the organization of the American Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Education (q v ),
and was its second president In addition
to his participation in various national and
state educational movements, he was an ar-
dent advocate of temperance, antislavery,
and religious and civil liberty. He was a
student of applied physics all his life, and
secured patents on thirty different scientific
devices One of these was the first stove used
foi burning anthracite coal His publications
include Counsels to Young Men (1845), Lec-
tureu on Temperance (1847), and numerous
pamphlets and addresses He died at Scho-
neetady, N Y , Jan 29, 1866 W. S. M.

See UNION COLLEGE.

Reference —

VAN SANTVOORD, C , and LEWIB, T. Memoirs of Elipha
let Nott (New York, 1876 )

NOTTINGHAM, UNIVERSITY COL-
LEGE, ENGLAND — An institution founded
in 1881 by the " Mayor, Aldermen, and Citi-
zens of Nottingham for the advancement of
university learning " A higher literary and
scientific education is provided for students
over sixteen years of age A Royal Charter
of Incorporation was obtained by the college
in 1903 The following departments are
maintained language and literature, includ-
ing most of the "arts" subjects, chemistry
and metallurgy, physics and mathematics,
natural sciences, engineering A Day Train-
ing Depaitment is maintained in connection
with the Board of Education In the techni-
cal branches, courses with a special bearing
on the local lace and hosiery industry are pro-
vided There are no conditions of admission
beyond general fitness to profit by the courses

The College does not grant degrees, but pre-
pares students for the examinations of the
University of London The title of Associ-
ate of University College, Nottingham may,
however, be conferred The College also has
powei to grant a diploma in mining engineer-
ing The majority of the students are en-
i oiled in the evening classes The enrollment
in 1910 was 607 day and 1718 evening stu-
dents The College receives grants from the
Treasury, the Board of Education, the Not-
tingham City and County Councils, and
subscriptions for special purposes from many
private sources, e g the Drapers' Company.

Reference —

England, Board of Education Reports from Univer-
sities and University Colleges (London, annual )

508

NOWELL, ALEXANDER

NUMBER

NOWELL, ALEXANDER ('1507-1602) —
Dean of St Paul's and educationist of Queen
Elizabeth's reign, born at Read Hall, Whalley,
Lancashire Alexander was educated at Mid-
dleton, near Manchester, and " entered Brase-
nose College at the age of thirteen (/ e 1520) , he
resided there thirteen years, and he afterwards
bestowed on the society thirteen scholarships "
He is said to have taught the textbook of
Rudolphus Agncola at twenty years of age
In 1543 he became Master of Westminster
School, described as being then " the chief
seminary in the kingdom," which post he held
till 1555, when he was succeeded by Nicholas
Udall (q v ) Nowell was diligent in teaching
Terence for " pure language " and the original
Greek of St Luke's Gospel and the Acts of the
Apostles for " true religion " Nowell was
made a Prebendary in Westminster Abbey,
and in 1553 was elected M P for Leo in Corn-
wall, from which position he was required to
retire on the ground of " having a voice in the
Convocation-house " After a few years in
exile during Mary's reign, he returned and was
made Dean of St Paul's Nowell was a con-
sulting educationist in the establishment of
schools The Skinners' Company School at
Tonbndge (established by Sir Andrew Judtl)
brought their statutes for revision to Nowell
He himself founded a grammar school at
Middlcton in Lancashire and provided scholar-
ships at Brasenose College, Oxford He drew
up the statutes for the organized Friars school
at Bangor, and nominated the schoolmaster
at Colchester. He himself was actually prin-
cipal of Brasenose College, Oxford, foi a short
time But, as an educationist, No well's name
is most closely associated with the catechisms
which he drew up and presented to Convoca-
tion in 15G2 These seem to have1 been three
in numbei , a larger one suitable for Universi-
ties drawn up at the suggestion of Lord Bur-
leigh, which summarized the doctrines of the
Church of England, was written in Latin, and
fir^t printed in 1570 This was translated into
English by Thomas Norton in the same year,
1570 The middle (size) catechism was also
published in Latin in 1570 and translated into
English by Thomas Norton in 1572 The
Catechismm parvus was published in 1572
All the sizes were translated into Greek bv
William Whitaker The small catechism of
Nowell took its position in the school manual of
religion as the chief and was used in the English
schools of the sixteenth and seventeenth cen-
turies F. W

See CATECHISMS.

References —

Dictionary of National Biography

CHURTON, RALPH Life of Alexander Nowell (Ox-
ford, 1809.)

CORRIE, G E A large Catechism wnttiti in Latin
by Alexandti Nowell, Dean of St Paul's, together
with the some ratechinm translatid into English by
Thomas Norton Edited for the Parkei Society
(Cambridge, 1853 )

JACOBHON, W Catechisnm Latin text with Preface.

Thib is the larger Catechism (Oxford, 1844 )
WATSON, FOSTER English Grammar Schools to 1660.

(Cambridge, 1908 )

NOVA SCOTIA, EDUCATION IN —See
CANADA, EDUCATION IN.

NOVA SYLVARUM.— - See BACON, FRANCIS.

NOVUM ORGANUM —See BACON, FRAN-
CIS

NUMERALS —See NOTATION.

NUMBER — The primitive idea of number
was that of a collection of units, unity itself
being excluded (See UNITY ) It was not
until about the opening of the seventeenth
eentuiy that the view of unity as the source
of number, but not itself a number, was modi-
fied This is only one of many extensions of
the primitive idea, others being seen in the
gradual inclusion of fractions, irrational num-
bers, complex numbers, transcendental numbers
(qqv], and so on There is no satisfactory
elementary definition of number that covers
all of the possible types, but Newton's defini-
tion of number as the ratio of one quantity to
another quantity of the same kind answers
the purposes fairly well Thus the ratio of
4 ft to 1 ft gives the positive integer 4, and
its reciprocal gives the positive fraction J
The ratio of the diagonal to the side of a
square gives the irrational number \/2, and
the ratio of a cncle to its diameter gives the
transcendental numbei *

The distinction between abstract and con-
crete numbei is modern, number being es-
sentially abstiact in any case In the six-
teenth cent ui y the distinction appears in
several works * Ti enchant (1566), for exam-
ple, speaks of the absolute or abstract and the
denominate number (Uabsolu abstrit and

Ic dcnontme) In his category of denominate
numbei s he included not only 3 ft , but 3
fourths (2) (See DENOMINATE NUMBERS)

One of the oldest classifications of numbers
is that based upon finger symbolism ^ (See
FINGER RECKONING ) Numbers were divided
into digits (fingers), aiticles (joints), and com-
posites In the geometry attributed to
Bocthius (7 v ) these three classes are said to
be due to " the ancients " (vetercs appellare
ronxueverunt) They do not seem to have
been known to Pliny (q v ) and Apuleius,
however, because they both speak of finger
symbolism, but make no mention of these
names The digits were the integers from one
to nine, that is, below the " first limit "
(infra primum hmitum), which was ten.
Since, however, one was not considered a num-
ber, the digits were often considered to be
only eight in number, as by Peletier (1549),
who says " ce sont les huict figures, 2, 3, 4,

509

NUMBER

NUMBER FORM

5, 6, 7, 8, 9 " It is only in relatively modern
times that the word has come thus to he used
to represent the characters instead of the
numbers themselves Gemma Fnsius (1540),
for example, uses digit to mean a number,
the figures being called characters or elements
(characteres aiue elcmenta).

The articles were the multiples of ten,
sometimes limited to nine in number (10, 20,

NUMBER FORM — - A mode of imaging
numbers, peculiar to some individuals. Most
individuals, in thinking of numbers, make use
of various forms of mental imagery, differing
according to their individual types, as, for ex-
ample, visual, auditory, or mixed Those
who use number forms are visuahsts, who
arrange the numbers m a definite spatial order
with reference to each other, and with each

r1-2-3-4-etc

rl-2-3-4-5-6

1-7-8-9-1

r-1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9J
-1-2-S-4-6-6-7-8-9-J

5 — d-3-_2 -1 -0-1-2-3-4-5-6-7-8-9J

. . . 90), but usually unlimited (ct in
mfimtum progress, as a work often asoiibed
to Boethms gives it) Articles were later
called " decimal numbers " (nnmbre dcsenal,
Pellos, 1492; lo numero decenalf, Oitega,
1515), and as such they finally disappeared

The composites were numbers composed
of articles and digits, as 17, 48, 25G, etc The
word, however, had another meaning; namely,
that of a imrnboi that is not pi line This
latter meaning finally dominated the other,
and is the one now recognized On account
of this double meaning some writers of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries spoke of a
digit plus an article as a mixed number (q v )
or a compound number (q v ), tenns that have
since been applied to other fonns of number

The oldest known manuscript on arithmetic in
the English language, perhaps of ( 1300, has
this classification " Some numbur is called
digitus latino, a digit in englys Sonmie numbur
is called articulus latino An Articul in englys
Some noiubur is called a composyt in englys "
This classification was found in nrnst of the
medieval hooks on theoretical aiithmetic,
but was usually wanting in the commeicial
works It was unwieldy, because it allowed
for only eight or nine digits, but an unlimited
number of articles and composites Many
attempts were made to avoid the difficulty,
with two resulting plans (1 ) to drop the whole
thing, as Leonardo of Pisa (q v ) did at the
opening of the thiiteenth century, recognizing,
as Ramus (q v ) did much later, that it was
puerile and fruitless (piicrilis et bine uttofructu),
or (2) to attempt to classify the infinite num-
ber of composites The latter plan was fol-
lowed by Sacrobosco (q v ) in the thirteenth
century, who elaborated the classification of
limits, but did not produce a system that any one
seems to have understood

For other forms of number see the following
special topics FIGURATE NUMBERS; FRAC-
TIONS; IRRATIONAL NUMBERS; MIXED NUM-
BERS; NEGATIVE NUMBERS. D. E. S

number occupying a definite spatial posi-
tion The .spatial relationships which the
numbers thus assume are various, but the
form always remains the same in the same
individual. The figure shows two such num-
ber forms, the first of which was ut>ed by
a student and the second of which was substi-
tuted for the first nt a later period It has
been held that thinking of numbers in such

concrete terms is an awkward mode of con-
ceiving the number relationships, but those
who use number forms assert that they are
very useful, particularly in connection with the
keeping of engagements and the remembering
of dates in history, etc Similar forms are
often used in connection with the thinking of
the days of the week, months of the year, and
the seasons There is some evidence to show
that the tendency to think in terms of such

510

NUMBER, PSYCHOLOGY OF

NURSERY RHYMES

forms is inherited, as the tendency seems to be
common to members of the same family In
general, these phenomena may be grouped
under the class of phenomena called synaBsthe-
sia. Synaesthesias are held by some authorities
to be moie frequently found in adolescents
than persons of other ages E. H C.

References —

CALKINH, M W S> iupMtht»8ia. Atner Jour Psuch

1895, Vol Vll, pp W)-l()7
GALTON, F Inquiries into Human Faculty, im 114-

H5 (New York, 1883 )
JUDD, C H Psychology, pp 242-244 (Now \ork

1907 )

NUMBER, PSYCHOLOGY OF — Psy-
chologically there is a stage of evolution of
consciousness of quantity which piecedes the
development of the nunibei idea One icc-
ognizen the presence oi all the ai tides of iur-
nituie in his room, or the withdrawal of
familiar articles, without going thiough the
elaborate piocess of counting Animals me
able to recognize that one of their Aroung has
been taken away without being able to count
This direct recognition of quantity i\ IIOWCACI,
\ery limited As soon as the objects giow at
all numeious a special svstem of one to one
designation must be developed 01 the individ-
ual object will be lost in the mass This
necessity of maikmg the objects in lajge gioups
undoubtedly iurmshed the piactieal motive
which drove pnmitivc man to the use of his
fingers and to the use of pebbles, shells, 01 othei
devices foi counting

After a numbci system was developed, the
next stage of development consisted in the
disco\ciy of number relations (Jiven thiee
objects and two objects, theie is always a like
icsult lioin the bringing togethei of the two
groups The discoveivoi the iclationsof num-
bers was a slow process The ancient Checks
weregreatlv interested in ceitain charactenstics
of number groups and built up a bodv of
speculative4 philosophv aiound such sini])le
matteis as the indivisibihtvr of prime num-
bers In sharp contrast, howevei, to then
large contributions to geometrv, they did not,
contribute to the technique of numbci ma-
nipulation to any gieat extent

The slow evolution of numbei ideas in the
western world is due in large* measuie to the
clumsy and unsuggestive teiminologv which
grew up especially in the wiitten symbols

From a puiely psychological point of view,
one further geneial consideration mav be
pointed out It is often urged that number
problems be made conciete, that the mteiests
of children in the schools may be aroused by
combining number work and shop work In-
deed, some have gone so far as to suggest that
number operations be allowed to arise inci-
dentally out of school work, the number work
being motivated by the necessities of measure-
ment which confront the pupil In reply to

these proposed reiorms, it is to be pointed out
that the number idea is an abstract idea,
different in character fiom the idea which is de-
rived directly from the inspection or manipula-
tion of any object The number idea develops
by the cultivation of a technique of num-
ber operations wholly different in character
from the technique of direct constructive
manipulation That this abstract, highly
developed system of ideas will ever grow up in-
cidentally is an idle hope Number con-
sciousness must be carefully cultivated, and
number opeiations must be mastered by a
concentration of attention on these opera-
tions No amount of illustrative material will
give rise to numbci ideas C. H J

References —

FINI-, H B IntiodiKtion to ColUge Algebra (Bos-
ton, 1(K)4 )

.Jrnn, C H (rtnttn P*y<holotw foi Trackers, ch IX
(New ^ork, 1<KM )

LvviMtNi-, S l\mholoyic <lu Xombrt tt dcx Opera-
tton* thnnntuirL* de /' Ardhnntiqin (Pans, 1907 )

M<(ALELL\N, J \ and DEWFY, ,1 The Pxycholoyy
of Numlm (New York, 1H95 )

^ OUNC,, J W A Thi Teaching of Mathematics
(London, 11)10 )

NUMBER WORK — See MENTAL ARITH-
METIC

NUMERALS — See NOTATION

NUNS — See CONVENT SCHOOL; RELI-
uiors TE\CHIN(, ORDERS OF THE ROMAN
CATHOLIC CHURCH

NURSERY —See INFANT EDUCATION,
KINDERGARTEN, NURSERY RHYMES, also
CHILD PSYCHOLOGY

NURSERY RHYMES — Those rhymes,
ditties and jingles, ihythmic stories and non-
sense \ erses that have been recited or sung
to children time out of mind The most uni-
veisnl of them aie sporadic and have grown
out of the universal personal i elation of mothei
and child -- others are the debris of ancient
folkloie bits of old ballads, rhyming, and
theiefoie easily icinembeied, riddles, proverbs,
etc , that haAC caught the eai of infancy
The uneri ing instinct of mother, nurse, and
child has seized upon those scraps and snatches
which were best suited to the awakening
senses of the infant and without knowing that
the\ were obeying a great psycho-pedagogical
law mothers and nuises have for centuries
been .stimulating the sense of rhyme and
rhythm, and exciting the wonder, fancy, and
imagination of the children, with the material
that awakens the best response and has the
greatest educative value at the infant stage.

The elements in them which are so attrac-
tive to the infant ear and mind, are doubtless,
first of all, the rhyming jingle, as in Higgled)/
l>ujglc(hj mi/ fat hen , then, perhaps, the nonsense

511

NURSERY RHYMES

NURSERY RHYMES

surprises, as in Hey diddle diddle the cat and
the fiddle; Three wise men of Gotham, Vli tell
you a story about Jack a Nory; and then the
dramatic action as in Little Miss Muffct and
Little Jack Homer The most popular with
children are generally those in which all these
elements are most markedly present

While no one knows when or where the
majority of these nursery rhymes originated,
many of them can be traced back to then
souices; but it would overstep our space to
attempt to point them out Halhwell indi-
cated the origin of several, but many more have
been traced since he wrote As most of them
have been handed down by word of mouth
for centuries, there are many variants of them
to be found among English-speaking people
every where, and the part of England from which
the early settlers of certain sections of the
United States came may often be suggested
by the variant of a nuisery ihyme which pre-
vails among them to-day

Early Collections of Nursery Rhymes —
Orally current for centuries, tins " light litera-
ture of the infant scholar," snatches of which
are caught in the literature of all the ages, was
not collected in English until about the yeai
1756, when John Newbery, Oliver Goldsmith's
friend and publisher, brought out in London
Mother Goose Melody, Sonnets for ttu Ciadle, in
Two Parts " Part I," lan the title, " contains
the celebrated songs and lullabies of the good
old nurses calculated to amuse the children and
to excite them to sleep, Part II, those of that
sweet songster and nurse of wit and humor,
Master William Shakespeare, embellished with
cuts and illustrated with notes and maxims,
historical, philosophical, and critical " It was
almost immediately afterwaids reprinted by
Isaiah Thomas, the famous punter of Woices-
ter, Mass

The immediate source of the name Mother
Goose is to be found in Les Contes de ma Merc
I'Oye — the title which Charles Perrault chose
for his collection of fairy tales published in
French in 1697 These were not published
in English until 1729, but Moedei de Ganz and
Mother Goose were already familiar in nursery
rhymes which had been orally current for
many years, and John Newberv appropriated
the name Mother Goose for more than one
of his little books

At the time this book was compiled Oliver
Goldsmith was in the constant emplov of the
publisher Newbery, editing his little books,
concocting his advertisements, writing his pref-
aces, devising his title pages, etc , and there is
little doubt that he and Newbery made this
collection together The nursery rhymes are
annotated in a jocose and sometimes rather
coarse style that would hardly suit modern
t astes

This collection went through a few editions
in PJnglancl nnd in America and then, urder
the influence of the drearv tendencies of the

time, the nursery rhymes were neglected for
a long period in books, though they continued
to live in the hearts of the children and in the
hearts and minds of their mothers and nurses.

Some of them, however, were from time to
time appended as " fillers " to other little books
by Newbery and othei publishers of books
for children who immediately succeeded him,
and Joseph Ritson published in 1810 a collec-
tion of them under the title of Gammer Gur-
ton's GUI land, or the Nursery Parnassus, a
Choice Collection of Pretty Songs and Verses
foi the Amusement of all Little Good Children
who can neither read nor i un

With the beginning of the interest in folk-
lore the nursery rhvmes natuially attracted
the attention of students and collectors, and
in 1X41 Halhwell printed his first collection
for the Percy Society Halhwell has enriched
his collection of these rhymes and jingles with
many valuable notes, and his book has been
the storehouMLJrom which all the later collec-
tions of nurserv rhymes have been taken
Although he utilized the collections already
made, there is no doubt that many of the
ihvnies in his book weie collected for the first
time from oral tiadition, as his collection
is much larger than anv other But the New-
bery book was evident! v unknown to him or
to Ritson, as neithei of them makes anv
reference to it in his pieface It was really
not until 1844, or thereabouts, that the collec-
tion took strong hold of the American people,
although, of course, the ihymes had been im-
ported into the country and weie orally cui-
rent here, as in the mothei country, from the
earliest colonial days The Boston editions
of Monroe and Francis, issued between 1824
and I860, have probably tended more than
anything else to keep Mother Goose alive in
this country The most complete edition,
which included Halli well's notes and nearly
all the illustrations that had been made up to
that time for The Nursery Rhymes, called
the Camden Edition, and compiled by Mrs
Valentine, was published sometime after the
latter date It is now out of print and scarce

An absui d story was set on foot in the preface
to an edition of the nursery rhymes published
in 1S77 to the effect that Mother Goose was
a Boston woman and that she wrote and her
husband, a printer, published the first col-
lection of the nursery rhymes in 1719 The
story is based on the statement of some one
who thought he had once seen a fragment of
such a book, but no one else ever saw or heard
of it Mr W H. Whitmore's The original
Mother Goose Melody, 1892, tells all that can
be told of the story and utterly explodes the
myth of a Boston Mother Goose.

Analysis. — The best way, perhaps, to study
the range of the English nursery rhymes in
order to get a view of their educational value
and interest, is in certain divisions arid groups
which to some extent follow the progiess of the

512

NURSERY RHYMES

NURSERY RHYMES

development, of the perceptions and interests
of the children (I) The Mother-play division
contains those nursery rhymes which grow out
of the intimate personal relationship of mother
and child the groups in which are the lullabies,
cradle songs, slumber songs, etc , the finger
plays and othei games of mother and child
(II) The Mother-stones division comprises
stories about animals, stories about other peo-
ple; the times, seasons, etc , rhyming ABC's,
proverbs and riddles, paradoxes, etc ; cumu-
lative stories (III) The Child-play division
includes counting-out rhymes and children's
games

The Mother -play Division — The first thing
the baby hears is the lullaby or the cradle song,
such as II ILK!) a bye, baby, etc — The earliest
nursery rhymes said or sung to the infant are
accompanied by movements and gestures,
the sense of touch is used to aid the memory
Some of these are called fin get play*, such as
Pat a Cake, Pat a Cake , Tickle yc, tickle ye in
your hand, Brow Bendei , Dance ThumMin,
dance, etc , and with their appiopnate move-
ments they are among the first games that
awaken childish glee The feet as well as the
fingers figuic in some of these, such as Tht*
little pig went to niaihet.

Froebel, the founder of the kmdeigaiten, fiist
made definite educational application of these
plays and tales The first collection of these,
the Mutter- und Koseheder, was published m 1844
(See further, FROEBEL and KINDERGARTEN )

Other rhyming games with movements in the
division of mother plays are the Dancinq and See-
saw rhymes, such as Dance, little baby, See-^aw
seeradown , Ride a CoeJ\-hoise, etc

Tfie Mot fief -stories Dimsion — In this divi-
sion children early make acquaintances with
animals and their doings as in Ding Dong Bell ,
Three Little Kitten* , I love Little PuM>y , etc
Stories about other children and the doings
of older folk such as Little Boy Blue, Robin
and Ri chard , Jack and Gill , Little Tom Tucker ,
Tom, Tom, the Pipei^ Son form another con-
siderable group The flight of time, days and
nights, weeks, months, and years, the sun,
moon, and stars, the seasons and the weather,
etc , furnish subjects for another, which may
be illustrated by Cock Ciow* in the Mom ,
March Winds and May Flower*, Thirty Dai/^
hath September, Rainbow at Night, etc The
most typical of the rhyming ABC's, of which
there are several, is A was an apple pie , of the
riddles, Two legs sat upon three legs r Old M othei
Twitchett; of the pro verbs, See a pin and pick it
up; of the paradoxes, Thiee ehildien sliding
on the ice; There was a man of our town , If all
the world was apple pie , Theie was an old woman
and what do you think / The man in the wilder-
ness asked me The cumulative stories, of
which This is the house that Jaek built or The
Old Woman and her pig may be taken as the
type, are among the oldest known in this
group. No form of narrative is so easy to re-
vot.. TV — 2 L 5

member as this, — and it is small wonder that
it is one which particularly appeals to the child

The Child-play Division — The third divi-
sion into which the nursery rhymes fall, that
of child plai/j embraces the important group
of " counting-out rhymes " in which the fingers
are employed, of these theie aie literally
hundreds, each with countless variations in
different districts Familiar examples are
Eeny, meeny, miny, nw , Inter y, rni7itery, eutery,
corn] Ei* mi, decna, dtna, dua\f Handy, pandy,
Jacky, dandi) , Oneiy, two-ry, ickery Ann The
subject of the rhymes of this class has
been very fully treated by Mr H Car-
nngton Bolton in his Countuig-oid Rhymes of
Children (London, 1888) This group also
includes dramatic games and games of skill
and chance Miss Alice B Genuine in hei
Stud i/ of Childicn\ Games has classified all
the dramatic panics under the incidents which
show the customs and iites from which
the games have descended The customs
shown 111 the games are, among others, those
connected with marriage, love, and courtship,
funerals, liar vest, well worship, tree worship,
foundation sacrifice, witches, child-stealing,
and divination There are contests between
two rival parties foi the taking of prisoners and
the possession of giound terntoiv, and contests
between animals of prey and their victims,
those games dealing with marnage, love and
courtship, funeials, and harvest, aie the most
popular and the most widespread Among
these games tnav be mentioned, Nut* in May ,
Here we go nmnd the Mulberry Bush, London
Bridge, Orange and Lemons The guessing
game of Buck, buck, hoir man if fingeis do I
hold up? through the modern Italian mora
has been traced to ancient (lieece

Distribution of the Nursery Rhymes — The
nursery rhymes furnish a rich field of study
fiom the historical and sociological point of
view, the point, of view of the folklonst, and
manv others, but their chief interest to the
educator lies in the foregoing presentation
It may, howe\ er, be mstiuctive to glance at
the remarkable distribution of the nursery
rhymes all over the woild Every nation has
its nursery ihymes and jingles and there is a
very close1 family resemblance in all of them
Counterparts of manv of our English nursery
rh vines are found among the ancient Hebrews,
the Zulus of South Africa, and the Indians of
North Ameiica The closest resemblances are
to be found among those nursery rhymes which
are concerned with things personal to the
mother and child, the lullabies, the finger
play and dancing games, and the stories of
the cumulative ordei Those in the other
divisions differ somewhat in scheme and
general idea, and still more in detail, espe-
cially as we approach the didactic rhymes,
alphabets, proverbs, riddles, and paradoxes
National characteristics, religion, climatic and
other conditions, of course, are responsible
13

NURSERY RHYMES

NURSING, EDUCATION FOR

for many divergencies of detail L' Amour
and Rondes du Manage, the dancing rhymes
and games play a far more important part in
children's rhymes and games of the continent
of Europe than in our more Puritanical collec-
tion. The devil and the evil eye figure very
frequently in the nursery rhymes of Southern
France and of Italy, and these bristle with
allusions to the method of warding ofl the
effect of the jettaluru, such as, for example
Si tu renconlras Ic diablcf Je hn fenn ma*
comes. The game of houeypois jus played in
France has a religious and a supersl itious side as
well It is the good God who comes to buy a
pot of flowers, when the selection is made, the4
one who is selected is treated as in the English
game, the devil is supposed to get the one God
does not buy, and all the othcis make the sign
against the evil eye as they chase him away

But perhaps these national characteristics
are more markedly shown in all languages
in the children's riddles and counting-out
rhymes The riddles, manv of them, plav
on the same words and subjects as do oms,
others deal with matters of \\hich \\e do not
openly speak, especially among 0111 little ones,
most of the counting-out rhymes aie con-
structed upon pretty much the same plan as
our own familiar groups already cited, and arc1
as numerous arid varied, some of them also
contain things which we could not tolerate, and
God and the devil, priests and nuns con-
stantly figure in them

The German Kinder-rcimc, Liedchen, N/w/f,
and Marchen are, as might be expected, more
fantastic and fanciful, and thus approach more
nearly to the character of the Swedish and Dan-
ish, which have a peculiar sweetness, grace,
arid charm The children of Holland and the
Flemish folk have a very wide range of tradi-
tional nursery literature, and in sound and in
sense they approach very closelv to those of
England The characteristics of the people
of the olden times come out here very strongly
Eating and drinking and wife-beating figure1
prominently in them, and ships and cows and
sheep take the place of other objects which
figure in the rhymes of other countries

There are probably more nursery rhymes
m China than can be found in England and
America Mr Isaac Taylor Headland has
in his possession over six hundred, collected,
for the most part, in two out of eighteen
provinces In many of these rhymes there
are features common to our own Mother Goose

C. W.

References —
BLOW, S. E Songs and Music of FroebeVs Motherplay

(New York, 1895 )

BLOW, S E , and ELIOT, H R Mottoes and Cornmen-
tanea of Friedrich FroebeVa Mother play (New
York, 1895)

CHAMBERS, R Popular Rhymes of Scotland (Pub-
lished 1841 ) New edition (London and Edin-
burgh, 1870)

DWIGHT, F. E , and JARVIS, J. The Motherplay and
Nursery Songs (Boston, 1878 )

ECKKNMTMN, LiNA Comparative Ktudwtt in Nursery
Rhytnas (London, 1906 )

GEOHGENS, J D M utter- Buchlem (Leipzig, n d )

HALE, E E The only true Mother Goose Melodies.
(Boston, 1905)

HALLIWELL, J O Popular Rhymes and Nursery
Talex (London, 1849 )

HALHLY, R V Forgotten Books of the American
Nurtitry ^Boston, 1911 )

HE \ULANI>, I T Chincm Mother Goose Rtn/mw (New
York, 1900)

KOHLLH, V , and WKULK, A Die Hewegungmtpielc des
Kind<'rgnrt< /M (Weimiir, 1899)

L\N(i, \ , ed Tht Nurstry Rhyin< Book (London,
1K<)S )

LOKD, F and E Mothti tfonflk, (/w/wfs and Monet*.
(London, 1S8S)

VOULSSON, K Fingu-play** for N m\tiut> and Kinder-
garten* (Boston, 189,1 )

HOLLAND, E Ad WHS <t Juix (t< /' Knfauct (PariK,
1S8.1 )

V \LENTINK, Mus, ed Nuisery RhyrntK, Tales and
Jinfjlcs The Cainden edition, 400 ilhih (Lon-
don, n d )

WE.LHII, C1 A Book of Aw/ ««•'/// Rhymts, being Mother
(ioo*i Melodn*, ananaed in the Order of A ttractive-
m^s and Interest (Boston, 1902)
Mothn Goow'* Mdody, a Fat-vitnilt Reproduction of
the earlt< \l known Edition In Landmark? of tin
//is/wjy ttnd Dnwlopnunt of Bookb for Children
(London and Boston, Mass , 1904 )

WHITMORF, W H , eel Tht original Mothtr Goos('«
Mdody «.s tinned by John Newbery of London,
< 17b(), Jxaiali Thomas of Wotifstti, Mann ,
( 178/5, and Munroe and Franca, c 178<~> (Bos-
ton and London, 1892 )

NURSES, CHILDREN'S —INFANT EDU-
CATION

NURSES IN SCHOOLS —Sec MEDIC \L IN-
SPECTION OF SCHOOLS, C'ONT \cnous I)ISE\SKS

NURSING, EDUCATION FOR — His-
torical — Among the occupations of women,
nursing ranks among the oldest It is indeed
hardly possible to concern* of a time in human
history when mothers did not care for their
children and for the sick and helpless of then
families The slowly accumulated skill and
knowledge thus gathered through the experi-
ence of primitive women, and passed down
by tradition to successive generations, built
up the rudiments of primitive nursing, which,
mingled with those superstitions which have
ever clustered about the sick bed, became a
substantial part of the basis of primitive medi-
cine The records of ancient civilizations,
Egypt, India, Greece, Rome, show the growth
of medical and sanitary knowledge, discuss
physicians of various types, describe hospitals,
and lay down elaborate procedures for the
care of the sick There is little mention made
of nurses, but it seems probable that certain
nursing services were rendered by the " temple-
women " or " priestesses," since it was the
common custom to bring the sick to the
temples for healing, where religious ceremonial
could be combined with practical measures of
care or treatment

Between the nurses of the pre-Christian
era and our own the historical links are broken,
but there is a continuity of record from the
days of the early Christian workers down to

514

NURSING, EDUCATION FOR

NURSING, EDUCATION FOR

the present time With the diaconate of the
early church, the history of Christian nursing
begins, and from the earliest apostolic days
the care of the sick and poor was placed in
the hands of deacons and deaconesses, who
were consecrated by the church and ranked
with the clergy Their chief functions were
to visit and care for the sick m their homes,
to assist the needy and to comfort the afflicted.
They also brought the sick with them into
their own homes to be cared for The order
grow steadily, spread far and wide into other
countries, and lasted for several centuries
Eventually it became so strong that restric-
tions were placed upon its activities and free-
dom, it was brought into stricter subjection
to the clergy, declined in importance, and was
finallv abolished altogether m the sixth cen-
tury.

The order of deaconesses may well be looked
upon with respect, as ha\mg laid the founda-
tion not only of nursing but of modern works
of charity It was replaced by monastic com-
munities which had in the fifth century become
numerous and important, and were already
exercising guardianship, under the control of the
church, over the hospitals and other charitable
institutions, which were multiplying m response
to the spirit of the time With these commu-
nities begins the history of the religious nursing
orders whose work among the sick presents a
shining record of heroic and devoted service,
covering a period of over a thousand years
Among the more famous orders, the Francis-
cans (</*'), the Auguhtmians, and the Benedic-
tines (q v ) have been especially noted for their
woik among the sick For twelve hundred
years the Augustmian Sisters formed the nurs-
ing staff of the Hotel Dieu in Pans, and from
this ancient order came the hospital sisters
who in 1039 crossed the Atlantic, to establish
in Canada a place where the sick could be
cared for

There were many other nursing orders not
all truly monastic in type The Crusades early
m the Middle Ages brought into being the illus-
trious military nursing orders, and the Knights
Hospitallers became famous for their splendid
system of hospitals, an interesting example of
which is found in the old hospital of St John
at Valetta Other nursing orders weie the free
secular associations, of which the Begumes of
Belgium formed the most interesting example
They showed an effort awav from the rigid
formalism of the monastery towaid spon-
taneous self-expression in work and life
Their little houses clustered around the hos-
pital and nursing was their important activity
One of the most famous arid the largest of all
nursing orders is that of the Sisters of Chanty,
founded by St Vincent de Paul in 1034. Re-
cent data showed this order established in
twenty-four countries, and working, either
serving or directing, in about 2000 hospitals
and other institutions The sisters have an

honorable record of service in epidemics, war,
and other disasters, and several have been
decorated by France with the Legion d'Hon-
neur Altogether, the iccords of the religious
nursing orders are among the most splendid
pages in history and their contributions to
human welfare among the most valuable

The suppression of the monasteries was
followed by a tune of great hardship for the
sick poor No new system was available to
replace that of the religious oiders, the sick
were more and more relegated to the care of
servants and attendants, the art of nursing
was neglected, the status of the nurse became
extremely low Writers agree that in all
matters relating to hospitals and the care of
the sick a period of stagnation set m during
the latter part of the seventeenth century,
lasting until the early part of the nineteenth
The condition of nursing during the eighteenth
century is cleaily shown in John Howard's
reports of hospitals arid lazarettos, and the
typical nurse of the early nineteenth century
has been immortalized by Dickens in Martin
Chuzzlcwit The servant nurses of this period
show nursing brought down to a state of
marked degradation They had become free
from any control or supervision of women,
and were everywhere almost entirely subject
to male officials They were ignorant and un-
taught, overworked and underpaid, ill-housed,
ill-fed, and held in contempt No elevating
or enlightening influences reached them
Where the religious oiders had seen in their
work among the sick a direct and living serv-
ice to God, these persons saw only disagree-
able, laborious tusks, illumined neither by
religious zeal nor by scientific knowledge
Nursing became simple, hopeless drudgery

Nineteenth Century Reforms: Kaiserwerth
— While the actual reform in nursing began
with the founding of the School for Deacon-
esses at Kaiserwerth on the Rhine, there were
various factors and influences leading up to it
The continued existence of small groups or
communities of women selected to work among
the sick poor, usually in connection with the
church, often consecrated with religious cere-
monies, showed that the ordei of deaconesses
had never wholly died out The form only had
changed The spirit and service remained,
and these groups of workers among the sick
and poor were virtually deaconesses The
hope of reviving the ancient churchly order
was frequently expressed by some of the clergy
during the eighteenth century, and pamphlets
were written urging it Groups of such
workers were seen by Pastor Fhedner, the
founder of the Kaiserwerth Schools, among
the Moravians and Mermomtes in Holland,
and the profound impression they made on
him had doubtless a direct influence in the
formation of his plans

During the latter part of the eighteenth
and early in the nineteenth centuries there

515

NURSING, EDUCATION FOR

NURSING, EDUCATION FOR

were interesting attempts at formulating in-
struction in nursing. A number of small
nursing manuals appeared, and m several
places courses of instruction for hospital
attendants were offered. The more note-
worthy manuals were those of Dr May (Un-
terncht fur Krankenw&rter, Mannheim, 1784)
and Dr. Pf abler (Unterricht fur Personen wekhc
Kranke warten, 1793), in which principles of nurs-
ing as well as details were discussed These were
widely read at the time, and may be looked
upon as important early contributions on this
subject.

Courses of instruction for male nurses were
established in Magdeburg, Prussia, at the end
of the eighteenth century, and institutes for
hospital attendants were founded in Vienna
m 1812; in Strassburg in 1814, and at the
Charite" Hospital, Berlin, in 1830 Writers
of the day speak of the opposition to these
efforts, which were apparently looked upon
as a dangerous innovation. The courses
offered usually covered two or three months,
and consisted solely of lectures by physicians
There could, of course, be no practical
teaching without nurses to teach their practice,
and thus only the principles of nursing, but
not nursing itself, could be taught A cer-
tificate was given at the School for Attend-
ants in Berlin, and, as there was an old Prus-
sian law relating to these, here may perhaps
be found the earliest example of the recogni-
tion of a legal status for nurses A stimulus
more direct perhaps than any of those, was the
wonderful activity of the women of Germany
in hospitals and among the bick during
the War of Freedom. A plea for a definite
revival of the diaconate, which would provide
Christian women to do Christian nursing, was
made by Fliedrier, who points to the work of
these women in projecting his plans for the
Training School for Deaconesses, which was
later established at Kaiserwerth and jointly
directed and developed by himself and his
noble wife Fredericke. The importance and
significance of this revival of the evangelical
order of deaconesses can only be fully understood
by careful study of the movement and the time.
The plan of training embraced many activities,
but so far as nursing is concerned the whole
development of the modern system may be traced
directly through its founder, Florence Nightin-
gale, to this school where she first went to study
nursing methods.

The fundamental principles upon which the
system of training in nursing was based were
that the hospital and other institutions existed
only to provide suitable places for training
the pupils; that systematic and continuous
instruction was indispensable, that nurses
could not be narrow specialists, and must be
thoroughly prepared in every phase of their
work For this purpose some time must be
passed in each department to insure famili-
arity with all; and most important of all

was the large authority given to the woman at
the head, the matron who was made respon-
sible for the entire arrangement of work, its
control and direction, and the discipline of
the pupils, — the restoration of an office which
had long been extinct in the civil hospitals of the
lime The general plan and system of work
was substantially that of the modern training
school, so closely have the lines then laid
down been followed The candidate was re-
quired to bring letters from clergyman and
physician There was a period of probation
to test the personal and moral qualities, as
well as the mental and physical There was
a preparatory department, the pupil was
under no expense for living or tuition, and
received a small allowance The work was
graded, and so were the workers, through
several ranks The chain of responsibility
was unbroken from probationer to superin-
tendent

Nursing training was given in the hospital,
where the pupil was to be taught the care of
acute, chrome, and special cases, and parish
or visiting nursing among the poor, thus fol-
lowing 111 the footsteps of the older religious
orders A large place was given to religious
work; and nursing was but one branch of the
training of deaconesses The organization
shows strikingly the combined influences of
ecclesiastical and military ideals The title
of Sister (which still exists in many European
and all English hospitals to-dav), the time
devoted to religious exercises and teaching,
the insistence upon self-sacrifice as a part of a
nurse's armamentarium came down from the
religious nursing orders. The sharply defined
organization for the fixing of responsibility,
deference to superiority in rank, unquestion-
ing obedience to command, precision of orders,
forms, reports, and records, all bespeak mili-
tary traditions. But the introduction of a
system of training and teaching, the humane
attitude towards patients as individuals, the
respect for labor, the comparative freedom of
opinion and action which were developed at
Kaiserwerth were all new. The deaconess
was not a nun under another garb She rep-
resented a new idea, — that education and
training for work were essential Kaiser-
werth, in fact, with its system of theory and
practice, may perhaps be looked upon as an
early instance of an attempt at genuine vo-
cational education, and as such would justly
claim to have set in motion far-reaching and
permanent influences

The Kaiserwerth deaconesses now number
many thousands They have branch houses
all over Germany and in foreign countries;
have under their care numerous convalescent
hospitals, orphanages, infant schools, special
schools for blind, deaf and dumb, though the
educational system and ideals of the Flicdners
have not been generally maintained The life
and work of the deaconess have come more and

516

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NURSING, EDUCATION FOR

more closely under clerical control , and re-
strictions, economic on the one hand, and in-
tellectual and social on the other, have placed
her out of the stream of nursing progress.
In parish and mission work, however, she is
still an important and beneficent factor

From Kaiser werth came the impetus which
resulted in the first effort in England to give
practical training to nurses. Mrs. Elizabeth
Fry visited Kaiserwerth in 1840, and was so
deeply impressed with its system and methods
that on her return she brought about the
establishment in London of an Institute for
Nursing which was connected for practical
purposes with Guy's Hospital In 1848 St
John's House, an Anglican Nursing Order,
and connected with Kings College Hospital,
was founded in London The preliminary
plans call it "a collegiate institution " to
prepare for work among the sick Several
writers, physicians arid others discussed m the
periodicals and press of the early nineteenth
century the education of women for the care of
the sick, and Southey contributed in his Col-
logmen in Society an interesting and suggestive
presentation of the subject as it then appeared
Plans, projects, and actual effort had, however,
one distinctive feature Thev provided a
religious or semirehgious order of workers,
and reproduced with more or less fidelity the
forms of the past

The Work of Florence Nightingale — The
creation of a new order, the establishment of
new principles, and the founding of a system
to develop and peipetaate them was the \\ork
of a famous English woman, Florence Night-
ingale While Miss Nightingale is best known
throughout the world for her remarkable work
in army nursing and sanitary reform during
the Crimean war, her greatest contiibution
to human welfare must ever he in the system
of education in nursing which she originated,
established, and virtually endowed at St
Thomas's Hospital, London, in I860 Miss
Nightingale (born in 1820) came of a family
of wealth, social position, and public spirit
She was highly and thoroughly educated in
mathematics, natuial science, classics, and lan-
guages, and had traveled extensively She
was by nature a student and an investigator
Careful mental training and discipline placed
her in a position to work effectively, and her
natural interest in the sick, which \vas dis-
played at an early age, led her to that pro-
longed and searching study upon which her
brilliant achievements in sanitary and hospi-
tal reform rest She sought every available
opportunity for personal observation and
study of the sick for practical experience,
was twice at Kaiserwerth in training, and
devoted years to a careful and exhaustive
study of hospitals, organization, and nursing
methods in every European country. In the
awful crises of the Crimean war, the English
government turned to her as the one person

qualified not only by special genius, but by
special and severe preparation, to handle the
colossal problems of sickness and suffering in
the army, and to render the great services which
her country needed Her experiences and
observations there are embodied in invaluable
works on sanitary reform in the army, but the
vital and permanent results of her work were
the removal of old conceptions of nursing as a
charity, a self-sacrificing labor for others, a
meritorious act leading to heavenly reward, or
a penance, and the recognition of nursing as a
part of sanitary science, and of pity and pallia-
tion as unacceptable substitutes for preven-
tion Miss Nightingale's own view of nursing
should be presented " Nursing is putting
us in the best possible condition for Nature
to restore or to preserve hoalth,to prevent or to
cure disease or injury to enable Nature

to set up her restorative processes, to expel
the intruder disturbing her rules of health and
life Partly, perhaps mainly, upon nurs-

ing must depend whether Nature succeeds or
fails in her attempt to cure sickness Nurs-
ing is therefore to help the patient to live
Nursing is an art, and an art requiring an or-
ganized practical and scientific training For
nursing is the skilled servant of medicine,
surgery, and hygiene "

The Nightingale School, founded by the
contributions of a grateful British public to
Miss Nightingale, was established on the fol-
lowing basis It was secular and nonsecta-
rian It had a close, organic relation to a hos-
pital of high standing with adequate facilities
for teaching and experience All practical
work was based on careful teaching Hos-
pital officers in medical and nursing depart-
ments were specially paid for teaching; the
head nurses foi piactical teaching, the medical
men foi lecturing, the matron for organizing
and directing the work of the pupils. The
school in its educational functions was inde-
pendent of the hospital, though the students
were subordinate to hospital regime, in so far
as work \vas concerned The theoretical
teaching was by means of lectures, pre-
scribed reading, and written reports The
actual instruction m the beginning covered
but one yeai It was the idea of the school
to prepare women to carry this system of
organization and training out into other hos-
pitals and infirmaries, to become, as it were,
pioneer s and reformers, and this plan has been
faithfully carried out Preparation for pri-
vate nursing was not included in the original
plan, but nursing in the homes of the poor was
definitely provided for. The Nightingale
system, as it was called, spread quickly into
the hospitals of the United Kingdom, and later
found its way into various European countries
The introduction into the hospitals of a body
of refined and educated women as workers and
students brought about in them a striking
transformation, a " moral renovation " as

NURSING, EDUCATION FOR

NURSING, EDUCATION FOR

one writer called it The lessoning of the
mortality rate, the rapid advance of educa-
tional and scientific work and experiment in
medicine and surgery, the rising confidence of
the public, are unquestionably due largely to the
cooperation with the physician of the scien-
tifically educated modern nurse

American Advance — In America the hrst
attempt to provide instruction for hospital
attendants was made by Di Valentine Sea-
maii, a medical officer of the New York Hos-
pital, who in 17S9 established there a course
of lectures in connection with the Maternity
Department Other efforts were made by the
Society of Friends in Philadelphia in 1839, and
by the Woman's Hospital in 1801, while in
1802 the Hospital for Women and Children in
Hoxbury, Mass , opened a school offering a year
of practice and training in the hospital with a
course of lectures from physicians, to which
outsiders were admitted. This school is still
in existence and has done good work

In 1873 three important training schools
were established in this country, all influenced
directly or indirectly by Miss Nightingale's
teaching and system These were the schools
connected with Bellevue Hospital, New York,
the Connecticut Training School, New Haven,
and the Massachusetts General Hospital at
Boston They were established by commit-
tees or bodies, usually of women, who under-
took to provide suitable quarters for a group
of students, and to pay for theoietical instruc-
tion, seeking only opportunity for practical in-
struction and training in the hospital In each
instance, as in the establishment of the Night-
ingale School, there was some opposition from
medical men, who, whether satisfied or not with
the existing conditions, were unwilling to accept
the idea of educated women assisting them
in the care and treatment of the sick The
students paid nothing for instruction or for
living expenses, the school supplying one and
the hospital the other in return for services
rendered Usually also the hospital paid a
small allowance monthly to the students,
designed to meet the expenses of uniforms,
textbooks, etc The training covered one
year and the students were sent out into fam-
ilies during the second year, ostensibly for
practice and experience in private nursing,
but in reality to bring in, through payment
for their services, additional funds for the
maintenance of the school or hospital At
the end of two years of successful work a cer-
tificate was given

The effect of the training school upon the
hospital was as markedly beneficial in tins
country as in England, and shortly hospitals
grasped the economic significance of the sys-
tem, and began to establish schools of their
own.

Medicine and surgery were making rapid
progress and bringing about a great expansion
in hospital buildings and work. Public charity

and philanthropy was expressing itself in
more and better hospital facilities, and more
and more were these institutions leaning upon
the training school The rapid growth in
training schools during the last three decades
is shown in the statistics of the Bureau of
Education for 1911 These show in 1880,
15 schools, in 1890, 35 schools Statistics
secured by Mr Sutton and published in his
Hospital and Training School Directory in
1910 show over 1300 training schools in this
country at that date There aie said to be
about 30,000 students in the training schools
of the country at this date (1913)

These schools are almost universally owned
and managed by hospitals, whether these in-
stitutions are state, municipal, endowed, or
private and special corporations The respon-
sibility of the school is readily assumed by hos-
pital authorities for the following direct and
definite reasons, and others more or less subtle
and indirect first, the obvious economy of
carrying on a large, essential, and highly im-
portant department through a staff of stu-
dent workers, second, the fact that through
such a body under a propei system of organi-
zation, instruction, and supervision an effi-
cient and stable system of nuising is insured,
third, the ease, if educational standards are
not rigidly enforced, of securing a sufficient
number of student woikers, fourth, the in-
tangible but valuable asset of the spirit pre-
vailing in an institution where the workers aie
all seekers after knowledge and skill Undei
this system the school has become to all in-
tents the entire working staff of the hospital,
economic and other considerations pushing its
members, while still students, upward into the
responsibilities of official positions and down-
ward into the performance of unskilled domes-
tie duties The need in all hospitals for
continuous twenty-four hour service, the con-
stant improvement in methods and elaboration
of details, the very nature of the work, all
have called for a comparatively large staff of
workers, but hospital limitations in resources
have kept the numbers of the students re-
stricted The hours of work consequently have
been long, and students thus unable to profit
fully even by such limited theoretical instruc-
tion as has been offered Such conditions have
made the development of a sound and progres-
sive educational system extremely difficult, yet
progress has been made, and many radical
changes have been introduced during the last
fifteen years The course of instruction has
advanced from two years to three; there has
been marked improvement in actual teaching,
in character, extent, methods; new subjects
have been introduced and old subjects more
thoroughly taught, clinical teaching and super-
vision of students' work in wards is vastly
better than it was even ten years ago Li-
braries, teaching facilities, are appearing, and
during the last five years a demand for trained

518

NURSING, EDUCATION FOR

NURSING, EDUCATION FOR

teachers has arisen. About ten years ago
preparatory courses were introduced into a few
leading training schools, with the intent of
giving the students the larger part of then-
groundwork in science before permitting them
to begin practical work in the hospital These
courses have proved valuable, and are now es-
tablished in eighty-six schools, chiefly the lead-
ing schools in the country The timedcxoted
to this scientific instruction is six months in some
schools, but ordinarily does not exceed three
months, in which the student will perhaps
receive all the instruction in fundamental
sciences of anatomy, physiology, bactenologv,
chemistry, which the school can give hei It
is a movement in the right dnection, but a
longer period should be encouraged Theie
are promising indications of progress in a lew
schools which have established relationships
with universities or colleges, thus seeming
theie the required scientific groundwork foi
their students Typical instances of this
affiliation mav be found in the Noithwestein
University, Chicago, which provides teach-
ing 111 fundamental sciences foi three train-
mg schools, and in Simmons College, which
has for years been affiliated with ceil am
Boston training schools There aie also a
few training schools having direct connec-
tion with universities thiough the medical
schools of which thev foim a sort of sub-
department Advantages of many kinds arise
from this connection, and as theie aie now
fouiteen schools i elated to universities on
some such basis, there is good reason for
assuming that extensions in this direction mm
be looked foi The training school recent U
established in the Urnveisily of Minnesota is
an interesting and important instance of this
tendency Much of such educational pi og-
ress as has been made is due to the efforts
of a few leading women in the profession The
most noted and able of these was Isabel Hamp-
ton Robb, the first superintendent of nurses
and principal of the Training School connected
with the Johns Hopkins Hospital, Baltimore,
— a woman of exceptional powei, mitiatne,
and organizing ability Under her regime
many important advances weie made in
nursing

There are aspects of the work, however, in
which little progress has been made The
hours of practical work still remain excessively
long. In nearly 50 per cent of all schools the
students still work ten hours daily, and twelve
hours at night. The eight-hour day estab-
lished in some hospitals many vears ago has
not made great headway, and a full eight-hour
system is found only in four schools in the
country, though sixty-nine in all have intro-
duced a partial system which provides eight
hours by day, and ten or twelve by night
It is of course manifestly impossible to develop
any sound system of instruction until the hours
of practical work can be jrreatly reduced, and

from the standpoint of the patients, of sta-
bility in hospital service, of expense, this will
be difficult to accomplish. In all schools the
time devoted to theory is meager, the maxi-
mum time throughout the three years not
exceeding three hours weekly Emphasis is,
at all times, laid strongly upon the practical,
and the true relation of theory to practice, of
thought to action, is but dimly apprehended

Professional Associations - Educational
progress has been greatly stimulated by and
indeed it mav almost be said to date from the
organization of nurses into alumnae associa-
tions, state and national The Society of
Superintendents of Training Schools for Nurses
formed in 1893 has rendered steady and valu-
able services in the improvement of hospital
and training school woik Thiough its efforts
courses weie established at Teachers College
in 1899 to prepare graduate nurses for su-
pei vision and teaching in training schools
Recently this has been de\ eloped bv endow-
ment into a department in which the original
plan has been carried further, and preparation
offered in samtan and social science foi public
health workers This societv also brought
into existence the Associated Alumnae of
Training Schools which has recently become
the American Nurses' Association Both have
been vigorous ami actne in securing legisla-
tion, in supporting professional journals, in
urging forwaid and strengthening good edu-
cational and professional standards, training,
and ideals In any criticism of the weakness
of the modern training school, the strong
features of its woik must not be overlooked or
minimized The student's actual theoretical
teaching may seem weak, but the lecture and
classioom June a comparatrvelv small place
in her training Clinical bedside instruction,
daily work under the constant supervision and
criticism of expert woikers, rich opportunities
for study and observation, close daily associa-
tion in woik with medical and surgical experts
and specialists, are the main and most ini-
poitant educational factors

The Present Situation — Be von d this the
moral and ethical demands upon the student,
inherent in the verv nature of her work, are
such as to form an educational influence of a
verv high order, and to develop a personal dis-
cipline and a sense of responsibility of distinct
social value The work of nursing is looted
deeply m vital human needs It has, and has
always had, an extraordinary appeal to many
women For years, while few occupations
besides teaching and nursing were open to
women, there were a great many applicants
to training schools The earlv schools at-
tracted many women of excellent education,
much ability, altruistic leanings, courage,
spirit, and devotion The opening up of many
new opportunities for women has drawn from
the large number of candidates formerly avail-
able, and the long hours of work, meager edu-

.519

NURSING, KDUC CATION FOR

NURSING, EDUCATION FOR

cational advantages, and other conditions have
made nursing, or rather the training process,
seem unattractive to the ordinary intelligent
women of the day There is now serious
difficulty in securing enough students to main-
tain the system without so lowering 01 dis-
regarding educational standards, as to imperil
the welfare of the sick and the status of the
profession Those schools offering the best
and soundest educational work, shorter hours
for students and good living conditions, attract
a reasonable number of satisfactory candidates.
But no school can be assured of a student body
of desirable caliber large enough to staff the
entire hospital The moment hospital re-
quirements become the main or ruling factor
in the selection and admission of students,
standards of education or of personal fitness
cannot be maintained, and standards and char-
acter of work in both school and hospital must
eventually deteriorate

Two forces are now at work which are be-
ginning to influence training schools appreci-
ably The first is found in the legislation,
providing for state registration of nurses,
which has now been secured in thirty-four
states, largely by associations of nurses
While most of these laws are permissive only
(but seven are mandatory), they have set up
definite, if moderate, educational and othei
standards, and have accomplished genuine
improvements in hospital and training school
work

The other factor affecting educational methods
is the passing of the nurse from the actual caie
of the sick in hospitals, and homes, cnermto the
field of public health work Preventive work
for the protection of infant life, of the health of
the school child, of the health of the young
industrial worker in factory or shop, and in
relation to tuberculosis, is largely relegated
to the nurse as the logical person to applv
directly the teachings of sanitary and medical
science Health nursing of which Florence
Nightingale wrote nearly half a century ago
is now beginning to take shape, and as edu-
cational propaganda form an essential factoi
in such work the nurse must be so educated
and trained as to be able to meet this new re-
quirement There are nearly a thousand asso-
ciations, large and small, in which nurses me
engaged in public health work

A new and important demand is made upon
the hospital training school which must even-
tually be met either by it or by other institu-
tions of another type Already such efforts
are projected Since, however, there are
already the elements of a practically perfect
system existing in the modern hospital and
training school, it would seem better to make
such changes in the relationship between them,
such reshaping and reconstruction, as will
provide autonomy for the training school
Such changes, partly governmental, partly
economic, would enable the school to fulfill

520

adequately itb essential functions, and to serve
its full purpose in the community On any
other basis than this it is almost certain to
degenerate.

Other Countries — The general situation as
legards nursing in other countries may be
briefly summed up as follows- —

/// Autfttaha the iiuising profession is highly
organized, and works in close cooperation
with medical men Educational and profes-
sional questions are prominent and given first
importance A system of voluntary minimum
requirement and examination has been uni-
versal and effective because state subsidies of
hospitals enable governments to make con-
ditions, and the National Association of Nurses,
in which doctors are included, has been able
to get government endorsement of standards
The minimum is three years in general work,
-special studies and special examinations for
intending superintendents of hospitals and
training schools State registration and exam-
ination has just, dining the current year, be-
come law in Queensland Verv similar con-
ditions exist concerning nurses in New Zea-
land, except that it has had state registration
and examination under national law since
1901, with excellent results The course of
training covers three years

/// Japan, training for nurses under the Red
Cross is highly perfected The training of
nurses is, however, earned on under a paternal
system and nurses have little voice or direction
in the development of their own standards
Patriotism and self -sacrifice are the leading
motives among Japanese nurses, but they are
also very markedly efficient in details of prac-
tical work The course covers three years
City hospitals have training; schools but not of
the same standards as the Red Cross

/// I mini there is a vast, movement to obtain
a minimum of practical and theoretical work
in training native women At present there
are great variations and very little uniformity
in efforts Mission schools exist with a very
weak and inadequate curriculum A few
hospitals are established on the best English
models Complications of language add to
the difficulties oi the work, but associa-
tions of superintendents and alumnae, made
up, however, almost entirely of English and
American nurses1, are at work upon the nurs-
ing problem

/// China an excellent attempt at hospital
and training school work has been recently
initiated under the auspices of the Chinese
government with a medical woman in charge
of the hospital and an English trained nurse as
head of the school

In Italy pioneer work has been done for some
years in Naples, Florence, and Rome by Eng-
lish and American nurses. Their work has
brought about modern training schools in
connection with several hospitals, more re-
cently the Polyclinico in Rome under the pro-

NURSING, EDUCATION FOR

NYMPHOMAN1A

tcction of Queen Helen. This lias a modern
system and a three1 years' course, and has a
promising future.

hi France there has for some years been a
state of unrest in hospital and nursing fields,
owing to the secular strife which removed nuns
from hospitals under government control and
brought about a crude process of laicisation,
largely with untrained women The Night-
ingale system of nursing was introduced into
two Bordeaux hosiptals by Dr Anna Hamilton,
and an admirable and thorough educational
system has been established The French
government is now entirely committed to the
principle of education foi nurses and a new
school of nursing was established under the
ciU administration in Pans in 11)07, in con-
nection with the Salpotnere and on a sound
educational basis

In Get many the general high state of culti-
vation bv the government of technical and
advanced education has not been extended to
nursing, the reason perhaps being that it was
long left to religious bodies to perform as un-
paid labor of self-sacrifice and humble devotion
(lei man nurses are no\v demanding thiee veais
of training and systematic teaching The gov-
einment has enacted permissive state examina-
tions and Registration with a minimum teim of
one year of training A strong organization of
nurses in Germany has given strength to the
mil sing movement, and it is seeking alliance
\\ith the woman's movement to demand higher
conditions of labor and better instruction

In Belgium a very elemental y state registra-
tion act has been in force for several years
The earl}' stage of transition from nursing by
leligious orders to the modern system is cleailv
seen here Brussels city administration has
founded a training school on the plan of the
Paris school

hi Holland there appears to be complete
indifference to the educational demands of
nurses on the part of state authorities and
a striking contrast is here shown to the desire
of the French government, to educate Hol-
land public men are satisfied with public
school grade (at twelve years) for nurses,
and the outlook for better 'standards is small
at present

hi Scandinavian countries there is a genet al
three years' course which is not well balanced
Educational requirements for pupils are gen-
erally high arid the training excellent, although
a number of subjects must be taken as speci-
alities, thus making five or six years of study
and training necessary.

In Great Britain, notwithstanding the fact
that the modern system of training was de-
veloped in England, that district nursing and
school nursing both originated there, it has
been impossible up to the present to establish
definite standards of education arid registra-
tion for nurses Every hospital is a law unto
itself Hospital directors resist the movement

for registration urged by nurses, and show a
general public unwillingness to regard nursing
as an educational question Three years'
training is general There is little theory,
but high standards of practical work From
the very beginning many women of especially
high educational and personal qualities have
been drawn into nursing ranks The move-
ment for legislation concerning nurses and
registration has been on foot in England since
J8SS M. A N.

References —

HAMILTON, ANNA Considerations mtr les Jnfirmi&res
det» Hospitaui (Bordeaux, 1900 )

Hoi*\RTH, A H Medical Insjxction of Schools
(Bousefield, 1905 )

Hospitals, Dmpensarub, and Nursing Papers and
DiHciiHsions in the International CongresH of
Chanties, Correction, and Philanthropy, Sect III,
Chicago, 1893 Edited bv .1 S Billings and H.
M Hurd (London )

LO\NK, M Outlines of Routun in District Nursing
(London, 1905 )

MOYNIER, G The Red C/o«6, Its Past and Its Future
(London, Parib, and New York, 1883 )

NKJHTJNUALK, FLORKNTF Note* on Hospitals (Lon-
don, 1859)
\ot(s on Nursing, What it i* and What it is not

(New York, 1800)
Huial Hygiene (London, 1894 )

NUTTING, M ADKLAIDK Th( Ediuational Status oj
\ursing TT S Bureau of Education (1912)
The Education and Professional Position of Nurs-
ing, two pamphlet* (1907) (Wabhington, D C)

NUTTING, M ADELAIDE, and DOCK, LAVINIA History
of Nursing (New York, 1907)

NUTTING, M ADFLATPK, and STEWART, ISABEL M.
The Nursi in Education, Part II, Ninth Year-
book of National Satiety for the Study of Educa-
tion (Chicago, 1911 )

ROWH, IHABKL H Educational Standards for Nursing.

(Koechert, 1907 )
Nursing Ethics (Cleveland, 1903 )

RATHBONh, W\t District Nursing (New Yrork,
1890)

TOOLEY, SARVH A History of Nursing in the British

Empire (Bounefield, 1900 )
Lift of Florence Nightingale (Bousefield, 1905)

HUCKLK, M \ R , and MALLESON, HOPE Handbook
to Christian and Ecclesiastical Ro?nt, (New
Yoik, 1900)

WATERS, Y G Visiting Nursing in United States
(New York, 1909 )

Periodicals —

American Journal of Nursing Philadelphia, Pa
British Journal of Nursing London
Canadian Nurse Toronto, Canada
Visiting Nurst Quarterly Cleveland, O

NUTRITION — See

OF SCHOOL CHILDREN

FOOD AND FEEDING

NYMPHOMANIA — Abnormally great
and uncontrollable desire for sexual excite-
ment and gratification The term is applied
to woman, and the term satynasis to man
Both differ from erotomania in that the latter
is largely mental, the physical gratification
being mainly replaced by ideas of love and of
sexual matters in modified forms These
conditions are often found in children, especially
111 the feeble-minded S. I. F

See SKXUU. ANOMALIES

521

OAKES

OBERL1N, JEAN FREDERIC

OAKES, URIAH (1632-1681) —Fourth

E resident of Harvard College, was graduated
-orn Harvard in 1649 While a student at
Cambridge he invented a set of astronomical
calculations After giaduation he went to
England and was pastor at Titchfield in
Hampshire. He was silenced " with the othei
nonconforrmug ministers " and returned to
America and was president of Haivard College
from 1675 to 1681. In the opinion of Dr
Mather, America never had " a greater master
of the true, pure Ciceronian Latin "

W S M.

OATHS OF TEACHERS — See NE\ADA.

OBERLIN COLLEGE, OBERLIN, O —

A coeducational institution founded in 1X33
by two home missionaries, natives of Vermont,
Reverend John J Shipherd and Mr Philo
P Stewart, and named aftei the devoted and
far-sighted Alsatian pastor and philanthiopist,
Jean Frederic Oberlm (q v ) The foundeis
hoped to establish a community and educa-
tional centei that might do in the Mississippi
Valley work something like that accomplished
bv Oberlm in Stemthal There was no defi-
nite attempt to be rc\olutionarv, except in the
Christian standards of the community estab-
lished Hut in the outcome, the institution
did prove a pioneer in various directions Full
college education was opened to women, college
coeducation of the sexes adopted, race barncis
thrown down in the decision of the trustees m
1835 to admit students " irrespective of coloi,"
arid the community became a center of anti-
slaverv and missionary agitation Woik in
the preparatory department of the College
began in 1833, and in the College depait merit
in 1834 The theological depait merit was
instituted in 1835, under the leadership of
Reverend Charles (} Finney, the theologian
and evangelist The early teachers \vere
largely from New England, and the college
standards adopted from the first were those
of the best New England colleges Four
young women were em oiled as freshmen in
the regulai college course in 1837, three of
these were giaduated in August, 1841, and are
supposed to have been the first women to receive
degiees m the Arts under the standards pie-
vailing in the best men's colleges of the day
The Oberlm Conservatory of Music was or-
ganized as a department of the college in 1867
The College now regularly gives the degrees of
A.B , Mus B , A M , and B D The entrance
requirements for admission to the College of
Arts and Sciences are fifteen units The same
requirements are now made for admission
to the Conservatory of Music Candidates
for the degree of B D in the Theological
Seminary must have the rank of college gradu-
ates. Oberlm is on the original list of accepted
colleges of the Carnegie Foundation foi the
\dvancement of Teaching.

522

The College has always had a self-perpetu-
ating Board of Trustees, without denomina-
tional tests of any kind Since 1890 the
Alumni have elected one fourth of the Board
by direct vote There are at present seventy-
five professors and associate professors, and
sixty-eight other teachers and officers. For
the year 1911-1912, theie were enrolled in all
departments 1780 students (all but 300 of
college rank, and 998 m the College Depart-
ment itself) from forty-five states and sixteen
foreign countries, more than one half from
outside Ohio The alumni list numbers 6691;
and the total number of students who have
studied in Oberlm College since 1833 is 38,133.
The college library contains 120,000 bound
volumes, and about the same number of un-
bound volumes and pamphlets The pro-
ductive endowment of the college (March 1,
1912), is $2,207,040 32, and the value of build-
ings (twenty-two), grounds, and equipment,
is $1,634,338 14 The total assets of the col-
lege amount to more than $4,000,000. The
entire annual income of the institution from
endowment and term bills for the year 1910-
1911 was $386,73550

H C K

OBERLIN, JEAN FREDERIC (1740-
1826) — Philanthropist and educator, was
for nearly sixty years pastoi of the Ban de
la Roche (Stemthal), a big and sterile district,
some thirty miles southwest ot Strassburg
His heroic and successful efforts to civilize
a people suffering from the ia\ages of wai
and lapsing towards baibaiism at ti acted the
attention of Europe He had roads con-
structed and better houses built, he taught
improved methods of fanning and introduced
fresh industries, but his most fruitful work-
was the education of the young and his most
novel device the establishment of infant
schools These were directed by motherly
women, one of whom, Louise Schepler, was
awarded a Monthyon grand prur dc veitu and
is described on hei tombstone as " fidklv xcr-
rantc ct (ollaboiatricc dc Papa Obcrlui
con(hic,true dc la jcuncfixe " The aims of the
infant schools were rooting out bad and form-
ing good habits, inculcating the first notions
of morality and religion, teaching the ele-
ments of reading, writing, and arithmetic,
and eliminating the use of patois The little
ones were assembled in spacious rooms The
youngest played together while the rest were
learning to spin, to knit, and to sew Natural
history and scripture were taught by pictures
In fine weather the conductnces took their
charges for walks and made them find the
flowers which had been described to them
These became the subjects of familiar talks
and a desire to grow them was created

In 1801 Mme. de Pastoret, inspired by
Oberlm's example, established in Paris a
.s«//£' trhoNintahtt, but it was more a cre>he

OBERREALSCHULE

OBJECT TEACHING

than an infant school and does not appear
to have lasted very long D S-N

See INFANT SCHOOLS

References —

BEARD, A F. Story of John Frederick Oberhn (Bo«-

ton, 1909 )
BURCKHABDT Oberhn' s Jji'beHQi'iH hu hit und Schnftt n

(Stuttgait, 1843)
BUTLER, JOHKPHINE E The Lift of Jtan Fndcnc

Oberhn (London, 1880 )
Memoir of John Fredfttr Oberlin (This anonymous

work is the best EnRhhh Lifo It was published

by Samuel Bugstcr and Sonw, London, and ^vciit

through many t-ditioiib )
PARIHOT, lii Jean Freda it Obahn, Euaai pedagogiqui

(Pans, 1^05 )
STOEBKH Vie de J F Ohcrlin (StrasHbuig, 1831 )

OBERREALSCHULE —The upper scien-
tific school in the Secondary School System of
Germany

Sec GEKMANY, EDUCATION IN

OBJECT AND SUBJECT —The older
classic use of the terms subject and object
was the opposite of that current to-day
According to the Aristotelian logic only sub-
stances, things existing as individuals not as
qualities 01 pioperties of things, could be
subjects of propositions and the subject
matter of adequate knowledge Subject and
substance were thus practically identified,
some trace of this meaning lemams in the
current use of the term subject- mattei Scho-
lastic philosophy, under the influence of Arabian
thought, introduced the teim " object " to
designate things in then " second intention,"
that is, not as things on then own account, but
as objects of thought or mental consideration
A chimera would thus exist objectively but not
as a subject, according to the opponents of
Platonic realism, universal^ (man, as distin-
guished fiom individual men) also had exist-
ence only objectively Modern philosophy
effected a complete reversal of this usage
The tendency began with the introduction of
the psychological mode of thinking of Locke
and his successors, and was practically com-
pleted by Kant As the function of the self
as the center of thinking, feeling, knowing,
was insisted upon, the term subject was more
arid more used as a synonym for ego, mind,
self, and the adjective subjective to denote
mental existences The problem of the rela-
tion of subject and object came to mean the
problem of relation of mind and the woild,
especially as they enter into the constitution
of knowledge By the transcendental idealis-
tic school much was made of the fact that the
thinking ego is at once subject-object, since
the thinking self is capable of presenting itself
to itself as object In self-consciousness, as thus
defined, was found the key to the problem of the
relation of particular minds or sentient subjects
to the world, — a conception that had a great
vogue in post-Kantian idealism J D

See EPISTBMOLOGY, METHOD; SELF

OBJECT TEACHING —Object teaching
was not, as the term may seem to imply, a
mere method of imparting knowledge through
the means of objects themselves, but a com-
plete scheme of elementary instruction It
may be said to be an application of the induc-
tive method to the teaching of children Its
aim was to begin with the training of the senses
and proceed from this to the development of
the entire nature of the child The chief
laws of its method were (1) instruction by
actual inspection, (2) go from the easy to the
difficult, (3) give in each hour, if possible, a
little whole in contents and form, (4) use
conversation All the great thinkers and edu-
cators from J Ait her on, Rabelais, Francis
Bacon, Oomemus, Locke, Rousseau, and the
rest, forecast t he principles which were de-
veloped by subsequent effort into object
teaching

Comemus (1592-1 670) was probably the
first definitely to formulate the principles of
object teaching and to work out a graduated
system of instruction applying the mductne
method to schoolroom procedure u Since
the beginning of knowledge must be with the
senses," he says, " the beginning of teaching
should be made by dealing with actual things
The object must be a real, useful thing, capable
of making an impression upon the senses
To this end it must be brought into communi-
cation with them if \isible, with the eves, if
audible, with the ears, if tangible, with the
touch, li odorous, with the nose, if sapid,
with the taste First the presentation of the
thing itself, and the real intuition of it, then
the real explanation tor the further elucidation
of it " (The Great Didactic, Ch XX, §5-7 )
But inasmuch as the presentation of the thing
itself is so frequently impossible, he advised
the use of pictures as the representations of
things, that the words which related to them
might be understood He prepared and pub-
lished textbooks, putting his theories into prac-
tice These books were translated into varrous
languages and were used for mam genera tioiih
wherever there were schools for children The
best known of these is the Orbi* Pictu*, or the
World in Picture* (See ('OMEXIUS )

Aftei C'ornenius, Rousseau (1712-1778) is
worthy oi special mention as having been the
first to base his educational theories on the
child to be educated The child's experience,
accordmglv, the facts of nature round about
him, is to furnish the material for education
"In general, never substitute the sign for the
thing itself, save when it is impossible to show
the thing, for the sign absorbs the attention
of the child and, makes him forget the thing
represented" (Ennlt, Book III), It was
as a result of acquaintance with Emile that
Pestalozzi first conceived the idea which he
subsequently expanded into the system of
which he is worthily entitled to be called the
father (See ROUSSEAU )

523

OBJECT TEACHING

OBJECT TEACHING

Pestalozzi (1746-1826) did the most, not
only to formulate object teaching, but also to
put it on a scientific, philosophic basis. " The
most essential point from which I start is this*
Sense impression (ANSCHAUUNGSUNTKURICHT)
of nature is the only true foundation of
human instruction because it is the onlv
true foundation of human knowledge All
that follows is the result of this sense impres-
sion and the process of abstraction from it "
(The Method, translated by Lucy Holland and
Frances Turner and edited by Ebcnezer Cooke,
second edition, p 316 ) " The means bv
which a man whose mind is cultivated makes
clear to himself all knowledge gained by sense
impression come from number, form, and
language The instruction of children theie-
foic should proceed from these three elemental
points (1) to teach them to look upon every
object that is brought before them as a unit, —
that is, as separated from those with which it
seems connected, (2) to teach them the form of
every object, — that is, its size and proportions,
(3) as soon as possible to make them ac-
quainted with all the words and names de-
scriptive of objects known to them " (How
Gertrude teaches her Children, translated bv
Lucy Holland and Frances Turner and edited
by Ebenezer Cooke, second edition, p 145 )
According to these principles Pestalozzi
divided his object lessons into three classes*
(1) those on number, (2) on form, (3) on
speech Those on number were mainly lessons
in mental arithmetic, those on form comprised
geometry, drawing, and writing, those on
speech included instruction in speaking and
singing tones, instruction in words, or the
means of becoming acquainted with single
objects, and instruction in language itself, or
the means of expressing one's self clearly, not
only upon number and form, but also upon aH
other qualities of things, as well those qualities
which arc perceived through the five senses,
as those which are perceived, not by means
of a single intuition of thorn, but by means of
our faculties of imagination and judgement "
Thus the lessons on speech became the basis
for instruction not only in spelling, reading,
and language, but in geography, history, and
natural history as well It is not within the
purpose of this article to criticize It is well
known, however, that in developing those
principles Pestalozzi failed to observe the order
in which he first formulated them In his
books, instead of providing for beginning with
the object itself and calling attention to its
identity and form, he began with words about
objects and not even about objects to be under
observation at the time, but about objects
remote arid incapable of being brought within
the view of the child. In his schoolroom prac-
tice his impatience impelled him continually
to prompt the pupil in both the idea and the
expression of it, so that ho often omitted alto-
gether the first two elemental points of in-

struction and allowed the third to degenerate
into an exercise in mere words. His so-called
object lessons were not object lessons in fact,
and were not even lessons in language. (See
PESTALOZZI )

In Germany Pestalozzi 's disciples caught
the spirit of his method Taking his philo-
sophic principles rather than his exposition
of practice of them as a basis, they adapted
thorn to their own needs and wrought out a
system of their own, whereas Pestalozzi set
up tho human body as the nearest and ever
present object, lesson to the child, they pro-
ceeded in a more natural manner and struck
out the following sequence schoolroom, fam-
ily, house, house floor, the sitting room, the
kitchen, the ground, the cellar, the yard, the
habitation, tho city, the village, the garden,
the field, the meadow, the wood, the water, the
atmosphere, tho sky, the season, the year and
its festivals, man, body and soul — God Or
again, Diestorwog (1790-1866) finds seven
different kinds of intuitions to be awakened:
sensuous, mathematical, moral, religious, aes-
thetic, purely human, and social Others were
still more independent m woikmg out and
applying the Pcstalozzian theory Early in
tho last half of the nineteenth oentuiy object
teaching had become established in the major-
ity of tho elementary schools of Germany.
This had not been accomplished without
serious opposition Tho famous Piussian
Regulation of October 3, 1854, spoke plainly
on this subject In 1872, however, a com-
mittee appointed by the Congress of Elemen-
tary Teachers meeting in Berlin submitted to
Dr Falk, the Minister of Ecclesiastical Affairs
and Education, a sot of resolutions or requests
among which was one recognizing the impor-
tance of object teaching and asking for the
organization of training schools in accordance
with the pedagogic principles of Pestalozzi
For half a centuiy before this time the ques-
tion of object teaching had been engaging
tho best efforts of the leading educators in
Germany Among the many books on the
subject may be mentioned those of Plamann,
Denzel, Harmsch, Diestorweg, and Carl
Riehter (q v )

In France Postalozzi and his methods were
repudiated by Napoleon and were given no
countenance in the schools during his time
Fiom the downfall of Napoleon to the Franco-
Prussian War the value of the labors of
Pestalozzi was recognized by the leading educa-
tors of France, and his methods were in some
instances put into practice Jullien and
Chavannes both placed their children under
Pestalozzi 's tuition and endeavored in various
ways to arouse interest in Pestalozzi's work.
Maine de Biran (q v ) opened a Pcstalozzian
school at Bergerac in 1808, which continued in
existence for nearly seventy years. Object
leaching was not adopted as a system in the
schools of France nor put into general use in

524

OBJECT TEACHING

OBJECTIVE METHOD

any way prior to the Franco-Prussian Wai
After the close of this war a now impetus was
given to the Pestalozzian movement At the
exhibition of 1878 a conference of the teachers
of France considered the question of sense-
impression teaching, which resulted in placing
it on such a firm basis that it was generally
introduced into all the elementary schools

In England the object lesson as a separate
branch of study was first given prominence
Charles Mavo (q v), who had spent almost a
year in Pestalozzi's School at Yverdun, and his
sister, Elizabeth Mayo, through the Home and
Colonial Training School at Gray's Inn Road,
London, attempted to reduce the Pestalozzian
principles and methods to a practicable shape
by the preparation of graduated courses of
instruction Manuals about objects and
lessons on those objects to be learned and re-
cited to the teachers were the ultimate result
of the attempt of Charles Mayo " to preseive
the Idea but adapt the Form " to those cii-
cumstances in which he might be placed
(See INFANT SCHOOLS, HOME \ND COLONIAL
INFANT SCHOOL SOCIETY )

In America object teaching was employed
in the various Pestalozzian schools of Joseph
Neef (q v ) in Philadelphia in 1809, m Village
Green, Pa, in 1813, in Louisville, in 1S1T>,
and in New Harmony, Ind , in 1825 The
Westfield Normal School (established at
Barr, Mass , in 1839, removed to West-
field, Mass , in 1X44) was the pioneer in in-
troducing object teaching into the public
schools This school was also the first to show
that all branches of learning may be taught
by the same objective method Object teach-
ing at Westheld, however, attracted little
general attention It was left, to the Normal
School at Oswego, New York, to become the
center of object teaching in America In
1860 Edward A Sheldon (q v) while on a
visit to Toionto saw in the National (Educa-
tional) Museum there collections of the pic-
tures, models, objects, and appliances used
by the Home and Colonial School Society in
England The schools of Oswego had been
developed out of his philanthropic activities,
it was in the interest of these schools that he
visited Toronto, and on his return to Oswego
he at once began the reorganization of the
schools there with special reference to object,
teaching He was well fitted to make this
adaptation by his previous thinking along the
same lines and by his own earnest and partially
successful efforts to make practical the educa-
tion of the poor In 1861 Miss M E M
Jones formerly connected with the Home and
Colonial Training School, above referred to,
came to Oswego as a training teacher and fur-
ther elaborated the principles of object teach-
ing She was succeeded in the following year
by Hermann Krusi, Jr (q v ) The system
became thoroughly established at Oswego
Mr Sheldon and the other authorities at

Oswego .stood him against the ho^stilily amused
by their new methods At then imitation in
1802, a committee of the leading educators of
the country investigated the nature of the
new work Subsequently, as a lesult of n
paper read by Mr Sheldon befoie the National
Teachers' Association held at Chicago in 1863,
that association appointed a committee to
look into and leport upon the principles of
object teaching This committee reported at
the meeting of the association held at Harris-
burg in 1865 With only one dissenting
voice the report was heartily in favoi of the
adoption of object teaching in the elementary
department of the public schools The Os-
wego Normal School continued to be the cen-
ter of influence for object teaching until its
principles and methods became fused with
those of the nature-study movement In
1876 Professor H H Straight, a disciple of
Agassiz and Shaler, went to Oswego His
views of science teaching in the elemental y
school underwent gradual but decided change
under the Pestalozzian influence in which he
was placed, and the object lesson of Oswego
was modified in turn by Professor Straight,
who recognized the need of system and corre-
lation William T Harris (qv\ inspired by
Pestalozzian principles, worked out a method
for the teaching of riatuial science The
study of natural science was introduced not
only into all grades of the elementary schools
of St Louis, but through the direct and in-
direct influence of Dr Harris, it became in-
corporated, in one form or anothei, into the
curricula of most of the common schools of
the United States So that it is reasonably
certain that nature study at least in spirit is
the direct descendant of object teaching
It may safely be asset ted that, not only in
America but in all othei advanced countries as
well, most of the accredited methods of ele-
mentary instruction now in use, can be traced
moie 01 less directly to the piinciples of object
teaching K R

See OH.T ACTIVE METHOD, CONCRETE AND
, HE \LISM IN EDUCATION, etc

References —

B \HN\HD, H Kd Pa,talozzi and his Educational

*S'//s/< m (Swiiciifco, n ]> )
MoNKofc, \\ S History of thi Pestalozzian ^Move-

ment in thi I' nted Statt v (Syracuse, 1907)

OBJECTIVE METHOD —The use of
concrete experiences, of sense peiceptions,
as a basis foi teaching ideas, concepts, rela-
tions, etc , and foi giving the meaning of lan-
guage symbols, is termed an objective method
of instruction It assumes a wide variety of
forms When first introduced into the ele-
mentary classroom, it implied the bringing
of objects into the classroom, later it included
school excursions, where pupils leave the school-
room t.o make observations of natural and
institutional facts Laboratory teaching is

525

OBJECTIVE METHOD

OBJECTIVE METHOD

a form of objective work The action work
employed by primary children in acting out
the meaning of sentences read by them, and the
more complicated children's dramatizations of
literature are derived modes of objectification
which aid in giving clear sense impressions.
Such visual aids as pictures, graphs, and maps
are likewise objective inasmuch as thev are
pictorial substitutes for real objects

Prior to the second quarter of the nineteenth
century there was little object teaching The
use of objects in giving a concrete basis for
abstract notions seems to have gained its
initial hold on the schools thiough the mtio-
duction of Pestalozzian methods of teaching
The introduction of school subjects requiting
objective treatment, such as elementary science,
nature study, and manual training, fortified
the previous movement and gave it consider-
able extension Togethei these two move-
ments established the respectabihtv of objec-
tive teaching Schoolroom expenence quickly
gave it an empirical sanction It lemained
foi the modern psychological inoxeinent in
education to give it a scientific sanction and
to refine its uses

It is quite fair to say that the use of objec-
tive work decreases moie 01 less giadualh
from the first to the last yeai, the iindei lying
assumption being that the use of objects has
a teaching value that deci eases as tin4 matimtv
of the pupils increases Current practice does
not proceed far beyond the application of the
simple and somewhat crude psychological
statement that the youngest children must
have much objective teaching, the older less,
the oldest least of all The lack of a more
refined analysis of the worth of object teaching
necessarily leads to some neglect and waste
Examples from the teaching of arithmetic,
where objective teaching has been a matter of
greatest controversy, will indicate the status
of objective teaching in general If a topic
occurs late in the course of study, as in the
case of squat e toot, the subject is not NO \vcll
taught because of the current prejudice or
tradition against the use of object leaching
in the higher grades On the other hand, it is
also probable that the teaching of addition
is often accompanied by wasted time and
energy simply because lingering over objects
in the lower classes is the cut tent fashion
Reform in the direction of a more refined and
exact use of object teaching is suggested by the
extended objective treatment of fractions and
mensuration, which partially disregards the in-
creased maturity of the children studying these
topics This is a considerable departure from
the plight objective treatment of other arith-
metical topics taught in the same grades
Such exceptional practices suggest that the nov-
elty of a topic is the condition calling for objec-
tive work in instruction It is immaturity in a
special subject or situation which determines
the amount of basal objective work required

The correlation is not with the age of the pupil,
but with his experience with the special prob-
lem or subject in hand. It is of course true
that the less experienced the student is, the
greater the likelihood that any subject pre-
sented will be novel and strange Only in
this indirect manner does the novelty of sub-
ject matter coincide with mere youth as an
essential principle in determining the need of
objective presentation. The naive assump-
tion of the older enthusiastic reformers that
objective work is a good thing psychologically,
one of which the pupil cannot have too much,
is by no means the accepted view of the modern
educatoi With the lattet, objective presenta-
tion is ati excellent method at a given stage
of immaturity in the special topic involved,
but it may be uneconomical, even an obstacle
to efficiency, if pushed beyond

There is, then, a certain coincidence of the
psychologist's scientific ctittcism and the con-
servative teachers' common-sense ctiticism
when both look suspiciously upon a highly
extended object teaching The teacher, on
grounds of experience, savs that too much
objective teaching is contusing and delays
teaching The psychological critic savs it is
unnecessaiy and wasteful The tesult is that
the distiibution of objective work has some-
what changed of late More subjects are
developed in the highei grades through an
objective instruction than before Perhaps
no fewer subjects in the lower grades are pre-
sented objectively, but the1 extent of objective
treatment of each of these has undergone
considerable curtailment

The existing defects in objectue teaching
are not restricted to a false placing 01 distribu-
tion The quality of the teaching use of
objects is likewise open to settous ciiticism
Object teaching is a device so successful, as
against pnor non-objective teaching, that it
has come to be a standard of instruction as
well as a means As long as objects — any con-
venient objects — are used, the teaching is
tegatded as good Given such a sanction,
the inevitable result is an undiscmninating use
of objects The process of objectifying tends
not to be regulated by the needs of the child's
thinking life, it is determined by the enthu-
siasm of the teacher and the materials conven-
ient for school use

The first fact which is noted in estimating
objective teaching is the artificiality of the
mateitals employed Primary children count,
add, etc , with things they will never be con-
cerned with in life Lentils, sticks, tablets,
and the like are the stock objective stuff of
the schools, and to a considerable degree this
will always be the case Cheap and convenient
material suitable for individual manipu-
lation on the top of a school desk is not plenti-
ful But instances where better and more
normal material has been used are frequent
enough in the best schools to warrant the be-

526

OBJECTIVE METHOD

OBJECTIVE METHOD

lief that more could be done jn this direction
in the average classroom The " playing at
store/7 the use of actual applications of the
tables of weights and measures, are cases that
might be cited

The materials used are not only moie arti-
ficial than they need be, but are too restricted
in range. As has already been said, the types
of material capable of convenient and efficient
use in a schoolroom are not numerous But
the series can and ought to be extended
More forms of even the artificial material
should be used, thus minimizing the danger
of monotony The blame for the narro\\
range of materials used falls partlv on school
boards who do not vote a sufficient allowance
for teaching materials to primarv teachers,
partly on teachers who do not exercise sufficient
ingenuity in devising new forms of objects or
show the vigor requisite to a shift from one
material to another, and partlv on the supei-
visory stall which has neither been insistent
upon nor sensitive to the need of a more
interesting range of objective stuffs

Kven t4ie nairow range of materials in general
use might be better employed than it is
There is, of course, a distinct tendency to varv
the object, merely because a child gets tued of
it as a material But a difTeieiit quality of
variation is required when the pupil is to de-
rive abstract notions from concrete materials
It is too frequently the case that the teacher
will treat the fundamental addition combina-
tions with one set of objects, < g lentils In
all the child's objective expenencc within
that held there are two persistent associations
— "lentils" and "the relation of addition"
The accidental element is thus emphasized as
frequently as the essential one, and being
concrete has even a better chance to iinpiess
itself A wide variation in the objective ma-
terial used would make teaching moie effective,
particularly with young cliildien

The nature of the materials propel to ob-
jective teaching has likewise been too narrowlv
interpreted Objective teaching has meant,
almost exclusively, instructing or develop-
ing through three-dimensional presentations
There is a wide range of two-dimensional rep-
resentations, / e pictures, which have been
neglected, which for all the psychological pui-
poses of education have as much worth as
so-called objects Such quasi-objective ma-
terial has been little used by teachers save as
it appears in textbooks Even the textbook
writers have not used pictures with a deep
sense of their intrinsic worth They are
printed as a mere substitute for objects in a
period when objects are popular pedagogical
materials The geometric figure or diagram
has had a restricted use with both the teacher
and the textbook writer Its most frequent
use has been in treatments of mensuration
There are, of course, obvious disadvantages to
pictures and diagrams The things repre-

sented in them and b) them ate not capable of
personal manipulation by the child in the
ordinary sense But they have a superiority
all their own They offer a wider, more natu-
ral, and more interesting range of conciete
experience

There aie other curious phases of narrowness
in the curient pedagogical interpretation as
to what constitutes a- concrete 01 objective
experience It will be noted that visual ob-
jects are the ones generally employed and that
they aie generally inanimate objects Of late
there has been some tendency to use healing
and touch as a concrete basis to teaching.
Advantage is also taken of the social plays
of children, and Mien games with things Here
the children themselves, and their relations
and acts, are the expediences from which ab-
stract notions are obtained With some of
the best teachers in the lowest giades it is no
longer unusual to see children moving about in
all soits of play designed to add reality to, and
mi-lease interest in, language and its concepts

The conservative teacher's use of objects is
aitihcial and lacking in unity If he bungs
a series of objects into the development of a
single topic, they have little relation to each
othei They represent no actual gioupmg
Then sole connection with one another is
that they exemplify the same abstract truth
Beans, cardboard squares, and shoe-pegs may
all be employed in the same lesson The pro-
giessive teacher offers more logical unitv in
their materials To " plav at store/1 to utilize
games, to deal \\ith things within a single
pictuie, is to bring the concrete materials into
the classroom v\ith :i more nearly normal
setting It is in no small measure due to this
bettei use of material that the progressive
teacher is gaining power throughout the ele-
menlaiv grades

Inductive teaching has been one of several
movements affecting objective teaching The
effort of teachers to escape the slavishness of
mere niemonter methods and to approximate
real thinking led to the introduction of induc-
tive teaching Necessarily objective teaching
became more or less identified with the new
movement and was influenced by it So, it
has been said of objective work in arithmetic,
as it has been said of laboratory woik in the
sciences, that such instruction is a method
of " discovery " or u rediscovery.'' Such an
alliance has had its beneficial effects upon
objective teaching, it has redeemed it from
the aimless 44 observational work " of an earlier
" objective study " But too frequently it
confused an objective mode of presentation
with a scientific method of learning truth,
two activities having a common logical basis,
but not at all the same Under the assump-
tion that the " development " method is one
of " rediscovery," the tendency is to give the
child as complete a range of concrete evidences
as would be necessary on the part of the scien-

527

OBLATES OF MARY IMMACULATE

OBSESSION

tiht in substantiating a new fact. The result
is that long after the child is convinced of a
truth the teacher persists in giving further
objective illustrations of it The child loses
interest in the somewhat monotonous contin-
uance of objective manipulations, and the
teacher has naturally wasted time and energy
If the fact or the process that the teachei
wishes to convey can be transmitted with
fewer objective treatments (the authoritative
treatment of the teacher counting for some-
thing in school as authority counts every-
where), then it is unnecessary to exhaust the
objective treatments of a fact Inductive
teaching and learning are not equivalent to
inductive discovery; and to hold them identi-
cal is necessarily the too great use of objects in
teaching

Another modern movement in teaching
method which has had a conspicuous effect
on objective teaching is the movement toward
" self-activity " on the part of the child. The
recent favor enjoyed by manual training, na-
ture study, self-government, and other active
phases of school life is an index of the general
movement in mind Its influence has not onlv
forced the introduction of new subjects, it has
changed the manner of presenting the older
subjects of the elementary curriculum Head-
ing, language, spelling, and arithmetic have
responded by incorporating an active use of
objects by the children themselves There
was a time when objective work in the schools
was a passive matter so far as the child was
concerned. Any active manipulation of the
objects that might be required was cared foi
by the teacher, the child being merely a passive
observer This is at present much less the case
than formerly, the influence of " self-activity "
having entered into contemporaneous peda-
gogy The present situation is one where the
child sometimes merely observes objects and
sometimes actually handles them At one
extreme the teacher himself demonstrates in
the presence of the class, and records the rela-
tions in appropriate symbols, the class being
in the position of interested spectators of a
process At the other extreme the teacher
puts the objective materials on the desks of
the children and, with a minimum of instruc-
tion in advance, directs them towards the de-
sired experiences and conclusions

There is probably no single type of method
which has been as influential for good in the
schools as objective teaching But the appro-
priate refined use of the varied forms requires
an analysis and care which the average class-
room practitioner has not given More accu-
rate interpretations and applications of the
method are necessary H. S

See EXCURSIONS, SCHOOL, OBJECT TEACHING

OBLATES OF MARY IMMACULATE,

THE - See TEACHING ORDERS OF THE CATH-
OLIC CHURCH,

OBSERVATION SCHOOLS —Schools con-
nected with institutions for the training
of teachers where the prospective teacher ob-
serves practical work of instruction in connec-
tion with his theoretical training. The term
is used to distinguish such an affiliated school
from those \vhere the prospective teacher is
allowed trial teaching usually termed a Prac-
tice School (q v ) or a Training School It is
also distinguished from closely related schools
which may be termed Experimental Schools
(q v ), which are used for educational experi-
mentation under expert direction The term
Observation Schools, however, is used synony-
mously with the term Model School (q v )

OBSERVATIONAL

GEOMETRY.

GEOMETRY. — See

528

OBSERVATIONAL METHOD —See OB-
JECTIVE METHOD

OBSESSION — An impressive and per-
sistent idea similar to a fixed idea, which holds
the field of consciousness to the exclusion of
normal ideas The idea is of exaggerated
importance and usually leads to certain ab-
normal actions Although at times the ideas
are understood bv the individual to be abnor-
mal, they cannot be restrained Pathological
action is not a necessary part of the ob-
session for manv persistent ideas lead to no
special action, anv constant recurrence of
one idea is propcrlv called an obsession

The commonest forms of obsession are fears
relative to the performance of certain acts, or
to the power 01 influence of certain conditions
or things The feai of walking under a laddei,
of walking on the cracks of the sidewalk, of
leaving a pin Ivmg on the street, are examples
of the commonest obsessions which, however,
do not become pathological because of later
education and of the demands of business or
professional life They may, however, lead
to more marked abnormalities, such as the
phobias (q v ) The fear of open places (agora-
phobia), the fear of closed places (claustro-
phobia), the fear of high places (acrophogia),
the fear of fire (pyrophobia), are the most
common of these

Obsessions of doubt are also frequent
These are of having performed some action
which should not have been performed, or not
having done a thing 01 of having done it im-
properly, or of having given undue or improper
credence to certain things, mainly religious
The so-called deli re dc negation may be con-
sidered an extreme example of this The
individual denies the existence of the world,
the existence of his own body, and everything
This leads to delusions that he is unable to die
and, if the emotional tone is depressed, he may
believe that his sufferings are to continue
throughout eternity. On account of the
insistent idea the obsession eventually may

OCCIDENTAL COLLEdE

ODOR

lead to the committing of crimes, to certain
genital acts, to scruples, to disjointed thought,
and to hypochondnacal ideas resulting at
times in suicide Here also belong the so-
called simple monomanias (q v ) The klep-
tomaniac has an insistent idea, he is obsessed,
he must take the article which is close at hand,
the dipsomaniac cannot withstand his in-
sistent idea, he cannot let an opportunity to
take alcohol go by, even though he must steal
a drink, the pyroimimac must stait a lire, the
impulse cannot be controlled 'Hieie are also
the doubters (foltc (lit douie), who are forever
considering the possibilities and proprieties
and the values of certain actions At times
these are simple, the doubt lef erring to simple
acts such as having closed the safe, or locked
the door, or that the clothing has been im-
properly buttoned or fastened These doubts
lead to the icpetition of the action The
man retains to his shop and examines the safe
again, the man and woman feels of the but-
tons or hooks to see that they aie properly
fastened When doubts are exaggerated, they
may lead to the performance of the same act
dozens of tunes The questionings and ob-
jections and doubts sometimes, because they
cannot be answered, result in an abouha, in
which condition the individual does nothing
because he cannot decide whether a certain
action will give a proper result

These conditions aie found in psychasthema
(q v ), neuiasthema (qv), Instena (qv), and
in other functional neuroses and psycho-
neuroses A special pedagogical interest lies
in the facts that the) usually begin in child-
hood on account of some mental accident,
and that thev develop as time passes The
treatment of these eases can be eained out
onh when the cause or causes aie discovered,
and with these as a basis a reconstiuction and
reeducation 01 perfection of habit in the in-
dividual js brought about Both etiology and
treatment indicate fully the importance to the
teacher of a knowledge of the condition

S I F

References —

) L Insane Movements and Obsession
vfMtnl ,SYi ]<M)() Vol LV, pp .500 5()<>
//' s (Jbm^inn d Id P^ifchn^thtnu (Paris,

ttixtonb tt lea /w-

H \HKIN,
./tun

.1 \NJ-T, I*
1<HM

KhMH, K

dnd PIIKEH, A L<u Ofmttix
imlnwn* (Pans, 1902 )

S>AULLL, LL ({HAND nu La Piurdes Kxpaccs. 1878

SOUKHANOFF, S Ktiologic »'t Pathogenic des Obsessions

niorbidt'S Conuret>b dt Bruxdlcx, 190,}, Vol II, p

OCCIDENTAL COLLEGE, LOS AN-
GELES, CAL —A college established in 1SS7
by men of Presbyterian faith for the purpose
of providing opportunity for Christian edu-
cation for the young people of Southern Cali-
fornia Three years later, having absorbed
McPherron Academy, it was incorporated
under the laws of the State of California as
Occidental College of Los Angeles During

VOL. IV — 2 M

529

the year 1911-1912 its enrollment numbered
300 and its teaching force twenty-two pro-
fessors and instructors The present campus,
to which additional adjoining land has been
added, contains twenty-five1 acres, and plant
of three buildings, the old plant having been
destroyed by hre in 1896 The college will
move to a new site September, 1913. During
the past five years the college has become
non-denominational, and the academy has
been discontinued A. Cr P

OCCOM, SAMSON (1732-1792) —Amer-
ican Indian educator He belonged to the
tribe of the Mohicans and was educated
at Moor's Chanty School at Lebanon, Ct ,
conducted by Eleazar Wheelock (q v ) He
taught at New London, Ct , and for ten years
he conducted an Indian School on Long Is-
land In 17f>6 he was sent to England bv Dr
Wheelock to solicit the funds which secured
the establishment of Dartmouth College (q v ).
He was a minister of the Presbyterian church,
and devoted the remainder of his life to re-
ligious and educational work among the
Indians W S M

OCCUPATIONS —See ACTIVITY; INDUS-
TRIAL EDI CATION , KlNDEKGAHTEN

OCKHAM (OCCAM), WILLIAM OF.—

See SCHOLASTICISM, SCHOOLMEN

O'CREAT —X O'Creatus, as he describes
himself, was a pupil of Adelard of Bath (q v ),
and to this scholar he dedicates one of his
books, a woik on multiplication and division:
" X O'Cieati liber de multiplicatume et
dnisione mimeionim ad Adelardum Halhon-
lensem magistrurn suum " The preface to
this work begins as follows " Prologus N
Ocreati in Ileleeph ad Adelardum Betensen
magistnun suum " The meaning of Heleeph
(Helcep, Ars Helcep) is unknown, although
there are several conjectures, as that it is from
the Arabic nlqcijf, a study The life of O'Creat
is as unknown as the curious word that he uses,
for we knou nothing of his birth 01 death or
works He lived m the twelfth century, and
was probably a teacher of some distinction,
acquainted with Arabic as well as with Latin
The name seems to show that he came from
Ireland, and it is possible that he learned
Arabic from Adelard, who was a master of
this language D. E. S.

ODESSA, ROYAL NEW RUSSIAN UNI-
VERSITY — See RUSSIA, EDUCATION IN.

ODO, ST — See CLUNY

ODOR — Odors are the stimuli for the
sense of smell The general assumption is
that odorous substances give off small par-
ticles which are borne in the air to the olfac-

CENOPIDKS

OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS

tory membrane and there induce chemical
changes in the nerve What the chemical
character is that selves to excite the neive
is not known, although there is some evidence
that substances of similar chemical composi-
tion have similar odors Practically all of
the odorous substances belong in the fifth,
sixth, and seventh groups in the periodic clas-
sification Odors are all named from objects,
there are no true names for odors

W. B P
See OLFACTOIU SENSATIONS

References —

MYERS, C S Text Hook of Experimental Pbytholouu,

p 112 (Now York, 1909 )
NAGEL, W Handbuch d PhyKio1ogu,\v\ 111, p 5<M

(Brunswick, 1909-1910)

(ENOPIDES — See GEOMETRY

OFFENDERS —See

Q1JENTS

JL YEN ILK DELIN-

OFFICIAL PUBLICATIONS IN EDUCA-
TION.—

United States

Bureau of Education Annual Rtpoitx of the Com-
missioner of Education, ISoS to date

Circular* of Information, 1870 1<KM

HuUctint*, 1(W(> to date

Miscellaneous Publications (Occasional )

Bureau of Laboi R( port* and Hulhtin^ (( >cca-
sionallv on education )

Department of Agriculture /£<;><;/ /s and Hulldin*

State and citv publications For these see the
refeiencc Imtfe undei each state and the loading
( ities

Canada

Report*, etc , of the various provinces

Mexico

Mmisteno de Instruc u6n pubhca \ bellas \rtes
Boletin di Jnahutndn publua Otgano d< la
Sftretana del Ranin

Argentine Republic

Oficina cential del Censo Cen^o general dr Edma-
cion Icvnntafio d 23 de Mayo de 1!)(W Toino 1,
Poblan6n ewolar Toino II, Eatadixtica iwolai
Tonio III, Monoyiajiax

Great Britain

Education department Rt port of the Committee of
Council on Education, 1S.W/40 1S9S/99 \nnual

Department of Science and Art Repot t Jht-4bth,
1853-18% Annual

Board of Education Re pint of the Boa id of Educa-
tion, 1899-1900 to date Annual, continuing the
two preceding senes

Educational Pamphlets To No 22 (1(MO)

Special Repoits on educational subjects \ ols 1-27,
1897-1012

Statistics of Public Education in England and \V ales
1905 to date Annual

Medical Department Annual Ripoit of the Chief
Medical Officer of the Board of Education 1st,
1908

A compendium of precedents, judgments, decisions,
opinions, examples, etc , given or occurring in con-
nection with the administration of the Education
Act, 1902, the Education (London) Act, 1903, and
the Ed (local authority default) Act, 1904, \vith
the lull text of the acts, and of the Ed. (admin-
istrative provision*) Act, 1907, and the Qualification
of Women (co and co. b. councils) Act, 1907

London, Office of The Nihool Government Chronicle

and Education Authorities Gazette [1909], 2 vols

(Th( school government Handbooks No 1A )
London School Board Rcpoit Ist-I7th, 188(3-

1887 to 1902-1903
London County Council Education Committee

Report of the Education Committee tnibmittmg the

Report of the Education Officer, 1908-1909 to date

Annual
Scotch Education Department Report, 1873-1874 to

date Annual
Ireland Board of National Education Reports of the

Commissioners of National Education in Ireland,

1S34 to date \nnual
Commissioners of Intermediate Education Annual

R( poitx
Imperial Education Conference, London, 1911 Report

Presented to both Houses of Parliament by command

of His Majesty, 207 p (London, 1911)

Austria

ffandhmli dtr R< ichnaenf fzt und MinitfterialverordnuniK n
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tnt(ntti Koniarnchut und L&ndtrn 7 neu redi-
gierte Aufl 47.r, p (Wien, 1X91 )

Mmistenum fill Cultus und Untemcht Vtrord-
nunaNhlatt

Statistisehc Central-commission StatwtiL der offent-
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virtiett ntn Komnrt ichen und Ldndei n Annual

France

Annuatn d< V Enwmneinent piimairt, ed F Martel
Pans, 1SS,"> to date

Annuain d( Vlnsii u<tion jniltliqiu <t r/t,s litauji-ai ts
1'aiis, 1S.">1 to date

( Commission dc 1'Enseignement Enquete sur I'En-
Ktifjnenitnt b«ondair< (> vols 1N99-1'K)1

Mmisteio dc Tlnstruction publujue et des Beauxarth
Hullttin adntinibtmtif, 1801

Cotnplf difintitfdfsdtptnHc* Annual

Enqucte* el J)o( nnn nt^ relatif^ h 1J Ennei-gncnn nt bw-
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Rappoil ini I'Oruanibation (t la Situation d^ rEnseiQiu-
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J<e< ueil d(ks Lois ct K(^glements sur 1'Enseignement
superieui, < omprenant les Decisions de la Juris-
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pubh(|ue «-t du Conseil d'Etat o \ ols 1SSO-1909

Pans Mus£( pedagogic jue Bil)hotl^que, office et
musec de ] ens<'ignement public Mtmoint> et
Dfxutmntb molaiKb pnltlies pat It Mu&fr pedagogiqui

Germany

Deutscher Unneisitats-kalender begiundet von Ober-
bibliothekar Prof Dr F Ascherwon . Mit
.imthc hei t^nterstutzung nach dem Tod<i des Be-
grundershrsg \oniD Th Scheffei und Di (T Zieler
Berlin, 1S72 to date \nnual

>/^;//s/(sr//<,s lahthmh di) hohtnn Kchnlcn und heil-
pudanoiii'iihf n Anntalten Diutnchlandn, Lnx( nibnryx
und dn ftchwtiz Nat h amtlicfun Quellen bcarbcittl
Leipzig, 1SSO to date

Prussia Mmistenum der gcisthchen, Untemchts-
und Medizinal-angele-g(»nheiten (*( ntralblatt fur die
{Hvantmii I? nternthtH-tiii walking in Pittiiaui

titutttttiM hci> Laivdenamt l)a^ (jetsamnit( niedtrt tfchul-
M'ii»<w mi pit uiKivhtn «SVa»/r 1880, 1S91, 189b,
1(K)1 (Picussisrhe Statistik Nos 101, 120, 151,

170 )

Suxoin Ministenum des Cultus und ofTentlichcn
lTnterriihts Bouht uba dif geaanifm (rnt<nn,htir
und Krzit hnnfj^anKtaffen tm Korngreichf «SV;< hxen
Annual

\\urttemberg Ministenum deb Kirehen- und Schul-
\\esens Arntsbltttt 1 Jahrg , 1908

Statibttk d<K 1*nf<rn<h(K- und Erzichungswcscns.
Vnnual

Italy

K ( 'ommihsioiie d1 Inchiesta per la pubbhca Istru-
zione Relaziont finanziaria Rome, 1910. 459 p

( 'omnussionc reale per 1' ordmamcnto degh Studi
secondari in Italia Vol I, Rclazionc Vol II,

530

OHIO NORTHERN UNIVERSITY

OHIO, STATE OF

Rwpwtt al quentionario diffuso con Circolare 27 war/50
1906 Rome, 1909

Direzione generate doll' Istruzionc pnmana e popolarc
L'ltttruzwne primarm t popolarc in Italia con specialc
Riguardo all Anno scolastico 1907-1908 Vola 1-4
Rome, 1911)

Ministero doll' Istruziono puhbhca Annuario

Bollettino ufficialf, 1S74 to dato \\ooklv

L'Istruzione pnmana o popolaro in Italia Ttttlo
comp dal Ministero della pubblica Ivtiuziom a till a
Rclaziont ujfficiaU con Illiiatrazwni, (/jafici in rohnr
e piantc di Edifiti acolastici c con une prefazione del
Comm Dott ("amdlo Corradini Torino-Roma,
1911 500 p

Belgium

Mimstdra des Science,-* ct dos Arts Rapport trunnal
Kur I1 Etnt d( V Erntnffncrncrit nwym

Situation do 1'EnHOiKHPinont supeneur donne mix Fnna
do 1'Etat Rapport tntnnal, 1K4<) 1852 to date

Situation do I'lnstruction primairo Rapport trunnal

Netherlands

Dopaitmont van Innnenlandsoho Zakon Vu*la(j nan
den staat dir hooy<-, tniddclhart in luyeri tfcholtn in
het Komngnjk dcr Nedtrlandtn Annual

Denmark

Mmihtoriot foi Kirko- op TTndorMsnin^svac8onot
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1K7<) to date Annual

Norway

Kuko- OK Undorx innings- Doparteinontot (J 'mot / mtetv-
o(j xkoleannaler, 1.SH4 to dato

Sweden

Statistiaka central hvrttii Underrin»inf)BViHH ndet

Annual
Beralti'l&er out Folktkolorna i Rikft for /inn 189()~

1904, afgifna af tillforoidnado FolkHkoloniH]>oktoror

2 vols

Spain
Mllilbtt-Tin do InstliK cion public. M \ ))oll«is Vrlrs

Anuano Itgidatiro d< In^trmittiu ptihlua
Katadistua <i(olar rl< K^paha
Memona

Switzerland

Annnunc dt I'lnnti uction publiqm tn »S///*^< Lau-
sanne. 1()10~
Jahrbuch d<u Unt< rruhtswi v /t.s in <i< r tichwu,z 1HS9 -

Zunoh

India
Education Department /Vopmf.s of Education in

India Quinquennial review

Japan

Department of Education Report, 187M to date.
Annual

Australia
State4 reports, etc

This list does not aim to bo complete, but simply to
Kive the chief official HOUICOH of statistical information
For further items, consult the reference lists at the
end of the article on the various national systems

OHIO NORTHERN UNIVERSITY,
ADA, OHIO — A coeducational institution
established in LS71 as the Northwestern Ohio
Normal School In 1885 the name was
changed to Ohio Normal University, and in
1898 this institution was sold to the Central
Ohio Conference of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, which obtained a new charter under
the present title in 1904-1905 The following
departments are maintained, commerce, en-
gineering, law, liberal arts, music, pharmacy,

531

normal school, fine arth, and expiesbion Fif-
teen units of high school woik aic required
for admission to the college of liberal arts
The usual college degrees are given The
enrollment of students in 1911-1912 was 1869
There is a faculty of thirty-eight members

OHIO, STATE OF — Ceded by Virginia
to the Federal Government in 1784, organized
as a part of the Xoithwest Territory bv the
Ordinance of 17S7, and admitted as the seven-
teenth state HI 1S02 It is located in the
eastern part of the North Central Division,
and has a land aiea of 1-0,740 square miles
In size, Ohio is about the same as Vnginia, a
little smaller than Pennsylvania, and about
tin1 size of England proper For adminis-
trative purposes the state is divided into
eighty-eight counties, and these in turn into
townships, cities, incorporated towns, and
special school districts In 1910 Ohio had a
total population of 4,707,121 and a density
of population of 117 persons to the square
mile

Educational History —The land oidmance
of 1785, piovidmg foi the rectangular survey
of lands in the Northwest Terntoiv, in which
" lot No 16 in every township, for the main-
tenance of schools \\itlun the said township,"
was oidered to be reserved for sale, marks the
beginning oi educational legislation for Ohio
In the contract for the sales of tracts of land,
made by the Continental Congress in 1787
with the Ohio Companv, and in 17S8 with
John Synunes, lands for schools, religion, and
a umxersitv weie iesei\ed and granted (See
N \TJO\AL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION }
In 1799 the Northwest Territorial legislature
enacted a law against trespass on school lands,
imposing a fine oi $8 tor any injury to certain
specified trees, and $3 for injuiv to any un-
specified tree This \\as the only territorial
legislation in Ohio having any reference to
education

On the admission of Ohio in 1802, in leturn
for a tax exemption for h\ e years on all na-
tional lands sold, Congress gave the sixteenth
section in each township to the inhabitants
thereof for the benefit oi schools, and the new
state put into its state constitution three
clauses relating to education and learning
These declared that religion, morality, and
learning should be iorever encouraged, guar-
anteed equal benefits to the poor in the schools
support (M! from the land funds, and permitted
the incorporation of societies and institutions
for the support of schools and the advance-
ment of learning In 1S02 the legislature
created the University at Athens, and in 1809
Miami University (q v ) was founded. In
1803 the legislature incorporated the Trustees
of the Erie Literary Society, in 1805 the Trus-
tees of the Dayton Library, and in 1808 the
legislature granted incorporation to Academies
at Chillicothe and Dayton. For the next

OHIO, STATE OF

OHIO, STATE OF

nine years almost the only educational
legislation was the chartering of such institu-
tions, and in 1817 the necessity for these spe-
cial acts was removed by the enactment of a
general law for the incorporation of schools
and library companies The only other educa-
tional legislation up to 1821 was the enact-
ment, in 1806 and 1810, of laws authorizing
the organization of any school township having
twenty voters, the election of three township
trustees and a township treasurer to look after
and care for the school sections, and further
authorizing the trustees to divide the town-
ships into such school districts as they might
see fit, and to grant to any schools organized
their share in the profits of the school land
section No other means of school support
seems to have been provided before 1821

The first public school law was enacted in
1821, but was so inadequate that the law of
1825 is usually regarded as the real beginning
of the public school organization in Ohio
This ordered the trustees of the civil town-
ships to organize school districts, retained most
of the provisions of the Act of 1X21 with ref-
erence to the duty of school officers, made the
first provision for the certification of teachers,
and levied a one half mill county school tax
The school revenues were still inadequate, and
the rate bill was continued as before The
branches of study to be taught were reading,
writing, and arithmetic Three examiners of
teachers were to be appointed by the county
court of common pleas, who, in addition to ex-
amining teachers, were to visit and supervise
the schools

The year 1827 marks the establishment of
the common school fund of the state In 1824
Ohio petitioned Congress for permission to
sell its school lands, which Congress granted
m 1826. The law of 1827 authorized the sale,
ordered the money to be placed in the State
Treasury to the credit of the townships, and
pledged the faith of the state to pay interest
on the deposits at 6 per cent In 1831 the
salt lands, given to the state at the time of its
admission to the Union, were also devoted to
education. New general school laws were
enacted in 1829, 1831, 1834, and 1836 Each
was merely the combination of its predecessor
with such minor amendments as had been
enacted in the interval In 1827 the minimum
school tax on each householder was fixed at
$1, though this might be paid by two days'
labor on the schoolhouse, a provision which
continued until 1838 In 1827, also, all fines
for immoral conduct in any school district
were to be paid over to the district school
funds In 1829 the first special city school
law (see CINCINNATI) was enacted, negroes
were debarred from school privileges, the
county school tax was increased to three fourths
mill, and school district meetings were more
fully provided for The provisions for voting
school district taxes, and the exemptions,

were somewhat minutely specified A three
months' school term and the first grading of
teachers' certificates were also provided for
In 1831 the school district directors were con-
stituted a body politic and corporate, a cen-
sus of school children was provided for, the
basis of apportionment was changed from
householders to census children, and teachers'
certificates were to be based on a knowledge
of reading, writing, spelling, arid arithmetic,
with special certificates to women on reading,
writing, and spelling only In 1834 an as-
sistant examine! of teachers for each township,
to be appointed by the county board, was
provided for In 1833 and 1834 the fuel tax
was provided for in the law, and school direc-
tors were authoiized to furnish the quota of
anv one neglecting to do so, and to charge the
same to the delinquent. In 1836 the county
school tax was increased to one and one half
mills, with permission either to county com-
missioners to levy two mills or to townships
to levy an additional one and one half mills
In J829 there was organized at Cincinnati
the Western Academic Institute and Board
of Education, which in 1832 became the West-
ern Literary Institute and College of Pro-
fessional Teachers For ten years this was
almost the onlv strongly stimulating agency
in education in the state It sought to pro-
mote the diffusion of knowledge as to educa-
tion, and to elevate the character and quality
of the teachers of the state Among its mem-
bers were Albert Picket, Lyman Beechei,
Samuel Lewis, B O Peers, and Professor
Calvin E Stowe Money was subscribed,
an agent was sent to visit the schools of the
state, and delegations appeared before the
legislature in the interests of education Un-
der the influence of this society, Professor
Calvin E Stowe was commissioned by the
legislature1 to visit Europe and to report on
the systems of elementary instruction found
there, and 10,000 copies of his report were
ordered to be printed by the legislature in
January, 1838 In 1836 a state convention for
promoting education was held, and in 1837
the legislature was prevailed upon to make
the beginnings of state school supervision,
bv the creation of the office of Superintendent
of Common Schools The Superintendent
was elected by the legislature for a one-year
term, and was to receive a salary of $500
His duties were almost entirely statistical and
clerical Finally, in March, 1838, and largely
as a culmination of these efforts, what has be-
come known as the great school law of 1838
was enacted. This was based on the recom-
mendations contained in the first report of
the new Superintendent of Common Schools,
and marked a great advance in school legis-
lation for the state It was based on the idea
of strengthening the power of the state and of
the townships at the expense of the districts.
The office of State Superintendent of Common

532

OHIO. STATE OF

OHIO, STATE OF

Schools was continued, but changed to a three-
year appointment, and the salary increased
to $1200. A state common school fund was
created, as distinct from the common school
fund or township fund, established in 1S27
In this new fund were placed the salt lands,
devoted to education in 1831, interest at
5 per cent on the Surplus Revenue, distnbutcd
in 1837 (see NATIONAL GOVERNMENT AND
EDUCATION) , the state's revenue from banks,
insurance, and bridge companies, and some
other minor sources of income The income
on all of these items amounted to about $200,-
000 a year and this was to bo distnbuted to the
townships on the basis of the school census
A state school tax of one half mill was also
voted a few davs later, and the required county
school tax was increased to 1wo mills For
the townships, every township clerk was made
ex ojjicio township superintendent of schools
with the usual supervisory duties Pic was
also to estimate the money needed to provide
a six mouths' term of school, and to submit to
the voters of the township the question of
levying the tax The township treasurer was
also given the custody of all state, county, and
township school funds, the district treasurers
being left only the district taxes for building,
fuel, and furniture School directors, too,
were given greater independence of action
They could now levy armuall v a tax of $20
for incidental expenses without the sanction
of the district meeting, and the old limitation
of district taxation to resident property
holders was withdrawn All voters were now
admitted to the district meetings School
directors were authorized to deteiinine at
what ages children could be admitted to school,
and to permit instruction in a foreign language
(German) Cities and towns were declared
separate school districts, wherein the electors
were to choose eithci three directors for the
whole city or town, or one for each subdistnct
(school). Directors in cities and towns were
empowered to establish schools of different
grades, and to make rules and regulations for
their management

The law of 1838 was the fiist comprehensive
school law for the state, and was in the direc-
tion of a strong and efficient educational ad-
mmistiatum It was, however, like much good
early legislation, in advance of public senti-
ment, and the law \NJIS soon materially modi-
fied. In 1S39 the county school tax was cut
in half, the township taxes wore reduced, and
the township superintendents' supervisory
powers were materially lessened In 1840 the
office of State Superintendent of Common
Schools was abolished, and the duties of the
office transferred to the Secretary of State
The clause in the law requiring reading, writ-
ing, and arithmetic to be taught in the Eng-

ft

lish language was repealed, and German dis-
trict schools were reorganized The first
attempt at a graded course of study was is-

sued this year In 1842 the enumeration of
children was taken from the township super-
intendent and restored to the district clerks,
and the term of the district school director
was lengthened from one to three years In

1847 the county school tax was further re-
duced to two-thirds of a mill

On the other hand, some constructive leg-
islation for both city and district schools was
enacted during this period The city legis-
lation began in 1829, when the first special
city school law (Cincinnati) was enacted, and
it was continued in 1839 by a special law for
Zanesville, in 1845 for Columbus, in 1846 for
Dayton, in 1847 for Akron, and in 1848 for
Cleveland Night schools weie first author-
ized in 1839, but onl\ for males The Akron
law, at first applying only to Dayton and
Akron, was soon amended to apply to all
cities and incorporated towns, two thirds of
whose inhabitants petitioned the council for
special city or town school organization This
law gave the Board of Education power to
establish " a central grammar school where
instruction should be given in the various
branches and paits of study not provided for
in the primary schools and yet requisite to a
respectable English education " The Cin-
cinnati central high school dates from 1847,
In 1849 another similar law was enacted which
gave the school coiporations greater powers,
and extended union school privileges to town-
ships and school districts having 500 or more
inhabitants The Akron law and the law of
1849 mark the establishment of the graded and
town school system in Ohio

For the township and district schools, other
minor legislation was enacted before 1853.
In 1816 school distiicts were authorized to
establish school libranes, and to expend
therefor $30 the first year and $10 thereafter.
In 1847 county teachcis' institutes were au-
thorized and funds for maintaining them pro-
vided The Ohio State Teachers' Association
held its first meeting this year The same
year county superintendents were authorized
to be appointed in twenty-five specified coun-
ties, but this law was repealed in 1853 In

1848 the establishment of schools for negroes,
debarred from educational privileges since
1829, was authorized, and the next year the
establishment of separate schools for negroes
was made optional An effort, to get better
school returns was made by a law of 1848,
requiring teachers to make an annual report
to the township treasurer, but it was not until
1858 that complete returns from all of the
counties were for the first time made In

1849 the first advance beyond the 3 R's was
made by a law adding English grammar and
geography to the subjects for teachers' examin-
ations, and to any school, on petition of three
or more householders In 1850 a law was
passed creating a State Board of Public In-
struction, state district supervision, state

533

OHIO, STATE OF

OHIO, STATE OF

Uniformity in teachers' examination questions,
and state life diplomas, but the legislature
failed to appoint the five persons provided
for, and the law never went into effect A
city superintendent of schools for Cincinnati
was first authorized m 1850 In 1851 the law
of 1838 was restored in most of its important
particulars The township clerk was restored
to his full powers as township school super-
intendent, and given $1 a day additional for
time spent in school visitation. The annual
district meeting remained strong, but district
directors were now allowed to levy $50 with-
out a vote of the district, the county school «
tax was restored to 1 mill, and the income from
the state common school fund was increased
to $300,000 a year

In 1850 a new state constitution was pre-
pared and adopted by the people This con-
tained but a brief article on education, merely
guaranteeing the security of all educational
and religious funds, directing the legislature
to provide for free schools, and prohibiting sec-
tarian aid from any school funds Undei this
new constitution, the third important school
law for Ohio (the Rice Act of 1853) was en-
acted, abolishing the rate bill and making
other important changes and improvements
A State Commissioner of Common Schools, to
be elected by the people for three-year terms,
was created, and a state school tax of three
mills, to provide free education for all, took
the place of the $300,000 lump sum previously
distributed A state tax of one tenth of a null
was also added for common school libraries
The county school tax disappeared, and town-
ship taxation for schools superseded district,
taxation. County superintendents were abol-
ished, but count v boards of examinees, to be
appointed by the probate judge, were con-
tinued, and $1 50 a day was now granted to
them for their services Orthography was
added to the list of examination subjects for
teachers Evening schools were opened for
the first time to both sexes, separate schools
for colored pupils were permitted in districts
having thirty or more colored pupils, and the1
minimum school term was increased from six
to seven months The beginnings of township
control were made in the, at first nominal,
subordination of the district system The
school districts were reduced to subdistricts
and deprived of their corporate powers, though
each retained three trustees The school
district meeting was also abolished, except for
the annual election of one trustee The
subdistrict trustees still retained the power to
elect teachers, inspect the schools, build and
repair buildings, and purchase supplies The
clerk of each subdistrict board, together with
the township clerk, now became a township
school board, with the township treasuier, ex
officw, as treasurer of the board. This town-
ship board was given oversight of all school
property, estimated the township school tax,

534

made regulations relating to studies, textbooks,
and discipline, and fixed the boundaries of
the subdistncts. Township boards were au-
thorized to appoint one of their own members
as township school manager, though few such
appointments were ever made The control
of any " central or high school " maintained
by the township was vested in the township
board Any township might establish schools
higher than the primary grade, if approved by
the voters of the township Cities and vil-
lages were given power to establish " central
or high schools " without approval by the
voters of the district In 1854 it was stated
that at " the commencement of 1847 there
was not a single well-organized public high
school in the state, now there are more than
foitv in which thorough academic education
is given, besides nearly an equal number in
which instruction is given in some of the
higher branches " Following this important
organizing law, there was no other important
educational legislation for twenty years

The new school code of 1873 was a codifica-
tion rather than a new school law All pre-
ceding legislation was repealed, inconsistencies
were straightened out and conflicts of authority
eliminated, and the whole was restated in new
form It made no new contributions to the
development of the state's school system, nor
did it add any important element to the ad-
ministrative machmoiy It is classed, never-
theless, with the laws of 1825, 1838, and 1853,
as maikmg a fouith stage in the development
of the state school system Its chief addi-
tions woro a classification of city and town
school corporations, the separation of school
government from municipal government, any
school district (city, town, or township) was
authorized to appoint a superintendent of
schools, an examination in the theory and
practice of teaching was added to the examin-
ation subjects for all teachers, teachers' in-
stitutes woie required in all counties, and
separate city institutes were authorized; an
end was put to German schools by ordering
all instruction to be in the English language,
the state school tax was further reduced to
one mill, while district taxation up to seven
mills was permitted The next new school
code was not enacted until 1904, and in the
interval a number of important school laws
were added

In 1875 the expenditure of school moneys for
evening schools, for books, apparatus, etc , was
authorized for any city, town, or special dis-
trict In 1881 all districts were permitted to
spend school money for school library purposes,
and in 1803 all districts were permitted to
establish evening schools. In 1882 United
States history, in 1888 elementary physi-
ology, in 1896 civil government, in 1904 *lit-
eiature, and in 1911 agriculture were added
to the list of teachers' examination subjects.
In 1882 the State Teachers' Reading Circle

OHIO, STATK OF

OHIO, STATK OF

was organized and began its work In 1887
an industrial department in Wilberforce Uni-
versity was established by the state In 1888
the State Board of Examiners was increased
to five, three grades of life certificates and four
of county certificates were authorized, and
boards of city school examiners were created
Still later, village boards of examiners weie
also created, so that little except the giant/ing
of rural certificates was left to the county
boards of examination In 1885 the union
of township, village, and special distiicts to
maintain a high school was permitted In
1887 the laws requiring sepaiate schools for
colored pupils were repealed In 1889 the
first comprehensive school law was enacted,
and this was amended and strengthened in
1890, 1893, 1898, and 1902 In 1891 an ex-
perience qualification was imposed for mem-
bership on county boards of examination
In 1885 the period for textbook adoptions,
fixed at two years by the first, legislation on
the subject in 1871, was increased to five years,
and boards of education wen1 authorized to
buy textbooks and supplies and to furnish
them to pupils at cost In 1890 a schoolbook
board was created, to approve hooks and h\
prices In 1891 tins board was authon/cd
to contract with authors or compilers direct,
and in 1894 all boards of education were per-
mitted to supply fiee textbooks, and to le\y
an additional tax for the purpose

In 1892 the process of subordinating the
district system to township control, begun in
1853, reached its culmination in a law which
abolished subdistrict trustees and created
representative township boards to manage1 the
schools of the township-* This const r net i\e
legislation was undone in 1898 by a law which
restored the subdistnct direct 01 system, but,
two years later townships were4 permitted to
abolish the subdistrict system by a vote of
the people, and in 1904 the township was once
more made the unit In 1892 physical train-
ing in city schools was required, and in 1S93 a
schoolhouse sanitation law was enacted In
1893 the kindergarten was included as a part
of the public school system, and a local tax
of one mill authorized therefor In 1894
women were permitted to vote at school elec-
tions In 1890 the United States nag was
reqiined on all schoolhouses In 1898 the
articulation of the county schools with the
high schools was secured by a law providing
for the examining and the awarding of diplomas
to those completing the rural schools, and per-
mitting any township board to pay the tui-
tion of rural pupils at a high school In 1898
two adjacent townships were permitted to
unite to support a high school, and in 1900,
and again in 1902, the payment of high school
tuition was made mandatory In 1894 the
centralization of schools and the transporta-
tion of all pupils to a central school was begun
in Kingsville Township, Ashtabula County;

in 18QO the same plan was permitted in three
counties, in 1898 the plan was permitted to
be put in operation anywhere in the state, and
in 1900 a revised law gave the initiative to the
township boards, or, if they failed to exercise
it, to the people bv mitiatue proceedings

Although a number of recommendations
had been made by the State School Commis-
sioners looking to the establishment of a nor-
mal school for the state, Ohio took no action
until recently In 1880 the fust appropria-
tion was made, consisting of $5000 a year, to
Ohio University at Athens to establish a
teachers' training course This was done, but
the appropriations grew steadily less, and in
1890 the course was diopped altogether In
1900, after much agitation, and after receiving
a petition containing over 20,000 signatures,
the legislature finally made the first provision
for normal schools in the history of the state
A state commission was appointed to locate
one state normal school In 1902 two state
normal schools were created instead, by add-
ing a normal school department to the two
smaller state universities in the southern pait
of the state, — Miami University at Oxford
and Ohio University at Athens A State
Normal School Commission was also created
in 1902, to consider the location of additional
normal schools The Commission reported
in 1903, recommending the creation of a State
Board of Education of hvr, to have control of
the schools, and to exemse a few other func-
tions No action was taken on this recom-
mendation In 1900 the legislature declared
it as a state policy that the Ohio State Uni-
versity at Columbus might maintain a teachers'
college, but should never maintain a normal
department, and that the two state institu-
tions in southern Ohio should not provide
instruction extending beyond the A B and
the A M degrees, thus clearly differentiating
the work of the three state institutions In
1910 two additional state normal schools were
created, to be located in northern Ohio.

In 1902 the Brumbaugh law, classifying the
school system of the state, and providing for
three grades or classes of high schools, was
enacted, and the child labor and compulsory
education laws were re-written and harmon-
ized In 1902 a new municipal code was made
necessary by a supreme court decision nulli-
fying the CleA eland special legislation, arid in
1904 a new and revised school code, the fifth
foi the state, was formulated and appioved
bv the legislature The school code of 1873
had been almost entirely changed by the
amendments of thirty years The new code
not only gathered up and classified these
changes, but itself made a numbei of additions of
importance The subdistrict system was finally
eliminated, boaids ol education weie given a four-
year term, the school districts of the state were
classified and their powers restated, school su-
perintendents were given increased tenure and

535

OHIO, STATE OF

powers, village boards ot examination were
abolished and the certification laws were re-
vised, teachers were ordered to be paid for
attending county institutes, uniiorm questions
for all teacheis' examinations in the state were
made mandatory, and the approval of all local
courses of study by the Commissioner was
required In 1906 a minimum salary law was
passed, which required a salary of $40 a month
for an eight-month term State aid lor weak
districts was provided to carry out the law
In 1909 two high school inspectors were au-
thorized for the State Commissioners office,
and the State Inspectoi ot Workshops and
Factories was given power to inspect school
buildings and to approve all schoolhouse plans
In 1910 the commission on the rectification
of the laws made its leport, the report was
accepted by the legislatuie, and a new edition
of the recodified laws was issued In J911
agriculture was added to the subjects to be

tl>£,l I V./VU. l'V*A V »T 411.T c«/v»v«»-.v» W.T i/u^. , j- 111

taught in the public schools, and was made a apportions the »cho<H

required subject for teachers' certificates after ~ ~] Al 4 *

August, 1912 The state was also to be divided
into four agricultural districts, with a district
supervisor of agricultural instruction to be
appointed by the State School Commissioner
for each In 1912 a constitutional convention
mot to revise the constitution of the state.

Present School System —At the head of
the present school system of Ohio is a State
Commissioner of Common Schools, elected
bienmallv bv the people His duties aie largely
clerical and supervisory, with no important
powers lodged in the state office The duties
of the State Commissioner include office work,
visiting the judicial districts of the state each
year, meeting school officials, delivering lec-
tures, preparing blank ioims and issuing the
school laws, issuing an Aibor Day manual,
prepaiing all questions for the examina-
tion of teachers and for eighth-grade exam-
inations, and making an annual leport to the
Governoi He has supen ision of the school
funds and, on complaint, m<iy appoint an
examiner to examine into the funds of any
district All private and denominational
schools make statistical reports to him each
year He has the appointment (1909) of
two state high school inspectors, who visit the
high and other schools of the state, assist at
and inspect teachers' institutes, and vntually
act as Deputy State Commissioners He also
has the appointment (1911) of four district
supervisors of agriculture, who are also m
effect state deputies, and are appmtcd for
two-year periods at a salary of $2000 a year
The State Commissioner also appoints each
year one member of the State Board of Exam-
iners. The State School Commissioner has
few other functions As in Massachusetts,
what he can accomplish depends largely on
the personality of the Commissioner himself
Excepting a State Board of Examiners, to

OHIO, STATE OF

cational boards The system is essentially
decentralized

With the exception of the years 1847
to 1X53, Ohio has never had the office of
county superintendent A county board of
examine! s for teachers' certificates has existed
since 1S25, and still constitutes the only county
educational authority A county board of
thiee is appointed by the probate judge, one
each year for three-year terms Two of the
thiee have taught at least two years, and also
within five years, all must be residents of the
county, and each must not be connected with
any pmate oi parochial school, or with a book
him This board holds monthly examina-
tions foi teachers' certificates, examinations
for graduation fiom the common schools in
April and May, and conducts a county gram-
mar school commencement in August The
pay of the members is regulated by the number
examined, and is small The State Auditor

and the county audit 01 makes the county ap-
portionments, and receives and tiansmits all
school reports

The teal authority and government of the
schools of Ohio rests with the school districts,
of which theie are four kinds' (1) Each
city is a city school district, (2) each village
having a ft 1 00, 000 Aaluation, and others by
majority vote, is a village school district,
(,'i) each civil township, with any attached
temtorv, and excluding separately organized
villages or cities, is a township school district,
and (4) any contiguous terntory, outside of
cities and towns, having .$100,000 valuation,
may be oiganized as a special school district,
Adjacent temtory may be annexed to any
school district, oi transferred from one to
another bv mutual consent, 01 by petition and
healing befoie the probate judge Except
in cities, all school districts have boards of
education of five members, elected at large,
and foi f oui -year terms, only part going out
of office each bienmum Cities under 50,000
inhabitants have boards of education of from
three to seven, elected similarly at large and
for tour-year terms while larger cities may
vary fiom four to thirty-seven, part at large
and part by subdistncts (See CINCINNATI,
CLEVELAND; COLUMBUS) Women may vote
at all school elections Each board is a body
politic and corporate, and may make rules
and regulations for its own government, not
inconsistent with law The city, village, or
township treasurer acts ex officio as treasurer
for the district, but in special districts a district
treasurer is appointed In township districts,
the township clerk acts ex officw as clerk of
the district, but in other districts the board
elects or designates the clerk The clerk, or
the clerk together with the superintendent, if
there be one, makes an annual report to the

ounty auditor Township districts are sub-

irrant life ceitificates, there are no state edu- divided into subdistncts, unless the same have

536

OHIO, STATE OF

OHIO, STATE OF

been abandoned and the township centralized
If the subdistricts still exist, which is the usual
condition, a director is elected annually in
each subdistnct to have charge of the school
property, to provide fuel and repairs, and to
act as a means of communication between the
people of the subdistricts and the township
board The township board on its own
initiative, and, on petition of one fourth of the
electors, must submit the question of central-
ization to a vote If carried, all subdistricts
are abolished and the schools of the township
are operated as a unit Small schools mav,
however, be abandoned and the children trans-
ported

Every board of education has charge of the
school buildings in its district, mav condemn
land for school purposes, and mav lepair, lent,
or build school buildings, within the limits ol
its funds A graded coin so of study must be
adopted and appioved bv the State School
Commissioner A sufficient number of schools
must be maintained foi not less than eight
nor more than ten months, though boards
in cities mav provide vacation schools and
playgrounds, in addition Any school board
may establish a public libiary, appoint a boa id
of library trustees, and levy a tax up to one
mill foi its maintenance If no public libiary
is maintained, up to $250 may be appropriated
annually for .school libianes Hoards mav
also found and maintain a museum in connec-
tion with the hbiaiv Cities mav maintain
special schools foi tubeicular children, and any
school distiict may be authorized by the State
School Commissioner to provide (lav schools
for the oial instruction of the deaf Cities
may establish a city normal school, and may
provide sepaiate teachers' institutes Any
board of education may establish a high school,
without a vote of the people, if the funds at
hand will permit High schools must be
maintained at least seven months foi thud
grade high schools, and at least eight months
for all other classes Any school district, on
petition of twenty-five eligible pupils, must,
provide instruction in evening schools, to
which adults mav also be admitted Distiicts
may also provide instruction in manual train-
ing, domestic science, agriculture, 01 commer-
cial work, or establish trade or vocational
schools Hoards of education mav appoint
teachers, a superintendent, truant officers,
medical inspectors, and a superintendent
of buildings In cities, the superintendent
has the nomination of teachers, and city
boards may appoint a school director, who acts
as a business manager Titles may employ
a superintendent for any period up to five
years, while in all other districts a superin-
tendent may be employed from one to three
years Each board of education adopts its
own textbooks for five-year periods, from lists
furnished by the State School Commissioner,
from publishers who will agree to provide books

at not, over 75 per cent of the wholesale list
price, and boards may either sell the books to
the pupils at cost or provide free textbooks
All instruction must be in the English language,
though instruction in German as a subject of
study is permitted

School Support — The state now makes
an annual appropriation from the treasury
equal to $2 for each child, six to twenty-one,
in the state, not including married persons,
as returned by the annual school census
This is approximately equal to the former
one-mill state tax The interest on the per-
manent school funds is also paid from the state
treasury, and requires the equivalent of about-
one tenth of a mill The interest on the six-
teenth section funds is paid to the townships
to which they belong, the state appropriations
and interest on the state common school fund
is made to the counties arid school districts
on school census, and the interest on the
swamp land fund is apportioned to the counties
on the basis of the number of males over twenty-
one years in each About 83 pei cent of the
school funds in Ohio come from local (district)
taxation, the average Jew in the townships
(in 1910) being 771 mills, and 11 05 mills in
the separate districts No county school
tax has been levied since 1853 Cities can
not levy less than six mills, school boards in
village and special districts may levy up to
twelve mills, and rn townships up to ten mills,
while townships may lew five mills additional
for high school purposes Each district board
estimates and levies the amount of money
necessary for tuition, building, contingent,
bond, and interest funds, and any district
mav levy five mills additional by vote of the
people Any city maintaining a municipal
university may levy two mills additional for
that purpose, and any township in which
a state normal school is located may levy the
same amount for rt

Teachers and Training. — The state em-
ployed 27,841 teachers in 1910, 3573 of whom
were in high schools, and 8640 were men
For the training of future teachers the state
now has iom state normal schools (Athens,
Howling Green, Kent, and Oxford), and city
training schools are maintained bv five of the
cities (Akion, Clcv eland, Columbus, Dayton, and
Toledo) Teachers' institutes are now main-
tained in each county annually, with about
throe fifths of the teachers in attendance
Schools mav dismiss for institute for four days
in cities and one week elsewhere, and teacheis
must be paid for such attendance Teacheis
mav be employed for from one to four-year
periods in cities, and from one to three-year
periods elsewhere Any board of education
may vote to establish a district pension fund,
arid after doing so must pay from 1 to 2 per
cent of all income from taxation into this fund
All teachers accepting the provisions of the
law also contribute $2 a month to the fund.

537

OHIO, STATE OF

OHIO, STATE OF

Yfter twenty years of MM vice, half of il in the
district, the Board may letire any learhei,
and after thirty years of service, half of it m
the district, a teacher may ask for retirement
The maximum pension is $450 Teachers'
certificates are granted for one, two, three, four,
five, and eight-year periods, the one, two, and
three-year certificates being classed as provi-
sional certificates, and the five- and eight-year
certificates being classed as professional 'cer-
tificates The latter can be granted only
after forty months of teaching experience,
and are renewable The four-year certificates
are granted to graduates of professional
courses 111 such normal schools and colleges,
in Ohio or elsewhere, as have been ap-
proved by the State Commissioner of Com-
mon Schools All certificates are also classi-
fied as (1) high school ceitificates, (2) ele-
mentary school certificates, and (3) special
certificates All examination questions aie
prepared by the State School Commissioner
and are uniform throughout the state All
high school teachers and superintendents ot
schools must hold a high school ceitificate
County boards of examination may lecogm/e
certificates from other counties, if they see ht
Life certificates are issued by the State Board
of Examiners on the basis of experience and
an examination in professional subjects All
teachers' certificates always date from Septem-
ber 1st, though twelve examinations are given
each year A state minimum salaiy law re-
quires $40 a month for at least eight months
each year

Educational Conditions — While Ohio has
a large city population and a number of rapidly
growing cities, still 44 1 pel cent of the total
population live in the rural districts The
southern part of the state is more rural than the
northern. About one eighth of the total
population is foreign born, though the foreign
born element lives largely in the cities Ohio is a
mariufactuiing as well as an agricultural stale
The people of the state have always clung
closely to local government, so that the school
system is weak as regards central control It
is only recently that a very decentralized
form of school administration has been in pait
superseded by township control The county
administration is as yet quite weak The
centralization of schools for a time made some
notable progress in parts of Ohio, though the
movement apparently has about come to a
standstill As late as 1910, only 178 of the
1319 townships in forty-six of the eighty-eight
counties reported any degree of centralization.
One fourth of these townships were in foui
counties, and centralization had been com-
pleted in only fifty-five townships Forty
townships have also employed township
superintendents An eight months' school term
is required by law, and state aid has been
granted to weak districts to enable them to
pay the minimum salary and still provide an

eight-months' term The school library system
has been well developed, as have also the travel-
ing libraries sent out by the Ohio State Library

Secondary Education — The high school
has had a marked development in Ohio, there
being about 850 high schools in the state.
Nearly one fourth of these are township
01 township-union high schools No special
state aid is granted for secondary education,
the high school being a tax on the district
maintaining it The high schools of the state
are divided into three classes, four-year, three-
year, and two-vear The two-year schools
alone are allowed to drop to terms of seven
months There are two state high school
inspectors, and the state university examiner
also visits the high schools, but there is no
state course of study foi them

Higher and Special Education — The Ohio
State University (q v ) at Columbus, founded
in 1870 as an agricultural and mechanical
college arid Inter developed into a large and
important institution, stands as the culmina-
tion of the public school system of the state
The Ohio University (qv) at Athens and
Miami Univeisity (q v) at Oxford are state
institutions of collegiate rank and state normal
schools combined The state also grants aid
foi an industrial department for the colored
race in Wilberforee University (q v ) Toledo
University and the University of Cincinnati
((/ v ) are municipal institutions Ohio is
distinctively the state of small church colleges,
theie being twenty-six, with six others now
classed as nonsectanan, although most of
these were once denominational Seven of
these colleges date from before 1840, and
almost all from before 1885 Sixteen of these
have less than $150,000 of endowment funds
to-day, and most of them are small and strug-
gling institutions

Of special institutions, the state maintains
the State Institution for the Feeble-minded,
the State School for the Blind; and the State
School for the Deaf, all at Columbus, and the
Ohio State Reformatory, at Mansfield Two
cities report day schools for the deaf

E P. C.
References —

An Kept s Mate Superintendent of Common Schools,
1H3S-1S40 An Re pis State Commissioner of
common xchoolv, Ohio, 1853 to date

BURNS, .) J Educational History of Ohio (Colum-
bus, 1905 )

THADDOCK, R E Ohiobifore 1850 (Now York, 1Q08 )

KNIGHT, G W , and COMMONS, J R History of
Higher Education in Ohio U S Bur Educ Circ.
Inf, 1891, No 5 (Washington, 1891.)

ORTH, S P Centralization of Administration in Ohio.
(1903)

School Laws of Ohio, UHO pd , and 1911 amendments

U S Bur Educ Kept Com Ed Education in the
Noith-wettt durum the first Half -Century of the
Republic, 1894-1895, Vol II, pp 1517-1535,
Development of the Common School System in the
Western States from 1830 to 1866, 1898-1899,
Vol I, pp 357-373, A Legislative History of the
Public School System of the State of Ohio, 1901,
Vol I, pp 129-159. (Washington.)

538

OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY

OHIO WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY

OHIO STATE UNIVERSITY, COLUM-
BUS, OHIO — An institution which giew
out of the Morrill Act of 1862, commonly
known as the Land Grant Act In 1864 the
legislature passed an act accepting the grant,
but not until 1870 was the law enacted
providing for the organization of the Ohio Agri-
cultural and Mechanical College In consid-
eration of the location of the College, Franklin
County provided a fund of $300,000 by
a bond issue This was subsequently in-
creased by $25,000 Three hundred and
thirty acres of land lying within the city limits
west of High Street and three miles north of
Capitol Square were purchased as a site
Additional purchases of adjacent land make
an estate of 453 acres

The College was opened for students on
September 17, 1873 In 1878 the legislature
reorganized the institution, changed the name
to the Ohio State University, and made the
first appropriation in the history of the state
for higher education The proceeds of the
sale of the public lands were bv law made, a
part of the irreducible debt of the State upon
which the State pays 6 per cent interest The
statutes provide that all money given to the
university, unless otherwise directed bv the
donor, shall become a part of this irreducible
debt which is but another name for an endow-
ment fund That fund foi general purposes
now amounts to $167,68762 The fund for
designated purposes amounts to $65,631 31,
making a total of $233,318 93

The institution is governed by a board of
seven trustees, appointed by the Governor
and confirmed by the Senate, for terms of
seven years The organization provides for
seven colleges as follows Agriculture, Arts,
Philosophy and Science, JfriucuUaA. Engi-
neering, Law, Pharmacy, and Veterinary
Medicine There are at present (1912) twenty-
six buildings used foi instruction, three resi-
dences, Oxley Hall for young women, and the
Ohio Union Building for general social and
clubhouse purposes The value of the plant,
including the endowment mentioned above,
as shown by the inventory is $5,624,933 70
The total income for the veai ending June 30,

1911 was $924,611 11 The enrollment for
the year ending June, 1911 \vas 3439 ^For
the same year 422 degrees were granted The
graduate school was organized in September,

1912 The University faculty is composed of
all persons having the rank of professor and
now numbers eighty-three The^ College fac-
ulties consist of all persons having the rank
of assistant professor, associate professor, and
professor, and now numbers 153 The in-
structional force includes about seventy addi-
tional members The following have served as
president- Edward Orton, 1873-1881; Walter
Quincy Scott, 1881-1883, William Henry Scott,
1883-1895; James Hulme Canfield, 1895-1899;
William Oxley Thompson, 1899-. W. O. T.

OHIO UNIVERSITY, ATHENS, OHIO —

The oldest higher institution of learning in
the " Old Northwest " Before Ohio was
admitted to statehood the Territorial Legis-
lature, in session at Chilhcothe on Jan 9, 1802,
made provision " that there shall be an Uni-
versity instituted and established in the town
of Athens " The institution was to be named
the American Western University The Ohio
State Legislature recnacted the provisions
of the Territorial Act, with but few changes,
by another act dated Feb 18, 1804, which
gave the name Ohio University to the institu-
tion to be established and has ever been re-
garded as the charter of Ohio University
Students were admitted in the spring of 1808,
when Rev Jacob Lmdley, a Princeton gradu-
ate, was put in charge of its educational work.
The whole number of degiee graduates, of
baccalaureate rank, in the history of the uni-
versity, is men, 669, women, 159, total, 828
The total number of differ cut students cm oiled
increased from 405 in 1901 to 1832 m 1912
There is a faculty of seventy-five members

The university buildings are twelve in
number, not including five buildings occupied
as residences Conservative valuation of the
property of the University is $1,500,000 The
financial support of the university is derived
from three sources, namely, the mill-tax,
special appropriations, and local receipts from
incidental fees, rents, and interest on perma-
nent funds forming a part of the irreducible
debt of the state of Ohio Receipts from all
these sources, in 1911, amounted to $253,366 05
Salary payments for the fiscal year ended Nov.
1.5,1911, amounted to $100,31008, of which
amount the sum of $81,095 52 was for teaching
ser vice exclusively

Two degrees are given in the College of
Liberal Arts, — A B and B S The degree of
B S in Education is given those who complete
the four-year courses in the State Normal
College To receive either of these degrees
the student must have a credit of not less than
120 semester hours based upon at least fifteen
units of secondary work The field of in-
struction covered is shown by the following
classification of colleges and departments
college of liberal arts, the state normal col-
lege, the college of music, the college of ora-
tory, the school of commerce; the department
of physics and electrical engineering, and the
department of mathematics and civil engi-
neenng. A. E. "O

OHIO WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY, DEL-
AWARE, OHIO —Was founded under the
patronage of the Methodist Episcopal Church
in 1841, when an academy was opened The
charter was granted in 1842, and in 1844 the
College of Liberal Arts began its work In
1877 the Ohio Wesleyan Female College,
established in Delaware in 1853, was incor-
porated in the university. Since this time the

539

OKLAHOMA COLLEGE

OKLAHOMA, STATE OF

university has been coeducational in all
departments. In addition to the college, the
university now maintains an academy, and a
Conservatory, including a School of Music
and a School of Fine Arts, both established
in 1877 The policy of the institution in
recent years has been to enlarge the work and
increase the efficiency of the college Accord-
ingly, the Cleveland College of Physicians and
Surgeons, established m 1863 and made a
part of the university in 1896, was in June,
1910, given over to the Medical Department
of Western Reserve University A School of
Oratory, established in 1894, is now organized
in connection with the college A School of
Business, established in 189.5 and since 1908
organized as a part of the academy, was dis-
continued in June, 1912. The government of
the institution is in the hands of a Board of
Trustees elected by the Ohio, the North Ohio,
the Cincinnati, and the Central Ohio Con-
ferences of the Methodist Episcopal Chuich,
the Association of Alumni, and five trustees-at-
large elected by the Board Students are
admitted to the College by certificate from
representative high schools or by examination
The entrance requirements are fifteen units
Undue specialization in elective work is
guarded against by the distnbution of sub-
jects in groups, and the careful limitation of
the student's courses in each To differen-
tiate the B A degree, a minimum of one year's
work in college Latin or Greek is made a pait
of the language requirement, and for the
B.S a larger requirement in mathematics
and science is provided than for the B A
The total enrollment of students in 1912 was
1249 Of these 912 were m the college, 113 m
the academy (including the School of Business),
and 224 in the Conservatory The faculty in-
cludes twenty-six persons of professorial giadc,
and forty instructors and assistants The Rev
Herbert Welch, D D , LL D , is President

H W

OKLAHOMA AGRICULTURAL AND
MECHANICAL COLLEGE, STILLWATER,
OKLA — A state institution organized in
1891 as a land grant college The college is
at the head of a system of state agricultural
schools It provides courses of instruction in
agriculture, mechanical arts, engineering, mili-
tary science, domestic science, training of
teachers, and the related branches required by
law. The college plant embraces eleven build-
ings and 1000 acres of land Two years of
high school work are requned for entrance to
the freshman class The degree of B S is
conferred in the different divisions of the col-
lege. The enrollment of students in 1911-
1912, including all attending special and
short courses, etc , 2100. The faculty includes
seventy-one members

OKLAHOMA STATE BAPTIST COL-
LEGE, BLACKWELL, OKLA — A coeduca-

tional institution opened by the Oklahoma
Baptist Convention in 1901 There are main-
tained an academy, college of liberal arts, col-
lege of fine arts, and business college. The
entrance requirements to the college of liberal
arts are fifteen units of high school work The
degree of B.A is conferred. The enrollment in
1911-1912 was 208, and the faculty consisted
of seventeen members.

OKLAHOMA CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY,
ENID, OKLA — A coeducational institution
opened in 1908 A preparatory school, col-
leges of liberal arts, bible, music, and business,
schools of oratory and fine arts, a teachers'
college, and hospital training school for nurses
are maintained The entrance requirements
to the college of libcial arts are fifteen units of
high school work The following degrees are
conferred A B , B D , and A M. The en-
rollment in 1911-1912 was 350 in all depart-
ments The faculty consists of twenty-two
members

OKLAHOMA, STATE OF — Originally a
part of the Louisiana Purchase, and set aside
for Indians in 1834 In 1848 the slender
western extension was obtained fiom Mexico,
and for a long time was known as the Public
Land Strip Tins strip and the western half
of the present state wcic opened to settlement,
April 22, 1889, and wore organized as Okla-
homa Tomtory in 1890, while the eastein
half continued as an Indian reservation up to
1898, when a tenitorial form of government
was provided for it also In 1906 Congress
authorized the two tcnitoncs to unite and to
apply for admission as one state, and in 1907
the two were admitted together as the fortv-
sixth state Oklahoma is located in the west-
ern part of the South Central division It
has a land area of 69,414 squaie miles, which
is about the same size as the six New England
states and New Jersey combined Foi ad-
mimstiative purposes the state is at present
divided into seventy-six counties, and these
in turn are divided into cities, towns, arid
school districts In 1910 Oklahoma had a
total population of 1,657,155, arid a density of
population of 23 9 persons per square mile.

Educational History — On the opening of
Oklahoma Territory to settlement the inrush
of settlers was very rapid On the first day,
20,000 people crossed the border, and the first
night Outline, which in the morning had been
a vacant plain, had a population of 10,000
people Before the end of the year, 60,000
people were in the territory, and in the next
ten years the population increased over 400
per cent Government Indian schools had
existed in parts of the territory for some time.
The first white schools were opened in Guthric,
El Reno, Kingfisher, and some other towns in
1889 The first high school was opened in
Kingfisher in the same year. In the organic

540

OKLAHOMA, STATE OF

OKLAHOMA, STATE OF

act of 1890 Congress gave the new territory
$50,000 to be used in organizing the first
schools. The first territorial legislature in
1891 enacted a detailed school law, which
provided for the township form of organization,
for township boaids, with important educa-
tional functions resting with the secretary,
for county superintendents, a Territorial Su-
perintendent and Auditor combined, and a
Territorial Board of Education, for tern-
tonal diplomas, and for three grades of county
certificates, with unifoim examination ques-
tions prepared by the Territorial Board of
Education, normal teachers' institutes, and
for a free textbook system, but with no ap-
piopnation to carry it into effect This law
laid down the main outlines of the present
school system A State University, an Agri-
cultural and Mechanical College, and the
State Normal School, at Edmond, weie also
created in 1891 In this year Congress au-
thorized the Governor of the Territory to
lease the school lands by public bids, for
periods not exceeding three years, so these
lands have brought in some income for the
schools from the first The township system
was soon found to be unsuited to the needs of
the new state, and was abandoned in 1893 for
the district system, with district meetings
and district boaids, and this form of organiza-
tion has since been retained A new school
law was enacted at this time, based, in large
part, on the law of 1891, and this 1893 code
still remains as the substantial basis of the
present school laws The school legislation
since 1893 has been more in the nature of
additions than fundamental changes in the
system then laid down

In 1907 statehood for the two territories
combined was attained arid the new state be-
gan the task of organizing schools in the old
Indian Territory, which had previously been
practically without public schools A few
tribal common schools, manual labor institu-
tions, and seminaries existed for the Indian
population, and in some of the towns common
schools for the whites had been formed, though
none of the latter had existed ovei mno years,
and most of them had been formed within the
two to five years preceding statehood There
were no rural schools, and more than 150,000
children of school age had no opportunities
for schooling By the end of the first year,
2200 districts had been organized arid schools
established, and the beginning of the school
year 1908-1909 saw 3441 rural schools rn the
old Oklahoma and 2200 in the Indian Ter-
ritory, and about 3000 teachers in addition
in city and town school systems rn Oklahoma
proper, or a total of 5641 school drstrrcts and
about 9900 teachers employed in the new
state nineteen years after settlement

The state constitutron of 1907 guaranteed
the perpeturty as trusts of all lands and funds
given for education, directed the legislature

to establish and maintain a system of free
schools, in which all the children of the state
should be educated; provided for compul-
sory education during the period from eight
to sixteen, drrected that separate schools for
the negro race be cstablrshed and rnarntarned
wrth equal accommodatrons, provrded for a
unrform scries of textbooks for the schools,
directed the legislature to provide for rnstruc-
tion rn the elements of agrrculture, hortrcul-
ture, stock feeding, and domestic science,
vested the supervision of the schools in an ex
ojficio State Boaid of Education, gave to the
State Board of Agriculture the supervrsron of
the state agrrcultuial and mechanical col-
leges, provided for a Board of Commrssroners
to manage the school lands and funds, arid
provided for the election of a State Superin-
tendent of Publrc Instruction, and for a county
super mtendent of publrc rnstructron for each
county The legislature of 1907-1908 made
but few changes in the school law, the law of
1893 still being m use in large part In ad-
drtion to a few minor changes in the law this
first legislature revised the textbook law, the
normal institute law, and the separate school
law It also established the Oklahoma School
for the Deaf at Sulphur, the Oklahoma School
for the Blind at Fort Gibson, a home for
destitute children at Pryor Creek, and a State
School of Mines at Wrlburton A State
Commission on Agricultural and Industrial
Education, to establish a district secondary
school of agriculture in each supreme court
district rn the state, at the rate of two a year;
and an addrtron to the certification law to
provide that all teachers, after 1909, must
hold certrficates covering agriculture and
allied branches, were added in 1908 In 1909
a new salary schedule for county superintend-
ents was adopted In 1910 cities organized
under charters were given liberty to deter-
nniie the number and method of election of
boards of education

The legislation of 1911 was of fundamental
importance The most important measure
was the reorganization of the State Board of
Education The constitution of 1907 had
provided that, untrl otherwise ordered by the
legrslature, the State Board of Education
should consrst of the Governor, Superintendent
of Public Instruction, Secretary of State, and
the Attorney-General In 1911 a new State
Board of seven members, with greatly enlarged
powers, succeeded to the powers formerly
exercrsed by the old State Board of Education,
the State Textbook Cornmrssion, and the
boards of regents of the several state institu-
trons A constitutional amendment was also
proposed to the people giving to the legislature
power to levy taxes for schools, to provide a
method for the distribution of the proceeds
(the constitution of 1907 required a census
basis of distribution), and to provide for state
aid to secure a five months1 school throughout

541

OKLAHOMA, STATE OF

OKLAHOMA, STATE OF

the state. The State Superintendent was
empowered to appoint a State Inspector of
Schools, at $1800 and expenses, and county
superintendents were given a clerk and en-
larged allowances for visitation A " union-
graded or consolidated school district fund "
was created, to be derived from the sale of
Section 33 lands in Gieen County, the
proceeds of which are to be distributed to the
different counties approximately in propor-
tion to the school census, and to aid in the
construction of buildings foi union and con-
solidated school districts County superin-
tendents had added to their poweis that of
employing teachers for all minority race
(usually colored) school districts

Present School System — At the head of
the present state school system of Oklahoma
is a State Superintendent of Public Instiuc-
tion and a State Board of Education. The
State Superintendent is elected by the people
for four-year terms, while the State Boaid
consists of the State Super mtendent as presi-
dent, ex officio, and six persons, two of whom
must be practical schoolmen, appointed by
the Goveinor for six-year terms Two of the
appointed members go out of office each bien-
nmm, thus giving a continuing body Once
appointed, the members can be removed only
for cause The appointed members receive
$6 a day and expenses for serving The presi-
dent may appoint a secretary at $2000 and a
stenographei at $1200 This board has gen-
eral supervision of the public schools and the
state institutions of the state It formulates
courses of study for the common and high
schools, the teachers' and pupils' reading
circles, the county normal teachcis' institutes,
and the higher educational institutions of the
state, it formulates rules and regulations con-
cerning teachers' certificates, prepares all
questions used at the examinations, and exam-
ines applicants for certificates, it prepares
questions foi the examination of graduates
from the eighth giade of the common schools,
it classifies the public schools of the state, and
accredits schools, and it makes reports to the
Governor and legislature, and prepares esti-
mates foi the educational appropriations The
board also succeeds to the powers of the former
board of textbook commissioners, and selects
and adopts a uniform series of textbooks,
supplemental books, registers, reports, maps,
charts, globes, and apparatus for the schools
of the state, fixes their sale price, and makes
contracts with publishers and manufacturers
to furnish the same Succeeding the boards
of regents for the different state institutions,
it controls the educational policy of the higher
and special institutions of the state A State
Board of Land Commissioners, consisting
of the Governor, Secretary of State, Auditor,
State Superintendent, and president of the
State Board of Agriculture, looks after the
school lands and funds of the state A State

Commission on Agriculture arid Industrial
Education, consisting of the State Superin-
tendent, the president of the State Board of
Agriculture, and the president of the Agri-
cultural and Mechanical College, and working
under the direction of the State Board of
Education and in harmony with the Agricul-
tural and Mechanical College, the normal
schools, and the State Board of Agriculture,
has charge of the establishment of the second-
ary schools of agriculture in each judicial
district The State Superintendent of Public
Instruction acts as the executive officer of the
State Boaid of Education, and, as such, has
geneial supervision of the instruction m the
public schools of the state He gives opinions
to city and county superintendents on dis-
puted educational matteis, publishes the
school laws, visits each county each 3^ear,
approves of the airangements made by county
superintendents foi county normal teachers'
institutes, receives leports from school offi-
cers, and makes u biennial report to the State
Board of Education and to the Governor He
is ex officio a member of the State Board of
Education, the State Board of Land Commis-
sioners, and the State Commission on Agri-
cultural and Industrial Education He has
the appointment of a State Inspector of
Schools, at $1800 and expenses, who acts for
and with him in visiting schools

For each county there is a county super-
intendent of public instruction, elected by the
people for two-yeai terms He receives a
salary of from $1200 to $1800, according to
the size of the county, leceives hi& actual
expenses foi one visit to each school each
year, and is also allowed to appoint a clerk
at $600 a year He has the general super-
vision of the schools of his county He visits
the schools and examines the instruction and
the material conditions, confers with the
district school officers, encourages teachers'
associations, and holds a public meeting in
each school district once each year for the
consideration of educational questions, or-
ganizes a county teachers' normal institute
each summer for the academic and professional
instruction of his teacheis, receives icports
from the district clerks, appoints to fill va-
cancies on the district school boards, arid pro-
vides each district with the necessary books,
blanks, and registers, divides the county into
school districts, black and white, and re-
arranges the same; appoints the teachers for
the minority race (usually colored) schools
in school districts, keeps a record of all teachers
employed, of the semiannual apportionment
of school funds, and of all his official acts,
and makes a quarterly and an annual report
to the State Superintendent

All cities of the first class constitute sep-
arate school districts and may provide for
the number, manner of election, and terms of
their boards of education. In other cities,

542

OKLAHOMA, STATE OF

OKLAHOMA, STATE OF

two arc elected from each ward, for two-year of the Indians The white population is
terms, one half going out of office each year over 96 per rent native horn About 80 per
All voting for boards of education must be on cent of the population live in the rural dis-
separate ballots City boards are bodies tricts, though the cities are increasing in popu-
corporate, and, excepting the treasurer, elect lation faster than the rural districts The
their own officers, have control of the city western part of the state has but a small per-
centage of illiteracy, and that in the eastern
part, chiefly Indian and ncgio, is deci easing
rapidly The state is essentially an agricul-
tural state with great f ut me agricultural and
mineral possibilities In tune it will be one
of the richest of our states, and the large en-
dowments for education and the intelligent

their own taxes, up to the limit allowed by character of the white population insure the
law (seven mills for all city purposes, schools development of a very important state school
included)

Kach county is divided into a number of
school districts, foi each of which the people,
in annual district meeting in June, elect a
district board of three, consisting of a director,
clerk, and treasurer One is elected by the
annual meeting each year, and the county

school property, may establish kindergartens
and high schools as desired, may elect a citv
superintendent, who holds office at the pleas-
ure of the board, may examine their own
teachers, through an examining committee,
consisting of the city superintendent and two
persons appointed by the board, and may levy

superintendent fills any vacancies on the
board The district meeting also has power

system

The lural schools are graded, the standards
for certification are up to the aveiage, and a
good graded course of study is in use Union-
graded schools and the consolidation of dis-
tricts and the transportation of pupils are
permitted Though a young state, Oklahoma
has already made greater progiess in the
consolidation of small schools t han have many

to vote taxes, locate or change the location of of the older states Eighty-six consolidated
schools, authorize the sale of school propeity, districts were leported as formed by 1911, and
advise the distnct board as to litigation, and the new " union-graded or consolidated school-
district fund " will do much to help the con-
solidation movement Agricultural instrw-

may determine the length of school term,
above three months and less than nine The
cleik of the board attends to all reports and

tion has recently been made a very important

clerical matters, while the treasurer leccives pait of the instruction, the law of 1908
and pays out all moneys belonging to the lequirmg that "the elements of agriculture,

horticulture, animal husbandry, stock feeding,
forestry, building roads, domestic science, and

district The Board employs all teachers
manages the schools accoidmg to the law, and

cares for the school propeity If then* are elementary economics " shall be a pait of the

colored pupils in the district, they aie trans- instruction for all public schools Since 1909,

ferred to some adjacent district, if less than teachers have been required to show some

ten in numbei, and sepaiate schools must knowledge of agnculture foi certification

be maintained for them if more than ten All rural school sites must not be smaller than

Separate school boaids are also provided for one acre All schools must be taught in the

in the latter case The same holds true for English language The state has, foi its needs,

a small number of white pupils in a colored a relatively good compulsoiy education la\v

district In all minority race districts the All children, eight to sixteen years of age, not

teachei is appointed by the county supenn- disabled or incapacitated, must attend school

tendent, and the expense of maintenance is from three to six months each year, as deter -

paid from a county tax, levied foi the purpose mined by the school board and the people of

County commissioners may also proude a each district All indigent pupils aie furnished

schoolhouse, at county expense, for the mi- the necessary books to enable them to attend,

nority race, when the district is unable to do so and the children of a widowed mother, who

Equal equipment and instruction is to be is dependent on their labor for support, are,

furnished the two races upon investigation, given scholarships, under

Educational Conditions — The white popu- which the county pays the mother the req-

lation is increasing so rapidly that the pro- uisite maintenance Any school board may

portion of Indians and negroes, though nu- appoint truant officers to enforce the law A

merically increasing in themselves, is rapidly small school libraiy fund is set aside in each

decreasing In twenty years, from 1890 to district for the purchase of books Women

1910, the white population increased eight may vote at all school elections and on the

and one third times, the colored population same terms as men

seven and two thirds times, and the Indian School Support. — Oklahoma was Created
population increased but one fourth The most generously by Congress on its ad-
total population in 1910 was 872 per mission to the Union Sections 16 and 36
- - - •- • - - ,n Oklahoma proper, previously reserved,

were given to the state for its permanent

cent white, 83 per cent negio, and 45 per
cent Indian The eastern part of the state
(the old Indian Territon) contains about

,_ - - common school fund, and $5,000,000 in gold

two thirds of the negroes and about five sixths was given to the state in addition in lieu of

543

OKLAHOMA, STATE OF

OKLAHOMA, STATE OF

the similar grants in the Indian Territory
The school section grants totaled 1,413,083
acres, and the minimum sale price was fixed
at their appraised value The lands have been
valued at an average of $20 an acre and recent
sales have markedly exceeded this sum It is
probable that a permanent school fund of
from $40,000,000 to $50,000,000 will in time
be built up from these land grants The
5 per cent fund (see NATIONAL GOVERNMENT
AND EDUCATION) was also granted for the
permanent school fund In addition to these
grants for common 'schools, Section 13
in each township (706,540 acres) was also
granted to the state, to be used, one third for
the State* Umveisity and the University
Preparatory School, one third for the normal
schools of the state, and one third for the
agricultural and mechanical colleges foi the
two races Section 33 was granted to the
state for charitable and penal institutions
and for public buildings, and part of this
grant will also go for educational purposes
(schoolhouses) In addition to these grants,
and in lieu of the swamp land and internal
improvement act grants (see NATIONAL GOV-
ERNMENT AND EDUCATION) Congiess made
1 he state the following specific grants: —

For the State Umvermty . 250,000 JMTOH

For the Uimcrsitv Preparator\ School 150,000 acres

For the Agricultural College (white) 250,000 acres

Kor the Agucultural College (colored) 100,000 ucie.s

For the State Normal Schools .300.000 anes

Total Hpcrific grants . 1 ,050,000 acres

These grants should produce* even more than
tho section grants for common schools, as the
state was able to locate these grants on any
unoccupied government land, instead of
taking fixed sections of land

The interest on the state school fund and
the income from the lease of school section
lands is apportioned somiannually to the
counties and districts on the basis of the
number of children in each, six to twenty one
years of age This is worth about $1 80 pci pu-
pil per year at present A constitutional amend-
ment, to be voted on in 1912, proposes the
authorization of a state tax and state aid to
maintain a five months' school and gives the
legislature power to change the basis of ap-
portionment In each county, all fines, pen-
alties, forfeitures, proceeds of estiays, and
marriage licenses aie added to the county
school fund, and county commissioners may
also levy in addition a county school tax, but
the total for all county taxes for cm rent ex-
penses, including schools, must not exceed
six mills. This, together with the state funds
received is apportioned to the districts on the
school census basis Counties supporting a
county high school may also raise one mill
additional for county high school purposes
Kach school district may, in addition, vote an
annual district tax, up to five mills, foi all

school purposes, and distribute this tax for
different school purposes as it sees fit.

Teachers and Training — The state em-
ployed 10,020 teachers in 1910 for the 5820
school districts in the state Only about 8
per cent of these were teachers in the colored
schools County teachers' certificates are of
three grades and are issued on examination
for one, two, and three years, respectively. A
temporary certificate is also issued and is
much used In each county a summer normal
teachers' institute ol from two to six weeks is
held, and teachers attending this may have
then certificates renewed These summer
normal institutes follow a course of academic
and professional woik outlined by the State
Boaid of Education, and all institute conduc-
tors and instructors must be certificated by
them Four examinations for certificates arc
held each year First-grade certificates arc
valid in any count v in the state, second-grade
ceitincates onlv in counties adjacent to the
one in which they were issued, and third-
grade certificates only in the county of issue
State certificates and diplomas are also issued
bv the State Boaid of Education For the
tunning of new teacheis the state maintains
six state noiinal schools, as follows —

The Northeastern State Nounal S< hool, at Tahlequah
The Southeastern State Nuttnal School, at Durant
The K.ist Central State Nonnal School, at Ada
The f'ential State Nornuil School, at Edrnond.
The Northwestern State Normal School, at Alva.
The Southwestern State Normal School, at Weatherford

Secondary Education — Any district, town,
or citv may establish a high school, as may any
count v Consolidated schools 01 union school
districts may also establish a high school as
a pail of the icgulai instruction Only a fo\\
count\ high schools have so far been established,
but most of the cities and towns have provided
them A number of the centiahzed schools
have a good high school as a part of the in-
struction provided, and the number of such
schools may be expected to increase rapidly
under the new (1011) state building aid pro-
vided In 1911, 435 school districts reported
classes above the eighth grade, and fifty-one
accredited high schools also were reported
Tho University Preparatory School, at Ton-
ka wa, is a large state secondaiy school for
whiter, offering the classics, science, modern
languages, business couises, and instruction
in art, domestic science, manual training,
music, and military tactics A second school
of this type was established in 1911 at Clare-
more In 1908 the first two of the state agricul-
tural high schools for whites were established at
Warner and Tishommgo; in 1910 four more were
established at Broken Arrow, Helena, Lawton,
and Good well These schools are to be agricul-
tural and industrial schools of secondary grade,
and must provide instruction leading to the
agncuUural and mechanical colleges and to

544

OKLAHOMA, STATE UNIVERSITY OF

OLIVET COLLEGE

the state normal schools The State Agricul-
tural College is to be the technical head of this
agricultural system of education, and is to
issue a course in agriculture and related sub-
jects for the elementary and secondary schools
of the state Each state agricultural high
school must have at least eighty acres of land,
and must conduct an experimental farm and
offer short courses for farmers each winter
Twenty thousand dollars was appropriated by
the state for a building for each school

Higher and Special Education — The State
University at Norman, the State Agricultural
and Mechanical College at Still water, the
State Industrial Institute and College for
Girls at Chichasha, and the Colored Agricul-
tural and Normal University at Langston
stand as the culmination of the educational
system of the state The State School of
Mines at Wilburton is also a part of the state's
higher educational system The denomina-
tional college has found but little demand for
its services so far in the state, and only four are
reported All of these are institutions of
very limited endowment The Oklahoma
Industrial Institution for the Colored Deaf,
Blind, and Orphans at Taft, the Oklahoma
School for the Blind at Fort Gibson, the
State School for the Deaf at Sulphur, the State
Orphans' Home and School for Destitute*
Children at Pivor Creek, the State School for
the Feeble-Minded at Enid, and the State
Training (Reformatory) School at Paul's
Vallev, are the special institutions supported
hv the state E P C

References —
Bien Kepts State Dept Publ Itistr , Oklahoma,

1907 1WS to date
Constitution of Oklahoma, 1007
Laws for Common Schools of Oklahoma, 1M10 od ,

and Session Lawt> of 1911
Bicn Kept* Tu Supt Publ In^tr , Oklahoma, 181)1 -

1892 to 1902-1904

OKLAHOMA, STATE UNIVERSITY OF,
NORMAN, OKLA —A coeducational insti-
tution established at Norman bv act of the
territorial legislature in 1S92 The following
schools and colleges are maintained college
of arts and sciences (1893) , school of phaimacv
(1893, 1908), school ot medicine (1910), school
of fine arts (1903); school of applied science
and school of mines (1904), suminei school
(1908); college of engineering (1909), school
of law (1909), school of teaching (1909)
The entrance requirements are the completion
of four years of high school work The usual
degrees are conferred on graduates and under-
graduates on the completion of the appro-
priate requirements The university is sup-
ported from the general revenue of the state
and from income derived from lands granted
by Congress The enrollment in all depart-
ments in 1911-1912 was 793 The faculty
consists of ninety-seven members.

VOL iv --2 N 54.

OLD AGE — See SENASCKNCK

OLDENBURG, GRAND DUCHY OF,
EDUCATION IN — See GERMAN EMPIRE,
EDUCATION IN

OLFACTORY SENSATIONS — The sense
organ of smell is the olfactory membrane
in the uppei part of the nasal cavity, where
the endings of the olfactory nerves come to
the surface* The organ LS stimulated by chem-
ical responses induced bv the particles of the
odorous substance borne in the air It is not
known how many simple smell qualities there
may be That there are specific qualities
with distinct stiuctuies is probable from the
fact that when the nose has been fatigued for
one odor, certain odors will not be noticed,
while others will give sensations of normal
intensity Disease may also render one in-
sensitive to several odors, while still normally
sensitive to others These experiments and
observations have not been carried fai enough
to give a complete classification of smells

W B P

See ODORS

References —

ANC.KLL, ,J R Psychology (New York, 1906)
MYLHH, C S Kfjteritm ntal Psychology (New York,

OLIVER, HENRY KEMBLE (1HOO-1H85)
— Leader in the movement for child labor
legislation, \\as giaduated from Dartmouth
College in ISIS He was principal of high
schools at Salem, Mass , IS 19 to 1830, and
of a private secondaiv school from 1830 to
1844 He was Adjutant-general of Massachu-
setts for fou i years In 1S48 he engaged in
the textile industry at Lawrence, and during
the ne\t eighteen yeais he added to his busi-
ness duties enormous public labors He was
member of the school committee of Lawrence,
mayor of the city, and member of the state
legislating He gave up business in 1866 to
accept a post as agent of the Massachusetts
State Hoard of Education He made extended
•studies of the conditions of factory children
and was one of the earliest advocates of child
labor laws In 1S69 he was made chief of the
Massachusetts Bureau of Labor Statistics
Undei the administrations of Horace Mann and
(leorge S Bout well (qq v ), Mr. Oliver ren-
deied nnpoitant .seiviee as an institute lec-
turer in Massachusetts His publications
include numerous papers on education and a
series of school books on music W S M

Reference -

OLIVER, H K How I was educated from six to four-
teen Proceedings of the American Institide of
Instruction (1871)

OLIVET COLLEGE, OLIVET, MICH —

A coeducational institution founded in 1844
by Mr J J Ship herd eleven years after he

OLMSTED

OLYMPIC* GAMES

founded Oberlm From the fust it has been
undenominational The Congregationahsts
partially adopted the college, and it is now
known as the Congregational College of Michi-
gan, although without any organic relation
to the denomination Olivet has been vitally
connected with the educational interests of
Michigan Its professors have seived foi
many years in the office of the State Supei-
intendent of Public Instruction and on the
State Board of Education, and thiough their
public lectures and published bulletins have
had marked effect on the educational devel-
opment of the state The present value of
the grounds, the fourteen buildings, equip-
ment, and endowment amounts to about
$600,000 The library, museum of natural
history, and equipment for teaching sciences
are exceptionally good The usual undoi-
graduate departments, including music, aie
maintained The entrance requnements foi
all students who intend to proceed to the degree
(H A ) are fifteen units of high school work
The enrollment in 1910-1911 was 238 students
The faculty consists of twenty-four membeis

K (J L

OLMSTED, DENISON (1791-1859) —
College professor and author oi science text-
books, was graduated from Yale College in
1813 He was tutoi at Yale and for ten yeais
professor in the University of North Carolina.
From 1825 to 1859 he held a professorship
at Yale In 1840 he was made a member of
the Board of Commissioners of Common
Schools in Connecticut His educational
writings include State of Education in ("onnecti-
cut, An Academy for Schoolmasters (in which he
outlined a scheme for a college for the tiam-
ing of teachers), and Ideals of a Perfect Tenchei
His textbooks include Natural Philosophy
(1831), School Philosophy (1832), Agronomy
(1839), and Rudiments of Natural Philosophy
and Astronomy (1842) Professor Olmsted was
actively identified with the American Institute
of Instruction and the American Association
for the Advancement of Education (qq v )

W S M.

OLNEY, JESSE (1798-1872) —Text-
book author; was educated in the common
schools For several years he taught in the
district schools of New York and later in the
Hartford Grammar School For ten yeais
he was a mcnibci of the Connecticut legisla-
ture He was the author of many schoolbooks,
including geographies, readers, anthmetics,
and histories His common school geography
passed through ninety-eight editions, and its
sale is said to have been exceeded in its day
only by Noah Webster's spelling book.

W S M

OLYMPIC GAMES — Probably growing
out of very ancient local athletic festivals, the
Olympic Games in Ehs were the oldest and

greatest oi the Panhellenic festivals The
nationalization of this festival is asssigned
traditionally to the year 776 B.c The Greek
eia began with the Olympic games celebrated
once in four years, and every period of four
years was called an Olympiad It was from
the lust under the charge of the Eleians, but
they inMtcd competitors from neighboring
states, and the custom of attending the games
spread to more distant cities. From an
Eleian event, the festival became Peloponne-
sian and finally Panhellemc Early m the
sixth century, other festivals were established •
the Pythian games, celebrated on the Krissean
Plain; the Nemean games, held in the groves
of Nema; and the* Isthmian games, which took
place at Corinth These festivals survived
to the close of Greek history, but the Olympic
games continued to be the most glorious until
the end

The original motive for these festival? was
the glorification of the strong and agile body
Athletic contests always constituted the chief
attractions, but the festivals served to bring
together the greatest lyric poets, sages, states-
men, orators, artists, sculptors, and potters
These celebrations were great national holi-
days which served as pleasant occasions of
reunion for congenial spirits and tended to
the diffusion of national ideas

Accoulmg to a fairly reliable tradition
there was originally, and for twelve following
Olympiads, only one contest the 5p6^$,
a foot race, consisting of a single lap of a stadion
of 200 yards Other races of two, seven,
twelve, and perhaps twenty-four laps were
added latei About the time of the eighteenth
Olympiad, the wrestling match and the Pen-
tathlon (q v ) made their appearance. An
athlete had to win at least three of the contests
to be crowned victor of the Pentathlon
Boxing and the chariot race are said to have
been added in the twenty-third Olympiad
The games gradually grew more and more
elaborate, and the time over which they
extended was increased from a single day to
five or six

The festival was conducted by about ten
judges, elected by the people of p]lis a year
beforehand. The candidates for the various
contests were required to present themselves
for examination thirty days before the festival
Each candidate must prove himself to be of
pure Hellenic stock, and must give evidence
of having trained during ten months in a
gymnasium During the last thirty days
before the festival, the candidates practiced
in the gymnasium under the supervision of the
judges After an athlete had been entered
for a contest, it was considered the greatest
ignominy for him to withdraw for any reason;
indeed, for so doing he was heavily fined.
Eleven days before the festival, the judges
caused to be proclaimed by heralds through-
out all the cities of Hellas the truce, sacred

546

OLYMPIC GAMES

OMAR KHAYYAM

to Olympian Zeus, which was to last one month
It was this truce that made the Olympia
possible as a Panhellenic institution, for during
the thirty days' truce, all wars between Hellenic
states were held in abeyance, and travelers
were allowed to journey through them un-
molested

The athletic contests were conducted with
much attention to details In the foot races
they were very particular that all should start at
the same time and from the same line, and no
fraud or trickery was permitted Jt was also
contrary to rule for an athlete to slacken his
speed purposely to allow his fellow contestant
to win. The foot races were run in heats of
four, and the winners of each heat ran in the
final race, in which the winner was crowned
as victor. The victor in the running race
at Olympia was regarded as an honor to his
country, and gavo his name to the current
Olympiad, and on reaching home eritciod his
native city to the notes of a triumphant song,
written by a Pindar or Siniomdes The lust
Olympiad was the 293d and ended in 394 A T>

Modern Revival of Olympic Games —
After a lapse of more than 1500 vears, the
Olympic games were revived at Athens in
1890 under circumstances of mtciost to the
modern educator The motive behind the
movement for the organization of the modern
Olympic games was the interest of a French
nobleman in educational reform Barpu Pierre
de Coubertm, after leaving the Ecole dcs
Sciences pohtiques in 1S83, spout some timo
iii England studying the educational and
social conditions in the public schools He
was profoundly impressed with the educa-
tional ideals of Thomas Arnold (q v ) as de-
scribed in Tom Biown's Schooldays, and
exemplified in the English public schools
He appreciated the large educational value
of athletic sports in the phvsical, social, and
moral development of adolescent bovs and
resolved to devote himself to the task of se-
curing similar educational advantages for
his fellow countrymen

Ten years of energetic and persistent effort
brought only meager results During this
period De Coubertm introduced sports in a
few schools and lycies in Pans, ho organized
athletic contests in connection with the Pans
exposition of 1889, he made a tour to study
physical education in American colleges, he
organized an athletic union in France, and
edited a magazine, the Athletic Review He
encountered much opposition and indiffer-
ence in his efforts to popularize athletics in
France At a conference held at the Sorbonne
in 1892, in connection with the jubilee of the
French Athletic Union, Baron de Coubertm
made an address on " Physical Exercises in
Antiquity, the Middle Ages, and Modern
Times," and advocated the revival of the
Olympic games. With the cooperation of
Professor William Milhgan Sloane, then of

547

Princeton, and Mr C Herbert, secretary
of the Amateur Athletic Union of England,
ho organized the Pans International Congress
for the study and propagation of the principles
of amateurism, to be hold in June, 1894 The
last paragraph of the circular letter announcing
the Congioss contained the following state-
ment " The revival of the Olympic games in
accordance with modern life and conditions
would bring together every four years rep-
resentatives of the world's nations, and one
is justified in the belief that these peaceful
and courteous contests would constitute the
best form of internationalism "

The congress voted to inaugurate the
modern Olympic games in 1896 at Athens, if
possible, and to hold the second Olympiad
in connection with the Pans exposition of
1900 Those plans \\oro carried out success-
fully under the direction of an International
Olympic Games Committee, with Baron dc
Coubertm as president The Greeks entered
into the spirit of the movement with groat
enthusiasm Representatives were present
from many nations to compote in the various
contests in running, jumping, throwing the
discus, javelin, and weights, swimming, gym-
nastics, wiestlmg, fencing, shooting, etc
The games aroused world- wide interest and
rosultod in a remarkable expansion of all forms
ot physical education in many countries,
particularly in continental Europo The
Olympic; games woie hold again in Paris,
1900, St Louis, 1904, Athens, 1900, London,
1908, and Stockholm, 1912 Tho 1916 games
arc to be held in Berlin The object of the
founders of this gioat educational movement
has boon realized in a large measure

G L M.
References —

COUBERTJN, T DE Unc Campagne de vingt-et-un Anst
1S87-190S (Parib, 11)01) )

SULLIVAN, J E The Olympic Game* at Athens, 1906.
(New York, 11)00 )

For the Greek sanies consult standard Greek His-
tories

OMAR KHAYYAM. — (Gi jilt ed-din,
Abu'1-Fath, 'Omar ben Ibrahim el-(1haijarnl),
the well-known author of the Persian poem, the
Rubaiijdt, was bettor known to his own people
as a writer of philosophical and mathematical
works He lived in eastern Persia in the
eleventh century, and in 1074-1075 was making
astronomical observations in Raj or Nishapur.
lie died at Nishapur about 1123-1124 Of
his philosophical works, one on existence
(ffl-wugud) is preserved in manuscript in
Berlin His algebra was published in Arabic
and French by Woopcke (Pans, 1851). A
work on the postulates of Euclid written by
him is still extant in Leyden, and one on the
mixture of metals is in Gotha, but neither has
boon published A work at one time in Leyden,
on difficult problems of arithmetic (Mushkrtat
ct hisab), is apparently lost. The algebia

ONE SESSION Oil TWO

OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS

is one of the best works on the subject that-
appeared in the Arab-Persian ascendency

DBS

ONE SESSION OR TWO. — See SESSIONS,
LENGTH OF

ONE-SESSION PERIOD — See SESSIONS,
LENGTH OF

ONTARIO AGRICULTURE COLLEGE,
GUELPH, CANADA — The Ontario Agri-
cultural College was established by the Pro-
vincial Government of Ontario in 1873 The
annual grants have increased, until now about
a quarter of a million dollars is spent each
year on its upkeep, besides the cost of addi-
tional new buildings from tune to time The
objects of the institution are to give instruction
in the best methods of farming, and the best
methods of housekeeping, including thorough
practical instruction in cooking and sewing
and laundry work for every girl, and optional
courses in horticulture, poultry raising, bee
keeping, and dairying

Under these circumstances the entrance
requirements have been kept very low, so
far as general education is concerned Male
students may enter upon the course in agri-
culture without any preliminary training,
except good farm practice Most matricu-
lants are, however, fairly well prepared in
the ordinary studies of the public school
From this number, by examination each year,
are selected those who will be permitted to go
on with the work of the third and fourth years,
and those accomplishing the term work and
passing the prescribed examinations are at
the end of the four years admitted to the
degree of Bachelor of the Science of Agncul-
ture from the University of Toronto (q v ),
with which institution this college is affiliated
A diploma is given at the end of the fust two
years for practical knowledge and scientific
equipment in practical farm operations Dur-
ing the winter months short courses are held
in stock and seed judging, poultry raising,
butter and cheese making, fruit growing, bee-
keeping, and domestic science Courses also
are provided in elementary agriculture and
nature study to prepare the teachers of the
Province to give agricultural courses in ele-
mentary schools Agriculture might well be
taught in the public schools in rural districts
Teachers, however, were unprepared, not-
withstanding that good textbooks had been
written on the subject by practical men
Practical courses for teachers have recently
been established lasting ten weeks in the spring
and again five weeks in the summer At the
present time there are students in attendance
from twenty-two different countries

G. C C.

ONTARIO, EDUCATION

CANADA, EDUCATION IN.

IN. — See

ONTOGENY. — A term used to designate
the whole course of individual development.
It is contrasted with philogeny, which is used
to designate the course of general evolution
in the species or race A certain parallelism
exists between ontogeny and philogeny. (See
CULTURE EPOCHS THEORY ) C. H. J.

OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS — The open-air
school is a type of special school developed
in Europe and America for the education of
physically debilitated children It is designed
to make it possible for such children to continue
their education and at the same time to regain
their health and vitality To attain these
ends the classes are held in the open air, the
children are well fed and warmly clad, and the
formal work in the school subjects is reduced
and modified

The first school of this type was opened in
Charlottenburg, a suburb of Berlin, in the
year 1904 It was designed to meet the needs
of a group of backward and physically debili-
tated pupils who could riot carry the work
in the regular schools and were not so mentally
deficient as to be fit subjects for classes for
subnormal pupils The purpose of this edu-
cational innovation is reflected in the name
" Open-Air Recovery School '' wrhich was used
to describe it and which is still commonly
employed in Europe in referring to schools
of this type The distinguishing characteris-
tics of the regime in this pioneer open-air
school included an outdoor life and abundance
of good food, strict cleanliness, suitable cloth-
ing, skilled teachers, small classes, and school
work modified in kind arid reduced m quantity.
The children \\ho were the fortunate subjects
of this first open-air experiment made won-
derful pi ogress They increased rapidly in
weight and strength, and many who had been
suffering from serious ailments were entirely
cured Moreover, it was found that although
these children had spent less than half as much
time on school- work as their companions in
the regular schools, they had not fallen back
in their studies

The reports of these combined physical and
mental benefits spread throughout Germany
and caused the school authorities of other
cities to begin the erection of open air schools.
In less than three years the movement had
spread to England, and in 1907 London opened
its first school The results obtained were as
remarkable as those previously reported from
Germany, and again popular enthusiasm was
aroused, with the result that other towns and
cities throughout Great Britain began to plan
for similar establishments

Meanwhile the movement had spread to
America, where the credit of starting the first
open-air school must be shared by New York
and Providence In 1904 the former city
loaned the services of one of its public school
teachers and supplied school material for th*

548

OPEN-AIK SCHOOLS

OPKN AIR SCHOOLS

children of an outdoor hospital for tuberculous
children. The first American open-air school,
as that term is now understood, was opened in
January, 1908, in the city of Providence, R.I
The location was a room in an aban-
doned schoolhouse This room was remod-
eled by converting the ordinary four-sided
classroom into one of three sides, leaving one
entire side open to the air In this room the
Providence authorities began in the dead of
winter to teach a class of children variously
termed anaemic and tuberculous The chil-
dren wore outdoor wraps, sat in warm sittmg-
out bags, and on cold days had warm soap-
stones at their feet They were well fed, and
their school studies wore reduced in quantity
They immediately began to improve both
physically and mentally and made marked
advances in their school work Six months
after Providence began work, an open-air
school for tuberculous children was started
in one of the parks of Boston, Mass There
were forty-one children in the school, and
after the first summer's woik it was found
that there were twenty-three cases whore the
disease had either been arrested or entirely
cured Five months later, in December, 190cS,
a new school was opened in New York Citv
on an abandoned ferryboat Chicago began
work in the summer of 1909 in a camp in one
of the school yards and later continued the
work on the roof of a building in the heart of
the city

From these early beginnings the movement
for open-air schools has rapidly spread in
Germany, England, and America and has
made considerable progress m France In all
these countries it is recognized that the open-
air school has passed the experimental stage
In Germany it has become an integral part
of the elementary school system Among
the municipalities having the new schools
may be mentioned Mulhauscn, Munchen-
Gladbach, Elberfeld, Lubeck, Berlin, Solmgen,
Cologne, and Aix, and there can be little doubt
that within a few yeais the majority of the
large industrial towns will have schools of
this type In general, German schools aie
modeled after the pioneer school at Charlotten-
burg In all cases the principal character-
istics are open-air treatment, plenty of good
food, warm clothing, strict cleanliness, and
expert medical and dental attention The
keynote of the schoolwork is constant change
from work to play, reading, singing, and rest,
together with constant stimulation of interest

The record of progress in England is similar
to that of Germany. Schools of the new type
have been established in the suburbs of Lon-
don, Manchester, Bradford, Halifax, and
other industrial cities. In France open-air
schools are being established in many cities,
generally as developments of the " school
colonies " which have for years furnished
vacations in country places to city children

Recoids of the act mil opening of schools of
the new tvpe in othei countries are as yet
lacking, but pieparations for establishing
them have been made in Scotland, Austria,
Italy, Canada, Mexico, and Japan

The open-air schools in other countries
differ from most of those established in the
Unites States in the class of children cared for
In the United States these schools are in gen-
eral designed for the care of children suffering
from tuberculosis in its incipient stages
Thev are essentially theiapeutic agencies foi
the care of a special class of sick children In
Europe the aim is in general distinctly broader,
and the schools receive as pupils children
suffering from various forms of physical de-
bility and subnormal vitality

Popular interest and enthusiasm have been
aroused by the success of the open-air schools
in America to a degree which has seldom
if ever been equaled by that shown foi any
other educational innovation This has been
stimulated bv the unbroken record of success
of the early schools No single case of failure
has yet been recorded, arid no city that has
undertaken the work has subsequently a ban
doned it The lapidity with which the move-
ment has spread is indicated by the following
figures, showing the number of cities in the
United States having open-air schools in each
school year from the opening of the Provi-
dence school in 1(K)S to January, 1012 —

SCHOOL Yi

1907- loos
1908-190')

NUMBKK OF ClTIFS HA VINO

OPEN-AIR Sc

3

7

15
32
44

Dnilij PioyHitH — The daily programs dif-
fer in detail only in the different countries
and cities The following tune-table, showing
the procedure in an open-air school in Ne\v
York Citv, may be considered typical of these
programs —

s 45 to 9 00

9 00 to <* 30

0 30 to 10 30

10 MO to 1045

1045 to 11 30

11 30 to 1200

12 00 to 12 30
12 30 to 200

2 00 to 3 00

3 00 to

3 15 to

4 00 to
500

3 15

4 00
500

Am\< at t-uhool, get \varm

Krd Mith egg a i id laig< glassful of

milk Rc^t outdoors m sleeping

blanket^
S( hool \\oik
Short leeess, feeding \\it\i rnilk and

biead

Sf hool woik
Recess, go to washroom and prepare

for dinner
Dinner

Rest in bed, encouraged to .sleep
School work

Short ret ess, feeding of milk arid biead
Schoolwork

School dismissed, piny an hour
Go home

Clothing — Experience has conclusively dem-
onstrated that, if children are to be benefited
by the open-air treatment, they must be kept
warm This can only be accomplished during
cold weather by providing them with sufficient
clothing of the right sort If the> do not

549

OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS

OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS

possess good wool umlei wear and warm,
well-fitting outer garments, these must be
supplied directly by the school or indirectly
by some charitable agency It is absolutely
essential in cold climates that each child be
provided with a heavy overcoat, sitting-out
bag, two blankets, a wool cap, and warm gloves
In several cities the children are provided with
Eskimo suits, which are made of heavy blanket-
ing and put on over the regular house clothes
These suits have proved most satisfactory
for the purpose and are unusually atti active
in appearance Extra shoes and stockings
must be available to be substituted in case of
need for those worn by children who come to
school with wet feet The most satisfactoiy
outer foot covering for this purpose is the
heavy wool felt boot reaching nearly to the
knee. Wooden foot boxes, measuring about
two feet long by a foot and a half wide and a
foot high, and lined with quilting, are useful
for keeping the children's feet warm when the
temperature is low. The sitting-out bags are
made of heavy blanketing covered with canvas
and may be purchased fiorn dealers in sana-
torium equipment They are cut and stitched
so as to conform to the shape of the chair and
may be attached to it by tape at different
points to prevent the child in the bag from
slipping off.

Food — Only less important than warm
clothing in securing successful results is
wholesome and adequate food. In geneial
practice does not differ widely from that devel-
oped in the original Charlottenburg school,
where the daily routine is as follows The
children arrive at about a quarter befoie
eight and receive a bowl of soup and a slice of
bread and butter. Classes commence at
eight with an interval of five minutes after
each half hour's instruction. At ten o'clock
the children receive one or two glasses of milk
and another slice of bread and butter Dinner
is served at half past twelve and consists of
about three ounces of meat, vegetables, and
soup After dinner the children rest or sleep
for two hours At four o'clock milk, rye
bread, and jam are given. The last meal con-
sists of soup and bread and butter and is
given at a quarter before seven, after which
the children return home. The expendituie
for the feeding amounts to about twelve cents
per day per child. Poor children are excused
from paying, and the others pay in full or in
part, according to the circumstances of their
parents American practice differs little from
that described, except that the school day is
shorter and hence the meals given are fre-
quently reduced in number

In addition to the meals taken at the school,
the children have milk and bread, or cereal
and milk, or sometimes an egg before leaving
home in the morning, and again a light meal
on their return home at night This brings
the total fuel value of the food eaten during

the day up to about 3000 calories, which is
probably high for a normal child, but not for
these tuberculous children. The cost of feed-
ing in America varies from about sixteen cents
to about twenty-five cents per child per day
Administration — In most American cities
the open-air schools are administered by a
partnership of lesponsibihty. In the majority
of cases the Board of Education meets the
cost for teachers' salaries, school premises, and
schoolroom equipment, while the expense
for food arid clothing is defrayed by hopitals,
charitable organizations, and societies for the
prevention and cure of tuberculosis At the
close of the school year 1910-1911 data as to
the administration of forty-seven open-air
schools in different American cities were as
follows —

20

11

7
6
2
1
47

The promises occupied by the schools were
as varied as the forms of administration.
Among thiity-mne schools the following varia-
tions were found —

Remodeled rooms . . .

Special buildings

Roofs

Regular classrooms vuth open windows

Boats

Tents

Barn ... . .

Board of education and tuberculosis association
Board of education and private association
Board of education onl\

Board of education and other city department
Tuberculosis association only . . .

Board of education and private fund . .

14
6
0
5
5

_
39

Expense — The expense of conducting open-
air schools depends in very large degree on
local conditions The only certainty is that
the cost will always be greatei than that of the
ordinary class The fust reason for the added
cost is that theie are only about half as many
children per teachei, the desirable limit being
about twenty In the second place the ex-
pense for food amounts to from sixteen to
twenty-five cents per child per day In the
third place there is the individual equipment
of each child, which is necessarily expensive.
Its items with their cost arc about as follows: —

Blanket . . ...

Eskimo suit . . ......

Sitting-out bag . . .

Cot ... ....

Felt boots . ....

Mittens . . . . . .

Thermometer . . . .....

Toothbrush ...........

This individual equipment is in the nature
of permanent investment, and can be used
with slight replacement for several years.
Taking all of these different added expenses
into account, it is fair to say that the educa-
tion of a child in an open-air school costs
nearly three times as much as does the educa-
tion of the same child in the ordinary school.

550

An Open-ail School on the Hoof, Hoston Special Building loi an Open-ail School, England

I ores! St liool at Chat lot t nil

Now Yoik Open-air Srhool on ,i I<Vn\
Tin R.M H.IUI

Chicago Open-aii School, showing Special ClotluiiK An Open \\ indo\\ Schoolroom, Providence, R I.

OPKN-AIR SCHOOLS.

OPEN-AIR SCHOOLS

OPEN AIR SCHOOLS

The Need Joi Opcn-tni Schools Thi'iv
seems to be little question that the open-air
recovery school is the most efficient agency
yet devised for carrying on the instruction of
physically debilitated children and at the
same time curing them 01 ameliorating
the ailments from which they suffer The
best available data seem to indicate lhat
the children who are in need of such treatment
as that afforded by the open-air school con-
stitute from 3 to 5 per cent of the daily mem-
bership in the average city school system It
would probably not be far out oi the way to
say that of these at least one third, or from
1 to 2 per cent of all, are either definitely
suffering from tuberculosis or are " pietuber-
culous "

Summary — The open-air school is a com-
bination of sanatorium, playground, and
schoolroom, in which the daily regime has been
characterized as consisting of double rations
of air, double rations of food, and half rations
of work There are eight requisites, of which
the first three are imperatively essential
(1) abundance of pure air, (2) plenty of good
food, and (3) sufficient warm clothing , (4) shel-
ter from the wind, for experience teaches noth-
ing more clearly than that it is wind and not
low temperature that causes suffering fiom
cold, (5) shelter or refuge where the children
can be taken during very inclement weather,
and where any child who gets chilly duung the
session may at once go to get warm; (0) pro-
vision for sleeping after the noonday meal
For this purpose short folding cots are much
more satisfactoiy than the steamer chairs
ordinarily used, (7) the sei vices of a skillful
doctor and a competent nurse These do not,
of course, have to be in attendance contin-
uously, but should be available Finally, it is
essential to have in charge a teacher who is
intelligent, able, and familiar with the methods
and aims of the outdoor treatment

L P A
References —

AYREB, L P Open Air Schools (New Yoik, 1<)10)

Open Air Schools Proc N E A , 1911, pp K9S-'MM

BRUNER, F G The Influence of Open Air and Lo\\-

temperature Schools on the Mental Aloitno^s

and Scholarship of Pupils Proc V E A , 1911,

pp 890-898
CARRINGTON, DR T S How to Build and Equip an

Open Air School The Survey, Apnl 23, 1910
CORNELL, W S Health and Medical Inspection of

School Children (Philadelphia, 1912 )
CROWLKY, R H The Hygiene of School Life, chap

XIV (London, 1910)
CURTIS, E W. Outdoor Schools Ped Sem , Vol.

XVI, June, 1909, pp 1 09-194 Bibliography
GRAU, DR H Ergebmsse und Bedeutung der Wald-

schule Ccntralblatt f Allg G(sundheitspfle(/c,

1906, 25 Jahr, Heft 11-12, pp 373-480
KINQSLEY, S C Open-air Crusad<rs (Chit-ago 1910)
MORIN, JEANNE An Open-air School in France

The Wide World, December, 1909
NEUPERT, DR H , AND BENDIX, DR B Die Char-

lottenburger Waldschulc nri trsten J afire ihrcs Bc\-

tchcns (Berlin and Vienna, 1906 )
ROBE, DR FREDERICK Open-air Schools Progress,

April, 1908, Vol III, No 2, pp 87-98

Opcn-jur St hooN Anhirfin Volkswohlfnhrt, April,

1909, 11 J.jhr, Heft 7
A Brnf A( count of the Natun and Scopf of Open-air

Schools and Details and Estimate of the Model

Pamphlet L C C (London )
The National Importance of Outdoor Schools

The British Journal of Tuberculosis, ,T\ilyt 1909,

Vol CXI, No 3 Bibliography
Open-air Schools Published bv the Rcrval Sanitary

Institute, London, W
SCHOEN, HLNIU Les nouvelles E< oles sous Bois en

Allemagnc, en Angleterre <'t en Suisse Educa-
tion (Pans), pp 3S9 420, 1909
\\ \TT, W E Fiesh \ir for Average School Children

The Survey, March 5, 1910, pp 86(>-869 (Ac-

( ount of the licHh-uii-room experiment in the

Graham School, Chicago)
WILLIAMS, R I* She theld Open-air-recovery School

School Hynunc, March, 1910, Vol I, No 3, pp

13(>-143

Reports, American —

Boston, Mass R(poit of the Commission appointed
by the School Comnnttfc of the City of Boston to
Investigate the Problt m of Tuberculosis Among
School Chddrtn School Document, No 2, 1909
Also printed in Outdoor Schools
Outdoor Schools Issued by the Boston Association
for the Relief and Contiol of Tuberculosis, August,
1909 (A pumphlet of thirty pages, containing
accounts of the* Providence and Boston Schools,
the icport of the Boston School Committee men-
tioned above, and a bibliography )

Chicago, 111 Chicago' 8 First Outdoor School for
Tuberculous Children Issued by the Chicago
Tuberculosis Institute, November, 1909

New York City Twelfth Annual Report of the City
Superintendent of Schools to the Board of Educa-
tion, 1910, pp 104 107

Providence, RI Rtpoit of School Committee,
1907-1908, pp 51-5b, R< poit of School Committee,
1908-1909, pp 54-55

Rochester, N Y Board of Education, fi.Hth Report,
for the years 190S-1909-1910, pp 9-22-24

English — -

Bradford Thackley Open-air School Report of
the Medical Inspector Bradford Educ-ation Com-
mittee, 190S

England, Board of Education, Special Reports on
Educational Subjects, V (A X XI, pp 33-46 (Lon-
don, 1907 )

Halifax, Count v Boiough of Report on Bermerside
Open-air Schools, May 15 to Oct 14, 1909, Apr.
25 to Oct 14, 1910 Halifax

London County Council Report of the Education
Connnithc of the Council submitting A Report
of the Educational Adviser on Experiments conducted
in (icrmami in connection with Open-air Schools,
and (n) .4 Joint Report of the Medical Officer and
the Executive Officer on the Open-air School earned
on in Bostull Wood between twenty-second July and
nineteenth October, 1907, No 11(»4 (Westminster,
S W , 190S )

Repoit of the Education Committee of the Council,
submitting a Joint R< port of the Education Officer
and the Medical Officer (Education) on the Open-air
Schools held at Birley House, Dulwich, Mont-
}>ehe> Houvc, Upper Hollowau, and Shrewsbury
//rmse, Woolwich, between the tenth June and thirty-
f,r*t October, 1908 (London, 1909 )

Manchester The Manchester Country School for
Town Childien Fourth Annual Report, 1907,
pp 1-12

Fifth Annual Report of Education Committee, 1906-
1907, pp 50-54, 220-223

Sheffield Report of the School Medical Officer on the
Open-air Recovery School at Whitley Wood, Decem-
ber, 1909

Gei man —

Elberfeid Walchchule im Bcrgwchcn Lajide. Vereu
fur Gememwohl, Elberfeid

OPENING EXERCISE

OPTIMISM

OPENING EXERCISE —-It is usual to
allot a short period of time to the formal open-
ing of school or class work The period
allotted is from ten to twenty minutes The
exercises vary greatly in content and form, in
the morning exercises of a school, announce-
ments of general interest are made and mat-
ters of routine adjusted, readings and short
addresses occupying the remainder of the time
This period is more largely in the hands of
the pupils where the opening exeicises are
those of a single classroom The opening
exercise is important in starting the day's
work with the requisite attitude. It is a
valuable device in establishing and maintain-
ing the group spirit of the class or school

H. S

See BIBLE IN THE SCHOOLS, SCHOOL MAN-
AGEMENT

OPERATION —See SYMBOLS OF OPERA-
TION

OPHTHALMIA NEONATORUM —Puru-
lent conjunctivitis, or inflammation of the eyes
of new-born babies, is a specific germ disease,
caused usually by a goiiorrheal infection from
the tissues of the mother during birth or from
the careless use of towels, etc , later The in-
flammation commonly appears on the third or
fourth day, may be mistaken at first for mild
conjunctivitis, but rapidly develops acute symp-
toms If unchecked, it often leads to incura-
ble blindness of one or both eyes, or marked
impairment of vision through cornea! scars
Estimates credit this malady as the cause of
50 per cent of the blindness in nurseries for
blind babies, 25 per cent of the blindness in
blind schools, and 10 per cent of the blindness
in the United States It is, then, the largest
single cause of blindness New York State
health officials believe that, in 1010, the in-
flammation appeared in about one birth in a
hundred

Ophthalmia neoruitorum may be prevented
by washing the infant's eyes in sterile watei
after the head is boni and by (hopping two
drops of 1 to 2 per cent solution of nitrate
of silver directly upon the eyeball as soon aftei
birth as possible Kven if the inflammation
docs appear, proper treatment will usually
avert serious consequences, but the treatment
must be prompt and be supplemented by
careful nursing for several weeks, preferably
in a hospital

That so many cases of blindness occur,
despite the simplicity of prophylaxis, is due to
the ignorance of parents, midwives, and even
of some physicians, of the source, the virulence,
arid the danger of the infection. To combat
this ignorance, the American Medical Associa-
tion has long maintained a committee on
prevention of blindness, while the health
departments and charitable organizations of
the more progressive states have instituted

552

vigorous " lay campaigns '' of information.
In New York and Massachusetts the disease
is among those reportable to the health
authorities G. M. W.

See BLIND, EDUCATION OF THE.

References —

BUCK, A H Reference Handbook of the Medical
Sciences, Vol II, pp 9-13, Vol III, pp 240-243.
(New Yoik, 1901 )

KEHU, J W Ophthalmia neonatot urn Public Health
Bulletin, No 49, October, 1911 (WaBhiiiKton,
1911 )

Valuable popular litemturo IB distributed gratis by
the State School for the Blind, Columbus, Ohio,
by the MasHaehunettH Commission for the Blind,
309 Ford Bldg , Boston , and by the Special
Committee on Prevention of the New York As-
sociation for the Blind, 289 Fourth Ave., New York
City

OPINION — A term given to beliefs of a
peculiarly personal or individual character,
and to beliefs which, though generally current,
lack scientific warrant, having their ground
in custom rather than in evidence. (The
teim public opinion it> used to denote the
beliefs characteristic of a community in so far
ah these beliefs influence corpoiate or public
action ) One of the objects of education is
to produce the habit of mind which discrimi-
nates between opinion and grounded convic-
tion, and winch prevents opinions being held
and asserted dogmatically Plato among an-
cient educationalists and Locke among modern
have especially insisted upon the harmfulness
of confusing opinions and knowledge, and the
importance of devising educational methods
to safeguard the mind against this danger

J D

See KNOWLEDGE

OPTICAL ILLUSIONS —See ILLUSIONS

OPTICS —The science of light, regarded
as the medium of sight The term is usually
qualified by an adjective Physical optics
includes the reflection, lef ruction, absorption,
diffraction, interference, etc., of light Psy-
chological and physiological optics include
anatomy of the eye (gross and microscopic),
dioptrics of the eye, the physiology of the
visual apparatus, visual sensation, visual
space perception, etc Other restrictive terms
are also used, such as geometrical, meteorological

R. P. A

See EYE.

References —

HELMHOLTZ, H V Phyawlogische Optik Full Bib-
liography (Leipzig, 1896.)

Psychological Review, Index contains Bibliography
since 1893.

OPTIMISM. — The origin of the concep-
tion of optimism throws much light upon its
nature. Plato had made the Idea of trie Good
the central principle of his metaphysics and
of his dialectic He had, however, admitted

OPTIMISM

ORAL METHODS

a passive principle in the constitution of the
world sometimes called Mattel, sometimes
Non-being, sometimes The Othei, which was
capable of hindering the realization of this
Good Aristotle (q v ) conceived of matter
as the potentiality of a process through which
ends as complete actualities are leahzed and
thus did away with the Platonic dualism in that
form But in teaching that Nature always
acts for the good, or for a final cause, he also
admitted a principle of chance in tilings which
was capable of preventing in particulai
cases the utilization of the true end or
Good Aristotle's philosophy might thus be
called an optimism upon the whole, tempered
by the acknowledgment of unavoidable acci-
dents in details The Neoplatomsts accounted
for matter, resistance, and multiplicity bv
the idea of a series of emanations of which
matter was the lowest Its far remove from
The One Good accounted foi its appearance
of evil Hut even this appearance of evil was
due to judging from only a partial standpoint ,
seen in its place in the whole, matter would be
apprehended as contributing to its perfection

St Augustine (</ v } adapted these concep-
tions to the needs of Christian apologetic
The conception of God as Creator compelled
him to reject the idea that there LS any prin-
ciple of evil in matter or in the created cosmos
at any point Things that may seem evrl
to our finite judgment would be seen to en-
hance the goodness of the whole, could we
but perceive from that standpoint Real evil
exists, however, but not cosmologicallv or
metaphysically, it is due to the will of man
in disobeying the divine command and sub-
stituting his will for the divine will Even
with respect to this, however, St Augustine
was so impressed with the sovereignty of the
divine will and power, which must be abso-
lutely good, that even sin was, metaphysically
considered, privative rather than a positive
leality Through this influence of the great.
Father of the Church, optimism became an
official part of Christian philosophy

In the seventeenth century, Leibnitz in his
Th&odicfo attempted, in terms of his philosophy
of monads and their preestabhshed harmony,
a purely rationalistic proof that this is the
best of all possible worlds Modern optimistic
theories, outside of professedly theological
circles, really date from Leibnitz Voltaire,
instigated bv the destructiveness of the
Lisbon earthquake, ridiculed the fashionable
Leibnitzian optimism in his poem, Candidc
However, optimism was in the air in the
eighteenth century', being congenial to ration-
alistic deism and to the beliefs of the social re-
formers in the indefinite perfectibility of man
(See CONDORCE ) Even Rousseau, with his
anti-rationalrstic tendencies, taught the original
goodness of nature and of man, attributing
evil to the influence of institutions in destroy-
ing equal liberty

A contemporary of LcibmU, the Dutch Jew
Spinoza, had dealt to the metaphysical basis
ot optimism the most severe blow that it could
have possibly received He taught that
Nature is what it must be by an absolute
logical necessity and that considerations of
good and evrl alike are equally foreign to its
nature They are relative only to man with
his desires Spinoza's teaching had no influ-
ence for over a century Finally the growth
of mechanical science and of dislike for the
doctrine of final causes in any form in connec-
tion with nature prepared the way for a gen-
eral acceptance of the essentials of Spirioza'b
view This change shifted the problem from
the question whether the world, or Being,
metaphysically considered, is good to the ques-
tion whether Life, empirically considered,
is a good, or in its popular statement whether
11 Life is worth living " The most marked
tendency of recent discussion is the develop-
ment of the conception of u Meliorism," the
idea that at least there is a sufficient basis of
goodness in life and its conditions &o that by
thought and earnest effort we may constantly
make better things Tins conception attacks
optimism on the ground that it encourages
a fatalistic contentment with things as they
are, what LS needed is the frank recognition
of evils, not for the sake of accepting them as
final, but for the sake of arousing energy to
leniedv them The conception of progress
practically takes the place of the old notion
of the metaphysical Good J D.

OPTIONAL STUDIES —See COLLEGE,
AMERICAN, Section on Administration of
Curriculum

ORAL ARITHMETIC —See MENTAL
ARITHMETIC , PESTALOZZI

ORAL ENGLISH -- See COMPOSITION.

ORAL METHODS — There aro three
characteristic modes by which the school
can provide the child with experience and
knowledge, one direct and the other two
indirect (1) The school may provide the
child with direct sense impressions through
objectne teaching (q r ) (2) It may convey
the experiences of teachers and fellow pupils
to the child through an oral presentation.
(3) It niav teach the child to read the recorded
knowledge of the men and women with whom
he has not had and cannot have personal contact
Traditionally, the second method of instruc-
tion has always held the central place in school-
teachrng Even what teachers and children
read, they finally convey to each other orally
in the classroom The name " recitation "
applied to the class exercise implies the domi-
nantly oral nature of school methods of teach-
ing and learning This dominance of oral
teaching still holds true Instruction through

ORATORY

ORCUTT

the use of objective teaching and other modes
of giving direct sense impressions is not an
old tradition in the schools The difficulties
of its use necessarily limit its employment
The still more recent movement toward
teaching children how to study the wiitten
text in the independent pursuit of knowledge
has not yet assumed a large place in the schools,
though texts as a basis for oral discussion in
class have always had a very important place

All oral teaching has the advantage that
it is rapid and subject to easy control by the
teacher Its weaknesses are that it tends to
degenerate into mere verbalism and to allow
the teacher's activities to dominate the teach-
ing situation completely Thus tho teacher
does most of the talking in the school, and
the children are too often mciely receptive
Again, children pronounce woids glibly in
reading without the real thought of what they
read, and teachers frequently accept verbal
definitions rather than actual applications of
meanings H S

See READING, TEACHING OF, LITERATURE,
ENGLISH, LANGUAGE, ENGLISH, SPELLING,
TEACHING OF

ORATORY — See ORATIONS, SCHOOL ; DEC-
LAMATION, DEBATING, and for the historical
place of Oratory m Education see ROMAN
EDUCATION, RENAISSANCE AND EDUCATION

ORATORY, FRENCH CONGREGATION

OF THE — An order founded in France in
1611 by Cardinal Pierre de B6rulle, in imita-
tion of the Congregation of the Oiatorv
founded in 1575 by St Philip Nen (1515-1595)
in Italy The Congregation consisted of
priests, not monks, bound by no other \ow
than that of the priesthood While not in-
tended to undertake the education of any but
priests, the French Oratonans were soon in
charge of a number of colleges and seminaiies
not only in France, but in Spam and the Nethci-
lands In 1711 the education of bovs was
recognized as one of their special functions
Their chief colleges were at Dieppe, Mans,
and Juilly, the last of which became the chief
and model college Besides colleges, includ-
ing secondary departments, military schools,
seminaries, and houses of study were main-
tained The characteristic features of the
Congregation were the absence of that militant
and political spirit which marked the Jesuits,
and an emphasis on liberal and Christian edu-
cation The liberal arts and humanities were
not neglected, nor on the other side were the
sciences despised The close connection of
many members of the Congregation with
Cartesianism insured the introduction of
science into the curriculum The second
superior, P de Condren, drew up a Ratio
tftudwrnni (1034) which was edited by P
Morin as the Kcitn> tftudiontni n nHtytxIn^ ct
prof eswrt bus CoH(jH(jnho)ii\ Diatom Donum

obscrvanda (1645). Later educational
works were the Entretienb sur les Sciences
(1683) of P Lamy and Methodes d'etudier et
d'eri8eig?ier (1681) of P Thomassin

The chief educational contribution of the
Oratonans, who in many respects come close
to the Port Royalists, were (1) The introduc-
tion of the vernacular and the exclusion of
Latin until the fourth form (2) The teaching
of history, for which there was a chair in all
their schools This subject was taught in the
vernacular throughout, and P'rench history
was taken up before the classical Geography
was taught in close connection with history

(3) New methods weie employed in teaching
the classics, Latin receiving more attention
than Greek Gianunar was taught by the
aid of the vernacular and oral expression was
given greater emphasis than written themes

(4) Physics and chemistry had a place in the
cuniculum of some schools of the Oratonans

(5) In philosophy, as has already been ob-
served, Cartesian influences were marked
In addition to the ordinary school subjects
there were taught at Juillv ornamental arts,
horse riding, music, and dancing (See ACAD-
EMIES, COURTLY ) Discipline in the school
was gentle The same professoi took a class
through from the first form to the class of
philosophy, a practice which laigelv eliminated
the question of discipline To a certain extent
the Oratonans employed the monitorial system,
decunons being appointed to hear lessons under
the supervision of a prefect of studies The
individual abilities weie considered, and a cer-
tain amount of independence and freedom
in studies was permitted under direction and
supervision Among distinguished members
of the Congregation may be mentioned the
teachers and philosophers, Lamy and Thomas-
sin, preachers Mascaion and Massillon; exe-
getes Richard Simon and Duguet, the philos-
opher Malebranche (q v ) , and the statesman
Daunou (q v ) The Congregation was prac-
tically dissolved during the days of the Rev-
olution It was reconstituted in 1852 as the
Oratory of the Immaculate Conception.

In England Cardinal Newman (q v ) founded
in 1S47 an Oratory of St Philip Neri, at Edg-
baston since 1854 Several schools, two in
Hiimmgham, have been established under the
government of Fathers of the Congregation
of the Oratory

References —

BAHNAUD, H American Journal of Education, Vol.

Ill, pp 703-728 A translation of the following
CoMPAYiti, G Hibtoire Critique des Doctrines de V Ear

ucahon en France, Vol. I, pp 207-238. (Pan*,

1885)

ORBIS PICTUS — See COMENIUS, JOHN
AMOS.

ORCUTT, HIRAM (1815-1899) — Edu-
cational \\nter nnd journalist, was graduated

554

ORDER IN THE SCHOOLROOM

OREGON, STATE OF

from Dartmouth College in 1842 For five
years he taught in the elementary schools of
Vermont and for twelve years he was principal
of secondary schools He was later superin-
tendent of the schools at Brattleboro, Vt He
was one of the organizers of the Vermont
teachers5 association, and for several years he
edited the Vermont School Journal In his
later life he was associated with the New
England Journal of Education His published
works include Class-booh of Poetry and Prose
(1847), Teachers' Manual (1871),' Home and
School Training (1874), School Keeping (1885),
and Personal Recollect? ons (1897) W S M

ORDER IN THE SCHOOLROOM —

See SCHOOL MANAGEMENT

ORDINANCES OF 1785 AND 1787, EDU-
CATIONAL INFLUENCE AND RESULTS

OF — See NATIONAL GOVERNMENT AND ED-
UCATION, SCHOOL FUND, PERMANENT

OREGON AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE,
CORVALLIS, ORE —A land-grant college
founded in pursuance of the Act of 1862
As there was no state institution, in existence,
the legislature from 1X60 to 1885 made annual
appropriations to Corvalhs College, then
under the control of the Methodist Episcopal
Church, South In 1885 the college became
a state institution, the citizens of Benton
County providing a cential building The
college owns 360 acres of land and Unity
buildings Secondary and degree courses are
offered, two years of high school work being
required for entrance to Hie latter Degree
courses are given in the following branches
agriculture, forestry, domestic science1 and
art, engineering, commcice, and pharmacy
Two-year secondary courses and short courses
are also conducted In 19 J 1-1 9 12 there was
a total enrollment of 2868 students in all de-
partments The faculty consists of about
150 members

OREGON, STATE OF — A state in the
Pacific northwest, carved from the original
Oregon Territory, and confirmed to the United
States in 1846 by the treaty with (heat
Britain In 1848 the Territory of Oregon
was organized by Congress, in 1853 Wash-
ington Territory was separated iiom it, and
in 1859 Oregon was admitted to the Union
as the thirty-third state The state has a
land area of 95,607 square miles, which is about
the same size as New York and Pennsylvania
combined, and three fourths the size of the
state of Prussia For administrative purposes
the state is divided into thirty-four counties,
and these in turn into three classes of school
districts In 1910 Oregon had a total popu-
lation of 672,765, and a density of population
of 7 0 persons per square mile Omitting the
city of Portland, which contains one third

of the population of the state, the average
density is only 4 9 per square mile

Educational History — First discovered in
1792 and first partially explored in 1805-1806;
settlement did not begin until about 1835, but
was relatively rapid after 1843 The first
settlers were Hudson Bay Company employe's,
and private or mission schools supplied the
needs of the few children at the trading posts
Beginning in 1834, the Methodist Episcopal
Church began to found mission schools in
the Territory, and they were joined by the
American Board of Commissioners for For-
eign Missions in 1836, by the Roman Catholics
in 1841, by the Congregationahsts in 1847,
and by the Protestant Episcopal Church in
1869 When the first provisional government
was established in 1845, it was declared that
11 schools and the means of education should
be encouraged," but no funds to maintain
a school were available, except subscriptions
and mission appropriations The first terri-
torial legislature, in 1849, enacted the first
school law for the Territory This law appro-
priated the income from the school lands,
together with all fines, forfeitures, and licenses,
and the proceeds of a two-mill territorial tax
to the support of common schools This
income was to be distributed among the school
districts in existence on the basis of their
school census The law further provided for
the organization of schools on the district
system plan, the election annually of three
directors to employ teachers, and to establish
and care for the schools, the appointment of
a county board of examiners of three, to
examine and certificate teachers, the election
of a county school commissioner in each
county, to look after the interests of the schools,
and foi the choice by the legislatuie of a
Territorial Superintendent of Common Schools,
to supervise the educational system of the
state School directors were to hold office for
one year, all other school officers for three
yeais In 1851, however, the state school
tax was cut in half (restored to two mills in
1855), and the office of Territorial Superin-
tendent was abolished In 1885 the title
of the county school officers was changed to
county superintendent of schools, district
school directors were empowered, oil vote of
the district school meeting, to levy a district
school tax, teachers were first required to keep
a school register, and to file it with the district
cleik, district reports were required, or an
appropriation of funds was refused, and
schools receiving public funds were declared
free to all children four to twenty-one years
of age For many years after this date,
however, the rate bill (q v ) was resorted to in
order to piolong the term

In 1857 a constitution was formed, and upon
this the Territory entered the Union m 1859.
This provided that all school-section land,
(he 500,000-acre grant to new states, and the

OREGON, STATE OF

OREGON, STATE OF

5 per cent fund (sec NATIONAL GOVERNMENT
AND EDUCATION) should be a sacred trust
fund for common schools, that the lands given
for a university should form a trust fund for
that purpose, that for five years at least the
Governor should act, ex officio, as State
Superintendent of Public Instruction; that a
county superintendent should be elected, for
two-year terms, in each county, religious
control and sectarian aid were forbidden, the
legislature was directed to establish a uniform
public school system and schools of higher
grade, with a free school in everv district for
at least three months each vear, the estab-
lishment of a state umversitv with normal and
agricultural departments was directed, and
a Board of Commissioners, consisting of the
Governor, the Secretary of State, and State
Treasurer, was created to manage the school
lands and school funds In 1872, the five
years having expired, the legislature elected
a State Superintendent of Schools, detach-
ing the office from that of Governor, and
provided for the election of a Superinten-
dent bv the people in 1S74, and eveiv four
years thereafter This created the first uni-
fication of the schools under the new state
organization, there having been practically as
many school systems before as there were
counties in the state The same legislature
further revised the school law and provided
for a State Board of Education, to consist
of the Governor, Secretary of State, and State
Superintendent, this Board to have power
to authorize a series of textbooks for the
schools, and to adopt lules and regulations
for their government The State Board
was also made, er officio, a State Board of
Examination, for the granting of state cer-
tificates and life diplomas County superin-
tendents were given enlarged functions, and
the county school tax, previously authorized,
was increased from two to three mills
Teachers' institutes were begun, the State
Superintendent being authorized to hold one
every year in each judicial district of the state
The state university was also founded in 1872
and located at Eugene, but it was not opened
for instruction until 1876 At that time there
were but twenty-two organized counties and
but 642 school districts in the state

The work of the State Superintendents for
the next fifteen years consisted almost entirely
m general supervision, in the developing and
perfecting of statistical information, and in the
organization of the teachers' institute work
The power given to the State Board of Educa-
tion to make rules and regulations having
the force of law was used to shape the slowly
developing school system Little school legis-
lation of importance was enacted between
1872 and 1899. In 1874 a school for the blind
was organized; in 1883 the normal school at
Monmouth was placed under state control ;
and in 1885 the normal school at Western was

similarly accepted and given a small appro-
priation; in 1885 a separate agricultural and
mechanical college was established at Cor-
valhs, and the Department of Public Instruc-
tion was given the power to decide appeals on
school law points; in 1887 the certification
law was amended and strengthened, but in
1889 further amendments somewhat weakened
the law, in 1889 an Arbor Day law and a
defective compulsory education law were
enacted, the State Teachers' Reading Circle
was organized, a textbook law was enacted,
under which the county superintendents were
created an advisorv body to adopt a series of
uniform textbooks foi the state; and the
Oregon State Reform School at Salem was
established, and in 1893 the textbook law
was amended bv adding the State Board of
Education and the State Board of Examiners
to the county superintendents, as the adopting
body.

Beginning in 1899, a scries of new and im-
portant laws began to be enacted, and the
educational situation has been greatly changed
and improved since that time In 1899 the
certification law was revised and strengthened,
training in normal schools was recognized for
certification, and the granting of state diplomas
on mere experience was discontinued, a State
Textbook Commission was created to take the
place of the large and unwieldy body for the
adoption of textbooks, the private normal
schools at Ashland and Dram were accepted as
additional state normal schools, a state
course of study for the elementary schools,
and examinations for graduation from the
eighth grade were formulated by the State
Board of Education, and the term of county
superintendents was extended to four years,
and educational qualifications were set up for
the office In 1901 a new revision of the school
law was made, and the county high school
law was enacted In 1903 the consolidation
of schools was permitted In 1905 the
" Piercc-Eddy law " requiring the county
courts in every county to levy an annual county
school tax of not less than $6 per school census
child, four to twenty years of age, in place
of the former five-mill tax, was passed, and this
has materially aided in the development of
better schools In 1907 a revised course of
study for elementary and high schools was
issued; the high schools were classified, a
school library law was passed, a State Library
Commission was created; the compulsory edu-
cation law was revised and strengthened, and
provision made for truant officers; the mini-
mum school term was raised from three to
four months; an annual convention of dis-
trict school officers by counties, and an annual
convention of county superintendents, were
provided for; the required county school tax
was raised from $6 to $7 per capita; a school-
house flag law and a union school law were
enacted, and a state institution for the feeble-

556

OREGON, STATE OF

OREGON, STATE OF

minded was established. In 1900 county high
school funds for tuition purposes were made
possible, special certificates for high school
teachers were required, the minimum school
term was raised from four to six months,
a new county school fund apportionment bill,
providing for a minimum apportionment
of $300 to each district was enacted, trustees
were permitted to let schoolhouses for neigh-
borhood gatherings, and a State Boaid of
Higher Curricula, to unify the work of the
State University and the State Agiicultural
College, was created The legislature of 1909
also withdrew all aid from all of the normal
schools of the state Later, the mattei of
establishing one state normal school in place
of the four was referred to the people and ap-
proved, and the legislatuie of 1911 created
such a school and located it at Monmouth
The legislature of 1911 also abolished count v
teachers' certificates, and provided that all
teachers' certificates should in the future
be issued by the State Superintendent, pro-
vided for the recognition foi teacheis' cei-
tificates of giaduation from standard noimal
schools and colleges, piovided for teachers'
training classes in four-yeui high schools,
provided for additional county supei vision
in all counties having over sixty school dis-
tricts, raised the county school tax from $7
to $8 per capita, provided for letnement
funds for teachers in cities having over 10,000
school census children, and amended the
union high school, the compulsory education,
and the institute laws

Present School System — At the head of the
school system of Oregon, as thus evolved, is a
State Superintendent of Public Instruction, as-
sisted by a rium ber of state boai ds for special pur-
poses The Supeimtendent is elected by the
people for four-year terms, and receives a salary
of $3000 a year' with $900 additional for travel-
ing expenses He is chaiged with the general
supervision of the county and district school
officers, and the general oversight of the school
system of the state He is required to visil
each county annually, to attend the county
institutes, and to inspect the schools He
may visit and inspect all chartered institutions
He furnishes all blanks used, collects and com-
piles statistics, edits the school laws, and
prepares and submits a biennial report to
the legislature He holds an annual conven-
tion of the county superintendents of the
state and an annual teachers' association
meeting, and prepares and issues the State
Teachers' Reading Circle course He decides
all appeals on school matters submitted to
him, and may submit the decision to the State
Board of Education if he sees fit He issues
all teachers' certificates for the state, on
report of the State Board of Examiners, of
which he is the official head , may issue special
certificates in special subjects as he sees fit,
and acts as Secretary of the State Board of

Education, of which he is a member. He is
also a member of the board for the standardi-
zation of normal schools and colleges, and of
the Oregon Library Commission

Oregon has a large number of state educa-
tional boards, each looking after some part
of the state's educational system The Stand-
ardization Board consists of the State Superin-
tendent, the presidents of the State University,
the Agncultmal College, and the Normal
School, the city superintendent of Poitland,
one membei selected by the Independent
College Presidents1 Association, and one by
the Catholic Educational Association of Ore-
gon Its purpose is to prepare lists of colleges
and noimal schools to be accepted as standard
institutions foi teachers' certificates On the
preparation of such a list by the U S Bureau
of Education, the functions of this Board
cease The State Superintendent appoints
the State Boaid of Exannneis This consists
of nine piofessional teacheis, who prepare the
questions used, and such a number as is neces-
sary to grade the answer papers These two
bodies constitute the State Board of Ex-
annneis, and the term of appointment is for
two yeais The State Superintendent is also
authonzed to appoint such clerical assist-
ance as is necessaiv The State Board ol
Education consists of the ({overrun, the
Secretary of State, and the Superintendent
of Public Instruction Its chief power is the
ability to make rules and regulations for the
maintenance and discipline of the public
schools of the state It also approves of the
adoptions made by the Textbook Commission,
and promulgates the same, indicates the
sources from which the questions on the
theory and practice of teaching, in the examina-
tion of teachers, will be made up, and pre-
scubes the course of study for the grammar,
and first two high school grades of the public
schools The State Textbook Commission,
appointed by the Governor, consists of five
qualified persons, appointed for four-yea i
terms They advertise, examine the books
submitted, and meet and select textbooks, for
six-year periods, and submit the Jesuit ol
their labors to the State Board of Education
for its approval The Oregon Library Com-
mission consists of the Governor, the State
Superintendent, the President of the State
University, the Librarian of the Library
Association of Poitland, and one person ap-
pointed, for a five-year term, by the Governor
The work of the board is to advise schools,
libraries, associations, and communities as to
the formation of libraries, and the purchase of
library books, to purchase and operate travel-
ing libraries; to conduct a summer library
school, to prepare annual lists of suitable
books for purchase, and to make rules and
regulations as to library management The
Governor, the Secretary of State, and the
State Tieasurcr constitute the State School-

557

OllKGON, STATE OF

OREGON, STATE OF

Land Boaid, for the care of the school and
university lands, and the proper investment of
the income

For each county there is a county superin-
tendent of schools, elected by the people
for four-year terms Each must have had
nine months' experience as a teacher, and must
hold a first-grade teacher's certificate The
salary varies from $400 to $1800 a year, with
$200 for traveling expenses Each has general
supervision of the schools of his county, must
visit each at least once each year, and is author-
ized to secure the care and protection of the
school property of the county He apportions
the school funds to the districts, requires
monthly reports from the teachers and an
annual report from the district officers, and
makes an annual report to the State Superin-
tendent. He also hears and determines all
appeals on disputed school questions, keeps
a record of all contracts, consults with the
district directors with leference to school-
house plans, and must approve all building
plans for third-class districts, holds an annual
countv teachers' institute, and mav hold an
annual convention of district school officers
He grants a diploma of graduation to all who
pass the state eighth-grade examination, and
may appoint four others to assist him, known
as a county board of examiners, in giading
the answer papers For each county there is
a district boundary board, consisting of the
county superintendent and the county com-
missioners (county court, if no commissioners
exist), which meets to consider all proposed
changes in district boundary lines This
board may also condemn land for schoolhouse
purposes, and appoint truant officers for the
second and thud class school districts of the
county For each county having sixty or
more school districts, districts of the fiist
class under superintendents cxcepted, the
county superintendent must appoint four per-
sons, for four-year terms, who, together with
the superintendent, constitute a county educa-
tional board It is the work of this board to
divide the county into supervision districts,
consisting of not less than twenty nor more
than fifty school districts, and to employ
supervisors for each of these supervisorial
districts, except one, at salaries of from $1000
to $1200 arid traveling expenses, for ten
months' work The county superintendent
is designated as supervisor of one district.
The county board acts as an advisory board
to the county superintendent, and the district
superintendents act under his direction and
in his stead Each supervisor must have had
nine months' experience in teaching in the
state, and must hold a state teacher's certifi-
cate

Each county is divided by the district
boundary board into a sufficient number of
school districts, and these are divided into
three classes Districts having over 1000

children (cities) of school census age (four to
twenty) are known as districts of the first
class, and as such are given some important
additional privileges, districts having from
200 to 1000 school census children (villages)
are known as districts of the second class;
and districts having less than 200 census children
are known as districts of the third class. In
second and third class distucts, a district school
board of three members is elected, one each
year, for three-year terms, while in first-class dis-
tricts, a board of five directors is elected, one
each year, for five-year terms Each board
has a clerk, who exercises impoitant functions.
He is appointed by the board in first-class
districts, and elected by the people in second
and third class districts. The elections in all
cases take place in June, and women may vote
and hold office in school affairs The annual
meeting exists in second and third class dis-
tricts, in a very modified foim, its chief func-
tions being the election of school officers (by
ballot) and the voting of special taxes The
district clerk acts as secretary of the district
boards, takes the school census, and preserves
all records He also has the custody of the
district funds, and pavs all orders diawn on the
district, giving bonds for the safety of the funds
in his charge In first class districts he
exercises very important functions Each
board employs and contracts with its teachers,
and may dismiss them for cause; has control
of the school in all matters, except those
relating to the course of study, may admit
and exclude pupils, mav loan textbooks to
indigents, may furnish transportation, and
may close the school and contract with another
district to educate the children, when author-
ized by the voters to do so In first and second
class districts kindergaitens may be estab-
lished, first-class districts appoint their own
attendance officers, and second-class districts
may be permitted to do so, in second class
districts the clerk may be appointed by the
district board, if the district so votes, and in
first-class districts the board may employ a
city superintendent, prescribe the course
of study and all rules and regulations, choose
additional textbooks, create a city board
of examination, provide evening schools and
instruction in the modern languages, and
may lease, build, and sell school property as it
deems wise, and may contract indebtedness up
to $100,000

School Support — When Oregon was or-
ganized as a territory in 1848, Congress
directed that section 36, m addition to the
usual grant of section 16, be reserved for
the aid of common schools. On entering the
Union, Oregon received two sections in each
township, a total of 3,329,706 acres The
5 per cent fund, the grant of 500,000 acres of
land to new states, the swamp land grants
(see NATIONAL GOVERNMENT AND EDUCATION),
and the ten sections of the capitol building

558

OREGON, STATE OF

OlfEGON, STATE OF

lands granted in 1859 weic all added to the
common school fund The total fund is now
nearly six millions of dollars, with 500,000
acres of land still on hand and not under lease
The income from this fund is small, and is
apportioned to the counties and districts
solely on the school census No state tax
is levied, the Oregon school system being
financially a series of county school systems
The county court of each county must levy
a county school tax equal to $8 per census
child (four to twenty) in the county, and dis-
tricts must levy a special district tax of at
least five mills The state and count > fund
is apportioned to the districts on the combined
basis of $100 to each district as such, $5 for
each teacher in the district who attended a
teachers' institute the preceding vear, and the
balance on school census If this apportion-
mcnt, together with the five-mill district tax,
does not equal $300, then the count v must
add enough from general county funds to
raise it to this amount High schools must
be supported separately, unless an eight
months' elementary school has fust been
maintained Spec ml county high school,
high school tuition, and library taxes aie
levied, in addition to any needed county tax
to provide $300 per yeai in every school
district

Teachers and Training — The state einplov s
about 4000 teachers, outside of the city of
Portland, which employs about 750 more
For the training of future teachers, the state
now maintains one normal school, at Mon-
mouth. The high school training-class system
has recently been introduced All teachers'
certificates are issued by the State Superin-
tendent, and are valid anvwheie in the state,
except city certificates and tcmpoiary county
permits Any city of ovei 100,000 population
(Portland) may appoint a city examining board
and grant its own certificates, but state cer-
tificates must be accepted by the city, while
city certificates are not valid else \\here Five
kinds of state certificates arc issued, — life, five-
year state, five-year primary, one-yeai, and spe-
cial certificates The one-year certificates arc
renewable once, the otheis more than once
Graduates of high school tiaming classes i eceive
one-year certificates, and graduates of standard
colleges and normal schools are granted
certificates, if they have met the required con-
ditions. All future high school teachers must
be college graduates A state teachers' read-
ing circle, under the direction of the State
Superintendent, has been organized recently,
and no teacher (except in first-class districts)
can have his or her certificate registered (by
county superintendents) foi the following
year, who has not done the required reading
Any city having 10,000 school children may
create a teachers' retirement fund, to which
1 per cent of the district's share of the count y
school tax is added annually

559

Educational Conditions -Oiegon is essen-
tially a ruial and an agricultural state Out-
side of the city oi Portland, which contains
30.8 pei cent of the people in the state, there is
but one city of any consequence, and not many
large towns Away from the few lines of
railway the population is quite sparse- 544
per cent of the population live in rural districts
Farming, timbering, stock raising, and the
fruit-growing aie the chief industiies Rel-
ative to its small population, the state is
quite rich In 1()1(), outside of the city of
Poitland, only 132,108 census childien were
reported in the 22(55 school districts then
existing, or an average of 52 7 children
pei district, \\lnle the average daily attend-
ance was but 31 per district As this in-
cluded all towns and cities except Portland,
it will be seen that there aie, and must for
a long tune continue to be, hundreds of small
districts scattered over the state Though
transportation of pupils, or the closing of a
school and contracting with another to pro-
vide education, is permitted, the consolidation
oi small schools naturally makes but little
headway

The schools follow the state course of study,
and are graded and classified Uniform text-
books are adopted for the state for six-vear
periods, and districts are forbidden to use any
others The eighth-grade examinations have
helped to create uniform state standards of
work The state library law and the state
traveling libraries have made real headway
in supplying the rural districts with good school
libraries Kach county of less than 100,000
people must levy a county library tax of ten
cents a school census child, to create a general
county school library fund Tins is appor-
tioned to the districts on their school census,
arid must be used to purchase books from lists
published by the State Library Board A
fairly good compulsory education law is in
force, and provisions made for truant officers
But little has been done so fai in agricultural
education, though the beginnings of the move-
ment are evident The school term required
now is six months, having recently been in-
creased from three

Secondary Education — One hundied and
eighteen high schools were reported in 1910,
seventy-six of which weie four-year schools
In 1875 there were but four Any county may
vote to create one or moie county high schools;
any district may create a high school, if it has
sufficient funds to maintain its elementary
schools eight months, arid any union of dis-
tricts may be formed to maintain a union hrgh
school For county high schools, a county
high school board, consisting of the county
judge, two county commissioners, the county
treasurer, and the county superintendent,
manage the school and estimate and levy the
necessary taxes For union high school dis-
tricts, boards of control are elected, with the

OHKC.ON, UNIVERSITY OF

OIK! AN 1C MEMORY

same powers Any count v may also vote to
create a county high school fund by taxation,
sufficient lo pay the high school tuition of all
children in the count v For the first two
years all high schools must follow the uniform
high school coui.se of study, issued by the
State Board of Education, and must use the
textbooks adopted by it Any district m&y
offer, by vote of the annual meeting, instruc-
tion in one or more grades above the eighth.
Nearly all of the little towns have high schools,
there being at least one in eveiv county

Higher and Special Education — The State
University (q v ) at Eugene and the State
Agricultural College at Corvalhs stand as the
culmination of the school system of the state
Until recently both of these institutions re-
ceived but meager support from the state, and
the state aid is still small Considering their
resources and the small population of the state,
both institutions do good work The state also
has a number of small church colleges, nearly
all of them old foundations, and only one of
them having over $80,000 of endowment All
of these are open to both sexes They aie —

Willumett* Tiuversitv
Pacifit U iii verm tv
JVIcMiiuwillc Coflf^)
\lban\ College
riiiluinuth C'olle^t
!JacMfu College
Dallas Collie

L(M A, I ION

»«„.„,,.

D CONIHO

Salem

1811

JM 10

Forest Grow

1853

iC'on^

Mr Mmnvillo

IH'iH

,Bapt

\lbun\

1807

IJn»sbv

Philomath

1867

il H

NmvlxrK

1801

'Friends

Dallas

1MOO

!Fu Ev

The state also maintains the Oregon School
for Deaf Mutes, the Oregon Institution foi the
Blind, and the Oregon State Reform School,
all at Salem R P r

References —

Bit'n Repts tfupt PuU Irifttr , 1872-1873 to date
Constitution of Oregon, 1H57
Oieyon School Laws, 1911 cd

OREGON, UNIVERSITY OF — A coedu-
cational institution established by act of the
State Legislature, 1871, and located at Eugene
It is placed undei the control of a Hoard of
Regents of thirteen members, ten of whom are
appointive by the Governor The other thiee
members aie the State Board of Education
the Governor, the Secretary of State, and the
Superintendent of Public Instruction

The university includes a graduate school,
a college of literature, science, and the arts,
courses preparatory to journalism, to law, and
to medicine, a school of commerce, a college
of engineering — including civil, electrical,
railway, and chemical, a school of education,
a summer school, a school of music, a school
of law in Portland , and a school of medicine in
Portland.

The requirements for admission to the
freshman class comprise the completion of

the usual four-year high school course One
hundred and twenty semester hours of college
work, in addition to eight hours of physical
training, are required for graduation The
work of the university is very largely elective

The usual undergraduate degrees of A B and
B S are given for four years of college work,
and the graduate degrees of Engineer and of
M A and M S on the completion of a year's
additional graduate woik

The University of Oregon, as the State
University, is an integral part of the state
public school system With the exception of
the schools of medicine and law tuition is free
Support is derived almost wholly from the
state The university campus contains eighty
acies of land, Iving in the city limits of Eugene
Buildings are ten in number The value of
land and buildings is about $800,000 The
total enrollment of students, January, 1912,
was 1554 R W P

ORESME, NICOLE, also known as OREM,
HOREM, and HOREN (<• 1323-1382) —A
French priest whose achievements and scholar-
ship entitle him to rank as one of the great
educators of his time He entered the C'ollege
de Navarre at Paris in 134X as a student, and
in due time became a professor there, and was
latei placed at the head of the institution In
1377 he became Bishop of Lisieux, and held
this position until his death He translated
vanous work* on Aristotelian philosophy from
the Latin into French, and was well known foi
his lectures on philosophy and mathematics
His Tifictatu* (If latititdnubux form arum was
very influential, and after printing was in-
vented it appeared in several editions He
also wrote a Tractatn\ piopottionum, which
was punted at Venice in 1505 His most
important work from the standpoint of mathe-
matics, however, was the AlqormnuiK propo)-
tio/ium, in which it clearly appears that he
was the inventor of the fractional exponent
now M> commonly used in algebra D E S

ORGANIC MEMORY — Whenever any
organic tissue functions, it tends to change its
structure as a result of its activity The ner-
vous system exhibits in a higher degree than
any other of the organic tissues this suscepti-
bility to experience Whenever a portion of
the nenous tissue has been used in the per-
formance of any act, the structure of that part
of the nervous tissue is so modified that it is
easier for the act to be lepeated at a later time
The ability of tissues to retain the results of
past experiences is designated " organic mem-
ory " C. II. J.

See HABIT, MEMORY

References —

HERINI,, E Memory as a Function of Organized Mat-
in (HiiriiKo, 1895 )

JAMKH, W Pnnuplm nf I'vychology, (^hap 4 (New
York,

560

ORGANIC SENSATION

ORIENTAL STUDIES

ORGANIC SENSATION. — All of the

internal bodily organs, especially those m the
abdomen, are supplied with sensory fibers
Any change in the condition of these organs,
especially if it is pathological in character,
arouses sensory processes The sensations
which result from such stimulations are espe-
cially important in determining the emotional
background of experience The ancients rec-
ognized this fact in their reference1 of emotions
to the internal organs. In popular parlance
we refer, to the heart and other organs as seats
of the emotions How far the relations of the
emotions to these oigans aro due to incoming
currents of sensory stimulation, and how far
they are due to the motor processes in these
organs, mav be a matter of discussion, but it
is clear that the sensory experiences that arise
from the internal organs contribute the general
background of all conscious experience Vari-
ous classifications have been proposed for
these organic sensations Such classifica-
tions usually distinguish between Hie sensa-
tions arising from the different internal organs
It is to be noted, howexer, that the qualita-
tive differences are not so important in this
case as in the case of sensations coming from
the external world There is a \erv large
element of pleasure or pain in the organic
sensations This fact appears in all of the
discussions of the relations between these
sensations and the emotions (" II J

Reference —

TITCHBNER, E B A Textbook of Psychology (New
York, 1910)

ORGANISM. — See ENVIRONMENT AND OR-
GANISM.

ORGANIZATION OF CLASS WORK —

See SCHOOL MANAGEMENT

ORGANIZATION, SCHOOL — Evciv
school system mediates between social needs
and conditions and the physical and mental
nature of childhood The school as an insti-
tution serves the world and the individual;
its adjustments are, therefore, at once sociologi-
cal and psychological Wherever the activity
of the school system is primarily an arrange-
ment determined by social ideals, public
finance, and other distinctly social factors,
we have an administrative method, wherever
they primarily take into account the nature
of the pupil aiid his growth, we have an educa-
tive or teaching method Such methods are
the means of executing the purposes of an
institutional education. They are in large
degree flexible, but underlying them is a more
or less definite and somewhat fixed structural
organization Thus, behind administrative
methods are the organized units ot the school
system, — kindergarten, elementary schools,
high schools, colleges, universities, and bo-
hind the teaching process is a more or less

definitely established course of study which is
the basis of all teaching Even the social
order of a school and the discipline of its mem-
bers rests upon a definite organization of
rules, well-accepted customs, and habits of
orderly proceduie It may be said, then,
that the methods of a school may be differen-
tiated into (1) its relatively fixed and static
elements, and (2) its relatively flexible and dy-
namic elements The former are included
under the term "school organization", the
latter under " school methods/' i <> methods
of administration, management, teaching, dis-
cipline, etc H S
See SCHOOL MANAGEMENT

ORIEL COLLEGE

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

REFORMS —See

ORIENTAL STUDIES —In Antiquity —

The earliest actual impulse to the study of
Oriental languages on the part of the West
appeals to have arisen in the natuial desire
for intercommunication on matters of mutual
concein From the remotest times trade and
commerce had a paramount part in bunging
this about, although it must also be emphasized
that the factors of war and diplomacy played
hardly less conspicuous roles. As is well
known, there had been business and political
relations between Greece and the Orient long
beiore the clash of arms between Hellas and
Persia in the days of Darius and Xerxes, and
the countermaich into the East by Alexander
the Great a century and a half later was not
without its commercial aspect

International relations between Europe
and Asia mav be regarded as the source from
which sprang the study of Oiiental languages
in the West In some1 respects Themistocles,
the political refugee from Athens to the Persian
court of Artaxeixos I (460 u c ), who in a year
acquired sufficient fluency in Persian to be able
to converse freely with the Oriental monarch
without the medium of an interpreter, may be
accounted a forerunner (Plutarch, Them., 29),
but the general attitude of the Greeks in con-
sidering everything that was not Hellenic to
be " barbarian " was not favorable to the
study of Eastern tongues

On the other hand, the Orientals were far
more liberal in their readiness to acquire a
knowledge of foreign languages, and this posi-
tion seems to have been maintained to the
present dav The same freedom from a
narrow linguistic point of view may have
contributed materially to the readiness of
Orientals to act as interpreters where other
tongues are concerned In Egypt royal en-
couragement was given to this attitude by
Psammetichus, who recognized the practical
ends in view and sent Egyptian children to a
colony of Greeks and Carians in the Nile
delta to learn Greek, and in this manner,
to Herodotus, arose the caste of

VOL. IV 2 O

5G1

ORIENTAL STUDIES

ORIENTAL STUDIES

Egyptian interpreters whose .services were
employed by the Father of History himself,
in his ignorance of the loeal tongue ( Hdt , 2
154, 125) At a still earlier time the Median
king Cyaxarcs is said to have sent children to
live among his Scythian immigrants that they
might learn the Scythian language (ibid , 1 73)
A similar class of professional interpreters
must have existed in Asia Minor, for Greek
traders negotiated with Scythians on the
Pontus Euxmus " through seven interpreters
and seven tongues" (ibid , 4 24, cf Arrian,
Anab ,4 37) When the Persian royal
claimant, Cyrus the Younger, communicated
with the Greek mercenaries in his army, it
was through an mterpretei as mediary ( Xeno-
phon, Anab ,1 2 17), and the same was true
of Xenophon in confening with the Pontic
Mossynceci (ibid , 5 4 4) In India the G reek
historian Oriesicntus the Cynic, who ac-
companied Alexander the Great to the East,
sought to interchange ideas with the Brah-
mans, though this was possible foi him only
through the aid of three interpreters, and as
to the futility of endeavonng to expound
Indian philosophy in such a manner, one of
the Hindu sages justly lemaiked that to at-
tempt it was to " expect water to flow pure
through mud " (Strabo, p 716)

Significant in this respect, as showing in
later times the Quintal facility for the ac-
quisition of foreign tongues, is the widespread
use of the common word for " interpreter "
derived fiom the Arabic tarjuman, li trans-
lator/7 which has given rise to a whole family
of words like Italian dragoman no, titrcnnmino,
French dragoman, truchcniari, English drago-
man, Old Church Slavic tltimact, Middle High
German tolmctschc, New High German DoJ-
metsch, Lithuanian tulkav, and Dutch tolk, all
signifying " interpreter "

With the growth of ancient civilization it
was impossible for the West to rest content
with a knowledge of Oriental languages merely
for practical purposes, for some of these
tongues possessed literatures of more or less
merit, and the Greek mind craved to know
what might be the contents of these " barba-
rian " books We need give no special credence
to an isolated Iranian tradition that one of
the two original copies of the Avesta was
translated into Greek at the command of
Alexander the Great " as information which
was connected with the ancients " (Dlnkart,
3 5, tr Weal, Sarretl Book* of the Eati, 37
p xxxi ; cf ibid , 47 82), although the Mace-
donian invader and the scholars who accom-
panied him may actually have interested
themselves in knowing something about the
famous Zoroastnan scriptures We may pass
a similar judgment on the allegation that the
Alexandrine Peripatetic philosopher Hermip-
pus translated 2,000,000 " verses composed
by Zoroaster" (Pliny, Hist Nat, 30 2 1),
indeed, it is not impossible that these two

stories are in some way connected. At the
same time, however, we must emphasize the
fact that there were authentic cases of trans-
lation from Oriental languages into Greek
and Latin To the Greek group belong the
translations of Berosus from the Babylonian
by Philo Byblius, and Menander of Tyre from
the Phoenician, and by Manetho from the
Egyptian All these works, which were his-
torical in theme, have unfortunately vanished,
except for scanty fragments, but it has re-
cently been shown bv Bezold and Boll (" Re-
flexe a^trologischer Keilmschriften bei griech-
ischen Schnftstellern," in Ndzungbbenchte der
Hcidelhcrger Akademic der Wibseribchaften,
1011, no 7) that there was direct translation
of extant Greek omen-literature from the
Babylonian In the Byzantine period there
was considerable translating from Oriental
languages (cf Krumbaehcr, Gctchichte der by-
zantnuschcn Littcratw , 2d ed , Munich, 1897),
and we still possess a Greek version of the
Penplux of the Carthaginian Hanno, which
has recently been rendered into English by
Schoff (Philadelphia, 1912)

The more practical Romans had the work of
the Carthaginian Mago on agriculture trans-
lated into Latin at the command of the Senate,
and Sallust mentions among his sources on
African history some versions made for him
from " the Punic books said to be those of
King Hiernpsal " (De Bdlo Jugurth , 17)

When the Oriental religions began to per-
meate the West, the new need arose of a more
precise understanding of their liturgies and
sacred writings, and this necessity became
still more urgent rn the case of the demands
made bv Christianity, when the Western
Chinch grew suspicious of the Septuagint
rendering of the Bible (that earliest Greek ver-
sion of an Oriental sacred book), and sought for
a Latin version of the Scriptures which should
be based on the original tongues This demand
was recogm/ed as early as the third century
A D , when Origen prepared his Hexapla, with
a presentation, as far as was then possible, of
the Hebrew by the side of the other texts
concerned In the latter part of the fourth
and the early part of the fifth century St
Jerome undertook the task of preparing the
Latin Vulgate, and, to perform the work, he
devoted himself for several years to the study
of Hebrew, particularly among the Jews of
Bethlehem

Nevertheless, there is no trace, throughout
this entire period, of the study of Oriental
languages for other than purely utilitarian or
religious ends Though many of the authors
who wrote in Greek were Orientals, — for ex-
ample, Ptolemy and Plotmus were Egyptians,
Porphyry and lambliohus Syrians, Dioscorides
a Cicihan, Galen a Mysian, Dio Chrysostom
and Dio Cassius Bithymans, Lucian a Com-
ma genian, and Strabo a Pontine, while for
the Latin writers we may mention the Africans

662

ORIENTAL STUDIES

ORIENTAL STUDIES

Apuleius and St Augustine, — these scholars
have given us no glimpse of their native
languages. Indeed, almost the only speci-
mens of Oriental tongues extant in classical
texts are the few lines of Punic in the Pwnulus
of Plautus (11 930-949) and the line of Old
Persian in the Acharmam (1 100) of Aristoph-
anes, for the unintelligible jumbles on Greek
magic papyri are too uncertain to be considered
here. There was, however, more or less
knowledge of at least scattoied words, as
when Plato (Cratylus, 410 A) alludes to the
resemblance between the Greek and the Phryg-
ian designations for ''fire," "watei," "dog,"
etc ; and all this led to the compilation
of glossaries, m which cognizance is taken of
Oriental words, as in the one ascribed to
Hesychius

But at this very time a new force was gradu-
ally coming into being, destined to set at
naught the exclusiveness of the Gracco-Roman
world with regard to the Orient This force
was Christianity, which sought to make the
Scriptures accessible to all nations in their
own languages, and for that reason mission-
aries weie obliged to be able to expound the
Bible and to pi each in the vernaculars of those
to whom they were sent By the fifth century
the SyiiaiL bishop Theodoret could justly
say, in his DC cinandi* Grcrcoruui affrctibii?
(ed Migno, Patrohgia Grccca, Vol LXXXI1I,
p 94S), that the Bible had then been tianslated
into Egyptian, Persian, Indian (/ c South
Arabic), Scvthian, and Sauromatian, and many
more, these including Armenian and, before
long, Georgian Apait fiom the Bible and
except for theological hteiature, however,
there was little effective actuitv in Oriental
studies, although mention may be made of a
brief glossal y of ninety words in Armenian
and Latin, belonging to the tenth century
(ed Carriers, Pans, 1886), as well as of the
Codex Cumamcm, dating from the eaily
fourteenth centurv (ed Kuun, Budapest,
1880), which contains, besides a Latin-Pei-
sian-Cu manic glossary, a number of texts
in the latter language

After centuries of practical oblivion the
study of Oriental languages showed signs of
revival when, in 1259, Raymundus de Pcnna-
forte urged the Dominican ordei to acquire
Hebrew, while at the Council of Vienne (1311-
1312) Clement V ordered the establishment
of professorships of that language at all uni-
versities For obvious reasons Hebrew long
held the first place in Oriental studies, though
Arabic, a knowledge of which was requisite
for disputation with the Moors of Spain, also
received attention. It was, however, Protes-
tantism, with its insistence on the Bible only,
that gave the great impetus to the study of
Oriental tongues, though Protestantism had
already been anticipated in a measure by the
rationalism of the Renaissance, with its desire
to delve deeply into all things secular The

first non-Oriental Hebrew grammar was pre-
pared in 1506 by the distinguished Humanist
Reuchlm (q v ), who has justly been called the
father of Jewish studies among the Christians;
the earliest Aiabic grammar was published
by Pedro de Alcala in 1505 and ranks as one
of the landmarks of Semitic philology The
first grammar of the cognate Ethiopic was
issued by Marius Yiotormus in 1548, and of
Synac by Johannes Albertus Wiedemanstatius
in 1558, while in 1539 Theseus Ambrosius
essayed comparative study in his Irttrodactio
in Chaldaictnn linguam, 8ynam atque Armnii-
C(ivn et decent alia^

During this period the progiess of Semitic
studies (see JEWISH EDUCATION) was espe-
cially noteworthy, yet even Sanskrit received
some attention in the sixteenth century fiom
the Italian Philippo Sassetti, who lived in
India from 1583 to 1588, and whose Letters
(ed Marucci, Florence, 1855) contain the
earliest European information regarding this
ancient language of India It was, moreover,
about the middle of this same century that
the Jesuits established printing presses at
Goa, and l< Sanskrit, Tamil, Malayalurn, and
Syriac were studied by the Portuguese Jesuits
residing there [at Ambalacatta] with great
success " (see Burnell, " Early Printing in
India," in Indian Antiquary, Vol II, p 90),
while the first Tamil printed text, a Tamil
translation of a Portuguese Doctrtna Chn^tam,
appeared at Cochin in 1579 The transition
from the more specific study of Semitic to that
of Indo-Germanic had already been made by
a Norman scholar named Guilielmus Postellus,
who in 1538 devoted attention to Hebrew,
Syriac, Samaritan, Aiabic, Ethiopic, Georgian,
and Armenian, besides a number of European
languages, although he, of course, shared the
prevailing theory that Hebrew was the parent
of all languages In vet anothci Oriental-
Occidental field the famous Joseph Justus
Scahger published, in 1597, oui earliest list
of Gypsy woids, as well as a brief specimen of
the latei Persian tongue

The seventeenth century still further
widened the knowledge of Oriental languages,
and grammars or lexicons (or both) were pre-
pared in a succession that is historically worth
recording. Malay (1603), Turkish (1612),
Tagalog (1613), Persian (1614), Canarese
(1616), Aimeinan (1624), Georgian (1629),
Coptic (1643), Congoese and Konkani (1659),
Chinese (1667), and Amhanc (1698), while in
1664 the Lutheran missionary, Heinnch Roth,
learned Sanskrit in order to be able to dispute
with the Brahmans, and late in the same cen-
tury the famous Leibnitz made a deter-
mined attack on the old view that Hebrew
was the ancestor of all languages

In the eighteenth centurv, during which tht>
first serious study of Onental dialects was
begun by Johann Joachim Schroder in his
ub lingua: Armennv antique? et hodter-

563

OKIENTAL STUDIES

ORIENTAL STUDIES

w#, published in 1711, and when Oriental
epigraphy was inaugurated in 1754 by Bar-
th&femy in his investigation of the Palmyrene
inscriptions, attention was devoted to the
southern Indian dialects of Singhalese (1708)
and Malay alam (1713), as well as to Tibetan
(1722), Telugu (1728), the lingua ftanca of
Hindustani (1741), Bengali (1743), Fanti and
Akkra (1764), Chuvash (1769), rhermiss and
Votyak (1775), Mahratta (1778), arid Kurdish
(1787).

The close of the eip, lit cent h century was des-
tined to see a disco\ cry, to which reference
has already been made, that was to revolution-
ize the entire outlook of Onental studies, and
that was fated, in the following centinv, when
combined with the decipheimonl of the Old
Persian inscriptions, to establish on a scientific
basis the vast domain of Jmlo-Euiopcaii philol-
ogy, UN well as to give inspiration for the com-
parative study of Diavidian, African, and
Polynesian languages This was the opening
to scholars of the West of a general knowledge
of Sanskrit Since that time the progress of
Oriental studies has been fully assured as a
branch of Occidental leaimng when conjoined
with the other departments of Western and
Eastern research to which allusion has been
made above

During the past generation or two the study
of Oriental languages as one of the regular
forms of educational training has received a
recognized place in almost all the advanced
institutions of learning in the Occident; and
the Eastern tongues have been given a posi-
tion in the curriculum side by side with the
classic languages of antiquity and the modem
vernaculars of Europe Fiom a pedagogical
standpoint the value of Eastern studies is
fully acknowledged, and their worth is more
and more generally granted from the practical
as well as from the cultural point of view The
reason foi this is twofold In the first place,
the West is deeply indebted to the East for
the contributions which the latter has made
to our knowledge of antiquity In the second
place, Orient and Occident are more closely
united to-day than ever before in history, and
a mutual understanding of each other's storied
past and of each other's present conditions ---
best gained through such special linguistic
knowledge — is a potent factor in furthering
the world's aims of civilization Striking
prominence has recently been given to the
weight of this consideration thiough the rapid
strides which Asia has lately made in the line
of progress

Oriental Studies in General — As a science
the study of Oriental languages is a relatively
young development in the West, even though
from the earliest times due recognition has
been accorded to the practical knowledge of
Eastern vernaculars It was natural that
the more special impetus to the movement
should come first from a desire to study the

Scriptures in the original languages as a req-
uisite basis for true understanding of the
Bible Although the beginnings had been
made in the days of the Church Fathers, it
was only after the end of the Middle Ages
that Christian scholars commenced to avail
themselves more and more of the linguistic
attainments of Jewish rabbis, and to gain
through then instruction a more technical
knowledge of the text of the Old Testament.
(See JEWISH EDUCATION ) The establishment
of a trilingual college for Latin, Greek, and
Hebrew in 1516 at Lou vain, Belgium, was but
one of several kindred foundations on the
continent of Europe and in Great Britain that
were destined later to become great centers
of Oriental learning Hebrew, followed by
Arabic, thus led the way to a broader study of
the cognate Semitic languages, — a field that
has been developed with special success during
the last half century. In the line of Indo-
Germanic philology, on the other hand, the
introduction of a knowledge of Sanskrit, in
the eighteenth cerituiy, was the most active
agency in broadening the path that had long
been trodden by Greek and Latin scholars;
and the thoroughly scientific methods em-
ployed in Sanskrit philology were early ac-
cepted as models to be followed in other
branches of Oriental research, especially in the
entire domain of Indo-Gei manic linguistics

University instruction was not the only
factor that played a part in promoting Oriental
studies, for the mercantile and political re-
lations which had been gradually developing
between Europe, Asia, and Africa, especially
after India was incorporated in the British
Empire, were a prominent feature in this re-
spect Governments recognized the value of
giving financial aid to special seminaries which
had for their object the training of young men
foi commercial and diplomatic service in the
Orient One of the earliest of these institu-
tions was the Kaiserhche-Komghche Kon-
sular-AkadcHue, founded at Vienna in 1754
by the Austrian government, and of, like pur-
pose was the establishment of the Ecole sp6-
ciale deft langues orientates vivantes at Paris
in 1795, while mention should also be made
of the still older Rcale Institute orientate
founded at Naples in 1727 Later develop-
ments along corresponding lines are the
Lehranstalt fur onentalische Sprachen, organ-
ized at Vienna in 1851, the creation of an
extensive corps of special instructors for Ori-
ental languages in connection with the work
of the University of St Petersburg since 1854;
the ministerial subsidies devoted to the Semi"
nar fur onentalische Sprachen at Berlin since
1887; and the establishment of the Oriental-
ische Handelsakademie at Budapest in 1891.
In England the University of London likewise
includes a special School of Modern Oriental
Languages, and Oxford and Cambridge each
have chairs or lectureships for a score and

564

ORIENTAL STUDIES

ORIENTAL STUDIES

more of Oriental specialists, with kindred
representatives in all the other universities
of Great Britain Throughout the continent
of Europe every university is equipped pro-
portionately, or even in much larger degree
Nor has North America been far behind
since the time when the real foundation for
Asiatic studies in the New World was laid,
more than half a century ago, by the noted
Sanskntist, William Dwight Whitney, of
Yale, who died in 1894 In South America,
on the other hand, the serious study of Orien-
tal languages is still to be inaugurated.

Hand in hand with the several movements
already described there has gone also the
strong impulse imparted by the work of the
learned societies whose special aim is devotion
to various lines of Oriental research One
of the earliest of these bodies was the Asiatic
Society established at Calcutta in 1784, while
to-day there is a flouiishmg Oriental society
in nearly every country of Europe, and North
America can likewise claim its own Oriental
Society, founded in 1842 Among the most
important of the European societies are the
English Roval Asiatic Society of Great Britain
and Ireland (founded in 1834), with its daugh-
tei societies- the Bombay, (Yvlon, China,
Koiea, and Straits Blanches, the German
Deutsche morgenlandnchc (Vc.sr// \chaft (1815),
Deutsche Ot lent-Gcwlhchaft ( 1 SOS ) , V order-
asiatmche Ge^ell^chaft (1805), and Munchner
ortentahschc Gcvlhchaft (1001), the Dutch
Koninkhjk Institmit voor de Taal-, Land- en
Volkenkundc van Nedalnnduh Indie (1851),
the French Socicte axiatique (1822), and the
Italian Societa atuatwi itahana (1887). These
societies all publish their own jouinals,
and among other periodicals relating to Orien-
tal languages may be noted the English Joinnal
of the African Society, the East Indian Indian
Antiquary, the American Journal of Semitic
Languages and Literatures, the Belgian
Mu.seon, the German Zeit^chuft fur A^ijn-
ologie, Zuhchnft fur agi/ptif>ch< Sprach- und
Altertumxkunde, ZeiUchrtft fw afnkatnsche,
ozeanibche itnd obtawatibche Spracfu n, Anhiv
fui f/a.s Studium deut^chcr Koloniahprachen ,
the Austrian Wiener Zeitxchnft fui die Kunde
des Morgcnlandex, the Swedish Sphinx, the
French Revue a6mitiquet Recueil dc travaiu
relatif* a la philologie et a Vaicheologie egi/p-
ftennc ct assyncnnc, Revue d'a.^ynologie, and
T'oung Pao\ and the Italian Studi itahain
di filologia indo-iramca, Orient Chnxtianvs,
and Bexsarioiw

As this survey implies, the breadth and scope
of the studies pursued have grown in a remark-
able manner during the last fifty years The
day is past when either Sanskrit or Hebrew
and Arabic, or any other single one of the two
great linguistic families to which they belong,
can claim the priority of attention which they
once enjoyed A place is now found beside
them for the study of the Chinese classics, for

questions relating to Japanese, for Central
Asian dialects, Philippine tongues, African
vernaculars, and Polynesian speech forms
The East itself, which had long been obliged
to cultivate European tongues for practical
reasons, is nuw devoting serious attention to
its own individual languages as a subject wor-
thy of piofound consideiation The Asiatic
Society of Japan was founded at Tokio in
1872, and the Siam Society at Bangkok in
1004, though to foieign ji itiative are due
the establishment of the Ecole franc,aise d' ex-
treme orient at Hanoi in J898 and of the Vos-
touiyi mstitut (" Oriental Institute ") at Vladi-
vostok in 1800

The Practical Value of Oriental Studies —
The practical value of a training in Oriental
languages will be self-evident foi the claims
made upon the missionary, diplomat, military
officer, or merchant who is to live among the
peoples speaking those tongues Even though
in many places English or French may serve
as a medium of communication sufficiently
well to answer ordinal v lequirernents, never-
theless when once the Westerner leaves the
beaten track, he will be practically helpless
without a knowledge of the vernaculars or of
the lingua franca, which may be Aiabic, Per-
sian, or some other Oriental language While
foi the merchant or the military officer in the
East it may be enough to learn merely the
modern spoken languages or dialects, precisely
as the oidinarv man in rank and file or at the
desk acquires a speaking knowledge of French,
German, or Spanish, it is incumbent on the
missionary and the diplomat in the Orient to
know also the ancient Eastern languages and
their literatures The religious and secular
life of a people can be studied accurately only
in the light of a thoiough knowledge of their
past history and literature, and this fact
equally presupposes a knowledge of their
language fiom its earliest accessible period
No translation, however skillful, can suffice,
and for the Oriental held in particular the task
of the translator is beset with innumerable
perils If the trained investigator often stands
perplexed before some apparently absuid,
cruel, or obscene custom of the particular
people with whom he is brought in contact,
how much more helpless must he be who has
had no real scientific training, yet who recog-
nizes that effectively to remove the evil he
must first recognize and eradicate its cause
To this lack of training on the part of those
who have sought to spread the Gospel, many
of the criticisms of the older school of mission-
aries are due, on the other hand, those mis-
sionaries who have best understood their people
have almost invariably been the ones who have
had the greatest success both in winning con-
verts and in every other respect To the
theologian Oriental studies make a special ap-
peal, for the light that is cast upon the language
and the religion of the Old Testament from

565

ORIENTAL STUDIES

ORIGEN

the Semitic tongues, religions, literatures,
and customs is incalculable To the teacher
of languages or of literatures some Oriental
study is essential if he is to do his best work.
Sanskrit holds in this lespect the hrst place as
the oldest member of the Indo-Germanic
group of languages, and its grammar explains
phenomena in other tongues that are other-
wise inexplicable In fact, it is even more
essential in this respect than even Greek and
Latin If the specialist in Church history
and in the history of dogma must be familiar
with Oriental languages, it IK none the less
true that the historian of philosophy must be
equally familiar with the thought of the East,
and in like manner the historian not only of
such sciences as mathematics, chemistry,
arid medicine, but also of certain periods and
countries of Europe must seek Oriental sources,
as for the history of the Crusades or of Spam,
Greece, and Malta Finally, no survey of
literature is complete without some knowledge
of the literary types found in Sanskrit and
Pali, Syriac and Arabic, Chinese and Japanese,
Persian and Egyptian

Oriental Studies and their Educational
Pursuit — The difficulties of Oriental study
are exaggerated in the popular mind Thit> is
probably due m great part to the fact that they
are written in unfamiliar scripts. Yet in-
herently these tongues are not really hard
to master, and the grammar of the Semitic
and of most of the Indo-Germanic Oriental
languages is comparatively easy The only
real difficulty is in the vocabulary. The
teaching of Oriental languages will probably
never begin before Junior year in college,
although there is no real ground for making
this limitation beyond the fact of the insistent
demand of studies that are seemingly more
urgent and the fact that Orientalism will at-
tract only a chosen few Grammars, lexicons,
and chrestomathies exist in abundance for
all the better known tongues, and only in the
verb categories of Semitic will the average
beginner find anything that is really unfa-
miliar to him A knowledge of classics is usu-
ally possessed by those who take up Oriental
studies Although such knowledge is not an
indispensable prerequisite, and although it
may even occasionally be questioned whether
some of the students who undertake the study
may not approach it more independently
without a technical familiarity with Greek
and Latin, yet teachers, on the whole, have
thus far in the West found their best adapted
scholars among those who have previously
been equipped with the essentials of one or
both of the classic tongues To the student
who perseveres there is a vast field where he
can scarcely fail to reap some fruit, particu-
larly as in almost every Oriental language
there are large bodies of literature as yet
only inadequately known, or even entirely
uninvestigated, in many cases not even edited.

The one real difficulty is that there is, under
present conditions, a lack of teaching posi-
tions for Oriental languages, except perhaps
in the Semitic field; and the hope is to be
cherished that larger opportunities may be
opened, as are due, to scholars who devote
themselves to this branch of research On
the other hand, it can scaicely fail to make
for mental poise and the avoidance of thf
peril of overspeciahzation if one has some
Oriental subject for his diversion, if not for
his domain of special study and investigation
There is, however, a word of warning to be
sounded in regard to what may be called
pseudo-Orientalism The tendency to seek
for novelty and foi superficial analogy has
been prejudicial to the cause of true Eastern
studies, especially in view of the close con-
nection of much of Oriental literature with
religion. Astro-mythological theorists, for ex-
ample, and the u pan-Babylonians " have
brought some branches of Semitic studies
into critical discredit, while pbeudo-Bud-
dhists and other imperfectly mfoimed followers
of Oriental systems of thought have at times
detracted from appreciation of the true value
of Sanskrit and Pah studies. Lack of genuine
knowledge has prevailed somewhat widely,
it must be confessed by the competent cntic,
and has led too many of the weaker minds
astray. There is, then, all the nioie reason
for the sober and scientific study of Oriental
languages and for the teaching of these dis-
ciplines in a manner that shall adequately
set forth their true dignity and their true
worth A V W^J ANDL H G

References —
BENPEY, T Gischichte der 8pra<_hwwx(nxch(ift and

onentaliachen Philologie in Dfiitechland (Mu-
nich, 1869)
CAHARTELLI, L T Two Knghnh Scholar* and the

Beginnings of Oriental Studien in Louvain, in

Sketches in History (London, 190b )
Catholic Encyclojxzdia, H v. Oriental Study and

Research
OHAUVIN, V Belgium Pcrsicum, in Melanges CharUa

de Harlez (Leyden, 1896 )
HAUPT, R Internationales Taschenbuch fur Onental-

isten (Leipzig, 1910 )
Jewish Encyclopedia, H vv Dicttonanex, Hebrew,

Grammar t Hebrew, Hebrauffi, Christian
Linguistic Survey of India (Calcutta, 1903- )
Minerva, Jahrbuch der gdehrten Welt (Stratwburg,

annually )
SniRADER, O Realh'xikon der indogermamuchen Al-

tertumnkundi', HV Dolmrtscher (Straswburg, 1901 )
STEINTHAL, H Gischichte der Sprachwissmschaft bei

den Gnechcn und Romer, 2 ed (Berlin, 1889-

1891.)

ORIENTATION OF THE SCHOOL-
HOUSE. — See ARCHITECTURE, SCHOOL.

ORIGEN (185-254). — The greatest of all
the early Christian teachers was an Egyptian,
the son of Leonides, a teacher of rhetoric, who
gave him a liberal education in all the arts and
sciences then known. He was a precocious
scholar, a pupil of Clement of Alexandria (q v )

566

OR1GEN

OKO8IUS

and of Ammonias Sacca.s, the founder of the
Neo-Platonic Philosophy He became thor-
oughly familiar with the teachings of Plato
and all the Greek philosophers and with the
Hebrew Scriptures At the eaily age of eight-
een he was placed at the head of the great
Alexandrian School (see (1 \TECHKTICAL
SCHOOLS) Here his activity as a teacher and
writer was incessant, and by his untiring in-
dustry and 11 resistible logic he soon won the
title of Adamantine His fame spread fai
and wide, and he was consulted by scholars,
statesmen, and leaders of the Church, with
whom his opinions carried gieat \\eight
Under his direction the Alexandrian School
became the greatest center of learning in the
world

In the persecution undei Ma Mima, Ongen
was driven from Alexandria and found refuge
in Cscsarea, where he established a new Cate-
chetical School (V/ ?> )> which soon MII passed
that of Alexandria Here lie passed the rest
of his life in prodigious labors The opinion
of the learned men of Palestine was voiced by
( Gregory of Nvssa (q v ), who described him us
u the Pnnce of Christian learning in the third
century7' Fortunately we have a contempo-
rary record of his educational methods by
Gregory Thaumaturgus (q v ), who \\as Jus
pupil for five years at Csesarea His PUHC-
gi/)i( upon Ongen is one of the classics of edu-
cation and gives us a vivid picture of this great
educatoi and his ^oik The system as de-
scribed by him uas rernaikahlc foi its breadth,
thoroughness, and high moral tone The first
stage consisted of a careful training in grammar
and logic, designed to teach the student the
exact meaning and use* of words and to enable
him to investigate truth and detect false
arguments He was then introduced to the
study of the physical world through the
sciences of physics, astronomy and geome-
try Next came the study of ethics, based
upon the four Platonic vutuesand including an
examination of all known ethical systems, rn
order to ineorpoiate everything of perma-
nent \alue found in them The object, how-
ever, was not so much to formulate a
theory of ethics as to build up character
Gregory's words are significant * Much as we
learned from the words of Ongen, we learned
still more from his example " Evidently
there was a peculiar charm about this great
teacher which endeared him to his students,
while his pure and noble character impressed
them not less than his intellectual powers
His whole educational system culminated in
the study of Holy Scripture, to the exposition
of which he devoted his highest powers His
literary labors were enormous. St Jerome
(q v ) says he wrote 2000 books In his
Hexapla he brought together in one polyglot
collection the best versions then extant of the
Old Testament His Fnsl Pininpk* was the
first attempt ever made to create, with the

help of philosophy, a science of Christian
Doctrine and was one of the most influential
books ever written, although disfigured by
some extravagant speculations His Cow-
Hientancx and Homilies upon Holy Scripture,
of which only a few remain, were voluminous
and valuable His apologetic work, Contra
Cellini, his Stioniatn, in which he compares
the doctrines of Christianity with the teach-
ings of philosophy, and his Letter* complete
the list ' W R

References —
BT<.(., CHAKLK* Tt« Ckiwttan Plattmwte <>f J/«.r-

andiui (Oxford, IKSti )

Catkolu Encj/(l<>i>< din, s \ Orifl^n and ()ri(j< wvw
KUHEBIUK OF Cvfts \JIK\. Church Hixtory, Book (>,

Lthi a ry of Grtvk and Latin Father**, Vol J (N«'\\

^oik, IS'W )
I'\IKWF:THKR, W Ongcn and (iice/c Patriotic The-

olonil (Kdinlmrgh. 1Q01 )
(rKKOoitY TH AUMATUiwjus Paueyync on Ongen,

traiihhitod in the A?i1e- Niccnc Fatturt,, Vol VI

(Now York, 1890)

OKK.KN Fragment^ of works trrmHlatod in the Ante-
Mmnt Wither*, Vo\ IV (New York, 1890 )

ORIGINAL AND ACQUIRED CHARAC-
TERISTICS — Sec ACQUIRED CHARACTER-
ISTICS, XATIVISM

OROSIUS, PAULUS (fl 415). — Historian
,ind theologian, a native of Spain Of his life
little is known before the barbanan invasions
of Spam, about 40!) Soon after this he came
into personal relations with St Augustine
(<y r ), whom he icpresented rather unsuccess-
ful! v when Augustine sought to procure the
condemnation of Pelagianism in Palestine.
In 4 17-1 IS Orosius was back in Hippo with
St Augustine \t this time he wiote his
famous history, Ilixtouannn adverxux paganos
hhn *cpt<ni It \vas undertaken in proof of
a position assumed by Augustine in his City
of frW, rather than with a purely historical
purpose Orosius aims to prove by an outline
of geneial history that before the advent of
(1hnshamtv the world suffered even more
from plagues, pestilences, famines, wars, and
othei disasters than since that event In
this historical sketch, Orosius meets success-
fully the pagan charge that the introduction
of (Christianity and the cessation of heathen
\\orship were the causes of the recent disasters
to the Roman world Orosius made use of
the Old and New Testament, Josephus,
Kusebius, and also Livy, Tacitus, Suetonius,
Caesar, Cicero, and other pagan historians In
turn the woik was used by Bede and medieval
writers generally As an independent authority,
Orosius is of importance only in the latter
part of his Avork, from about A D 378 to the
end AD H7 The book was translated rather
freely into Anglo-Saxon by Alfred the Great,
and its popularity in the Middle Ages was very
!{ieat, serving as the accepted manual or text-
book of general history The other works of

507

ORPHANS

ORPHANS

Orosius are theological in character and con-
nected with the controversies of his time

J C A JR
References —

BA.RDENHEWER, O Patrologie (Freiburg, 1901 )
Full bibliographic^ references will be found here
Tr. by Shahaii, T (St Louis, 1908 )

Carpus scriptorum cccl< ^lasticorum Latmorum, Vol V,
contains the Historui (Vienna, 1SS2 )

SMITH AND WACE Dictionary of Christian Biography,
s v Orosius

MIGNE, PatroloQia, Series Latina, Vol XXXI (Puna )

ORPHANS, EDUCATION OF — The

term applied to the institutions now generally
termed orphan asylums, orphanages, 01 orphan
houses or schools, was hospitals, and under
the caption HOSPITAL SCHOOLS the historic
development of these institutions and of this
type of education has been tiaced Following
the Reformation such institutions, more 01
less independent of the Church and leplacmg
the old ecclesiastical foundations \\hich had
the care of orphans as one of their functions,
became quite numerous Especially \uth the
seventeenth century was there a maiked de-
velopment which, to the present day, has
given a distinctive place to this type of educa-
tional institution A bnef historical sketch
outlining the details given under HOSPITAL
SCHOOLS will furnish a perspective for judging
present conditions ; see also PICTISM , FRANCKE ,
etc

Historical — The eaihest expression of
charity in human society of which we have any
record was exercised in behalf of oiphan
children The Hebrew Scnptures in most
emphatic terms repeatedly enjoined lespou-
sibihty for the caie of the widow and the
orphan " Ye shall not afflict any widow or
fatheiless child. If thou afflict them in any
wise and they shall cry at all unto me, I will
surely hear their cry, and mv wrath shall wax
hot and 1 will kill you with the swoid, and
your wives shall be widows and your childien
fatherless" (Exod xxn, 22-24)* "And the
Levite (because he hath no part 1101 inheri-
tance with thee) and the stranger, and the
fatherless, and the widow, which are within
thy gates, shall come, and shall eat and be
satisfied; that the Lord thy God may blest*
thee in all the work of thine hand which thou
doest " (Dent xiv, 20 )

Nearly two thousand years latei a New
Testament writer defined religion in terms of
charitable service rendered the widow and the
fatherless " Pure religion and uridefiled be-
fore God and the Father is this, to visit the
fatherless and widows in their affliction and
to keep himself unspotted from the world "
In the Apostolic constitutions of the primitive
churches bishops were commanded " to take
care of the orphans, see that they want
nothing " (See Christ el's ('hniiti/ of the Primi-
tive Churches) Throughout the Middle Ages
endeavor in behalf of orphan and dependent

children was under the direction of the Church
The Emperor Constantine after his conversion
from Paganism to Christianity declared him-
self the patron of orphans and other defense-
less children

The modern orphan asylum as a charitable
institution maintained apart from church
or monastery arose in the latter part of the
seventeenth century The best known of
those early asylums was the one established in
1095 in Halle, Germany, by August Hermann
Francke (</ /' ) It wras opened on the goodly
capital of three and one half dollars On
finding this sum at one time in the contri-
bution box which he had fastened up in his
house, Francke exclaimed, " With this must
1 do a great work " With such small begin-
nings he began to gather in, to feed, and to in-
struct orphans and stieet beggars Later
he began to build, adding structure upon
struct in e as the numbers increased His
establishment still remains — a quarter of a
mile in length and six stories high, built
around a long courtyard Francke's or-
phanage and home for dependent children be-
came the model and inspiration of many others
established during the following century in
Germany and other countries, including the
Tinted States In his Annual Report as
Secretary of the Board of Education of Mass-
achusetts, Horace Mann (<j v ) in wilting of his
visit to the German States savs, " Another
fact which will strike the visitor to these
countries (German States) with mingled sorrow
and |oy, is the number and populousness of
then oiphan establishments In the great
(ities almost without exception, one or more1
of these is to be found " The oiphan houses
originally established for the care of soldiers'
orphans were afterwards appropriated to
orphans ot other classes Institutions es-
tablished in the United Stat.es after the Civil
War for soldiers' orphans have in recent years-
followed a simihai course, in some states
becoming state industrial schools for dependent
and delinquent children

In some of the orphanages of Euiopean
countries the training given the children of
soldiers and sailors was intended to fit the
boys foi the occupation of their fathers Thus
in the same Report quoted above the writei
sa\s " In the Royal Orphanage House at
Potsdam there were a thousand bovs all
children of soldiers Great attention was
given to physical training As the boys were
destined for the army it was thought important
to give them agility and vigor. The bovs
practiced gymnasium exercises, such as climb-
ing poles, ascending ropes, flinging their bodies
round and round over a bar while they hold
on only by the bend of the legs at the knee
joints, vaulting upon the wooden horse, etc ,
until then physical feats reached a point of
perfection which I have never seen surpassed
except by professional circus riders and rope

5t>8

ORPHANS

ORPHANS

dancers." At Brest was a similar institution
for sailors' orphans which gave a special nauti-
cal and military education, including manage-
ment of sails, fife, drum, rowing, swimming,
whistling, gun practice, boxing, etc (Barnard
American Journal of Education, Vol XXI, 378-
80.) This program of training is st ill in vogue in
similar institutions, as illustrated recently by the
coronation drill exercises in honor of George V
lendered by the boys of the Reedham Soldiers'
Orphan Asylum, Purley, which is directlv un-
der His Majesty's patronage

In the early period of this count iv oiphan
and dependent children were cared foi in public
,'ilmshouses, where they weie usually housed
with the adult paupers. (See POOR LAW AND
EDUCATION ) Their removal from these in-
stitutions beginning about the middle of the
last century has been a long and tedious
process and is not yet entirely accomplished
(Folks, The Care of Destitute, Neglected, and De-
linquent Children )

Parallel with this movement, but more lapid
in progress, has been the founding of orphan
asylums

Prior to 1801 only six oiphan asylums had
been founded in the United States By 1831
fifteen more had been established Aftei
1831, their number mci eased lapidlv Dining
the twenty yeais following 1S31 hitv-six or-
phanages and homes for destitute children were
founded '* It is not possible to trace the
establishment of children's institutions after
1850 in detail It may be stated that e\ cry-
where they increased in numbers and in diver-
sity of character and objects Not including
some Central and Western states from which
returns have not been received, forty-seven
new constitutions were organi/ed in the fifties,
seventy-nine in the sixties (notwithstanding
the civil war) and twenty-one in the first half
of the seventies " (Folks, Ic )

Present Conditions — The latest report
of the U S Bureau of the Census of IriNtitu-
tions gives forty-four bundled as the total
number of benevolent institutions in the United
States Of this number eleven hundred are
orphanages and children's homes These* are
broadly classified as public, private, and eccles-
iastical In round number ^ there arc five
hundred private, an equal number of eccles-
iastical, and one hundred public The total
number of children in these institutions is
about one hundred thousand and the average1
expense of maintenance ten millions of dollars
New York ranks first among all of the states in
both the number and proportion to population
of children's homes having one hundred and
fifty of these institutions Of this number only
five are public homes, while the remainder are
divided about equally between private and ec-
clesiastical foundations Twenty-six states have
no public institutions for children Whether
a state has many or few orphanages does not
depend upon the population or the number of

569

dependent children, but rather on the policy
pursued in caring for them. If an institutional
policy has prevailed, there will be many in-
stitutions, if a placmg-out method of care, —
that is, the placing of the dependent child in
private homes at board, at service, or by adop-
tion,— there will be few institutions Thus,
Iowa with a population of two and a quarter
millions reports but twelve institutions, while
New Jersey with a population oi half a million
less reports forty-six homes

The number of orphanages and childien's
homes has increased rapidly for the past
twenty-five years From 1890 to 1903 the
total number of new homes opened was about
four hundred Many of them, especially those
established upon ecclesiastical foundations,
have had their origin in religious or sentimental
impulse rather than from a clear recognition
of the need of such a chanty The result of
this blind philanthropic endeavor has in some
instances been an ovei -planting of institutions
on the one hand and indiscriminate charitable
relief on the other, as shown in the admission
oi many children whose separation from their
homes was meielv an economic convenience
rather than a necessity

Systems of Organization — There arc two
types of orphan homes — the congregate or
barracks type and what IN known as the cot-
tage system In the congregate homes the
children live in one large building, which con-
tains kitchen, dining room, dormitones, play-
room and schoolrooms In the cottage system
the children of the institution are divided into
small groups of from fifteen to twenty-five,
each group having its own cottage home
There are several modifications of this form of
housing from the completely separate and in-
dnidual cottage home and school to that in
which the school, kitchen and dining loom are
in central buildings, the separate cottages
providing dormitories and perhaps sitting
rooms for the \anous groups Since the ad-
vantage of the cottage plan over the congregate
lies in its nearer approach to the private family
home, it follows that central features for a
group of cottages like the kitchen or dining
room, where all of the children assemble three
times a day, are opposed to the chief aim
sought in adopting the family-group idea In
a well -managed cottage system the kitchen and
dining room in each cottage become practical
training schools in which the children learn
to manage a range, to cook, prepare and serve
meals, with all of the innumerable accessory
duties and responsibilities pertaining theieto
The cottage sitting room and library contrib-
ute in a similar way to the home life and
spirit A sense of mutual dependence and
family interest pervades the cottage group
This under wise direction by the head of the
cottage develops into an esprit de corps, which
is the strongest factor in the cottage system

In a central kitchen all of this is wanting

ORPHANS

ORPHANS

Since everything niUHt be done on such a large
scale, the food supplies, utensils, cookers,
range fixtures, etc , are so heavy that but little
opportunity is afforded for the training of chil-
dren in such a kitchen. As to the food, quan-
tity rather than quality is the factor most in
evidence. Refinements of the culinary art aie
wanting. There is an absence of variety
There can be no catering to individual or group
tastes. Such a kitchen cannot serve as a
school In the immense dining rooms of such
institutions the children do not partake of
their meals with refined table manners and social
intercourse — they aie simplv fed

Education — The education of orphans- and
dependent children in institution homes up to
within very recent years has been so meager
that but little can be said in its favoi Many
of those established by the various religious
denominations have been administered along
narrow sectarian lines Children are retained
until twelve or fourteen years of age and then
either returned to relatives or placed out in
family homes, where they become in most
instances the unpaid servant of the household

Most of the orphanages have maintained
their own schools and in these the teachers
and instruction are inferior to the standards
of the public elemental y schools. The
teachers are usually required to perform other
services in the institution in addition to the
work of teaching The couise of study leads
nowhere and there is no higher school bevond
the institution school to awaken an am-
bition for promotion Rarely have the
children in such homes passed beyond the
elementary grades while remaining in the in-
stitution After their release to relatives or
private homes, subsequent school attendance
becomes desultory or is entirely abandoned
This has been the experience of scores of thou-
sands of orphans and dependent children As
conceived by most of the managers of homes
for dependent children, charity was to go no
further than was necessary to enable the child
to earn his keep when placed in a family home
The uncertain and transitory period of his
stay in the institution made school attendance
largely a matter of marking time rather than
an experience of purposeful effort The more
recent and enlightened view, however, re-
gards makeshift school attendance and such
early exploitation of child life as not only an
individual but a social waste. Much more
extended educational advantages are, there-
fore, now being provided by the more progres-
sive institutions in this country A few of the
better class are sending their wards to the
public schools, and children of educational
promise are given an opportunity to pursue
secondary and in some cases even higher educa-
tional courses. There has also been great
progress in education along industrial lines
Some of the institutions now provide special
teachers in manual training, rooking, dress-

making, etc The institution's own needs in
these fields of instruction give a much more
practical turn to the work than is possible in
public school instruction Thus, in the sewing
and dressmaking classes the girls repair and
make garments for themselves and other
children In the manual training classes the
boys repair and make new furniture, toys,
play apparatus, and implements for their own
use in work about the place In the garden
and poultry classes they raise vegetables and
poultry for then own tables, and the cooking
classes frequently prepare the regular meals of
the cottages

Since the institution furnishes not only the
school, but also the child's home life and en-
vironment, it is possible through correlation to
bring these two into very close touch in the
classroom. The everyday interests and ac-
tivities of the child may not only interpret the
subject matter of the classroom, but may also
fin rush much of the educative material itself.
The course of study may be adapted at every
turn to the experience and interests of the
child Every important event or develop-
ment in the life of the home, plowing, planting,
cutting down trees and sawing them into
lumber and cord wood, starting and running
incubators and brooders, buying and selling,
building and paving, incidents and accidents,
— all are fraught wrth educative stuff.

There is another important aspect in which
the institution school can adjust itself to the
needs of the child and where the public school
fails to meet a condition As children move
upward through the grades the subject matter
of instruction glows more and more abstract,
while the child in the earlier years of the ado-
lescent period, the years of physical stress
and rush, unless naturally studious or academic
in his tastes, yearns for concrete experience,
for action, for industrial woik, economic gain,
arid freedom from physical restraint In the
institution he may give half of each day to
industrial work arid the other half to school
work, thus preserving a balance that may tide
the child over a restless period of a year or two
and still preserve and keep alive and going those
academic interests which ordinarily are lost
forever to the pupil that drops out of the public
school during this period

But most of the institutions of the country
have not risen to their educational oppor-
tunities The above conception of education
is realized in but few of the more progressive
ones. Many of them, however, are in a state
of transition They are moving from urban
to rural locations and changing from congre-
gate to cottage systems of housing Along
with these changes improvement in educa-
tional standards and methods is keeping pace.
Hitherto this progress in education has been
greatly retarded by the fact that they have
been regarded as homes rather than schools.
Since the meaning of childhood is gradually

570

ORR

OSWEGO MOVEMENT

being interpreted more and more in terms of
education, institution life is passing into a
renaissance of higher training, intellectual,
industrial, and social R R R

See CHILDHOOD, LEGISLATION FOR THE CON-
SERVATION AND PROTECTION OF, POOR LAW
AND EDUCATION, CHARITY SCHOOLS, RAGGED
SCHOOLS, RAUHES HAUS, etc

References —

BAART, P A. Orptians and Orphan Asylums (Buf-
falo, 1885 )

BACHE, A D Report on Education in Europe (Phil-
adelphia, 1839)

BARNARDO (Mrs ) and MARCHANT, J Memoirs of the
late Dr. Barnardo (London, 1907 )

BATT, J H Dr Harnado a Record and an In-

terpretation (London, 1904 )

BODE, D Karnardos Liebeswerkc (Leipzig, 1889 )

BONOAND, L E History of St Vincent d( Paul
(London, 1899 )

THENCE, W Children under the Poor Law (London,
1897)

Conference on the Tare of Dependent Children, 1909
Proceedings (Washington, 1909 )

FOLKS, HOMER Can' of I)evtitn1( , \eolectcd, and
Delinquent Children (New Yoik, J902 )

(iiiAETZ Bettrtlgc zui Gesthi<h(t dt r Eizuhuny der
Waibcn, etc (Dusseldorf, 1888)

HILL, F D Children of tft< State (London, 1889)

LKK, J Coribtruttive and Prtrditiw Philanthropy
(New York, 190^ )

PAGEL, F Der freiwdlige Krziehutig^bciral fiir sthul-
entlab^ene Waixert, tin Vtrsueh zur LoRuny der
Frage • Was ttt das dtut^cfn Yolk \ein<n Vtt-
waixten Kindcrn vrhtildig9 (Berlin, 1896 )

REEDEH, R R How Two Hundied Childnn live and
Iccnn (New York, 1910)

REIN, W Encyklopfiditchet* Hnndbuth der Pada-
gogik, 8 v Wai sen hauler

SPENCE, C H State Children in Australia, a History
of Boaiding out and its Devvlopwtnttt (Adelaide,
1907 )

ORR, GUSTAVUS ADOLPHUS (1819-
1887) — State Superintendent of Schools, was
educated in private schools, at the University
of (ieorgia, and at Kniory College, graduating
at the latter in 1844 He taught in Georgia
and Tennessee from 1845 to 1849, was in-
structor and professoi in Krnoiv College from
1849 to 1867, was president of the Southern
Female Masonic College from 1807 to 1871,
one year professor in Oglethorpe Umveisity,
and from 1872 to his death in J887, he was
State Commissionei of the Schools of Geoigia
He is called the father of the common school
system of Georgia W S M

ORTHOGRAPHY. — See SPELLING

ORTHOPEDIC INVESTIGATIONS
AMONG SCHOOL CHILDREN — S^e

CRIPPLED CHILDREN, EDUCATION OF; SPINAL
CURVATURE, etc

ORTON, JAMES (1830-1877) —Scientist
and college professor; was graduated from
Williams College in 1855, and from the An-
dover Theological Seminary in 1858, after
which he traveled and studied in PJurope
He was for several years pastor of a Congre-

gational church From 1866 to 1869 he was
professor of biological science in the University
of Rochester, and from 1869 to the time of his
death at Vassar College He conducted sev-
eral scientific expeditions to the high Andes,
and met his death on such an expedition at Lake
Titicaca Besides numerous scientific works,
his publications include The Liberal Educa-
tion of Women (1873) and Comparative Zoology
(1875) W S M

OSORIO (DA FONSECA), JERONIMO

(1506-1580) —Bishop of Silves in Portugal,
studied in the universities of Salamanca, Pans,
arid Bologna, and became Professor of Divinity
at Coimbia (q v ) Osono is called the Cicero
of Portugal One of Osono's treatises, the
De Gloria, was thought by some of his con-
temporaries to have been a lost work of Cicero,
found and published by Osono. Osorio's
chief educational work was the De Regis In-
vtitutwnc ft Disciplma, Libn VIII (Colonise
Agnppmae, 1572) It is a book of great
length, praising the seven liberal arts, grammar,
dialectic, and ihetonc, with arithmetic, mu^ic,
geometry, and astronomy, all of which a true
king will well know But more urgently still
are the moral virtues of a king extolled —
prudence, wisdom, temperance, justice, mag-
nanimity, and so on Osono is piaised because
he writes in a series of leasonings rather than
grounds himself mainly on quotations, a
method common in his time Roger Ascham
(q v ) speaks in his praise (see Scholemaster,
pp 129-131. Mayor's ed , 1863).

F. W.

Reference —

CHALMERS, A General Biographical Dictionary, Vol.
XXIII, pp 407-408

OSWEGO MOVEMENT — - A systematic
attempt, radiating fiom the State Normal
School at Oswego, N Y , to introduce the best
features of Pestalozziamsm into the schools
of this country. The spirit of the move-
ment was inseparably bound up in the life
of its founder, Dr Edward Austin Sheldon
(q v ) Like Pestalozzi, Dr Sheldon was first
led to take an interest in education by observ-
ing the condition of the poor childien of Os-
wego As early as 1848 he had organized a
school for them and was trying in various ways
to ameliorate their condition After this
philanthropic experiment, Dr Sheldon spent
nine years in public school supervision, first
at Syracuse and later at Oswego The result
of his experience was a deepening conviction
that not only had we failed to give universal
education, but that the methods of teaching
then in vogue were unscientific and the course
of study was too narrow and formal. He
then resolved to devote himself to the reform
of education, which proved to be his hfework.

Dr Sheldon saw clearly that the first step
toward bettering the schools was to secure

571

OSWEGO MOVEMENT

OTTERBEIN UNIVERSITY

better-trained teacher *> To this end for a
time he earned on Saturday classes for teachers
at Oswego and gave instruction in the prin-
ciples of teaching In order to supplement
with practical work, the school board of Oswego
cooperated in establishing a city training
school, selecting a sufficient number of their
pubbc schools to be used as model or practice
schools In the same year (1861) Miss Mar-
garet E. M Jones was persuaded to come from
London to teach in the new school Miss
Jones had taught for fifteen years in the Home
and Colonial Training School. (See HOME
AND COLONIAL SCHOOL SOCIETY ) Miss Jones
remained at Oswego only one year, but that
served to place upon a firm footing the essen-
tial ideas of the great Swiss reformer The
object-teaching phase of his work seems to
have appealed strongly to his English fol-
lowers, and as might have been expected, Miss
Jones emphasized object lessons as a separate
branch. But it should be noted that Dr.
Sheldon had been previously much impressed
with the largo collection of objects in the Edu-
cational Museum of Toronto The idea of
this collection was boriowed from English
reformers The responsibility for 1he spread
of object teaching must also be shaied with
N A Calkins, who was a pioneer in this
movement-
After Miss Jones withdrew from Oswego,
Dr. Sheldon had the good fortune to secure
the services of Herman Krusi, Jr (qv), the
son of Pcstalozzi's most famous assistant
His entrance into the Oswego group helped
to call public attention to this new center of
educational reform Of the other teachers
whose devotion helped to make the Oswogo
work a distinctive movement, Dr Sheldon's
daughter, Mary (the wife of Professor Earl
Barnes), must be named Hei well-known
methods of introducing children to the study
of history by beginning with the sense phases
of local history is a practical and valuable
application of Pestalozzi's maxims

The work done at the city training school
at Oswego was so radically different from the
general routine that it soon roused the active
criticism of those who honestly investigate
new movements hoping to find something
good, and the hostility of those who oppose
all progress The findings of the former class
were so favorable that the training school
was first assisted by grants from the state,
and in 1866 the school was taken over by the
state and made one of the regular state normal
schools of New York For many years the
school continued to send out teachers trained
to put into practice more or loss skillfully the
maxim " that the primary concepts of all
branches of knowledge come through the
senses." These teachers were in demand for
training schools and as supervisors of primary
work throughout the country The teachers
who had grasped the meaning of their Oswego

training realized that sense-perceptions must
be elaborated by other forms of mental ac-
tivity, and provided for this in their teaching.
On the other hand, in some cases the Oswego
methods sometimes degenerated into a mere
giving to children masses of unrelated facts
about miscellaneous objects, which did much
to discredit efforts to find any better ways of
teaching children than by formal book study.
In spite of these failures the Oswego move-
ment was a powerful factor in creating a
general demand for trained teachers, in en-
iiching the content of instruction in elementary
schools, in promoting more scientific methods
of teaching, and in making more easy and
effective later educational reform A. B.

See BARNES, MARY SHELDON, CALKINS,
NORMAN A , KRUSI, HERMAN, JR ; OBJECT
TEACHING, SHELDON, EDWARD AUSTIN

References —

HOLLIH, A P The Oswego Movement (Boston,
1898)

MONROE, W S History of the Pestalozzian Movement
\n the United States. (Syracuse, 1W)7 )

Quarterly Centennial Addresses Published by the Os-
wego Normal School (Oswego, 1888 )

OTTAWA UNIVERSITY, OTTAWA,

KAN — Founded in 1886 and conducted by
the Baptist denomination of that state The
institution grow out of missionary work for
the Ottawa Indians, and for a time was at-
tended by both races Later the institution
was organized for the whites only, the first
college graduation being in 1886 In 1912,
440 students have been graduated, the
collegiate student body numbering 165, the
preparatory about 100 The physical plant
consists of thirty acres of campus and four
buildings The annual budget is about
$30,000 in almost equal amounts for fees and
endowment funds The faculty consists of
ten members

OTTAWA, UNIVERSITY OF, TORONTO,
CANADA —Founded in 1849 by the Oblate
Fathers of Mary Immaculate as the College
of By town In 1866 it received the present
title and power to confer degrees In 1889 it
was raised by the Pope to the rank of a Catho-
lic University The following courses are
given by the university preparatory or gen-
eral (three years), commercial (two years);
collegiate (college entrance), arts (four years,
leading to BA or BL), law (three years,
leading to LLB), philosophical; theological
(four years) The large majority of students
are enrolled for pro-college courses

OTTERBEIN UNIVERSITY, WESTER-
VILLE, OHIO — The institution, founded in
1847, is located twelve miles from Columbus
It is nonsectarian in its teaching, but under the
control of the church of the United Brethren in
Christ It is coeducational, having been one of

572

OUACHITA COLLEGE

OVERBERG

the first colleges in America to grant equal priv-
ileges to men and women. The University
maintains a college, an academy, music and
art departments. A strong summer school is
conducted. There are seven buildings and
forty acres of campus. The total assets
(1911) were $418,591.11. The student at-
tendance was 486, of whom 214 were in the
college department. There are seven groups of
studies leading to degrees in the college The
teaching staff consists of twenty-seven pro-
fessors and instructors on full time and pay.

w c c

OUACHITA COLLEGE, ARKADELPHIA,

ARK — A coeducational institution estab-
lished in J886 under Baptist auspices Pre-
paratory, collegiate, business, music, and fine
arts departments arc maintained The en-
trance requirements are fourteen units Bach-
elor dcgices in arts, science, literature, and
music and the degree of Master of Arts aie
given The faculty consists of thirty mem-
bers The enrollment in 1911-1912 was about
370 students

OUGHTRED, WILLIAM (1575-1660) —
Clergyman and teacher of in at hematics, the
son of the scrivener of Eton College, who also
taught arithmetic The bov became a King's
Scholar of Eton, and in 1592 entered King's
College, Cambridge, where he gave much at-
tention to mathematics, and in his twenty-
third year wrote his Horologiographia Gco-
metrica Foreign mathematicians came ovei
to England to converse with him, and English
mathematicians like Seth Ward and Charles
Scarborough, John Walhs and Christopher
Wren, the architect, came to him as pupils,
and he was in touch with the chief mathe-
maticians of his period. Any that wrote an
11 ill hand," he taught writing, and himself
" drew his schemes most neatly, as if they had
been cut in copper " He was an astrologei,
arid " very lucky " in this study Nicholas
Mercator, the geographer, was one of his
friends Further, Otightred was a " great
lover of chemistry," and of heraldry Ought-
red had recerved a classical training and turned
it to account in reading all the ancient authors
in mathematics, — Euclid, Apollonius, Archi-
medes, Diophantus, etc , — whom he read both
inquiringly and critically At Cambridge ho
invented an easy method of geometrical dial-
ing, translated from English into Latin in
1647 by Mr. (afterwards Sir) Christopher-
Wren. He projected a horizontal instrument
for delineating dials upon any kind of plane,
and for working most questions which could
be performed by the globe. Oughtred's en-
thusiasm for the study of mathematics was
equaled by his love of teaching, which is
shown by the fact recorded by Aubrey. " He
taught all free " His most famous book was
the Arithmetics in numeric el xpeciebus In-

stitutio: qucB turn logisticw, turn analyticce,
atque adeo totius Mathematics, quasi Clovis
Mathematics es£, London, 1631 Other edi-
tions were numerous Oughtred also wrote
on the Delineation of Sundials by Geometry,
1647, the Genet al Horological Ring and Double
Horizontal Ring and Double Horizontal Dial,
1653; on Spherical Triangles, 1657, and Tngo-
nomctna, 1657. F. W.

References : —
AUBREY, JOHN Brief Lives, ed. A. Clark (Oxford,

-1898 )
CHALMERS, A General Biographical Dictionary, Vol.

XXIII, pp 4J7-433
Dictionary of National Biography.

OUTBUILDINGS. — See ARCHITECTURE,

SCHOOL, LATRINES.

OUTDOOR SCHOOLS. — See OPEN-AIB

SCHOOLS

OUTLINE DRAWING. — See DRAWING.
OUTLINES. — See TOPICAL METHOD.

OUTLINES, TOPICAL. — The topical

method of study finds its most intense appli-
cation in the use of topical outlines by means
of which a ngid control is kept over the study
of pupils, as the subtopics that develop the
main topics arc strictly laid down Inasmuch
as the outlines usually represent a mature
reflective view of the subject rather than the
genetic view chaiactcristic of the beginner's
advance from ignorance to knowledge, the use
of the outline tends to curtail independent
thought upon the part of the child, and to
encourage the memorization of facts about the
vanous topics Usually the child's interests
arc little considered in teaching from an put-
lino and the instruction is therefore less vital.
The use of the topical outline has the advan-
tage of being definite, and eliminative of waste
effort When the topics are in the form of
questions or problems arranged in real psy-
chological sequence rather than in the form of
abstiact headings, teaching from a topical
outline is less artificial Such a study from
outlines is less frequent now than several
decades ago It is used more particularly with
grammar grade and high school students than
with primal y and intermediate pupils Its
successful use depends upon the maturity of
the students It is hardly used in arithmetic
and the language subjects, and considerably
employed in geogiaphy, science, literature,
and history. It is most largely utilized in
the teaching of history. H. S.

See HISTORY, TEACHING OF.

OVER-AGE. — See RETARDATION AND
ELIMINATION

OVERBERG, BERNARD HEINRICH

(1754-1826). — A German ecclesiastic and edu-

573

OVERPRESSURE

OVERPRESSURE

cator, was born of poor parents in the Diocese
of Osnabruck and was educated for the priest-
hood at Munster, Westphalia Having been
ordained priest in 1780, he was appointed in
1783 to direct the Munster Normal School, a
summer school for Westphalian teachers.
This work he continued during forty-three
years As the province had at that time no
teachers' seminary, this course offcied the
only opportunity for the training of teachers,
and Overberg's work was of great value The
General School Regulation for the District of
Munster (Allgemeine Schulverordnung fur das
Munsterland), promulgated in 1801, regarded
at that time as a model school law, was prac-
tically Ovcrberg's work. His Anwet*ung zum
tich ulunterncht (Directions for School Instruc-
tion), fiist published m 1793, is still used, a
new edition appearing in 1903 At the time
of its first appearance the book wub translated
into French and commended even by Protes-
tant educators Among other books which
he wrote for the schools may bo mentioned his
Primer (News A-B-C, BwhUabir- und Lese-
buch fur die Schulcn MujibtcrlciHds, 178S) ,
Biblical History (1799), and the Catholic
Catechisms (1799 and 1804). F. M

References- —

Allgemcinc deutschc Biographic

BAKNAKD, II American Journal of Education, Vol.

XIII, pp 365- .'371
Catholic Encyclopedia, s v Overberg
KRABBK Lebin Overbtrgt> (Munstor, IS.il; 3d

od , 1804, also translated into English )
OVEIIBERG, B H Anwrisung zum zwtchrnat>t>igcn

Schuluntcrncht, od Ganscn, J , in tiarnmlung dcr

bedeutendbten padagogi t>thrn Nchnftcn, Vol I

(Padrrhorn, 1888 )
Von dcr Schulzucht, fd Rich tor, A , in Nuudruike

padayogisckt'r Schtiften, No 13 (Lcip/ig, 1893)

OVERPRESSURE (German Ubeiburdung)
— A somewhat vague and general teim for
alleged oveiwoik in the school A great va-
riety of opinions pievails in regard to the mat-
tei Teacheis and educators are apt to feel
that there is little, if any, overpressuio in the
schoolroom except upon the teachers Phy-
sicians, on the other hand, often strongly con-
demn the school for overworking the pupils
and are ready to cite many cases of over-
pressure. Some thirty years ago there was
a very strong protest against overpres-
sure in the schools in Germany and several
other European countries, especially in the
higher schools The complaint on this score
has apparently been much loss during the
last one or two decades, and among educatois
many voices have been heard in protest against
the danger of making pupils effeminate and
self-conscious in regard to matters pertaining
to their health by the great amount of atten-
tion given to school hygiene and the like

Amid this confusion of opinion certain facts
are significant and may be briefly enumerated
First, the length of the school period, the
hours for beginning and closing school, the

574

time devoted to recesses, the amount of home
study required, the holidays and vacations,
and the kind and amount of school work de-
manded, vary greatly in different countries
Again, what may be a perfectly normal amount
of woik for ordinary healthy children may be
altogether too much and a source of serious
overpressure in case of the weak and defective
Investigations in many schools in many coun-
tries have now shown that, without taking
account of diseases of the teeth, from 30
to 50 per cent of the children in any school
are more or less handicapped by some defect
or disease Among this group of children a
large number are liable to overstrain from an
amount of work that is quite reasonable for
the remainder of the class It frequently
happens also that the defects of these chil-
dren aie not known by their teachers and injus-
tice is done to them on this account (See
MEDICAL INSPECTION IN SCHOOLS )

Further injustice is done by the improper
grading that exists in many schools With
the ordinary classification according to chrono-
logical age and scholastic attainments, many
of the children in the same class may be at
a lower stage of physiological and psycholog-
ical development, and hence lacking in the
ability to do the amount of work that may
rightly be given to other children in the same
class who are of the same chronological age
but of greater physiological and psychological
maturity (See GRADING AND PROMOTION;
GROWTH )

Another significant fact is the varying
amount of extra-scholastic occupations en-
gaged in by the pupils, — among the boys
the selling of papers, doing ei rands, helping
in the home work and the like, among the
girls the care of other children, domestic
duties, and special lessons in piano playing,
dancing, etc., and in case of both gnls and
boys the entertainments, parties, meetings,
and the like, that are attended It is often
just because children come to school handi-
capped by the fatigue from outside duties or
outside dissipation that it becomes necessary
for special hygienic care in connection with
the school work.

Statistics in regard to school diseases,
fatigue, eye defects, etc , have often been
cited to show the overpressure in the school.
Few, if any, of these have given satisfactory
evidence of overpressure in the school as a
cause, but they do show that with so many
cases of defect and disease there is likely to
be overpressure, as a result, and that there is
need of special care for the proper hygiene of
instruction. In many cases also conscien-
tious pupils, by the suggestion of ambitious
teachers or parents, or the factitious stimulus
of examinations (q v ) and marks, not infre-
quently work for a cruelly long period The
older investigators found pupils in the Swedish,
Danish, and German schools working ten or

OVERPRESSURE

OVID

twelve hours a day, and inevitably spending
too little time in sleep and recreation While
statistics are inadequate and often misleading,
observation shows that at the piesent time
many individuals work foi an unreasonably
long period in the schools in this country
Especially is this likely to occur at the tune
of examination and in what are supposed to
be the especially impoitant peiiods of school
life, the ninth grade and the4 last yeai in the
High School As Di. Dukes, the school phy-
sician at Rugby, has pointed out, we have laws
against working a child's body for long hours,
but there is no law to forbid woiking a child's
brain to the limit of endurance

Among teachers their is undoubtedly a
great amount of overpiessuie The nenous
strain from instruction and discipline, the tune
•spent in keeping school records, in collecting
exercises and examination papeis, and in
preparing for special lessons, and often in the
visiting of pupils in their homes, and in manv
cases the worrv over meeting the demands oi
the authorities higher up and of holding one's
position, not only cause many bieakdowns
among the teachers themselves, but the weaii-
ness of the teacher is pretty apt to leact upon
the pupils and becomes an impoitant factor
in mental overpressure in the school The
most immediate remedv would seem to be less
red tape, a better system of guiding, and the
allotment of a smaller number of pupils to
each teacher

Consideration of the fads cited sho\\s clearly
that theie is often danger of senous stiain
in the case of mdmdual pupils, and the
points to be emphasized for the avoidance oi
overpressure aie the following* (1) Physical
and mental examination of all pupils at the
entiance upon school life, and penodic tests
thereafter (2) The need of a bettei s\stem
of grading, based upon physiological and psy-
chological age, rather than upon ehionological
age and school attainments, and upon the
conditions of physiological and psychological
health and ability to woik (3) A bettei
training of teachers in school hygiene so that
proper care may be given to children who
surfer fiom physical arid mental defects

(4) A better distribution of the period of study,
with more time for recess, better arrangement
of the work, and the like, with due regard to
the teaching of modern hygiene as to fatigue,
the need of alternating periods of work and
rest, and economical methods of learning.

(5) Care in allotting of home tasks, the ex-
planation of lessons when assigned, the aboli-
tion of school tasks as punishment, shorter
examination periods and less stress upon the
results of examinations, and a general regard
for the obvious teachings of mental hygiene and
the hygiene of instruction (6) A smaller number
of pupils to each teacher W II B

See COEDUCATION, Ex \MIN moNs, HY-
GIENE OF; FATIGUE, (JKADIM,, HYGIENE OF,

GROWTH, HOME STUDY, HYGIENE OF; MEDI<
CAL INSPECTION, MORBIDITY IN SCHOOL
CHILDREN, PHYSIOLOGICAL AGE; SCHOOL
MANAGEMENT, SUICIDE AMONG SCHOOL CHIL-
DREN

References —

ALL&N, W H CWICH and Health (Boston, 1909)
AYRKH, L P. Laggard* in Oar Schools (New York,

1909)
HmtGEKHTbiN, L An I K*y» schulkygienusche Un-

U'ltsuchunu* f> (H.unburK, 1889)
JUiRNHAM, \V H The Hygiene of Home Study.

Pcdauogual Seminary, 1905, Vol XII, pp. 213-

2HO
HKUTEL, A Ovei-Piossure in the High Schools of

Denmark (DeMin.'irk, 1SN.5 )

KuvkPKLiN, K %nr l'lnilntr<lun(j*fraffe (Jena, 1898 )
LOOK, .1 Eiityklof)udii(h<*. Uandhmh der Erziehungs-

hut\d( , fc^ / ltt)h\irdnn(i
LTTKKNK, H T The S< honl-Ritigue Question in Ger-

m.in\ Kthtc fln'.Vol XV, IK98, pp. 246-254
HKIM, W En< yUopbdixcht ,s Handhiuh dir Pddayofjik,

t> A T bcrburd ung , give.su ver\ full Bibliography.
SimbR, (i H Medical Inspection of Schools in the

I' nited States Pedagogical 81 minary, 1911, Vol.

XVIII, pp 273-314

OVERSTUDY —Sec OVERPRESSURE.

OVERWORK — See FATIGUE; OVERPRES-
SURE JN THE SCHOOLS

OVID — P Ovidius Xaso, the "laureate
of the gay society v of the later Augustan
penod, has been, next to Vergil, the most
widely lead and most widely imitated of the
Roman poets Associating intimately, per-
haps too intimately, with the decadent men
and especiallv \vomen \\lio composed the
cnele of A ugustus's profligate daughter Julia,
he deAoted himself almost exclusively to
eioticpoetiy (Anioic*, Ht'ioidc*, A)* Amatorta,
Rctncdnnn Amoii^), written in the elegiac
measuie, in the masteiy of which he has never
been sin passed Aitei recovering from the
clismav inspired by Julia's disgrace and ban-
ishment in B c 'J, Ovid tuined his attention
to stoiy-tellmg, foi which his gay and unstable
genius was particularly well fitted As Ins
subject he chose the legends of the Greek
pantheon and wiote fifteen books of Transfor-
mations (M eta HI 01 phases), embodying the
mythology of the ancient world from chaos
to the deification of Csrsar He also composed
a poem on the Roman calendar (Fasti).
diversified by stones of early Roman legend
but befoic he finished it he was suddenly,
without warning or explanation, exiled by
Augustus in A D 8 to Toim, a savage place
on the Black Sea, wheie after unavailing lamen-
tations (Tustia) and letters (Ex Ponto), he
died in A D. 17 or 18.

The Metamorphoses has been the great
ancient storybook for ages. While many of
the stories are unsuitable for children, yet a
large number are beyond criticism, and the
charm of the style, the comparative ease of
the nairative, and the smoothness of the meter
lendei a selection from these tales an admirable

OVIEDO

OWEN, ROBERT

book with which to begin the study of Latin
poetry, and thus lead up to Vergil Conse-
quently, where the curriculum admits of it,
some selection from the Metamorphoses is
frequently read after the first extended read-
ing of Latin prose (usually Csesai) When
there is more time a few selections from the
other poems may be added with profit.

The chief difficulty is the metrical form, the
heroic hexameter, which causes such a shift
in the ordinary prose order as to greatly con-
fuse the young student To obviate this,
it would bo well to rearrange the narrative
in the order of prose and this is actually
done in some textbooks For the nairative,
the pupil should also havo access to Bulfinch's
Age of Fabk, or Gayley's rtoss/r If //Ms The
mysteries of scansion should occupy the pupil
but little at this stage, nor should much atten-
tion be paid to the influence of Ovid upon
Knghsh poets Tho best collection of material
for the study of this influence is found m
Miller's Ovid (American Hook Co , 1910)

There has been no complete edition of
Ovid with notes since the Vanoium edition
of 1827 (Oxford) The last complete text
edition is by Post-gate (London, 1894) ()l
separate poems there have been numerous
modern editions, but those, of the Metamoi-
phoses and Fa^tt have been confined almost
entirely to school books G L

OVIEDO, UNIVERSITY OF, SPAIN —

See SPAIN, EDUCATION IN

OWEN, ROBERT (1771-1858) —Born in
Newtown, Montgomeryshire, Wales; the son
of Robert Owen, saddler, ironmongei, and
postmaster of Newtown He was the sixth
of seven children and was precocious in the
development of his literal y and lehgious in-
terests He had an early passion foi reading,
and books were left to him by the clergyman
and other residents in the town He was sent
to school at a veiy early age and began to help
his schoolmaster in teaching at the age of
seven. He was apprenticed in his eleventh
year to a draper at Stamford " From ten
years of age I maintained myself without ever
applying to my parents for any additional aid "
In 1787 (during the early days of the industrial
revolution) he became assistant in the shop of
Satterfield, a diaper in St Ann's Squaie,
Manchester In 1789 he set up as a maker
of spinning mules, and quickly showed great
business ability.

The second period of Owen's life, 1790-
1821, was that of active occupation as a large
employer In 1790 he became a cotton spinner
on a small scale in Manchester, subsequently
acting as manager of a large cotton mill, and,
in 1794, as managing director of the Chorlton
Twist Company in Manchester In 1799 ho
bought for himself and partners the cotton
mills at New Lanark, near Glasgow, belonging

to David Dale (q.v ), whose daughter, Anne
Caroline, ho married in the same year. In
Manch ster Owen had become the friend of
J nn Dalton and Dr, Percival, and was a
member of the Manchester Literary and
Philosophical Society, established in 1781
From this group he gained an impulse towards
the reform of the factory system and the
better education and housing of apprentices
and working people He organized the rough
and ignorant factory community at the New
Lanaik mills (about 2000 people, including
o()() children sent from parish workhouses as
apprentices) under paternal government, cn-
foicing cleanliness, temperance, and religious
toleration The minimum ago for employ-
ment in the mills was fixed at ton Free
education was provided for all children from
hve to ten yeais of age Tho teaching and
discipline in the school followed the methods
of Joseph Lancaster (q v ) In 1813, Jeremy
Bentham and William Allen, one of the found-
ers of the British and Foreign School Society
(q v ), became partners in the mill During
the yeais 1813-1816 Owen wrote .4 New View
of Society or J^s-.sa/ys on the Formation of
Human Chcuacter,\i\ which he thus fonnulated
Ins fundamental puneiple "Any general
ehaiacter, from the best to the worst, from the
most ignorant to the most enlightened, may
be given to any community, oven to the
woild at large, by the application of proper
means, which means aie to a great extent at
the command and under the contiol of those
who havo influence in the affairs of men "
The " plastic quality " of child nature would
enable society to be " ultimately moulded
into the very image of rational wishes and
desires " " All poverty and einno are the
efforts of en 01 in the various systems of train-
ing and government " " Tho end of govern-
ment is to produce the greatest happiness to
the greatest mimbei " National reform was
to bo based, in Owen's view, on (1) restriction
of the drink traffic, (2) maintenance of the
national Church, but as an institution without
formularies and without any declaration of
Toligious belief, (3) reform of the Poor Law,
(4) universal elementary education from in-
fancy " Tho infants of any one class in the
world may bo readily formed into men of
any other class " " Every State to be well
governed ought to direct its chief attention to
the formation of character; and the best
governed State will bo that which shall possess
the best national system of education " The
national system of education was to be uniform
throughout the United Kingdom, upon non-
denominational lines, under the control of
the central government, which should provide
and support training colleges for teachers and
appoint teachers to the schools; (5) " the
obtaining regular and accurate information
relative to the value of and demand foi
labour over the Unitod Kingdom." Official

OWEN, ROBERT

OWEN, ROBERT DALE

quarterly labor statistics, showing wages und
unemployment in each district, were to be
published with a view to greater mobility of
labor; (6) provision by the Government of
works of national utility (roads, canals, har-
bors, etc ) for employment (at wages less
than the average rate of private labor in the
district), of those not able to find work in
competitive industry,

Owen and his work at New Lanark quickly
became famous In 181 4-1815 he pressed
for a new Factory Act In LSI 7 Owen pub-
lished a plan for the establishment of indus-
trial communities, self-contained, education-
ally organized, and self-supporting, upon a
cooperative basis, — a new type of social
organization, which, in his belief, would grad-
ually become universal The plan involved
a degree of governmental control which was
resented by Radical individualists as likely
to strengthen the authority of the existing
Government In 1818 Owen visited Switzer-
land and saw Oberlin, Pestalozzi, and Fellen-
berg (fjqv) In 1819 he estianged public
sympathy by a public declaration against
Christianity In 1824 he heaid of an estate
on the Wabash river in the state ol Indiana
which belonged to a German colony which
had emigrated from Wurttembeig undei the
guidance of a Lutheran teacher, Rapp This
society had given the name Haimony to the
estate, from which they now wished to mo\e
on In 1825 Owen bought the village, with
20,000 acres, fot £30,000 Before his loturn
to England in 1825 he had established a com-
munity ol 900 people at New Haimony, to
which he returned in 1826-1827 and 1827-
1828 Difficulties arose in the society and
the colonists gradually gave up the principles
of communism upon which their brotheihood
had been originally based In 1828 Owen
finally broke off his connection with New Har-
mony, having spent ovei £40,000 upon the
experiment

In 1829, after long friction with his partners,
he withdrew from New Lanark In the years
1829-1858 he was continuously engaged in
propaganda on behalf of cooperation and
socialism, devoting his private fortune to the
diffusion of his ideas In 1832 he opened an
equitable labor exchange in the Gray's Inn
Road, but the new institution survived but
foi a short time His activity stimulated
the growth of the cooperative movement
throughout England, and he never failed to
emphasize the importance of education as
one factor in economic pi ogress In 1854-
1856 Owen was converted to spiritualism by
an American medium. He died at Newtown,
the place of his birth, November 17, 1858 Of
his three sons, Robert, Daniel, and David
Dale, the two last became Professors in Ameri-
can Colleges

Owen was single-minded, devoted to his
fellow men, untiring, undiscrirninarting; the

VOL. iv — 2p 577

spin tual fat, her of a gieat movement, a
prosy saint, successfully unsuccessful, a seei
who piophesied, with fatal one-bidedness, one
side of the truth of social and educational
reform lie was blandly impermeable to the
prick of facts, philosophically unphilosophical;
scientifically unscientific He emphasized (1)
the importance of social environment in the
development of charactei, (2) the need foi an
economic structuie of society in confoinuty
with a new ethical ideal, (3) the necessity for
using capital in the oigamzation of community
life, and (4) the value of well-directed educa-
tion from infancy But he underestimated
the powei of hetedity, he ovei looked the bad
side of human natuie, he underrated the com-
plexity of the economic structure of industrial
society, he exaggerated the1 power of direct
instiuction upon chaiactei , he was oversan-
guine as to the practical efficiency of govern-
mental action, and he did not clearly decide
whether the ultimate basis of social control is
to rest on the majority vote of adult male
citizens or upon some enlightened despotism,
whether indmdual or bureaucratic His per-
severing but tedious speeches disseminated
socialistic ideas, but failed to convince national
opinion, which preferred a combination of
individual effort and slate regulation

M E S
See NEW HARMONY MOVEMENT

References -

Dutiotiar]/ of National Biographi/

DOLL£\NH, K Jndimduahvmi it tfoeiahvnn , Robert

Owen (Pirns, 1<)07 )
LorKWuoi), (1 B Tin \(ir Haimony Movc?ntnt

(Ne\v York, 1(M)7 )
OWEN, KoHLit'i 1 Nnr \nw of Society (IMG)

(B\ f;u tin- pithicst and most effective of his

numerous works )
Addrcbsib t<> Tiaihn\ of (In Human Ract in all

Countries (lsf>l )
Life of Robcit Owen, written by Himself (1S57 )

(A vivi

\infinisl

The Ritol

1 'inrl self-ieN« almK autobiography, hut
ed )

if ion in tin Mind and J*iactice of the Human
Chanfn from Irrationality

Ran, )) tin

to Rat n notify (1S4M )
PODMORK, FRANK Rain it Ow(ti n Biography Two

volumes (London, 1<)()6 ) (The best life )
SARGENT, VV L Robert Oiwn «rw/ /m Social Philos-
ophy (London, I860 )

OWEN, ROBERT DALE (1800-1877)

— Educational writer and social refonnei , was
the son of Robert Owen (</ v ) He was edu-
cated in Fellenberg's (q v ) institution at
Hofwyl, and was one of the active promoters
of the New Harmony community After the
abandonment of the social experiment, he
engaged in journalism and political life He
was a member of the Indiana legislature and
the Congress of the United States He was
active in the organization of the Smithsonian
Institution (q v), and later served as ambassa-
dor of the American government to the king-
dom of Naples His educational writings in-
clude Outlines of the System of Education at New

OWENS COLLEGE

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

Lanark, Scotland (1824), Moral Philosophy
(1831), and his autobiography, Threading
my Way (1874). W S M.

OWENS COLLEGE. — See MANCHESTER
UNIVERSITY.

OXFORD CAPS —See ACADEMIC COS-
TUME

OXFORD COLLEGE FOR WOMEN, OX-
FORD, OHIO —The oldest Protestant college
for women conferring the B A degree in the
United States It was founded in 1830 by
President Bishop and Professors Scott and
McGufYey of Miami University, a neighboring
institution There have been inoic than 4500
students, including many women eminent in
public life. The institution is one of the few
women's colleges of full collegiate giade west
of the Atlantic states Fifteen units aio
required for entrance and 120 hours of college
work for the HA degree, seventy of which
are specified The greatest stress is laid upon
history, language, philosophy, and music
About 200 students are em oiled each veai
The faculty consists of twenty members

J S

OXFORD UNIVERSITY -~ Origins — The

story which attributes the foundation of a
university at Oxford to Alfred the Cheat is
purely mythical and rests chiefly upon an
impudent insertion in Camden'h edition of
Asser Menevensis No schools of any kind
or sort can be shown to have existed at Oxfoi d
till the beginning of the twelfth centuiy
Somewhere in the decade 1110-1120 Theobal-
dus Stampensis (i c of Etampes in Noimandv)
became a Master at Oxford. His extant works
are a short and violent attack upon the monks,
(Improperium contra monacho**), and five
letters, in the earlier of which he is described
as a " Doctor " or " Master " of Caen, in the
later as " Master of Oxford " The Jmpio-
penum provoked a reply in which it is stated
that Theobald was teaching " sixty or a hun-
dred scholars more or loss " at Oxford
(Migne, T,Vol. CLXIIT, c 759, extiacts
in T K. Holland, Collectanea (Vol II, p 156
Oxf. Hist. Soc ). In 1133 we hear of a moie
famous Master, the theologian Robert us
Pullus, as teaching in Oxford. (Oseneij Chron ,
cd Luard, Annal Monast , Vol IV, p 19)
The jurist Vacarius ceitamly taught Roman
Law in England in 1149, and at some time or
other taught in Oxford (Rob de Monte, Chron ,
ed Migne, T , Vol CLX, p 400, Gervasms,
Cantuar , Actus Pontificum Cant ed Stubbs,
Vol II, p 384 ) It may be that the Oxford
teaching was as early as 1149, though there is
some reason for suspecting that it was later
These are the only allusions to schools at
Oxford before the year 11(37 Soon aftei that
date — but not before — we find Oxford

578

blossoming out. into what a little later came to
be known as a Studium Generate, i e a place
of study which attracted students from distant
regions At about that date Henry II, then
engaged in deadly conflict with his rebellious
and exiled Archbishop, Thomas Becket, or-
dered that all clerks then resident abroad
should return to England, " as they love their
benefices " (Material* for the Life of Becket,
ed Robertson, 1, 53), and a contemporary tells
us that " the king wills also that all scholars
be compelled to retuin to their country or be
depnved of their benefices" (I c. VII, 146).
John of Sahsbuiy likewise informs us of a
certain old prophecy that the " Mercunales "
(t c scholars) should be depressed, which
had now in the year 1 167 been fulfilled, for the
" Mercunales have been so depressed that
France, the mildest and most civil of nations,
has expelled her foreign scholars " (/ c VI, p
230) This may refer to some action on the part
of the Fieneh, or it may be a rhetorical way of
expressing the effect of the English king's
edict Taken togethei, these passages make
it clear that somewhere about 1167-1168
there must have been a great exodus of English
scholars from Pans, which was then the usual
place of highei education for Englishmen, and
others would be prevented from going to Pans
foi the first time or from returning after the
long vacation

It was the wont of medieval scholars, when
a quarrel with the authorities or the townsmen
or other untowaid events prevented their
continuing then studies in one place, to tiaiiB-
fei themselves, with whatever in the way of
scholastic organization they possessed, to a
more hospitable city Most of the older
Universities of Europe — except the few great
Mother Universities — were founded by scho-
lastic migrations of this kind It may be
treated as ceitam that somewhere in Eng-
land — at one place or at more than one —
a Stud mm Generate would grow up in conse-
quence of this exodus from Paris As a mattei
of fact, we hear of nothing entitled to the
name of a Studium GefieraJe anywhere in
England but at Oxfoid; at Oxfoid we do heai
of such an institution within a few years after
the migration of 1167-1168, but not before
those years At about this date we begin to
hear of scholars coming to Oxford from distant
regions, the names of " writers, " parchment
makers, and illuminators begin to multiply in
deeds relating to Oxford property, and sermons
were preached expressly for "clerks from various
parts of England " (Th6mas Saga Erkibys-
kups, ed Mateiialx,ll,p 99; Rashdall, Univer-
sities of Europe in the Middle Ages, Vol. II, p. 342
sq ) In 1 184 or 1 1 85, Giraldus Cambrensis tells
us that he read his Topographia Hibermca to
" all the Doctors of the different faculties,
and such of their pupils as were of greater
fame or note", and on another day to " the
rest of the" scholars " (ed. Brewer, Vol. I, pp. 72,

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

73). In 1190 a student of the low countries
at about the age of twenty crosses the sea to
study the liberal arts at' the commune (i e.
generate) studium litleraruvi at Oxford (Emoms
Chron., ap Pcrtz, Mon Germ Hist , xxm, p.
467) ; while in the year 1209 an event occurred
which reveals the existence, accoidmg to a
contemporary estimate, of 3000 students at
Oxford

This was the period of the great quarrel
between King John and the cleigy The
realm was under an interdict, the King was
excommunicated or threatened with excom-
munication At such a time it went hard
with clerks who quarreled with their lay
neighbors The muider of a woman by a
scholar led to a violent " town and gown "
not of the kind habitual in all medieval uni-
versities, and two or three of the scholars
weie hanged by the townsmen with the consent
of the King Matthew Paris (Chron Ma) , ed
Luard, Vol II, pp 525-526, 569) tells us that
3000 scholars left Oxford, and resumed their
studies elsewhere — some at Cambridge, others
at Reading The town remained almost
destitute of scholars till 1213, when John's
submission to the Pope compelled the towns-
men of Oxford to humble themselves before
the ecclesiastical authorities The ordinance
issued bv the Papal Legate in 1214 constitutes
the first official recognition of the University
which has come down to us (Munimcnta A ca-
de mica, ed Aristey, pp 1-4 ) The actual of-
fenders were to do penance by marching in
procession, haiefoot and without coats, to
the grave of then victims, followed bv the
whole bodv of townsmen, and were then to
escort the bodies to the cemetery for the
solemn ecclesiastical burial which had appar-
ently been domed to them The town was
for ever to pay forty-two shillings a yoai to
be expended on a feast of bioad and beer,
pottage, and meat 01 fish to a hundred scholars.
In future, a clerk ai rested by the town authoii-
ties was to be surrendered on the demand of
44 the Bishop of Lincoln 01 the Archdeacon
of the place or his official 01 the Chaneolloi,
or whomsoever the Bishop of Lincoln shall
depute to this office " This is the first men-
tion of the Chancellor of Oxford He is
subsequently spoken of as " the Chancellor
whom the Bishop of Lincoln shall set over the
scholars therein " These words seem to indi-
cate that no Chancellor had yet been appointed
or at least officially recognized

Early Organization — As to the oiganiza-
tion and government of the University prior
to the year 1214, we arc loft wholly to conjec-
ture It is probable that the Masters and
scholars who transferred themselves from
Pans to Oxford in the time of Henry II would
reproduce at Oxford what organization al-
ready existed at Paris A consortium or com-
pany of Masters is known to have existed in
Paris at about this date (1170), and we may

579

therefore assume that from this time a rudi-
mentary "University " or gild of Masters ex-
isted in Oxford, but at Pans — and, therefore,
it may be presumed, at Oxford — the orgarii-
yation was of the most elementary de-
scription The gild, in all probability, had
no officers of its own, no written statutes, no
common seal The Masters held meetings
for the purpose of admitting new members,
already licensed by the Chancellor of the
Cathedral, to their society by the ceremony
of inception (q v ) by which they were held
to become full Masters At Oxford there was
no Cathedral or Collegiate Church from the
Chancellor of which the Masters could obtain
their hcentia doccndi How the licenses were
granted prior to 1214 we do not know, possibly
they were granted by the Archdeacon, or the
Masters may have ventured to grant licenses
themselves, or to elect a Master who may
have been called Rector Scholars m (a title
said to have been borne by Robert Oiossoteste
(q v ), subsequently Bishop of Lincoln, it may
be before 1214, Lincoln Reg Sutton, f 117), or
he may even have been populaily known as
Chancellor At all events, when the Chan-
cellorship came into existence, it \\as clearly
an attempt to reproduce the Paiisian Chan-
cellorship, in so far as it could bo reproduced
without a Cathedral chapter The Chancel-
lor was the Bishop's educational officer, he
granted the license and exercised an exten-
sive ecclesiastical jurisdiction over Masters
and scholars — a jurisdiction which was con-
stantly extended throughout the medieval
period by successful charters or concessions
fiom King, Pope, or bishop From the
first, the absence of a chapter placed him
in very different relations to his scholastic
subjects from those which obtained at Paris
At Paris the Chancellor was a member of a
hostile corporation; his rule was violently re-
sisted by the scholars, their gild 01 University
grow into corporate existence* very largely as
a moans of emancipation fiom his authority
At Oxford tho Chancellor was — possibly from
the very beginning — elected by the Masters
themselves out of their own body He was
the instrument and the representative of
their privileges and exemptions from ordinary
jurisdiction Under these circumstances the
University required no other head Ho soon
became, if ho was not from the first, the recog-
nized head of the University as well as the
Bishop's representative and judge He may
bo described as the Parisian Chancellor and
tho Parisian Rector rolled into one, and some-
thing more His authority grew as rapidly as
that of his Parisian prototype diminished, and
he gradually became more and more independ-
ent of the authority which he nominally
represented The necessity of the episcopal
confirmation was abolished by papal authority
in 1368 (Wilkms, Concilia, Vol III, p 75);
and in 1395 he was exempted from all episcopal

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

and archiepiscopal authority (Mun Acad ,
p 78; Wood, Annals, Vol I, p 365)

The growth of the University's internal
organization followed in the steps of the
Parisian development — always with the enor-
mous modifications required by the different
position of the Chancellor The University, as
at Paris, was divided into the Faculties of The-
ology, Law (here Civil as well as Canon Law),
Medicine and Arts But the superior Facul-
ties had little organization of their own, they
never possessed Deans The Masters of Arts
were for a time divided into Nations We first
hear of the Proctors in 1248 (Mun Acad ,
p 777) At first, there is some reason to
believe that there were four Nations and four
Proctors (sometimes called " Rectors or Proc-
tors "), as at Paris But from an early period
there were but two Nations, the Southerns
(Australes) and the Northerns (Borealev),
each with one Proctor The Welsh, Irish,
and continental students were included in the
Southern, the Scotch in the Northern, Nation
And after a great faction fight in 1274 it was
solemnly resolved that there should be only
one Nation at Oxford (Doc in Archive*, Rash-
dall, Vol II, p 369) There continued to be
a Southern and a Northern Proctor, but the
Faculty of Arts dtkbated and voted as a birigle
body, jointly presided over by the two Proc-
tors No Rector was required at Oxford, for
meetings of the whole University wore pre-
sided over by the Chancellor, but, just as at
Pans the Rector of the Artists passed by im-
perceptible stages into the position of Head
of the whole University, so the two Oxford
Proctors — originally the representatives of
the Regent Masters of Arts, became the execu-
tive, under the Chancellor, of the whole body
As at Paris, the voting in the University
Congregations \sas " by Faculties," the Non-
regent Masters of Arts here forming a separate
" house " with the four Faculties, and a
majority of the five bodies was ultimately
considered to bind the whole University
Thus in the fully developed Oxfoid Constitu-
tion there were three distinct Congregations
or Convocations (1) the Gieat Congregation
(to which the name of ( Convocation was even-
tually reserved), consisting of the Regent (/ e
actually teaching) Masters of all Faculties, and
the Non-regents, (2) the Congregation of
Regents (in all Faculties) which met, from
about 1327, in the Congregation-house, ad-
joining St Mary's Church, (3) the "lesser,"
" previous," or " black " Congregation, con-
sisting of Regent Masters of Arts alone, which
met in the now demolished Church of St
Mildred's, summoned and presided over by
the two Proctors Permanent statutes had to
be first promulgated in the Black Congrega-
tion; at one time the Artists contended that
their veto was fatal to furthei progress, but
by the fifteenth century it had been established
that promulgation in the Black Congregation

was enough, even if the Regent Masters of
Arts voted against the Statute This com-
plicated Constitution lasted throughout the
Middle Ages, and, indeed, — with some small
changes in the sixteenth century, — till it was
superseded by the code of statutes imposed
upon the University by Archbishop Laud
The Black Congregation has left behind it a
curious relic in the power still legally possessed
by the two Proctors, but hardly exercised ex-
cept on two historic occasions in the nineteenth
century, of vetoing a resolution of Convocation,
this was the Laudian substitute for their
ancient power of stopping a Statute by refusing
to summon the Black Congregation

University and Town — It would carry us
beyond our limits to attempt to trace the suc-
cessive steps by which the University acquired
first independence of, and then a virtual
supremacy over, the town and its authorities
From the first the students were, as in northern
Europe generally, treated as ipso facto clerks
and enjoyed the usual clerical immunities from
the jurisdiction of the ordinary courts In
1231 the Chancelloi was allowed to use the
town pnson over the North Gate — facetiously
known as Bocardo, that being the technical
name foi a mood in the scholastic logic which
it is peculiarly difficult to " reduce " or get out
of — - for the confinement of refractory clerks
(Letters of Henry III, ed Shirley, Vol I, p
399) A royal charter of 1244 (Ayliffe, An-
ctent and prevent State of the University of
Oxford, App , p vi) recognized his jurisdiction
in all actions of debt or " contiacts of move-
ables " in which one party was a clerk — a
jurisdiction extended to all personal actions
in 1275 (Rot Pat , 3 Kdw 1, m 0) The most
famous of all " iown-and-gown " riots —
" the slaughter " of St Scholastica's Day, in
1354, which may be described as a pitched
battle fought with swords and bows in the
streets of Oxford for two days, ended m the
defeat of the University and the killing of
many scholars (Authorities mentioned in
Rashdall, Vol. II, p 405 ) The University
actually throve on its misfortunes, and the
great charter of 1355 (Rot Chart , 29 Edw III,
m 5) condemned the Mayors, Bailiffs, and
sixty burghers of Oxford annually to appear at
St Mary's Church to cause a high mass to be
said for the souls of the victims, and each to
offer a penny on the altar to be divided be-
tween the curate and certain poor scholars
A communion and sermon being substituted
for mass at the Reformation, the observance
lasted till 1825 (Cox, Recolkctwm, p 112)
At the same time, the Chancellor's jurisdiction
was extended to all cases both civil and crimi-
nal in which one party was a scholar — except
cases of treason, felony, and " mayhem " The
junsdiction of the Chancellor's court still
remains unimpaired as regards civil causes,
and in an attenuated form in criminal cases
Besides these privileges, the University long

580

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

retained a considerable share in the policing
and general government of the town Till
1868 the " night police " — which represented
the ancient " watch " — remained under the
control of the University proctors, and the
University still sends representatives to the
City Council

Secessions. — Disputes with the City or
internal feuds in Oxford as elsewhere led to
secessions, sometimes of considerable duration,
but none of them — after the foundation of
Cambridge — leading to permanent Univer-
sities Northampton (1228, 1203), Salisbury
(1238-1278), and Stamford (1334) were the
chief scenes of these secessions (Rashdall,
Vol II, p 395 sq ) An oath binding incepting
Masters not to lecture in Stamford continued
to be taken by B A 's till almost within living
memory

Halls and Colleges — As m other medieval
Universities the usual method of living — except
for the wealthy noble who resided with a
numerous retinue in a house of his own, and
the poor " Ohambcrdekyn " who lodged with
a townsman — was for a party of scholais to
hire a house (at Oxford usually known as a
u Hall " or " Inn "), employ their own servants
and divide the cost of living among themselves
One of the party, known as the Principal, gave
sqprunty for the rest and presided ovei the
establishment, but the Principal was at first —
at least nominally -- elected by the commumtv
which formed a self-governing society, making
its own " statutes, " administering its own
funds, and in the last resort conti oiling its
own discipline But the supervision of the
University gradually extended itself to the
internal affairs of the Halls and rendered the
authority of the Principals more and moie
independent of then subjects, although they
continued to be nominally elected by the stu-
dents even aftei , in the 16th century, the real
nomination passed to the Chancellor A code
of statutes made by the University for the
government of the Halls certainly existed by
the second half of the fifteenth century, if
not earlier, and in 1432 the University in-
sisted that the Principal of a Hall should be
a graduate (Man Acad , p 307) The Col-
leges were at first simply endowed boarding
houses for poor scholars They provided only
for members of the foundation, and had
nothing to do with the education of these nil
resorted to the public schools for then lectures
— lectures given by the " Regent " Doctors
or Masters, and in part, especially in the higher
faculties, by Bachelors who were at the same
time pursuing their own studies At Oxford
the colleges were chiefly intended for Masters, or
at least Bachelors, of Arts who after finishing
their course in Arts required pecuniary assist-
ance to enable them to enter upon or continue
the long course in one of the " superior Facul-
ties," especially in the unlucrative Faculty of
Theology The earliest of these foundations -

as regards the date of its founders bequest -
which came to be known as " the Great Hall
of the University " 01 (later) University Col-
lege — was a very simple affair a provision
for two or more Masters of Arts studying
theology, founded by William of Durham, who
died in 1249 But it was not till 1280 that the
Hall really came into existence, and then the
endowment was only equal to the maintenance
of four Masters By this time two other col-
leges had come into being, nz a small founda-
tion foi Aitihts, supported from about 1261
by John de Balhol, Lord of Barnard Castle,
as a penance ioi having " unjustly vexed and
enormously damnified " the Church of Tyne-
mouth and the ( 1hurch of Durham (Matt Pans,
Chron Maj ,?(\ Luard, 1,528), — subsequently
turned into a permanently endowed institution
by his widow Dervorguilla (1282), — and the
much more elaborate community known as
Merton College, founded bv Walter de Morton,
Bishop of Rochestoi, in 1263 or 1264 The
" rule of Merton," a body of Statutes given
to the College in 1263 and amended in 1270,
was imitated by later founders, and perma-
nently fixed the type of the English College
The leading note of the College, as contrasted
with some Continental colleges, was its com-
plete autonomy The only external authority
which could meddle with its affairs was the
Visitor — in the case of Merton, the Arch-
bishop of Canterbury The scholars elected
their own Warden and other officers, filled up
then own ranks, and controlled the manage-
ment of their own property A small body
of " pool boys " — still under the instruction
of the Ouunmar-inaster or in the earlier
stages of their arts course — were also sup-
ported by the foundation, but took no part
in its government This distinction was fol-
lowed in other colleges, and eventually the
name " Fellows" (KOCH) came to be applied to
the full members of the Society (usually gradu-
ates), while the term " Scholars" was in popu-
lai parlance lowerved to the inferior founda-
tioneis, who began as undergraduates, though
the scholarship was often retained till the
degree of M A was taken In some cases
the ordinal y administration of the College
was in the hands of a body of senior Fellows,
but in nearly all, the youngest full Fellow
(aftei a year of " probation ") voted at elec-
tions and in some of the more important,
affairs of the house

In the next column is a list of the Oxford
colleges with the dates of their foundation and
names of their founders, the monastic colleges,
suppressed at the Dissolution of Monasteries,
are bracketed

Keble College, founded in 1870 by subscrip-
tion in memoiy of John Keble (q v ), one of the
leaders of the " Oxford Movement/' and con-
fined to members of the Church of England, is
not technically a College of the University,
but enjoys practically much the same position.

581

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

Balliol

1261-

John de Balhol

1266

and his wife

Dervorguilla

(Charter, 1282 )

Merton . .

1263 or

Walter de Merton,

1264

Bp of Rochester

University

1280

William of Dur-

ham

(Gloucester)

128}

John de Gifford,
Lord of Bnms-

nelcl

(Rewley) .

12HO

Edmund, Karl of

Cornwall

( Durham)

c 1289

Exeter . . .

1314-
1316

Walter de Stapel-
dou, Bp of Rxo-

tei

Oriel . .

1324

Adam do Brome,

nominally King

Edward Jl

Queen's

1341

Robert de Egles-

field, Char 'am

of Queen Ph)l-

ippa

(Canterbury)

1302

Simon Ishp, Abp

of Canterbury

St Mary Col-

lege of Win-

chester (com-

monly called
New College)

1370

William of Wyke-

1mm, Bp of

Winchester

Lincoln

H29

Richard Fleming,

Bp of Lincoln

(St Bernard's)

1412

Henry Chicholey,

\bp of Canter-

bury

(St Mary's)

U35

(St GeorgeV

in-the Castle)

1H5

All Souls

14*8

Henry Chuheley,

\hp of Canter-

bury

Magdalen .

1418

William of Wavn-

flete, Bp of

Winchester

Brasenose

1509

William Smyth,

Bp of Lincoln

and Sir Richard

Sutton

Corpus Chnsti

1516

Richard Foxe, Bp

of Winchester

Christ Church

1532

Henry VIII pre-

\ lously, as Car-

dinal College, by

CardmalWolsey

Trinity

1554-

Sir Thomas Pope

1555

St John's

155 "5

Sir Thomas White,

\ldt rrnan of

I/oiidon

Jesus

1571

Queen Elizabeth

and Dr l>rue

Wadharu

1612

Nicholas and Dor-

othy Wadham

Pembroke

1024

Nommallv lames

I, Kichurd Ton-

dale arid Rich-

ard Wight wick,

B D

Worcester

1714

Sir Thomas Cooke,

Bart

Hertford .

1874

Thomas Baring

For Artists only
Theological
Fellowship
added by Sir
Philip Somer-
ville m 1340

Benedictine

A Cistercian Ab-
bey

Chiefly for Bene-
dictine monks
of Durham

Chiefly for Can-
terbury monks

Cistercian

For August iniau

Canons
For Augustmian

Canons of Ose-

uey

On site of Dur-
ham College

On site of St
Bernard's

On si te of G louees-

ter Hall
On the site of

Magdalen Hall

Instruction — Originally, as we have aeon,
only an insignificant fraction of the University
lived within College walla. But gi a dually
a great change came over the relations of the
Colleges to the University The fundamental
defect of the earlier medieval Universities was
the absence of any adequate provision for the

teachers This defect was overcome in differ-
ent parts of Europe by different means — in
Italy chiefly by state subvention, in Spain
and to some extent in Germany by the annexa-
tion of ecclesiastical revenues, at Paris and
Oxford, so far as it was overcome at all, by the
aid of the Colleges Originally the Regent-
Masters derived their support entirely from
the scanty fees of the students The system
could hardly have lasted as long as it did but
foi the fact that many of the Masters held
Cathedral prebends or parochial benefices But
this applied chiefly to the superioi Faculties,
the Doctors and Bachelors of which were
frequently dignified and well-beneficed eccle-
siastics. In the Faculty of Arts the Masters
were usually quite young men, the new Master
was required to stay up and lecture for a
year, and could lecture as long as he pleased
afterwards. Indirectly the Colleges contrib-
uted to secure competent teachers by enabling
men to take the Master's degree who could
not otherwise have afforded to do so, and
probably enabled many to go on lecturing
for more than their " necessary regency "
while beginning their studies in the higher
Faculties But, at best, foimal public lec-
tures and disputations supplied very inade-
quate instruction for the younger students
of Arts — manv of them mere boys of twelve
or fourteen In the Colleges a certain amount
of less formal assistance was given to the
younger members of the foundation by the
older ones At New College the younger
members were assigned to regular Tutors
during the earlier portion of their course
Moreover, some College Statutes provided
that other members of the University might-
be received as paying boarders (("ornmensales
or Commoners) When these weie under-
graduates, they shared in the instruction given
to the younger foundationers. At Pans this
system prevailed on a very large scale as early
as the fourteenth century: at Oxford we hear
comparatively little of it till after the Ref-
ormation; but the system of domestic in-
struction was no doubt more or less imitated
in the Hall communities of unendowed stu-
dents. And the instruction provided within
the walls of Colleges and Halls was likely
to be both more efficient and better adapted
to the wants of young students than the formal
lectures given by a young, fluctuating, and
casually chosen body of Regents in the public
schools For these reasons the College teach-
ing became more and more important and the
teaching of the public schools more and more
perfunctory. A University Statute of 1408
allows most of the lectures required for the
degree of B A to be heard in College or Hall
with a " recitation duly following " (Mun
Acrid , p 241). This tendency was stimulated
by the change which came over our University
studies at the time of the Renaissance It was
in the Colleges that that increased attention

582

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

to the teaching of Latin Grammar and com-
position which was the earliest phase of the
Renaissance movement began to show itself,
und it was in the Colleges that Greek was first
taught. The promotion of these new studies
was one of the declared objects of the charac-
teristically Renaissance College of Corpus
Christi, where a public " Reader or Professor
of the arts of Humanity " (i c of Latin) whose
special function it was to be to u extnpate and
eject barbarity from our hive/' and unothei
of Greek (for the benefit apparently of the
whole University and not merely of the Col
lege), formed a part of the Founders scheme
The lectures in the public schools adhered to
the old routine they wore scholastic lectuies
on the Latin Aristotle, attendance at which
was more and more completely dispensed
with by the University In 1449 all the He-
gerits are allowed to lecture out of the official
University Schools in School Stieet (north
of St Mary's Church) In 1508 the Regents
supplicate " not to be compelled to deliver
then ordinal y lectures foi the gieatei part of
an houi because none listen to then lectures"
(Causa cut quod nulli audiunt ms Icgentc**,
UniveiMty Registei , Ha.shdall, Vol 11, pp
51(>-517) It is clear that by this time the
lectures in School Stieet have become a faice,
and all the effective instruction of the Uni-
versity has passed to the Colleges Endowed
professorships of divinity, civil law, medicine,
Hebrew, and Gieek were founded by Henry
VIII in 1546, and a small numbei of othei
prof essoi ships by private benefactors in the
following century But these still left most
of the instruction of the ordinal v undergradu-
ate in the hands of the College Tutois and the
Principals of Halls And of the Halls only
a few survived the medieval period Of these,
all but St Edmund Hall weie merged in some
adjoining College by the last, University
Commission

Studies — We must now tuin from ques-
tions of organization and constitution to the
studies which the organization was intended to
facilitate Law was a piomment study in
almost all the medieval Universities At
Oxford, as elsewhere, a large propoition of the
older, and particularly of the richei and better-
born students, entered upon that faculty —
usually, perhaps, after a certain amount of
study in arts, not always ending in gradua-
tion But Law was necessaiily less prominent
in England than elsewhere, because in Eng-
land, and in England alone, a system of Law
of non-Roman origin attained, early in the
Middle Ages, a sufficiently scientific form to
have developed a legal education of its own.
Elsewhere, even when the Law was of Teutonic
or non-Roman origin, its practice fell into
the hands of practitioners who had studied
Roman Law in the Universities, and every-
where the law of the tribunals became more
or less Romanized in consequence, In Eng-

land the early giovvth of the Inns of Court,
prevented the Universities becoming in any
direct and habitual mariner places of education
for the English bar The Inns of Court (q v )
in London were virtually a University of English
Law In the medieval Oxford the Civil Law
was studied merely as a preparation for, or in
conjunction with, the Canon Law, only
the Advocate in the ecclesiastical Courts
with a small number of piactitioncrs in the
Court of Admiralty and perhaps in the Chan-
cery got their piofossional education in the
Universities After the medieval period, the
study of ('anon Law ceased, and any serious
study of the Civil Law rapidly dwindled,
though the practitioners in the ecclesiastical
Courts continued peifunctonly to take the
degree of Doctor as a condition of then
admission to the " College of the Advocates,"
commonly known as " Doctois' Commons,"
in London

The study of medicine was also relatively
unimportant, even in the Middle Ages, though
Oxford could boast a few physicians of Euro-
pean fame such as John of Gaddcsden, author
of the Rosa Mc<hciu<r In post -medieval
times the serious study of Medicine was con-
nected with the Hospital Schools of London
and other large towns, though the highei
class of physicians still took medical degrees
in the Umveisities This absence of profes-
sional study left a permanent maik upon
the traditions and the spirit of Oxford Down
to quite recent times it was, and as regards
the majority of its students it still is, the dis-
tinguishing note of the English Universities
that the bulk of their students were engaged
in "hbeial" studies which had no relation
to theii future piofessional occupations Con-
tinental visitors are amazed to find future
bamsters engaged, up to the age of twenty-
three or thereabouts, in the study of philology
and philosophy, of history or natural science,
and future clergymen postponing the study
of theolog\ till they have left the University.

In the Middle Ages the fame of Oxford de-
pended mainly upon its reputation as a studium
of theology and arts — that is to say, chiefly
of the scholastic philosophy The subj'ect
matter of these studies was much the same as at
Pans (See PARIS, UNIVERSITY OF ) Details
varied, but here, as everywhere, the theological
textbooks were the Bible and the Sentences
of Petei the Lombard, while Aristotle —
with Porphyry's I savage and some works of
Hoethius — formed the principal basis of
the Arts course It is noticeable, howovei,
that in the earlier Middle Ages, physical
science was treated more seriously than at
Paris The first recorded Chancellor or
" Rector of the Schools," Robert Grosseteste
(q v ), known to the Middle Ages as Lmcolnen-
sis, was famous foi his scientific writings
Peckham (known also as John of Pisa) wrote
a famous book called Pewpectiva. Communit*

583

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

It was not a more accident that Oxford pro-
duced that illustrious " anticipator " of scien-
tific ideas and critic of scholastic methods,
Roger Bacon. He tells us that Perspective
was taught here when it was unknown at Paris
In his time (as we gather from his works) and
throughout the Middle Ages there was rat he i
more recognition of mathematics than at
Paris. Six books of Euclid were " taken up for
the Schools" (Mun Acad , p 415) For an
account of the methods of lectures and dis-
putations, of qualifying for and taking the
various degrees, the reader mav bo 10-
ferred to the article on Universities, but it is
worthy of notice that examination was rathoi
less prominent here than at Pans The
still surviving preliminary examination, known
as Responsions (the candidate was said ?v-
vpondere quaestoonibu* magistrorum wholaruw),
can be traced from the thirteenth century, but
there was no examination in the strict sense
for the license or the Mastership in Arts, and
it is doubtful whethei there was one foi the
Bachelorship of Arts To obtain the master's
degree nine Masters of Arts had to " depone "
to his fitness " of knowledge " ((/<• NCicntia) and
nine others " to the best oi their belief "
(dc creduhtate) They had to judge of the
candidate's efficiency, it would appear, merely
from his performances in the various disputa-
tions and his general reputation It, is a
curious illustration of the continuity which
characterizes Oxford history that nine Masters
of Arts must still be piesent in the "ancient
house of Congregation," for the conferment
of an ordinary degree

Fame and Numbers — We have seen that
very early in the thirteenth century Oxford
already boasted of 3000 students, according to
the medieval estimate, i e probably in reality
less than 1500 It was by this time the most
famous university in Northern Europe, next
to Pans Already in 1257 Matthew Pans
calls Oxford " the second school of the Church "
(Chron M aj , V 018) It could boast famous
teachers in Robert Grosseteste, Roger Bacon,
the canonized Edmund Rich, and John Peck-
ham, Archbishops of Canterbury But it \vas
not till the end of the thirteenth centurv that
Oxford produced a great schoolman who could
rival the reputation of Thomas Aquinas and
the other great Parisians Pans had been the
scene of the great scholastic movement which
had substituted an Aristotelian for a Platomo-
Augustinian Philosophy as the basis of the
Church's scientific Theology The task of re-
futing the unorthodox "Avenoistic" interpre-
tation of Aristotle, of Christianizing Aristotle
and Aristotelianizing Christianity, had been the
work of the great Dominican Doctors at Paris
The attempt, while teaching and expounding
the newly recovered Aristotelian works, to
remain faithful to the older Platonic tradition,
was begun by the Franciscan Doctors at Paris,
but attained its fullest development in the

584

rival and more conservative University of
Oxford, where the Franciscan order possessed
more influence than their rivals, the Domini-
cans The Franciscan convent at Oxford —
whose memory lingers in " Paradise Square "
and " Friar's Street " — was the true home of
that new epoch in the development of the
scholastic Philosophy which culminated in
" the subtle Doctor/' Duns Scotus (qv ), who
introduced the thoroughgoing Realism of the
later Middle Ages But this return to Realism
provoked a nommalistic reaction; the germs
of both movements may be detected in the
works of the earlier Franciscans, especially
Roger Bacon (q v.) William of Occam, the
" invincible " Doctor, the founder of the later
norninalistic school, was likewise an Oxford
Franciscan During the fourteenth century
Oxford — though a smaller University and
less frequented by foreip.ii students — was the
home of a far more vigorous and original
scholasticism than Paris or any other con-
tinental University It was during 1 his century
that the numbers rose to then highest The
medieval estimates of 30,000 or even 60,000
students are quite fabulous , but there may
have been some 3000

Among the schoolmen of this period may be
mentioned the Franciscan, Richard of Middle-
ton; John Dumbleton of Morton, Walter
Hurley, the " plain and perspicuous Doctor "
of Morton, Robert Ilolkot , the Carmelite,
John Baconthorp, "the resolute Doctor",
the "profound Doctor ," Thomas Biadwardme
Balhol, afterwards Archbishop of Canter-
bury, and John Wycliffo, for a time Master of
Balhol, the "Evangelist Doctor" The list
closes with Wvchffe, who was for the most of
his life a resident Oxford Doctor, and was a
realistic schoolman of European reputation
before ho developed the original views which
gradually broadened out into undeniable her-
esy Wycliffism was essentially an " Oxford "
movement, originating there and for a time
dominating the University and sending forth
a constant succession of " poor priests " to
preach a now evangelical and anti-monastic
Christianity throughout the country It was
not till about the year 1411 that an effective
attempt was made to purge the University
of " Lollardy " The attempt succeeded, and
with Lollard y all serious scholastic thinking
was suppressed AVycliffe ends the list of
famous Oxford schoolmen It was in part
the reputation for heresy which Oxford had
acquired which induced pious founders to
establish new Colleges at Cambridge, and pious
parents to send their sons to that University.
At all events it is from about the period of
WyclifTe that Cambridge began to take a place
of some equality with Oxford

Renaissance and Reformation Period — In
Oxford more even than elsewhere the fifteenth
century was a period of intellectual decline
Scholasticism was getting played out, and

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

vigorous minds began to look in other direc-
tions for intellectual sustenance The first
sign that can be detected of a Renaissance
consists simply in an increased attention to that
preliminary training in " grammar " which
always formed the basis of University studies,
but which had been neglected since the Aris-
totelian furor of the early thirteenth century
had thrown all other studies into the shade.
The effects of Wykeham's provision that stu-
dents of his New College should stay in
the Grammar School at Winchester till they
were sixteen — a late age for the medieval
freshman — bore fruit The Latmity of
Thomas ('handler, Warden of New College
from 1454, has a classical nng about it, and
to him is due the first introduction of Greek
into Oxford It was within the walls of New
College that the Italian scholar, Thomas
Vitclh, taught Greek from about 1475 till 1488
or 1489, and from him no doubt the fiist of
English humanists, William Giocvn ((jv),
Fellow in 1467, loeencd his initiation into
Greek, which he afterwards taught at Magdalen,
and aftei tnuehng in Italy, at Exetei in 1498,
where he numbered More and Erasmus among
his heai eis Erasmus resided at Oxford as
the guest of PHOT Clminock in St Mary's
College (the College of the Augustmian Canons,
of which some remains are still to be seen in
New Inn Hall Street) foi some months in 1499,
and from 1496 till 1504 John Colet was also
teaching the Greek Testament in Oxford
Eiasmus is full of compliments for the Oxford
band of scholars The brilliant piomise of
these years was haidly fulfilled Theological
controversies, rexived bv the Reformation
movement, \veie too stiong for much of the
genuine Renaissance spirit to flourish in Ox-
ford as yet Hut still the knowledge of Greek
and of classical Lutiintv went on gi owing
Ynstotle began to be studied in the original
Gieek, and the theologians read the Schoolmen
less and the Fathers more The theological
controversies weie at least fought with new
weapons — the weapons of classical scholar-
ship and patristic learning, as well as the old
scholastic dialectic Henry VIII and the
ecclesiastics fa\ored by him sympathized with
the positi\e side of the new Learning, and still
rnoie with its ferocity against the old In
1535 a Royal Commission was appointed to
visit the University Here is a report of their
proceedings at one of the Colleges " In New
College we have stabhshed a, lecturer in Greek
and another in Latin with an honest salary
and stipend We have set Dunce [i.e

Duns Scotus] in Bocardo [the cant name for
the town prison over the Northern Gate], and
have utterly banished him Oxford forever,
with all his blynd glosses, and is now made a
common servant to every man, fast nayled
up in all common houses of easement — id
(juod oculis meis vidi." (Wood, Anruds of Ox-
ford, Vol. II, p. 62.)

The accession of Edward VI brought with
it a new Commission Fellows suspected of
Romanizing tendencies were removed; many
of them fled to the continent without waiting
to be deprived Avowed Protestants were put
into their places. Peter Martyr was brought
to England arid made Regius Professor of
Divinity The effect of the Edwardian Ref-
ormation was almost to empty the University
of unendowed students The majority were
of course anti-Protestant, much of the monas-
tic property was gone, Oxford lost the monks
and friars who had formerly taken courses in
the University, and the exhibitions which
wealthy Abbots had supplied to enable prom-
ising lads to study No one knew what was to
become of the Church's remaining property.
The Church was no longer a safe career The
numbers of the University were reduced to
about a thousand or less (Wood, Annals,
Vol I, p 113) As the University rilled up
again in the time of Queen Maiy and Eliza-
beth, the majority of the unendowed students
became boarders in the Colleges — styled
nccoidmg to their rank and the payments
they made " noblemen," " gentlemen-com-
moners," " commoners," or (if they lived after
the manner of servitors) " battelers " A few
Halls alone remained, in which the Principal
lived entirely on the payments of the commoners,
and education was organized very much
on the model of the Colleges The public
schools were resorted to only for the disputa-
tions required foi the various degrees or for
the lectures of the few endowed professors.
Each of the changes of religion brought with
it a Commission, and a purgation of the Col-
leges by the removal of adherents of the beaten
party But few things enable one to realize
better how \erv giadual was the real es-
tablishment of Protestantism in the University
as in the country generally It was not till
after Elizabeth's excommunication and dep-
osition by the Pope in 1570 that really
effective methods were taken to get rid of
Romamzers from the foundations As we
near the end of Elizabeth's reign, Puritanism —
/ c Calvinism in doctrine — became more and
more dominant in the Universities, though
less so at Oxford than at Cambridge The
most marked reaction against it came like-
wise from Oxford Reason and conscience
revolted against some elements of the Calvin-
istic creed, learning discovered that the dis-
cipline and ritual of the ancient Church, if it
was not that of medieval Rome, was equally
far removed from the Genevan model The
leader of the revolt at Oxford was William
Laud (q v.), a Fellow from 1593, and from 1611
to 1621 President, of St John's College, which
still treasures in its Library the copes which
lie provided for use in the College Chapel
The High-Church reaction in politics and reli-
gion had its center in Oxford But nothing
can testify more eloquently to the hold which

5sr>

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

Calvinism in doctrine had obtained over Ox-
ford, even among those who were strong sup-
porters of Episcopacy and the Prayer-book as
against the Presbyterian worship and dis-
cipline than the fact that even Laud himself
in the height of his power (1635), while remon-
strating with the Bib hop of Winchester as to the
condition of New College, did not venture to
deny that "Calvin's Institution* mav profitably
be read " by students in the Umversitv, though
he ventured to suggest that it was premature to
make it the chief subject of study and examina-
tion for young scholars in their first two years
after coming up

Laudian Statutes — In 1630 Archbishop
Laud was elected Chancellor of the University
Towards the end of the fifteenth century
it became common for the University to elect
as a Chancellor an Archbishop or Bishop —
later on sometimes a lay noble — who was of
course usually, if not always, an absentee,
leaving the practical duties of the office to be
discharged by a Vice Chancellor, usuallv the
Head of a College But the Chancellors,
though nonresident, were bv no means dis-
posed to treat their office as a sinecure, their
raison d'etre, in fact, was to protect the interests
of the University at Court, and at the same
time to govern it in accordance with the politi-
cal and religious policy of the government for
the time being Laud might, be trusted to
avail himself to the full of the opportunities
which he enjoyed as Archbishop, as Chan-
cellor and as Visitor of two important Colleges
Nothing was too minute for this ecclesiastical
disciplinarian, whose insistence on the " four
surplices at All-hallowtide " in every parish
cost the Church of England so dear AH
Visitor of All Souls' he required the Warden
to insist that the Fellows "use not, long unde-
ccnt han, nor wear large fulling bands, nor
boots under their gowns, nor any other like
unstatutable novelty " Preachers who at-
tacked Pelagiamsm or Armimamsm or cere-
monialism, weie impiisoned or banished the
University, or at least required to read recanta-
tions on bended knees in the Convocation
house At the same time Laud was a real
patron of learning, bestowed a valuable col-
lection of Oriental and other Mss upon
the great Library founded by Sir Thomas
Bodley in 1602, and endowed a professorship
of Arabic But the greatest memorial of his
Chancellorship is the compilation of a new
code of statutes, — the first systematic codifi-
cation of the University's laws and customs
which had ever been undertaken

Since the close of the medieval period the
old order of the University had been more and
more falling to pieces The statutes had
largely become obsolete, it was hardly known
which of them had been and which had
not been legally repealed , the old machinery
of lectures in the schools, examinations, dis-
putations, and other exercises for degrees, had

586

little relation to the real studies of the place,
which for the most part went on in the Colleges
over which the University had no control.
The old forms were sometimes kept up, some-
times dropped On paper, the University was
still the University of the Middle Ages, teach-
ing scholasticism in its public schools; in
practice it had become an aggregate of almost
autonomous Colleges, which taught no doubt
with some of the old-time knowledge the learn-
ing of the Renaissance and the Reformation.
It is unnecessary to trace the various attempts
at reform of the University constitution which
took place in the course of the sixteenth cen-
turv and the first half of the seventeenth
Laud's more vigorous exeitions led to the
enactment in 1636, — by the combined au-
thority of the University, the Chancellor (to
whom the University had conceded special
powers in the matter), and the Crown, — of the
code under which (with very few alterations
or additions) the University nominally lived
down to the middle of the nineteenth century
Although the University still remained without
any effective control over the internal affairs
of those societies, the Laudian Statutes recog-
nized the fact that the University had largely
become a federation of Colleges The " Heads
of " Houses " 0 c of Colleges and Halls), with
the addition of the two Proctors, were now
constituted into a probouleutic Council, with-
out whose consent no permanent statute or
temporarv " decree " could be brought before
the "Convocation" of Doctors and Masters
of Arts, and the old " Black Congregation "
was abolished A small body of Heads could
be more easily managed bv the authorities than
the democrat- v of voung Fellows This body
held weekly meetings and acted as the supreme
executive of the University, it was commonly
known as the Hebdomadal Boaid The Vice
Chancellor was always to be the Head of a
College, nominated by the Chancellor for a
year at a time In practice, he was frequently
reappomted, — in modern times usually for
four successive years The Proctors were now
nominated by the Colleges in turn, and in
various ways the Colleges and their officers
received a recognition from the University
authorities, though the attempt to secure
control of them by the University, eg by
giving the Vice Chancellor power to remove
Tutors, did not practically amount to much
The Statutes did not meiely stereotype the
organization of the University, they attempted
to regulate its studies. The medieval disputa-
tions were retained, but a regular examination
for the degrees of B.A. and M A was added
And the attempt was made to galvanize into
life the lectures in the public schools given
by the Regents elected every two years — one
in each of the " three Philosophies and seven
Arts " in which there was no endowed Professor.
Undergraduates and Bachelors of Arts were
required to attend, for different parts of their

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

course, the lectures of the Professors or
Praelectors of logic, of moral philosophy, of
geometry, of astronomy, of natural philosophy,
of metaphysics, of history (a recent founda-
tion by the antiquary Camden), of Greek and
of Hebrew This magnificent program might
seem to leave little time for the lectures or
private instruction in the Colleges And vet
it is certain that the most serious work of most
undergraduates — even in the seventeenth,
and still more in the eighteenth century —
was the work which he did with his tutoi
in College Even in Wood's time — / c a
generation or two after the Laudian reforms, —
the lectures of the Regents in the schools had
acquired the name of " Wall-lectures " —
which in a farcical form continued to be delivered
after the beginning of the nineteenth centuiy
(Cox, Recollections of Orfoni, p 37 sq )

The Great Rebellion; Restoration. — The
Civil War produced a violent solution of
continuity in Oxford history For some* time
Oxford was at once a Court and a camp, the
King was quartered at Christ Chinch, Min-
isters of state and courtiers were thrust
into the rooms which should have been
occupied by Fellows and Scholars, hundreds
of scholars took arms Even the Puritan
r6girne, which followed, hardlv got rid of all
the demoralizing effects of this episode
After the triumph of the Parliament a Com-
mission was appointed to visit the University
and Colleges, arid those who would not ac-
knowledge the authority of the Visitors were
" outed " (1647-1648) ' Men of sounder polit-
ical and religious views were thrust into their
places Assuming the necessity of such a
purgation, the revolution was carried out
with moderation Some of the men put into
the places of deprived Heads and Professors
were among the most distinguished men of
their time, such as the mathematicians Wil-
kins, Warden of Wadharn, and Walhs, Pro-
fessor of Geometry, and Pococke, who became
Professor of Hebrew With the Restoration a
great decline in learning set in In part, this
was no doubt due to tendencies of the time
which had nothing to do with politics The
first half of the seventeenth century was the
learned age of Europe The second half was
an age of scientific discovery, of popular
religious and philosophical controversy, of
belles lettrcs These influences affected Ox-
ford negatively by weakening zeal for the old
studies, if they did not lead to much educational
reform In particular, there was a conspicu-
ous decline in the study of Greek, and the
exaction of Hebrew imposed by the Laudian
Statutes on B A students, if it ever took
effect, certainly disappeared Anthony Wood
looks back with amazement on the fact that
before the Great Rebellion there were men who
used to " discourse in the public schools very
eloquently in the Greek tongue " (Life of
Henry Stubbe in Athence Oxon.) The growth

of coffee-houses from 16,50 onwards is at
once an indication and a cause of the changed
spirit of the place " Why doth solid and
serious learning decline and few or more follow
it now in Universities?" asks the same writer
in 167S (Ltfc and Tune^ ed A (lark, Vol II,
p 429). " Answer — because of Coffey-
houses where they spend all their time "
Time spent in the coffee-houses was not
all wasted Here men read the Spectator
and the newspapers, and discussed the
latest book in the deistic controversy At
about the same time the Colleges began to
make themselves comfortable Fellows now
lived in separate rooms, and " common-rooms "
were built in which Fellows talked and boozed
away most of the time after dinner, instead
of retiring to their rooms and resuming their
studies, as they were required to do by the
College statutes It must not be supposed
that there was no learning or study in the
Oxford of the Restoration and the eighteenth
century At the worst times there were
always isolated Fellows who used the leisure
secured to them by the College endowments
for the purposes for which these weie given,
and there could always be discovered isolated
Tutors who took their duties seriously A lit-
tle before the Revolution John Locke (q v ) was
a resident student and Lecturer of Christ
Church Among the professors of the eight-
eenth century were distinguished men, such
as Halley the astronomer, Blackstone the
lawyer, and Lowth, afterwards Bishop of
London, whose lectures on the poetry of the
Hebrews were long a classic But the profes-
sorial lectures were for the most part on sub-
jects unconnected with the compulsory studies
of the ordinary undergraduate, or with any
organized curriculum Of the tutois, too
many resembled the unfortunate man in-
trusted foi a brief period with the education
of the youthful Gibbon, who has handed him
down in Ins Autobiography to the contempt
of posterity, as one who "well remembered that
he had a salary to receive but forgot that he
had a duty to perform," and the equally un-
fortunate " monks of Magdalen" whose "con-
versation stagnated in a round of College
business, Tory politics, personal anecdotes, and
private scandal," and whose " dull but deep
potations excused the brisk intemperance of
youth "

The eighteenth century was — till towards
its close — to some extent a period of academic
torpor or decadence all over Europe. (See
EIGHTEENTH CENTURY, etc.) But it is probable
that no University ever sank quite so low or
began its revival so late as the University of
Oxford That revival corresponds pretty ex-
actly with the beginning of the nineteenth
century I propose to enumerate a few of
the farts which may be regarded in part as
symptoms, in part as causes, of this extraor-
diruuv decay It will be observed that most

r>87

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

of them spring from defects in the Constitu-
tion of the University which date back in
many cases to the early Middle Ages, and
which successive Parliaments and Govern-
ments had never made the slightest attempt
to correct or reform

(1) The fundamental defect in the consti-
tution of Universities of the Parisian type was
the absence of proper salaries for the teach-
ing body Everywhere the defect had some-
how to be remedied, nowhere was it remedied
so badly and so imperfectly as in the English
Universities The few professorial endow-
ments supplied by Henry VIII or private
benefactors became, with the decline in the
value of money, increasingly inadequate It
became difficult to insist even on continuous
residence, in some cases the lectures ceased
to be given It appeals that about the year
1800 fifteen out of twenty professors offered
lectures of some kind, but in some cases they
had to be abandoned for want of an audience
(Vindication of Magdalen College, 1800)
The Regius Professors continued to be paid
their £40 per annum till the middle of the
nineteenth centuiy The rest of the teaching
was left to the Colleges

(2) College Tutors were chosen fioin Fel-
lows of each College But fellowships were
never intended to remunerate teachers The
legal restriction in many cases to particular
dioceses or counties, or a non-legal tradition of
electing solely from the College, narrowed the
field from which Fellows could be chosen
Consequently Tutors could not always be
efficient, and the medieval restriction on mar-
nage remained, even when theie weie no
clerical restrictions on Fellowships, it was the
tradition that Tutors should be in holy oideis
The abler the man, the more ceitain he was
after a few yeais of residence to go oil to be
Tutor to a nobleman's son or to take a benefice
in the gift of the College Teaching was chiefly
in the hands of young men who did not
intend to make a profession of teaching
Though, as late as the beginning of the eight-
eenth century, we sometimes find a systematic
division of subjects and classes among College
Praelectors, the tendency was more and more
to leave the teaching of the undei graduate
mainly in the hands of his own Tutoi No-
body could be efficient in all subjects, the
result was the restriction of teaching to a few
subjects — those which the average tutor
knew best By the middle of the eighteenth
century little was taught but the classics and
a little Logic The average standard was low
The complaint that he had been fined twopence
for not attending a lecture which was not
worth a penny, was Samuel Johnson's testimony
to his own Tutor's competency; and his
experience was not exceptional In reading
the biographies and other records of the
period, one is often astonished at the amount
of learning and serious study which was to be

found in Oxford even at its worst, but it it
nearly always the studies which a select few
of the Fellows carried on without reference
to teaching, and which a select few of the un-
dergraduates carried on in their own rooms
without any regard to the requirements of lec-
tures or examinations

(3) If the Tutors were inefficient, still less
were the bulk of the Fellows not engaged in
tuition really fit for the higher studies which
they were supposed to be pursuing; and there
was little inducement to become so The part
of the Laudian Statutes which related to the
studies in the higher faculties, and even to
those studying for 13 A , soon became obsolete;
and eventually a few months' residence was
all that was required between B A and
M A For the majority, the real education
of unendowed students ended with the B.A
clegiee Even in the case of Fellows, excuses
for non-i osidcncc came to be more and more
fieely accepted By the end of the eighteenth
centuiy it had come to be understood that, at
least after taking his M A degree, a Fellow
was allowed to be resident or non-resident as
he pleased, and nothing whatever interfered
with the idleness of those who chose to stay
in Oxford At some colleges — especially
All Souls and New College — the practice
of "corrupt resignation," — i e. a Fellow be-
ing allowed to take a bribe from a man who
wanted to succeed him-- added to the abuse
by closing the fellowships to poor men

(4) The Jiiea from which students would be
drawn was narrowed by the close connection
of the University with the established Church
The requirement of subscription to the thirty-
nine Articles by every undergraduate at the
age of sixteen, was not removed when religious
toleration was established in the country at
large The fact that there was more religious
liberty in England than in most continental
countries, and consequently more dissenters
from the State Church, only increased the
number of the excluded Moreover, as the
Universities practically ceased to educate
for the professions of law and medicine, the
class which required a university education
was smaller than elsewhere The Church
(in which the profession of the higher school-
master was virtually included) was the only
career for which the University made any
attempt to educate, and the medieval tradi-
tion remained by which a course in Arts was
practically the only education received by the
bulk of the clergy, though a few Divinity
lectures were usually given to all under-
graduates in college The expensiveness of
the colleges, except for the foundationers and
the despised class of servitors, and their grow-
ing reputation for idleness and inefficiency
aggravated the evil They fell into disfavor
with the more strenuous and progressive
classes The number of undergraduates at Ox-
ford at the end of the eighteenth century was

588

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

much smaller than it had been at the begin-
ning of it. By that time the benefits of a
University education were practically confined
to the future clergy, the sons of the landed
gentry, and a very small section of the pro-
fessional class which, with or without assist-
ance from the foundations, could afford such
a luxury before beginning their training for
the bar (in England a very small profession),
or medicine, or the like

(5) The examinations prescribed by the
Laudian Statutes had become a pure farce
The candidate was allowed to choose his own
examiners; he could thus select a couple of
young M A 's whom he entertained at a feast
the night before The examiners were ex-
pected to ask, and did ask, traditional ques-
tions, the answers to which the undergraduates
had learned by heart from " schemes " 01
little books provided for the purpose a few
days before the examination Tho disputa-
tions and other conditions required foi the
degrees — higher and lower had equally
degenerated into the purest formalities when
they were not "dispensed" by Congregation

Revival in the Nineteenth Century - - To
those who look back upon the condition of
the University at the end of the eighteenth
century the wonder is that the dry bones
should ever have lived again It is vain 1o
speculate on the causes of the revival which
first showed itself in the firsl years of the
century some mav suggest the French Revo-
lution, others the indirect effects of the religious
revival which dates back to Weslev, or it
may be that the very extremity of the dis-
ease awakened in the minds of a few able men
a sense that something must, be done to cure it
Certain it is that the eighteenth century was
a period of progressive decay, the nineteenth
century one of reform The era of refonn
must be divided into two portions Dining
the first half of the century the reform came
wholly from within; there was a icvival of
learning, of education, and of religion, with
little change of machinery, what changes
did take place were initiated bv the Uni-
versity itself During the second half of the
century the reforms were largely imposed upon
the University from without, / c bv Parha-
ment, at the instigation and with the assist-
ance of a reforming party within, but in wavs
to which the University as ft whole would
never have consented

Reform began in 1800 with the " new Exam-
ination Statute " which substituted a ical
Examination in place of the old pretence of
one Competent examiners wen1 appointed
by the University; a certain degree of pro-
ficiency was required for what, was now called
a " pass degree," while a list was published
of those who had taken " honors, " divided
into two or (from 1808) three classes, a fourth
class was added in 1831 There were two
lists of honors — one of those who had dis-

tinguished themselves in littens hutnanwribus
(i c classics, ancient history, ancient and mod-
em philosophv) and one in Discipline Mathe-
matms et Physicis It is not, too much to say
that the improvement which soon began to
take place in the industry of undergraduates,
in the efficiency of the teaching and in the
tone of life among the seniors has been chiefly
due, directlv or indirectly, to the stimulus
supplied bv these examinations, especially by
the competition foi honors between Colleges
and individuals High honors soon became
so much esteemed by the general public that-
a First-class — still inoie, what was then called
a "double first" (i e in classics and mathe-
matics) — was supposed to mark a man out for
distinction in Church or State, and the fact
that he had taken one was still remembered
to his credit when he had become a Prime
Minister or an Archbishop The number of
11 honour men " was at first small, they have
now increased till they are more numerous
than the " pass men "

Owing perhaps in pait to the new examina-
tions, a lew Colleges began to attend, as they
had never done before, to merit in the election
to fellowships and scholarships Balliol laid
the foundation of its future distinction by
opening its scholarships to competition among
all comers Oriel did the same with its fel-
lowships, and an Oriel fellowship became the
blue ribbon of the University The growth
of the " first Oriel school " — a group of men
of mildly rationalistic or liberal tendencies —
is the first sign of levivmg intellectual life.
Bishop Copies! on (Provost 1814-1828), Arch-
bishop What el v, and Bishop Hampclen are
its best remembered icpresentatives They
were soon succeeded by the " second Oriel
school," from which sprang the religious move-
ment in the Church of England known as
the "Tractanan" 01 "Oxford" movement,
which began about the year 1833 (See
KEBLE, JOHN, NEWMAN, JOHN HENRY ) Re-
actionarv as were its intellectual tendencies,
the movement did lead to a revival of serious
theological studv, and, if it absorbed the
tutors in theological controversy too much to
make for educational efficiency, it at least,
produced a higher sta inlaid of peisonal be-
havior and tutorial duty, while its increas-
ingly Roman tendencies stimulated a liberal
reaction which was in sympathy with the grow-
ing demand foi University reform outside
When Newman joined the Roman Catholic
Church in 1845, this liberal tendency was
powerfully reenforced 4< If any Oxford man
had gone to sleep in 1840 and had woke up
again in 1850," says Mark Pattison (Memoirs,
p 244), " he would have found himself in a
totally new world In 1840 we were in Old
Tory Oxford, not somnolent because it was
fiercely debating, as in the days of Henry IV,
its eternal Church question In 1850

all this was suddenly changed as if by the wand

589

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

of a magician . Very free opinions on
all subjects were rife A restless fever

of change had spread through the colleges —
the wonder-working phrase * University re-
form' had been uttered, and that in the House
of Commons The sounds seemed to breathe
new life into us We against reform' Why,
it was the very thing we had been longing for,
we wen* ready to reform a great deal — every-
thing — only shew us how to set about it and
give us the necessary powers "

Reform Period — University Reform Act,
1854 — The exertions of the Reformers inside
and outside the University at last led to an
Act of Parliament which appointed a body of
Commissioners with power to inquire and
make recommendations for the reform of the
University They presented in 1852 a re-
port which led to the University Reform Act
of 1854 The changes introduced by this
measure, or by the Executive Commission
appointed under the act, may be thus sum-
marized (1) For the old " Hebdomadal Board "
of Heads was substituted a " Hebdomadal
Council," consisting of the Chancellor (nomi-
nally), the Vice Chancellor, the ex-Vice Chan-
cellor, the two Proctors, and eighteen members
elected by a new body called the Congregation
— of whom six must be Heads of Houses,
six Professors, six members of Convocation
(2) The new "Congregation" consisted of all
resident Doctors and Masters, a new Statute
has to be passed by this body before corning
before Convocation, and the power of amend-
ment is vested in this body alone Bv (it is
believed) a mere oversight the old Congrega-
tion of Regents — now known as the " ancient
House of Congregation " — was not abolished,
and remains the authority for the conferment
of ordinary degrees arid a few other formal
purposes (3) A certain number of new pro-
fessorships were founded, and the endowments
of old ones increased out of the revenues of
certain Colleges (4) In the Colleges most of
the local restrictions foi fellowships and
scholarships were swept away, and it was
provided that they .should be filled by public
competition (5) The religious test was re-
moved as regards undergraduates and bache-
lors, but it remained for the degrees which
secured admission to the governing body of
the university It was not till 1871 that
" tests " were abolished for all degrees except
those in Divinity, for fellowships, and for all
University and College offices except those
confined to clergymen

Internal Reforms — Reforms from within
now began to follow one another with great
rapidity. In 1852 the classical course was
broken up into two sections (1) An examin-
ation known as the First Public Examination,
popularly known as "Moderations" because
conducted by " Moderators," which was al-
most purely classical, taken in the course of
the second year, and (2) the final examination,

590

to which the name of Litterce Humanonbus
was now confined, which was less classical and
admitted a larger element of philosophy and
ancient history than the old, undivided School
A similar division was effected between purely
mathematical " Moderations " and a School
of Mathematics and Physics Other honor
examinations or "Schools" (implying fresh
courses of study) now began to be founded,
their names up to the present are as follows,
with dates of the first examination in each
case: natural science (1853), law and mod-
ern history (1853, broken up into two
separate schools in 1873), theology (1870)-
Indian languages (1887), Semitic languages
(1892), now united as a school of Oriental
languages, English literature (1898); modern
languages (1905) Numerous changes have
taken place in the Pass School, in which a
large number of " options " is DOW allowed.
The first stone of the University Museum was
laid in 1855, and has been followed by a suc-
cession of buildings to meet the requirements
of students in natural science and medicine
University Commission, 1881 — The next
groat legal change in the organization of the
University was effected by an Act of Parlia-
ment passed in 1877, and by the Statutes of a
Commission appointed under the Act, which
wore made in 1881 The changes which now
took place wore of a more sweeping kind than
in 1854 (1) The Latin statutes (mostly me-
dieval) of the Colleges woro repealed, concise
and businesslike English statutes were sub-
stituted for them, while an easy method of
subsequent amendment (by Order in Council
on the petition of a College) was provided

(2) The life tenure of fellowships — a feature
almost peculiar to Oxford and Cambridge
among medieval Universities, and the source
of their worst abuses — was abolished Elec-
tions were now to be for seven years in the case
of non-resident or " Prize " fellowships, while
Fellows engaged in educational work were to
hold their fellowships — subject to periodical
reelection — as long as they dischaiged the
duties Power was also given to elect to
fellowships persons engaged in " research "

(3) The requirement of celibacy (which had
been to some extent modified for particular
Colleges by special enactments of the late Com-
mission) was abolished, subject to provision
securing the presence of a certain number of
unmarried Fellows to reside m College (4) All
clerical restrictions upon the election to head-
ships and fellowships (with the exception
of Christ Church, whose Head was also Dean
of the diocesan Cathedral, and one other
College) were now removed, except in the
case of one fellow (occasionally two or three)
who were usually left for the conduct of
the College services and the provision of the-
ological instruction (5) Further professor-
ships were endowed, and the endowments
of existing professorships increased by the

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

annexation of a fellowship in OTIC of I lie ( Col-
leges to the respective chairs, and by the im-
position of further payments upon the College
revenues. (6) Other payments for University
purposes were imposed upon the Colleges
(when their revenues were sufficient) in
proportion to their wealth (7) The value
of fellowships — hitherto very variable — was
reduced to a uniform £200 or (in some cases)
for fellows engaged in teaching £300 pei annum

Other Reforms and Institution* — The e fleet
of these changes was to translonn the Uni-
versity from a medieval and largely eleiical
institution, or group of institutions, into a
modern University, and the bodv of College
Tutors into an independent and peimanent
profession But the changes which weie
introduced by private and exlia-legal action
on the part of the Colleges befoie and alter
the Commission of 1881 were quite as unpoi-
tant as anv which appear upon the face of
the Statute-book Pmate arrangements be-
tween a small numbei of Colleges ioi com-
bined or intercollegiate lectuies began about
the vear 1870, and were giaduallv extended
until virtuallv all honor-lectures throughout
the Colleges were open to the whole University
The College Tutors weie thus leheved fiom
the burden of too inanv lectures on too manv
subjects, which had been one main cause of
tutorial mefficiencv The College Tutois weie
in fact transformed into a bodv of supple-
mentary University teachcis The aiiange-
nient eventually obtained a semiofficial lec-
ogmtion fiom the University, and a iccent
Statute (1911) has now dehmtelv organized
the whole body of College Tutois and Lec-
turers into " Faculties," who elect represen-
tatives to sit and vote with the Piofessors as
membeis of Faculty Boauls \s a conse-
quence of this change1 and ot the general widen-
ing of intellectual interests, the old stvle of
lecture, which was mamlv a construing lesson,
for the most part disappeared, and what used
to be called the u professoiial " manner of
lecturing took its place* At the same time,
by a spontaneous but lapid evolution, a system
developed undei which the College Tutor
imparted instruction chieflv bv hearing and
discussing essays with single pupils or two or
three pupils together The pi act ice appeals
to have become common somewheie in the
second quarter of the nineteenth century —
and was soon expected of every Tutor, it
now constitutes the most characteristic fea-
ture of Oxford education

A few other recent changes mav briefly be
mentioned (1) In 1868 it was made possible
for students to keep the statutable residence
for degrees, and to obtain at small expense
the benefits of University study without being
members of a College or Hall, there are now
some 250 " non-collegiate students " (2) In 1 8b'.S
the University undertook, jointly with Cam-
bridge, a system of examination for schools

(under a joint Schools Examination Board),
and in 1873 a system of local examinations
(senior and junioi) for bovs and girls, — chiefly
intended for those who do not intend to pro-
ceed to the Unnersities, - which has had a
marked effect in improving the efficiency of
the secondary schools throughout the country
(See EXAMINATIONS) (3) In 1879 women
began to be admitted to College lectures and,
by pmate arrangement with the exaimneib,
to some of the examinations The names of
women hist appeared in a supplementary
official class list in 1893 Nearly all the exam-
inations aie now open to women, but Convo-
cation has so far refused to admit them to the
actual degiee Four Halls for the residence
of women students have been provided:
Somerville College (1879), Lady Margaret
Hall (1879 Chuirh of England)/ St Hugh's
Hall (1880), St Hilda's Hall (1893) (Sec
WOMEN, EDUCATION OF ) (4) A system of
" Um\ eisity Extension" for providing lec-
tures oi a Unneisitv character in towns
throughout the country was instituted
tentatively in 1878 and ^definitely in 1885,
while in 1909 a system of "Tutorial Classes"
for the more thorough instruction of working-
men students was established by the Univer-
sity m consultation with lepresentatives of the
trade-unions (See UNIVERSITY EXTENSION )

The growth ol special studies which could
not conveniently be made the subject of an
Honors School lias led to the oigamzation
oi vanous courses which do not, lead up to n
degiee The institution of the Rhodes Schol-
arship bv the South Afiican millionaire, Cecil
Rhodes, sometime Prime Mimstei of Cape
Colony, which enables a large numbei of
American, Colonial, and (leiman students, of ten
somewhat older than the bulk of English un-
deigraduatcs, to study in Oxford, has tended
in the same dnection, and stimulated a demand
ioi "postgraduate" education (See RHODES
SCHOLARSHIPS ) The presence of a small
number of ioimer students in the ''tutorial
classes" also constitutes a body for which
the oidmarv cuinculum is unsuited These
new demands ha\e in part been met by the
institution of a number of diplomas accessible
after a shorter course of study than is requned
for the Degrees The following courses lead-
ing to Diplomas have so far been instituted
anthropology, aichapologv, economics and
political science, forestry, geogiaphy, rural
economy; scientific engineering, and the
theory, history, and practice of education

Present Problems — How far the revolu-
tion of 1881 and the changes consequent upon
it have done all that is requned in enabling
the University to meet the educational re-
quirements of modem England is a question
about which opinions are at present divided
Inside and outside Oxford there are those wrho
would like to reduce the Colleges to mere
boarding-houses, to pool their revenues, and

591

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

completely to reorganize the University on
the German model There are, of course,
conservatives who would alter nothing or he
content with the smallest amount of change
which would avert a new Commission There
is an intermediate school — representing per-
haps the largest section of the resident teachers
of the University — who would retain the
" tutorial system'' as the most characteristic
and the most successful feature of the present
organization, while they recognize the neces-
sity of considerable changes, not so much in
the way of another violent revolution fiom
without as to give the actual working part of
the University the power, which it at present
lacks, of reforming itself Without attempt-
ing a discussion of proposed remedies, it may
be convenient briefly to notice the features of
the present system most subject to criticism
(1) The University is governed in an extraor-
dinary and (except at Cambridge) unpar-
alleled manner Through the changes in the
method of taking the B A degree, nothing has
been done to make the M A a reality, that
degree is still accessible to the B A 's of a cer-
tain standing and on the payment of fees
without any examination Even " Congre-
gation " — composed of resident M A 's —
includes many casual residents in Oxford who
may have taken no more than a pass degree,
and have no official position in the University
or any College, while the supreme governing
body of the University still consists of all
M A 's, resident or non-resident, who qualify
by the payment of a small fee A summons
from the conservative wirepullers in Oxford
can always be trusted to bring up a few hun-
dred Masters — largely country clergymen —
to defeat the schemes whicli have commended
themselves to the majority of the teaching
body The rejection of a proposal to abolish
" compulsory Greek " in Responsions for
students intending to graduate in mathematics
or natural science is the most recent exploit
of this legislative mob (2) Although of late
years an increasing number of fellowships
have been bestowed upon persons engaged in
educational work or "research," a consider-
able number of non-resident or " idle " Fel-
lows remain Whereas with the reformers of
1881 one of the chief objects was to use the
fellowships as a means to starting men in pro-
fessions instead of providing inducement to
"hang about" Oxford, it is now widely felt
that this was not the purpose foi which Uni-
versities and Colleges were endowed (3) A
large portion of College revenues is devoted to
granting scholarships — mostly of £80 for four
years — often to the sons of more 01 less
wealthy parents (4) The Commissioners of
1881 — elderly men educated on the old sys-
tem — had little sympathy with the modern
conception of a University as an institution
not only for teaching, but for the promotion
of research and learned work In the subjects

largely studied by undergraduates there are
some two or three Professors for twenty or
thirty College teachers engaged in the same
study These men are often so hard worked
that they have insufficient leisure to do any-
thing considerable in the way of research and
learned production, the chances of succeeding
to a professorship, even at fifty or sixty, are
small, and there is little other encouragement
to such woik Further, the College Tutors
begin their work too early and without ade-
quate preparation, — often in the very year
after they have finished their own B A course

(5) There are complaints of the tyranny of
examinations Some would like to supplant
or supplement them by the requirement of
" dissertations " and the more direct training
in the methods of original research which such
a requirement would stimulate, while otheis
would prefer to provide foi the encourage-
ment of such work by postgraduate study

(6) There is a want of cooperation and co-
ordination between the various University
authorities concerned with finance, and be-
tween them and the Colleges (7) There aie
the long-standing complaints as to the expen-
siveness of the* Colleges, and the virtual ex-
clusion of pool men from then advantages
Among the most advanced reformers it seems
to be consideied that University and College
revenues should chiefly be devoted to the sup-
port and education of woikingmen students

The return to power ot a Libeial Government,
with an enormous majority at its back, in 1906
stimulated the outcry foi University reform
The moderatr reformers within the University
were encouraged to make an effoit for such
" reform from within " as would avert the
necessity foi a Commission The present
Chancellor, Earl Curzon, seconded theii ef-
forts and published a book in which he made
various suggestions Reforms for legislation
more or less on the lines proposed by him have
been introduced by Council Some of them
have been rejected, otheis are still under dis-
cussion The great obstacles to refomi from
within are the fact that some of the changes
most generally demanded — such as a dimin-
ished expenditure on non-resident Fellows and
scholars who can come to the University with-
out assistance — require a unanimity among
twenty independent governing bodies which
has so far not been secured, while the cum-
brousness, ultraconservatism, and ignorance
of the ultimate governing body of the Univer-
sity make it improbable that any considerable
proposals for reform will pass into a Statute,
even when they are recommended to them by
a leadrng conservative statesman whom they
have themselves elected to the headship of the
University If this artrcle is maintained, par-
liamentary intervention is sooner or later in-
evitable Meanwhile reformers may console
themselves with the reflection that now, as in
the past, some of the advances most needed

592

OXFORD UNIVERSITY

PACIFIC1 UNIVERSITY

in the studies, the teaching, and the general
tone of Oxford may be — and to a large extent
are being — carried out by the silent develop-
ment of public opinion among that much
criticized body of men, the College Tutors,
who are still taking the largest share in the real
work of the University

There are now 57 professors of the Univer-
sity, over 50 university readers and lecturers
(but some of these are also college tutors, etc ),
nearly 200 college tutors and lecturers, and
nearly 3000 undergraduate students in resi-
dence, and about 150 resident B A 's still
largely engaged in study The number of
women students in Oxford (unmatnculated)
is 341 II R

See STUDENT LIFE, DEGREES

References -

ANHTEY, H Munimenta Acadunica Holla Series
(London, 186H )

AYLIFFE, JOHN The Ancient and Present State of the
University ttf Or fotd (London, 1714 )

BALKJUII, Ci Kdmational »S//sf/ms of (in at Britain and
Inland (Oxford, 1«K)3 )

BRODRICK, G History of tht I'nivdkity of Oxford
(London, ISSb )

CLVKK, A , od Th< Cotltgt* of Oiford , thur Hi*ttni/
arid Traditions (London, 1SM2 )

CORUIN, ,1 An Ann man at Oxford (Huston 1M02 )

Cox, G V Recollection^ of Oxford (Kd 2 Oxford,
1870 )

CUKZOIS, LORD Principles and Af(thodt> of University
Htform (Oxford, 1<HK) )

I) \WHON, C Mirror of Orfoid (London, 1(H2 )

GODL.&Y A D Oxford in lh< Eighteenth Century
(N«»w York, 190S )

HkADLAM, C" Oxford and </s Story (London, 1904 )

LA.NG, A Oxford, brief histotxal and dcstnpfnH Notes
(London, 1H*)() )

LKACH, A F Edutatmnnl Charters (Cam bridge,
1911 )

LOUOAN, D Oxonia Illnvtraia (Oxford. 1073)

LYTE, SIH II M History of tin Un-iet'inty of Orford
(London, IhSO )

MADAN, F Manubinpl Material* nlatiny to flu His-
tory of Oxfoid (Oxford, 1HS7 )

Oxford Historical Sotu-U Publications Ehprc mllv •
Vol III, Parker, .1 Early Hi^toiy of Orford,
727-1100, prmdtd by a Sketdi of th( mythological
Origin of th< City and Univ<n>ity (1SS.5), Vol.
VIII PlummtT (' Khrabtthnn Oxfoid (1SS7),
VO!H' XV, XVII, XXX VII, Wood'h Suroty of
the Antiquities of tht City of Oxfoid (lh89-18<W),
Vols XIX, XXI, XXVI, XXX, XL, Tht
Lifi and Tinns of Anthony Wood collfctui

from his Diane* (1S<)1 1900), Vols XXVIII and
XXXI, Mona^Ury of ,SV Fridet>widc Cartulary
(1895-1896), Vol XLI, Giorn, J R , and Robebou,
G titudics in Orford Hivtotu, chufly in tin nghl-
tenth Century Ed bv Stumor (1901 )

Oxford, Colhat Hmton<v (London)

Oxford University Commivnonris Mdlxrul College
Statute* (London, 1S.~>1 and 1853 )

PEEL, R , and MINCHIN, H C Oxford (London, 1905 )

RASHDALL, H The Vnivtnsitii* of Europe in the
Middle Ages, Vol II, ])t 2 (Oxford, 1895 )

SCHOLZ, R F , and HORNIJEC K, S K Oxford and the
Rhodes Scholarships (London, 1907 )

SHADWBLL, L L Enactments in Parliament, es-
pecially concerning the lTtiiocr\itie* of Oxford and
Cambridge^ the Collegia and Halh therein, and th(
Colleges of Wincheittri, Eton, and Wexhninxter
(Oxford, 1912 )

Some Oxford Tutors Oxford and th< Nation Re-
printed from the Time* (London, 1907 )

STBDMAN, A M M Oxfoid, its Lift and Schools
(London, 1887 )

Student's Hanflbook to the University and Colleges oj
Oxford (Oxford, 190ft )

TWYNK, BRIAN Antiquitatis Aiademiaz Apologia
The fiibt benouh history (Oxford, 1692)

WARD, G R M Oxfoid University Statutes (London,
1845-1857 )

WELLB, J The Oxford Deyiee Ceremony (Oxford,

190(i )
Oxford and Oxford Life (London, 1892)

WILLIAMH, J The Law of the Universities (London,
1909 )

WOOD, ANTHOM \ Histona et Antiquitatu* Umver-
mtatitt OxoHitnui* (C'laasical but uncritical, based
on MHH ( olle< tion of Doeunieiits, now in the Ar-
chives, made by Tw>ne ) (Oxford, 1(>74 ) The
original KiiKhuh translation edited and published
by J Gutih The History and Antiquities of the
University of Oxford (Oxford, 1792-1796 )

PACIFIC, COLLEGE OF THE, SAN JOSE,

CAL — An institution of higher learning
situated in College Park, halfway between the
towns of San Jos£ and Santa Clara The
institution was the pioneer Protestant college
of California The first charter was granted
in 1851, and the school was opened in Santa
Clara, May 21, 1851 In 1871 it was removed
to its present location The college owns a
tract on the Alameda, which will be used
for the erection of other college buildings
Though previous to 191 1 a university in name,
the institution has never attempted to do
more than college work However, in the
decade of the fifties it established the first
medical school in the state This school later
became incorporated as the Cooper Medical
School of San Francisco, which in time was
acquired by the trustees of Loland Stanford
Junior University Throughout its history
the college has been undei the patronage of
the Methodist Episcopal Chinch, but is in
no sense sectanan As eaily as 1852 the col-
lege voted to admit women to its courses As
integral paits of the1 institution until June,
1911, weie the preparatory and music and ail
departments On the date named these de-
partments were separately organized undei
the same president and trustees, and are now
known as College Park Academy and Pacific
Conservatory of Music and Art, respectively
The library 'and laboratory facilities are such
as to enable students to pursue thoroughly
all the regular college courses and to do the
fundamental work looking toward higher
special training in the piofesHions, teaching,
and engineering Kntiance arid graduation
requirements are equal with those of the othei
colleges and universities of the state The
college faculty numbers twenty-two The
enrollment in the college is 134, and in Col-
lege Park Academy and Pacific Conservatory
210, making a total of 344 J. W H.

PACIFIC UNIVERSITY, FOREST GROVE,
OREGON — Was organized in 1854 under
Congregational auspices, but it is not subject
to denominational control Tulatin Academy,
out of which the college developed, was
granted a charter in 1849 Rev Sidney H

VOL iv — 2 Q

593

PACIOLI

PADUA

Marsh, D D , was its first President and re-
mained at the head of the institution for
twenty- six years Pacific University i« frankly
a college and makes no university pretensions,
but because of legal difficulties is still required
to use the original title It leqmres fifteen
units for entrance, and a full four-years' course
for the Baccalaureate degree II confers
the degree oi M A foi one veai of graduate
work above the A B couise and the presen-
tation of an acceptable thesis The total
value of campus and buildings is $108,000 and
the cash endowment is $245,000 The faculty
number ,s twentv-seven, and theic are 250
students in all departments W W P

PACIOLI, LUCA (also PACIUOLO) —

Mathematician, known from his birthplace as
Fra Luca di Borgo San Sepolcro He was a
prominent writer on mathematics about the
vear 1500 The name appears in one of his
works as Pacioli, but the family name was
Pacmolo, so that both spellings aie given in
the histories of mathematics Tie was born
at Borgo San Scpolcro, in Tuscany, about
1445, and died in 1515 He wa^ the hist man
in modern times to publish in printed form a
noteworthy general treatise on mathematics,
the ftumn de \iifhrnchca Geometna Ptopot-
tiom et PiopoTtfovahtd, written in Perugia in
1487 and published at Venice in 1494, a second
edition appearing posthumously in 1523 He
went to Venice in 1464 and acted as a tutoi
in the household of a wealthy merchant, re-
maining there until 1471, when he went to
Rome About this time he entered the Minor-
ite order, but continued his work as a teacher
In 1476 he wrote a work on mathematics for
his pupils in Perugia, but it was nevei punted
In 14S1, while teaching at Zara, he wrote an-
other, but that is also lost It is probable,
however, that the essential features of both
of these works appeared in his tiilniu of 1404
From 1471 to 1470 he traveled extensnelv
(per diueni paest ce conuenitto pciegnnando,
as he says) and may possibly have gone to
the Orient His tfumn is a large treatise,
containing about all that was known of al-
gebia, geometry, and arithmetic at the time
it appeared Fiom 1406 to 1490 he was teach-
ing in Milan, and in 1 197 he wrote his f)nnna
Proportions, publishing this at Venice in 1509
He also published an edition of Kuelid (Venice,
1509) Other manuscripts of his are extant,
but no others have been published

I) E S

PACKARD, FREDERICK ADOLPHUS

(1794-1867) — Founder of American Sun-
day School journalism; graduated from Har-
vard College in 1814, and engaged in jour-
nalism and public life He was editor of
the Sunday School Mogaztm , the Sunday
School Journal, and the Yo\i1h\ Penny
Gazette Besides numerous ai tides on Sun-

day School teaching, his publications include
Union Bible Dictionary (1837), The Teacher
Taught (1839), The Teacher Teaching (1851),
Life of Robert Owen (1866), and Public Schools
of the United Mate* (1866) W S. M

See SUNDAY SCHOOLS

PADERBORN, UNIVERSITY OF, WEST
PHALIA, PRUSSIA. — Established by Prince-
Bishop Theodore of Furstenberg in the year
1614 Like a number of other German uni-
versities, it owed its origin to a Jesuit college,
such an institution having been founded in
Paderborn in 1592 The university consisted
only of a theological (Catholic) and a philosoph-
ical facultx, and belongs to the gioup of the
institution^ of highci learning that were dis-
banded in the early part of the nineteenth
century, its doors being closed in 1819

H T , Ju

See JESUS, SOCIETY OF, EDUCATIONAL WORK
OF

Reference —

FHUHKN, .T Du I'mvermtfit Pndcrborn (Padorborn,

PADUA, UNIVERSITY OF, ITALY —

A btudinni genet ale was established at Padua
in 1222, although it may be that la\\ was
taught theic in the twelfth centun The
immediate cause of the origin of Padua Uni-
versity was the secession of the students
and profes.sors as a result of dissensions with
the citv authorities Hut that matters were
not so satisfactory at Padua is indicated
by a contract of 1228 between students and
the city authorities to move to Vercelh
From this it appeals that already at that
date there weie from 2500 to 3000 students
at Padua, and this university WHS not af-
ieeted in spite of the migration of a number
to Vercelh Between 1237 and 1260 a de-
cline set in, and the univeisity practically
ceased to exist owing to the tyranny of the
Ezzehm A second nngiation fiom Bologna
gave Padua a new start, statutes were drawn
up, and a Papal Bull was granted in 1264
by Urban IV and was confirmed in 11346 by
Clement IV The municipal authorities con-
tributed largely to the success of the univer-
sity The most important faculty was for
a long time the legal, grammar, rhetoric,
and medicine grew up gradually In 1363
a theological faculty was sanctioned by Pope
Urban V Padua reached the highest point of
her fame and success in the fifteenth and six-
teenth centuries and even surpassed Bologna.
It was an important center of the Renaissance
studies and on that account attracted many
foieign students, although the law students
still predominated In the eighteenth cen-
tury the university declined rapidly and did
not attain to any importance until the na-
tionalization of Italy, although efforts were

594

P^EDAGOCUUM

PALACE SCHOOLS

made to revive it under the Austrian rule
There are at present the following faculties
law, medicine and surgery, mathematical,
physical, and natural sciences, philosophy
and letters Besides these there are schools
of engineering and pharmacy, and a course
for training of teachers The enrollment
m 1910-11 was 13S3, of whom 400 weie in
the faculty of law

See ITALY, EDUCATION IN

References —

COLLE, F M Htoria aciuitiJico-U'ttirana ddlo titiuho <li

Padooa (Padua, 1 HIM 1825)
Minerva, Handhuch da gclehrtcn Wtlt (Stniwhburg,

1911 )

RASHUA.LL, H f/mwmfic* of Europe in Ike Muldlc
Age* (Oxford, 1895)

P^EDAGOGIUM — See HALL

PAGE, DAVID PERKINS (1810-1S48) —
Leader in the normal school movement and
author of the most popular educational hook
published in the United States, horn in Eppmg,
NH, the 4th of July, 1810 He got his
schooling in the district schools of New Hamp-
shire and at the Hampton Academy At
nineteen years of age he began his career as
teacher at Newbury, Mass , and three yeais
later he was elected vice-principal of the high
school at Newburyport His address on
" Duties of Parents and Teachers," lead befoie
the American Institute of Instruction in Au-
gust, 1838, Horace Mann declaied the finest
educational paper that had been read before
that association during its eighl years ot exist-
ence Duiing the next MX years Pdge con-
tributed regularly to the Common 8(hool
Journal edited bv Horace Mann, and look an
active part in the various educational meetings
organized bv Mi Mann in Alaska chusetts and
Henry Barnaul in (Connecticut

With the opening of the normal school at
Albany (the first in New York) in 1844, Page4
was selected as pimcipal upon the heaity
recommendation of Mann and Barnard But
the new institution met with a storm of oppo-
sition " The newspapers ridiculed and de-
nounced it They invented all kinds of false-
hoods about Mr Page, and in many ways
misrepresented the school and its work The
politicians weie against it, and the teachers
of the state had no lo\e for the school 01 its
Massachusetts principal " With each ses-
sion of the state assembly the politicians en-
deavored to abolish the school; but Mi Page
visited all the chief cities of the state and ex-
plained the purpose of the normal school.
" His presence carried conviction and won
allegiance His speeches turned the tide, and
public sentiment favored the school " But he
exhausted his physical powers in his efforts to
save the school, and he died in his thirty-
eighth year on the 1st of January, 1848

Mr. Page took an active patt in institutes

and othei educational gatherings in New
York State as he had previously done in Mas-
sachusetts Hoi ace Mann remaiks concern-
ing his public lectuiing, " He possessed that
Hire quality, so indispensable to an oiator, the
powei to think standing on his feet and before
folks "

Besides the essay on " Duties of Parents and
Teachers," 0000 copies of which Horace Mann
had printed and distributed to the teachers
of Massachusetts, Mi Page's only published
wilting is his Theory and Ptactice of Teaching,
published in 1847 " No other book on the
subject of education," writes Albeit E Win-
ship, 4< has been read by so manv American
teachers through so manv vears " At the
time of the expiration of the copyright (1X80)
more than 100,000 copies of the book had
been sold, and with the expiration of the
copyright thiee new American editions ap-
peared Probably no other American book
on education has so much claim to be consid-
ered a classic W S M

References

BATIN\RI>,

Aol \ , pi> M1-H
PHLLPS, A\ T Duetd
\\iNsmr ALBERT E

(New \ork, 1900 )

Ann man Journal <tf Education,

ork, IMJ'J)
Kducntoi\

Great American

PAGE, EDUCATION OF THE -- See

CHIV\LKIC KPTCATION, GENTRY AND NOHLES,

EDIiTATlOIS OF

PAIDOLOGY

See CHILD STLDY

PAIN — This is now regarded as the sensa-
tion that arises on stimulation of a particular
point or nerve end on the skin It was ear her
thought to arise from o\ er stimulation of an\
sense organ According to von Frev there
are on the average from 100 to 200 pain spots
to the square centimeter They aie about
ten times as numerous as the pressure spots,
and are about 1000 times as difficult to excite
That pain spots are distinct has been shown,
not rneielv bv mapping the spots, but also
from the fact that then* are certain tissues
(the conjunctiva and cornea) where there are
pain spots but no pressure spots, and others
(the inside of the cheek) where there are pres-
sure spots but no pain spots Von Frey con-
lectures that the tree nerve endings are the
sense organs of pain W B P

Reference —

ANGKLL, ,T R Psychology (Ne* York, 1906)

PAIN AND PLEASURE —See EPICURE-
ANLSM, HEDONISM

PAINTING — See ART, STUDY OF.

PALACE SCHOOLS — That type of
schools which in imitation of the Palace Schools

595

PALAESTRA

PANAMA CANAL ZONE

of Charles the Great were frequently attached
formally or informally to the courts of kings
or the households of nobles See ALCUIN,
CHARLEMAGNE AND EDUCATION, GENTRY
AND NOBLES, EDUCATION OF, GUARINO, DEI
GUARINI; RENAISSANCE AND EDUCATION,
VlTTORINO DA FELTRE

PALJSSTRA (iraXatcTTpa) —A school in-
tended for the physical training of boys, ovei
the age of seven, which played an important
part in Greek education (q v )

References —

FRLEMAN, K Schools of Hclla* (London, 1908 )
GRASBEKUEK, L ErziehutiQ und Untemcht im klas-
aischen Alterthum, Vol. I. (Wurzburg, 1864 )

PALEOBOTANY. — See BOTANY

PALEOGRAPHY. — See TEXTUAL CRITI-
CISM, also LIBRARY SERVICE, TRAINING FOR

PALEONTOLOGY — The scientific study
of the phenomena of life of past geological
ages See GEOLOGY

PALERMO, ROYAL UNIVERSITY OF —

See ITALY, EDUCATION IN

PALMER, ALICE FREEMAN (1855-
1902 ) — President of Wellesley College; bom
at Colesville, N Y , the 21st oi February,
1855 She entered the Windsor Academy
in 1865 and graduated in 1872 That year
she entered the Umveiait.y of Michigan, where
she graduated in 1876 Miss Fieeinan WHS
called to Wellesley College as piofessoi of
history in 1879, two years later she was elected
vice president of the college, and in 1882 she
was chosen piesident This position she held
until her marriage with Professor George H
Palmer of Harvard University in 1887 From
1892 to 1894 she was dean of the women's
department of the University of Chicago

Mrs Palmer held numerous incidental edu-
cational posts dining her brief but biilhant
career From 1889 to the time of her death
she was a member* of the State Board of Edu-
cation of Massachusetts and gave considerable
time to the reorganization of the state normal
schools She was active in the councils of the
Collegiate Alumnae Association From 1888
to the time of her death she was one of the
trustees of Wellesley College She was one*
of the directors of the Columbian Exposition
at Chicago in 1893 She was president of
the Woman's Home Missionary Association,
and a member of the board of trustees of the
International Institute for Girls in Spain

W 8 M

See WELLESLEY COLLEGE

Reference ~~

PALMER, GEORUE H. The Life of Alice Freeman Palmer.
(Boston, 1908.)

PALMIERI, MATTEO. — See RENAIS-
SANCE AND EDUCATION

PALSGRAVE, JOHN (rf. 1554). — Eng-
lish divine, who enjoyed the favor of Henry
VIII and was appointed by him tutor to
Princess Maiy (the king's sister) and later
to Henry Fitzeroy, Duke of Richmond (the
king's natural son) Palsgrave had studied
at Cambridge, Pans, Lou vain, and Oxford
He was the author of the earliest work giving
the rules for the pronunciation and grammar
of the French language and a French-English
and English-French dictionary The title of
the work, which appealed in 1530, and was
punted by Richard Pynson, was Lc sclair cisse-
me tit dc la Languc Francoyse, compose par
rnaistre Jclion Pahyrave, Angloyt>, natyf de
Londrcs ct graduc du Pam The work LS
still of value as a storehouse of obsolete Eng-
lish words and phrases Another pioneei work
of Palsgiave was the translation for school use
of a Latin play into English This was the
A volant us of (5 Fullomus, published under the
title Joanui* Pahgrave, Londwuensis, Ecphra-
.s'/,s Afiglica in eornoediant Acolatsti The Com-
cd{/ °f Acolastub translated into our English
tongue cifta \itch manner c/,s children auj taught
in grammar school, first word for word, a.s the
Latin Iteth, and afterwards according to th<
sense and mean nig of the Latin sentence*, etc
In the dedication (to Henry VIII) Palsgiave
attacks the piovailmg method of translating
good Latin into bad and barbaious Latin,
" instead of pure English woids and phiases ';
He wishes to see " such an established maniagc
between the two tongues as may be
an incredible furtheiance to attain the puie
Latunty by "

References —

Jhttionari/ of National Biography

WATHON, KOHTBK Engluth Grammar Mhook to ItidO

(Cambridge, 1<K)8 )
Early English Writer** on Education Htp Com

fid, 1002, pp 480-490 (WaHhingtou, 1903)

PAMPHLETS —See THACTB, EDUCA-
TIONAL

PANAMA CANAL ZONE — Little or no
facilities were provided for education in the
Canal Zone before the work was taken over
by the United States Spanish schools had
existed at Panama and Colon, and under the
French a few colored teachers had been im-
ported to look after the children of the laborers ,
but as the French had no right of government
in the district, little progress was made With
the arrival of Americans, however, the demand
for school facilities soon made itself felt, but
little progress could be made before more
pressing needs such as buildings for dwelling
houses were satisfied By 1907 there were
twenty-five school buildings (eleven for white
and fourteen for colored children) in nine-

596

PANAMA CANAL ZONE

PANAMA CANAL ZONE

teen towns, with twenty-one white and eight-
een colored teachers By 1909 the number
of schools had increased to twenty-nine in
twenty-one towns (twelve schools foi 675
white children, and seventeen schools for 1417
colored children) There were in 1909 thirty-
five white teachers, all with two or moie years
of successful experience in the United Stal.es 01
the Canal Zone beyond the ioui years of high
school and two of normal school The
teacheis aie divided into foiu classes, reeenmg
respectively $50, .$00, $90, and $100 salary
per month In the colored schools teachers
are almost all obtained fiom Jamaica and be-
long to the third and fouith classes The
schools are under the contiol of the Dnision
of Schools which appoints a superintendent
Two supervisors, one for primary grades and
one for grammar grades and high schools, are
charged with the duty of unifying the work
in all the schools and keeping up a uniform
standard The school term is nine months,
from October 1 to June 30, with the usual
intermissions In 1900 medical inspection
was introduced for white children The1
government supplies free textbooks and sta-
tionery School libraries were (irst established
in 1907 from the proceeds of school enter-
tainments The curriculum in the grades
consists of reading, English, spelling, arithme-
tic, geography, history, music, cahsthenic, and
Spanish (from the fifth grade up) In 1908
school gardens were introduced, and it is pio-
posed to add agriculture and horticulture
to the curriculum The chief problems rn the
('anal Zone aie the difficulty of maintaining
uniform standards where the schools are so
small and scattered When the schools were
first established, instruction was practically
individual, since that time graded classes are
found generally Transportation and consolida-
tion have been introduced both for elementary
and high school pupils, c g at Aruon and Colon

A uniform course of study, which required
careful consider at ion in order to meet the local
situation, is also m use Another difficulty
is the grading of pupils who are drawn fiom
every state in the Union and to secure the
cooperation o( parents who bring so many
different ideals with them Irregularity of at-
tendance was also one of the large problems,
the parents weie frequently moved about along
the zone and in many instances climatic con-
ditions prevented regularity, while among
the colored and native peoples it was no easy
task to secure legularity without compulsory
attendance laws

In 1907 there were fhe high school pupils
and in 190S this number rose to twenty, when
two schools were established, at Culcbia and
Cristobal, another was added later at Gatun
In 1909 the thiee schools together had an en-
rollment of only forty-three The curricu-
lum includes algebra, geometry, physical
geography, general history, botany, English,
(lei man, French, Spanish, and Latin Four
subjects are normally carried by each pupil
But the defects and drawbacks incident to
small schools are obvious and the proposal to
centralize the schools and transport the pupils
was carried through in J910, in this way one
larger mam school, employing more teachers
and approaching the standard of an ordinary
country high school of the States, has been
established at (latun, with a branch or sub-
sidiary school at Ancon, giving first arid second
year work The fiist high school commence-
ment- was held at Gatun on June 1M, 1911, and
there were two graduates

The growth of the Canal Zone1 system is
illust rated in the following statement (from
ff((inn(j\ (onca ninq Kbtiwate^ f<» tfn Condi uc-
tion of the /s/// niHtn Canal for the Fiscal
Yeor 1()13, conducted on the Canal Zone by
the Committee on Appropriations, House of
Representatives, Sixty second Congress —

[Figures for 1911 show net enrollment of pupils, lor previous >eard, gross enrollment ]

PUPH s TEACHERS

BUILDINGS

White

72 1
745

1070

Colored

Total

\V hite

Colored

Total

White

11
11
Q

11

Colored

H

4 15

Total

October —
1906
1907
1908
1909
1910
1911

1(H>7
900
903

i MO
H741
2807
1812
1837
1979

IT

2 ]()

1 15

20
21

«2T

1 21

i «)
i ^

5K
'72

1 18
J.10
25
27
24
*26

1 Approximate no annual report .
2 Number authorized Oft 11, 1901 During that month there were, respectively, thirty-seven and

^^mbor orLachorTnuAioriBod Oct .'Jl, 1910 During the month there were, respectively, forty-three
and twenty-four teachers employed

* Includes now four-room colored school building being erected at Ancon

597

PANSOPHISM

PARALLELISM

PANSOPHISM — See ENCYCLOP^EDISM.
PANPSYCHISM — See MONISM

PANT^NUS — Sec CATECHETICAL SCHOOLS ,
CLEMENT OF ALEXANDRIA

PANTHEISM — The philosophic or theolog-
ical theory, according to which God and the
Universe are identical It has both a mystic
and a rationalistic form Spinoza is goneuilly
regarded as the typical classic example of a
pantheistic philosopher In the development
of modem idealism (q v ) in its absolute form,
thought or will or sentiency has often been
taken to be the single ultimate reality manifested
in both the physical woi Id and the finite cen-
ters of consciousness that know and feel this
world These forms of absolute idealism have
geneially been criticized as pantheistic by then
opponents This claim has been denied by the
absolutists on the ground that instead of merg-
ing individual selves as unreal in one absolute,
they have held that a kingdom of selves is nec-
essary to the reality of the ultimate thought or
will Fichte (q v ), howevei, was not averse to
the epithet ethical pantheism, provided it was
understood to stand for the unity of will from
which all diversity of individual moral striving
took its depart uic and m which it found its
goal J D

References —
BRADLEY, F H Appearance and Reality (London,

18U3 )

FITHTE, J G Dash nation of Man
RovrK, J The World and Individual. (New York,

1904 )
SPINOZA, B Ethics

PAPE-CARPENTIER, MME MARIE

(1815-1878) — Fiench educator Although
having enjoyed only a common school educa-
tion, arid only just passed twenty years of
age, she was offered the direction of the Salic
d'asile (to a ceitam extent the precursor of (he
present 6cole maternclle, or kindergaiten) at
La Fleohe (1835) While in a similar position
at Le Mans, she published her Councils sin la
direction r/e.s sailer d'aiilc (1845), which led
to her appointment (1848) as head of the
newly founded ficole normalc mutcrnclfc in
Pans, which was intended to supply tunned
teachers for kindergartens This position
she held for twenty-six yeais Mine Pape-
Carpentier was one of the first to appreciate
that the sailer d'asile should be something
more than mere nurseries, that they had eci -
tain educational possibilities, and their sub-
sequent development was due in no small
measure to her personal efforts, as well as to
her writings Among her more important-
works are Conseils xttr In direction des Dalles
d'axilc (1845), crowned bv the Academy,
Enseignemcnt piatique dan? le* hole* tnatu-
ncllcs (1848), Conferences pe<ld gog /<///< s fnit<\

aux instituteurs rbums a la Sorbonne (1867);
U union scolaiic ou organisation iconomique
dc I' instruction primaire (1869). F. E F.

References —

BUISHON, F Dictionnairr dc Pedagogic, s v Pape-
Carprntier, Mntc

KERGUMARD, PAULINE Les Ecolcs maternclles, pub-
lications of the Musec Ptdgaogiquc, Vol VI, pp
259-309

M \TRAT, MARIH, Hmtoire dc /' Education infantine
puhlique, publications of the Muaee Ptidagogique,
Vol VI, pp 211-259

PAPER — See READING, HYGIENE OF
PAPER CUTTING AND FOLDING.—

See KlNDERGAKTEN, MANUAL TRAINING.

PAPPUS, or PAPPOS — One of the promi-
nent writers on geometry among the later
Greek scholars Little is known of him save
that he lived in the fourth century of our era
His greatest work was Ins Mathematical Col-
lections (MaOrjfJiaTLKiov trwayooytov /3ifj\£a)t a trea-
tise that seems to have been in eight books, but
of which only six are extant The first Latin
edition appeared in 1588, and with changed
title pages in 15S<) and 1602 There was a
second edition published at Bologna in 1660.
Pappus treats, in tins work, of various geo-
metric problems, including the duplication
of the cube, measurements of solids, the
sphere, geometric analysis, and mechanics.

D E S

PARABLE — See NEW TESTAMENT, PED-
AGOGY OF, SYMBOLISM IN EDUCATION

PARALLELISM, PSYCHOPHYSICAL —

A general doctrine employed both in philos-
ophy and psychology in the discussion of the
relation between mind and matter In phi-
losophy, this doctrine was fully developed by
Spinoza He taught that all reality has two
]) liases or aspects, one being the psychical
or mental, the other the material He uses
the figure of the two sides of any flat or curved
Mil fa co, and holds that there is a mental aspect
coi responding to the upper suiface of the body
and a physical aspect corresponding to the
lower surface The two series of facts are
parallel or complementary to each other at
every point

In psychological writing, the doctrine differs
from the philosophical doctrine of Spinoza
above described The psychological use of
this doctrine can be understood only by lefer-
i ing to the difficulties which arise from the effort
to show any causal relation between physical
facts and mental facts The physicist holds
that there is no loss of energy in the world
through changes in the distribution of energy
of motion When, therefore, light arouses
a sensation, the physicist cannot accept any
doctrine which would hold that physical energy
has been transformed into psychical energy,

PARALYSIS

PARANOIA

since such a transformation would tend to
reduce the amount of physical energy in the
world In view of the attitude of the physi-
cists in this matter, psychologists have found
some difficulty in accounting for the relation
between mental processes and physical facts
They have, therefore, been content to recognize
that there is a parallelism between the two
groups of phenomena and have been willing
to postpone or leave as entirely insoluble the
determination of the exact nature of this
relationship In this form, the doctrine of
psychophysical parallelism simplv evades the
difficulties above referred to Mental facts
and physical facts can now be discussed under
this general dortime without going into the
metaphysical pioblem of the ultimate relation
between the two sets of facts

Several questions might arise at this point
Is every physical fact always paralleled by
some mental fact? Those who answer this
question in the affirmative and hold that theie
is a complete parallelism between the two
sets of facts aie sometimes railed " panpsv-
chists " On the other hand, most psycholo-
gists are satisfied to limit the assumption of
parallelism to those cases in which theie is
some obvious psychological ad\antage in the
study of this paiallchsm Sensation piocesses
and thought processes, which depend upon
cerebral activity, are evidently included un-
der such cases Whethei the vibiations of the
molecules in a stone ate accompanied b\ con-
scious piocesses is a puielv speculative problem
which has no significance foi the psychologist
Certain writers ha\e confused the meta-
physical and the psychological interrelation
of this doctrine, and have attempted to make
it appeal thai the psychologists who wish
to avoid by the adoption of this doctiine all
metaphysical discussions aie in ieaht\ deny-
ing ceitain metaphysical relations such as
i elation of causation Such a contention is,
however, wholly unjust ihed, as will be found
by a reference to the writings of Wundt who
is one of the foremost defenders of this doc-
trine in psychology (See his Outlines of Psy-
chology, p 300 ) r H J
See PSYCHOLOGY
References —

MACDOUGALL, W PhuMoIoyical Pvychojtyjy (Lon-
don, 1908)
PAULHUN, F Introduction, to Philosophy (Now Yoik,

1895 )
VOLKMANN, W F Lchrhuch ctcr J'si/iholot/u, Vol 1,

Section 1 (Cothrn, 1S94 )

WUNDT, W Outlines of Psychology (Now York,
1902)

PARALYSIS —The lack of the ability
to move one or more parts of the body These
paralyses are of single muscles, of groups of
muscles, or of small or large segments of the
body. The paralysis may be the result of
injuries to or destruction of very different
parts of the nervous system There are those

which result fiorn the injury or destruction
of the peripheral nerves, those which result
from the section 01 disease of the anterior roots
of the spinal cord, those due to disease or
injury to the spinal cord itself, and those
which are due to the destruction oi parts of
the brain

The paralyses are of great interest on the
educational side, since they limit the activity
and, consequently, mental capacity of the
child The paralyse* of infantile type (those
winch are due to injury of the nerves iji the
arm or legs produced at the time of birth)
may not be discovered for some time, until
all powei or possibility of regeneration of the
nerxes has passed away Besides these, how-
e\er, the paralyses in childhood aie mostly
curable, since they aie due most often to
injuries of the external part of the brain, and
of the perrpheral nerves, many of which may
be treated with good effect by surgical means
The education of the paralyzed must be carried
on in (pate a different way from that of normal
individuals, the means must be adapted to the
indmdual equipment The child with right
aim monoplegia or with an hemiplegia cannot,
undei am conditions, be taught to write
with the right hand, although some gross
movements of that side may be possible,
insistence on a special form of enunciation
is also out of the question \uth certain kinds
of f-icial paialysis Each case, however,
must be considered in itself, and it is impossible
to lav down am special rules to apply to every
t\ pe of par ah sis

Very often anesthesia (qv] gives much the
same result as the paralysis itself, because
oi the lack of the sensory stimulation, parts
may not be mo\ed, they become paretic and
sometimes rninio\able It is foi this reason
that abnormal mdmduals of this class should
be given a careful medical examination, and
the teacher should have all of the facts,
medical a^ well as educational, upon which
to base hei training methods

Paralysis is sometimes used as the equiva-
lent of general paralysis of the insane, or pare-
sis (q v ), but is not correctly used in this sense
The term palsy is often used as the equivalent
of paralysis, especially when the nerves arc
involved 8. I. F.

See INFANT-ILK PARALYSIS

References : —

(tiWKiih /Jousts i>f the

Vol I, pp 1 S 26-45
LLW \\DOWSKY Handbiit h dcr Neurologit

1, pp 45,4 4Ml 5U 558, 6S5-772
Ori'KNHEiM Ti rtbook of Nereous Disease* (tntnbhitod

b\ Bruce) 1911 Vol I, pp 423-528, 667

697
Reference Handbook of the Medical Sciences 19(M

Vol VI, p 484

Ncroous System 1S92
1910 Vol

599

PARANOIA — A mental disease character-
ized bv systematized delusions arid, except in
particular, exhibiting; no mental degener-

PARAPHASIA

PARENTHOOD

ation A number of years ago the major part
of those admitted to hospitals for the insane
were diagnosed paranoiacs, but most of these
were undoubtedly suffering from other diseases
in which similar symptoms are found The
paranoid (or paranoia-like) complex consists
of the systematized delusion (qv), and tins is
present in many cases of dementia precox, or
alcoholism, of mamc-dopiessiye insanity, and
even of paresis The distinguishing characteiis-
tics of paianoia are the chromcity and the lack
ot mqiital deterioration, and these conditions
are found in only a few cases showing the
paianoid complex Since the term paranoid
has not been discussed in the article dealing with
dementia piccox (<y ;> ), and on account of its
widespread use, it needs further consideration

As in most of the psychoses, there ib at first
a period of depression, nervousness, and vague
feelings of discomfort This stage is followed
by self-introspection, and by endeavors to
bring the actions of others into line with these
feelings This leads to the reference of one's
feelings, actions, and thoughts to otheis
Manv paranoiacs do not passively undergo
the believed persecutions, but appeal to the
neighbors, to the police, etc.; they go to law;
they commit ci lines and breaches of the peace
Throughout, most of this period theic are
hallucinations of hearing, voices often tell
t he patient what to do, what powei and posi-
tion he has, etc

In the usual paranoid state the systematiza-
tion is less complete True paianoia begins
earlv and is piogiesswe Paianoid states
inav occui at anv time, and mav disappear
when the occasion for the beliefs disappears
It, is now believed by some that the paranoid
state, in all forms, depends upon peculiar
characteristics of the individual leaction,
viz the introspective, shut-in charactonstics,
and that these give a cue foi the undeistanding
of the abnoiniahtv Whether or not this be
the true explanation of all cases, it undoubtedly
plays a pait in many, and the conception is
helpful m directing attention to the jelativclv
frequent child who may need moic of the
teacher's effort in a social way Such children
should be encouraged in every way to come out
of themselves, and to become a part of the
community, thcv should be encouraged to take
part in mass plays and in games in which thcv
mav act successively as leader and subordinate,
and their attention should be attracted largely
to things outside* of themselves S I F

References —
BEHZH, J Uebcr da* Prirntlrxtinipto'm der Paranoia.

(1903)

Morrofl, J Die Paranuut (1SQS )
NEI98ER, C. Paranoia und Srhwachsmn All Ztsch

f Psychiat, 1S90, Vol LIII pp 241-269
WERNER, C Die Paianoia (1891 )

PARAPHASIA — A special form of aphasia
(q v ) in which the patient uses wrong words
to express ideas S I F

PARASITIC DISEASES. — See INFEC-
TIOUS DISEASES.

PARENTAL SCHOOL —See REFORM-
ATORY EDUCATION AND SCHOOLS.

PARENTHOOD — See PARENTHOOD, EDU-
CATION FOR

PARENTHOOD, EDUCATION FOR —

During the early stages of the child-study
movement, there was much debate regarding
the needs of parents for the proper upbringing
of then children Tonsideiable literature ap-
peared on the general topic, " Child study for
parents," in which the view was presented
that the parent's relation to his children must
be naive for the most part The terms " in-
stinctive," " spontaneous, " and " common
sense " appear very frequently m this litera-
ture Nevertheless it was recognized that it
would be of advantage to parents if they could
be made familiar with the more important
requirements for the healthful physical devel-
opment of children, and for their moral train-
ing At the same time, many peisons who
wer c not in sympathy with the new movement
declared that any deliberate study of his
child would be a handicap rather than a help
to a parent, since it would make him more of an
observer and a student than an affectionate
guide and counselor From 1890 to 1895 a
number of prominent, educational men de-
nounced the efforts being made to induce
parents to form child-study societies with a
view to acquiring what was known regarding
the nature of the child and his needs for sound
development Many maintained that parents
would derive greatest help from the pursuit
of such " cultural " subjects as history, lit-
erature, and art, which would enable them in
their association with then children to give
them the inspiration which was said to emanate
only from these sources On the other hand,
the men and women who had inaugurated
the child-study movement were, and still aie,
most diligent m their attempts to encourage
parents as well as teacheis to study the child
in some such way as they would investigate
any object with a view to detei mining its
nature and the best methods of dealing with
it As a consequence of these efforts, there
is to-day a widespread belief in this country,
and also in England, and to a lesser extent in
Germany, France, and Italy, that all who deal
with children would be aided in their work
if they could be made familial with what is
established respecting the native tendencies of
the young, and their physical, intellectual, and
social needs This interest, as it is related to
education for parenthood, is expressed in a
variety of institutions and organizations

Institutional Education — In our own country
and in England there has been a considerable
demand from various parents' organizations
600

PAKKNTHOOD

PARENTHOOD

during the last decade that studies dealing
with requirements toi efficient parenthood
should he offered in high schools, normal
schools, colleges, arid universities There are
as yet, however, no courses in any of the groups
of institutions mentioned which aim duectly
at training for parenthood An examination
of the curricula of many high schools in all
sections of the country, and an iiiquny made
of a large number of the principals oi these
schools, indicate that pupils therein have
manifested no mtciest in couises for paient-
hood, and would probably not puisne them if
they weie offered Tn a veiy few instances,
where high schools attempt to tram teachers,
certain topics relating to the nature of the
child are discussed in the couises in psychology
But it is probable that the students in these
classes acquire little, if anything, which j elates
specifically to the problems of parent hood

An examination of the curricula of the
normal schools throughout the countiy shows
that no attention is given to effective educa-
tion in the home The psychology presented
in these schools is for the most pa it analytic,
adult psychology In eighteen normal schools,
courses are described which deal with the
development of the child mind, as distinguished
from the functioning of the adult mind But
this instruction refers particulailv to the needs
of t he teacher rather t han to those of the parent.
And as in the high school, so here the instruc-
tion given in methods of teaching is not at all
suited to the conditions, oppoit unities, and
needs in the home

One might expect that some attention would
be given to the study of parenthood in women's
colleges, but with two exceptions, possibly,
there is no work whatever offered in these4
colleges bearing directly on any of the prob-
lems of parenthood

The Mississippi State Industrial College
(for women) at Columbus has begun to le-
organize its curriculum and its work with a
view to training girls specifically for home
responsibilities A plan has been projected
in which every girl will be lequned to pursue
courses pertaining to tin* nature of clnldien,
their physical care and intellectual de\elop-
ment, and their ethical and moral training
The plan provides for cottage life for the
students, so organized that each girl before
she graduates will be required to manage a
cottage in all details as a typical home, in-
cluding the care and culture of childhood
This work will be required before a degree will
be given.

While no work in the universities anywhere
is designed mainly as a training for parent-
hood, there are still courses which relate to
the nature and education of the child, in the
home as well as in the school Seventy-one
important colleges and universities at present
offer well-organized courses under such titles
as " child study," " genetic psychology,"

" psychology of the child," " mental develop-
ment," and " adolescence." In several uni-
versities a study of the child from birth on-
ward is included in the general subject of
" principles of education " Although the em-
phasis in these courses is not laid upon the
parent's role in the education of the child,
nevertheless much of what is presented relates
quite directly to parental problems It should
be added that a large proportion of the col-
leges and some of the older universities offei
no work relating to child nature Even in
the courses in psychology, no reference is made
to child psychology

An inquiry made concerning the interests
of the students who elect such subjects as
" child study," " mental development," and
the like, shows that these courses are not
chosen primarily as a preparation for parent-
hood They are conducted, with but rare
exceptions, in the department of education,
arrd are pursued by students who are can-
didates for teachers' positions It is worthy
of remark that in the domestic science depart-
ments of the agricultural colleges, in which
much attention is given to the making of a
home ID respect to the purchase and prepara-
tion of food, the sanitation and decoration of
the home, and so on, little if anything is said
legardmg the traits and education of children
Such questions, however, are frequently con-
sidered when these agricultural colleges hold
eon vent ions of women who live on the farm

In all the kindergarten training colleges
courses are conducted which pertain to the
nature of the young child, and the method of
his mstiuetion and entertainment. For the
most part these courses are presented in the
spmt of Froebehan philosophy and in meta-
physical terminology It is probable that on
the theoretical side they do not deal very
closely with the actual manifestations of child
life in the home, but on the practical side they
appeal to present helpful methods in directing
the child's actmties In this way they may
be of substantial aid to a parent in the training
of his child In the Chicago Kindergarten
College a definite course for parents has been
organized foi the purpose of discussing mat-
ters pertaining to the spiritual and physical
nurture of children, such as the direction of
the child's activities in the home, children's
failuies and how to utilize them, the treatment
of the child's questions, the meaning of imi-
tation in the child, and so on Practical les-
sons are given on the value of stories, games,
and handwork in the development of the
child Lectures are also given on eugenics, in-
cluding heredity, sex development, infant
mortality, and kindred matters These
courses are offered to mothers and students
free of charge. Two hundred students were
enrolled in these courses in 1911-1912. This
work has attracted attention, not alone in
Chrcago, but in other cities also, and there is

f>01

PARENTHOOD

PARENTHOOD

an indication thai Minilai courses will soon
be instituted elsewhere

The Stout Institute at Menomonee, Wis ,
now a state institution, offers similai work
So far as can be ascertained, the Institute
is exceptional in respect to the attention which
is given to studies pertaining directly to
parenthood

It is of special importance to note that in
several of the Chicago elemental v schools
" Little Mothers' Classes " aie being conducted
on Friday afternoons The girls aie taught
the duties of motherhood, and, wherever pos-
sible, babies aie used by nurses to exemplify
the work This work is done by the nurses
who regularly visit the schools

No courses are offered in educational institu-
tions in any foreign country aiming dnectly
at preparation for parenthood Much is
being accomplished in the study of child
life in Germany, and to a less extent in
France, England, and Italy, but most of
what has been established has not yet reached
parents at all At the present moment, though,
there is lively activity, in ( Herman v and Eng-
land especially, in the formation of societies
and congresses foi the dissemination of knowl-
edge pertaining to the child

The National Congress of Mother — Un-
doubtedly the most effective organization in
the world to-day for the development of in-
terest in the rational care and cultuie of the
child in the home is the National Congiess
of Mothers, established in the United States
in 1897 At the piesent tune, this Con-
gress has in the neighborhood of 75,000
members, distributed throughout the coun-
try, and the list is increasing rapidlv Neaily
all the states have congresses affiliated
with the National Congiess Thcic lias been
organized undei the Congress a National
Parent-Teacher Association, and an Intei-
riational Congress on the Welfaie of the
Child. The latter Congress meets every thud
yeai, and it is designed as a medium for the
dissemination throughout the woild of the
ideals for which the Congress of Mothers
is woikmg The Parent -Teacher Association
has become an integral part of the National
Congress In the original statement of the
purpose of the Congress, emphasis was
laid upon the aim of educating parents so
that they might intelligently care for their
children physically, and direct- their spmtual
development Cooperation of the home with
the school was also made prominent in the
work of the Congress Further, it was the
purpose to promote the establishment of
kindergartens, and to secure legislation which
would adequately care for neglected and de-
pendent children It was stated that the
Congress would seek to secure pioper training
of young people for the opportunities and
duties of parenthood

During its fourteen years of existence the

Congress has worked effectively towaids the
accomplishment of these aims As it has
developed, it has broadened its original pur-
pose, and it now gives attention to such matters
as the establishment of juvenile courts (q v )
and probation associations, the development
of schools for teaching the deaf, the educa-
tion of parents in respect to the evils resulting
from child labor, piopaganda with regard to
the use of the schoolhouse as a social cen-
tei, the establishment of public playgrounds,
the introduction of manual training and do-
mestic science into the school curnculum, co-
operation with farmers' institutes for the
betterment of children in the country, and the
like The Congress has also been active in
the formation of patents' clubs and societies
in foreign countries In 1900 it established
the Cluld Welfare Magazine, in which a prom-
inent place was at first given to scientific
literati!) e dealing with child natuie and the
tunning of children Latterly, howevei, there
have appeared in the magazine articles of a
more practical character, written usually by
parents who have become distinguished for
then helpful suggestions i elating to the train-
ing of the young

The affiliation of Parent-Tea chei Associa-
tions with the Congress of Mothers has changed
somewhat the original chaiacter of the latter,
the tendency now being to give attention quite
largely to questions pertaining to child welfare
in its legal and social aspects, as well as to the
care and training of the child in the home

It LS apparent that the National Congress
oi Mothers, through its great number of affili-
ated stale congresses, local mothers1 circles,
parent-teacher associations, and its Inter-
national Congresses on the Welfare of the Child
will exert an increasing influence through-
out the world for the betterment of child life,
not only in the home, but also in the school
and in the community The chief problems
presented to the Congress now seem to
have reference to the scientific character of
its work It is seeking to make a scientific
treatment of parental problems attractive to
persons who are untrained in scientific methods
and ways of thinking, and those who are
directing its woik appear to have the situation
thoroughly in hand

The Parents' National Educational Union —
This organization, modeled in considerable
part upon the National Congress of Mothers,
is an English society The Union seeks to
treat the development of the child and his
training from the physical, mental, moral,
and spiritual standpoint It aims to reach
fathers as well as mothers, and its efforts are
not limited to the people of any class. It
endeavors to collect and disseminate the best
available information relating to the training
of children and to bring about the cooperation
of parents in any community for the inter-
change of their views and experiences. There

602

PARENTHOOD

PARENTHOOD

are many branches of the central Union, mid
while they are designed particularly for par-
ents, still any person who declares his interest
in education may enroll as a member The
organ of the Union is The Parent*' Review
The Union has also established a library for
the purpose of lending books and articles
pertaining to home education to parents and
any others who may be interested Finally,
it conducts a Mothers' Educational Course
which is designed to be a reading course re-
lating (1) to the methods of religious education,
(2) the care and development of children in
sickness and health, (3) the study of the prin-
ciples and methods of education, and (4) par-
ticularly to the development in children of
an interest in nature The course is designed
to be systematic, and to be completed by an
examination

Another English association similar in aim
to the Parents' Union, but not so compie-
hensive in scope, is the Child Study Society,
London, which concerns itsell with the " scien-
tific study of the mental and physical condi-
tions of children, and also of educational
methods " Its organ is Child Study

International Congie^ on Home Education
— In 1905 an International Congress on
Home Education was instituted in Belgium
under the direction of the Belgian gov-
ernment At this first meeting twenty-four
different governments were represented, and
1200 delegates were in attendance About
250 specialists in the countries represented
contributed papers pertaining to childhood
and child welfare, and these were published
in seven volumes Although not circulated
extensively in English-speaking countries,
they have played a considerable role rn
developing in continental Europe an interest
in the psychology, pcd.igogv , sociology,
and biology of child life Since the hist
International Congress, which was held at
Liege, there have been two others, - one
at Milan in 1906 under the patronage of the
king of Italy, and the other at Brussels in
1910 in connection with the Universal Ex-
hibition It has just been decided to hold the
fourth International Congress at Philadelphia,
in 1914 The Congress consists of fi\e sec-
tions. (1) The study of childhood, (2) the
education of children, (3) abnormal children

(4) various subjects relating to children, and

(5) literature

International Congress on Pedology - As
some of the members of the International
Congress on Home Education believed that its
scope was too comprehensive, there was estab-
lished in 1911 at Brussels an international
congress for the purpose of bringing together
persons interested in the scientific study of
child development It is composed largely
of psychologists, psychiatrists, educationists,
and persons of kindred interests

It is not at all improbable that during the

next few years most of the national arid in-
ternational congresses which are now being
formed will become merged into two or thiee
general organizations, which will centrah/e all
the activities relating to the study oi child-
hood

Child Wclfaic Erhihit^ — During the wmtei
of 1910 an exhibit \vas held in New York for
the purpose oi showing in as concrete a way
as possible by means oi photographs, symbolic
representations, lectures, and living demon-
strations the actual conditions of child life,
and practical methods of consei\ing the health
and improving the morals of the vuing The
exhibit proved to be so successful that it was
transported to Chicago, where it was enlarged
and presented during the month of May,
1911 As a result oi the success of these two
exhibits, plans are in preparation for similar
exhibits in a number of cities of the country
So far as can be ascertained, no vital criticism
has been passed on the usefulness of such
exhibits It seems apparent that the general
plan of exhibiting the iacts of child life in a con-
crete, dynamic way will meet with increasing
favor, and be adopted by communities in every
part of the country

These exhibits present pictonally and in
living demonstrations facts pertaining to child
life in the home, on the street, in the school,
in the church, in the theater, in the public
hbrary, in clubs, in associations, on the play-
ground, and rn amusement halls Lectures
are also given by competent persons upon every
phase of child life tieated in the exhibit

Educational D( paitnu ntt* of ir«///tw'.s Clubs.
— Visitors to America from foreign countries
generally express surprise at the thorough-
going \va\ in which the women here aie or-
ganized for educational purposes In most
communities there rs at least one woman V
club, the puipo.se of which is to enable itf-
members to participate m the intellectual ,
social, educational, and philanthropic activities
ol the community Orrgmally the women'?
clubs gave their attention largely to literary
and artistic pursuits, but latterly they have
undertaken to study in a careful way the
life of the communities in which they aie
situated, with a view to suggesting improve-
ments therein These clubs are usually con-
ducted under various departments, one of
which is concerned \vith education A pro-
gram is prepared by the educational depart-
ment at the beginning of the year which relates
either to the training of children in the home,
or to the improvement of educational con-
ditions in the school and of child life in the
community In some instances the members
pursue courses of reading in connection with
the various topics discussed

It seems evident that the influence of wom-
en's clubs is becoming constantly more potent
for good in the betterment of conditions for
the child in the home, in the school and in

603

PARENTHOOD

PARENTHOOD

society There is a developing conviction
among the members of these clubs that the
chief work of women should relate to child
welfare. In some cities, only those depart-
ments of the women's clubs that are concerned
with one or another phase of civic activity
arouse much enthusiasm in the members
These clubs have already in many places
secured important leforms in respect to the
curriculum and the physical conditions of
the schools, anil tne life of children in the com-
munity They have secured public play-
grounds, gymnasiums for the public schools,
and similar i of onus

Parents' Meetings in Public Schools —
During the past decade, teachers in the public
schools in every section of our country have
been active in attempts to interest the parents
of then pupils in the work of the schools, arid
in matters pertaining to the proper care of
children It is the practice in most places to
give exhibitions or receptions to which parents
are invited, and as a part of the program edu-
cational topics are discussed From reports
received, it is evident that the meetings have
been successful in informing parents regard-
ing new developments in school work, and in
seeming support from the community in
regai d to the extension of educational ad-
vantages, such as the establishment of gym-
nasiums, the improvement of the hygiene of
public schools, the secuimg of playgrounds for
school children, and the like In this work it
has been necessary everywhere for teachers
to take the initiative , and so fai as it has been
possible to secure data for this article, it is
apparent that the success of paientV meetings
has been dependent almost entuHv upon the ef-
forts of teachers However, i espouses received
to a questionnaire regarding the \alue of pai-
ents' meetings in the public schools indicate that
in communities in which these meetings have
been held foi seveial years parents are taking a
more intelligent interest in the work oi their
children in school than they did formerly Re-
ports have come from a number of communities
saying that as a result of the meetings par-
ents now frequently visit the public schools,
and cooperate with the teachers in se-
curing needed improvements which require
financial support from the community

Eugenics Clubs — Theie is beginning to be
manifested in some communities a lively
interest in the subject of eugenics (q v ) In
some cases the women's clubs have taken up
a discussion of this topic Eugenics clubs
have been formed for the purpose of considering
the requirements for the inipioveniont of the
race through the betterment of the conditions
of childhood, both before and after birth
An examination of the programs of some of
these clubs shows that the topics considered
relate directly to problems of parenthood
In at least one state, Iowa, the Federation of
Women's Clubs and the Mothers' Congress

have taken definite steps to make a careful
study of the subject of eugenics A woman
physician has been sent abroad to find out
what progress has been made there in the
study of the subject It is proposed to develop
a method of " scientific scoring " of children
in some such a way as horses, cattle, and corn
are now scored in agricultural colleges. The
physicians of the state worked out a standard
which was applied to a large number of babies,
and included items pertaining to height,
weight, measurement, condition of teeth, of
eyes, of nerves, and so on Apparently the
exhibit at the Iowa state fair attracted favor-
able attention, for it has been repeated in
one form or another in a number of com-
munities in the state M V O'S

See CHILD LABOR, CHILD PSYCHOLOGY;
CHILDHOOD, LEGISLATION FOR THE CON-
SERVATION AND PROTECTION OF, EUGENICS,
FAMILY EDUCATION, HYGIENE, TEACHING OF,
INFANT EDUCATION; MORAL INSTRUCTION,
PHYSIOLOGY, TEACHING OF

References —

ADLER, F The Moral Instruction of Children (New

Yoik, 1K<)5 )

ALLEN, W H Civics* and Health (Boston, 1909 )
BAUNEH, E , od Studies in Education
BIRNLY, T W Childhood (New York, 1905 )
BOHANNON, E W A Study of peculiar and excep-

tional Childim 7Vr/ Se?n , Vol IV, pp 3-00
The Only Child in a Family Pad Kern , Vol V,

]> 475
BRKKJH, L \\ H S(hool, Colhgc, and Chaiacter

(Boston, 1901 )
England, Boaid of Education Memorandum on the

Teaching of Infant Care and Managtmcnt in Public

Elunentatij AW/w/s (London, 1()10)
Report of theConbultativf Cominittfe upon th( School

A ttendaiu e, of ( Children bdow the Age of 5 (London,

190S)
FORBUSH, W B Tfn Boii Pioblem A Study in Social

Pedagogy (Boston, 1907 )
GRKH.H, E II. Moral Education (New York,

1905 )
GUNC KEL, J E Boijinlle A History of Fifteen Years'

Work among Nc ws/>oy/,s (Toledo, 19(M )
H \LL, G S Adolescence ^/s Psychology and its Re-
lation to I'Jiy^wlogy, Anthiopology, Sociology, Sex,

Crinif, Religion, and Education (New Yoik,

1904 )
HARRISON, E A Study of Child Natuie from the

Kindergarten Standpoint (Chicago, 18()5 )
KIRKPATRITK, E A Fundamentals of Child Study

(New York, 1904 )

LOCKE, ,T Some Thoughts concerning Education
MAJOR, D R First Stepj in Mental Growth (N<w

York, 1906)
O'SHEA, M V Dynamic Factors in Education (Now

York, 1906)

Social Development and Education (Boston, 1909 )
PUFFER, J A A Study of Boys' Gangs Ped Sem ,

Vol XII,, pp 175-212
ROUS.SEAU Ennle
SMITH, T L Obstinacy and Obedience, in the Ped.

Sem , Vol XII, pp 27-64
SPENCER, H Education, Chap. Ill (New York,

1S7S )
SWIFT, E J Mind in the Making, Chaps I-III (New

York, 1908)
TYLER, J M Growth and Education, Chape I-III

and XIII. (Boston, 1907 )
WHITE, W. A. The Court of Boymlle (Now York,

1899)

WICJGIN, K D Children's Right*. A Book of Nurs-
ery Logic. (Boston, 1892.)

604

PARENTS AND SCHOOLS

PARISH AND PARISH SCHOOLS

PARENTS AND SCHOOLS, LEGAL
ASPECT OF — Sec FAMILY EDUCATION,
PUPILS' RIGHTS, DUTIES, AND OBLIGATIONS,
PARENTHOOD, EDUCATION FOR

PARENTS' MEETINGS — See PARENT-
HOOD, EDUCATION FOR

PARENTS' NATIONAL EDUCATION
UNION — See PARENTHOOD, EDUCATION FOR

PARENT-TEACHER ASSOCIATION

— See PARENTHOOD, EDUCATION FOR

PARESIS — In a general sense a muscu-
lar weakness It is also a name of a special
neuro-mental disease which is populailv spoken
of as "softening of the brain," and in a scien-
tific way as " dementia paialytica " or " gen-
eral paralysis of the insane "

The use of the term in its geneial sense in-
dicating rnusculai weakness is that which is
most general in neuiological writings The
weakness may result from a variety of phys-
iological and anatomical conditions Those
which are of most common occunence, and
which, consequently, aie best known, aie the
pareses from disuse When an individual
does not utilize ceitain muscles, these muscles
decrease in strength and also in coordination
ability Ceitain muscles of the body aie com-
monly paretic, and practically paralyzed The
muscles moving the scalp and the eais are
examples They aie seldom utilized, and when
one endeavors to move the ears, foi example,
it is found that the movement is slight and
of little force The paresis due to disuse may
be ameliorated by training, and a few attempts
at moving the scalp and the ears will show how
soon these muscles may be tiained and how
readily they acquire a considerable degiee of
force, because of the exercise

A paresis may result fiom disease of the
nervous system, especially fiom certain ceie-
bellar affections It is sometimes found in
neurasthenia (qv), in psychasthema (q v ),
and in hysteria (q v )

Although one of thcpimcipal methods of tieat-
ment of muscular weakness is educational, the
presence of the condition is of much greater
pedagogic interest Exaggerated or premature
feelings of fatigue, accompanied by an apparent
muscular weakness, is evidence of one of the
many diseases of the nervous system, and in
this state no child is fit to carry on the ordi-
nary school work It is criminal to attempt to
stimulate the child under these conditions, he
should be treated as one who is ill and who
needs rest and care more than the mental and
physical exercise of the school day Paresis
m the sense of dementia paralytica is a dis-
ease appearing between the third and fifth
decades. The disease is one in which the
dementia becomes profound very rapidly,
and death usually ensues within two years
after the onset of the symptoms S I F

References —

JONES, E Modern Progress in our Knowledge of
General Paralysis Lancet, U)(M, Vol CLXXVII
pp 209-212

HiiKit, P A Comparative Statistical Study of
Geneial Paralysis Amer Jour of I n*>an 1907
Vol LXIV, pp 241-262
For referenet'H to Paresis in the .sense of muscular
weakness, consult those under PAKALYSIS

PARESTHESIA —An hallucination in the
fields of the skin, muscle, joint, or oigamc
senses, hut commonly of a qualitatively dif-
ferent charactei from the normal perception
of stimuli to these sense organs Most of the
paresthesias have not been analyzed psycho-
logically, although they have a decided impor-
tance on account of then relation to the poorly
undci stood oiganic sensations A common
paiesthesic experience is that oi the foot or leg
tl going to sleep " This LS caused by piessure
on the neive trunks in the upper part of the
leg or at the angle of the knee, and the sensa-
tion 01 peieeption is leferred to the lower part
of the leg The feeling of the piesence of an
amputated limb is another similai paresthesic
condition, due to some irritation in the nerve
fibers which formerly supplied the limb that
was amputated The most common pares-
thesias aie as follows feelings of weakness,
of debility, of famtness, of oppression, of
weight oi constriction, of tightness in the
chest and inability to breathe, of heart con-
striction, of lieait thiobbing, of sinking, of
flying, the beaimg dov\n feelings, formication
(feeling of ciawhng ants), itching, tickling,
(at times), fuirv feelings, numbness, tingling,
some burnings, chilliness, the feeling of a part
of the body t{ falling asleep," and the so-called
girdle sensations Many of these paresthesias
aie found m normal people, and cannot be con-
sidered to be distinctly pathological, although
they reach then height and intensity in path-
ological conditions of the nervous system
The analyses of the paresthesias that arc made
indicate cleaily the artificial division between
the normal perceptions (q v ), illusions (q v),
and hallucinations (q v ) S I F.

References —

HOFPE. J J Eikl&niHQ dir tiinnet>kmi>chunQcn bei Ge-

6 u mien u nd bn Kra nkcn (1 88S )
Luys, J De la persistanee des impressions sensitives

•ipres less amputations Ann dc ptychiat ct d'hyp-

nol , 1895, pp 1M3-199

PARIS, INTERNATIONAL EDUCATION
AND CONGRESSES OF 1867, 1878,
1900 — See INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES OF
EDUCATION

PARIS, SCHOOLS OF — See FRANCE

PARIS, UNIVERSITY OF. — For the his-
torical account see UNIVERSITIES For present
status see FRANCE, EDUCATION IN.

PARISH AND PARISH SCHOOLS.—

See PAROCHIAL SCHOOL SYSTEM AND PARISH
SCHOOLS

PARISH, ELIJAH

PARKER, FRANCIS WAYLAND

PARISH, ELIJAH (1762-1 S25) — Author
of geography texts, graduated from Dart-
mouth College in 1785, and engaged m the
ministry of the Congregational church He
published New fit/stem of Modern Gcogiaphij,
Sacred Geography, and with Jedediah Morse
(qv) Gazetteer of the Baxter n mid Wester ti Con-
tinents (1802) W S M

PARISH SCHOOLS AND PAROCHIAL
SCHOOL SYSTEMS —The schools undei
the contiol of the church, and attached in
some manner to the local system of parish
churches The historical position and chiti-
acter of these schools is discussed under a
number of topics The most important of
these are CH UKCH SCHOOLS , BISHOPS' SCHOOLS ,
('ANON L\\v AND EDUCATION, MIDDLE AGUS,
Ei>ur\Tiov IN, and the REFORMATION \M>
EDUCATION Pievious to the Reformation
the parish school was the most impoitant and
in many places, if not entire countries, practi-
cally the only elemental v school After the
Reformation, the elemental y school continued
to be a parish school in most countries until
the nineteenth century In England it was
a pansh school in fact as in name, in that it
was essentially a chinch-controlled institution
In othei countries the school ictamed the
name, the chinch retained much of its influence,
but the authorized or legal control lay in the
state The development of these schools
into state systems is treated in the important
sections in the articles on the vaiious national
systems See especially the aiticles on ENG-
LAND, EDUCATION IN, SCOTLAND, EDUCATION
iv, GERMANY, EDUCATION IN. At the pres-
ent time the parochial school, suppoited in
whole or in part by the state, and controlled
in whole or in part by the church, exists in
many countries, especially those of dominant ly
Roman Catholic affiliation

The parochial school becomes a problem
especially in those governments which, like
the United States and France, have seveied
completely the relation between Chinch and
State and have removed substantially all
state contribution to church educational
efforts Even in these countnesthe severance
of these ties has not settled the problem con-
nected with the question of church schools
For the recent experience and present status
in Fiance, see the article on FRANCE, EDUCA-
TION IN For the United States, the experi-
ence and piesent status on the legal side is
discussed undei BIBLE IN THE PUBLIC SCHOOLS
The pedagogical aspect is dealt with moie
directly in the articles on MORAL EDUCATION
and RELIGIOUS EDUCATION There have,
however, grown up actual parochial school
systems of great extent entirely independent
of the public school system While the chief
of these is that of the Roman Catholic Chinch,
several of the Protestant denominations sup-
poit elementary schools, and one, at least, —

606

the Lutheran, — has developed an extensive
system This is given in outline in the article
on LUTHERAN CHURCH AND EDUCATION The
administrative aspects of the parochial school
system of the Catholic church and the general
position of that church icgardmg the relations
of the public schools and the parochial school
systems is given under the caption, ROMAN
CATHOLIC CHURCH and the PUBLIC AND PARO-
CHIAL SCHOOL SYSTEMS

The teim " parish" is also used in the state
of Louisiana for what is elsewhere in the
United States termed "county," and is thus
used in connection with educational adminis-
tration (See LOUISIANA, EDUCATION IN )

PARK COLLEGE, PARKVILLE, MO —

A coeducational institution founded in 1S75
Academic, collegiate, and music departments
are maintained The entrance requirements
are fifteen units of high school work The
degrees of B A and M A arc conferred in
course The enrollment oi collegiate students
in 1911-J912 was 227 The faculty consists
of twenty-foui members

PARKER, FRANCIS WAYLAND (1831-
1902) -American educational reformer, born
at Bedford (now Manchester), NH, Oct 9,
1837 He received the rudiments of his
education in the district schools and at a
country academy Later in life (1S72-1875)
lie spent three years in study at the University
of Berlin, Germany From his sixteenth to
his twenty-lust vear he taught in the district
schools of New Hampshire In 18.38 he be-
came principal of schools at Carrolton, 111
With the outbreak of the Civil War he entered
the service of the federal arrnv, and before
the close of the war had risen to the lank of
colonel From 186«r> to 18(18 he was principal
of a grammar school at Manchester, N H ,
and the next four years he taught in the normal
school at Dayton, Ohio Upon his return from
CJeimdiiy m 1875 he was elected superintendent
of the schools at Quincy, Mass , which position
he held for five years For an account of his
labors during this period, see under QUINCY
MOVEMENT From 1880 to 1883 Colonel Parker
was one of the supervisors (assistant superin-
tendents) of the schools of Boston From
1883 to 1899 he was principal of the Cook
County (Chicago) Normal School In 1899
he accepted the principalship of the Chicago
Institute, a pedagogic institution founded by
Mrs Emmons Blame for the scientific training
of teachers One year before his death, this
institution became the School of Education
of the LTniversity of Chicago.

No American educator in modern times has
clone so much to modify and enrich the course
of study in elementary schools He was a
lover of childhood and he had the insight
to see educational problems from the stand-
point of the child. He possessed extraordinary

PARKER, RICHARD GREENE

PARLIAMENTARY EDUCATION

personal powers, and his own enthusiasm and ear-
nestness were always contagious These qualities
enormously increased the attendance at the Cook
County Normal School Students flocked hither
from all parts of the country, and particularly
from the Middle West, and the enthusiastic and
scientific teachers that he trained have done
much to bring about the educational uplift
of our own day His success was due to his
zeal and fondness for children, and open-
mmdedness to whatever came to him fiom the
world outside

His educational publications include Talks
to Teacher*, Hum to Study Geography, Course
in Arithmetic, Talk* on Pedagogics, and a
series of geographic leaders entitled VncU
Robert's Geographies For one year (1883-
1SS4) he edited a monthly educational journal,
The Practical Teacher This journal con-
tained essays by himself and his colleagues in
the Cook County Normal School on the various
aspects of elementary education W. S M

See QUINCY MOVEMENT

References —
FITZPATRICK, F A Frunris Wuvland Parker Educ

Rev , June, 1902, Vol X XIV, pp 2.3-.W
,/Af'KMAN, W S Colonel Fi uiiei^ Wdvlaiul Paikei
Pi or V E .1 for 1{)()J, pp ,W<) -tO()

Francis WH viand Parker and his Work foi Education
(A scries of addresses ) R( p Cutn Ed for 1()02,

Vol 1, pp 231 284

See also the Parker Memorial Numbt-i of the Kkmen-
tdry School Tcacktr for June, 1902

PARKER, RICHARD GREENE (1798-
1869) — Textbook author, graduated fiom
Harvard College in 1S17 and taught for many
veaih in elementary schools His publications
include History of the Grammar School in the
East Paii^h, Roibunj (1826), Aids to English
Composition (1832), Natural Philosophy (1837),
and with James M Watson the National
Series of school readers and the National
spellcis (completed in 1858) W. S M

PARKS — See PLAYGROUNDS

PARLEY, PETER —See GOODRICH, SAMUEL
GRISWOLD.

PARLIAMENTARY EDUCATION COM-
MISSIONS, ENGLAND —The intei voli-
tion of the English Parliament in national
education through the agency of Royal Com-
missions forms a very important side ol the
history of English education The earliest
education commission was a body appointed
to carry out the suppression of monasteries
(See REFORMATION AND EDUCATION ) The
second commission was that appointed un-
der the statute for the abolition of chantries
in 1547 (1 Kdw VI 14) (See CHANTRY
SCHOOLS.) The chantry commissioners missed
a superb opportunity to reconstruct a system
of education from the medie\al material thai
was in their hands, though some of the old

schools were refounded (see the Yorkshire
Chantry Survey, Suitees Society, 1892, by
William Page) The thud commission was
appointed under Statutes ,39 Ehz 6 and 43
Ehz 4 and 9 whereby commissioners for char-
itable uses were appointed to deal with the
misemploymcnt of charitable gifts This body
pro\ed vei y ineffective in consequence of there
being a statutoiv right of appeal from its
decisions, but it in iact reformed thirty-three
impoitanl schools between 1601 and the be-
ginning of the nineteenth century The com-
mission was abolished by statute in 1888 (See
CHA\TCKK\, COURT OF ) In 1649 the Common-
wealth Pailiament appointed a large commis-
sion to deal with education in Wales and
Monniouthshne The commissioners wrere in-
tended to exercise both ecclesiastical and civil
powers over schoolrnasteis (See COMMON-
WEALTH IN ENGLAND AND EDUCATION ) We
inav note in passing that in 1687 a high com-
mission was appointed b\ the Crown to deal
with the obstinate refusal of the Universities
of Oxfoid and Cambridge to admit Roman
Catholics to University privileges, while in Oc-
tober of the same yea? a special commission
was appointed to exercise visitatorial jurisdic-
tion ovei Magdalen College, Oxford, and secuie
Roman Catholic piedommance in the College
In 1695 the Greenwich Hospital Naval School
was founded bv a Royal Commission aided
bv the Register Act of 1696 (7 and S Will
IN c 21) In 1788 the lush Pailiament
passed an Act providing foi the appointment of
a Commission to consider the state of Educa-
tion in Ireland (25 C,eo 111 c 15) In 1806
the Imperial Parliament passed an Act (46
Geo III c J22) to inquire into " the general
funds and re\enues gi anted for the purposes
of education, and into the state and conditions
of all schools in Ireland " The first chairman
of this commission (which presented fourteen
Reports between 1806 and 1813) was the sixth
Duke of Bedford, the father of the famous
educational .statesman Lord John Russell
(q v ) In 1824 another Irish commission
was appointed that presented nine Reports
In 1831 a Permanent Irish commission on
education was appointed and this commission
received roval charters in 1845 and 1861 (Sec
IRELAND, EDUCYTION iiv. )

In England a select parliamentary com-
mittee was appointed in 1816 to "enquire into
the Education of the Lower Orders v which
issued a report dealing with London in the
same year It was reappointed in 1818 and
reported on the whole kingdom and declared
that "the anxiety of the poor for education
was daily increasing " in town and country
alike despite the "neglect and abuse " of edu-
cational foundations and the fact that the
education societies almost wholly confined
their efforts to the great towns. The Com-
mittee also dwelt on the growing religious
loleiance in the schools. The conscience

607

PARLIAMENTARY EDUCATION

PARLIAMENTARY EDUCATION

clause (q v ) was in fact already in operation
The committee advocated different methods
for town and country, in towns a system of
aiding schools by building grants (the system
adopted in 1833) and in helpless country dis-
tricts a system of practically rate supported
free parochial schools (the system adopted in
1870) The report is a document of the first
importance in the histoiy of {English education.
This committee succeeded in passing an act-
in 1818 (58 Geo Til c 91) appointing com-
missioners to inquire into educational chanties,
who were appointed and reappoirited until
1837 This commission dealt with endow-
ments of the total value of £1,209,395 In
1835 a select committee recommended a
permanent board of charity coimmssioneis
In the same year the Poor Law Commissioners
appointed under the Poor Law Act 1S34 regu-
lated the education of the pauper children
(See POOR L\w EDUCATION ) On August
17, 1833, the first parliamentary giant for
education was voted On June 4, 1834, a
select committee of the House of Commons
on education was appointed and a report
consisting of evidence was issued on August 7
On March 3, 1835, a further select committee
on education was appointed which reported
with evidence only on August 3 On July 14,
1835, a select committee was appointed " to
inquire into the best means of extending a
knowledge of the Fine Arts and of the prin-
ciples of Design among the people — especially
the manufacturing population of the Country "
The report of this committee (and of another
formed in 1849) led to the foimation of
the Science and Art Department, which was
brought under the Education Depaitrnent in
1856 A third select committee on educa-
tion was appointed on Nov 30, 1837 It
reported on Julv 13, 1838, and pointed out that
voluntary effort alone was giving anything
" worthy the name of Education " in large
towns The condition of the children in these
towns was very serious, as they began work at
the age of nine years The position demanded,
in the view of the committee, " some strenuous
and persevering efforts to be made on the part
of the Government if the greatest evils were
not to follow " The committee insisted that
daily educational provision must be made for
at least one eighth part of the population, that
special provisions must be made in poor dis-
tricts, that the Treasury Grant System must
be extended On April 10, 1839, a permanent
committee of the Privy Council was appointed
to deal with National Education This body
by an Order in Council of February 25, 1856,
became the Education Department, and this
Department by an Act of 1899 became the
present board of Education In 1849 another
Royal Commission on Chanties was appointed
under Lord Chichester which reported that "the
evils and abuses tire still in existence to a very
wide extent, and no sufficient remedy has yet

been provided for this correction " and again
recommended a permanent body of Charity
Commissioners These commissioners were
appointed by the Charitable Trusts Act of
1853, and their powers have since been com-
pletely regulated by Parliament. By the
Education Act, 1899, the powers of the com-
missioners over educational endowments were
transfer red to the Board of Education

In February, 1858, on the motion of Sir
John Pakington, a Royal Commission, the New-
castle Commission, was demanded by Parlia-
ment " to inquire into the present state of popu-
lar education in England, and to consider and
report what measures, if any, are required for
the extension of good and cheap elementary
instruction to all classes of the people " The
commission was gazetted on June 22, 1858,
and reported (under the presidency of the
Duke of Newcastle) on March 18, 1861 with
no less than fifty-one recommendations It
recommended that schools should be jointly
supported by state grants and rate grants
depending on the degree of knowledge attained
by the children during the year preceding the
payment of the grant The schools would
have to show eight square feet of superficial
area for each child in average daily attend-
ance Special state grants were to be offered
to schools with less than sixty pupils The
combined grants were not to exceed the fees
and voluntary subscriptions combined, with
an additional grant to stimulate regular at-
tendance The system was to be carried out
by partly elected and partly coopted County
and Borough Boards of Education Minis-
ters of religion wen1 also to sit on these bodies
The proposals of the commissioners were
totally inadequate to meet the educational
position, which was attacked in a different way,
first by the Revised Code introduced by Mr
Lowe (q v ) m 1801, next by Select Committees
in 1865 and 1860, and finally by the statutory
system of compulsory school attendance in-
troduced in 1870 and 1876 In 1886 a Royal
Commission, the Cioss Commission, was ap-
pointed to inquire into the working of the
Elementary Education Acts It reported at
great length in 1888 with a minority report
by eight out of the twenty-three commis-
sioners Its recommendations as to raising
school age, the development of evening schools,
special help for rural schools, and the creation
of undenominational training colleges have
been largely carried out

In 1861* a Royal Commission, the Public
Schools, or Clarendon, Commission, was ap-
pointed to inquire into the nine leading public
schools of the country (Eton, Winchester,
Westminster, Charterhouse, Harrow, Rugby,
Shrewsbury, — all boarding schools, St. Paul's
and Merchant Taylors, day schools) which
were then educating 2696 boys The com-
missioners also dealt with Marlborough,
Cheltenham, Wellington (boarding schools)

(JOS

PARLI AMENTAK V EDU( * YTION

and the City of London and King's College
Schools, London, (day schools ) The com-
missioners reported in 1864, and in 1868 the
Public Schools Act was passed In 1864
another Commission, Schools Inquiry or Taun-
lon Commission, dealt with the endowed
schools and problems in secondary education
not considered by the Duke of Newcastle's
Commission of 1858 and the Clarendon Com-
mission of 1861 The Schools Inquny Com-
mission included Fredenck Temple, William K
Forster, Dean Ifooke, and Sir Staffoid North-
cote, assisted by James Hryce, Matthew Arnold,
and Joshua Fitch Its report, issued in J867,
is of the greatest value in the histoiy of English
secondary education and contained a numbei
of important suggestions for the improvement
of the educational and admimsti alive systems
which were not adopted until the end of the
century This commission repoi led and stated
that there were 572 endowed grainnuu schools
at work with a net income of £]8:j,010 and ex-
hibitions to the annual value of £13,897 It
was foi this Endowed Schools Commission that
Matthew Arnold repoitcd in France, Germany,
Switzerland, and Italy and advised the country
to " organize your secondary and youi supenoi
instruction" The commission specially dealt
with secondary education for guls Then
report led to 'the passing of the Endowed
Schools Act, 1869 (qv), and the lapicl multi-
plication of secondary schools for gnls as well
as boys created out of the old endowments
Under this Act, Endowment Schools Com-
missioners were appointed who before then
powers passed to the Charity Commissioners
in 1874 reformed and gave schemes to no less
than 235 schools The working of the En-
dowed Schools Acts was subjected to Parlia-
mentary inquiry from 1S84 on wauls In 1SS1
a Committee of the Education Depait merit was
appointed by the Government to inqune into
the conditions of mtei mediate and higher
education in Wales This led to the Welsh
Intermediate Act of 1889 and finally to the
creation of a Welsh Department working in
connection with, but independent of, the English
Board of Education In 1894 a Koval Coin-
mission, the Hryce Commission, was appointed
"to consider what are the best methods of
establishing a well-organized system of secon-
dary education in England, taking into account
existing deficiencies, and havrng regard to
such local sources of revenue from endowment
or otherwise as are available or may be made
available foi this purpose " The Rt Hon J
Bryce was chairman, and three of the seventeen
commissioners were ladies The Report in
nine volumes, presented in August, 1895,
recommended the appointment of a general
Education Department under a Minister of
Education and a Consultative Education Com-
mittee (one third appointed by the Crown,
one third by the Universities, and one third
coopted), which should absorb the Charity

PAKT TIME ATTENDANCE

Commissioneis (as regards education), the
Science and Art Department, and the Educa-
tion Department The creation of the Board
of Education by an Act of 1899 in part carried
t hese proposals into effect, while the Education
Act, 1902, provided for the local organization
of education to some extent on the lines
suggested by the Royal Commission

In 1901 an interdepartmental committee
of the Board of Education arid the Local
Government Board repoitcd on the whole
question of the employment of children out
of school hours The 'practice was not alto-
gether condemned Legislation has followed
(See CHILDHOOD, LEGISLATION FOR THE CON-
SERVATION AND PROTECTION OF, CHILD
LAHOR )

References- —

HAIFOUR, (1 Ed motional Sy^temi of Great Britain

and Inland (Oxford, m03 )
MoNTMOHENry, J E (J DE Slate Intervention in

Enalish Eduffifion (Cambridge, 1902)
P/wf/rrss of Edutation ui England London, (1904)

PARMA, ROYAL UNIVERSITY OF -

See ITALY, KIM c \TION IN

PAROCHIAL

S( HOOLS

SCHOOLS. — See PARISH

PAROXYSM A sudden attack and some-
times only an cxaceibation oi certain diseases
Tli» trim j> also commonly used to indicate
a spasm effect , c q , piuoxvsms oi iear See
SI'\SM s 1 F

VOL. IV — 2 R

PARSONS COLLEGE, FAIRFIELD, IA

— A coeducational institution founded by
Lewis B Paisons of Buffalo, N Y , who,
in 1855, bequeathed the residue of his
estate, amounting to ,W 7,000, foi the puipose
of ll endowing an institution of learning in
the State of Iowa " In 1874 the citizens of
Kan field, coopeiating with the Presbyterian
Synod of Iowa, oigam/ed to secure the bequest,
donating ^0,000 The charter was leceived
Feb 24, 1S75 Newly elected trustees are
subject to continuation by the S>nod of
Iowa Sixteen membeis of the boaid and the
piesident of the institution must be members
of the Presbyterian church

Buildings and equipment are valued at
$220,000 The productne endowment is
$229,000 The annual income from tuition
and invested funds is $20,000 There are
sixteen members of the teaching staff, eight
of whom aie professors Theie are about
100 students in the College proper The
Academy maintains a four-year course under
a separate teaching staff The B A , B Ph ,
and B S degrees are granted Advanced de-
grees are not gi anted H. M G

PART-TIME ATTENDANCE AT SCHOOL
— England and Wales — The system of part-
time attendance or the half-time system has

609

PART-TIME ATTENDANCE

PART-TIME ATTENDANCE

been particularly prevalent in England and
Wales A half-timer or partial exemption
scholar is defined by the Board of Education
as one " who is certified by or on behalf of the
Local Education Authority to be qualified by
age and attainments or previous attendance
for employment in conformity with the by-
laws " The problem of the half-timei is thus
part of the greater problem of child labor (q v )
which includes not only street trading and
casual employment, but also the tegular em-
ployment of school children out of school hunts

The half-time system arose with the factory
and educational legislation which followed
the industrial revolution Its beginnings are
found in the educational clauses of the Factoiv
Acts of 1833 and 1844, which requited childien
employed in factories to attend school half
the day or so many days per week, but it was
the Education Act of 1870 that hi inly estab-
lished the system Under this Act was gr ant ed
partial relief from compulsory attendance at
school to children between the ages of ten
and thirteen who had reached a certain stand-
ard of education Although subsequent Edu-
cation Acts (1870, 1880, 1893, 1899) ha\e
modified the conditions foi exemption, the
system of to-day is practically the same as
that of 1870 Exemption may still be ob-
tained by passing a " labor examination
varying in difficulty from that of Guide 111 to
that of Grade VI, while since 1899, 300 attend-
ances (morning or afternoon sessions) lor each
of five preceding years, not necessarily con-
secutive, have also sufficed The qualifica-
tion is, in many cases, absurdly low and is
further complicated by the fact of local option
A city 01 county council may or maj not pass
by-laws permitting half time within its juris-
diction Some cities, c g London, Birming-
ham, Plymouth, and Newcastle, have no half-
timers, other towns, especially the textile
towns of the North, have large numbers conse-
quent upon low standards for exemption
Four half-timers out of every five are found
in the factory districts of Lancashire and
Yorkshire

The following table shows the development
of the half-time system The figures, how-
ever, must be interpreted cautiously, because
they represent the total numbers in any given
year The actual number at any given
moment was, of course, much smaller Thus
in 1906-1907 the average number of half-timeis
was only 47,360, although the total for the
year was 82,493

YKAR

1875-1876
18^0-1891
1895-1896
1900-1901
1905-1906
1909-1910
1910-1911

No OF HALF-TIMERS
201,284
173,040
119,747

74,468

81,981

75,758

71,475

taken at this time was due to the Act of 1899,
which introduced the principle of exemption
for attendance only.

The half-timer introduces many problems
into school organization and administration
He is difficult to fit in with other children
because he receives only one half the lessons.
Lessons must either be duplicated for him,
thus causing his classmates to mark time, or
he must be neglected and allowed to fall
hopelessly behind them Attempts to segre-
gate him have also proved futile There are
also certain moral and physical dangers con-
nected with his employment He learns
11 mannish " ways without developing manly
control, with the result, that he tends to be-
come a nuisance in the home, the school, and
Ihe street The strenuousness of modern in-
dustrial life also lea\es its mark upon him,
all the physical measurements that have been
made show him to be the inferior of his school
fellows in height and weight

Yet inanv aiguments are given in support
of the system It. is said that the half-timer
receives a good technical training in the work-
shop, that the requisite dexterity of fingers
can only be gained at the early age of twelve
or thirteen, that it is good to develop a spirit
of independence, and so forth. On the other
hand, it is pointed out that instruction is
given in a haphazard fashion by any operative
who happens to be his master or mistress for
the time being, that the finger dexterity can
be acquired equally well at fifteen or sixteen,
that the wages earned ($ 30 to $1 a week) are
seldom of absolute necessity to a family, and
that the employment kills off any desire on
the part of the half-timer to continue his edu-
cation at evening or technical classes It
must be acknowledged, however, that the
system is extremely popular with the half-
timeis themsehes They, as wage earners,
enjoy more independence and liberty at home,
and thev have a certain amount of pocket
money to spend

The system, which is opposed by the best
elements in English life, is continued mainly
by the inertia of custom, but is also fostered
by the gieed of non-thinking parents An
Interdepartmental Committee formed to in-
quire into the question of Partial Exemption
from School Attendance reported, in 1909, in
favor of its abolition Although the govern-
ment has never taken upon itself to end the
system, it supported the bill of Mr Walter
Rea, February, 1912, which proposed to raise the
age of exemption from twelve to thirteen and
to refuse exemption to all children who are
not beneficially employed. The bill has passed
its second reading by a large majority (April,
1912) and, if facilities are given by the govern-
ment, it should become law on Jan. 1, 1913

The lowest number, previous to 1910-1911, In the United States the part-time sys-
was reached in 1900-1901. The upward turn tern exists only in a few cities, and there as

610

PARTRIDGE

PASSOW

a result of inadequate seating facilities As
these condition^ are merely exigencies oi
rapidly growing communities, the system of
part-time attendance has no significance See
NEW YORK CITY

See ENGLAND, EDUCATION IN, INDUSTRIAL
EDUCATION

References —

BALFOUH, (J Educational Sj/Rtcnts of Gnat Bnknn

and Inland (Oxford, 1W* )
England, Board of Education Annual Reports

(London )
Consultative Committee Import on Attendance

comftultot y or otkcrwixt at Continuation *S't//rW.v

(London, 1QO<) )
Interdepartmental Committee Report on Partial

Exemptions front School Attcndanc( (London,

1 })()<) )
SADLER, M E Continual ion Schools in England and

else what (Manchester, 1(H)7 )

PARTIALITY -See SCHOOL MVNAGEMJSNT

PARTRIDGE, ALDEN (1785-1X54) —
Founder of military schools in the United
States, graduated from the United Slates
Military Academy in 1SOO, and for twehc
years an mstiuctor in that institution Foi
two years he had charge of the exploiation
of the northwestern boundary of the United
States He organi/ed several secondary
schools upon military pimciples, after the
pattern of West Point, for hoys not amenable
to the milder discipline of the ordinary schools
One oi the most nnpoitant of the military
schools that he oigamzcd was that at Noi \vich,
Conn (1X20), which was incorporated MS Nor-
wich Uimnsity in 1S34 If is publications
include Lcduuson Education (1S25) and many
papers on military subjects \V S M

See MIMTMIY Ki>u</ATio\

PASCAL, BALISE --See TORT ROYALISTS

PASCAL, JACQUELINE f 1025-1 601) -
French educator, younger sister of Blaise
Pascal While still in her early twenties, she
tried in vain to persuade her father to allow
her to enter a convent After his death ( 1051),
she became a nun, and was made subnustress
(1055) of the novices at Port-Royal (</ v ) In
this capacity she was directly in charge of the
education of the younger children, wheie she
followed the method of training for which
her brother was responsible, and she is de-
serving of no small portion of the credit for
the success attained in this work with the
younger classes She stoutly resisted giving
her assent to the Papal Bull against Jansenism,
out in the end she was forced to yield and
died of grief a few months later. Her most
impoitant writing was Reglemait pour /r,s
Enfants dc Port- Royal (1005) F E F

References —

CADET, FELIX I/ Education a Port- Royal (Paris,
1887), tr by Jones, A. D. (New York, lS9h )

C'ouhiN, VK KJH Jntqmlim Pascal (Pans, l<S4,r> )
HODGSON, («I<RALDJNK jS7w/«& in French Education
from Itahtltn* to Hou^eau (( Umbridge, 1!)G<S )

PASCAL'S TRIANGLE —A triangular
array of numbers known long before the time
of Pascal (qv), but so e\tensi\el> studied by
him as to be called by his name The numbers
are written in this form --

2 1

3 3 1
4041

5 10 10 5 1

and so on Each number is derived bv adding
the number just above to the number at the
left oi the latter The successive lines are
evidently the coefficients of the various
powers of a binomial, ;uid the device has,
therefore, considerable interest rn the teach-
ing of the binomial theorem The triangle,
or its substantial equivalent, first appeared
in print on the title-page of a work by Apianus
(or Bienewitz, 14()5-1552), which appeared in
1527 The following is a facsimile of this
hist printed form

D E S.

PASSION — Tins term is used to designate
strong or uncontrolled emotional states From
the point of Mew of education such uncon-
trolled states of emotion are significant as in-
dicating a lack of training on the part of the
individual Children, especially those who
are more or less abnormal, are likely to exhibit
fits of passion such as anger or rage The cor-
rective for such uncontrolled expressions of
emotion is veiy commonly some general treat-
ment of the whole physical system A sharp
distinction should be drawn between such
emotional states and voluntary activity The
whole matter may be referred to the general
discussions of emotions C H J

PASSOW, FRANZ (1780-1833) —Ger-
man philologist, was l)oiii at Ludwigslust,
Mecklenburg, and studied at the University
of Leipzig under Gottfried Hermann Tn
1807, although not quite twenty-one years old,
he was appointed professor of Greek literature
at the gymnasium of Weimar He owed this
appointment to Goethe, who had met the young
man and had been very favorably impressed

Gil

PASTOKKT

I'VTON

by his enthusiasm for literature and classical
antiquity. In 1810 he was called to direct the
Conradmum, an educational institution in
Jerikau, near Danzig In 1815 he became
professor of philology and archaeology at the
University of Breslau, where he remained un-
til his death In 1818 he became involved in
the controversy which raged around the in-
struction in gymnastics introduced by Har-
nisch (q v ) Passow, who was fond of physical
exercise, strongly supported Harmsch, and
published in his defense a book called Turn-
zid (Ann of Gymnastics), which neatly cost
him his position Attempts weie made to
remove him from Breslau, but his reputation
as a scholar and teacher was too great His
chief work is his great lexicon of the Greek
language (Handworterbuch der qnech \\chen
tipro,che), first published in 1819, a recent
edition appeared in 1901 P M

References —

SANDYH, J E. History of Classical Scholarship, Vol

III (Cambridge, 1908 )
WACHLER Passow'a Leben and Bnefe (Broslau,

1839 )

PASTORET, MME DE — See INFANT
SCHOOLS

PATHOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY —See

ABNORMAL, DEK \NGEMENT, INSANITY, PSY-
CHIATRY, PSYCUOPATHOLOGY

PATHOLOGY —See MEDICAL EDUCA-
TION, also HYGIENE

PATON, JOHN BROWN, DD (1830
1911) — Was born at Galston in Ayrshire
After attending the parish school he acted as
usher in a private school in Gloucester, en-
tered Spnnghill Congregational College with
R W Dale, took his M.A at London Uni-
versity with Gold Medal for Philosophy, be-
came minister of the Wicker Church, Sheffield
In 1803 he wuh appointed first principal of
the Congregational Institute at Nottingham,
founded to provide training for pastors and
evangelists of country chinches He felt the
social influence of the church and throughout
his life advocated the cooperation of all Chris-
tian churches in the "Inner Mission" for the
healing of social evils and preached redemptive
service In 1870 and the following years he
stood out against the policy of secularism in the
public elemental y schools under the new Act
He cooperated with Professoi James Stuart
m the early years of the University Extension
Movement (qv), and the University Lectures
at Nottingham led to the foundation of the
University College (1881). Seeing the need
of public education between the ages of thir-
teen and seventeen and the inadequacy of the
old night school to supply the need, he started
classes under the Nottingham School Board
which combined recreative subjects with

musical drill, stereopticon lectures, and practi-
cal handwork of all kinds This led to the
foundation of the Recreative Evening School
Association (1885), which largely increased the
numbers in continuation schools and paved
the way for a new development of evening
classes leading to higher technical and artistic
education Taking a hint from the Chautau-
qua Association (qv), he founded the National
Home Reading Union (q v ) (1889), which gives
guidance and help for reading, private and
associati\e In connection with the Home
Reading Union the first summei meeting in
England was held at Blackpool, leading to the
regulai extension meetings at Oxford and
Cambridge He founded the Cooperative
Holidays Association (q v ) to provide cheap
holidays in which working folk should have the
companionship of university men and women
He founded at Longlield a Colony of Mercy
(1895) on the model of Bodelseh wing's Colony
at Bielefeld for the practical training of unem-
ployed and the educational care of epileptic,
and feeble-minded children, hitherto herded
together with the imbeciles in the workhouses
He founded the Social Institute Union (1886)
with a view to providing, for the most part
in the Board School buildings, counter-attrac-
tions to the public house He founded the
Bovs' Life Brigade, with objects and methods
similai to the Boys' Brigade, but dispens-
ing with all use of guns, and laying stress on
ambulance work, fire drill, and all training
for the saving of life He also founded the
Gills' Life Brigade and the Brigades of Service
for young men and women He was one of
the moving spirits in the formation of the
British Institute for Social Service (1904), the
Christum Union for Social Service (1894), and
the Scottish Chnstian Social Union (1901)
lie was chairman of a Vagrant Children's
Protection Committee He was much inter-
ested in the reestabhshment of the yeomanry
on the land and founded a Cooperative Small
Holders' Association and a Cooperative Banks
Association He was instrumental in adapting
the Elberfeld systems of pool relief to English
conditions and m the establishment of Civic
Guilds of Help in large towns of England. He
was joint editor of the Eclectic Renew (1858 to
1861) and of the Contcmporcny Review (1882
to 1888)

In addition to numerous pamphlets he
wrote A Review of Renan's Life of Christ,
The Origin of the Priesthood, The Twofold
Alternative, Materialism or Religion and the
Church, a Priesthood or a Brotherhood ; The Inner
Mission of the Church , two volumes of Collected
Essays. Church Questions of To-day and the
Apostolic Faith and its Record* J L. P.

References —

MARPHANT, J John Brown Paton, Educational and

Social Pioneer (London, 1909 )
SADLER, M E Continuation School* in England and

elsewhere (Manchester, 1907 )

G12

PATRICK, ST

PVTKIOTISM

PATRICK, ST - See

TION IN

IUKLAND, Knuc\-

PATRIOTISM -The fooling which moves
the individual to identify with his own the
interests of the soeial group to which he he-
longs, and to speak and act accordingly

Origin and Development of Patriotism —
Sociology ascribes the ongin oi patriotism to
the family life, the family being the eaihest
of the social groups In pumitive life sup-
port, protection, and authoiity weie chiefly
represented by the fathoi , hence loyalty to
the father was both natural and nooossan
Fatherism was theiefore the eaihest form of
patriotism With the enlaigomont of the
family into the clan, gens, and tribe, the mtoi-
ests of paiticulai families weie merged in the
interests of the group of which they were
component elements, and loyalty to the faimh
passed ovei into clanmshnoss 01 tribalism
With the amalgamation oi tubes into states
and nations patnotism enlaiged into lo\e
of country, its most conspicuous foim to-
day

Patriotism, then, ongmates in association,
and association is the condition oi its develop-
ment. From this fact we may infer that, if
political and social organization and amalga-
mation continue, patriotism will undeigo a
consequent tiansformation A " Parliament
of man and Federation of the world " would
as certainly conduce to cosmopolitanism oi
political humanism as tubal association has
produced tribalism, and the consolidation of
states into nations has pioduced modern
patriotism Love of country would na tin ally
give place to love of kind

Instinctive Patriotism — Patnotism, as hero
defined, is prnnaiily a sentiment or feeling
This feeling is instinctive Patnotism in
which feeling is the piedornmant element may
thus be called instinctive patiiotism Now
it is characteristic of an instinct that it acts
without reflection Though ongmally pui-
posive in action, and serving as an element
in individual or group preservation, instinct
takes no consideration of objective circum-
stances It is blind impulse When the
stimulus is provided, it opeiates, and its opera-
tion has often led in the couise of biological
and social evolution to the destruction both
of individuals arid of gioups Patriotism,
therefore, so far as it is meiely instinctive, is
impulsive, blind, unreasoning, and inehYctivo
It thrills, it hurrahs, it boasts, it fights and dies
without calmly considering either occasion
or consequence It resents a fancied national
insult without stopping to ascertain whether
it is real It flies to the defense of the sup-
posed interests of its group without inquiring
whether the danger is actual It is blind pa-
triotism and springs from the emotional side
of the mind It differs in no essential respect
from the instinct of the tiger to defend its

young, or from that ot the \vild cat-tie of the
prairie to defend the herd It is easily aroused
and easily stampeded It is a feeling for one's
countn uncontrolled by intelligence, zeal
without knowledge Under its promptings
the patriotic IN sometimes the idiotic The
utterances and actions sometimes evoked by
it show that a man may be a patriot and still
be a fool

Obvioush great national and social dangers
may arise from manifestations of instinctive
patriotism Vs antipathy towaid other nations,
and consequent irreflectne action, it provokes
suspicion, jealousy, hatred, and unnecessary
war It inspires irresponsible and mischievous
declarations with respect to other people, and
snoeimg comments upon their customs and
peculiarities, which tend to provoke hatred
and hostility As Chauvinism and Jingo-
ism it prevents that national receptiveness
which is so essential to progress It is not
eager to learn from other nations ior the very
simple reason that it thinks they have nothing
superior to teach To the instinctive patriot
nothing in foreign nations is worthy of emu-
lation or adoption He speaks without the
slightest reference of " Japs " and k' Chinks "
and " Dagoes", oi "Wild Irishmen" and
" Flat headed Dutchmen " Such a " patriot "
may be a gentleman so far as his more inti-
mate personal relationships are concerned,
but as a national representative he is often
a braggart or a bully No matter, then, how
patriotic one may be, li one's patriotism is
meiely instmetne it is irrational and irre-
sponsible, and consequent h a danger to one's
count iv

In spite of the dangers of instinctive
patiiotism, however, it must be recognized
that, like other instincts, it has served, and
u\i\\ again serve, a very useful purpose
Indeed, in the absence of social intelligence,
it has been essential to the pieservation
oi social gioups When, for instance, the
life oi a nation is in danger its citi/ens must
rise instanth to its defense There is no
tune for serious reflection To deliberate
is to be lost Jlence the social impulse of
resentment and the disposition to spring to
arms is an element of national survival; for
it leads the citizens to act in concert and so
more effect ivoh Without instinctive patriot-
ism no group in a hostile environment could
Iia\e survived On the whole, those groups
in which it was most highly developed are the
ones which have persisted Instinctive patriot-
ism, then, has unquestionably been an ele-
ment in social survival as well as in social
danger and destruction But, however serv-
iceable it may have been in the past, or how-
ovei necessary now in a critical national exi-
gency, it is not the kind of patriotism which
is most- needed to-day It involves govern-
ments in needless strife, and it renders citizens
easily susceptible to the pernicious influence

613

PATRIOTISM

PAULSEN

of kings, diplomats, and unsciupulous politi-
cians It should, therefore, be supplanted us
lapidly as possible by the patriotism of intelli-
gence.

Intelligent Patriotism — It is the function
and power of the intellect to inhibit, sometimes
to eliminate, an instinct Even the instinct
of self-preservation, strong as it is, has some-
times been wholly inhibited by a duly infoi mod
and reflective mind The pioper intelligence
may therefore modify, even reveise, the ac-
tions springing from instinctive feeling Pa-
triotic sentiment may be held subject to a
thorough knowledge of political and social
conditions and a sense of justice When so
held it becomes intelligent patiiotism Intelli-
gent patriotism, then, is patriotic feeling, in-
stinctive patriotism, under the contiol and
guidance of knowledge and reflection It is
love of country and the disposition to serve it,
coupled with a knowledge of how to serve it
well It does not yield to impulse, but controls
it It looks before and after It restrains a
nation from fighting when there are no real
interests at stake The difference between
the two kinds of patriotism is piactically the
difference between impulsive action and rea-
soned action.

The Teaching of Patriotism — With this
distinction between the two kinds of patriot-
ism it ought to be clear that in the effort to
develop patriotism by means of education,
emphasis should be laid not upon stimulating
patriotic emotion, but upon increasing the
factor of intelligence As a rule, we may
safely rely on the existence of patriotic feeling
and devote attention almost, if not quite,
exclusively to the promotion of knowledge
appropriate to its control Saluting the flag,
the singing oi patriotic songs, Fourth of July
celebrations as usually conducted, to say
nothing of the patriotic appeals from pulpit
and rostrum, are directed primarily to stimu-
lating the patriotic instinct Emotional ef-
fects are thereby easily produced Those
who practice these methods really believe
that they are developing patriotism, but
they are merely inciting patriotic emotion
without giving it the proper means of guid-
ance The really needed and difficult thing
is to form the instinct of patriotism so that
it will operate1, even under trying circum-
stances, to the real advantage and safety of
the nation Education should result in im-
parting such knowledge of social history, civics,
and ethics as will result in arousing a sympa-
thetic interest in the merits ind worthy achieve-
ments of all nations and races, a just pride in
our own, and in the development of such
habits of thought as will make patriotism, love
of country, identical with loyalty and de-
votion to liberty, justice, and truth

I W H

See CITIZENSHIP, EDUCATION FOR; also,
CHARACTER EDUCATION.

References -
lifiitNHAM, W;vf H. Every-dav Patriotism Outlook

Vol XO, Nov 7, ]()()H, pp. 534-542
CLEVELAND, GHOV.L,H Patriotism and Holiday Obboiv-

ance North American Kivtvw Vol CLXXXIV,

Apnl f>, 1907, pp (>h3-G!JJ
LAVIKHK, ERNEST The Fatherland Educational Kc-

incw, Vol XXXIII, February, 1907, pp 177-185
SPENCER, H Patriotism, in Facts and Comment*.

(Boston, 1902)

PATRIZZI, FRANCESCO —See RENAIS-
SANCE AND EDUCATION

PAULSEN, FRIEDRICH — Born July 16,
1846, in Langenhorn, Holstein, and died in
Steglitz, near Berlin, August 14, 1908 He
attended the Volkwhule of his native village,
and was piepared by Pastor Thomson for the
gymnasium at Altona, a higher class of which
he entered in 1863 After receiving the
Rcifezcugm,\\ in 186(> he began the study of
theology at the Univeisity of Erlangen in
accoi dance with the wishes of his mothei , but
he was unable to thiow himself into the work
with any enthusiasm, and therefore changed
to philosophy, taking also classical philology
and history, with a view to the possibility
of becoming a gymnasial teacher From 1867
to 1870 he was a student at Berlin (under
Tiendelenbuig, Harms, and Bonitz), and also
at Bonn and Kiel Aftei icceiving his degree
in 1870, Paulson spent the next hve years at
the Umveisitv of Berlin, parti}'1 in rounding
out his knowledge, devoting himself particu-
laily to the study of expeiimental physics,
chemistry, anthropology, economics, juris-
prudence, and politics, partly in composing
his lldbilitatiou^bthrift, \\r8uch einer Ent-
wickhing*>gcs>chichtc dcr Kaiiti*>chen Erkennt-
ni^thcone From 1875 to 1878 he served as
a private decent at Berlin, from 1878 to 1894
as oxtiaordmarv professor, and from 1894 to
Ins death as oidmaiy professor of philosophy
and pedagogy It was his aim, as he himself
declared, to bring philosophy into vital rela-
tion with the general cultuie of the day, re-
garding it as an indispensable element of our
social life He did not care to make converts
to a system, he was opposed to all partisanship
and faction The mission of philosophy was
accoidmg to him not to coerce men's thought
but to set it free, to tram thorn in independent
thinking, not to make thorn passive iccipients
of philosophies Towards the close of his life
he appealed to larger circles of the Gorman
public through the spoken and written word;
" whenever a question became a burning
issue," as Professor Kaftan said, " a word was
expected from him to help clear the air ''

In the movement for the reformation of
secondary education in Prussia, Paulsen took
a loading part Ho was opposed to the Order
of Studies, dating back to Johannes Schulzo,
which made the classical gymnasium the nor-
mal and only type of secondary schools and the

614

PAULSKN

PAYMENT BY RESULTS

sole entrance gate to the various departments
of the university, and insisted that the gym-
nasium, the realgymnasium, and the ober-
realschule be placed on an equal footing His
recommendations, which had been ignoied
at the celebrated December Conference of
1890, were followed at the June Conference
of 1900, the monopoly of the classical gym-
nasium was abolished Paulson also advocated
freer methods of instruction in the upper
forms, methods that would give greater scope
to voluntary and spontaneous activity
"What Germany wants," he held, " is the
Anglo-American college, which forms a very
valuable transition stage between school dis-
cipline and the full freedom of German uni-
versity life " Among his many valuable
contributions to the literature of education,
we mention the following books Gc^cliichtc
(Ic* Gelehrtenuntcrrichtf* auf den deut^chen
tichulen und Umvcrsdaten (2 vols , 1885 and
1890), Das Realqymnaxnnn mid die humani^
tinche Bddung (1889), Die dcutwhen Vni-
vrtvitatcn und dav UiuvcrMtut^tmhuin (1()02,
tians by Tlnlly and Elwang), Das dcutxche
tttldunqswewn (1906, trans bv Loren/),
Moderne Erzichung und gcschlccktliche tiiltltch-
liCit (1908), Richthnnn (let juny^tcn Kewequnq
im hohcren Schulwewn Dcutvchland* (1908),
Padagoqik (ed by Kabitz, 1911)

Paulson's metaphysics, which shows the
influence of Spinoza, Feclmor, Lotzc, Schopen-
hauer, and Kantian criticism, is a system of
idealistic monism, panpsvchism, and panthe-
ism, the physical processes and the psychical
processes are one and the same leahty, pei-
ceived in different ways, the formoi through
the mediation of the senses, the latter directly,
as they are in themselves, in consciousness
In the physical sphere everything is mechani-
cally conditioned, as natural science teaches,
but the mental realm, which is the true4 reality,
is a world of purposive activity The material
world is the outward expression of a universal
consciousness, to which the individual con-
sciousness, stands in the same relation as the
particular human body to the universal system
of bodies This conception of the universe is
set forth in the Einleitung in (he Philosophic
(1892, trans by Thilly), a book which has
passed through twenty-throe editions Paul-
sen's moral philosophy, as presented in his
System der Etlnk mil einem Umnsv dei Starts-
und Gesellschaflxlehre (1889, eighth ed , 1906,
trans by Thilly), has been characterized by
him as teloological energisrn to distinguish it
(1) from Kantian intuitionism and (2) from
English utilitarianism The end of the will
is not feeling but action , the highest good is
an objective content of life, consisting in the
perfect exorcise of all human mental powers,
in which pleasure forms a part The end or
purpose realized by morality is grounded in
the human will, is something toward which
the will is essentially directed In a later

account, Kultui dci Geyenwart. ti
Philosophic (pp 289 ff), what was formerly
called the individual's basal will is spoken of
as the objective will, the system of objective
morality is regarded as the 'product and func-
tion of a universal reason immanent in the
social forms oi historical life He also wrote
1m man ml Kant Sent Leben und seine Lehre
(1898, trans by Croighton and Lcferve), and
collected many essays in Gvsarnmelte Vortrage
und Aufxatze (2 vols , 190G) F. T.

References —
LEHMANN, R Fncdnch Paulson Educ Rev , Vol

XXAVII, February, 1009, pp 1K8-I<W
LORENZ, T In Bio()r<ipfn8ih<>x Jahrbuch, Vol XIII

Die Tottn de* lahn» I Wfi
P \ULHkN, F Aut> nifinun Li ben, Juyindn inner ungen

(Jona, 1910 )
(tcftaninulft I*uda{jogiRch< Aufxtttzi, 1912 (contains

( omploto hihhography of hi8 articles)
SHAW, A \\ Fuodiuh Paulson Educ Rtv, Vol

VIII, No\omboi, 1894, pp 36.3 373
THILLY, F Paulseu's Modern Education Educatiojtal

Revu w, Vol XX XVI, December, 1908, pp 45S-470
Paulson's Ethic ul V\oik Internat Journal of Etkitti,

Vol XIX, January, 1909, pp 141-153

PA VIA, UNIVERSITY OF — See ITALY,
EDUCATION IN

PAYMENT BY RESULTS — A system of
apportioning public money foi education based
on the results of examinations Payment by
results was introduced into England by the
Revised Code, issued May 0, 1862, and con-
tinued with modifications until 1897 Robert
Lowe ((] v ) was responsible foi its introduction.
As originally introduced the grants were pay-
able upon the results of individual examina-
tions of pupils in Standards I to VI, in the
three R's, and plain needlework for girls
Certain other conditions were also imposed,
c g number of attendances, adequacy of build-
ings, qualifications of teachers, etc The
grants were paid to the managers of schools
and not directly to the teachers The curri-
culum thus depended on the distribution of
giants, and subjects were added or removed
according to their grant-earning capacity
At first everything beyond the three R's was
discouraged In 1867 grants were given for
geography, grammar, and history as " specific
subjects " In 1871 there were added as
" specific subjects " algebra, geometry, natu-
ral philosophy, physical geography, natural
science, political economy, and languages
(English literature, and elements of Latin,
French, and German) Vocal music was en-
couraged in a similar' way a year or two later
In 1878 geography, history, grammar, and plain
needlework became class subjects, and grants
were given on class, not individual, examina-
tions The " specific subjects " m this year
were mathematics (algebia, Euclid, and men-
suration), Latin, French, German, mechanics,
animal physiology, physical geography, botany,
domestic economy (for girls) In 1882 the

615

PAYMENT OF TEACHERS

PAYNE, JOSEPH

Seventh Standard was recognized for purposes
of the examination, and English literature and
grammar, physical geography, and elementary
science and history for the three highest
standards became class subjects Practical
training for girls was also encouraged In
1890 history was extended to all classes, draw-
ing was made compulsory for boys, manual
training and housewifery were counted as
attendance subjects, shorthand became a
" specific subject," and laundiy work a "spe-
cial " In 1891 naMgation, in 1892 hoiticul-
ture, in 1893 dany making, in 1804 domestic
economy and hygiene, became " specific sub-
jects " In 1895 payment by results in ele-
mentary subjects was abolished for oldei
schools, and in 1897 payment for " specific
subjects " also disappeared

Payment by results perhaps moie than any
other cause retarded the development of ele-
mentary education in England Its only
merits were that it established standards at
a time when all teachers weie not trained,
artificially affected the curriculum, and was
cheap It was also a step in advance in so fai
us teachers were compelled to pay as much
attention to lowei classes as to highci , and to
backward as well as to blight pupils The
latter, however, too often were reduced to the
level of their inferiors But while it intro-
duced uniformity, there followed dull, mechan-
ical methods and all other abuses connected
with an exaggerated system of examinations
The recovery from the system is slow but cei-
tain, initiative and adaptation to local needs
are being more and more encouiaged, and
mass education is being replaced by individ-
ual care arid attention

The system of payment by results is still
employed by the Intermediate Boaid in mak-
ing appropriations for secondary education in
Ireland The system is, howevei, being giaclu-
ally modified by the introduction of inspection,
and the imposition of pertain conditions rela-
tive to the school buildings (See IRKLAND,
EDUCATION IN ) In the Province of Victoria,
Australia, the system was abolished as iccently
as 1906

See APPORTIONMENT OF SCHOOL FUNDS,
ENGLAND, EDUCATION IN, EXAMINATIONS,
LOWE, ROBERT

References —
BALPOUK, GRUIAM Educational Huvtent* of Gicat

Britain ariff Ireland (Oxfoid, 1()(U )
England, Board of Education Special Repoita on

Educational Subjects. Vol. I, pp JW-44 (London

1897 )

Report for 1910-1911 (London, 1912 )
HOLMAN, H Engluh National Education (London,

1898 )

PAYMENT OF

TEACHERS' SALARIES.

TEACHERS —See

PAYNE, JOSEPH (1808-1876) —Eng-
lish educator, born at Bury St Edmund's

His education was but scanty, and he only
attended school for a short time when near the
age of fourteen Although compelled to earn
a livelihood at an early age, he applied him-
self with great industry to the study of the
classical and English literature In 1828 he
became assistant in a London school and about
this time came across Jacotot's (q v ) work
His pamphlet, A Compendium Exposition
of Profebboi Jacotot'x celebiated System of
Education (1830), brought him to the notice
of Mrs David Fletchei, who made him tutor
to hei children By associating other children
with them Payne was soon able to open the
Denmark Hill Grammar School In 1837
he married Miss Dyer, who herself kept and
continued to keep a girls' school In 1845
he moved to Leather head and opened the
Mansion House School, one of the best private
schools of the time Retiring from this work
in 1803, Payne devoted himself to the advance-
ment of the cause of education He supported
the Women's Education Union and the Girls'
Public Day School Company (q v ), which
spiang from it He took a keen interest in
the Froebehan theories and the kindergarten
movement , and studied the work of Pestalozzi
and of .Jacotot Of the last named he was
the chief exponent in England He was
intimately associated with the College of
Pieceptors (</»>), before which he frequently
lectuied on educational subjects When in
1S72 the College established a chair in the
Science and Art of Education, then the first
in England, Payne was appointed to it In
1S74 he made a tour for the purpose of in-
vestigating educational institutions in North
Germany Not only did Payne devote him-
self to the cause of education, he was a keen
student of philology and wrote4 a paper on the
Not man Element in th( Spoken and WritUn
English of the Twelfth, Thirteenth, and Four-
teenth Centum, \ for the Philological Society, of
whose council he was chairman in 1873-1874
(See EDUCATION, ACADEMIC STUDY OF )

While he made no original contributions to
educational thought, Payne was a pioneer in
introducing and familiarizing English educa-
tors with the best theory and practice of his
day If he exaggerated the value of Jacotot'b
methods, it was done largely in a spirit of re-
action against the mechanical work of the
schools Through his connection with the
College of Preceptors, which introduced the
first examinations for teachers in England at
the suggestion of Payne and C H Lake, he
was able to inspire a number of teachers with
his own enthusiasm for educational study and
progress His chief educational writings have
been edited first by R H Quick in one volume,
and reedited, with the addition of a second
volume, by his son, Dr. J F Payne Volume
I (1883) contains Lectures on the Science and
Art of Education, and Volume II (1892), Lec-
tures on the History of Education, with a Visit

010

PAYNE, WILLIAM HAROLD

PFABODY EDUCATION FUND

to German Schools The iirst volume includes
a list of Payne's published works

References —

Dictionary of National Biography
Educational Time* (London), Vol XXIX, 1870, p 57

PAYNE, WILLIAM HAROLD (1836-
1907) — University proiessor oi education,
born at Farmmgton, N V, the 12th of May,
1836 He was educated in the common schools
and at the New Yoik Conference Seminary
He began his teaching careei in the public
schools of New York He was principal of
schools at Three Rivers, Midi (18.58 1864),
superintendent of schools at Niles, Mich
(1861-1866), principal of a seminar v at Ypsi-
lanti, Mich (1866-1869), and superintendent
of schools at Adrian, Mich (1869-1879) His
work as a school superintendent was distin-
guished by his untiring efforts to supplement
the pedagogic training of the teacheis undei
his charge In 1879 he was called to the newly
organized chau of the science and art of teach-
ing at the University of Michigan, one of the
earliest permanent university pi ofessoi ships of
education From 1888 to 1901 he was president
of the University of Nashwllc, but upon the
death oi Piofessor B A Hinsdale he leturned
to his old post in the Umversitv of Michigan
His writings include Chapter on tidiool Supervi-
sion y Outline* of Educational Doctunc, and
Contribution* to the Science of Education
Pi ofessoi Payne was much interested in French
educational thought, and he made excellent
translations of some of the writings of Gabriel
Cornpayr6, including The History of Pedagogy,
Lecture* on Pedagogy, Elements of Psychology,
and Apphed Psychology He also translated
and edited Rousseau's JE?w//< For four years
he was editor of the Muhigan Schoolmaster
(1866-1870) W S M.

See EDUCATION, ArADKMrr STUDY OF

PEABODY, ANDREW PRESTON (1811-
1893) — College prof essoi , graduated at Har-
vard in 1826, after which he studied theologv
at the Cambridge Divinity School He taught
school for three yeais, was three years tutor
at Harvard, and for twcntv-seven years was
engaged in the ministry He was professor
of Christian morals at Harvard from 1860
to 1881, and acting president of the college
rn 1862 and again in 1868-1869 His publica-
tions include Sermon* fot Children (1806),
Manual of Moral Philosophy (1874), and Har-
vard Reminiscences (1888) He also published
a Sunday School hymn book W S M

PEABODY EDUCATION FUND —One
of the great educational foundations which
have contributed to the remaking of Southern
education In 1867 George Peabody (q v }
gave $3,000,000 in trust for the promotion
of education in the South Through various

causes this sum shrank for a time to $2,000,000.
Pea body is said to have lehed largely on the
advice of Robert C Winthrop in the disposal
of the iund and in the arrangements for carry-
ing out its purposes The conditions of the
trust were so liberal and elastic that the
trustees ha\e been able to employ the fund
in such a way as to educate the people of the
South to certain needs, which when realized
they must themselves satisfy Thus the fund
has established standards along different lines
The money has been used for the following
purposes (1) Aiding and establishing public
schools in the large towns and cities, and thus
practically beginning and supporting systems
of public education until taken over by the
local authonties (2) Similarly assisting the
rise of state systems, a task almost completed
bv 187.") (3) Encouraging the* professional
t laming of teacheis by the establishment of
a normal school at Nashville (Peabody Nor-
mal College, 1875) and granting scholarships
to students of ability This led to the general
establishment of normal schools and by 1903
the trustees were again free to dispose of their
fund in another direction (4) Establishing
an institution for the higher professional
education of teacheis This decision was
prompted bv a imnernent begun rn 1902 by
President Porter of the Normal College, the
faculty and alumni, and the citizens of Nash-
ville The Peabodv Hoard recognized the
value of the plan in 1903 and decrded upon its
adoption The result is the George Peabody
College for Teachers, which has received an
endowment of $1,000,000 from the fund, land
and burldmgs, valued at not over $250,000,
from the University of Nashville, wrth which
it was associated for thirty-six years, and grants
from the State* of Tennessee ($250,000), the
count \ of Davidson ($100,000), and the city
of Nash\rlle ($200,000) The Trustees of the
Fund have also offered to set aside $500,000
additional for the endowment of the College,
provided a further sum of $1,000,000 is raised
before \o\ 1, 1913 The College, to be
opened in 1913, promises to be of the highest
service to the educational Renaissance of the
South The new president is Dr Bruce R
Pavne (5) Promoting ruial consolidation of
schools and the advance merit of rural educa-
tion bv making giants towards the salaries
of supervisors in rnanv of the states of the
South

The Board of Trustees consists of sixteen
members, who have always been men of the
highest distinction in all walks of life The
most active associates in the early days were
Hon R C Winthrop, Hon Hamilton Fish,
Bishop Macllvame, Dr Barnas Scars, the
first agent, Dr J L M Curry, the second
agent, Dr Ebon Stearns, first president of the
Peabody Normal College, and Dr W II
Pavne, his successor At the present time
Mi .1 Pier pout Morgan, Hon Joseph H

617

PEABODY, ELIZABETH PALMER

PEACE

Choate, and Hon Theodore Roosevelt are
members of the Board of Trustees Professor
Wickliffe Rose is the general agent

References —

AYREB, L P. »Seww Great Foundations (Now York,

1911 )
Proceedings of tho Trustees of the Peabody Education

Fund, 1867 (Cam bridge, Mass , annual )
U. 8 Bur Edur Rep Com Ed, 1893, Vol 1, pp

739-771. (Washington, 18«b )

PEABODY, ELIZABETH PALMER (1804-
1894) —American apostle of Froebel and
organizer of the first kindergartens (qv) in
the United States, was born at Billenca, Mast*
the 26th of May, 1804 Her mothei, a gifted
woman, conducted a private school, at which
Elizabeth and her sisters Sophia (afterwards
Mrs Nathaniel Hawthorne) and Maiv (af to-
wards Mrs Horace Mann) weie educated
At the age of eighteen years Miss Peabody
began her career as a teacher in Boston Later
she was associated with A Bionson Alcott
(qv) in the famous Temple School Tn con-
nection with her teaching she conlnbuted to
many literary and educational join rials, in-
cluding the Dm/, the Chiixtwn Examiner, the
Democratic, Review, and Barnard's Ameuean
Journal of Education

In 1859 she became acquainted with the
educational ideas of Froebel, and the next-
year she opened a kindergarten in Boston —
the first in America In 1867 she went to
Europe to study kindergarten principles and
practices at first hand, and through her in-
fluence Emma Marwedel (q v) and several
other experienced German kinder gartneis were
induced to come to America The nor-
mal classes which she conducted in Boston
trained most of the early prominent American
kindergartners (including Miss Lucv Whee-
lock) From 1873 to 1877 Miss Peabody
edited the Kindergarten Messenger, and in
1877 the American Froebel Union, of which she
was the first president, was foi rned

Her publications include Hebrew History,
Grecian History, Fir^t Steps in History,
Chronological History of the United States,
Record of a School (an account of Mr Alcott 's
Temple School), The Kindergarten, Education
in the Home, the Kindergarten, and the Pri-
mary School, Guide to the Kuidei gotten and
Moral Culture of Infancy (with her sister Mrs
Horace Mann), Lectuie^nithe Timninq Schools
for Kindergartners, Kindergarten* in Italy, and
a translation of DC Gcrando't* Moral Self-Kdu-
catwn She also contributed several papers
to Henry Barnard's comprehensive volume
Kindergarten and Child Culture Miss Pea-
body was interested not only in the kmdei gar-
ten, but in all phases of educational work,
including the education of the American
Indian She died at Boston the 5th of Janu-
ary, 1894 W S M

See KWDKKGAKTKN

Reference —

WHEELOCK, Lury Miss Peabody and the Kinder-
Karten Education, September, 1894 Vol. XV,
pp 27-3]

PEABODY, GEORGE (1795-1869).—

Benefactor of education and founder of the
Peabody (Educational) Fund (q v ) , was edu-
cated 111 the common schools of Danveis (now
Peabody), Mass He engaged in business
and made a fortune which he gave to vanous
educational institutions and agencies He
founded the Peabody Institutes at Danvers,
Salem, and Baltimore, and made laige be-
quests to Haivard, Yale, and Kenyon Col-
leges One of his largest bequests was to the
Peabodv Fund (q v) in 1867, "for the en-
couragement and piomotion of intellectual,
moral, and industrial education among the
voung of the more destitute portions of the
Southern and West em states of the Union "
One oi his biographers says of him, " In the
greatness of his benevolence George Peabody
stands alone in historv " W S M.

See

Life of Georw Peabody (Boe-

Reference —
HAN \M>i(D, T'HLBF A
ton, 1SS2 )

PEABODY, SELIM HOBART (1829-
1903) — University president, was educated
at the universities oi Vermont and Iowa He
was principal ol high schools at Burlington,
Vt , Fond-du-hie, Wis , and Chicago, super-
intendent of schools at Kacine, Wis , pro-
fessor in polytechnic colleges in Pennsylvania
and Illinois, and president of the University of
Illinois from 1880 to 1891 He was director
of the educational exhibits at the World's
Columbian Exposition at Chicago in 1893.
His publications include Astiononuj (1809),
Juvetnlr Nnttual Hixton/ (1869), New Piaeti-
cal Arithmetic (1872), and numerous articles
in educational journals and the proceedings
of educational associations W S M

PEACE, EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS OF
INTERNATIONAL — The peace movement
is a part of the educational progress of the
world Whethei in respect to its intellectual,
economic, or moral phases, changes in opinion
and practice have been effected by the educa-
tive process Among the champions of the
peace movement were Hugo Grotius, Jean
Jacques Rousseau, and Immanuel Kant, and
latei, Noah Worcester, Ehhu Burntt, Horace
Mann, Professor Amasa Walker, and Edward
Everett Hale, all of whom appreciated the
necessity of educational propaganda

The unification and direction of the intellec-
tual life of the world through universities, col-
leges, and schools, has helped to prepare the
way for international good will The ease and
rapidity of travel and communication by means
of steam and electricity have helped to the

618

PEACE

PEACE

same end. The ever advancing tide of civil-
ization with its various humanitarian move-
ment has tended to sweep away many of the
barriers which kept nations apait from each
other The grouping of men in international
societies working in the fields of science, in-
dustry, and social leform, has led to a unifica-
tion of the higher life and has promoted friend-
ship among the leadeis of progress The labor
organizations of the woild have been active
in promoting peace propaganda, and in na-
tional and international assemblies have de-
clared themselves as opposed to proscription
and 111 favor of arbitration The process of
persuading the nations to abandon the archaic
method of settling difficulties bv force and to
adopt the modern method of the couit of jus-
tice is now earned on not meielv by pacifists,
but by the clergy, the press, law associations,
women's clubs, and even bv bodies engaged
in promoting the economic welfare of the com-
munity A concrete example of this is seen
111 the Report (1910) of the Massachusetts
Commission on the Cost of Living, which
after a careful investigation finds thai the gieat
increase of expenditures for armament is the
cause of enormous waste, affecting the common
welfare of the people

Among the organizations engaged in devel-
oping and organizing world sentiment for
peace are six hundred and more peace societies,
the oldest of which i> the American Peace
Societv, whose Secretary is Dr Benjamin
F Trueblood, the Inteiparliamentarv Union,
composed of representatnes from the parlia-
ments and congresses of the world, holding
biennial meetings, the International Peace
Congress, the eighteenth session oi which was
held in Stockholm in 1910, the national peace
congresses, of which three ha\e been held
in the United States, namely, in New York in
1907, said to be the largest peace assembly
ever convened, in Chicago in 1909, and in Bal-
timore in 1911, the Bureau of International
Peace at Berne, Switzerland, which undertakes
to gather and distribute information and act
as a clearing house for all propagandist work,
the Mohonk Arbitration Conference, which
has been held for the past seventeen years
under the pationage and hospitality of Mr
Albert K Smiley, and like all the other organi-
zations mentioned has been highly educative
in its plan of work and successful in mt crest-
ing the leading merchants, bankers, lawyers,
clergymen, and publicists in the moral, social,
and economic importance of the peace move-
ment. Of the organizations which are in-
tended to influence students in schools, col-
leges, and universities, there is the World
Peace Foundation, for the support of which
Mr Edwin Gmn has set aside $1,000,000, the
income of which is to be applied in the publi-
cation of books and tracts on the history and
progress of peace and in general propaganda
work of an educative character Closely affili-

ated with this Foundation is the American
School Peace League, the object of which is
to organize the teachers of the public schools
in behalf of such teaching of history and other
subjects and in such international exchange
of teachers and correspondence as shall pro-
mote friendship among the youth of different
lands Through its influence the 18th of
May, the anniversary of the calling of the
first Hague Conference, is now celebrated
largely throughout the United States as Peace
Day. The Intercollegiate Peace Association
has already organized oratorical contests in
the colleges of several states The Cosmopoli-
tan (Hubs, now forming a national association,
afford meeting grounds in universities for men
of different nations Of the Harvaid Cosmo-
politan Club President Eliot has declared that
it is the1 most interesting in the university
The Corda Fndres, an international federatron
of students which has more than 15,000 mem-
bers in European universities and has recently
added 40,000 French secondary students, has as
its principal object the promotion of the idea of
solidarity and frateinity among students
The World Student Christian Federation,
which includes five intercollegiate associa-
tions of Ameiica, Great Britain, Germany, and
Scandinavia, with a membership of 138,000
students and professois, is increasingly influ-
ential as a factor for peace The annual
interchange of professor ships initiated by the
universities of Berlin, Harvard, arid Columbia,
and now extending to many other institutions,
as well as the interchange of students, will
tend to produce common interests in the field
of scholar sin]) and sound learning The Amer-
ican Conciliation Societv, under the chairman-
ship of Dr Nicholas Murray Butler, publishes
each month the best information available,
using a mailing list of 70,000 names The
recent gift of eleven and a half million dollars
from Mr Andrew Carnegie is a crowning
event in a remarkable series The trustees
of this endowment have already shown their
purpose to make it serve educational ends
bv announcing that work is to be undertaken
in three departments, namely, (1) interna-
tional law, (2) economic aspects of peace, and
(8) education and intercourse The men al-
ready appointed to be at the head of the first
two departments are distinguished as educators,
and without doubt the remaining appointee
will be of the same class S T D.

References

Firt>t Annual Report of th Association for the Inter-
national Interchange °f Htndent*, (London, 1910 )

(JiNN KD\VIN The World Ponce Foundation In-
dependent, Fob <), 1911

HOLT, HAMILTON The Dawn of the World's Peace
Woild't Work, March, 1911

MKAD, K D Heroes of Peace Outlook, Nov 1 i,
1908

Resolution* of the Sijrtet nth Uninrwl Peact Congress ron-
a in ing Intel national Education (Heine, 1907 )

S'ikv&NsoN, ANDREW The Teacher as a Missionary
of Pea« Friend* Intelligence, Oct 15, 1<H)4

019

PEACH AM

PECAUT

WEBTON, S F Historical Sketch of the Intercollegiate
Peace Association (Yellow Spiiugs, Ohio, 1910 )

See also the rniiny publications of the* Amen ran
Association foi Intel national Conciliation (New
York) and tho World Peace Foundation, (Boston)
Also Reports of the various peact societies and
congi esses mentioned in the text

PEACHAM, HENRY C> 1576-1643) —
English author, born at Northrmmms, Hert-
fordshire, the son of a countiv rector He
was educated at schools near St Alban's and
in London, and proceeding to Trinity College,
Cambridge, graduated B A in 1594-1595 and
M A in 1598 After teaching foi a time at
Wymondham in Norfolk he took up the lit-
eral y piofession, for which he was well enough
equipped by a knowledge, in addition to let-
ters, of botany, music, heraldiv, mathematics,
drawing, and painting His fust woik was
the Graphice or the most auneient and excellent
Art of Drawing with the Pen and Limning
in Water Colours (London, 1606) which passed
thiough many editions as The Gentle man\
Exercise In 1613-1614 Peacham made ex-
cellent use of an opportunity to travel in
France, Italy, and Holland as tutor to the
sons of Thomas Howard, Eail of Auindel It
was during a stay at the country home of M
Ligny, a Fiench scholar and soldiei, that
Peacham was stiuck by the limitations in the
training of English gentlemen and was inspired
to write the work by which he is best known,
the Compleat Gentleman (1022) This woik
was addressed to William Howaid, the eight-
veai-old son of Earl Arundel The Compleat
(fcntleman is in the main a plea ior the better
education of the upper classes The rest of
the work is a series of chapters on the different
studies, each of which gives an epitome of their
content Under the title, " Of Stile in speak-
ing and writing, and of History," Peacham
gives a list of authois to be lead in Latin
and Greek The chapter on Poetry is of
considerable interest, for Shakespeaie, Ben
Jonson, and others are omitted from the number
of Elizabethan poets One of the newer
studies which was being introduced into Eng-
land at this tune is " Antiquities," including
statues, inscriptions, and coins In the chap-
ter on " Drawing, Limning, and Painting "
Peacham gives directions on color mixing and
an account of the lives of eminent painters Of
special value in the education of a gentleman
is the study of blazons, armory, aims, and the
dignity of heralds Under "exercise4 of the
body" Peacham includes horsemanship, iun-
nmg, leaping, swimming, and shooting Under
the title of " Reputation and Carriage " are
given the special qualities desirable in a gentle-
man — temperance, moderation, frugality,
thrift, and affable discourse to be cultivated
with the help of anagrams, epigrams, and im-
pressas Of the function of travel in the
education of a gentleman Peacham says, "In
my opinion nothing rectifieth and eonfirmclh

more the judgment of a gentleman in forraine
affaires, teacheth him knowledge of himselfe,
and setleth his affection more sure to his owne
Country, than travaile doth/' In deciding
whether travel should be for pleasure or profit,
Peacham pronounces emphatically for the
latter, and he strongly recommends a sojourn
in France for giving point to the accomplish-
ments of the gentleman The education of the
gentleman i& completed by a study of " Mili-
tary observation/' which deals with the dif-
ferent military ranks and gives a list of mili-
"tarv commands In a "much mlargcd "
edition, published in 1627, a chapter is added
on fishing, " the honest and patient man's
Ron cation, or a Pastime for all men to Re-
cieate themselves at vacant hourcs " Here an
account is given of the Angle rod, lines, flats,
baits, flies, and different kinds of fish While the
Compleat Gentleman nowhere gives a detailed
description of the gentleman, it is a valuable
contribution to our knowledge of what in
theory at any rate was consideied of \alue in
his make-up (See also GENTRY AND NOBLES,
EDUCATION OF, MANNERS AND MORALS,
EDUCATION IN )

Peacham was unfortunately reduced to
poverty in his old age and turned his pen to
writing political and social pamphlets, of
which the most mtciesting are The Art of
Living in London, or a Caution how Gcntlc?nen,
Countn/rnen and titrangcis, drawn by occasion
of Biixinew, should dispose of themselves in the
Thriftiest Wau, not onelij in the Cdy, but rn all
other Populous Places (1742), and The Worth
of a Pcnnu, or a Caution to keep Money, with
the Causes of the Scarcity and Misery of the
Want thereof in these Hard and Merciless
Times (1641), a discussion of the economic
condition of the country Peacham is also
said during this period to have written chil-
dren's books at a penny each

References —

Dictionary of National Biography

GORDON, G 8 , Ed Peaihajn's Complete Gentleman
(a reprint of the 1634 edition) (Oxford, 1906 )

PEARSON, ELIPHALET (1752-1828) —
First pieceptor of Phillips Academy at An-
dovei , graduated at Harvard College in 1773
and taught for five years at Andover. He
was principal of the Phillips Academy at
Andover from 1778 to 1786 and professor in
Harvard College from 1786 to 1826, and acting
president from 1804 to 1806 He was one of
the founders of the American Education So-
ciety (q v ) and was active in the American
Academy of Science and Arts He was the
author of a Hebrew grammar and several
papers on religious education W S M.

PECAUT, FELIX (1828-1898) —French
clergyman, author, and educator. He com-
pleted his studies at the Faculty of Protestant
Theology at Montauban, and received an

PECK

PEDAGOGY

appointment in his native city when only
twenty-one years of age Less than two years
later he gave up his clerical calling on account
of his heterodox views These are set forth
in his Le Christ et la conscience (1859) In the
meantime he had moved to Pans, where he
established a private school in conjunction
with his friend Gaufr&s. His ideas on national
education evolved during the years immedi-
ately following the disaster of 1870 appeared
in a series of letters to the 7V////>s, Lett re* de
province, and in Etudes au jout le jour sut
V education nation ale (1871-1879) Jules Ferry
(q v), then minister of public instruction, and
M Buisson, director of primary education,
were responsible for appointing PeYaut to the
staff of general inspectors With the great
increase in the number of departmental normal
schools, it became more than ever necessary
to provide foi the recruitment of the teaching
force for these training schools Pecaut was
selected to direct the girls' higher primary
normal school at Fontenav-aux-Roses He
devoted himself heart and soul to the under-
taking, and spent nearly all his remaining
days in this, the most important work of his hie,
retiring in 1896 The school still reflects mm li
of his spirit and devotion See his Dem wws
dc mission en Italic (1880), L'espnt de Foil-
tenay (1895), Adieux a iecoh (1896), L'edu-
cation et la vie nationale (1897), Quinze nns
d'6ducation, a posthumous publication ol wnt-
rngs collected by his sons F E F.

References —

BUISNON, F Dictionnaire d( P6dagogit , s\ Ptcaut
COMPAYUE, O Fthx JViaut et V Education d( la Con-
science ( Lea grands Educatrurt, ) (Pans, n d )

PECK, WILLIAM GUY (1820-1892) —

Author of mathematical textbooks, graduated
from the United States Military Academy at
West Point m 1844 He was professor at
West Point (1846-1855), at the University of
Michigan (1855-1857), and at Columbia
University His publications include Ele-
mentary Mechanic^ (1859), Natural Philosophy
(1860), Popular Astronomy (1882), and many
school and college textbooks on mathematics
He was joint author with his father-in-law,
Charles Davies, (q v ) of the Dictionary and
Cyclopaedia of Mathematical Science (1855)

W S M

PEDAGOGICAL JOURNALS — See JOUR-
NALISM, EDUCATIONAL

PEDAGOGICAL LITERATURE —See BIB-

LIOORAPHY OF EDUCATION, JOURNALS, EDU-
CATIONAL, and the reference list at the close
of each topic in this work

PEDAGOGICAL SEMINARY. — See JOUR-
NALISM, EDUCATIONAL.

PEDAGOGY — Pedagogy is commonly un-
derstood to mean the science and art of teach-
ing The word is derived from the Greeks,
among whom a pedagogue was the person,
usually, if not always, a slave, who attended
the young boy, going with him to and from
school, carrying his materials for study, look-
ing out for his wants and exercising authority
over him It is supposed that the pedagogues
were often such slaves as would be useless for
other tasks, and that they were not held in
much respect even by the childien who were
placed in their charge The name thus ac-
quired in ancient times a connotation of lack
of esteem, if not of contempt, which it has
not entirely shaken oil in modern usage

A somewhat similar meaning became at-
tached to the derived teim, "pedagogy."
Since the Renaissance educational reformers
have drawn more and more attention to the
significance of the process of education as con-
t lasted with that of the subject matter taught.
The study of this process has been foi seveial
centuries leferied to as pedagogy The phi-
losopher-Kant (q v ) denominated his lectures on
education as Ihei Padagogik They dealt es-
pecially with the formation of habit, and
moral t laming and instruction Thus de-
fined, pedagogy concerned that aspect of edu-
cation commonly held to be most childish and
least interesting, a phase of life iclcgated to
nurses, mothers, and pedagogues, and felt to
have little in it to command the thoughtful
attention of the strong in mind 01 will In
fact, the management and instruction of child-
ren was from the fathers' or schoolmasters'
point of view thought to resolve itself into an
authoritative display of superior power
Learning was tieated as a matter of appli-
cation on the part of the pupil Application
was regarded as a question of will, and will as
to be governed by commands But to com-
mand children was held, on account of their
weakness and lack of resources, not to require
great strength or to merit much thought 01
esteem

But while, on account of its derrvatiori from
the word pedagogue and its application to an
art held in little honor, the term pedagogy at
first failed to carry the implication of a pro-
found science, nevertheless the existence of the
ideal of such a study and its resolute pursuit
by a few reformers eventually gained foi it
a richer content and a higher standing In
the beginning its practical influence was felt
especially in the elementary schools The
nineteenth century brought with it in the more
advanced nations of the world an extraordinary
expansion of the facilities for elementary
education The preparation of teachers for
this work came to be in the hands of normal
and training schools These institutions de-
voted themselves largely to the pedagogy of
the subjects taught in the common schools
and to the problems of school management.

f\2l

PEDAGOGY

PEDANTRY

It came to be an accepted pnnciple that ele-
mentary teachers should know not only the
subjects they were to teach, but also the art
of their craft

Eventually the idea that the scientific study
of education should not be confined to the
problems of the elementary school led to the
establishment of departments of pedagogy in
colleges and universities The Umveisity of
the City of New York (now New York Uni-
versity) offered such courses in 1832 The
same institution established a School of Peda-
gogy m 1890 and offered the degree of Master
and Doctor of Pedagogy The Now York
State Normal College at Albany gives the
degree of Bachelor of Pedagogy Many uni-
versities, especially in the western part of the
United States created professorships in peda-
gogy in the last two decades of the nineteenth
century See EDUCATION, ACADEMIC STUDY OF

The introduction of the study into higher
education led to new difficulties in regaul to
the term pedagogy It was felt to be essen-
tially a normal school subject, concerned es-
pecially with the problems of the elementary
school and " rule-of-thumb " methods of
teaching the subjects of its curriculum The
specialists of the univeisities were prone to
regard the power to teach as due primarily to
knowledge of subject matter In addition to
this they admitted the importance of natural
aptitude and of experience, but rejected the
efficacy of methods Many ridiculed out-
right the pretensions of " pedagogy," and
resented its injection into the curriculum of
higher education Some even went so far as
to criticize the entire influence of pedagogv
on elementary education, on the ground that
in its emphasis on interest it had demoralized
the work of the school, giving us u soft "
pedagogy

Much of this criticism of pedagogv as a
university subject had, doubtless, validity,
and in consequence it was necessary to modify
and expand its content in order to secure for
it a permanent foothold and equality of rank
To mark the change there grew up a tendency
to substitute the word education for pedagogy
as a title for the department and foi profes-
sorships Thus the term " pedagogy " has
to a considerable extent passed out of vogue
The newer " education " differs from the older
" pedagogy " in two respects First, it in-
cludes far more than method in teaching and
school management, second, it is more scien-
tific Taking up the first point, we note that
all the educational functions and agencies of
society are considered, the history and ad-
ministration of education are taken into ac-
count, the care of the body is brought before
the attention as well as the care of the mind,
and the education of defectives as well as of the
normal child, the educational ideals and the
curriculum are treated both in general and in
detail and the relation of education to general

622

welfare is investigated A good illustration
of the expansion of the field is seen in the tran-
sition from the history of pedagogy such as
we find in Compayre's volume with that title,
to present-day history of education. Then
the subject confined itself for the most part to
the ideals and methods that have prevailed
in the schools, together with some account of
the conceptions and work of educational re-
formers. Now the historian of education tries
to relate the processes and agencies of educa-
tion to the institutional, economic, social, and
cultural movements of history

The second change that has come about with
the transition from pedagogy to education
lies in the more thoroughgoing and scientific
methods employed to-day On the one hand,
a far wider range of underlying sciences is
brought into requisition in the treatment of
educational problems Thus not only psy-
chology and philosophy, but also biology,
physiology, sociology, ami economics arc
brought to bear on the work On the other
hand, the propagation of opinions, " arm-
chair " pedagogv, has been replaced by resolute
search for facts through histoncal research,
through comparative study, through the use
oi experiment and statistical methods The
department of education brings to scientific
research a set of interesting practical prob-
lems and to the schoolmaster a mass of in-
controvertible facts and conclusions that can-
not fail to prove of practical use

It is interesting to note that the term peda-
gogv bids fair to be revived in the title " ex-
perimental pedagogy " This science springs
not so much from the desire of the schoolmaster
or the educational reformer to establish teach-
ing on an unshakable basis, as from the tend-
ency on the part of experimental psychology
to reach out into new fields, especially those
where its methods and pimciples can be made
to bear on the practical world But, although
somewhat different in its origin from genetic
and educational psychology, which began as
attempts to get a scientific basis for teaching
rather than new problems for science, experi-
mental pedagogy naturally tends to include
both these foierunners K N H

See EDUCATION, ACADEMIC STUDY OF,
EXPERIMENTAL EDUCATION, PSYCHOLOGY,
EDUCATIONAL, PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION,
also CHILD STUDY

PEDAGOGY, DOCTOR OF. — See DE-
GREES.

PEDANTRY —A term given to the dis-
play of knowledge for the sake of its display,
especially in the exhibition of knowledge uport
unusual topics and subjects irrelevant to
current needs and interests and hence lack-
ing application Probably one indispensable
factor in pedantry is that the knowledge
exhibited be second hand, or show dependence

PEDICULOSIS

PENN, WILLIAM

upon somewhat antiquated authorities, being
more or less accompanied by quotations fioin
them Knowledge that seems vital and im-
portant at one epoch may seem a useless af-
fectation at another At the Renaissance,
reformers like Montaigne (q v ) and humorists
like Rabelais (q v ) found most scholastic
scholarship to be mere pedantry while the suc-
cessors of the humanists legarded as pedant iv
the humanists display of classical allusions and
Ciceronian Latmity Such histoiic illustra-
tions show that the question undei lying
pedantry is the readaptation of the learning of
the past to contemporary conditions J D

See KNOWLEDGE, MONTAIGNE; RENAIS-
SANCE AND EDUCATION

PEDICULOSIS —See INFECTIOUS DISEASES

PEDOLOGY. — See PARENTHOOD, EDU-
CATION FOR

PEET, HARVEY PRINDLE (1794-1873)
— Educatoi of the deaf, graduated from Vale
College in 1822, having previously taught
in the district schools of Connecticut He
was an instructor in the American Asylum
for the Deaf at Hartford fiom 1822 to 1H.H,
when he was called to the pimcipalship of the
New York Institution for the Deaf He prepared
a scries of textbooks for the use of deaf clul-
clien and published many papers on the educa-
tion of the deaf, which were collected and
published with the title Summary of the Re-
corded Researches and Opinion* of H P Peet
(Washington, 1873) W S M

See DEAF, EDUCATION OF THE

then studied foi the mnustiy He was in the
seivice oi the church for eight years, " he
abandoned the pulpit for the desk of the
teachei " lie taught four years at Andover
and nine yeais at Nantucket On the organ-
ization of the first state normal school at
Lexington (now at Framingham), Mass , in
1839, he was chosen by Horace Mann as pnn-
cipal '' Only thiee students piesented them-
selves at the* opening of the school," but the
earnestness and skill of Mr Pence " soon
atti acted attention, and the apathy with
win eh his labois wen1 regarded by many friends
of education giadually gave place to confi-
dence " The normal school was removed to
West Newton in 1844 and to Fiammgham in
1849 W S M.

References —

B\RISKRT> H Arnrnean Journal of Education, Vol.

]\, pp 275-30S
L \MHON, M S First State Normal School in America

(Boston, 1903 )

PENALTIES AND REWARDS -- See

RLV\\IU>S \\D PUNISHMENTS, SCHOOL MAN-
AC; EM*, vr

PENCRICHE, RICHARD —See ANGLO-
NORMAN SCHOOLS, BLACK DEATH

PENIKESE SUMMER SCHOOL. —

See SUMMER SCHOOLS

PENMANSHIP —See WRITING

PENN CHARTER SCHOOL — See

FRIENDS, EDUCATIONAL INFLLENCE OF THE
SOCIETY OF

References —
BARNARD H American Journal of Education, Vol

III, pp 366-382

See also the American Annals of tht Deaf ami Dumb for
1873

PEIRCE,

PENN, WILLIAM (1644-1718) —Founder
of Pennsvhania, studied at Christ College,
Oxford, but \\as fined and expelled for "the
MII oi nonconformity," having connected
himself with the Society of Fuends He con-
BENJAMIN (1809-1880) -- tinned his education in Fiance, and in 1681

Mathematician and textbook author, giadu- obtained giants oi land in America which he
atcd from Harvard Umveisity in 1829 He oigamzed into the colony of Pennsylvania
was for two yeais associated with (ieorge Befoie leaving England, he stipulated that the
Bancroft (q v ) as a teacher in the famous goveinoi and piovmcial council of the new
Round Hill School (q v ) at Xoithampton, colony " shall eiect and oidei all public schools
Mass. From 1831 to his death he was tutoi and leward the authois of useful sciences and
and professor at Harvaid His publications laudable nnentions " In the chaitei granted
include Plane and Spherical Tugononxtnj bv Penn in 1711 he emphasized the importance
(1835), Algebra (1837), Plant and tiolul deo- oi a " good education of youth, and their
metry (1837), Miscellany of Mathematics and early introduction in the principles of true
Physics (1842), Analytic Methanns (1855), jehgion and virtue, and qualifying them to
and many papers on mathematical science serve their country and themselves by breed-
He was also the author of the Histniy of ing them in reading, writing, and learning oi
Harvard University from its Foundation in the languages and useful arts and sciences, suit-
1636 to the Period of the American Revo- able to their sex and age and degree His
n (1833) W S M important educational writing is Charter of ye

Pubhk School founded in ye Town and Comity

lution (1833)

PEIRCE, CYRUS (1790-1859) — Pnn- of Philadelphia in Pen m sylvani a (Philadelphia,
cipal of the first state normal school oigamzed 1701) w s M

in the United States; graduated from Harvaid See FRIENDS, KDUCATIONAL WORK OF bo-
College in 1810 He taught for two yeais and n*T\ OF, PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF.

(323

PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE COLLEGE

PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE FOR
WOMEN, PITTSBURGH, PA — Founded
in December, 1X69, bv persons interested in
promoting the higher education of women
in this region In addition to the academic
department leading to all regular college
degrees, there is a music department offering
courses in connection with regular college work
and a special music course leading to a cei-
tificate A depaitment ot social seivice has
been organized recently giving s])ecial train-
ing to social woikers who wish to enter paid
work or to give intelligent services as volun-
teers, and the course4 combines theoretical
study and practical work Prttslmrg, with
its great industries and its diversified philan-
thropies, is an unusual field for observation,
investigation, and piactical woik, many of
the institutions cooperate with the college,
and experienced social workers give individ-
ual assistance The entrance requirements
to the college courses which lead to the degree
of A B are four year*' work of a high school
The social life receives much attention from
the point of view of individual training The
faculty consists of eighteen membeis and the
enrollment of students, excluding those in
the department of music, was 134 in 1910

191L c ii r

PENNSYLVANIA COLLEGE, GETTYS
BURG, PA --A imnsectanan institution,
founded and fostered bv the General Synod
Lutheian Chinch, chartered by the legislatuie
of Pennsyhama in 1832 The impulse which
led to the founding oi the college came from
the Lutheran Theological Seminary estab-
lished in Gettysburg M\ years earlier Thus,
while the primary motive was to furnish a
thorough preparation for the men contemp-
lating the hem ma iv course in theology, the
general object of the founders was the pro-
motion of academic and scientific education
under Christian influences The course of
study, as originally planned, covered the sub-
jects of philosophy, Latin, Greek, natural
science, mathematics, English, and German,
leading to the degree of A B From 1840 to
1861 a medical department, located at Phila-
delphia, was connected with the college In
1884 the scientific department was organized,
leading to a division of the couisc into classical
and scientific During recent yeais a number
of new courses have been added, offering a
wider range of choice and differentiation of
courses of study There are at present (1912)
nine group courses, determined bv the major
course of study, leading to the Bachelor's
degree The fourteen units recommended by
the committee of uniform college entrance
requirements are required for admission to
the freshman class The school is controlled
by a self-perpetuating board of trustees con-
sisting of thirty-six members The grounds
and equipment are valued (1912) at $660,000

including a library of 25,000 volumes The
productive endowment amounts to $225.600.
The total income for the year ending July 1,
1911, was $41,87746 The enrollment in
1910-1911 was 323 Women have been ad-
mitted since 1886 The teaching force num-
bers 23 C. F S.

PENNSYLVANIA MILITARY COLLEGE,
CHESTER, PA — An institution organized
in 1862 as the Pennsylvania Military Academy,
and located at Chest ei m 1865 The college
was the outgrowth of a private boarding school
established at Wilmington, Del , 111 1821
Military instruction was introduced in 1858
In 1892 the academy adopted the present title
Preparatory and collegiate (civil eriKineeiing,
chemical, and academic) departments are
maintained Definite entrance icquirements
are not stated Degrees are conferred. The
enrollment of collegiate students in 1911-1912
was 104, and the fa cult} consisted of fifteen
members

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE COLLEGE
OF, STATE COLLEGE, PA — Was estab-
lished by the tl Morrill Act " passed by Con-
gress July 2, 1862, and a reciprocal act of the
legislature of Pennsylvania passed April 1,
1863 As early as 1855 a charter had been
issued to certain public-spirited citizens
under the pationage of the state Board of
Agriculture, and in 1859 an instil ution for
secondary agricultural education was opened
at the present location under the name of
"The Farmers' High School," the fiist class
bcrng graduated in 1861 Under the new es-
tablishment, the name was changed in 1874
to The Pennsylvania State College Some of
the trustees are cj oflicio state officials, others
are appointed by the Ooveinor, others are
chosen by the alumni of the college, and still
others are elected by delegates from industrial
organizations of the state

The growth was small until 1887, when the
state began a regular biennial appropriation
to the institution, the total of which now (1911)
aggregates $3,565,726 43 The most recent
appropriation was $800,000 The growth in
total attendance of students by decades is
as follows 1891, 209, 1901, 433; 1911, 2007.
The present force of instructors numbers 190.
No tuition is charged, but preference in admis-
sion is given to residents of the state A very
small percentage of the students come from
other states and foreign countries Fourteen
units are required for entrance to the college

There are five schools, viz agriculture,
engineering, liberal arts, mining, and natural
science, also one department, home eco-
nomics In these schools thirty-six courses
of study are offered leading to the Bachelor's
degree Courses are also offered leading to the
Master's degree1 Correspondence work is con-
fined to lessons on agricultural topics, in which

624

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OP1

3600 students are now enrolled, and to students
in the Summer Session who wish to continue
their instruction

Six hundred acres of farm land are owned
by the college, part of which is devoted to
experimental farming, part to forestry wood
lots, and part to campus The total value of
land and buildings is $1,444,369

The college* differs from other institutions
mainly in its rural enviionment which devel-
ops a solidarity of college sentiment, a harmony
of college life, an effective system of student
self-government, an economy in style of living,
and a devotion to the more serious aspects
of college residence Attendance on chapel
service is compulsory, many Bible classes are
maintained, and the Christian Association has
an active membership numbering 1200 There
are ten chapters of national fraternities, most
of whom own chapter houses in which their
members reside Edwin Erie Spaiks, Ph D ,
LL D , is the president of the college

KEN

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF— One of

the largest and most important of the thirteen
original states First settled along the Dela-
ware by the Swedes in 1638, it was taken over
by the Dutch in 1665, and by the English in 1674 ,
later, granted to William Penn as a piopnetaiv
colony b> Chailes 11 in 16X1 and settled by him
in 1682 Pennsylvania continued under Pcmfs
charters of 1682 and 1701 up to the Revolution,
and was the second state to ratify the Federal
Constitution, in 1787 It has a land aiea of
44,832 square miles or about the size of England
proper For administrative purposes the state
is divided into the city of Philadelphia and
sixty-six counties, and the counties are in
turn divided into city, town, borough, and
township school districts In 1910 Pennsyl-
vania had a total population of 7,665,111, one
fifth of which was in the citv of Philadelphia,
the density of population was 171 persons
per square mile

Educational History — Penn's first charter,
drawn up in England in 16X2, provided that
"the Governor and provincial council shall
erect and order all public schools, and encourage
and reward the authors of useful sciences and
laudable inventions in the said piovince " and
provided for " a committee of manners, educa-
tion, and arts " to prevent " all wicked and scan-
dalous living " and to see that the vouth weie
' trained up in virtue and useful knowledge
and arts " It was further agreed upon, m
England, as a law for the colony, " 28 That
all children within this province of the age of
twelve years shall be taught some useful trade
or skill, to the end that none may be idle."
The first general assembly of the colony,
pitting at Chester in December, 1682, adopted
these provisions The second provincial as-
sembly, sitting in Philadelphia in 1683, pro-
vided further " that all persons in this pnrs-

VOL. iv — 2s 625

nice and ten it ones thereof having children,
and all guauhans and trustees of orphans,
shall cause such to be instructed in reading
and writing, so that they may be able to read
the Scriptures and to \\rite by the time they
attain to twelve years of age, and that they
be taught some useful trade or skill," and
imposed a hue of £5 per child for failure to
comply, unless the child was incapacitated for
learning " in body or understanding " This
law was so much in advance of ideas then
ounent in England that it was disapproved
by William and Mary, but was enacted by the
Cfovernoi and the assembly in 1693 The law
appears to have been enforced in a few places
tor a time, but soon became a dead letter and
was omitted entnelv from the revision of
1 096

In 1683 Enoch Flower was engaged as school-
mast er at Philadelphia, and this was the first
legular school established in the state In 1689
a, " Friends' Public School " was opened in
Philadelphia, aft ei the type of a public gram-
mar school of the time in England This was
chartered in 1697, and again in 1701, 1708,
and 1711, and evolved into the William Penn
Charter School This school has been con-
tinuously in existence since 1689, and ranks
as one of the oldest schools in America An-
other school was established at Dai by in 1692,
and in 1097 the Society of Friends established
a second school in Philadelphia, which took
poor scholars free, and was the first public free
school established within the state But few
other schools seem to have been established,
and but little colonial legislation of any kind
occurred after 1700 " The first three quar-
ters of the eighteenth century," says Wicker-
sham, "an1 almost a perfect blank as far as
anything was done bv the public authorities
to provide an education for the people."

Before the Revolution many parochial
schools \\ere established by the different
denominations, with the clergy frequently as
the teachers, private pay schools were es-
tablished in the towns and cities, and the
beginnings of free education for the poor were
made Some of the private schools thus
established, such as the Germantown Academy
(1761) and the Moravian schools at Bethlehem
and Nazareth, founded still earlier, attained
a wide reputation and drew pupils from other
colonies The educational policy which de-
veloped early was that of depending upon
paiochial and private efforts, of making no
attempt to provide any form of education for
those who could pay for it themselves, and of
extending charitable education to but a limited
number and for a limited time

A marked exception to these conditions
was found among the settlers from Connecti-
cut, and other parts of New England, who
settled in the Wyoming Valley, in north-
eastern Pennsylvania These people brought
\\ith them from New England their political

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

independence arid their zeal for education
The result was that they were politically
troublesome and educationally efficient In
1768 it was decreed that each township within
the settlement should reserve 960 acres of
land " for the public use of a gospel ministry
and the schools " This was done, and, though
there were some losses, the schools derived
benefit from the greater part of the reserva-
tion, and some schools to-day still leceive
income from these old grants School com-
mittees were elected by the inhabitants, for
each school district, and' these in turn employed
the teacher, supervised the school, and collected a
rate-bill form of tax to pay the teacher There
was also a township tax to provide sehoolhouses,
and in some cases also to pay teachers The
schools thus established continued in operation
until the adoption of the first state school law
in 1834, were the nearest approach to public
schools of any established before that date in
the state, and exercised considerable influence
in shaping the new Pennsylvania law

In 1776 the first constitution made liberal
educational provision Schools were ordered
to be established in each county, " with such
salaries to the masters, paid by the public, as
may enable them to instruct youth at low
prices, and all useful learning shall be duly
encouraged and promoted in one or more
universities " Practically nothing was done
under the provisions of this constitution

Pennsylvania ratified the Federal Consti-
tution in 1787, and in the first- constitution
adopted after that, in 1790, the early liberal
provision was withdrawn, and a provision
for the establishment of chanty schools was
inserted in its stead The legislature was
directed, "as soon as conveniently may be,"
to provide by law u for the establishment of
schools throughout the state, m such manner
that the poor may be taught gratis " The
" rights, privileges, immunities, and estates
of religious societies and corporate bodies "
were guaranteed, as before, and the promotion
of " the arts and sciences " was directed, " in one
or more seminaries of learning " These pro-
visions were continued unaltered in the new
constitution of 1838

An act of 1802 made the first provision for
carrying these constitutional mandates into
effect This gave to the overseers and guard-
ians of the poor the task of selecting the
children who were to receive a charitable
education, and of collecting the money, by an
increase in the " poor rates," with which to
pi o vide their books and tuition In 1809, in
an effort to remove the pauper taint, the ad-
ministration of the law was given to the town-
ship assessors and county commissioners, but
without success in eliminating the name of
" pauper schools " In 1824 an effort was made
to substitute a form of a public for a pauper
school system, by a law which provided for an
election in each township, borough, or ward,

which should accept the lav\ , of a board of three
school men, one to be elected each year This
law was too advanced to stand, and two years
later it was repealed and the old pauper school
law of 1809 was substituted for it In this
condition matters remained until 1834 Dur-
ing the first forty years of statehood, the chief
educational legislation was in the form of
private incorporation acts for schools and
colleges, a number of which were granted
some state aid Hy 1830 as many as 133 such
special acts had been passed, and in 1833
there were two universities, eight colleges, and
fifty academies which had boon aided, to some
degree, and mostly in return for the education
of pool children, by grants from the state

A fe\v movements looking toward a state
public school system wcie made eaily in the
century In 1812 the City Council of Phila-
delphia and the County Commissioners, acting
jointly, weie permitted to take such action
as the public good might require toward the
establishment of schools, in 1814 "The So-
net A for the Piomotion of a Rational System
of Education" was organized in Philadelphia,
in ISIS the Cif v of Philadelphia was organized
by special law, as the first school district of
Pennsylvania, and permission was given to
pi ovule Laneastenan schools for the education
of the poor (see PHILADELPHIA, CITY OF, also
LANCASTER, JOSEPH), in 1821 the counties
of Dauphin (Hanisbing), Allegheny (Pitts-
bur g), Cumberland (Carlisle), and Lancaster
(Lancaster) were also exempted from the opera-
tion of the pauper school law, in 1822 the
city of Lancaster was organized by special
la\\, as the second school district of Pennsyl-
vania, and (lovetnors of the state, in their
messages to the legislature from 1801 on, made
repeated recommendations that some further
action be taken to cany into effect the con-
stitutional mandates and to provide better
educational advantages for the children of
the state In 1822 the Committee on Edu-
cation of the Senate reported that the Act of
1800 was wholly inoperative in many counties,
and much abused in others, and a report made
to the House of Representatives in 1829
showed that there had been educated free, in
the 31 counties reporting, but 4940 poor chil-
dren in 1825, 7943 m 1826, 9014 in 1827, and
4477 in 1828 In 1833, the last year of the
pauper school system, the number of free
pupils educated was 17,467, and the total
cost but $48,466 25

The bill establishing the State Common
School Fund, 18,31, provided for the addition
of the income from the sale of public lands,
and the interest on the same, until a fund of
$2,000,000 should be reached, after which
the income should be applied annually to the
maintenance of schools It was estimated
that this would be in about ten years, but, m
1834, the friends of education succeeded in
passing a bill which made the beginnings of

626

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

a state school system at that time This act
contained many of the provisions of the law
of 1824, and the unsuccessful hills of 1831 and
1833 Each county was made a school
division, arid each waid, township, and borough
a school district For each school distuct
a board of six school dnectors was to be
elected by the people, one third of whom
should go out of office each year Each
county court was to appoint two inspectors
for each district, and the Secretary of State
was made ex officw Superintendent of Public
Schools The income from the state school
fund was to be supplemented by a state ap-
propriation of $75,000 and by county and local
taxation, though any district might decide to
raise no tax for free schools, forfeit its state
apportionment, and fall back on the pro-
visions of the old 1806 law for the maintenance
of paupei schools

The pro visions here made for free schools,
and foi seculai schools at that, seemed almost
i evolutionary at the time, and the law was
vigoiously attacked in the next legislature
Petitions asking lor the repeal of the law,
signed by 32,000 voters, mostly .signed in
German script, weie presented The House
leader was Thaddous Stevens, to whom the
credit for saving the law has been given
An act of 183u levised and strengthened
all preceding legislation, and laid down the
main linos along which the school system of
Pennsylvania latoi developed

The new school system was accepted but
slowly Dunng the lust year of its operation,
536 out of 907 districts accepted the system,
762 schools were conducted, and an average
term of 3} months was provided During
the next two years, the ex ojficio State Super-
intendent did much to explain the new system
and to secure its acceptance by the people,
so that by 1838 the number of districts ac-
cepting the new system had increased to 861,
out of a total of 1033 By 1847, the last year
of the old system, 1105 of the 1249 dis-
tricts had accepted the system It was not
until 1873, however, that the last district
surrendered and accepted the state school sys-
tem In 1837 the United States Surplus Rev-
enue (see NATION \L GOVERNMENT AND EDU-
CATION) was received, and for two or three years
very material aid was given to the new school
system by appropriations from this fund, to
be used for buildings and yearly maintenance
Probably about $800,000 was derived from this
source before the fund was all spent , the aid
was no doubt timely and helpful, as the people
were not yet willing to boar taxation for
schools.

In 1838 the state attempted to systematize
the grants for universities, colleges, academies,
and female seminaries, which had been made
from tune to time for nearly half a century,
by a general law granting annual state aid
to -all such institutions meeting certain con-

ditions The grants were to run for ten years,
but in 1843 they were cut in half, and in 1844
entirely abandoned In 1840 school directors
were authorized, directly or by the aid of
competent persons, to examine and ceitificate
all teachers In 1843 directors of city, ward,
or borough school districts were authorized
to employ district superintendents, and in
1849 this provision was extended to all state-
aided districts Few superintendents were
ever employed, and the law was superseded
in 1854 by the law providing county super-
vision The elections of 1 848 being so favoiable
(about 90 per cent for), the legislature in that
year extended the school system to include
all school districts It was twenty years,
however, before public schools existed in all
of the school districts of the state In 1849
the laws were recodified, and the minimum
term extended from three to four months
This created so much opposition, howevei,
that in 1851 the law was in part repealed In
1836 Philadelphia had been authorized to
establish a high school, similar permission
was granted to Pittsburg in J849, and to Easton
in 1850, and in 1854 all doubt as to the legality
of districts establishing such schools was
removed by a general law, authorizing the
establishment of "graded schools and the study
of the hrgher branches "

In 1850 a state convention of the friends
of education was held in Harnsburg The
proceedings arid resolutions of this convention,
published by direction of the legislature, were
made a platform for educational advancement,
and did much to secure the new law of 1854
In January, 1852, the first number of the
Pennsylvania School Journal was issued, and
in 1855 was made the official organ of the
State Educational Department In 1852 the
State Teachers' Association was organized
at Harnsburg Teachers' institutes were now
organized in a number of counties, and other
conventions held The result of this awaken-
ing was the new school law of 1854, which
reorganized the system By this law the
township was made the unit of the system,
and districts were given corporate powers, the
minimum school term was again increased to
four months, and separate schools for negroes
were required, where practicable; a district
tax for school buildings and the publication
of a book by the State Superintendent on
school architecture were authorized, reading,
writing, spelling, grammar, geography, and
arithmetic were made statutory school sub-
jects, thus doubling the course of instruction
in many districts, school directors and teachers
were directed to adopt textbooks for the dis-
trict, grants foi instruction to endowed and to
religious schools were prohibited, and the offices
of county superintendent of schools for each
county and of deputy superintendent of
common schools were created In 1857 the
office of State Superintendent was detached

627

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

from that of Secretary of State, a separate
department of common schools was created,
and a State Superintendent of Common
Schools, to be appointed by the Governor for
three-year terms, was provided for. The year
1857 also maiked the first provision for the
education of teacheis made by the state The
state was divided into twelve normal-school
districts (increased to thirteen in 1874), in
each of which a normal school was eventually
to be established In 1850 the Lancaster
Countv normal school, at Millersvillo (opened
in 1855), was recognized as the fust state
normal school, in 1861 the school at Kdm-
boro, in 1802 the school at Mansfield, and in
1866 the school at Kutztown, were sirmlarlv
recognized. By 1877, ten schools had been
recognized, and the thirteenth was added in
1893 Those schools, private in nature, re-
ceived state aid for buildings and foi each
pupil trained

In 1863 an attempt was made to change
the basis of apportioning state aid from tax-
ables to school census, but the returns were
so unreliable that the taxable basis was icstored
in 1864 In 18(54 the first school libraiv law
was enacted. By 1866 the teacheis' institutes,
begun after 1850, had extended to twenty-
three counties of the state, and in 1867 they
wore legalized and required for all counties
with count v aid By the law of 1867, cities
and boroughs having a population of 10,000
were ppi nutted to employ city superintendents,
the right of eminent domain was gi anted to
districts, the old " provisional certificate,"
based on an examination in leading, writing,
and arithmetic only, was abolished, and all
teachors wcie required to pass an examina-
tion in leading, writing, spelling, arithmetic,
geography, grammar, United States history,
and the theory of teaching, county superin-
tendents were required to hold a teacher's
certificate, 01 to be a graduate of a college
or a normal school; and the state pcimancnt
teachers' certificates were also authorized
In 1864 the Pennsylvania Soldiers' Orphan
Schools were organized, and in 1871 the Penn-
sylvania Training School for the Feeble-
minded was established at Media In 1872
the minimum school term was increased to
five months.

In 1873 a new state constitution was adopted,
and in this the progress made during the pre-
ceding forty years was recorded and somewhat
extended. After the adoption of the new con-
stitution, no new code of laws was enacted, the
schools continuing under the laws of 1854 and
1876, with various minor amendments, until the
adoption of the new school code in 1911. In 1881
the requirement of separate schools for the races,
instituted in 1854, was withdrawn, with but
little resulting change In 1883 an evening
school law was enacted. In 1885 physiology
and hygiene were added to the list of examina-
tion subjects for teachers' certificates, and in

1901 civil government and elementary algebra.
In 1887 teachers were first paid for attending
teachers' institutes, and separate city teachers'
institutes were authorized In 1893 a dis-
trict free-textbook law was enacted, the county
superintendents' salary law (first enacted in
1878) was revised, and state teachers' certifi-
cates were first granted to college graduates
In 1895 there was quite an amount of legisla-
tion with regard to district lines, district
indebtedness, and district boards; boards of
directors were permitted to establish free
public libraries, and to levy a one-mill tax for
their support, a vaccination law and an
anti-iehgious-gaib law were enacted; and
joint high schools were authorized, state aid
for high schools extended, and the State
Superintendent instructed to prescribe a uni-
form high school course In 1897 the dis-
tribution of state aid was finally changed
from the old basis of taxables to a plan based
on a combination of teachers, taxables, and
school census, stenography and typewriting
and kmdcrgaitens were authorized, the trans-
portation of pupils was permitted, and a
schoolhouse flag law was passed In 1899 the
minimum school term was extended from six
to seven months, and a State Free Library
Commission was established In 1901 town-
ship centralization, with the transportation
of pupils, night manual training schools, and
township supervising principals were author-
i/ed In 1907 a minimum salarv law, with
state aid to weak districts, a school sanitation
law, and an annual school directors' conven-
tion law weie enacted. In 1909 the child labor
law was revised and materially strengthened,
and a detailed law relating to the handling
of school diseases was enacted

In 1907 the legislature passed a law directing
the Governor to appoint an educational com-
mission, to revise and codify the school laws
of Pennsylvania A carefully revised code
was prepared and submitted to the legis-
lature of 1909, passed by the legislature,
but vetoed by the Governor The same com-
mission submitted a similar code to the legis-
lature of 1911, and this finally became a law

Present School System — At the head of
the present school system of Pennsylvania,
as reorganized in 1911, is a State Board of
Education, and a State Superintendent of
Public Instruction The State Board of
Education consists of six citizens, appointed
by the Governor (the members of the educa-
tional commission were appointed as the first
State Board) with the concurrence of two
thirds of the Senate, arid for six-year terms,
one going out of office each year The State
Superintendent of Public Instruction, also
appointed by the Governor, for four-year
terms, is ex officio a member and president
of the State Board The members serve
without pay, and one half of them must be
experienced educators, connected with the

628

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

public school system of the state The Board
has important duties, largely advisory, and
important business functions, and it may elect
such officers, employ such assistants, and in-
cur such expense, as it deems necessary. All
schools in the state, of whatever kind, supported
in whole or in part from state sources, must
report to the Board It may make such by-
laws arid prescribe such rules and regulations
for the sanitary inspection and equipment
of schools as it may deem necessary It is
charged with the care and management of
the state school fund and with the piomotion
of agricultural, vocational, and industrial
education in the state For thih purpose, and
also for the equalization of educational ad-
vantages throughout the state, the Board
may use so much of the income of the state4
school fund as it sees fit It is chaiged with
the purchase of the thirteen normal schools
of the state from the stockholders, and there-
after with the appointment of trustees for
the schools purchased The Board is directed
to prepare and publish schoolhouse plans, and
to furnish them free to districts, und all plans
for the construction or reconstruction of build-
ings, except in first-class districts (Philadelphia
and Pittsburg) must be approved bv the
State Board The Boaid makes an annual
report to the Governor as to its work and as
to the condition of the state school fund, and
the Board is also instructed to recommend
needed legislation to the Governor and the
legislatuie

The State Superintendent acts as the exec-
utive officer of the Board and has more than
the usual functions of this officer He ap-
points all of his deputies and assistants, con-
sisting of two deputy superintendents, three
experts in agricultural education, industrial
^duration, and drawing, four inspectors of
elementary and high schools, and all necessary
clerks, and at salaries fixed by law

For each of the sixty-six counties a county
superintendent is elected, for four-year terms,
by a convention of all the school directors
(trustees) in the county representing districts
not employing a city or town superintendent-
Assistant superintendents must possess the
same qualifications as county superintendents,
and are appointed for the same length of time
Thev assist the county superintendent in the
supervision of instruction, the inspection of
grounds and buildings, the approval of courses
of study, the conferring with directors, and the
examination of pupils and schools, and may
act for him, as directed They also examine
teachers for the schools of their counties

Each county is divided into a nunibei of
school districts, each city, incorporated town,
borough, or township constituting a separate
school district, coterminous with the civic-
division All independent school districts
were abolished in 1911, though provision foi
their temporary reconstitution was made All

districts are divided into foui classes, as fol-
lows 1st, population of over 500,000, — board
of 15, 2d, population of 30,000 to 500,000,— board
of 9, 3d, population of 5000 to 30,000, board of
7 , 4th, population of less than 5000, — board of 5.
There are but two first-class districts, Phila-
delphia and Pittsburg, and for a description
of these and their powers, see special article
on PHILADELPHIA, CITY OF For the other
classes of districts, the boards of school direc-
tors are elected at large, and for six-year terms,
approximately one third going out of office
uac'h year Each district is a school cor-
poration, arid the title of all school property
is vested in the school district First and
second-class districts must, and third-class
districts may, appoint a district (city) super-
intendent of schools for a four-year term, after
which such districts are not under the super-
vision of the county superintendent of schools
The district superintendent must be commis-
sioned by the State Superintendent, and suc-
ceeds to all the duties and powers of the
county superintendent Any third or fourth-
class district may appoint a supervising
piincipal Each board of directors must pro-
vide a sufficient number of schools to edu-
cate all children six to twenty-one, and
they also have the powei to provide high
schools, evening schools, kindergartens, vo-
cational schools, libraries, museums, play-
grounds, special class schools, truant and
parental schools, schools for adults, and such
other schools as they deem desirable On
petition of the parents of twenty-five children
over fourteen, they must provide an evening
school, and on petition of seventy-five tax-
payers, they must provide an evening manual
training school Any board may establish
an agncultuial school, and admit those over
twenty-one to any vocational classes Each
board also has the power to levy taxes, within
fixed limits, for all school purposes, may,
similarly, bonow money, and issue bonds;
may acquire real estate, may make and en-
force all reasonable rules and regulations,
may appoint and, for proper cause, may re-
move teacheis and all other employes; in
first- and second-class districts must, and in
third- and fourth-class districts may, control
all student activities arid publications, must
fuinish the textbooks arid supplies needed,
and may loan books to pupils during vaca-
tions, are to adopt courses of study, with the
approval of the district or county superin-
tendent, may provide transportation for
pupils, 01 may consolidate schools, or may do
both, must take and report an annual school
census, and must maintain all schools in the
English language Textbooks are adopted
by the boards for five-year periods, and no
change can be made, without the recommenda-
tion of the superintendent, except by a two
thirds vote

School Support — The schools are sup-

629

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

ported by a state appropriation and by local
taxation, the latter comprising about 80 per
cent of all income for maintenance The
state appropriation was about seven million
dollars at last report, and this is distributed
to the districts (since 1911) on the combined
basis of one half on teachers actually employed
and one half on school census The state school
fund, created in 1911 , is to consist of 80 per cent
of the net income from the state's forest re-
serves (estimated at 1,000,000 acres), the
income fiom the state's water-power lights,
the income and proceeds from all state lands
not used foi public purposes, all escheated
estates, and all property or money given to
the fund The State Board of Education is
to use so much of the income as thev deem
wise, to equalize educational advantages in
the state, and to aid education in forestry,
agriculture, and industrial pui suits, and then
to add the remainder of the income to the prin-
cipal of the fund Under the new law, each
district levies its own school taxes In first-
class districts, the levy must be between five
and six mills, in second-class districts not over
twenty mills, and in third- and fourth-class
districts not over twenty-five mills

Teachers and Training — Three grados of
teachers' certificates are issued, — provi-
sional, professional, and state Each must
state on its face the subjects of the examina-
tion, for which alone it is valid No teacher
mav teach any subject not named on the face
of the certificate, so that this virtually creates
a form of high school certificate Each supei-
mtendent, county or district, may examine
and certificate teachers foi his own county or
district Provisional certificates are valid only
in the district where issued, and for one year,
and no teacher may teach on such over five
years Professional certificates presuppose
two years' experience, more advanced examina-
tions, are renewable three times, and may be
granted inter-county recognition State cer-
tificates are valid throughout the state, and
presuppose two years of teaching on a pro-
fessional certificate, or college or normal
school graduation Full recognition is granted
to college and normal school graduates, and
good inter-state recognition of certificates
prevails A certificate cannot be issued to a
person addicted to the use of drink and nar-
cotics, not physically and mentally sound, or
not of good character, and any certificate
issued may be annulled for cause The read-
ing of pedagogical books designated by the
State Superintendent is emphasized in the
granting of all higher certificates Any dis-
trict may create or contribute to a teachers'
retirement fund A minimum salary law for
teachers insures a salary of $60 or $65 a
month, according to the certificate held

For the training of future teachers, the state
subsidizes and exercises a partial control over
thirteen s6-called state normal schools The

new school code contemplates the purchase of
each of these joint-stock institutions, authorizes
the State Board of Education to negotiate
purchases, and directs each legislature to ap-
propriate $200,000 for the purpose, until all
of the thirteen schools are acquired Phila-
delphia, Pittsburg, and Reading maintain
city normal schools

Educational Conditions — A good medical
inspection law was incorporated in the
new code, by which all first- and second-class
districts must piovide for medical inspection,
third-class districts must also, unless they vote
annually not to do so, and fourth-class dis-
tricts are to be provided with medical inspec-
tion by the State Commissioner of Health,
unless they notify him in writing each year
that they do not want it Any district board
may also appoint a school nurse Detailed
reports are to be filed and copies sent to parents.
The sanitary inspection of buildings is also
a part of the work All school buildings must
meet certain hygienic conditions, and all two-
story buildings must be fireproof All deaf,
dumb, blind, and mentally deficient children
must be reported to the medical inspector for
examination, and their proper education pro-
vided for

All first- and second-class districts must
provide a school term of 9 months, third-class
distncts of 8 months, and fourth-class dis-
tricts of 7 months All schools must be taught
in the English language Textbooks and
supplies are furnished free by the districts
All children 6 to 21 may attend school, and
all children 8 to 14 must attend a public
or accepted private school every day the public
schools are in session, except that in fourth-
class districts the directors may vote to i educe
the required time to 75 per cent of the school
term All children 14 to 16 not properly
employed must also attend school, and those
at work must possess employment certificates
Children 8 to 14 cannot be employed at any
laboi during school hours All first-, second-,
and thud-class diatiicts must appoint attend-
ance officers, and fourth-class districts may do
so Two or more districts may join in the
appointment of an attendance officer, and the
State Superintendent may withhold state
funds from districts failing to enforce the law
No religious or political test can be required
in the schools, and the requirement of separate
schools for the negro race is forbidden.

Secondary Education — Three classes of
high schools are recognized, and state aid is
granted for each class A first-class high
school must provide 4 years of instruction,
a 9 months' term, employ at least 3 teachers,
and receives a maximum state grant of $800
A second-class high school must provide 3
years of instruction, an 8 months' term, and
employ at least 2 teachers, and receives a
maximum state grant of $600 A third-class
high school must provide 2 years of instruc-

630

PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF

PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF

tiou, and receives a maximum state giant of
$400. Any school district may establish a
high school, as it sees fit, except that in fourth-
class distncts the approval of the county and
State Superintendents must first be obtained
The course of study must be approved by the
superintendent of the district 01 the county
Joint district high schools are provided foi,
with joint high school boards Children not
residing in high school districts, 01 full fom-
year high school districts, may attend neigh-
boring schools, then tuition being paid by
their home districts. All school distncts lun e
the same powei to establish and support
high schools as they have for elemental \
schools, there being no separate high school
funds The high schools have developed
rapidly dm ing the past ten veais In 1902
there were but 66 township high schools,
while in 1910 the numbei had inci cased to
332 The same yeai there weie 50S borough
and city high schools There were 125 hist-
chiBb, 236 second-class, and 479 thud-class
schools in the state

Higher Education — The PennsvKania.
State College (>//>)> located at 'State College
in central Pennsylvania, is the only institution
of higher leaining maintained bv the state
This institution, founded in 1859, offers in-
struction in agiiculture, engmeeiing, and
household economy The Umveisitv of Penn-
sylvania (qv) leeenes some small state aid,
but it is essentially x piivate foundation The
central high school in Philadelphia and the
University of Pittsbuig .ire municipal institu-
tions The state has a huge number (34) of
non-state r olleges, mostly on lehgious founda-
tions, twelve of \\hich date back to beioie
1850 Some1 of these, as foi example Muhlcn-
beig, Dickinson, Lafavetle, Ha\erfoid, Fiank-
hn and Maishall, Hucknell, Lehigh, Swaith-
more, Washington and JefTeison, and Bn n
Mawi (qq v.\ possess considerable piopeitv
and offei a good ginde of collegiate instiuc-
tion About one half of the numbei are open
to both sexes, six aie for women only, and one
is for the colored race

Special Education — For the education of
delinquents, dependents, and defectives, the
state maintains, in whole or in pait, the fol-
lowing special state institutions —

Pennsylvania Industrial Reformatory, at Huntingdon
Pennsylvania State Reform School, at Morgan/a
House of Refuge, for Oirls, at Darling
House of Refuge, for Boys, at Glen Mill*
Pennsylvania Institution foi the Blind, at O\ei brook.
WcHtPennsylvanialnbtitution for the Blind, at Pittsburg
Pennsylvania Institution foi the Deaf and Dumb, ,it

Philadelphia , T. ,

West Pennsylvania Institution for the Deaf and Dumb,

at Edgewood Park

Pennsylvania Oral School for thf Deaf at Seranton
Pennsylvania Home for the Training of Deaf Children

before they are of School Age, at Philadelphia
Pennsylvania Training School for the Feeble-minded,

at Elwyn
State Institution for the Feeble-minded of^ Western

Pennsylvania, at Polk ETC

References --

An Rcpts iS'cr State, er officio Supt Common
Schools Pa , 1 834-1 K57

An Kepts Si 8 apt Common Schools Pa , 1868-
1H73

An Rtptb St Xupt Puhl Instr Pa, 1874-1910

An Rept* St Bit Kdm and fit Kupt Publ Instr.
Pa , 1911 to date

"An Act to Kstab a Publ Kch tiyst in the Common-
wealth of Pa ," etc Approved May IS, 1011

BUUNM, J A Cathoht (Colonial Schools in Pennsyl-
vania (Philadelphia, 19QK )
Constitution* of Pa , 177(>. 1790, Ih3h, and 187.3.

CLKWH, ELSIK \A Kd motional Legislation of thf
Colonial (jow mint nts, pp '27S-313 (New York,
1X99 )

SiMiti'Lfchs, ISAA< Two Centurtev of Pennsylvania
History (Philadtlphhi, 1907)

WKHKR, S E Chanty SJiool Movement in Colonial
Pennsylvania (Philadelphia, 1905)

\\ icKEHHHAM, .1 1* History of Education in Ptnnsyl-
vanui (Lane abter, Pa, 1886)

PENNSYLVANIA, THE UNIVERSITY OF,
PHILADELPHIA, PA — This university had
its oiigm 111 a tract written by Benjamin Frank-
lin, entitled " Pioposals relating to the Educa-
tion of Youth in Pensilvania " Soon after
its puhhration, twenty-four public-spirited
citizens of Philadelphia associated themselves
for the purpose of establishing an academy,
and " laving a Foundation for Posterity to
erect a Seminary of Learning more extensive
and suitable to their future Circumstances "
The board chose Franklin for its president
and directed him with the aid of the attornev-
geneial to draw up a constitution One of
the first acth of the board was to secure the
use of a building erected at Fourth and Arch
Streets, Philadelphia, by a trust founded in
1740, and intended to serve for a " Charity
School " and a " House of Pubhck Worship "
Foi the lattei purpose the structure was used
in Novembei of 1740, when Whitefield first
preached in it, the chanty school, however,
was neve) set in opeiation The trustees, in
01 dei that theii trust might be carried out
and the building u applyed to the good and
pious uses oiigmallv intended," conveyed it,
on Febiuaiv 1, 1750, to the trustees of the
Academy by an indenture, which bound the
latter to keep a " House of Publick Worship "
and " one free school " for the instruction of
poor chilchen; but empowered them, so long
as they preserved the aims of the original
trust, to emplov the property as they saw fit.
In Januaiv, 1751, the Academy was formally
opened It embraced three schools, English,
Latin, and Mathematical, over each of which
sat a master, one of whom was rector of the
institution The Academy met with marked
success, and upon application readily secured
from Thomas and Richard Penn, the Pro-
prietors, a charter in 1753

William Smith, first Provost of the Uni-
versity, began his administration in 1755.
The scope of the Academy rapidly widened
In J755, at the request of the Board of Trus-
tees, (Jovernor Morns granted a second chai-

PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF

tcr which confirmed the first, granted power
to confer degrees, and changed the title of
the board to " The Trustees of the College,
Academy, and Charitable School of Philadel-
phia." The first commencement of the College,
with a graduating class of seven young men,
took place in May, 1757 After this its name
and influence spread widely and it drew support
from Maryland, Virginia, the Carolmas, and
the West Indies Dr Smith planned the cur-
riculum in 1750 to extend over three years,
and to include Latin, Greek, mathematics,
chemistry, philosophy, history, ethics, civil
and international law This plan laid the
foundation foi the educational system of the
American college Di Smith was a man of
many interests, a church workei, an educator,
a scientist, and at times an active politician
In the lattei capacity he incinred the displeas-
ure of the Provincial Assembly by an alleged
libel against its privileges, and was tin own
into jail, where he nevertheless continued to inert
his classes In 1759 he went to England lor
redress, and while abroad received lumoiaiv
degrees from Oxford, Aberdeen, and Dublin
In 1762 he went again to England in the m-
teiests of the College As the Jesuit of an
appeal foi aid to George III, to the Penns,
and to the English people, he returned to
America with slightly over £6000 This favor
shown by George III latei militated against
the College, because it confirmed the feeling
then existing that the College sided with Tory
interests Objections were made to the exer-
cise oi some of the lights under its chaiter
As a consequence of complaints, an act of
Assembly in 1771) revoked the charters of
1753 and 1755, and formed a new corpoiation,
11 The Trustees of the University of the Stale
of Pennsylvania " In 1789 this act was re-
pealed, as a " violation of the Constitution
of this Commonwealth," by a bill which once
moio secured to the College its privileges and
franchises with Di Smith as Provost But
even thus the College and the University were
separate, and there was not room for two in-
stitutions The trustees of both accordingly
applied to the assembly to have the charters
of each surrendered, a new corporation created,
and a board of trustees, representing both
College and University, organized The As-
sembly passed an act in September, 1791,
uniting the University of the State of Pennsyl-
vania and the College, Academy, and Charitable
School of Philadelphia under the titlo " The
Ti ustees of the University of Pennsylvania "
The new organization comprised three
departments, the arts, medicine, and law.
The department of arts embiaced five sep-
arate schools under the caie of six professors
and their assistants. The medical school, the
first in North America, had been founded in
May, 1765, when Dr John Morgan and Di
William Shippen presented to the trustees
a plan, approved by Thomas Perm, the Pro-

prietor, for a course in medicine Dr Morgan
was at once appointed Professor of the Theory
and Practice of Physic, and Dr Shippen,
Professor of Anatomy and Suigery In June,
1768, ten men were graduated with the degree
of Bachelor of Medicine By 1791 there
were added to the medical faculty a chair of
botany and matena medica and a chair of
chemistry The law school dates from
1790, when the trustees of the College elected
to the first professorship of law in America
Hon James Wilson, then one of the Associate
Justices of the Supreme Court of the United
States

Di Ewmg succeeded Dr Smith ab Provost
in 1791 During Ewing's administration the
University moved from its old home on Fourth
Street to a building on the West Side of Ninth
Street between Market and Chestnut streets,
erected by the legislature1 in 1791, before the
removal of the National Capitol to Washing-
ton, as a home for the President of the United
States This the Umvcihity bought in 1800,
and occupied from 1802 to 1829, when it was
i oplaced by two large buildings occupied re-
spectively by the College and the Medical
School until 1873, when the University re-
moved to its present site in West Philadelphia
In 1807 Dr Ewmg died The administra-
tions of Provosts McDowell, Andrews, and
Beaseley extended to 1828 In spite of at-
tempted reorganizations, the classes dimin-
ished in size and public support ran low
Provosts DeLancev, Ludlow, Vet hake, and
Goodwin, notwithstanding their short ad-
ministrations, brought to the University once
more the spirit of progress and discipline
The enrollment increased, the law school was
revived in 1850 by Judge Sharswood, and the
auxiliary department, of medicine founded in
1805

It remarried, however, for Dr Strlle, who
became Provost in 1868, to reorganize the
administration Dr Stille* was a man of
unusual zeal, energy, and insight He revised
the curriculum, arid introduced on its adoption
by the Board of Trustees in 1860 an elective
system of studies The Board of Trustees
set about to increase the endowment It
suggested that the City should sell to the
University at a nominal figure some twenty-
five or thirty acres of the almshouse farm in
West Philadelphia Of this, part was to be
a new site for the1 University, and part to be
sold, as occasion should present, to increase
the endowment fund Ten acres of land were
bought at $8000 per acre On this new ground
was laid in June, 1871, the corner stone of the
present College Hall In 1875 the depart-
ment of science, founded m 1852, was endowed
under the provisions of the will of John Henry
Towne, Ksq , and was thenceforth called by the
Board of Trustees " The Towne Scientific
School" Five and one half acres more -were
secured in 1872 for the site of a hospital,

632

PENNSYLVANIA, UNIVERSITY OF

PENOLOGY

which through state appropriation was com-
pleted in 1874. A department of music was
established in 1877, a department of dentistry
in 1878 In 1877 the Charitable School was
discontinued

Dr. William Pepper became Provost in 1SS1
upon the resignation of Dr Stille His term
of office was a period of maiked material and
academic growth Through enlargement of
funds, creation of departments, and reorgan-
ization of faculties, Provost Pepper united
the various departments of the institution
under a comprehensive plan of administration
In 1881, through the generosity of Joseph
Wharton, Esq , a School of Finance and Com-
merce was founded (See COMMERCIAL EDU-
CATION ) To Dr Pepper's activity is due
in large measure the founding and equipment
of the following departments or schools the
Graduate School, 1882, the School of Veter-
inary Medicine, 1882, the School of Biology,
1883, the Department of Physical Education,
1885; the Department of Archaeology and
Palaeontology, 1889, the School of Hygiene,
1891, the School of Architecture, 1891, the
VVistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, 1892,
the Museum of Arts and Sciences, 1894, and
the erection of the University hbiarv build-
ing, 1889 Furthermore, lie acquired twentv-
five acres more in West Philadelphia and se-
cured benefactions amounting to $2,500,000

Dr Charles Custis Harrison succeeded Di
Pepper as Provost in 1894 In the seventeen
years of his administration the University
underwent phenomenal growth Provost
Harrison built up the University dormitory
svstem, which to-day includes thnty houses
To his influence, zeal, and generosity is due
the erection of numerous other buildings, —
the John Harrison Laboratory of Chemistry,
the new medical laboratory, the law school
building, the engineering building, dental
hall, the new votermaiv buildings, the lab-
oratory of zoology, the gymnasium, and
Franklin Field In 1910 the Hemy Phipps
Institute for the Study and Tieatment of
Tuberculosis became part of the University
Furthermore, sixty-nine acies of land weie ac-
quired by the Univeisitv dining Di Harrison's
term of office, and more than ten million
dollars raised for University pin poses Di
Harrison was himself a hbeial givei to the
University, and established in the Graduate
School the George Leib Hainson Memoiial
Foundation Upon the lesignation of Di
Harrison in 1910, Di Edgar Fahs Smith,
Vice Provost and Professor oi Chemistry, be-
came Provost

The University of Pennsylvania is a cor-
poration with a board of twenty-four Trustees,
of which the Governor of the state is President,
ex officio The trustees are a self-perpetuating
body, except that every third vacancy is filled
by the nomination of the alumni The Prov-
ost presides over the board, in the absence of

the Governoi, and directs the woik of instruc-
tion and research of the University The
faculty is divided into six faculties, each pre-
sided over by a Dean The Hospital, the
Wistar Institute of Anatomy and Biology, and
the Museum of Arts and Sciences are gov-
erned by boards of directors, under the geneial
direction of the Trustees of the University
The enrollment of the University for the year
1911 was :>3S9, distiibuted as follows The
( 1ollege (which includes Arts and Sciences,
Architectuie, Biology, Chemistiy, Engineer-
ing Schools, Whaiton School, and Music),
3720; Graduate School, 416, Law School, 347,
the School of Medicine, 450, School of Den-
tistry, 462, the Vet en run y Department, 154
These figures include 210 students from foieign
countries The student bodv is thus complex
and <•( srnop* lit an The faculty of the Uni-
veisitv numbers 500 Entrance to the College
is by examination and, onlv in the case of
preparatoiy schools iecogni/ed bv the uni-
versity, by ceitificate Entiance to the
medical school presupposes at least two \ ears
of woi k in a recognized college, which must
include special work in biologA , chemistry,
and physics Admission to the
requires of the candidate a B A
satisfactory proof of fitness In
examination The annual budget
veisity, exclusive of the hospital
erection of any new buildings, is

law school
degree, or
pielimmai v
of the Uni-
and of the
«1, 250,000

J H. P
References —

CHEYNI-Y, E P External History of the University
of Pemihvh ania, in Chamberlain's Universities
arid tin 11 *SV>/M (Boston, 1WW)

MONTGOMMTI. 'I" H ///s/or// of tin Univirsity oj
Pennsylvania from //s Founding to 1770 (Phila-
delphia, 1 *)()() )
SLOHHON, K K Great American Universities (New

York, !<)!())

THORPE, F \ Benjamin Franklin and the University
of IVnns\lvania U S Bur of Ed, Circular of
Jnjornwtion, ISML', No 2

WOOD (i B Kail '// Histoi y of the University of Penn-
sylvania (Philadelphia, 1800 )

PENOLOGY, EDUCATIONAL ASPECTS

OF --The retnhutorv theory of punishment
and the death penalty have gradually retired
into the hackgiound, and the educational
purpose of penal institutions has correspond-
ingly become prominent While the primary
and controlling end of the prison is to protect
social older, security of person and property,
the most competent practical men have come
to see that society is best protected by le-
oducatmg the antisocial man in social habits,
beliefs, and dispositions, if by sad mischance
he has not been educated into a social charac-
ter Society breathes in comfort the hour
the aggressive delinquent is safe inside the
high walls, but this is from self-deception, for
there is no guarantee of permanent immunity
from harm until the criminal becomes a good
citizen; and it is by a suitable educational pro-

633

PENOLOGY

PENOLOGY

cess, conducted by capable teachers, that this
inward change is brought about, if at all Jf
education fails, nothing is left but capital
punishment or life servitude in prison for the
confirmed and habitual offender or the weak-
ling incapable of training for self-control and
self-support

It is now generally acknowledged that the
deterrent factor, fear of punishment, has been
greatly overestimated Fear is a weak and
fitful motive, and criminals are as a clash
short-sighted, reckless gamblers, they are
ready to take chances, and the risk of detec-
tion and conviction gives zest to the game
If society insists on the deterrent factor in
punishment, the dread of regular discipline
under restraint will be all that is necessary
to excite and sustain the feais of lawless men

It is a mistake to regard the educational aim
a,s inconsistent with the fundamental aims of
criminal law, and to conceive of it as purely
in the individual interest of the offender him-
self On the contrary, the educatoi keeps in
mind the necessity of awakening the conscience,
remorse, the recognition of an objective social
order, the sense of responsibility, the rights
of the public which have been willfully vio-
lated. In this sense the words '4 punishment,"
" retribution," and " deterrence " have a
meaning

Foerster, Conti, and other antagonists of
the " indeterminate sentence " insist that
punishment should be mcasuicd out in prison
days, fines, or otherwise, and not confused
with education, although they have not shown
clearly and convincingly that theie is anv
common principle for making the " punishment
fit the crime " They have, howevei, come
to see and admit that, outside of and apart
from retribution and expiation, society should
try to reform the offendei , — only not as a
part of " retribution " They have riot always
told us clearly whether inside the prison the
State should exclude all educational and re-
forming influences Certainly industry, re-
ligion, and physical care ought to woik
toward improvement of the moral nature and
fitness for honest labor outside Any attempt
to separate education from prison life must
fail. If any one chooses to call one part of
the period " expiation " and another part
u reformation,'7 he is welcome to his hair-
splitting logic and metaphysical satisfaction ,
but in actual practice the distinction cannot
change the modes of treatment A criminal
is a man, and every moment of restraint and
pain should be a moment of moral discipline
Until the criminal accepts the aim of education
as his own, it will seem to him pure punish-
ment and may seem expiation If the aim of
personal amendment is accepted, the restraint
and suffering will seem to him an opportunity.
In any case society is for the time protected
and has the power to prolong restraint so long
as the offender is rebellious or dangerous,

but the effort to train, teach, guide, inspire —
" to educate " — must never for one moment
cease When society, in its punishment,
ceases to try to reform and improve character,
it lapses to that extent into barbarism; with
its desire for vengeance or for compensation,
the community assumes a self-corrupting atti-
tude

This profound change in the theory of pun-
ishment, which is going on throughout the
civilized world, has begun to transform the
prison, but especially the reformatory, into
a school The ideal of the warden or super-
intendent is slowly changing Formerly this
officer was selected with reference to his quali-
fications for exciting terror in the lawless and
for using physical force to quell mutiny In a
well-built prison mechanical arrangements of
walls, bars, and gates provide for security,
and the process of education can go on inside
with no more disturbance than in a high school;
often with less noise and turbulence The
warden, under the best systems, is also re-
lieved very greatly of the burden of marketing
the product of prison industries and purchasing
supplies, he has more tune to direct the train-
ing of the prisoners, and more is expected of
him in this direction If this tendency con-
tinues, it will not be long until candidates for
pohitiorih in penal institutions will be required
to be graduates of normal schools and work up
to the commanding position by experience HI
class work Manifestly manual and trade
training must be a large factor in the curricu-
lum

Gradually, in Europe and America, the re-
form school (q /» ) has been differentiated from
the reformatory and prison Only in back-
ward communities is the youth under seven-
teen shut up with adult offenders in jail, even
while awaiting trial For wayward children
and vouth the penal institution has been trans-
formed into a school having special facilities
for dealing with various classes of youthful
delinquents Even bolts, bars, and walls dis-
appear, except for the older group, which in-
cludes u, few dangerous persons, and for those
who are under discipline for offenses against
the rules of the house

The parental school (q v ) has in some cities
been introduced between the public school and
the reform schools in order to give special dis-
cipline to truants and restore them to normal
domestic relations without contact with more
hardened offenders This gradation and clas-
sification has been developed in advanced
states in consequence of careful observation
and experiment, and its value is beyond
question

Little need be said of the curriculum and
management in reformatory education. It
is true that the teachers must be acquainted
with the physical and psychical characteristics
of abnormal and subnormal children and
vouth, and be able to adapt certain special

634

PENOLOGY

PENSIONS

devices to their peculiar needs It is also
essential to have connected with every juvenile
court a competent medical examiner with the
training of a modern psychologist to study
every young person who appears before the
judge, in order to help in selecting the best
course of training in each case, but this is true
also of any other kind of school In general
the same preparation in psychology and prin-
ciples of pedagogy is needed as that given in
our best normal schools But a period of
residence and teaching in a reform school is
necessary as an apprenticeship The fact
has been in the past that almost the only
schools which had a full equipment for physi-
cal and manual training, with preparation for
industrial skill and habits, were the reform
schools and reformatories Boys were com-
pelled to commit crimes in order to get the
education they most needed The contrast
between their behavior in an ordinary book
and slate-pencil school and that in a good re-
form school proved the superior adaptation
of the reform school curriculum and methods
Such a contrast could not continue When
the historian of education comes to pass judg-
ment on the evolution of school methods of
the nineteenth ccnturv, he will probably do
justice to the part played by reformatory
methods in improving the oidmarv public
school equipment and conduct At the same
time, especially since 1876, the ideas of Pes-
talozzi and Froebel, through kindergarten and
manual training schools, have been carried over
into state leformatory institutions, and there
found a congenial soil and welcome For judi-
cial methods of dealing with delinquent chil-
dren and the educational significance of these
methods, see JUVENILE DELINQUENCY

After more than a century of trial and re-
flection on experience, the modern mind has
about come to this working theorv of social
necessity and duty free public, schools for all,
compulsory attendance, enforced by suitable
rules and agents, public relief when destitu-
tion renders parents unable to perform then-
duty; special schools for abnormal, subnormal,
crippled, and delinquent children Recently
the conviction has become clear and decided
that this policy, to be effective for the preven-
tion of crime, must be extended to nearly the
end of legal minority, — the stormy and perilous
passage over the years of adolescence Just-
when passion is strongest, conceit is most
dangerous, desire for liberty most in need of
bit and bridle, and parental control relaxed,
society is peculiarly exposed to danger and
loss It is the crime age The present
watchwords of a preventive policy are voca-
tional schools, vocational guidance, vocational
supervision and control, with community pro-
vision for recreation and social intercourse
under wise supervision Add to this, financial
aid to destitute parents when necessary to
make performance of their duty possible

These are among the essential factors in the
most advanced and most adequate theory
of crime prevention, and they must all be
under the direction of school administration.
There is no other organ of society properly
equipped for this function C R H

See JUVENILE DELINQUENCY, INDUSTRIAL
SCHOOLS, REFORM SCHOOLS, also CHILDHOOD,
LEGISLATION IN CONSERVATION OF.

For references see the bibliographies to the
articles refened to above

PENSIONS, TEACHERS' (Retirement
Funds) — As commonly used, the term pen-
sion signifies an annuity or other periodical
payment made to an individual by a govern-
ment, an institution, a company, a corpoiation,
or an employer of labor, in consideration either
of past services, 01 of the rehnquishment of
rights, claims, or emoluments The govern-
ments of most civilized countries provide
pensions for those disabled in military or naval
service, and for their wives and families in the
case of death, also for various state officers
and public servants upon retirement from
active service European governments fre-
quently grant pensions to artists, authors,
inventors, etc , in recognition of eminent
achievement, and to their widows and orphans
when left in straitened circumstances The
rapid development, during the past quarter of
a century in partieulai, of the system of state
industrial insurance and old-age pensions lias
modified in a marked degree the significance
of the pension Under modern industrial
and social conditions the pension has become
an economic force of considerable moment
Each generation endeavois to qualify, through
training and education, the members of the
succeeding generation These endeavors have
produced the modern public school systems
Each generation also tends more and more
to assume a social responsibility for the
membeis of the pieccding geneiation as they
pass, by age or other cause, beyond the period
of productive or effective activity This social
tendency has produced the modern pension
syst ems

Germany — The oldest arid best devel-
oped systems of teachers' pensions are found
in various states of the Geiman Empire.
Voluntary systems more or less local in char-
acter have long existed there, but they have
been completely overshadowed by public sys-
tems Until well into the nineteenth century,
so far as public provision was made, German
public-school teachers were commonly pen-
sioned at the expense of their successors in
office A superannuated teacher was as-
signed a fraction, usually one third, of the
regular income of his former position till
death. The new teacher was obliged to get
along on the balance of the regular income so
long as his predecessor survived This scheme
was replaced m the various states at different

635

PENSIONS

PENSIONS

points in the last century by modern public
pension systems Contributions were re-
quired from teachers at first in most cases

In Prussia, which comprises approximately
two thirds of the empire, the great body of
folk school teachers were pensioned under the
old scheme until 1885, when a modern non-
contributory pension system in favor of such
teachers was introduced throughout the king-
dom by a law of that year This law was
closely patterned after the civil-pension act
of 1872, as amended in 1882, which applies
to teachers in all public normal schools and all
public secondary schools for boys in addition
to state civil functionaries in general In
1894 a similar act was passed affecting teachers
in public middle schools arid girls' secondary
schools These three acts, shghtlv amended
occasionally, are very much alike in their
provisions, so far as teachers are immediately
affected None requires contributions from
teachers The chief differences are on the
side of public financial support, which varies
from purely local through various combina-
tions to purely state support All pensions
of folk school teachers are paid by the state
up to 700 marks, the remainder is paid by
county mutual associations of local school
districts organized bv law for that purpose
The laws under consideration applv to all
full-time teachers The regular conditions
of eligibility are at least ten vears of service
and regular retirement by the proper educa-
tional authorities on account of permanent dis-
ability or after sixty-five years of age The
pension is graded according to teaching in-
come and length of service Its amount is
determined at present by the following for-
mula -+ -(number of years of service be-
tween 10th and 31st) -f-Tzr (number of yeais

of service between 30th and 41st)] X [teach-
ing income at retirement] The range of the
pension is thus from one third to three fourths
the teaching income at retirement In gen-
eral the teachrng income consists of regular
salary plus free house rent or the equivalent
in money In 1906 there were 10,025 folk-
school teachers on the public pension roll in
Prussia, of whom 8381 were men and 1618
women The aggregate amount of their
pensions was 15,007,764 marks The average
pensions of men and women were 1618 marks
and 879 marks, respectively The pension
systems for public school teachers in the
smaller states of Germany are similar to those
in Prussia The chief differences are in
Bavaria, where contributions from teachers
are still required, and where in general pensions
are not graded according to salary, but are
in absolute amounts

Pensions have long been provided through-
out Germany for widows and orphans of public-

636

school teachers also, foi most teachers in Ger-
many, even in the folk schools, are men The
first agencies were voluntary mutual associa-
tions of teachers and special funds from phil-
anthropic sources Such agencies are still
active, but they are now merely supplementary
in a very small way to state pension systems
During the greater part of the last century the
families of deceased folk school and middle
school teachers throughout practically the
whole of Prussia were pensioned, rather inad-
equately, from county pension funds, which
all men teachers were required to join At first
the funds were supported almost entirely by
the teachers, but the relative amount of public
support gradually increased until 1889, when it
became complete Until 1882 the families
of deceased normal school and secondary
school teachers were pensioned through the
agency of a state fund primarily foi state serv-
ants, to which the teachers were required to
contribute By the terms of a series of laws
and orders beginning in 1882 the widows and
orphans of teachers in all public folk schools,
middle schools, normal schools, and both boys'
and girls' secondary schools are now pensioned
on essentially the same ba^is, except for dif-
ferences in the sources of support With rare
exceptions no contributions are requned from
teachers In geneial a widow's pension is
40 per cent of the pension her husband was
drawing 01 would have been entitled to if
retired at the time of his death The pension
of a fatherless child is one filth of the mother's
pension, that of a parent less child is one third
of the same amount The sum of the pensions
of a deceased teacher's family may not exceed
his own A pension lapses on the occasion of
the inainage or death of the pensioner, and
in the case of orphans at the age of eighteen
The present pension systems for widows and
orphans in the smaller states were established
on the whole much earlier than the fairly
recent one in Prussia just described They
are quite similar to the Prussian system The
chief differences are again in Bavaria, and they
correspond to those obtaining there in the case
of teachers' pensions

In general it has been customary for univer-
sity teachers in Germany to retain their posi-
tions till death When disability or old age
has overtaken them, they have commonly been
released from the duty of lecturing without
loss of position or salary The only loss has
been in lecture fees This plan prevails
throughout Prussia to-day In some of the
smaller states, however, regular pensions are
provided, graded according to salary and
length of service Pensions are also provided
for the widows and orphans of German uni-
versity teachers, chiefly through the agency of
special funds maintained in connection with
the several universities Most of these funds
are quite old They have been supported from
donations, state appropriations, and contribu-

PENSIONS

PENSIONS

tions from teachers. The contributions are
m most cases no longer required In a few
universities widows and orphans are pensioned
directly from university or state funds
Widows' pensions range from a small sum to
about 2000 marks Orphans' pensions are
very much smaller

France — Prior to 1853 little was done in
France in the way of pensioning teachers.
Primary (public school) teachers were re-
quired to contribute to savings and insurance
funds from which they received on retirement
in a lump sum the total accumulated amount
arid proceeds of their deposits, while secondary
and university teachers wore required to con-
tribute to a special state fund from which they
were regularly pensioned on retirement

Beginning in 1844 large mutual-aid societies
of primary teachers have gi own up in France,
ono of the chief activities of which has been
the provision on a contributory basis of small
pensions lor their meinbeis, supplementary to
civil pensions They are voluntary organi-
zations, subject to certain legal regulations
At present there is one such society in each
department 01 county The pensions pro-
vided have averaged only about 50 francs pei
annum

In 1853 the picsent civil-pension law of
Franco was enacted, which included m its
piovisions essentially all teachers engaged in
public education of all grades, pumary, second-
ary, and higher, except membeis of the teach-
ing oiders All poisons within the purview
of the law weie classified into two divisions,
the active group and the sedentary group
The former consisted of functionaries whose
duties weie considered physically exacting
By the terms of the law all persons affected
by it are required to pay contributions in sup-
port of the pension system as follows (1)5 pei
cent of the salary received each year, (2) one
twelfth of the salary of the first, year of service,
and (3) one twelfth of each subsequent in-
crease in the annual amount of the same The
general conditions of eligibility aie thirty years
of service, the attainment of sixty years of
age, and, as the law has been interpreted and
administered, regular retirement by the minis-
ter For persons with fifteen years of service
to their credit in the active group, the con-
ditions are twenty-five yeais of service, the
attainment of the age of fifty-five, and regular
retirement The normal pension is one six-
tieth of the average salary during the last MX
years of service, multiplied by the total number
of years of service But for those serving
twenty-five years in the active group, the annual
pension is one fiftieth of this average for each
year of service Special provisions were made
for pensions in certain cases of disability
after a large part of the required service had
been completed The pensions of teachers
may not exceed two thirds of the average sal-
ary upon which they are computed

At first all teachers belonged to the sedentary
gioup, but by a law of 1876 regular teachers
in public infant schools, lower and higher
primary schools, and normal schools were
transferred to the active group where they have
since remained Further, this law provided
that the pensions of these teachers should be
computed on the basis of the six highest an-
nual salaries received, regardless of their tune
and order Minimum pensions of 600 francs
for men teachers and 500 francs for women
were established

The act of 1853 also provided pensions under
given conditions for the widows and orphans
of all functionaries included within its purview.
Pnor to this time little worthy of mention had
been done in favor of the widows arid orphans
of teachers or other officers, and little has been
accomplished since apart from the requirements
of the law of 1853 Voluntary and philan-
thropic activities in this field have been
meager in comparison with those m Germany
The law of 1853 conferred the right to a pen-
sion upon the widow or parentless children
of any functionary who was either drawing a
retiring pension under that act or had com-
pleted the period of service required for eligibil-
ity to such a pon&ion at the time of his death,
provided the marriage occuired at least six
years before the cessation of the husband's
functions The widow's pension is one third
the pension the husband was drawing or would
have been entitled to if he had retired at the
time of death Whenever from death or other
cause the widow's pension is no longer paid
to her, it is divided equally among her sur-
viving children under twenty-one years of
age In case a widow stands in the relation of
stepmother to smvivmg orphans the regular
pension is shaicd between the widow and chil-
dren Bv virtue of a decision of the Council
ot State in 1882 the children of deceased women
functionaries have pension rights correspond-
ing to those enjoyed by the orphans of male
officers This is of considerable importance
in this connection since women teachers now
slightly outnumber the men in the public
schools of France, and many of the women are
married

On Jan 1, 1909, there were 21,051 retired
teachers on the civil-pension roll in France
They were receiving an average annual pen-
sion of 1220 francs and in the aggregate an an-
nual sum of about 25,685,000 francs About
18,966 of these teachers had been retired from
the field of public primary education with an
average pension around 1052 francs The
remainder were secondary and university
teachers On the same date there were 10,158
teachers' widows and orphans in receipt of
pensions aggregating 4,306,042 francs per
annum

Great Britain — The activities of mutual-
aid or friendly societies and philanthropic
agencies in pensioning public school teachers

037

PENSIONS

PENSIONS

in Great Britain have been almost negligible
A limited number of pensions are paid under
certain conditions to retired teachers in desti-
tute circumstances from the Benevolent and
Orphan Fund maintained by the National
Union of Teachers A few pension annuities
are purchased by teachcis on favorable terms
through a pension fund maintained by the
Teachers' Provident Society, affiliated with
the National Union

Long before pensions for teachers were
established by direct legislation in Great
Britain they wore provided on a small scale
by the Committee of Council on Education es-
tablished in 1839 for the purpose of superin-
tending the expenditure of funds voted by
Parliament in aid of public education. These
pensions weie for the purpose of relieving
the schools of incapacitated teachers Little
was accomplished until 1875, when the pension
system was revived after a suspension of thir-
teen years by joint action of the two
Committees of Council on Education for Eng-
land and Scotland In 1898, when the present
pension law m favor of public school teachers
was passed, there were in effect in England
and Wales 219 pensions of the Committee of
Council of 30 pounds pei annum, 668 pensions
of 25 pounds, and 732 of 20 pounds The
total expenditure for the year was roughly
36,000 pounds The total expenditure in
Scotland during the same year was approxi-
mately 5400 pounds In ^1906 the pension
system under consideration was discontinued
in England and Wales

In 1898 Parliament passed the Elementary
School Teachers (Superannuation) Act in
accordance with which certificated elementary
teachers have since been pensioned in England
and Wales and until 1912 in Scotland The
act requires all certificated teachers while
serving in public elementary schools to con-
tribute to a defened annuity fund at minimum
rates of three pounds per year for men and
two pounds for women The rates of contri-
bution in 1911, fixed by the Treasury under
the act, were three pounds ten shillings for
men and for women two pounds eight shillings
in England and two pounds in Scotland On
attaining the age of sixty-five, when his cer-
tificate is to expire, every teacher is entitled
for the remainder of his life to such annuity
from the deferred annuity fund as his contri-
butions have earned in accordance with annu-
ity tables fixed under the act Further, on
attaining the age of sixty-five, if one half the
years since certification have been spent as a
teacher in public elementary schools, the
teacher is entitled to a life-long superannuation
pension from the state at the rate of ten shil-
lings for each year of the specified service. If
a certificated teacher who has served in public
elementary schools for at least ten years and
during one half the years that have elapsed
since his certification, is found to be perma-

nently incapacitated for the efficient per-
formance of his duties, he is eligible under
certain rules to receive a disability pen-
sion from the state. A teacher who ac-
cepts a disability pension forfeits his right to
an annuity from the deferred annuity fund,
unless he later reenters the service In 1909
there were 936 men and 688 women teachers
in England and Wales in receipt of superannua-
tion pensions aggregating 33,261 pounds and
18,525 pounds respectively Also 406 men
and 1205 women were drawing disability pen-
sions amounting to 14,606 pounds and 30,306
pounds respectively The figures for Scotland
were about one tenth of these on the whole

In 1912 the act of 1898 was displaced in
Scotland by a now pension scheme formulated
under the provisions of the Education (Scot-
land) Act of 1908 The new scheme includes
all teacheis in elementary and secondary
schools in receipt of Paihamentary grants
It is supported chiefly from public funds
Teachcis are assessed four per cent of their
salaries annually, but these contributions may
be returned in full on application if the teachei
withdraws from the service Ten years of
service are required for eligibility to a pension,
which amounts to 1^ per cent of the aveiage
annual salary throughout the period of service,
multiplied by the number of yeais of service
Teachers may retire at the age of sixty and
must retire at sixty-five Disability pensions
may be awarded after ten yeais of seivice

Except in Scotland pensions have never
been provided to any material extent for sec-
ondary and urnveisity teachers In Scotland
such teachers have been pensioned to a con-
siderable extent by the institutions employing
them As just noted, the new pension scheme
in Scotland includes secondary teachers

Widows an,d orphans of teachers are not
pensioned in Great Biitain except to a very
small extent by a few voluntary organizations.

United States — Relatively little has been
done in the United States in pensioning
teachers in comparison with what has been
accomplished in European countries. In fact
until the end of the nineteenth century the
only pensions generally recognized as such in
the United States were those paid by the
federal government on account of military or
naval service Aside from the provisions
made by many municipalities for members of
the police and fire departments, pensions for
public school teachers have been the first of
what ultimately promises to become a complete
system of civil service pensions.

According to the sources of the funds and
the methods of administration, teachers' pen-
sion schemes in the United States may be
classified into four principal forms. (1) Pri-
vate-voluntary, (2) Quasi-public- (3) Semi-
public, and (4) Public

Pnvate-voluHiary System* — The working
of the social law of mutual aid for common

638

PENSIONS

PENSIONS

defense and protection has produced a num-
ber of voluntary associations of teachers
There are two principal varieties of these asso-
ciations, — the mutual benefit association for
temporary aid and the fraternal insurance
society While the first vaiiety should not,
strictly speaking, be classified as a pension
scheme, the organization and inherent, motive
seem to warrant its consideration in this con-
nection Examples of this vaiiety exist in
Baltimore, St Louis, Cincinnati, Cleveland,
Detroit, Chicago, Buffalo, San Francisco, and
St Paul Through initiation fees, annual dues,
and special assessments, these associations aim
to pay sick benefits and in some instances
funeral expenses The second and more typi-
cal variety of the private vokmtaiy orgaiuza-
tion seeks through the payment of assessments,
proportional to salary, to provide small annu-
ities to superannuated and disabled teacheis
Examples are to be found in several of the
larger cities of the country, — New York,
Boston, Philadelphia, Baltimore, St Louis,
and Cincinnati Ceitain of these annuitv
associations make provision for temporary aid
also In some instances these associations
are state- wide in then operation (Connecti-
cut Teachers Annuity Guild, Massachusetts
Annuity Guild)

The voluntary aid and annuity societies have
reached but a small propoition of the public
school teachers, even of the localities 01
states in which they ha ye existed The devel-
opment of schemes of a public nature has le-
moved the chief causes that brought the pri-
vate voluntary organizations into existence

Quasi-public Systems — The fundamental
characteristic of this class of schemes is the
legislative authoiization of the creation of
funds tlnough assessments, eithei voltintaiv
or compulsory, equal to a cert-am percentage
of the teacher's salary, and the adrnmistra-
tion of the fund by public, officials While
there is no direct public appropnation to the
fund of the quasi-public schemes, deductions
of salary on account of the absence of teachers
arc frequently added to the salary assessments
Further increments arise through donations
and bequests Many of the existing munici-
pal teachers pension funds are organized in
general accordance with this scheme

Semi-public Systvnib — In the semi-public
schemes the basis of the fund is an assessment
on the salaries of teachers To this, howevei,
the state adds a definite appropriation either
directly or indirectly tlnough the municipality
This appropriation mav be in the form of a
fixed amount or a specified tax levy The
contemporary development of state and mu-
nicipal pension schemes is distinctly toward
this type The Wisconsin law of 1911 (ch
323) establishing a " Teachers Insurance and
Retirement Fund " is illustrative of the trend
This law provides a state scheme to be ad-
ministered by a board of trustees consisting

of the state treasurer, the superintendent of
public instruction, and three other members,
one of whom must be a woman, to be elected
by the members of the fund Ten cents per
capita of the school population of the state is
to be annually reserved for the fund from the
seven tenths mill state school tax. Teachers
must- contribute to this fund one per cent of their
salaries during the first ten years of service,
and two per cent thereafter Teachers already
m service may or may not accept the provi-
sions of the law at their option; but teachers
entering the public school service after Sept 11,
1911, accept the pr o visions of the law in accept-
ing appointment Annuities amount to
$12 50 for each year of service, the maximum
being $450 Retirement, may be made after
twenty-five years of service as a teacher, eight-
een of which must have been in the public
schools of the state, or, upon permanent physi-
cal and mental disability, after eighteen years
of service in the public schools of the state
The city of Milwaukee already having a re-
tirement fund, the law docs not apply to that
city

The compulsory membership frequently pro-
violed in the semi-public and quasi-public
schemes has given use to several judicial de-
terminations of the constitutionality of such
a provision The principal ones of these cases
are State, ex rcl John L Ward vs Fianklw
Hubbard, et al , 12 Ohio Circuit 87, 64 NE
109, a case arising in Toledo (0 ), wherein it was
decided that the compulsory provision of the
Ohio law was invalid, and Mate, ex ret Jen-
mxon \s Roga*, 87 Mmn 130, 58 LRA,
a somewhat parallel case, arising in Minne-
apolis under the Minnesota law, resulting in a
similai decision On the other hand, the su-
preme couit of New Jersey, Allen vs. Passaic
honnl of Education, 81 N J.L 135, maintained
the constitutionality of such a compulsory
provision

Public >S//.sfc///.s — This pr ovides a ti ue pension.
There is no assessment It is intended to oper-
ate automatically for all public school teachers
This form of pension system exists in Rhode
Island and in Maryland In the former state,
by the act of 1907, teachers sixty-five years of
age, having thiity-five years of service, twenty-
five years of which have been in the public
schools of the state, maybe retired and receive
fiom the state an annual pension equal to one
half of their annual contractual salary during the
last five yeais before retiring Such annual
pension may not amount to moie than five
hundred dollais

Pension funds for public school teachers
established on the quasi-public, the semi-pub-
lic, or the public basis, exist in twenty-three
states, — California, Colorado, Connecticut,
Delaware, Illinois, Indiana, Kansas, Maryland,
Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, New
Jeisey, New York, Ohio, Oregon, Pennsylvania,
Rhode Island, South Carolina, Utah, Ver-

630

PENSIONS

PEOPLE'S INSTITUTE

mont, Virginia, and Wisconsin Rome of these
schemes are state-wide in application, while
others are operative as to individual cities or
certain classes of cities The following list
is illustrative of these municipal schemes San
Francisco, Denver, New Haven, Wilming-
ton, Chicago, Indianapolis, New Orleans, Bal-
timore, Boston, Detroit, Minneapolis, St.
Paul, Duluth, Omaha, New York, Albany,
Buffalo, Elmira, Rochester, Schenectadv, Svra-
cuse, Troy, Yonkers, Cincinnati, Cleveland,
Columbia' (0 ), Portland (Ore ), Philadelphia,
Harnsburg, Pittsburgh, Providence, Chailcs-
ton (S C ), Salt Lake Citv, and Milwaukee

Previous to 1905, no general provisions ex-
isted for the pensioning or retirement of the
members of the instructional staff of highei in-
stitutions of learning in the United States ( Yi -
tain of the larger universities, such as ilaivard
and Columbia, maintained a limited system of
retiring allowances A small number of the
state universities and colleges sought to ac-
complish in part the end of a pension system
through the establishment of emeritus pro-
fessorships, the holders of winch received a
reduced salary in return for meielv nominal
service With the establishment of the Car-
negie Foundation for the Advancement of
Teaching (q v ) a general system of retirement
of superannuated teachers came into exist-
ence, not only to benefit a large number of
American colleges and universities, but also
to stimulate public endeavor in behalf of pen-
sion funds for teachers in public elementary
and secondary schools R W S AND E C E

References —
BEST, LYMAN A Teachers' Rotiiempnt Funds (Sen-

ntt Do( 541, Olst COUK , 2d Sos !<)!() )
Bouid of Education (Committee of Council on Educa-
tion) Annual R< port*, 1K4(>-
Xupfrannuation Parnphht (London )
BHKMEN, E VON The piettsbibitu 1 olk^vihnlc

(Berlin, 1905 )
BROOKH, ,1 G Compulsory ln\uranc( tn Kuropt

(\\a->hiiiKton, 1895 )
Oainegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching

Annual Repoits, 1906-
(^entralblatt fur die gc^atnte [fnttrnchfi* — Verwaltunfj

in Preubsen, 1S59 to date
Committee of Council on Education in Scotland

Annual Report*,, 1S73-
GREARD, P La L6fj illation dt I' Instruction primain en

Fiance () vols
GRIFFIN, A P C' Scltit Li^t of Rtfintu^ on Old i</e

and Civil Hi i vice Pensions (Washington, Go\ em-
inent Punting Office, 1CMH )
HENDEKHON, C R Industrial Insurant* tn th< lrtnlt/l

States (rhuago, 1909) (C'h IX, Mum< ipal

Pension Svbtomh and Pensions for Tcafheis)
KEYES, C H Teachers' Pensions Proi i\r K A ,

1907, pp 103 ff
National Education Association Report of the Com-

nnttte on Salaries, Tenure, and Pentiorm of Public

School Teach tr* m tin United State8 (1905),

pp 177-184
SEAQER, H R Social Insurance A Program of Socwl

Reform (New York, 1910 )
SIES, R W Tcachcm' Pension? and Petition System*

(Teacheis College, 1913 )
TABDIETT, J Trait& dr la Legislation dc* Pennon* de

Rctiaitc (Pans, 19()(> )
Teachei s* Pension Laws in the I mt< d States and Eiuopr

(ftnat* l)»t S'J3, ()lst ( 'onjr , Ad Ses 1911 )

United States Commissioner of Education Annual
Report, 1894-1895, pp 1079-1113, 1898-1899,
pp 1478-1481, 1902, p 2369, 1903, p 2249, 1905,
pp 209-215, 1906, pp 215-220, 1907, pp 448-
461, 1908, pp 117-121, 1909, p 124, 1910, p 194,
1911, pp 96-100

(Summaries of current legislation and reviews of
developments of teachers' pensions in the United
States and Europe )

PENTATHLON (Gk w*rraO\ov, Lat. qum-
querttum) -- The five contests which made up
the greater part of Greek athletic exercises
Theie were included: (1) Running (Stadion or
200 yards, quarter-mile, and long distance,
three quaitcrs of a mile to three miles)
Races were often run in armor, and over soft
sand (2) Jumping on soft earth, often with
the aid of grips or dumb-bells (halter et>) The
contestants must alight evenly for the jump
to count (3) Wrestling and boxing The
bodies of the contestants weie naked and oiled,
and the contest took place on soft ground
(For furthei details see the separate articles
on these topics ) The panel atium (irayKpdTiov)
was a mixture of wiesthrig and boxing, and
the contestants could use almost any device
to win (4) Tin owing the discus, a flat disk
of metal, eight to nine inches in diameter
(.">) Hurling the speai or javelin at a target-

See GHKEK EDUCATION, GYMNASIUM; PA-

L/ESTRA

References --

FHELMAN, K tichoolv of Hdla*> (London, 1900)

iittEK. L Erziehung und V nierrciht im klas-
cn Alterthum, Vol 1 (Wurzhurp, 1864 )

PEOPLE'S HIGH SCHOOLS — See

ADULTS, EDUCATION OF, DENMARK, EDUCA-
TION IN, NORWAY, EDUCATION IN, SWEDEN,
EDUCATION IN

PEOPLE'S INSTITUTE, NEW YORK.

— An organization founded in 1897 by Charles
Spiague Smith, formeilv profeasoi of languages
and literature at Columbia University, for
the promotion of bettei understanding and
cooperation between the members of different
classes in society and different religions. The
promotion of social solidarity and social con-
sciousness was to be the chief aim of the Insti-
tute To this end a series of lectures has been
organized to distribute better information on
the duties of citizens and the various branches
of civic and state government The follow-
ing are the chief departments into which the
work of the Institute is divided (1) People's
Church, meeting every Sunday evening to
hold a service, irrespective of creed and based
on the fundamentals of religion (2) People's
Forum for the discussion of questions of general
interest in politics and social legislation.
(3) People's Choral Union and People's Sym-
phony Concert Association to enable those
who could not otherwise afford it to hear and
study the masterpieces of music (4) Dramatic
lecitals and performances are also provided

640

PEOPLE'S PALACE

PERCENTAGE

in the same way Arrangements have been
made between the Institute and theater man-
agers by which members of the Institute are
enabled to secure tickets at i educed rates
In this way the Institute indirectly acts as
censor of plays Instiuction is also given in
literature, art, natural science, and philosophy
(5) The People's Club was organized to provide
centers for social intercourse and recreation
for both men and women The work of the
People's Institute with the exception of this
club is carried on at- the Cooper Union (q v )

PEOPLE'S PALACE —An institution
organized in 1887 to afford facilities foi recrea-
tion and education to the people of the East
End of London Its establishment was made
possible by a fund left in 1840 by J B Beau-
mont to promote education and entertainment
in the East End. The fund was mismanaged
until it was taken in charge by Sn Edmund
Hay Curne, who added to it bv seeming gifts
and endowments Meanwhile All Sort* and
Conditions of Men, the novel by Sir Walter
Besant (qv), appealed in 1882, and attracted
considerable attention to the needs of an al-
most unknown section of London His sug-
gestion for the " Palace of Delight " proved
of great assistance to Sir Edmund Tunic and
his associates Sir Walter, as a tiustee of
the Palace, took an active part in its \\oik
At the same tune the establishment of Poly-
technics (q v ) in London afforded good mod-
els to be followed on the educational side
Queen's Hall, a large conceit hall equipped
with an organ, a large stage, and a seating
capacity of 4000, was opened by Queen Vic-
toria in May, 1887, as part of the scheme In
October evening classes, workshops, labora-
tories, gymnasium, refreshment and recreation
rooms were opened in temporary buildings
In the first year there was an enrollment in
the classes of nearly 5000 students Member-
ship in the institute with free admission to
everything but the classes and swimming
bath (opened in 1888) was limited to young
people of both sexes between sixteen arid
twenty-five A Junior section was soon es-
tablished for those between thirteen and six-
teen The Palace provided concerts, exhibi-
tions and shows, billiard and social rooms, a
reading room and library, and clubiooms
Through the support of the Diapers' Company
and the Charity Commissioners, financial
responsibility for the provision of education
was removed from the trustees of the Palace
A day technical school for boys over thirteen
preparing for the mechanical industries was
opened in 1888 in new buildings The educa-
tional work of the Palace soon grew to such
an extent that it was organized into the East
London Technical College, now the East
London College, a school of the London Uni-
versity (qv).

See POLYTECHNICS, LONDON

VOL. IV — 2 T

References -
CURRIE, Sm E H The People's Palace Nineteenth

Century, Vol XXVII, pp .'{44-350
SHAW, A London Polytechnics and People's Palaces.

Century Magazine, Vol XV111, pp 163-182.

PERCENTAGE - A topic that began
to find place in arithmetic after the invention
oi decimal tractions (Sec FRACTIONS ) The
idea oi percentage is, however, an old one,
and many tracer are found in the lecords of
Babylon, India, (Jreece, and Rome, showing
that computations weie fiequently made on the
basis of a hundred The word comes from per
centum, " bv the hundred," and since a hun-
dred is a very natuial group unit to take for
laigei business computations, it is not strange
that it should have been used even before the
convenient decimal fraction appeared The
common pei cent sign (%) is a cursive form
derived fioin °, foi cento, which appears in
the pei i', 01 per c<nto, of the Italian writers
oi the fifteenth century By the seventeenth

centurv the Italians wiote p - and when the

r of

symbol became international the original
meaning was forgotten and merely the sign
('0 was left

Kducationallv there is no reason for dis-
cussing percentage as a separate topic of
arithmetic, save as tradition dictates The
expression (\ c/c> has no other meaning than
000, it is meielv a different symbol and
might just as \\ell be taught in connection
with decimal fractions, so far as the theory
goes Since, however, business problems in
which per cents arise are generally too ad-
vanced for a child \\lio mav properly be con-
sidering decimals, it is probably better to
postpone the use of per cents until these prob-
lems are reached But e\en then it is not
necessaiv to gue an elaborate treatment of
the theorv of percentage before the application
of per cents is introduced This is now coming
to be appreciated in the treatment of percent-
age, the extensive discussion of the various
u cases/' as seen in the arithmetics of the
second half of the nineteenth century, having
been abandoned of late There is a reason for
retaining the term late, and some reason for
using haw as a non-technical term, but there
is no educational necessity for retaining amount
and thffen'ncc, and not much need for the term
percentage as meaning the product of the base
and rate Whenever the simple equation,
merely in the form of 0 06 of x = $12, becomes
familiar in the elementary school, all of these
terms, excepting rate, will doubtless disappear

The elaborate applications of percentage
as seen in the arithmetics of about 1875 are at
present giving place to only a few that are
within the grasp of children in the seventh
school year The chief applications arc to
discount, commission (brokerage), and simple
interest D. E 8.

641

PERCEPTION

PERCEPTION

PERCEPTION — This term is used in
educational writings in a narrow and technical
sense. It is also employed m a broader sense
in general psychology and in common parlance.
The influence of Herbartian writing is account-
able for the narrow technical sense in which the
term is used in educational literature It is con-
trasted with the term "apperception " While
apperception indicates clear active mental
processes, "perception" as used m this connec-
tion refers to vague and relatively passing
mental processes The two terms "appercep-
ion" and "perception" were first used by Leib-
nitz The same terms were afterwards used
by Herbart, and are used m current German
psychological discussions, especially by such
writers as Wundt There is no confusion in
the German language between the German
word Perception and the more general vernacu-
lar term Wahrnehmung, whch is used in Ger-
man to indicate sense perception The Ger-
man word Perception is, therefore, always a
lechnical specialized term related to the term
" apperception " When the term is brought
over into English in the Herbartian psycholo-
gies as a term contrasted with apperception,
an ambiguity of a very confusing type arises
As used in the English language, the term " per-
ception " does not mean at all a A ague and
relativelv passive form of experience, but it
refers to a very active and usually vivid type
of experience The translators of Herbartian
terminology would therefore have rendered
a distinct service to educational terminology
by the use of some word other than the English
word "perception" to translate the German
word of the same form Some such term as
apprehension or vague recognition would have
been very much better The former is em-
ployed in the translation of Wundt 's Outlines
of Psychology

In the broader and more general sense, the
term perception refers to the mental experi-
ence which arises whenever one recognizes
some object that is presented to the senses
Thus one perceives the table upon which lie
writes, etc. In this general sense, the word
perception is to be contrasted with two other
psychological terms which define the limits
of perception on two opposite sides Sensa-
tion is the first term to be distinguished from
perception Sensation is the relatively simple
experience which one derives from the stimu-
lation of his senses. Thus one has sensations
of red or green, but his recognition of a red
or green surface is more complex than his
mere reception of the sensation of red or
green. The recognition of a surface im-
plies the contrasting of the sensations de-
rived from this surface with those that are
derived from the general background upon
which the surface lies The percept of a sur-
face always has, in addition to color qualities,
certain spatial characteristics Not only so,
but the recognition of the object usually de-

pends upon some earlier experience with the
object. They are therefore interpreting fac-
tors drawn from past experience which are
added to the present sensory qualities. Thus,
the recognition of the surface of the table is
supplemented by earlier knowledge of what
a table is and of its uses and of its value.
Perception may therefore be described as a
complex of sensations and memory experience
On the other hand, perception is to be dis-
tinguished from ideas Ideas are those ex-
periences which one has in the absence of
objects One has an idea of the friend whom
he saw yesterday, or of the book which he
read last year, while he may perceive the friend
who is now before him or the book which he is
actively engaged in reading Ideas are con-
stantly employed to supplement perceptual
processes, but ideas differ from percepts m that
they are largely under the control of the mind,
while percepts offer a certain resistance to sub-
jective modification One cannot change at
will the recognition which he has of a present
object , he can, on the other hand, form a series
of ideas all giving to the same object different
colors 01 different positions As contrasted
with ideas, percepts may be described as com-
posed in major part of sensory elements, while
ideas are made up entirely of memory elements

The properties exhibited by percepts are
due in part to the elements which enter into
the percepts, and in part to the process of com-
bination by which these elements are united
with each other Thus, a visual peicept is
dependent for certain of its attributes upon
the visual sensations of which it is composed,
but. these visual sensations are arranged in an
orderly fashion, and are fused (see FUSION)
with tactual sensations and motor sensations
and memory factors The orderly arrange-
ment of all of these sensations gives rise to the
spatial, temporal, and othei characteristics
of the percept Form and size are therefore
the products of perceptual fusion, and cannot
be reduced to any simple sensory factors
In the same fashion, the unity which a per-
cept exhibits is not dependent upon any of the
single sensations which enter into it, but rathei
upon the peiceptual process itself A cliaii
or table is made up of different parts, but all
of these different parts are recognized as be-
longing together This unity of the experi-
ence can be explained only by recognizing
the fact that in all human treatment of such
complex articles, there is a unity of reaction
and adjustment which is paralleled by the
unity of mental recognition Finally, all
percepts have position in time, and the time
series, like the space series, is the product of
the complex process of perception

The processes of perceptual fusion are so
immediate in their character that it has often
been assumed that no education of these pro-
cesses is necessary The ideational processes,
which move moio slowly, have been observed

PERCEPTION

PP;RIOD OF STUDY

by students of mental development, and the
training of these ideational processes, as, for
example, in the vanous forms of memoiy,
has always been recognized as a part of educa-
tion. When a person fuses his tactual and
visual sensations with each othei in the forma-
tion of a percept, there is no such obvious step
from the one group of elements to the other
as there is in a series of ideas, and no such
evident necessity of assistance from a teacher
who can guide the process For a long time,
the school held itself entirely free from re-
sponsibility for training the recognition of
space, time, and the unity of objects Experi-
ence has shown, however, that children cannot
learn fully and accurately to recognize form,
size, time, and unity, without some well-di-
rected exercises which aim to train the powers
of perception There is, therefore, at the
present time, a strong tendency to introduce
into the school program special exercises in
sensorv training The above discussion makes
it cleai that it is not the senses which are
trained in this case, but rather the fusion pro-
cesses which combine sensory experience

Another reason for the earlier omission of
perceptual training is to be found in the fact
that certain experiences such as those of space
have been reduced in the form of geometry
to a system of ideas rather than to a direct
form of training of the visual perception For
this reason, a new type of geometrv is needed
in the lower schools which shall give training
in the recognition of space without reducing
this experience to abstract ideas In drawing
and m jesthotic training much has been done
to improve the powers of perception and the
ability of students to discriminate between
those foims which are symmetrical and beauti-
ful and those which are irregular This type
of training cultivates space perception as
contrasted with Euclidian geometrv, which
deals with logical comparison

The importance of the recognition of per-
ceptual processes as significant to the teacher
goes very much further than the mtioduction
of the special exercises above described The
necessity of a psychological analysis of all
mental processes becomes increasingly obvious
as one studies the various forms of perceptual
fusion Fusion is significant because it is not
explicitly distinguished by the mind from the
elements that are united with each othei
It is a kind of involuntary and unrecognized
mental development As soon as teachers
begin to note this type of perceptual activity
as of importance in mental development, a
whole field of psychological investigation is
opened up which would be entirely overlooked
if one recognizes only the mental processes of
an ideational type C H J

See OBJECT TEACHING

References —

ANGELL, J R Psychology, Chaps 6 and 7 (Now
York, 1908 )

JAMES, W Principles of Psychology (New Yoik,

1899 )
JHDD, C H Psychology, Gtneral Introduction, Chap

ti (New York, 1907 )
WUNDT, W Outlines of Psychology (New York, 1897 )

PERIOD, LESSON —See SCHOOL MAN-
AGEMENT

PERIOD OF STUDY — The fundamental
importance of the problems connected with
the period of study both for hygiene and for
efficient school woik is now recognized, but
they are, for the most pait, unsolved We
do not know, for example, whether, other con-
ditions being the same, it is better for the
health of children and the habits developed
to have all the school woik done in one session
or in two We do not know whethei for the
majority of childien under usual conditions
it is better to have school work done in the
morning or in the afternoon, or whethei there
are two types among children as suggested
by the experiments of Kracpclm, those who
do better work in the morning on the one hand,
and those who do better work in the afternoon
on the other Experiments by La> with a
group of children learning nonsense syllables
showed that every child retained what was
learned better when the study was in the after-
noon than when it was in the moinmg, but
fatigue, on the other hand, seems to be greater
in the afternoon Thus, in legaid to the many
points, we have no adequale eudence as to the
best conditions Significant results ha\c come
from many experimental studies, but as re-
gards the length and distribution of the peiiod
of study during the school day, the best con-
clusions that can be given at present are tenta-
tive Putting these briefly and dogmatically
on the basis of the studies of work and fatigue,
and upon the results of school practice in different
countries, the following nouns seem wise —

(1) The length of the school day should vary
with the age of the childien, and the kind of
work done For the kindergarten and early
primary grades one session of thiee hours is a
maximum unless a large part of the work
consists of play and is out of doors In the
highei grades and in the high school a four-
hour session, or two sessions with a total of
five hours, or where much of the work consists
of manual training, gymnastics, or the like,
six hours, should be a maximum (2) The
problem of one session or two is relative to
many conditions One session a day seems
preferable where local conditions favor (3)
There should be no prescribed home study
in the lower grades; in the higher grades and in
the high school the amount required should
not exceed one hour, unless there is only one
session not exceeding four hours (4) The
recitation period should not exceed fifteen to
twenty minutes for children between six and
nine, twenty-five to thirty minutes for chil-
dren from nine to twelve, thirty-five to forty

643

PERIODICALS

PERSIAN EDUCATION

minutes for children from twelve to fourteen,
forty to forty-five minutes for older children
(5) Recesses of from five to fifteen minutes in
length should follow each period of study,
the length of the period being determined by
the character of the preceding work, the time
of the day,' the sequence of subjects, and the
like The total time for recesses for a five-hour
period should not be less than that required
in Berlin; namely, sixty minutes The amount
of time devoted to recess in this country is
usually very inadequate More time for
recess and a better pace of work in most
schools would not only favor health but pro-
duce more satisfactory results

Hygiene and pedagogy arc quite in accord,
and for really efficient school work in most of
the schools in this country an entire revision
of the program with regard to what is known
concerning fatigue and the optimum conditions
for intellectual work is desirable In order to
determine the proper length and distribution of
the work, many factors are to be considered, —
the age of the pupils, the climate, the season
of the year, the kind of work done, the home
conditions, the sequence of subjects, the work
required, the character of the teachers, and the
hygienic conditions of the schoolroom

W H B

See HOME STUDY, SCHOOL MANAGEMENT,
FATIGUE

References- —
BUKUERSTEIN, L , and NETOLITZKY, A Handbuch dcr

Schulhygierie (Jeiiu, 1912 )
BURNHAM, W H One Session a Day, or Two7 Arner

Phys Ed. Rev, 1909, Vol 1, pn 1-11
BURNHAM, W H , CHABOT, G , and BUIUJTERSTEIN, L
School Work in its Relation to (a) The Duration
of the Lessons, (h) The Sequence of the Subjects,
(c) The Season of the Year ttecnnd International
Congress on School Hygicm , London, 1907, Vol I,
pp 33-37
OFFNER, M Mental Fatigue Trans from the Gorman

bv G M Whipple (Baltimore, 1911 )
See also references under

PERMANENT SCHOOL

SCHOOL FUNDS

FUND. — See

PERIODICALS, EDUCATIONAL — See

JOURNALISM, EDUCATIONAL

PERIPATETIC SYSTEM —See DEPART-
MENT SYSTEM

PERKINS, GEORGE ROBERT (1812-
1876) — Author of mathematieal textbooks,
studied privately mathematics and civil en-
gineering He taught at Clinton, N Y (1831-
1838); was principal of the Utica High School
(1838-1844), instructor m the Albany Normal
School (1844-1848), and succeeded David P.
Page (q v ) as principal of that institution
(1848-1852). His publications include Higher
Arithmetic (1841), Treats on Algebra (1841),
Elements of Algebra (1844), Elements of Geome-
try (1847), Trigonometry and Surveying (1S51),
and Plane and Solid Geometry (1854) He
also published many scientific articles

W S M

PEROTTI, NICCOLO (1430-1480).—
Italian ecclesiastic and humanist, born at
Sassoferrato of poor parentage. At the age
of fourteen he became a pupil of Vittormo da
Feltre (q v ) Later he is found in the house-
hold of William Gray, later, Bishop of Ely, who
studied under Guarmo With him he went
to Rome and was placed in the household of
Bessarion, whose secretary he became Living
at Bologna he studied theology and Greek, and
taught rhetoric and poetry there in 1451 He
attracted attention when Pope Nicholas re-
quested him to translate Polybius, a work
executed with more elegance than correctness.
In 1458 Pope Pius II made him Bishop of
Siponto Pcrotti was frequently employed
as Papal legate, but spent the greater part of
his time in Rome engaged in literary activity.
The latter part of his life he spent in his native
town

While Perot ti was very productive, only a
few of his works have been printed His main
interest was in rhetoric and eloquence The
Metnca (1453) was the earliest modern work
on Latin prosody His Rndimcnta Gram-
?natires (14(38) was the best known and most
widely used of his works Erasmus calls it the
" most complete manual extant in his day "
It was the archetype of all later grammars with
the familiar arrangement of accidence, syntax,
and prosody Giammar he defines as ars
lecte loqiiendi tedique ^cribetidt scriptorum et
poetarum lectionibus obwrvata The Cornu-
copia* sive Latino* Lingua? Commentanontm
Opus was a collection of some of Perotti's
works edited by his nephew, Pirro, and con-
tained in later editions commentaries on Mar-
tial, Pliny's preface, Varro, Scxtus Pompeius,
and Nonius Marcellus Pcrotti was an ardent
student of Greek, and besides Polybius he also
translated Epictetus and Plutarch (On the
Fortune of the Romans) His De Puerorum
Eruditione, which would have been valuable
as from a pupil of Vittorino, has cither been
lost or was never printed.

References —

VOIGT, G Die W ifderbelebiing des clo.s»i8(.hen Al-

lerthum*, Vol II (Berlin, 1893)
WOODWARD, W H Vittorino da Feltre (Cambridge,

1905)

PERSIAN EDUCATION — In the history
of education Persia commands attention both
as having been one of the great nations of
antiquity and as having possessed in early
times an educational policy that engaged the
consideration of advanced thinkers, like He-
rodotus, Xenophon, Strabo, and others, in an-
cient Greece The intellectual achievements
of the people, moi cover, during their long his-
tory have been such as to entitle the land to a
high rank among the Asiatic nations of the

644

PERSIAN EDUCATION

PERSIAN EDUCATION

past; and there is still some hope that under
its constitutional government, as framed in
1906-1909, the country may in a measure be
enabled to emulate some of the achievements
of days gone by.

Historical Outline — Of chief interest his-
torically to the student of education is the
oldei period of Persia's development, or that
during the thousand and more years of her
greatest power , in other words, the period from
the seventh century B c to the seventh cen-
tury A D This was the long era covered by
the Median arid Persian empires down to the
invasion of Alexander the Great, and followed
by the dominion of the successive rulcis of the
Parthian and Sasaman Kingdoms During
most of this early age Peisia was undei the in-
fluence of the religion of Zoroaster, the prophet
of ancient Iran, who was born at least as eailv
as 660 B c , and whose faith and teachings
were destined to have an educational beanng
upon the general condition of the people This
older creed, whose ethical principle of the wai-
fare between Oimazd and Ahnman provcnl a
potent factor in energizing the people, was sup-
planted and almost wholly driven out by Mo-
hammedanism when the Arab conquest of
Persia took place in 650 A D From that date
onward the country in general shared in the
educational as well as the political fate of the
adjacent lands that were brought undei the
sway of Islam Yet Persia always maintained
a certain freedom of thought and independence
of judgment that redounded to hei intellectual
advancement during the succeeding centuries
of Moslem rule In fact many of the products
of Oriental learning during the Middle Ages
which Europe attributes to the Arabs are not
Arab, except in language, but aie in reality
the work of Persians by birth or extraction
(of Browne, Liter an/ History of Pensia, 1
251-278, London, 1902) A recognition of
this truth should play a part in any estimate
of Persia's development in later tunes as well
as in any forecast regarding the possibilities
of the country when the land is brought into
more direct contact with the West and with
Occidental modes of thought

Educational Views and Aims — From the
remotest age the aim of education in Persia,
as elsewhere, was to 1ram children in such a
manner as to make them useful members of
the community in whatever state of life they
may have been born A certain amount of
religious instruction was regarded as a para-
mount necessity for the attainment of this
end, as is implied in the Avcsta (Vend 4 44-
45, Yasna 62 5, Yasht 13 134, tr Darme-
steter and Mills in Sacred Book* of the East,
vols. 4, 23, arid 31, Oxford, 1880 (2d ed ,
1895), 1883, 1887) Among the qualities most
highly prized and extolled in that sacred book
is the gift of wisdom and knowledge; this is
spoken of both as natural wisdom and as
acquired — Av dsna khratu, " inborn wisdom/'

and gaof>ho-bruta khratu, " ear-heard wisdom."
A special section of the Avestan code, but one
unfortunately lost ages ago, was devoted to
" the teaching of children by a guardian or
father, and the mode of his teaching," and also
to " the association of priestly instructor and
pupil," as shown by this very quotation from
an analysis of the missing part found in the
Dinkart (8 22 2, S 37 4, tr West, Pahlavi
Text*, in *S B E 37 77, 1 14) The loss, in fact,
of much of the Avesta in its original compass
makes it difficult to surmise how broad may
have been the vision or how comprehensive
the educational aim in those ancient days
If again we may judge from the summary in
the Dinkmt just referred to there was imparted,
besides religious instruction, something of
science, as it was then known, and likewise of
secular knowledge Further support for this
view is to be found in the occurrence in Pahlavi
literature of quotations of that nature from
missing portions of the Areda, and in some
of the old material used in Pahlavi works, like
the Bundahishn, which is based on the Arcxta
(cf West, Pahlavi Text* Translated, in S B E
5, p xxiv) It is at this point that some out-
side help may be called in from the classic
authors, like Herodotus, Plato, Xenophon,
find the rest quoted below, to contribute
further information at least regarding the
general conditions prevailing in Achaemenian,
if not Median, tunes In this connection it
may be added that, although opinions differ
concerning the weight to be given to Xeno-
phon's Cyropa'dia as a source, there are not
wanting sound critics who regard that work
as thoroughly trustworthy in its representa-
tion of Persian conditions, even though it be
tinged in coloi by Greek ideals For the
Parthian period (250 B c -226 A D.), or the
darker age that followed the invasion of Alex-
ander, there is a scantiness in material to show
the educational attitude of that epoch For
the Sasaman age (226 AD~650)t on the other
hand, there is abundant evidence to prove
that learning was valued at its true worth and
was liberally fostered To cite an example in
addition to the other quotations given below,
the Dinkart says, u Education is the life of man-
kind," and " Men ought to raise themselves
to illustrious positions by education (which
enables them) to read arid write " (see tr.
by Pcshotan ftanjana, and Darab Sanjana,
vol 12, p 29 and vol 9, p 585) After the
Mohammedan conquest, although an Arab
infusion came into the Persian speech, and the
religion of the Koran superseded that of the
Avestn, it, was the Persians, nevertheless, who
taught then vanquishers the value of learning,
and, by imparting their own literary gifts to
the Moslems, created a golden age of letters
foi Islam in the eighth and ninth centuries
(cf Browne, Literary History of Persia, 1.
251-278). The general attitude toward edu-
cation in the thirteenth century, as well as

645

PERSIAN EDUCATION

PERSIAN EDUCATION

later, may be gathered from the fact that the
celebrated Persian poet and moralist Sa'dl who
died in 1291 AD, devotes to the effects of
education a part of one of the chapters (ch
7) in his well-known work, the Gulistan (tr
East wick, 2d ed , London, 1880) The exist-
ence of Persian ideals to-day regarding educa-
tion, despite the obstacles in the way of their
fulfillment, is illustrated by the presence of two
articles (18 and 19) in the supplementary
fundamental laws adopted as a part of the
national constitution that was framed in
1907 The first of these articles recognized
entire freedom in the matter of " the acquisi-
tion and study of all sciences, arts, and crafts/'
except such as may be forbidden by ecclesias-
tical law, the second exacted that "the foun-
dation of schools at the expense of the
government and the nation, and compulsory
instruction, must be regulated by the Minis-
try of Sciences and Arts, and ulf schools and
colleges must be under the supreme contiol
and supervision of that Ministry "

Teacher and Pupil in Antiquity — Fiom
the earliest times the priestly class naturally
occupied the foremost position in the matter
of teaching In the Avettta a special religious
atmosphere is associated with the oft-iccurnng
words for pupil and teacher, which are aethrya,
" (priestly) leainer " and aethrapaiti, "master of
(priestly) learning " The relation between dis-
ciple and master was an intimate one, and even
a devoted one, as we know from Yasht 10 lift,
where a list of sacred ties is given, and this
particular bond is rated as " seventyfold " in the
scale of a hundred, being surpassed only by that
between father-in-law and son-in-law, between
two brothers, and between father and son
At this point we may likewise recall the import
of the quotation given above fiom tho lost
Avestan Husparam Nask, bearing upon " the
association of priestly instructor and pupil,
and their mentoriousness together " (Dk 8
37 4) A recognition of the importance of
this bond, moreovoi, may partly account for
traditions ascribing to Zoroaster himself a
special teacher or teacheis (see Jackson,
Zoroastei , pp 29-30, and compare the Avestan
fragment given by Darmestoter, Le Zend-
Avesta, 3 151 and S B.E (2 ed )4 371) It is
not without interest to add that the name of
an ancient teacher appears to be mentioned
in a list of sainted names found in the Avestan
canon, but we unfortunately know nothing
more about him, the passage (Yasht 13 105)
reads, " we worship the guardian spirit of
Manthravaka, son of Saiinuzhi, the master
of (priestly) learning and master of the con-
ference." His son Vahmaedhata is likewise
named (Yasht. 13 115) An original Avestan
fragment relating to the duties of a priestly
student and his preceptor has been preserved,
but the text is m so corrupt a condition that
the interpretation of it is not wholly clear (see
Erpatiatan, 16-18, tr. Darmesteter, Le Zend-

AvrMa, 3 85, and SHE 2 ed , 4 311-315)
The passage in question runs as follows —

" How long a time, of a year's length, shall
a student go to a master of spiritual learning ?
For a period of three spnngtidos (i e. years)
he shall gird himself with the Holy Wisdom
If within a half of this period, when he is
reciting, he makes a mistake or leaves out
something, he shall go to a second teacher, to
a third, even to a fourth If we see that he
knows his text within the half of this period,
he must recite it and not leave out anything
afterwards " (see also Bartholomew, Altiran-
tsches Worterbuch, col J32, xv antara, Strass-
burg, 1904) In the light of such a passage
it is easy to undei stand the importance at-
tached to religious and moral instruction in
Sasaman days as shown by the admonitions
of the sage Buzurgmihr, prime-minister to
Chosroes I, surnamed Anushirwan the Just
(550 AD) In his Pandnamak, or " Book of
Advice," he says —

" (.HO) Education makes man noble, good habits endow
him with a virtuous disposition, education is a corrector
of man, good deeds the guardian of his soul (12G) A
man should spend one out ol the three parts of even
day and night in getting religious training and in asking
sensible questions of pious men (142) Hence all men,
except blind, dumb, and disabled persons, ought to
take as much trouble as they can in thiN world, and to
educate themselves in a theological semmarj
(143) It is the duty of parents to instruct their children,
before they attain their fifteenth year, to do many of
the good deeds (duly enumerated) For those parents
that give a certain amount of education of this kind to
their children obtain their recompense from whatsoever
good deeds their children do, but those that do not
give it draw upon their own heads whatever iniquities
their children, devoid of the strength it affords, commit "
(see the Pahlavi Pandnamak-i Vajorg-Mitro, ed and
tr by Peshutan Dastur Behramji Sanjana, under the
title Ganjtshayagan, pp 11, 21, 25)

From expressions like the above regarding
parents, children, and teachers, we can appre-
ciate the claim made m the first century B c.
by the Greek writer Nicolaus Damascenus
(fragm 67) to the effect that " Cyrus was
versed in the wisdom of the Magi, in which
he was educated, he was instructed in right-
eousness and truthfulness, and in certain cus-
toms of his native country, which exist for
prominent men among the Persians " In
keeping with this is the statement of Xerio-
phon that " boys attending school pass their
time iti learning justice " (Cyrop 126) Of
a like tenor is the information given by Strabo
to the effect that the youths are given "the
most virtuous instructors, who interweave
useful stories into their narratives, and relate,
sometimes with and sometimes without music,
the deeds of their gods and celebrated men "
(Strabo, 15 3 19, Cas p 733)

Age of Instruction — As to the age at
which the child's education was to be begun,
there appears to have been a natural degree
of latitude between the ages of five and seven,
the latter being certainly the time when formal
instruction was commenced. Up to the age

646

PERSIAN EDUCATION

PERSIAN EDUCATION

of five, according to Herodotus (I 136),
the boy did not enter his father's presence, but
was brought up among the women. The
same age is mentioned by Strabo (15 3 18,
Cas. p. 733), although Valerius Maximus
(2. 6) gives seven The part played by
eunuchs as well as the women in the child's
bringing up is noted by Plato, Leges, 3, 695 A,
694 D, and the Platonic Alcibiadex, /, 121 D
At the Sasanian court, according to Firdausi
(tr Mohl, 5 341), a special priest was in charge
of the youthful Shapur II (309-379 A D ) until
he reached the age of five , and similar care
was taken of the precocious Bahrain (*ur
(420-438 A D ) until the end of his fourth year
(op cit , 5 400) From five until seven years
the child was under the father's tutelage, ac-
cording to the Pahia vi treatise Shay a ^t la-
Mai/aU, 5 1 (tr West, S B PI 5 290) In
general the systematic course of education
began when the child was seven years old
This may be inferred from a passage in the
Aresia (Vd 15. 45), which says thai "the
caie (thrathra) of the child is for seven years",
as well as from the Dinkart (ti Sanjana, vol
4, p 263), which regards the child's powei of
leasomngas developed at seven, and the child
as then responsible to being held accountable
by its parents, and a similar idea is found 111
the Shayast la-Shaya**t (5 1 -2) and elsewhere
(Cf also Platonic Akibiadc*, I, 121 D) This
continued from the seventh to the fifteenth
year The age of majontv was reached at
fifteen when the voung man, as did the maiden,
took upon himself the religious and othei ob-
ligations belonging to matuiity as recorded
in the Avesta and in the Pahlavi books (see
Avesta, Vd 18 54, Vd 14 15, Yt 8 3-14,
Ys 9 5, H N (Yt 22 9), Pahlavi, Syls 5
25, Zsp 20 1, Dk 7 10, 17 (ti West, S B E
47 151, 115); Pamlnamak, 143, ti Sanjana,
p. 25) Such was the case with the voung
prince Ardashir Babagan, the foundei of the
Sasanian dynasty (cf Karnainak-i Artakhshn,
ed and tr Antia, p 6, Bombay, 1900, also
ed and tr Darab Sanjana, p 5, Bombay,
1896), but the exceptionally gifted Bahiam
Gur, on the other hand, appears to have com-
pleted his studies at twelve (see Fiuluusi, ti
Mohl, 5 402) These natural differences in
point of years may well account foi the vaiy-
ing ages given by the classical authois who
refer to the education of the Persian princes
and nobles, especially then militaiy and phvs-
ical training Thus, Xenophon (Cyiop 1
2. 8) makes the earlier stages of instruction
continue to the sixteenth or seventeenth year,
Herodotus (1. 136) to the twentieth; and
Strabo (15 3. 18) up to the twenty-fourth
year. According to the Platonic Alcibiade*
I, 121 D, the age of fourteen was the time
when Persian princes were given out to special
royal tutors for advanced training

Study, Recreation, and Physical Exercise —
Persians, like their descendants to-day, were

early riseis, and all instruction appears to havo
begun at an early hour The Avesta (Vd 18.
23-26) insists upon the virtue of being out
of bed by cockcrow, and the Phalavi tractate
containing the advice given by Aturpat to his
son bids the youth, "rise early that you may
be able to continue your work " (Andarj-i
Atui-pat-i Maiaspa?idan, 98, ed and tr San-
jana, p 7) The ideal distribution of the
day for the Zoroastrian, especially ihe peasant,
is given by Buzurgmihr (Pandriamak, 126 tr
Sanjana, p 21), and this anangement assigned
one third of every day to religious thought
and pious activity, the second third to culti-
vating the soil, and the remainder to eating,
recreation, and sleep Judging fiom an Aves-
tan allusion to the duties of a priest (Vd. 18
5-6), the true cleric was supposed to study day
and night (lit "through the whole night'')
In the case of the warrior class and the nobles,
early rising was insisted upon, and much of
the training consisted in physical exercise
Xenophon (Cyrop 1 2 4, 1 2 10) related
that the boys, like the men, were accustomed
to rise early and to appear in the market place
"at daybreak" Stiabo (15 3 18, C p 733)
adds, " the youths are called to rise before
dawn, at the sound of brazen instruments, and
assemble in one spot as if for arming themselves,
or for the chase, they are arianged in com-
panies of fifty, to each of which one of the
king's sons 01 the son of a satrap is appointed
as leader, who miis, followed at command by
the others, an appoinU d distance of thirty
or forty stadia They require them also to
give an account of each lesson, when they
practice loud speaking, and exercise the
breath and lungs " Both Strabo and Xeno-
phon elaboiate upon the athletic and martial
aspect of the instruction, and no one can
overlook the oft-quoted statement of Herodo-
tus (1 136) that the Persians taught their
boys "three things only to iide, to shoot,
and to speak the truth " This was undoubt-
edly tiue, because the Persians from the days
of Zoroaster onward have been advocates
in piactice as well as theoiy of the doctrine
///r//.s M/n/i /// corpoH' SCUM, and nding horse-
back, hunting, aichery, javelin throwing,
swimming, and polo weie regarded not merely
as manlv sports, but as an essential part of
education (see Modi, Education among the
Aiicient Iranians, pp 1-40)

Scope of Instruction in Early Times — As
already indicated, the general scope of the
education in early times was both mental
and physical The former preponderated in
priestly education, the latter in the training
of the knights and nobles, the training of the
third estate, as intimated above, must have
been mainly piactical in its bearings Owing
to the loss of portions of the Aresia, previously
referred to, no definite details have been pre-
served to show the general method of instruc-
tion in vogue, but there is undoubtedly much

<>47

PERSIAN EDUCATION

PERSIAN EDUCATION

truth in the picture, of Persian education
drawn by Xenophon (Cyiop I 2 2-13), even
if the likeness be an idealized one

In substance, according to Xenophon, the
Persians insisted upon positive precepts and
examples in their teaching rather than upon
negative commands, and they believed in
educating numbers together in common To
this end they had "an assembly place (dyopd),
called the Free, where the royal palace and
other official residences were built," and from
which all business was excluded as interfering
with the instruction This " assembly place "
(which corresponds to the " Maidan " in modern
Persian cities) was divided into four parts,
one for boys, one for youths, another for men
of age, and still another for those past military
service Over each of the four divisions,
which again were subdivided into twelve, a
a presiding officer was placed, old men being
in charge of the children, and men of maturity
directing the youths The children were
taught justice and its administration, obedi-
ence, and self-control, together with training in
archery, and throwing the javelin This
continued until they reached the age of six-
teen or seventeen and entered the class of
young men Upon them now developed the
more serious activities, largely military in
character, such as standing on guard, practice
in the use of weapons, and taking part in the
royal hunt After ten years, 01 at the age of
twenty-five or twenty-six they were accounted
as full-grown men l

From the Middle Ages to the Present —
As a direct consequence of the Mohammedan
conquest, which occurred in the seventh cen-
tury A D and introduced a different era in
Iran's history, Persian education undeiwent
a change in regard to its religious basis, since
the Moslem faith was then substituted foi
Zoroastnanism and has ever since remained

1 Twenty-six years was also the age when the
Sasaman King Shapur II is regarded as having reached
his sovereign dignity according to Firdausi (tr Mohl,
,5 342) This age corresponds m effort with the
twenty-fourth year mentioned by Straho (15 3 IS,
C p 733)

There are passages in the classics which show that
the children of noble families were sent to court to
enjov the advantages given bv royal education (see
Xenophon, Cyrop 8 0 10, Anab I 9 3, Piocopius, J)(
Bf'Uo Persico, 1 23), and reference has been made above
to the "royal tutors," four in numbtr, appointed
respectively as instructors to tin* princes in religion and
kmglv duties, truthfulness, self-restraint, and braverv
(see Platonic Alnbiadei, I, 121 D-122 A, and Clemens
Alexandrmus, Pcedag 1 7) This statement may be
compared with the fact that as a vouth the Sasamari
king Ardashir Babagan was " instructed in reading,
writing, riding, and other arts, and became so proficient
that his fame spread all over Fars " (Karnamak, 2 4-5,
ed and tr Antia, p 0, also ed and tr Sanjana, p 5)
A further idea of the general regimen employed in the
education of princes in Sasanmn times may be gathered
from tho training of Bahrain Our (420-438 AD),
who was sent to Arabia for his earliest education, and
from that of Hurmazd IV, in the sixth century, *»o fir
as this portrait by Firdausi in his Shah Namah may be
regarded as accurate (tr Mohl, ,> 398-405, 6 424-430)

as the general creed of Iran. This departure,
however, did not interfere with the production
of great works on history and science, standard
for their day and times As witness of this
truth may be cited the learned annalist Tabari,
in the ninth century, the philosopher-physi-
cian Tbn Sum, a contemporary of the great
Khivan scholar al-Birum, at the end of the
tenth, several renowned authorities among
the number of so-called Arab geographers from
the tenth to the twelfth century, Omar Khay-
yam, the algebraist and astronomer-poet,
early in the thirteenth, not to mention the long
line of Persian poets down to the fifteenth cen-
tury Each dynasty had some intellectual
product to mark its fame Noteworthy in
icgard to the culture he inspired was the
reign of Shah Abbas the Cheat (1587-1629),
not only a great ruler and administrator, but
also a iioble patron of art and of learning, so
that the renown of his reign has rarely been
surpassed in the history of Persia's glory,
and has never since been even approached

Education unfortunately has been allowed
steadily to decline, and although the tradi-
tional native instruction is still in the hands
of the Moslem priests in schools attached to
the mosques, general learning has fallen more
and more into decay Illiteracy is largely the
lule to-day among the people outside of the
cities, except where the introduction of West-
ern education may have forced a rise of stand-
ard in the local system Chief among the
centers that serve as nuclei for Occidental
education are the mission institutions at
Urumiah, Tabriz, Rasht, Hamadan, Isfahan,
Shiraz, Yazd, and Mashad In Teheran there
are a number of madrasahs, 01 native colleges,
and also several institutions on royal founda-
tions, including the Shah's college, in which
European instructors are employed as well
as native teachers Best attended, perhaps,
among the Christian institutions of Teheran
is the ArneiK'iin School for Boys (cf Jackson,
Persia Pant and Present, p 423; and on
mission and native education consult Wilson,
Persian Life and Custom*, pp 187-188, New
York, 1895, Wishard, Twenty Year* in Persia,
pp 238-242, New York, 1908). A wholesome
sign for Persia's future possibilities, if given
an opportunity, may be seen in the establish-
ment of a number of newspapers after the Con-
stitution came in, and also in the rapid multi-
plication of printing presses

From the historic standpoint it is not without
importance to add that the relatively few
members of the ancient Zoroastrian faith, num-
bering now about eleven thousand, who Have
managed to exist in the face of religious per-
secution and civic disabilities, are still a
potent moral factor in Persia, and have suc-
ceeded in keeping up sonic sort of educational
standard in their relatively outcast com-
munity In maintaining this they have been
liberally aided by their coreligionists, the

648

PERSIAN EDUCATION

PERSONALITY

Parsis of India, who fled from Iran at the time
of the Mohammedan invasion, twelve cen-
turies ago, and established themselves most
prosperously m the Bombay Presidency, where
they themselves maintain flourishing schools
that still give broad instruction on Western
lines, and also exercise an influence in keeping
up the ancient faith (see Jackson, Persia, pp
379-380, 427, Karaka, History of the JPam.s,
1 280-332, London, 1884, Menant, Les Pai-
M«, pp 292-332, Paris, 1898)

Female Education Largely Neglected —
The general neglect of female education
throughout the histoiy of Persia has been due1
laigely to the Oriental custom of secluding
women Even in ancient Zoi oast nan times,
so far as can bo gathoied from the Avesta, a,
girl's education was piuctically confined to
some religious training and to such simple
instruction as would make hei a dutiful wife
and a good mothci of the household (cf
Arebla, Aiwibriithnma Gah, 4 9, and the refer-
ences given by Sanjana, Position of Zoroax-
tnan Womcn,'p\> 15-17, Bombay, 1892) A
Pahlavi treatise containing admonitions, the
Amlatj'i Atuipat (ed and tr Peshutan
Sanjana, ]) 2, Bombay, 1885), includes, it is
true, an allusion to the education of one's
wife togethei with one's children, self, and
countrvmen, but the refeience is really to
lehgious instruction (as also is noted by San-
jana, op cit ) As to Mohammedan times,
evidence may be adduced in pi oof of the fact
that gnls received some instruction by the
side of boys This is shown by the roman-
tic stoiy of LaiLi and Majnun, or the Persian
Romeo and Juliet, whose love began while
they were still more school children, according
to the poet Nizaini m the twelfth century
(See Atkinson, Laili u Majiiun, tr , p 5, London,
1830) Miniatures poitraymg this supposed
schoohoom scene are found in some of the
oldest and most beautiful Persian manuscripts
of Nizami's poems and thev might well bo
consulted by students interested in the history
of education In modern times, little has been
done thus far for female education in the native
communities, but a good deal has been accom-
plished in the Christian mission schools, where
education for girls is universally given, and
indications of progress lend encouragement to
the cause, especially as the Persians themselves
are now promoting it (Wishaid, op at , pp
240-241, and cf P'lla C Sykos, Persia and it*
People, p 197 ) A V W J

References —

The chief BOUICCH from which to draw mf munition
and the principal books of rofoioncc have boon men-
tioned above
BmasoN DC regw Persarum Pnncipalu, pp 165-167,

429-450, 500-511 (Strasbourg 1710)
GRAVES, F P History of Education before th( Middle

Ages. (London, 1909 )
LIURIE, S S Prt -Christum Education (London,

1902 )

Mom fidutatwn among the Am tent Iranians (Bom-
bay. 1905)

RAFP Zeitachrift der Deutschen Morgenlandischert
<fLt>elli>(.naft (Leipzig, 1866) and the English
translation by Cama, The Religion and the Customs
of thi Persians (Bombay, 1879 )

SIKEH, ELLA C Persia and its People (London and
New York, 1910)

PERSONAL EQUATION —The amount
which must be allowed for by a person in mak-
ing an observation because of the individual
character of his i caution time Originally the
term was used bv astronomers in connection
with the observation of the time of transit
of the heavenly bodies This was done by
observing; the image of the heavenly body as
it crossed parallel lines in the telescopic field,
the time being noted simultaneously by count-
ing the beats of a clock It was found that
different observers varied in their results and
thai the difference was large enough to inter-
feie seriously with 1he lesults of the observa-
tion Histoiically this difficulty led to the
reaction time experiment of experimental
psychology E II C.

See EXPERIMENTATION, INDIVIDUAL DIFFER-
ENCES , MENTAL MEASUREMENTS, TESTS

References —

JAMES, W Principles of Psychology, Vol I, pp 413-

114 (New York, 1899 )
SCRIPTURE, E W The New Psychology, pp 442-444.

(London, 1897 )

PERSONALITY — Personality is closely
allied with the conceptions of individuality
(q v ) and selfhood (See SELF ) Taken liter-
ally, it means the state or quality of being
a pei son The concept of person arose in
connection with Roman law To be a person
was to be a subject of legal rights and respon-
sibilities; that is, of powers and duties capable
of enforcement bv civil authority On this
view, a corporation or minor civic group, likely
a municipality, was a person; slaves were not
persons, while minors were persons only vicari-
ously, or through their authorized representa-
tives As the external traits of this legal view
disappeared, an ethical sense developed out
of them, a person is the subject of moral rights
and duties Thus Kant said that the moral laws
was summed up in the injunctions. Be a Per-
son, and respect others as Persons A person
is an end in and for himself, never a means
to anythirg beyond

Because of this ethical sense personality is
often treated as a " higher " idea than in-
dividuality From another point of view
personality is an abstraction compared with
individuality All persons have personality
in the same sense; there is nothing distinguish-
ing, nothing concrete about it Individuality,
on the other hand, is always differential;
it is something that specifically characterizes
each self Individuality expresses what one
uniquely i^ , personality expresses what one
/WN — a property that one may acquire In
this sense, individuality is deeper than per-

649

PERSONALITY OF THE TEACHER

PERU

sonality In earlier days children were classed
with slaves as intermediate links between
things and persons, save that they differed
from slaves in the potentiality of personality
This conception of childhood was embodied
in methods of discipline, punishment, and in-
struction, it being assumed that children had
no rights of their own With the development
of the demociatic idea, rights of peisonahty
were extended to children, and methods of
education have accordingly undergone con-
siderable reconstruction No consistent theory
upon this point has, however, as yet, been
worked out in practice J D.

PERSONALITY OF THE TEACHER —

See PERSONALITY, TEACHING AS \ PROFES-
SION

PERSPECTIVE — See ART, METHODS OF
TE\CHING

PERTUSSIS — See WHOOPING COUGH

PERU, EDUCATION IN— Peiu is a

republic with an area of 700,000 square miles,
including disputed territory, and a population
of 4,600,000 The population of Peru is com-
posed of whites, chiefly the descendants of the
Spamaids, mestizos or a mixture of Spanish and
Indian blood, Indians, Negioes, and a fe\v
Orientals There is almost every degree of
civilization, from the barbarous tubes of the
mon tafia to the highly cultured people of
Lima, the capital of the Republic, and other
large centers The population for the most
part is grouped in centers, but these centers
are widely distributed, and means of communi-
cation are riot good Geographically, Peru
is divided into three sections — la costa, /a siet ra,
and la montana The first is a narrow strip
extending along the Pacific coast for a distance
of some 1200 miles It is generally arid, but
it is pierced by sixty mountain streams which
during the ages have left along their banks
rich deposits of alluvium now covering an
area of 2000 square miles The sierra is the
mountainous area, including many fertile
valleys, lying between the coast and the mon-
tana, which comprises about two thirds of the
total area of the country Only a small poi-
tion of it is inhabited The political divisions
of the country are as follows: nineteen depart-
ments and three provinces with the organiza-
tion of a department, 103 piovinces, nearly
800 districts, and a large number of sub-
districts. The political organization is gov-
erned by the constitution, as formed in 1860
The authorities in immediate control of the
different subdivisions of the state are, prefect,
subprefect, governor, and lieutenant-governor,
respectively. These form a political hierarchy
responsible to the President of the Republic
and his cabinet, in whom all administrative
authority is centralized The Roman Catholic

Church is the only one recognized by law, but
as a rule other denominations are not molested

Historical — The Spanish adventurers
whose conquest of Peru with its ruthless
spoliation of the Incas forms one of the most
thrilling episodes in the history of the Western
continent, were accompanied in this region, as
elsewhere, by church dignitaries and prelates
who established the authority and ceremonial
of the Roman Catholic Church as fast as
permanent settlements were effected, organized
schools, and upon the ruins of the ancient
civilization built up a new aristocracy, ty-
rannical, luxurious, but, in a sense, cultured.
While this alien power was strengthening it-
self, a few priests with true missionary zeal
labored to convert the humble natives, and
opened mission schools which imparted to
them a curious mixture of letters and religious
dogma The Jesuits controlled many colleges
in the colony from the sixteenth until their
expulsion in the eighteenth century The
University of San Marcos, the oldest in the
Western continent, was established in Lima
under Dominican auspices, by Papal Bull of
1571 and confirmed by royal decree the follow-
ing year, that of Cuzco in like manner in 1692
Around these institutions grew up preparatory
schools, or colleges, intended mainly for the
training of religious novitiates and teachers
The natives that came into direct contact
with the Spaniards gradually assumed their
social ideas and mental habits Thus modern
Peru has inherited from the colonial period
the framework of a centralized scholastic
system and the culture ideals of an aristocratic
ordei

In 1821 Peru declared its independence, and
in the organization of the republican govern-
ment due regard was paid to education In
1822 a normal school was established in Lima
on the Laiicastenan plan, and in 1823 a central
office of education was created This early
agitation had, however, little effect outside
of Lima, where in 1833 four schools were es-
tablished for each sex Like the earlier nor-
mal school they showed the influence of the
Lancasterian system The course of study
comprised reading, writing, arithmetic, gram-
mar, and religion, with instruction in sewing for
the girls For half a century the history of
elementary education in the Republic is little
more than a record of official orders and the
increase of free schools in the capital During
this period secondary education was repre-
sented bv the colleges in which pupils were
prepared for admission to the universities
The continued interest in higher education was
shown by the founding of the universities of
Trujillo and Arequipa in 1824 and 1835,
respectively In 1876, under the leadership
of President Manuel Pardo, a reform move-
ment was started; but its progress was in-
terrupted by the destructive war between
Chile and Peru which raged from 1879 to

650

PERU

PERU

1884. The century was near its close before
popular education again engaged the atten-
tion of the government

Present System —In 1896 a special com-
mission, the Junta Reformadora, was appointed
to deal with the educational problem of the
Republic The outcome of the work of the
commission was the law of 1901, which forms
the basis of the present system of public
instruction The law provided for a Minister
of Public Instruction, Justice, and Worship,
in respect to his educational functions he was
to be assisted by u Director-General and a
Superior Council The reaction against local
independence, which is indicated by the law
of 1901 , was completed as regards secondary
and higher education by an older of September,
1905, transferring their control from the
Superior Council to the Minister, and as re-
gards primary education, by the law of Decem-
ber 5, 1905, which bore the signature of Jose"
Pardo, who had succeeded his father as Presi-
dent By this law the control of pnmaiy
education wras centralized in the Minister of
Public Instruction, and the inspection of
primary schools intrusted to district inspectors
subordinate to provincial inspect ois, the latter
being directly responsible to the Minister

In 1907 the National Council of Education
was reorganized, its membership being iixed
as follows the Minister as presiding officer,
the Directoi-Geneial of Public Education, the
Rector of the University of San Carlos at
Lima, a delegate elected by each of the faculties
of this university, the Duector of the National
College of Guadaloupe, Lima, the director of
the men's Normal School, the three directors
of the schools of Engmecimg, Agiiculture,
and Arts and Trades, respectively, and a dele-
gate named by the pnvate schools This
Council, which works through committees,
has the right of initiative in all school matters.
As regards primary education, the most im-
portant feature of the administrative system
is the inspectorate In accordance with the
provisions of the law of December, 1905, a
paid inspector of primary schools was placed
in each of the 101 provinces of the Republic,
while in neaily all the 800 civil districts, un-
paid inspectors, subordinate to the fo,rmer,
were appointed

As the work of organizing public schools
went on, the need of expert guidance became
more and more evident, and at the beginning
of the present administration measures were
taken to supply this demand The newly
appointed Minister of Public Instruction,
Dr Manuel V Villarari, was a man of excep-
tional ability, familiar with educational move-
ments in the leading countries of the world,
and desirous of introducing into Peru the main
features of the system of school administration
in the United States At the suggestion of
the Minister, the Peruvian government, in
May, 1909, secured from the United States a

small numbei of professionally trained men, for
appointment as inspectors of primary instruc-
tion, a specialist in commercial education to
organize the work in the national college of
secondary instruction in Lima, and a specialist
in educational administration, to act as adviser
to the Minister Soon after these appointments
were made, a change of ministers occurred, but
the educational work was not interrupted In
February, 1910, a special commission was ap-
pointed undei the presidency of Dr Villaran,
for the puipose of preparing a new education
law and perfecting the administrative system
on the lines aheady laid down As indicated
by the crude draft of the bill on which the
commission is woiking, they will endeavor to
secure, as hist essentials, provision for a pei-
manent foice of tiamed teacheis, for an in-
spection corps of high qualifications, and a
permanent school fund The importance of
local activity and lesponsibility in a system of
public education is recognized by the com-
mission, but at present these conditions can-
not be secured in Peru

Primary Schools — Primary instruction is
divided into elemental y, covering two years,
and higher primary, which coveis a period of
three years The elementary period is legally
obligatory for all children The highei pri-
mary or optional course is provided only in
central schools ((cntio* c.sro/are.s) which exist
in all the capitals of piownccs and in some of
the othei more important towns The regula-
tion provides foi one school in all plantations,
mining settlements, and villages of less than
200 inhabitants, those of moie than 200 are
entitled to a cential school Unfortunately
the funds available aie not sufficient to
carry out this purpose The regulations
provide foi infant schools, or kindergar-
tens, in the capitals of provinces, but so
far they have been organized in the larger
cities only In general the pupils are sep-
arated according to sex, but mixed schools
exist for economic reasons On account of
the prejudices of paients, a mixed school is
very rarely coeducational, in most communi-
ties the sex that happens to predominate will
attend, the othei remaining at home, this
generally falling to the lot of the girls Even
when both sexes attend, they are seated in
different rooms and are instructed separately
Although the school age is fiom six to twelve
for girls and six to fourteen foi boys, mixed
schools cannot legally receive boys over ten
years of age or gnls of more than twelve,
however, in many " mixed schools " where one
sex is crowded out, there aie pupils over fifteen
years of age. The principals of boys' schools
are always men, though women teachers are
frequently employed as assistants, only women
may have charge of or teach in mixed schools.
Outside of the larger cities not much interest
has been a\\akened in the education of girls

Coiuw of fttudy. — The course of study for

051

PERU

PERU

the elementary division comprises, besides the
three essential branches, nature study and
religion (catechism), notions of geography
and history of Peru

The second division continues these sub-
jects and adds Spanish, physics, chemis-
try, natural history, manual training with
inventive geometry arid drawing, music,
physical exercises and hygiene, notions of
agriculture and arboriculture, the moral in-
struction consists of the Christian dogma
and sacred history, arid social duties In the
fourth year horticulture and drawing fiom
nature are added to the preceding subjects,
iind the manual training begins to differentiate
according to the sex of pupils, the girls taking
up weaving, sewing, embroidering, and laun-
dering, while the boys have elemental y work
in carpentering, blaoksmithmg, tailoring, shoe-
making, and printing, according to the trades
most m demand in the community In the
fifth year, civic education takes the place of
moral and religious instruction It is an
overciowded program and is seldom fully
carried out

Schoolhouses and Supplier — Public educa-
tion is not only compulsory, but free, the
government provides tho schoolhouso and fur-
niture, and, also, ft PC of cost to the pupils of
the first two years (the compulsory period),
textbooks, pencils, tablets, pens, etc This
liberality, together with the aim of the govcin-
ment to provide a home for each teacher
holding a permanent appointment, a gradual
increase of salary and a pension after twentv
years of service, indicates something of the
scope of the reforms recommended by Presi-
dent Pardo in 1905 Owing to the lean years
through which the government is now passing,
it has not been possible to realize all these
purposes

Teachers, Certificate*, Salaries, etc —
Teachers belong to one of three classes accoid-
mg to the manner of appointment, that is, bv
the provincial inspectoi, by tho prefect of the
department from a list of three proposed by
such inspectors, or by the minister Tho
first class of appointment is temporal y, the
teacher being subject to removal or transfer
at the will of the inspector, only the minister
can remove or transfer a teacher of the second
class; those of the third class receive their
appointment as the result of a competitive'
examination, or on the basis of successful
experience, and hold their position for life
or until they are retired, unless removed for
flagrant misconduct.

There are three grades of teachers' certifi-
cates which are secured by examinations
conducted by the departmental inspectors
Under present conditions the examinations
are of little value, but with the improvements
contemplated it, is boliovod they will offer the
means of obtaining competent teaoheis, pro-
vided fair salanos arc paid At present thoso

are very low, the average annual salary not
exceeding $240. The few graduates from
the normal school for men command $600 a
year, graduates from the normal school for
women, from $270 to $480. The cost of
living is about the same as in the United
States According to the law of 1905, teachers
who hold their schools by permanent appoint-
ment, after serving twenty years may be re-
tnod on half pay, provided that during that
peiiod they have contributed to the fund
4 pei rent of their salary, which must be at
loast $25 a month

Foi tho tiaming of teachers, there are three
normal schools one for each sex in Lima and
one foi women in Arcquipa. These schools
have boon staffed in tho mam with foreign
teachers and aio doing excellent work They
are, however, quite inadequate to supply the
annual demand for new teachers, as thoy do
not send out more than forty graduates a year
Consequently the commission advises the
maintenance of teachers' institutes in all the
departments, as a means of giving professional
training to candidates who havo met the
scholastic requirements for certificates There
aro now about 3000 teachers and principals
in tho public schools, of whom not more than
100 havo had a normal couise 01 other pro-
fessional training, and loss than 40 per cent
havo secured any certificate whatever.

Condition of School Buildings — The pro-
vision of sufficient school buildings suited to
tho work imposes a hoavy tax upon the school
income In 1909 there wcro nearly 2000
buildings in uso, of which 550, valued at
$410,199, belonged to tho government Many
of thoso buildings had boon usod as prisons
or barracks arid had boon converted into school-
houses without much alt nation The new
buildings const lucted in Luna and Callao are
models in arrangement and sanitary condi-
tions, but under the straitened financial
conditions, progress in this respect has ceased
for tho pro so nt

Signs of Progress — In spite of the diffi-
culties of the situation and tho many deficien-
cies to bo overcome, there aro gratifying
signs of progress accomplished since 1905
This is more apparent in tho awakened in-
terest m tho cause and tho aroused ambition
of the teachers than in measurable results.
The following statistics, however, show ad-
vance in important particulars

1906

1909

Number of schools

1425

2159

Number of teachers

1557

2909

Number of enrolled pupils
Average, attendance

85,000
73,086

153,901
84,408

Number of pupils completing two-
year period

8375

11,177

Number of pupils completing nve-

\ ear course ; 278

511

i

(>r>2

PERU

PERU

Secondary Education — The secondary
schools of Peru (colegios) offer a course of
study continuous with that of the primary
schools and leading up to the universities
The principal or director of each college re-
ports directly to the Minister of Public In-
struction as to the state ol his institution.
For each college there is a financial committee
which prepares the estimates of annual ex-
penditure and exercises a measure of super-
vision over the disbursement oi the funds
appropriated The professors are responsible
only for their class instruction A few of the
colleges in Lima and Callao have a permanent
staff of foreign teachers and are doing good
work; but the prevalent custom of engag-
ing local professional men, lawyers and doc-
tors, to give instruction precludes satisfactory
results

The course of study which is uniform for
all the colleges covers four years, and comprises
for the first two years the following subjects
Spanish, English or French, general history,
geography, arithmetic, science, religion, pen-
manship, drawing, and music The science
subject for the first year is zoology, for the
second, botany In the third vear the science
course is extended to include mincralogv and
geology, physics and chemistry with laboratory
work The fourth yeai, philosophy and cixics
are added, time for these being gained by reduc-
ing the other subjects Pupils enter the col-
leges at twelve years of age, coming alike from
the public primary schools or from picpara-
tory sections of the secondary schools The
overcrowded course is intended for four years,
which is evidently too bnef a time for the
mastery of the severer studies The total
number of colleges i.s twenty-seven, of which
three situated respectively at Cuzco, Trujillo
and Ayucucho are for girls only The others
are also open to girls, but few evei seek ad-
mission to them on account of the prejudice
against coeducation The number of pupils
attending the colleges in September, 1910,
was 2787, of whom 1106 were in the primary
departments

Sources of Support — The sources of sup-
port for the secondary schools are government
and departmental subsidies, income fioni
properties, and tuition fees The last-named
source yields about 25 per cent of the entire
income, which in 1910 amounted to $340,000,
or an average of $12,592 for each college
The repeated endeavors to establish a per-
manent school fund have been thus far1 un-
successful; the organic law of 1001 provides
that 5 per cent of the national revenues, 30
per cent of the departmental revenues, and
the proceeds of the duties on liquors shall be
devoted to the maintenance of primary schools
But the amounts thus realized have not been
sufficient for the service The total receipts
for the successive years 1906 to 1909 were as
follows: —

Put CAPITA ot KN-

KOLLMENT

1906
1U07
1908
1<H)U

tl,115,78r>
1,158,590
1 ,.{0n,0<)0
1 ,400,000

$7 52
7 42
8 Ob
<) 0<)

In estimating the relative value of the per
capita expenses it must be considered that the
enrollment in public schools in 1909 was only
3 per cent of the population, whereas the normal
proportion would be at least 12 per cent

The Universities — The secondary schools
prepare students for admission to the univer-
sities The latter are four in number- San
Marcos at Lima, having six faculties, San
Antiomo Abad at Cuzco, and San Augustin at
Arequipa, four faculties each, Sari Tomas and
Santa Rosa at Trujillo, the faculties of letters
and law The complete scheme of higher
education is illustrated by the distribution
of studies at the major university of San Mar-
cos, Lima, which in 1910 was as follows —

FACULTY

Philosophy and Lot ten*
Mathematics and Natural S< lenees
Political and Administrative Scienc
TheoloK\
Law

Medicine
Total

Nl'MBEH OF

STUDENTH

13(5

229

24

4

140
172

705

The total registration in the four universities
in 1910 was 1154 indents

For admission to the i acuities of philosophy
and letters, and of mathematical and natural
sciences, a certificate showing that the can-
didate has completed the regular four years'
course of secondary instruction is required ;
for admission to the faculties of jurisprudence
and of political and administrative sciences, a
certificate seemed by two years' work in the
faculty of letters, for admission to the faculty
of medicine, the completion of two years' work
in the faculty of sciences

At the completion of five years' work in the
faculty of medicine, of three years in the fac-
ulty of law, and of two years in the othei
faculties, the degree of A B is awarded The
completion of the full course, / c seven years in
medicine, five in law and theology, and four in
the remaining faculties, entitles the student to
the degiee of Doctoi in the respective faculty

Although the universities are under the
general direction of the Minister of Public
Instruction, they have a large measure of
independence The internal affairs of each
aie nominally regulated by the Rector and
University Council, the latter consistrng of
representatives of the several faculties In
fact, these authorities have chrefly to do with

053

PERU

PESSIMISM

the fiscal affairs of the institutions, and the
professors are practically independent in their
work The reorganization of the universi-
ties with a view to promoting internal unity
and forceful administration is one of the most
important problems before the education com-
mission On the scholastic side there is need
of closer adjustment with the practical in-
terests of the country It is urged that a
strong department of education should be
created in the University of Lima, as a means
of preparing students for the higher positions
in the public school service Already plans
have been made for developing a commercial
department in the University of Cuzco This is
due to the work of Dr Alfred Giescke, a grad-
uate of the University of Pennsylvania, who
was engaged to establish a commercial de-
partment in the college of (ruadalupe, Lima,
and who was subsequently appointed president
of the university named

The School of Agriculture and the School of
Engineering together registered 200 students
in 1910, which raises the total in higher insti-
tutions to 1354 The annual expenditure
for higher education, universities, and technical
schools, both included, is about, $200,000
While Peru is looking to foreign countries,
and in particular to the United States, foi
expert guidance in the effort to extend popu-
lar education and the higher order of technical
training, there is an evident purpose to main-
tain the standards of professional training
that are already well established This pur-
pose is indicated by the decree requiring foi-
eigners who seek to practice eithei medicine
or dentistry in that country to present the
diplomas of their respective universities and
also to submit to the same examinations as
native applicants for professional sanctions
Even in the proposed reorganization of public,
instruction, care is taken to conserve the admin-
istrative system which experience has shown to
be best adapted to present conditions

H R B and A T. S

References —

Administrative Codes

Annals of the Amenuin Academy of Political and Social

Science*, Vol XXXVII, No 3, Mav, 1911, pp

85-104

Annual Rt port* of the 1) net tots of Snotidary Schools
Annual Report* of thf Minister of Instruction
Annual Reports of the Rtctom of the Universities
ComiMion especial do Instniooi6n Eduoacion na-

cioiial.trabajos dc la Commihi6n especial encarRadu

de olaboror un Proyecto de Lev organica de IiiHtrm -

n6n (Luna, 1011 )

Cuest tones ttobrc In Kducaeidn nacionaf (Lima, 1910 )
DireccuSn de pnmena Eiihefiaii/a Cen»o eMLolai de

la Rcpublica peruana < orrenpondiente el Ano 1.902

(Lima, 1903 )
Direcciori de primena Knsefianza Ln Educa<\6n

nacional, revivta mensunl Oigano de la Direc-

ci6n de jjrimena Kn^eftnnza Ario 1 2 (num 1-20)

Lima

Educacion nacional, Holetui No 1 (Lima, 1911 )
Expositidn sobre el Estado d< la In8trucci6n Pnblica

en el Peru (Lima, 1909 )
Files of the Revista Unniersitana, University of San

Marcos, Lima

FUENTES, MANUEL A. Estadiatica general de Lima.

(Paris, 1866)

Organic School Law of 1901 and Amendment of 1905
Peru To-day, Vol III, No 5, July, 1911, pp 30-37
T L S Algo para una Ley de Inxtruccidn (Lima,

1874.)

PERUGIA, UNIVERSITY

ITALY, EDUCATION IN.

OF. — See

^ PERWICK, MRS — The proprietress of an
English girls7 boarding school, one of the ear-
liest of which we have any notice This school,
in 1643, was kept in the Black and White
House, in Church Street, Hackney, London.
The details about the school arc given in a
biography of Mrs. Perwick's daughter Susaiine
(1636-1661), written by John Bachiler. The
girls (of whom Mrs. Perwick had about eight
hundred) were taught principally by masters,
thus continuing for schools the custom which
had obtained in Tudor times, of employing
a man as private tutor for the girls of the
family, c g Roger Ascham for Princess Eliza-
beth, Richard Hyde for Sir Thomas Morc's
daughters, and Christopher for Margaret Roper's
daughters. Thus ten masters' naineb are
given as teaching at Mrs Pcrwick's school.
Bachiler's book (published in 1643) advocates
the u public " education of girls and argues
that schools do not necessarily corrupt manners
and morals The subjects incidentally named
as taught in the school aie religious knowledge,
leading, especially scripture, and music In
the latter the " grounds f> weie studied,
and of instruments, the treble viol, the lyre,
the harpsichord and the organ were all taught,
and vocal music was cultivated Dancing,
including gesture arid bearing, was an impoi-
tant object The handwoik taught and
practiced included the needle, and work " by
silver, silks, straws, glass, wax, gums, etc "
Penmanship seems to have included accoun-
tancy Housewifery and cooking were not
neglected On Sundays, the girls went to
church close-covered with the hood On
return, they wrote out the sermon, made notes,
and " roenforced daily prayers " F. W.

References —

BACHILER, JOHN Life of Suzanne Perwuh (London.)

W VTSON, FOSTER Beginnings of tht Teaching of

Modern Subjects 'in, England (London, 1909 )

PESSIMISM. — In popular usage the dis-
position to look on the dark side of things, as
a systematic philosophy, the theory that exist-
once and life are radically evil, so evil that the
only remedy is the negation of the u will to
live," the exact antithesis of optimism (q.v.)
as a philosophy In considerable part, the
motivation of pessimistic systems has resided
in the superficial and complacent view of evil
as an incident which contributes to the per-
fection of the whole taken by optimistic sys-
tems. Leibnitz's formula that this world is
the best of all possible worlds obviously lends

654

PESTALOZZI, JOHANN HEINKIHH PE8TALOZZI, JOHANN HEINRICFI

itself readily to an extremely pessimistic in-
terpretation. A certain pessimistic tone con-
cerning the world as it now exists has also been
a marked feature of the most serious and in-
fluential religions, such as Buddhism (q v )
and Christianity In general, nineteenth-cen-
tury tkought reacted in this as in other respects
against the characteristic eighteenth-century
thought, which had been optimistic The
latter held to the doctrine of natural harmony
working inevitably for the increase of perfec-
tion and happiness , the former dwelt upon the
existence of discord, struggle, and competition
The Darwinian idea of the omnipresence of
the struggle for existence accentuated this
tendency. While the pessimistic spirit found
its most adequate expression in literature,
especially poetry, it also found systematic
metaphysical embodiment, notably in Scho-
penhauer and Von Hartmaim While sys-
tematic pessimism is too contrary to the needs
of living beings to secure for itself many con-
sistent adherents, it has made impossible the
older type of optimism, and has been a leading
factor in bringing about the transformation
of optimism into meliorism The latter holds
to the reality of evil as a genuine fact, but em-
phasizes the possibility, through good will
and intelligently directed effort, of a progressive
amelioration. It is essentially a doctrine of
progress J D

See OPTIMISM, SCHOPENHAUER

PESTALOZZI, JOHANN HEINRICH

(1746-1827). — One of the world's greatest
pioneer educationists, and a Swiss patriot who
did much for his country by his work for social
regeneration through educational reform

Life and Career — Born in Zurich, he lost
his father when five years old, and was brought
up almost wholly under the influence of his
mother and a devoted servant As a bov he
was delicate, shy, awkward, dreamy, and
unpractical He passed through the elemen-
tary, preparatory, and Latin schools, and fin-
ished his education at the Public College of
Zurich In none of these did he distinguish
himself as a student, owing to his want of
accuracy and thoroughness in details, but he
showed real ability and excelled in his grasp
and understanding of principles While still
a youth he attached himself to the Swiss reform
party — the country being at that time in the
throes of social and political revolution —
and was greatly influenced by two of his pro-
fessors, Bodmer and Breitinger (prominent
thinkers and literary men); the writings of
Rousseau; and the friendship of Lavater,
Fussli, and Bluntschli. He joined the Helve-
tian Society, took part in its debates and social
activities, and wrote for its journal, Der Enn-
nerer, articles criticizing the public corruptions
of the time and urging social and educational
reforms. Touched by the poverty and igno-
rance of the poor, which he saw in the parish

of his grandfather, Pastoi ilotigg, he resolved
to prepare himself for pastoral work, but
changed his mind after his first attempt to
conduct a service Then he began to study
law, with a view to help his country thiough
local and national affairs Overwork in this,
and shock at the sudden death of his fiiend
Bluntschli, brought on a serious illness. His
doctor advised him to give up study and live
an open-air life The writings of Rousseau
and the Physiocrats had already led him, with
other enthusiastic students, to make amateur
experiments in the return to the life of nature;
and he was quite willing to take to the simple
life So he burnt all his books, vowing never
to read one again, and turned f aimer in 1767
Two years later he bought a farm in the canton
of Aargau, and took to himself a wife His
young and beautiful bride, Anna Schulthess,
proved a gifted and devoted wife, a helpmeet
for him through all his sufferings, failures,
and successes

Ncuhof — As a farmer his brilliant but
eriatic gifts were his downfall Aftei seven
yeais of struggle he found himself in desperate
straits as a man of affairs But as a man of
ideas he had begun to find himself in these
same seven years of failure At Neuhof, as
he called his farm, was bom to him a son whose
early education he himself undertook, and
therebv began his educational discoveries
His observations, experiments, and experi-
ences in the education of his little boy
" Jacobh," proved a pioneer effort in prac-
tical child study, 01 experimental pedagogy,
and was the beginning of his formulation
of the practical principles of education ac-
cording to nature Basing his attempts on the
theories of Rousseau, he was led to modify and
correct many of this great writer's views
From the beginning of 1774, when his son was
three and a half years old, he kept a regular
record ol his work with him in A Father'* Jour-
nal, and therein are to be found all the great
root principles of his final views on education,
in particular, the principles of intuition and
sense perception as the only leal bases of true
education He had also begun to develop
ideas on the education of the children of the
poor from the industrial standpoint The
barrenness of the farm and his unsuccessful
management led him to set up cotton spinning
as a means of livelihood in 1774 To do the
light work connected with this, he employed
the children of the very pool, so that they
might be rescued from mendicancy, enabled
to earn their bread, and pay something towards
their education Workhouse children were
sent to farmers in those days, and were often
turned out to beg their bread Pestalozzi's
central idea was that the employer should be
responsible for the education of young em-
ployees But m cotton spinning also he failed,
from the practical point of view, and was soon
absolutely at the end of his financial resources.

65f>

PESTALOZZI, JOHANN HE1NRICH

PESTALOZZI, JOHANN HEINRICH

But just at this time he had the good fortune
to be introduced to Iselin (q v ) at a meeting
of the Helvetian Society Pestalozzi discussed
his view on industrial education with Iselin,
who encouraged him, and advised a public
appeal for support This was drawn up in
December, 1775, and published in Lselm's
Journal (Die Ephemeriden dcr Mcnschhcit)
in 1776, as an appeal to " The Friends of
Humanity " to support the Neuhof industrial
school The appeal was successful, and Pes-
talozzi was able to add to the twenty children
already in his employ. He undertook to
teach them to read, write, and calculate The
boys were to be taught all the practical pro-
cesses of small farming, so far as this could be
done at Neuhof, the girls, gardening, domestic
work, and needlework, and all were to do
cotton spinning All were to receive such a
religious education as would develop in them
pure and tender hearts The subscribers
were to receive reports on the work of the
institution The appeal, two reports, and three
letters, which all appeared in Die Ephemen-
den, and another report on the school published
as a pamphlet, set forth Pestalozzi's views
on The Education of Poor Country Children
(1777-1778) There were seventeen boys and
twenty girls in the school in 1778 Two vears
later the whole thing collapsed because of
financial difficulties due to Pestalozzi's business
incapacity He and his familv were ruined,
and became poorer than some of those whose
sufferings they had learned to understand, and
for whom they had sacrificed themselves

Literary Activity — In this dire distress
his pen was his only means of support En-
couraged by Iselin and Fussli, he began to
write* first a series of short maxims on educa-
tion, morals, and religion, for Iselm's journal,
under the title A Hermit's Evening 7/ow.s ,
then a prize essay (dividing first prize with
another writer) on Sumptuary Laws, and soon
after a skit on the clothing of a town watch-
man, during 1780 The last of these was seen
by Fussh's brother (the painter), and caused
him to suggest that Pestalozzi should write
a story The result was Leonard and Gertrude
(1781), a romance of rural life, based on his
own experience and knowledge of the lives
of the poor, and expressing his views on social
reform and regeneration through home and
school education and democratic local govern-
ment It revealed Pestalozzi as a writer of
original arid exalted powers, met with great
and immediate success, and has become a
world's classic He calls it "a book for the
people," and wrote four other parts of it in
1783, 1785, 1787, ^ and 1826, respectively
Feeling that the main purpose of the book had
been missed by its readers, he published an-
other to point its morals This was Chris-
topher and Eliza (1782), " my second book
for the people," in which a peasant family
read ana discuss Leonard and Gertrude It

was not a success During 1782 he conducted
a weekly paper, The Swiss Journal, m which
he wrote on education, politics, and morals.
It only lasted a year. In 1797 he made a
third attempt to explain, by parables or fables,
his Leonard and Gertrude in a book entitled
Figures for my ABC Book From 1783 to
1797 he published several political essays.
At the suggestion of Fichte (q v ) he en-
deavored to work out the philosophical
bases of his views on education, and after
three yeais of laborious study published his
Investigations into the Course of Nature in the
Development of the Human Race (1797)

Stanz —On the 9th of Septembei, 17^8,
occurred the battle and massacre at Stanz, one
result of which was that a poorhouse had to be
provided to sheltej the homeless orphans of the
neighborhood Pestalozzi was asked to take
charge of this, and eagerly consented No con-
ditions could have been more unfavorable for
testing his theories, — half-restored rums foi a
school building, himself the only teacher, a peas-
ant and her young daughter the only domestic
servants for a household of eighty, distrusted as
a heretic by the inhabitants, without sufficient
furniture or school apparatus, and with many of
his pupils very dirty, degraded, and diseased,
he was ovet whelmed with worry and work
But lie was filled with a great hope and a great
zeal, he would realize the picture of Gertiude's
school at Bonnal Physical education in the
fonn of play, drill, and industrial work al-
ternated with mental and moral cultuie
through reading, wilting, arithmetic, and li\-
ing the good life Simultaneous repetition
was much used in lessons, and older and more
advanced children put to teach otheis No
books were used, nor was there any definite
syllabus or time-table Yet, in spite of all
defects, there were splendid successes, and all
who saw the woik were amazed and delighted
But the school which received its first pupils
on the 4th of January, 1799, was closed at
the beginning of June, in the same yeai, so
that the building might be used as a military
hospital Pestalozzi retired to the mountains
to recruit his seriously impaired health Aftei
a few weeks' rest — which probably saved his
life — he returned to Stanz, anxious to resume
his work, but meantime other arrangements
had been made

Burgdorf — Through the influence of Min-
ister Stapfer (Arts and Sciences) he obtained
a post in a school in Burgdorf, under a head-
master who was a working shoemaker He
was given a small salary, and lodging in the
castle, on condition that " his work benefited
the pupils and furthered the perfecting of his
method " Some parents, urged on by the
schoolmaster, raised an outcry against ex-
periments being made on their children, and
Pestalozzi was transferred to an infants' school,
with twenty-five pupils from five to eight
years old (boys and girls) under a mistress.

656

PESTALOZZI, JOHANN HE1NRICH PESTALOZZI, JOHANN HEINR1CH

Here he had full liberty and directed his ex-
periments to the discovery of the psychological
laws and the simplest methods of teaching
He began the plan of teaching through lan-
guage, nuinbei, and lorm, and was lemarkably
successful, though he still used simultaneous
repetition and had no time-table And now
fortune was kind to him — he met Fischei,
the head of the training college foi teacheis
in the castle oi Burgdoif, who was foimerly
piofessoi ol philosophy and pedagogy at the
Bern Umveisity, and a disciple of Salzmann
(7*0 the Philanthiopimst They became
friends, and Fischei, httei on, introduced
KIUM (q v ) to him When Fische; died rathei
suddenly in May, 1800, the castle was handed
ovei to Peslalozzi and KIUM, who pioposed
1o cany on a tiainmg college, a secondary
boaiding school, an elementary day school,
and an orphan asylum, and to combine
with then woik experiments in education
and the publishing of books thereon In a
short time the staff was increased by the
arrival of Buss, Toblei, and Niedeiei (uv},
who became and lemamed loyal, devoted, and
self-sacrificing colleagues, and together with
Krusi intioduced method, older, and thor-
oughness into Pestalozzi's plans Undei them
Burgdorf was the centei of educational ex-
pennients, investigations, and tunning such
as the world had not hitheito seen High
and low came from all parts to admne and to
learn Here Pestaloz/i published (1801) How
Gertrude teacher her Chtldicn, in which he ex-
pounded his principles and methods of educa-
tion, so that — as he thought --the psy-
chology and practice were reduced to such
simple terms that every mother could under-
stand and use them All who wish to
understand education according to Pestalozzi
must read this book It makes and marks an
epoch in education and is the souice of many
of the best and most modem \iews For the
guidance of parents and teacheis, Pestalozzi
and his staff published the following element-
ary books during 1803. The Mothci\ Book,
The A RC of Intuition, or the intuitive Teaching
of Form Relation* (in two parts), and The In-
tuitive Teaching of Number .Relations These
books explain his undei lying ideas in teaching
speech, form, and nurnbei, and give detailed
examples of lessons in these subjects Thev
are intended to be used only for voung be-
ginners By such means Pestalozzi worked
out his ideas and spread them abioad He
achieved fame and success, and did his very
best work, at Buigdoif

Yverdun — In July, 1804, Pcstalozzi had
to vacate the castle, which was required for
governmental offices An airangement was
made for the institution to be housed at Miin-
chenbuchsee, near to Fellenberg's Institution
at Hofwyl, arid the practical dnection of it
was committed to Fellenberg (<//>)» while
Pcstalozzi continued to be the proprietor

VOL iv — 2u 657

Unhappy differences arose between them, and,
in July, 1805, the agreement was canceled
and Pestalozzi 's Institution was removed to
the castle at Yverdun, where it continued
till its end on March 2d, 1825 The first five
years of tins time were yeais of brilliant suc-
cesses in which the institution became world
famous Aftei this came private and public
misunderstandings, strife, humiliation, and
decay, and the less said of these the better
Hut the worse matters became the more Pes-
talozzi letuined to his oiigmal and constant
idea of the education of the poor He started
the (1lindv Poor School (1818), and at the
moment of final failure his one great wish
(unfulfilled) was to transport it to Neuhof.
At Yverdun the method was applied to older
pupils from many countries, to more advanced
•stages of school subjects, including classics;
and to the education of girls in a separate
school Pestalozzi's chief writings from 1805
to 1827 were- the Weekly for Human Edu-
cation (1807-1821), in which appeared his
Lenzburg Address , the Discourse on the Idea
of Elementary Education (1809), a Report on
the (Condition and Oiganization of the Yverdun
establishment (1SOS), ' Nagch's articles on the
teaching of singing, etc , View* and Experiences
relating to the Idea of Elementary Education
(1807); Addresses to 'the whole school (1808-
1813), the Swansong (1813), the first part of
which is On Edneation according to Nature, and
Letters on Earli/ Education (1818), written to
an Englishman His political enthusiasm had
endured and he wiote important political
pamphlets The closing year of his life found
him faithful to his thiee great purposes as
friend of the pool he was engaged in reestab-
lishing his industrial school at Neuhof, as
political lefoimei he \\rote an address On
Fatheiland and Education, foi the Schinznach
Helvetian Society, of which he had been elected
president, and as educationist he wrote a
paper entitled An Attempt at a Sketch of the
Essence of the Idea of Elemental y Education,
for a meeting of the Brugg Society for the
Promotion of Education, at which he was
present

Educational Theories — Though Pestalozzi
never wrote a clear, systematic, and complete
account of his theones, his writings and work
give the material for a definite outline of his
\iews Fischer, Oiavannes, Jullien, Niedeiei,
Morf, Alavo, Kiusi (junior), and Payne have
all gi\en such outlines The foundation of
his doctime is that all human development
and power spring from possibilities native
to the human being, / e (i the growth of man
is God's work, and the result of universal
laws conferred on his nature ", that " the
moral, spiritual, and artistic capabilities of
our nature must grow out of themselves ",
that " a man's uowers are all part of an organic
whole ", that '* nature develops all the human
faculties by practice, and their growth depends

PESTALOZZI, JOHANN HEINRICH PESTALOZZI, JOHANN HEINRICH

upon exercise "; and that man's development
is itself organic, i e " the individual and
separate organs of his being form themselves
gradually into unison " Hence, the function
of the educatoi is to assist " nature's march
of development " HO as to secure a natural,
symmetrical, and harmonious progress, thus
" improving the tendencies and powers of
humanity " These fundamental truths lead
to the following general principles (1) Edu-
cation must be essentially religion*, since man
has » divine origin and end (2) Educa-
tion must develop man a* a whole It must
draw out all his moral, mental, and physical
powers, in a balanced and harmonious piogicss
at every stage, " the development of human
nature, the harmonious cultivation of its
powers and talents, and the promotion of man-
liness of life this is the aim of instruction "
We must develop the powers of " the head,
the hand, and the heait," concurrently and
according to the nature of each (3) Educa-
tion must guide and stimulate wlf -activity
" The only means of development our powers
possess is their use " The educator must do
as little as possible, his work consists "in a
continual benevolent superintendence — gn-
mg a helping hand to the instinctive efforts
after self-development " (4) AU education must
he bawd upon intuition and cjeicise This
is Pestalozzi's great theory of Ansehauung
(qv), by which he means " the immediate
and direct impression produced bv the world
on our inner and outer senses, / e the im-
pressions of the moral world on our moral
sense and the physical umveise on our bodilv
senses " Sense experiences need to be elabo-
rated and organized through observation, and
the learner must, theiefore, acquire a true*
art of observation, i e the thoiough and exact
grouping, separating, and combining of ob-
jects (5) Education must observe a right grad-
uation and progression in development, for
" there is in nature an order and march of
development, and if you disturb or interfere
with it you make the powers of the mind weak,
unstable, and unbalanced " " Each child
should be taught that which he has to learn
at the time his nature calls foi it, for this is
proof that his sensibility and power are ready
for it " The child repeats the history of race
in its development. Each stage of develop-
ment must grow out of the preceding and into
the following stage by scarcely perceptible addi-
tions Mind and body are one, and, therefore,
practical power must develop with knowledge,
and practical skill with insight Both must
proceed from the known to the unknown ; the
simple to the complex; and the near to the
remote, and always in relation to the experi-
ences of real life (6) Education must foster
the growth of knowledge through the development
of ideas. From mere vague impressions the
mind must evolve values and meanings
From " a swimming sea of confused sense-

impressions " some one thing stands out as a
separate something, i e the person has a
distinct idea of it Next it may be observed
more fully and in detail, so that the person can
describe it accurately, i e , he has a clear idea
of it By further analysis and by combining
and compaiing it with other objects, he is
able to define it, or state its essential qualities
so as to mark it off from all other objects, t e
he has a definite idea of it This progress of
ideas is obtained through getting to know how
many, and how many kinds, of objects appear
in consciousness, investigating what their
form and outlines are, and abstractly think-
ing about these bv the help of words, / e
through number, form, and language

From the foregoing six principles follow
certain practical rules for the educative process
(1) An all-round training must be given (2) All
possible liberty mu^t be allowed to the learner
" The nature of the child must determine all
the details of his education " Enlightened
affection and confidence, and geniality, must
exist, between teacher and pupils (3) Work
is mote important than trords " Work in
general is the surest of all exercises for the
attention," and " man is much more truly
educated through that which he does than
through that which he learns " Knowledge
without practical power, or insight without
the ability to apply it, is a 4t fearful lot for a
human being " Words may " not only destroy
the powers of attention to the impressions of
nature, but mar the very susceptibility to-
ward them " Our activities are " the sense-
foundation of our virtues " (4) The method
of learning must primarily be analytic., ie
based upon the analysis of experience " We
put our children on the road which the dis-
coverer of the subject himself took, and had
to take " A pupil at Yveidun writes " we
are made to invent geometry, the masters con-
tenting themselves with pointing out the end
to attain, and putting us on the road to it "
(5) Realities must come before symbolism in
learning " Elementary education must aim
at establishing connections between the child
and the realities of his actual life " Sense-
perception is the, one sure basis of thought
and judgment which are developed through
language, and therefore this order must be
observed, whilst maintaining harmony be-
tween experience, thought, and language.
Hence, the great importance of object lessons
and science We 4t get knowledge by our own
investigation, not by endless talk about the
results of art and science " "I desire to make
the effect of words and talk on the mind of
little account, and to secure that dominating
influence proper to the actual impressions of
physical objects." (6) Organization and cor-
relation are necessary This applies to the
relations between mind and body, the nature
of the child and of knowledge, and the pupil
and school conditions H. H

658

PK8TALOZZI, JO?IANN HEINRICH

PKSTALOZZ1 VKKEIN

Pestalozzi's Influence — - The influence of Pes-
talozzi very soon spread over Europe and into
this country His influence was most profound
in Germany, where Pestalozzian methods were
employed as the means for the regeneration
of the country after the disaster at Jena
Young Germans were sent to Switzerland to
study by the side of the master and i etui ned to
their country full of enthusiasm for the new
movement Among these the following mav
be mentioned, while for furthei details the
reader is referred to the separate articles
Fichte, Frocbcl, Herbart, Hitter, Haimsch,
Zeller, Ramsauer, Plamann, Pinter, Dieslei-
weg, and many others, who contributed bv n
reconstruction of theory or pi a dice to the
reform of methods of instruction in elemental \
schools and in the training of teachers In
another direction Pestalozzian influence was
also powerful; namely, the reform of philan-
thropic educational institutions and orphan
asylums In Switzerland Pestalozzian meth-
ods were early adopted, and through his
immediate assistants Pestalozzian influence
soon made itself felt Among these mav be
mentioned Hermann Krusi, Sr (qv), Gustav^
Tobler, Nageli (qv), and De Giumps, while
the work of Fellenberg, Wehrli, and Here
Girard (qq v ) was also inspired to some extent
bv Pestalozzi

At the time when she might have profited
greatly by the Pestalozzian movement, Phig-
land was too deeply interested in the monitorial
system of the two educational societies But
she was not entiiely unaffected bv the move-
ments, for thiough James Pienepont Greaves
(q v ) and the Infant School Society (see IN-
FANT SCHOOLS), and through the Mayos,
Charles and Elizabeth (q v), and the Home and
Colonial School Society (qv), some little
influence was exerted on English education,
even though in the latter case it was some-
what perverted.

In no other country, perhaps, was the
Pestalozzian movement so widespread as in
the United States Introduced arid natural-
ized by William Maclure (q v ), the practical
side was well illustrated by Joseph Neef (q v ),
whom Maclure induced to come to this countiy.
The work was a few years later taken up in
New England, and its chief representatives
were William Russell, J G Carter, Charles
Brooks, William C Woodbridge, A Bronson
Alcott, Lowell Mason, and Henry Barnard
(qq v ). This influence was expressed not only
in the introduction of reformed methods in
schools, but in the foundation of noimal schools
and a greater interest in public education. The
strongest influence, perhaps, radiated from
Oswego (see OSWEGO MOVEMENT), whither by
different routes the Pestalozzian influence
found its way and where too it led to improved
schools and the training of teachers. Trained
by Edward A. Sheldon and his daughter Mary
Sheldon Barnes and by Hermann Krusi, Jr

(qq v )> teachers in turn spread the Pestalozzian
movement far and wide in this country The
culminating point of the movement may be
said to have been reached in the introduc-
tion of Pestalozzian methods in the schools
of St. Louis by W T Hams (q v ) Else-
where the influence of Pestalozzi, if it went no
furthei, may be recognized in the introduction
of object teaching (q v ) into the schools H H
Sec GEHM\NY, EDUCATION IN; INFANT
SCHOOLS, OBJECT TEVCHINC;, OSWEGO MOVE-
MENT, and the ai tides on Pestalozzi's assist-
ants, eg, GREAVES, KHVSI, NEEF, NIEDEREK,
M\YO, etc

References —

B\KNARI>, H Pmtalozzi and Puntalozziani^nt (Now

Yoik, 1H62 )
BiBfcR, E H<nry PctUilozzi and his Plan of Eduia-

tion (London, 18.^1 )
(\)MPAYKil, (i Pestalozzi and Klmuntaiu Education

(Now York, U)()7 )
DE (JuiMPH, H Pestalozzi, hi* Lif< and H ork* (Now

\ork, 1H97 )
( JLUH \RDT, B flinf \ihi uny da Pibtalozztxthin Mithodi

in PrmtMen (Berlin, 1S<W )
(JRKKN, (J A Tin Eri'iHfitional Ideas of Pextalozzi

(London, 1907 ) ,

(iMLLAUMK. J Pestalozzi, Etudt hiogrophtqm

(Pans, 1H90 )
HKTTBAUM, A Johann Heinnch P(*1alozzi (Borhn,

1910 )
HOLLAND, L E , and TURNER, F E How (jcrtriidt

Teach f» her Children (Syracuse, NY, 1894)
HOLMAN, H Ptbtulozzi, an Account of Hit* Lift and

HWAs (London, 190S )
ISRAEL, A Pfstahzzi BiMioyraphu, Monutnenta Gcr-

mamcr Pccduuoyua Vols XXV, XXIX, XXX

(Berlin, 1903 1()0."> )

JlILLIEN, M*R< -AN'KHNK Ex/)O^ (U 1(1 Hlfthode d' Edu-

cation de Pestalozzi (Pans, IS42)
KitUhi, II (Junioi) P^talozzi hi\ Lift, \\ork, ami

I nil tiuui (No^ York, 1875)
MONROE, \\ S I/ tutor y of t hi P( atalozzian Momnnnt

in tht Unitul Statt* (Svraeu,se, NY, 1907)
MORI-, II Zui Htofltaphn Pittalttzzi, .i vols (Win-

torthui, 18(>8-1SS<) )
NATORP, P Johann Hnntnh Ptutalozzi (LuiiK<'H-

halza, 1()05 )

PINLOCHL, A Pesi^ozzi (Pans, 1901)
SALLWURK, E VON Pt btulctzsi (Leipzig, 1897 )
SrHMiD, K A (,\*(hi(ttt( dcr Erzichuug, Vol. IV, Pt

12, pp o<)3 03(> Biblu)giaph> (Stuttgart, 189S )
SEYFI-AIITH, L \V , Ed Pestalozzi' n Sammtlicht

W(rki, 12 vols (Liohmtz, 1899 1902)

PESTALOZZI-FROEBELHAUS —An in-
stitution established in Berlin for the propaga-
tion of Pestalozzian and Fiocbehan methods
and the training; of kinder garten teachers
The departments of tins school are (1) a
public kindergarten for children from 2\ to 6,
(2) an intei mediate class foi children from 6 to
6J-, (3) an elementary class foi children from
(i to 7J, (4) manual tiade school for boys and
girls up to 14, (5) a cookery school, and
(6) training school foi kindergarten teachers
(For photograph of the school, see article on
KINDERGARTEN )

PESTALOZZI VEREIN —The name borne
by a large number of elementary teachers*
benevolent associations in Germany for the
support primarily of orphans and widows of

659

PESTILENCE

PETRARCH

teachers. To celebrate the centenary of Pesta-
lozzi's birth, a movement was begun under
Diesterweg's (q.v ) influence to found a number
of orphanages It was soon felt, however, that
it would be preferable to establish a fund to
board out orphans and not deprive them of
family life. The Pedagogical Association of
Dresden established the precedent In 1846
a number of other organizations bearing the
title of Pestalozzi-Vcm n sprang up, and in
fifty years spread throughout the whole of
Germany The purposes of the funds were
soon gradually extended, — a change made
possible by the improved conditions of the
teachers in the shape of highei salaries, pensions,
and provision for widows and orphans The
funds are now used for the suppoit of (1) 01-
phansuptothe age of fouiteen or fifteen, (2) of
orphans beyond those ages, (3) of widows,
(4) of the blind, (5) of needy and convales-
cent teachers The funds are obtained from
voluntary contributions, concerts, and sales
of books, songs, magazines, calendars, etc.
A number of societies, however, have practi-
cally become insurance companies by making
support and its amounts depend on fixed con-
tributions. In this way thev have placed
themselves under the Imperial Law for Pri-
vate Insurance Enter puses of 1901

Reference -

REIN, W. Ertcyklop&dischei* Haiidbuch der P&dagogik,
H vv Pestalozzi Stifte und Stiftungun , Pestalozzi-
Vweine

PESTILENCE — See EPIDEMICS

PETER THE LOMBARD (1100-r 1160)
— Theological teacher born at Novaia in
Lombardy He studied at Bologna, Rheims,
and Paris At Pans he was, probably, a pupil
of Ab61ard It is certain, in any case, that
he was a careful and sympathetic student of
Abe'lard's method After being advanced to
several ecclesiastical dignities, he was made
Bishop of Paris about' the year 1158 He
soon resigned his see, and died at some time
between that year and 1160 Peter owes his
importance in the history of education to his
Boohs of Sentences (Quattuor LibnScntcntiarum)
written about the year 1145, or, perhaps, a
few years later Although the book and the
method which it embodied met with violent
opposition at first, especially from the mystics
of the School of St Victor, both ultimately
prevailed The Sentences became the text-
book of theology in the Schools, it was com-
mented on by all the great teachers in the
thirteenth century; its anangement of topics
was followed and its method adopted in all
the subsequent Runnm?, or textbooks of theol-
ogy In substance it is orthodox, although
a few propositions taken from it were formally
condemned It was recognized by the aca-
demic authorities in Paris and Oxford in the
thirteenth century as the official textbook,

the candidate for the degree of Magister being
obliged to lecture on the Sentences for two
years The essence of its method is dialectical.
It is, however, positive, also Its quotations
from the Fathers and the Scriptures are abun-
dant, and one of its chief merits is that it
makes use of the Decretum of Gratian of
Bologna (about 1140) W. T

See SCHOLASTICISM

References -

Dk WUL*. M History of Medieval Philosophy, tr

Coffo, P (Now York, 1909)
KHPKNBEKC.LK, J N Beitrtigc zur Gvschichtc dcr

Philosophy drt> MittelalterR, Vol III (Munster,

1901 )
MIGNE, ,J F Patrologia Latitia, Vol ("XII (Pann,

1864 )
PKOTOIH P Lombard, t>on Kpoque, »a Vic, sis Ecntst

son Injiuemc (Pariw, 1881 )
KAHHDALL, H Universities of Euro pi in the Middle

Aget, (Oxford, 1895 )
STOCKL, A Geschichte der Philosophic des Mittel-

alters, Bd I (Mamz, 1864.)
TOWNBEND, W. J. Great Schoolmen of ttw Middle

Ages. (London, 1881)
TURNER, W. History of Philosophy. (Boston, 1903 )

PETRARCH, FRANCESCO (1304-1374)
— The great Italian poet and humanist, born
at Arezzo, whither his father had fled from
Florence After several changes the family
removed to Avignon in 1313, where Francesco
studied the humanities for foui years under the
direction of Convennole of Prato. But his
studies did not accord with the wishes of his
father, and in 1310 he was sent to Montpelher
to piepare for the legal profession On the
death of his father, in 1327, however, he re-
turned to Avignon and shortly aftei took
priestly orders It was about this time that
he met Lain a, who inspired his Cunzoniere
and Sonnet*, which brought him into marked
pi eminence and won for him the favorable
notice of men of influence In 1333 Petrarch
yielded to a restless desire to see the world and
visited Pans, Ghent, Boulogne, and Li&ge,
meeting well-known scholars and adding to his
collection of classical Mss In 1337 he with-
drew to a quiet retreat at Vaucluse, near Avi-
gnon, and there published the Latin epic on
Africa, on the appearance of which he was
hailed as the poet laureate of Italy. In 1341
he received the laurel crown from the hands
of a Roman senator upon the hill of the Capitol

During this period three events took place
of some importance in shaping Petrarch's life
and thought In 1345 Cicero's Familiar
Letters were discovered, and Petrarch became
the eager student of that famous Roman whom
he always acknowledged as his master In
1348 Laura died, and there can be no doubt
that her death was a profound loss to the poet
she had so long inspired. But two years later,
while passing through Florence on his way
to the jubilee at Rome, Petrarch met Boccaccio
arid then began what was destined to be the
deepest and most satisfying friendship of his
life It was beyond question Petrarch's eager

660

PETRARCH

PETTY SCHOOL

enthusiasm for the new learning which in-
spired his friend and made of Boccaccio
another powerful instrument in the spread of
humanism

In 1353 Petrarch abandoned Vaucluse and
took up his home in Milan at the court of the
tyrant, Giovanni Visconti Here he held
the position of court orator and ambassador,
and was sent upon many brilliant missions,
notably to Charles IV in 1356 His final
home was made at or neai Padua undoi the
patronage of the despot Francesco di Feirara
Here, in his later years, he met the Byzantine
Greek teacher Leontms Pilatus, and apparently
made an earnest attempt to learn the Greek
language But it is cleai that he never mas-
tered its difficulties, foi in Ins well-known
letter to Homer (Fam XXIV, 12) he acknowl-
edges that he was " not so fortunate as to
have learned Greek" In 1369 Petiarch
sought the quiet of the little village of Arqua
in the Euganean hills, where he studied with
the most unremitting industry, employing a
large number of secretaries and copyists
Here he was found dead among his manu-
scripts and books on July 18, 1374

The personality of Petraich is liaidly less
interesting to the student than his woik In
him first flamed the ideal of self-culture, in-
terpreted as the development of a fiee, en-
lightened personality through the medium of
classic prose and verse Religious as he was,
the conflict between his spiritual interests,
as he concei\ed them, arid his intellectual
desires was a very real one Intiospective
interest in his own mental states, his own
soul struggles, maik Petrarch as the first
modern man in this regard The icadci has
only to scan the pages of his Confessions (Dc
Contemptu Mundi sen suum Secret urn) to
appreciate how conscious of self, of the interest
and worth of personal aspnation and struggle,
is this pioneer of a new intellectual world-
order While he heaped contempt upon the
Averroists for a mateiiahsm closely bordering
upon atheistic impiety, he yet found it difficult
not to regard the gieat classics of Rome with
the same veneration that he bestowed upon the
Scriptures To his impassioned mind Homer,
Cicero, and others of the ancient writers lived
again, and in his Letters he addressed them
with enthusiastic greeting Animated by his
ideal of self-culture, he icfused appointments
which few men would have felt justified in
rejecting Yet in the very heart of hib ideal
were elements of weakness which increasingly
characterized the intellectual revival for which
he labored — the tendency to define ^ self-
culture as aesthetic and literary appreciation
rather than in terms of a dominating social
and moral conviction

When we turn to the scholarship and
achievements of Petrarch we cannot fail to
recognize the unique character of his services
to human culture He was indefatigable in

661

his zeal for the collection and accurate tran-
scription of manuscripts Possessed of a truly
remarkable power of arousing enthusiasm in
others, he influenced a wide and varied group
of acquaintances, through his vivid personality
and his no less vivid correspondence, and enlisted
them in the cause of the new enlightenment
He was in truth the mouthpiece of his age,
voicing with enthusiastic conviction what other
men felt more vaguely HIM scholarship was
genuine, if not profound, and was the product of
years of intense industry and careful analytic
thought His zeal foi the exact transcription
of the precious MRS , thus far collected from
musty coiners of schools and monasteries, led
him bitterly to deplore the careless methods
of the copyists of his day

Petrarch's writings ccftnpiise his Italian
verse (Canzone and Sonnets), his Latin Ec-
logues and Epistles, with the epic of Africa, his
Historical Anecdotes, Lives of Famous Men,
Life of Julius Catsar, and certain miscellaneous
writings, including the Confessions, Orations,
and minor Essay* There should be added
two serious works on The Life of Solitude
and On Monastic Leisure His library, dedi-
cated to the Republic of Venice, probably
never reached that city After passing
through the hands of the tyrants of Padua
and Pavia, twenty-six volumes found their
way to the National Library in Pans, wheie
they now remain A few of his other manu-
scripts are dnided among the cities of Rome,
Florence, Padua, Milan, arid Venice; but a
large number have never been accounted for.

W G

See RENAISSANCE AND EDUCATION

References —

FISKE, W Catalogue of Petrarch's Books (New

Yoik, 1SS2)

TiNG, G Prtraicat* Lebcn and Werke (Leipzig,

1878 )

iiREK, A ,1 K Pttrarque , Etude d'aprks de

nouvtaua Documtntb (Parib, 1868 )
NOLIMC, PIERRE DF Pftra/qiu et rffumamsine.

(Paris, 1907 )

P<trarch and tht Ant lent World (Boston, 1907)
PE'iRAiuu OIK ia qua* extant omma (Basel, 1581 )
HEE\K, H Pet ran h (Edinburgh, 1S78 )
ROBTNHON, ,T H , and ROLI-L, II W Petrarch, the

first tnodfrn Scholar and Man of Letters (Now

York, 1898)
SANDYS, J E History of Classical Scholarship, Vol.

II (Cambridge, 1906.)
SYMONDS, 1 A Renaissance in Italy
VOIGT, L G W lederhelchu tig des classischen Alter-

thums (Berlin, 1880-1881

PETTY SCHOOL — Schools ^ or classes
preparatory to grammar schools in England.
The grammar school did not admit pupils until
they had learned their "accidents." The petty
school received pupils from the age of five and
kept them until they could be admitted to the
grammar schools, or about three years The
curriculum consisted mainly of learning the
ABC and reading of English, with elements
of Latin grammar The term " petty school "

PETTY, SIR WILLIAM

PHARMACY

did not come into use until the seventeenth
century, but the terms " petties," " petits,"
" pettetes," primarily young children, are
already found in the preceding century for
lower school pupils The master of the gram-
mar school was not expected or compelled to
teach the pettier, they might be under the
charge of an usher, or the master might "assign
so many of his scholars in the third and fourth
forms as may suffice to instruct them " (Guis-
brough Grammar School, 1561) Of course
the preparatory training of the petties might
be given by private schoolmasters, dame
schools (q v ), song schools (q v ), etc As used
by Hoole (q v ) in his pamphlet on the Petty
School t the use of the term is extended to in-
clude riot only pupils preparing for the gram-
mar school, but those who are unable to profit
by a grammar school education and remain
in the petty or elementary school for a cur-
riculum including English literature, writing,
and arithmetic T^18 usc may be compared
with the Petite* Ecole* (Little Schools) of the
Gentlemen of Port Royal (q v ), a use of the term
which was common in Pans in the Middle Ages
for elementary schools, as opposed to the high
or grammar school (Grande Ecole) under the
chancellor

See ABCDARIANS

PETTY, SIR WILLIAM (1623-1687) —
Political economist, born at Romsey, England,
the son of a clothier After attending 1he
grammar school at Romsey and early showing
considerable mechanical ability, he went to sea,
and later entered the Jesuit College at Caen in
France. For a brief period he was in the royal
navy, but later he studied at Utrecht, Amster-
dam, and Leyden, whence he proceeded to Paris,
where he met llobbes and Father Mersenne,
mathematicians and friends of Descartes On
his return to England he took up his father's
business for a time and invented a manifolding
machine, the " Pentograph," which bi ought
him considerable fame He again took up the
study of medicine, which he had begun at
Leyden, and took the degree of Doctor of
Physic at Oxford in 1649 and became fellow
of Brascnose College and professor of anatomy
in 1651 He was appointed physician-general
to the army in Ireland in 1652, and while there
helped to survey the country in a scientific
manner and with much rapidity and thorough-
ness At the Restoration, Petty, who sym-
pathized with the Cromwelhari party, was
deprived of his appointment, settled in London,
and became a member of a scientific coterie
there On the incorporation of the Royal
Society (1662), which in part was inspired by an
early work of his, Petty was knighted He
devoted much time to mechanical inventions,
among them "a wheel to ride upon" and a
double-keeled vessel Both Evelyn and Pepys
speak in high praise of his versatility

Of his writings the larger number deal with

questions of political economy He urged
the establishment of a statistical bureau,
and himself wrote a number of essays in Polit-
ical Anthmetick In 1662 he wrote a Treatise
of Taxes and Contributions, which gives a correct
account of the origin of wealth. In the field of
education, his most interesting work is the
Advice of W P to Mr Samuel Harthb, for the
Advancement of some particular Parts of Learn-
ing, written in 1647-1648 It consists of four
parts The first commends Harthb's pro-
posed Office of Pubhcke Addresses, a central
bureau of information, research, and compila-
tion of bibliographies Various departments
are described and in their comprehensiveness
recall Bacon's New Atlantis The "Gymna-
sium Mcchamrum or Coll edge of Tradesmen
for the Advancement of all Mechanical Arts
and Manufactures " was to be an institution
for the encouragement of workmen to perfect
their work, they were to be granted free
dwellings and fellowships to encourage them
in continuing at their particular branch The
study of pure science was to be pursued at the
" Nosocomium Aeademicum," a combination
of hospital, museums of different kinds, ob-
servatory, library, collections, " an Abstract
of the whole world "

The education of children us dealt with in
the second part of the Advice

Petty m his comprehensive view of the
school does not neglect the teachers, and hopes
that " the business of education should not
be (as now) committed to the worst and un-
wortlncst of men, but . be seriously
studied and practised by the best and ablest
persons " To this end he recognizes the value
of a study of individual children and advises
" That effectual Courses be taken to try the
Abilities of the Bodies and Minds of Children,
the strength of their Memory, inclination of
their Affections either to Vice or Vertue, and
to which of them in particular, and withall to
alter what is bad in them, and increase and
improve what is good, applying all, whether
good or bad, to the least Inconvenience and
most Advantage "

Petty 's Advice should be classed with Mil-
ton's Tradate and Locke's Thoughts among
the most valuable contributions to the devel-
opment of educational theory in England.

References —
ADAMBON, J W Pioneers of Modern Education

(Cambridge, 1905 )
BARNARD, H American Journal of Education, Vol.

XI, pp 199-208
Dictionary of National Biography.

PHARMACY, EDUCATION IN. — His-
toric Development — In order to understand
the present status of pharmaceutical education
in this country, it is necessary to recall
that, unlike the learned professions, pharmacy
is still clinging to the apprenticeship system,
and this in spite of the universally recognized

662

PHARMACY

PHARMACY

deterioration of the modern drug store as an
educational factor

Though the pharmacist has had his pre-
cursors in antiquity and during the middle
ages, he traces his direct descent fiom the
Italian apothecary of the Renaissance, who
had his professional birth in the edict of 1224,
issued by the ernperor Frederick II This
edict created the public apothecary and es-
tablished his relation to the physician and to
the public. From Italy the apothecary crossed
the Alps into Germany, France, and England
Although some of the apothecaries completed
their education at the Italian and later at
other universities, the large number were
trained exclusively in the shops of their
preceptors In England they seem to have
played, at least in part, the i61e of assist-
ants to physicians, as seen in Chaucer's
Canterbury Tales , later they entered into
serious competition with the physicians, and
since the beginning of the eighteenth century
have been licensed as general medical piacti-
tioners Their place as apothecaries, in the
continental meaning of the teirn, was filled
by the present-day chemist and druggist

In Paris the apothecaiies were oigam/ed
into a gild, first with the wealthy spiceis,
later independently of them As such they
had charge of the education and examination
of apprentices Shortly before the French
Revolution the apothecaries' gild of Paris
was reorganized as a college of phaimacv, i c
as a corporation of the master pharmacists
Being thus proclaimed as pro! essio rial rather
than as commercial men, the duty of the
proper education of their apprentices was
thereby made more important than before
However, the Revolution disposed of all
special privileges Since then Ihe education
of the prospective pharmacist has been regu-
lated by the state

In Germany, where the system of conces-
sions of apothecary shops was continued after
the political arid economic reorganization
that followed the Napoleonic wars, the appren-
ticeship was taken very sei lously The apothe-
cary shop served not only as a means of edu-
cating the pharmaceutical apprentice, but,
before the days of Liebig's laboratory at
Giessen, also as almost the only means of ac-
quiring a practical knowledge of chemistry
Hence Liebig, although he wanted to become
a chemist, served an apprenticeship in the
apothecary shop at Hcppenhcim Indeed,
it would seem that TrommsdorfT's private
school, maintained in connection with his
apothecary shop at Erfurt, must have sug-
gested the idea of laboratory instruction to
Liebig

In England the development of pharmacy
was hampered riot only by commercial, but by
medical tendencies Among the small traders
on Chepe Street, London, were the spicers
and pepperers, the latter being organized into

a gild as early as 1180 Out of these devel-
oped the* grocers, the sellers en grox, who re-
ceived their first charter in 1429 On them
were conferred the chaige of the king's beam,
the exclusive power of garbling drugs, spiceb,
and imported merchandise, and the duty of
examining the drugs and medicinal wares sold
by the apothecaries

The earliest apothecaries m England appear
to have come from France in the fourteenth
century Not satisfied with the mere prepara-
tion of medicaments, they soon indulged in
medical practice Then charter of 1617 freed
them from their old enemies, the grocers, but
their medical practice brought them into con-
flict with the College of Physicians incorpo-
rated in 1511 After a long quarrel, in which
even men of letters took part, the apothecaries
came out victorious in 1703, since which time
they have been recognized in England as medi-
cal practitioners Preferring the keeping of
shop to medical practice, some of the assistants
of apothecaries, as well as others, developed
into druggists propel, such as was Drugger,
one of the characteis of Jonson's Alchemist
Conflict between these and the apothecaries
over the recommendation of medicines for the
sake of gain, led to the incorporation of the
Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain in
1S42, which was gi\ en power to control its own
educational policy

Such a development, coupled with the gen-
eial latwz fane policy of England, could not
produce a 'highly developed calling of the
pharmacist The chemist in England, as
Liebig wrote to his friend Woehler in the fifties
of the past centuiv, is not a chemist but an
apothecary Yet according to English laws,
the apothecary is a general medical practi-
tioner, not aii apothecary or pharmacist in
the continental sense of the word

United States — Although the colonies and
the original thirteen United States obtained
such meager pharmaceutical literature as^ was
available to them almost entirely from Great
Britain, the idea of organizing local colleges
appears to ha\e been taken from France.
Thus, when the University of Pennsylvania
in 1821 took steps to improve the educational
status of the local apothecaries, some of the
Philadelphia druggists resented this as inter-
feience, and organized a college of pharmacy,
/ <> a corporation of local druggists One of
the objects of this body was to provide more
systematic mstiuction than could be offered
to apprentices m the exacting occupation
of drug-store life livening lectures during
the winter were provided and a " school "
was started by the college

The other larger cities followed the example
of Philadelphia m the organization of some
of the more ambitious local druggists as col-
leges of pharmacy, viz Boston in 1823, New
York in 1829, New Orleans in 1838, Baltimore
in 1841, Cincinnati m 1850, Chicago in 1859,

663

PHARMACY

PHARMACY

St Louis 111 1804, Mobile in 1800 But
whereas the Philadelphia, College of Phai-
macy began its educational activities almost
immediately, the Massachusetts College of
Pharmacy, although the second to effect 01-
gamzation, did not seriously assume its edu-
cational obligations until 1808

As already pointed out, these colleges of phar-
macy were corporations of local druggists or-
ganized foi general piofessional purposes
Incidentally most of them provided moie 01
less regulai courses of evening led ures foi the
benefit of then apprentices, and latei foi such
otheis from a distance as did not enjoy
Mimlai advantages at home An attempt
to fostei pharmaceutical education by means
of a confeience of delegates of the colleges —
not of the faculties of then schools, it should
be noted — was mad*1 between the years of
1870 and 1882, but failed During tins
period six new colleges weie organized, viz
those of Louisville (1870), San Francisco
(1872), Washington (1872), Pittsburg (1878),
Albany (1881), Cleveland (1882)

It was about this time that the state uni-
versities of the old Northwest Terntoiy be-
gan their period of phenomenal development
The University of Michigan, winch had given
pharmaceutical instruction since 1808, reor-
ganized this department in 1870 Wisconsin
followed in 1883, Indiana in 1884, Ohio in
1885, Illinois in 1887 (since abandoned for
an affiliation with the Chicago College of Phai-
macy) Since then many states west of the
Mississippi have offered similai courses of
instruction Owing to the lack of endowment
or other suppoit, the older colleges had to
restrict their icquned instiuction to lectures
and occasional quizzes With the state uni-
versities, the laboiatory at once took its place
as one of the most important means of impart -
mg instruction in the basal sciences and then
pharmaceutical application

The fourth period is that of the second confer-
ence, the Conference of Pharmaceutical Fac-
ulties, organized in 1900 Of possibly more1
than eighty institutions in the United States,
thirty-two belonged to this confeience in 1910
Its standards aie still very low, but it must
be remembered that, until favoied by legisla-
tion, the older eastern colleges had no entrance
requirements whatever Although a prereq-
uisite law has been in force in the state of New
York since 1905, the minimum number of hours
of instruction demanded bv the Depaitrnent
of Education does not yet exceed 1200 houis,
about one half of which must be laboratory
work The state universities demand about
twice this amount in their two-year courses
Based on one year of high-school work as a
general preparation, and in many states not
even that, pharmaceutical education in this
country has still much to strive for

In ordei to appreciate why such a ]o\\
standard prevails in spite of the desire of main

an institution to raise the standard, it is nec-
essary to know that the state boards of phar-
macy, and not the educational institutions, are
the controlling factor. Since about 1875 the
practice of pharmacy has been controlled in
one state after another by legislation. These
state pharmacy laws have created state boards
which pass upon the qualification of candidates
foi legist/ration As a rule, two classes of
pharmaceutical practitioners are recognized
by these laws first, the registered pharmacist,
who enjoys full privileges in the piactice of his
calling, and second, the assistant pharmacist,
who enjoys limited privileges only Until
recently no special schooling of any kind was
demanded In addition to the requisite four
01 five yeais of drug-store expencncc demanded
by law, the piospective pharmacist could pre-
pare himself for the state board examinations
in whatever manner he saw fit Quiz com-
pends and ciamrning schools have played an
important r6le in this preparation foi the state
boards Correspondence courses have also
given some aid Inasmuch as in the case of
failure a candidate can repeat ad libitum his
experience before1 the board, these examina-
tions themselves have been a farce

New Yoik was the first state to have a
pharmacy law About thirty-five yeais later
it became the hist state to enact prerequisite
legislation, i c legislation making graduation
from a recognized school a prerequisite to the
state board examination Similar legislation
will no doubt spread Thus a minimum of
technical education will gradually be provided
foi, but the even more fundamental geneial
education is still in a sad plight Only a few
universities have thus far been in a position
to demand graduation from a high school
or similar preparation as a prerequisite for a
course in pharmacy

In like manner as the pharmaceutical facul-
ties have organized for conference, so the state
boards have organized a National Association
of Hoards of Pharmacy Much good in the
way of harmonizing ideas and even require-
ments has already been accomplished So
long, however, as these boards are composed
exclusively, or well-nigh so, of retail druggists,
much progress cannot be expected The
several boards of pharmacy, medicine, health,
etc , of a given state will have to be reorganized
into one board of health and sanitation, on
which pharmacy is lepicscnted, before any
radical change can be expected

Yet in spite of this rather unfavorable state
of affairs progress is being made While the
grandeur of buildings, not infrequently bur-
deried by a heavy debt, is the most striking
outward sign, more subtle forces for advance-
ment are at work In 1892 the University
of Wisconsin for the first time offered a four-
years' course, on a par with the regular college
course, leading to a bachelor's degree. Since
then a number of other universities have

PHARMACY

PHELPS

followed Thus, ,i ven different ideal is
being held up to 1 he pharmacy student Even
graduate work is being done

With the older colleges, the school work
was and still is supplementary to the training
received by the apprentice in a drug store
At first certificates of attendance upon lec-
tures were given, latei the degree of graduate
in pharmacy was conferred The University
of Michigan early followed English pi act ice
and gives the degree of pharmaceutical
chemist Some institutions also gave the
degree of bacheloi of phainuirv A numbei
of the eastern institutions now give the degree
of doctor of pharmacy The University of
Michigan first broke away from the duig store
experience requnement foi gi admit ion Even
the older colleges of the East now offer courses
and degrees to those who have not had such
experience, but this is not the inle In many
of the colleges of pharmacy oi the larger cities,
the college work is so arianged that the student
can spend more than one half of his lime in
the drug store while attending college All
of the colleges belonging to the Conference,
however, have abandoned evening instruction,
though to a large extent they still maintain
the character of a FoitbiUung*- Anatoli

Germany -In Germany a compromise
system also exists, but on a much higher plane
The apprentice must, have passed the Eiti-
jbhng FrcnviUujcn Examvn, i ( he must have
passed the Untci-Sdiundu of the Gymnasium
After an appienticeship of three vears he takes
the assistants' examination before a local
board After three years as assistant he goes
to the university foi four semesters and then
presents himself to the state board, consisting
mostly of university professors, with one or
more Apotheker Not a few German phar-
macists, however, have completed the entne
course of the Gymnasium, have continued their
umveisity studies after the Staatwxunien, and
have taken the degree of Ph D

France —While Germany recognizes a
second class of pharmaceutical practitioners,
viz the Drogist, France has abolished its second-
class pharmacists as well as the former herbal-
ist, and now recognizes but one class, viz the
pharmacist of the first class Although the
apprenticeship still plays a role in the educa-
tion of the French pharmacist, only such
pharmacies may now accept apprentices as aie
licensed for this purpose by the Superior
School of Pharmacy The Pans school is a
part of the Universty of Paris and gives a
three years' course for pharmanen, and four
years for pharmaaen suptncure Like many
a German Apotheker, so not a few French
pharmaciens a premiere classc continue their
university studies for the degree of doctor
of pharmacy, which in France is in every way
the equivalent of the degree of doctor of phi-
losophy. (See FRANCE, EDUCATION IN, under
HIGHER EDUCATION.)

England -As already indicated, in England
the examination of the Chemist and Druggist
has been the special privilege of the Pharma-
ceutical Society of Great Britain since 1868
This society maintains a school in Bloomsbur}
Square Still, most of the candidates for this
diploma attend other schools The course
for the Chemist and Druggist at Bloomsbury
Square covers one year A second year is
offered for those who aspire to the honors of
Pharmaceutical Chemist A movement is on
foot to improve the educational status of the
British pharmacist One suggestion looks
toward the establishment of a five-year cur-
nculum, or more correctly an apprenticeship
of live years, supplemented by systematic
science courses in the technical schools con-
ducted by the county committees or boards
So long as the education of the future pharma-
cist is a special privilege rather than a public
duty, no fundamental reforms can be expected.
Recently SOUK* of the newer umveisities have
taken up the subject of pharmaceutical edu-
cation neglected by the older ones With
these may lest the higher development of
pharmaceutical education in Great But am

Other Countries — In Austria, Switzerland,
and the Scandinavian countries, also in Russia,
pharmaceutical education follows, more or less,
along German lines The other Romance
countries follow France to the extent of their
ability K. K.

References

\TM< ri< mi Conference of Pharmaceutical Facultien

Pro-

American PhariiuK euti< al Association, Proceedings, Sec-

tion on KdiHation and L^fiblation , since 18S8
Centcnnain <1< I'fjccth s//yx'm>/rf de Phnrmnoe de Paris

(Pants 1003 )
Druggist*' Circular Fiftieth anniversary number con-

tainH a detailed IK count of the development of

pharmaceutH al education in this country (New

York, 1Q07 )
LAKOUHHE, P Hi and Dntionnaue nmverselle du

XIX* ftiecle, .s vv Pharmac^e, Pharmacie7i
Minerva, Handbuck dir gdehrten Welt (Stroasburg,

1911 )
New York State, Education Department, Handbook

11, deal.s with lawb, rules, and information on the

subject in the United States
Pharmazeuimcho Kulaidn, gives the < ouraew of

lecture*, et< , in the German uim ersitie.s for phai-

inacy students (Berlin annual )
Reah nzykJo/xdif d< r gewmfeH Pharmazn, H v Apothe-

kengi v< tzythnng
T All OK, H L The Piactue of Ph.mnai ology in

Europe Midland /)rungii\f and Pharmaceutical

Review, 1411 (Columbus, () )
WILBEKT, M I Pharmaceutical Degiees Am Jour.

Phann Vol L XXVII, 1905, p 215, also,

Am D and Phann Record, Vol XLVII, Sept

Itt, 1()()5, pp 234 fT

PHELPS, ALMIRA HART LINCOLN

(1793-1884) — Pioneer in the movement for
the higher education of women and author
of many science textbooks, was educated in
the Berlin (Conn ) Academy and studied
botany, geology, and chemistry privately
Under Professor Amos Katon (q v ) of the

665

PHENOMENALISM

PHILADELPHIA, CITY OF

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute at Tioy
She taught in the district schools of Connecti-
cut, was instructor of science in academies
at Berlin, Conn , Pittsfield, Mass , and Sandy
Hill, N Y. For several years she was an
instructor in the Female Institute at Troy,
N.Y., conducted by her sister, Mrs Emma
Willard (q v ) She was later principal of a
school at West Chester, Pa , and her last work
was as principal of the Patapasco Institute
at Elhcott's Mill, Md , where she trained
many distinguished women teachers She
was an ardent advocate of the scientific i».s
the classical and literary education for women;
and she was the second woman (Professor
Maria Mitchell was the first) to be elected to
membership in the American Association for
the Advancement of Science (q v ) Her
publications are numerous, Lectures on Botany
(1828), Dictionary of Chrmmtnj (1829), Botam/
for Beginners (1833), Femak Student (1833),
Geology for Beginners (1834), Chemistry for
Beginners (1835), Lecturer on Natural Phi-
losophy (1836), Natural Philosophy forBcguincr*
(1836), Lecture* on Chemntnj (1837), and
Hours with my Pupils (1858) With her
sister, Mrs Willard, she translated from the
French (1834) Mine Necker de Saussuie's
(q v ) Progressive Education She wrote many
papers on the higher education of women,
several of which were translated into French,
and she was active in the American Association
for the Advancement of Education (q v )

W S M
Reference —

BARNARD, H Almira Lincoln Phelps American Jour-
nal of Education, Vol XVII, pp Gll-617

PHENOMENALISM —A name given to
two different types of philosophy Accoid-
ing to one theory, what we know is simplv
the appearances of real things, these appear-
ances consisting of the impiessions which they
make upon the mind This view includes
within itself many philosophies otherwise
diverse from one anothei Kantian phenom-
enalisni: for example, is distinguished by the
emphasis which it lays upon the synthetic
activity of a priori powers of the mind in trans-
forming passive impressions into objects con-
cerning which universal judgments are possible
Spencenan phenomenalism emphasizes the
fact that the unknowable things-m-themselves
have gradually molded the mind, thiough
heredity, in the long-continued evolutionary
process, so that, the impressions made upon it
arrange themselves in modes which somehow
parallel the relations of things-m-themselves
The other type of phenomenalism is radical It
holds that there are no thmgs-in-themselves
back of the phenomena and causing them, but
things are what they are known to be. Shad-
worth Hodgson in England and Renouvier in
France are the best known modern representa-
tives of this kind of phenomenalism Its

influence in developing the radical empiricism
of James was considerable J D

PHILADELPHIA CENTENNIAL EX-
POSITION — See EXPOSITIONS, INTERNA-
TIONAL, AND EDUCATION

PHILADELPHIA, CITY OF. — The chief

city in the state of Pennsylvania, and the
third city in size in the United States. Its
population in 1910 was 1,549,008, which was
about one fifth of the total population of the
state

Educational History — The colonial his-
tory of education in Philadelphia has been
traced, under the history of education in the
state of Pennsylvania (q v ) Private and
denominational schools were established from
time to time, and these supplied the educational
needs of the city until the nineteenth century

The state laws of 1802 and 1809 provided for
the organization of pauper schools, but not
much was accomplished in the city under it
Under a supplement to the 1809 law, secured
in 1812, the county commissioners and the
councils were enabled to organize a few schools
In 1814 the "Pennsylvania Society for the
Promotion of Public Economy " was organized,
with Roberts Vaux as chairman of the sub-
committee on public schools In 1817 a num-
ber of schools after the Lancastenan plan were
opened in Philadelphia, and in 1818, as an
outcome of agitation, the legislature organized
the county of Philadelphia as the First School
District of Pennsylvania, and provided for the
education of the children of the city at public-
expense The city was divided into school
districts r directois were appointed, one for each
section, to be known as the Board of School
C on ti oilers The beginnings of the dual con-
trol, which so long continued, were here made
by giving the appointment of teachers to the
directors for each section. The schools were
open only to indigents. A model school,
under Joseph Lancaster himself, was opened
in 1818 for the training of teachers In
1827-1828 three Infant School Societies were
organized m Philadelphia, and by 1830 some
ten such schools were in existence in the city.
In 1832 the Controllers opened an Infant
Model School for the training of teachers for
the Infant Schools, and in 1837 thirty primary
schools, under the charge of women teachers,
were established as a result of the movement.
The model school lapsed and became a gram-
mar school after four years, and the real city
normal school was not established until 1848.

In 1827 " The Society for the Promotion of
Public Schools " was organized, and this
Society undertook to agitate for a better
public school law The state law of 1834,
establishing a general system of common
schools (see PENNSYLVANIA, STATE OF), was in
part the result of the work of this Society.
The revised law of 1836, which really estab-

666

PHILADELPHIA, CITY OF

lishcd the system, contained two provisions
of special interest to the city of Philadelphia
By the first, the Board of Controllers of the
Public Schools were authorized to establish a
central high school, and by the second, the
obligatory use of the Lancasterian system and
the limitation of the schools to imligents
were withdrawn The central high school was
opened in 1838 This was followed, in 1848,
by the establishment of the Girls' High and
Normal School, the first city normal school
in the United States

In 1854 the Consolidation Act combined
the city and county of Philadelphia, and an-
nexed a number of suburban towns For each
of these a new sectional board was created,
and local or sectional interest now attained
new importance Gradually increasing with
the growth of the city, there were 31 sec-
tional boards with 403 members by 1880, 34
sectional boards with 455 members by 1889,
41 sectional boards with 533 members by 1900,
arid 43 sectional boards with 559 members by
1905 In that year the law was icvised; the
old Board was legislated out of office, a Board
of Education of 21, appointed from the city
at large by the judges, took their place, and
the local boards, while continued, had their
powers materially curtailed The new Penn-
sylvania school code of 1911 made still further
changes.

Present School System —The control of
the schools of the city is vested in a Board of
Public Education of fifteen, appointed by the
Judges of the Court of Common Pleas of the
city, and for six-year terms One third go
out of office each bicnniiim For each of the
municipal wards of the city a Board of School
Visitors of seven members is elected, for four-
year terms, approximately one half going out
of office each bienmum The members of
these Boards of School Visitors aic paid $25
(formerly $100) a year, are required to visit
the schools every three months and inspect
them, and to make reports as to their inspec-
tion and as to the needs of their district to
the Board of Public Education They may
also appoint the janitors for the elementary
schools of their ward The City Controller
is elected as controller for the Board of Edu-
cation, and approves all orders on the school
treasurer, certifies to all contracts made, and
keeps a record of the budget and funds of the
Board A Secretary is elected from outside
the Board, while the City Treasurer acts as
treasurer for the Board The Board also
elects a Superintendent of Buildings, a Super-
intendent of Supplies, and a Superintendent of
Schools The Board of Education defines the
general policies of the school system, enacts
all necessary legislation, determines the tax
levy and directs expenditures, appoints
teachers and other employes, and determines
the qualifications and salaries of all employes
The supervision of the school system is vested

PHILADELPHIA, CONGRESS OF

in the Superintendent of Schools, the associate
superintendents, and the assistant (or district)
superintendents The supervision of instruc-
tion is in the hands of the school principals
and of the assistant superintendents The
Board may appoint a board of city examiners,
on nomination of the Superintendent of Schools,
to examine teachers for the city, and of this
board the Superintendent is ex offiao chair-
man The Superintendent of Buildings must
be an architect or an engineer, and he has
charge of the building, repair, and maintenance
of all school buildings He appoints all of
his assistants, and all janitors, except for the
elementary ward schools, and may remove
even these for cause The Superintendent of
Supplies makes all purchases of supplies and
books, and attends to their distribution The
Board may levy an annual city tax of not less
then five nor more than six mills, for all main-
tenance purposes They may also issue bonds
for sites, buildings, or debts, up to a total
of 7 per cent of the assessed valuation of the
city If the school debt is less than 2 per cent,
the Board may borrow money on notes, up
to £ of 1 per cent They may also designate
any bank as a depository for the school funds
The school system of the city contains a
large number of different types of schools,
adapting it to the needs of a large and cos-
mopolitan city A city normal school, with
a three-years' course beyond the high school;
the central high school for boys, with a School
of Pedagogy as an adjunct, two high schools
for girls, one of which is a vocational high
school, three manual training high schools;
one day and two evening tiadc schools, a
numbci of district high schools, in part as
branches of the above, evening high schools
and trade-school classes in nearly all of the
higher schools, a number of special disci-
plinary and special backward classes, day and
evening elementary schools, evening schools
for aliens, kindeigartens, an industrial art
school, many playgrounds, school gardens;
open-an schools, public lectures, and much
special instruction indicate the nature and
extent of the city's school system In 1910
the system required 4609 teachers and super-
visory officers, and enrolled 175,549 pupils.
The total value of all school property employed
in 1910 was $20,632,630, and the total ex-
penditures for all purposes $8,242,218

E P C
References —
An Kept* of the Bd of Publ Educ of the 1st Sch.

Dist of Pu , ISIS to date

An Rcpti* Nupt Publ Schs of Phil , 1S84 to date.
EDMONDS, F S History of the Central High School

of Philadelphia (Philadelphia, 1902 )
WICKERSHAM, J P History of Education in Penn-
sylvania (Philadelphia, 1886.)

PHILADELPHIA, INTERNATIONAL
CONGRESS OF EDUCATION AT. — See

INTERNATIONAL CONGRESSES OF EDUCATION,

667

PHILANTH110PINISM

PHILANTHROPY, EDUCATIONAL

PHILANTHROPINISM —A movement
which derived its name from the Philanthro-
pmum established at Dessau by Basedow (q v ),
in 1774 The term denotes the humani-
tarian tendency which inspired the movement
Few educational institutions have had such
immediate influence. The movement was
strong enough to attract and hold the interest
of men m all ranks of life and of divergent
religions and philosophical views The Phil-
anthrvpinum was the first school which was
established under the impulse given by Rous-
seau's Emile It aimed to tram up citizens
of the world, men who recognized the commun-
ity of intcicst among all human brings Rich
and poor boys were taught together, distinc-
tions of religion were not recognized, manual
and industrial work was introduced for social
as much as educational reasons The vernacu-
lar was emphasized as the medium of instruc-
tion Things were placed before words, and
if objects could not be obtained, pictures and
illustrations were used Grammar, was given
a secondary place and languages were taught
by improved methods Everything was done
to make learning attractive and experience as
broad as possible Special attention was
given to physical exercise, health, and diet
Among ardent supporters were Kant, Les-
sing, Moses Mendelssohn, Iselm, Von Rochow
But there were opponents, too, mainly the-
ologians and old teachers Basedow himself
was assisted by Wolke, Simon, Schweighauser,
Campe, Trapp, Salzmann The Philantfno-
pin urn at Dessau continued from 1776 to
1793, but Basedow was not directoi throughout
that period Campe (q v ) opened a similar
institution at Tnttow, near Hamburg, in
1777, and was succeeded in 1783 by Trapp
(q v ), who had been professor of pedagogy at
Halle (J777-1783) In 1781 Salzmann (q v )
established with the favor of Ernest II of
Saxe-Gotha a Philanthropinum at Schnepf en-
thai which has continued to the present day
Outside German v the influence of Philon-
thropimsm was strongest in Switzerland In
1774 Charles ITlysse de Sahs transferred to
his castle at Marschhns in Gnsons a school
which had been established in 1761 by Martin
Planta Karl Fnednch Bahrdt was placed
in charge, but left in 1770 to open a Philart-
thropinuw at Heidesheim Another school
of this type was opened by J B do Tscharner
at Jenins in the same district and transferred
to Reichenau in 1796 wheie it met with great
success under H Zschokkc

The Philanthropinistic movement was as
influential as the Pestalozzian in drawing at-
tention to existing defects in education and
in leading to salutory reforms A large body
of literature was inspired bv it , Campe's
Allgemeine Revision dcs gesammten Schul- and
Erziehungswesen in sixteen volumes, and his
Braumchweigischer Journal, and Trapp 's Fer-
such einer Pddagogik may be mentioned. In

another direction the new attitude to children
led to a large number of books written foi
children by Campe, Salzmann, and others

See BASEDOW, CAMPE, GUTSMUTHS, SALZ-
MANN

References —

MONROE, P Textbook of the History of Education

(New York, 1910 )
SCHMID, K A Encyklop&die dis gesammtcn Erzie-

huttgs- und Untemchtswcsenx, B v Philanthropi-

nismus
Gebchichte der Erziehung, Vol IV, Pt 2 (Stuttcart

1898 )

PHILANTHROPY, EDUCATIONAL. — -
The custom of giving for educational purposes
is one of Jong standing and of the greatest impor-
tance. It finds numerous illustrations in the
classical period and, as connected with the
church, became widespread and of fundamental
significance during the late medieval cen-
turies Following the Reformation, there
was a marked decline in this custom, but
there were periods in English educational his-
tory wherein charitable gifts for education
again became veiy general, fiist through the
mteiest of dissenting bodies in developing
higher educational interests of their own and
lutei through the interest of the established
church in building up an elementary school
system, the so-called chanty schools (qv).
The entne historical phase of this topic of
educational philanthropy is presented undei
the caption Endowments (q v ). But it seems
quite evident that the existence of an estab-
lished chuich and the giowth of state subsi-
dized 01 supported school systems, first on the
continent and later in England, has resulted
in the atrophy of this significant social cus-
tom In America, owing partly to the absence
of an established church and, even when local
or general governmental support of education
became geneial, partly to the fact that such
support awaited the initiative and cooperation
of the people themselves, private philanthropy
has played a, very large part in the develop-
ment of the entire educational system

At present the extent of private philanthropy
for educational pui poses is one of the most
significant phenomena in American life, and
certainly when compared with conditions in
other countries one of the most significant
features of the educational system In 1910
22 per cent of the entiie income of the 602
universities, colleges, and technological schools
reporting to the United States Commissioner
of Education came by way of benefaction, in
amounts ranging from sums of a few dollars
to over a million, and over 52 per cent of
these gifts was applied as permanent endow-
ment funds Five hundred and thirteen of
these institutions are controlled by private
corporations and eighty-nine by city, state, or
nation These facts alone point to the present
significance of philanthropy in higher educa-
tion m the United States.

668

PHILANTHROPY, EDUCATIONAL

PHILANTHROPY, EDUCATIONAL

Doubtless the same instinct, fundamental
to group life m general, which prompts the
humblest man to relieve his brother in dis-
tress, is finding here in man's higher intellec-
tual aspirations a suitable interest for the
bestowal of charity. The one type ol giving
is prompted by immediate needs, and seeks
only to conserve; the other bv remote needs,
and looks toward progress If the one is
socially negative the othei is as distinctly
positive And regaidless of the theories of
Turgot, Adam Smith, llobhouse, and others,
that the " dead hand " policy in education is
inimical to piogiess (see ENDOWMENTS), vet,
as will be seen in the following diagiams, gilts
and bequests have played and are playing no
small part in making our higher institutions
of learning what they aie The following
chart, including the 602 institutions lefeired
to above, will indicate, so far as nurnbeis of
schools can indicate, the pait which philan-
thropy has played in establishing colleges and
universities fioin the beginning down to 1910.

The simple gifts of " sheep, cotton cloth
worth nine shillings, a pewter flagon worth
ten, and such silver goods as fruit dishes,
silver spoons and jugs," recorded among
Harvard's early receipts do not seem to fore-
tell the millions in stocks, bonds, and real
estate which are among her more recent
gifts From an analysis of gifts to educational
institutions it is clear that relative to the total
annual income, religious interest is on the
decline, and scientific interest is increasing;
that the qualifications of scholarship are re-
placing those of indigence, that it is a specific
rather than a general educational interest
which piompts the gift, and that the number
of interests has inci eased correspondingly with
the numbei of professions and callings that have
gradually been opened to college giaduates

The following analysis of the gifts recorded
in the Appleton and International Yearbooks
and the World1 «s Almanac — gifts of five thou-
sand dollais arid over, made during the years
1893 to 1910 — will suggest the relation of

56
54
52
50

48
4t>
44

42

">t°8
_j 38

o ae

028

o:26

u 24

£22

§20

Z18

16

14

12

10

8

6

4

2

NUMBER AND DATES OF OPENING OF

INSTITUTIONS OF HIGHER LEARNING

IN THE UNITED STATES

I. rniat( and Church-Endowed

— MunlcijMli SLalc ajul National

The early history of higher education is a
very simple story, and the extiemely local
nature of our eaily foundations, such as llai-
vard and Yale, which were built for and by
Massachusetts and Connecticut respectively,
and for years developed ticcoiding to their
neighborhood interests, stands out in strong
contrast to the recent foundations of Chicago
and Stanford Universities, the Carnegie In-
stitution, and the Geneial Education Board,
whose interests are at least national, and which
are in no sense products of local causes and
conditions These tendencies seem to in-
dicate that philanthropic interests and methods
have kept pace with our rapid development,
in population, wealth, and business methods

educational to other kinds of philanthropy
in this country during recent years As to
foini, it will be noticed that there is a slight
tendency towaid gifts lather than bequests,
and that education is receiving more than half
of all the gilts

The actual importance of these gifts in the
support of higher education is seen in the dia-
gram on page1 670, statistics for which were com-
piled from the annual Reports of the United
States Commissioner of Education As per-
manent endowment funds accumulate, natu-
rally income from that source increases, con-
sequently 22 per cent of the total income in
1910 means much more than a similar propor-
tion in 1871 Statistics for the past few years

PHILANTHROPY, EDUCATIONAL

show that about 50 per cent of all gifts to
higher education are applied as permanent
endowment, over 30 per cent goes to buildings
and improvements, and less than 20 per cent
for current expenses

TOTAL BENEFACTIONS IN THE U S.

m FOR 18 YEARS (1893-1910)
Education

Charities
Religious Purposes

Museums, Galleries,
Public Improvements

Libraries

FORM

Donations*
Bequests*

Unlike p]ngland, philanthropy has had little
to do with elementary education in this coun-
try dunng its earlv history, and save indirectly
it has done little in later years The Peabody
Education Fund of $3,000,000, established in
1867, was used during its first four years in
starting city systems of public schools in towns
and cities throughout the southern states,
then to 1875 it was used to aid in the establish-
ment of state systems of public schools Its
next work, 1875 to 1904, was to aid elementary
education indirectly by the training of teachers
and by establishing the idea of state normal
schools throughout the south The John F
Slater fund of $1,000,000, established in 1882, is
devoted to the tiaming of colored children in
industrial pursuits, the Anna T Jeanes
Foundation (1908) of $1,000,000 is to be de-
voted to the fostering of negro rural schools;
while the studies made by the Russell Sage

PHILANTHROPY, EDUCATIONAL

Foundation are indirectly devoted to this end
These are a few noteworthy cases m recent
years but do not suggest the educational,
social, and industrial problems which philan-
thropy sought to solve in England through the
endowed, the charity, and the workhouse
schools

The problems of secondary education have
received some attention Most of the early

, . Total of all oj above Benefactions

Per cent of Total Given to Education

— Per cent of Total Otven to Charity

AMOUNT
$ 100 ooo ooo

150 000 000

140 000 000 70

UO 000 000 05

120 000 000 00

110000000 W

100 000 000 50

ru

40000000 20)

30000000 16

20000000 10

10 000 000 5

endowed and church colleges had preparatory
departments, and many such are still main-
tamed The history of the academy move-

DISTRIBUTION OF ALL BENEFACTIONS IN THE UNITED STATES

PKH CFNT o* TOTAL OIVLN TO

FORM op GIFT

DATE

Education

Chanty

Religious
Purposes

Museums and
Public Im-
provements

Libraries

Donations

%

Bequests

%

1910
1909
1908

43
31
40

38
16
44

8
15
4

6
5
10

5
3
2

70
47

48

30
63
52

1907
1906
1905

58
79
57

16
15
18

4
4
17

20
2

2
0

o

67

83

*

33

17

•

1904
1903

45
75

29

7

9
3

14
9

3
6

30
60

70
40

1902
1901
1900
1899

60
66
54
66

21
13
27
18

6
5

7
10

8
7
5
3

5
9
7
3

49
73
55
69

61
27
45
31

1898
1897
1896
1895

57
Jl
50
50

25
17
16
19

7
13
19
12

7
35
9
12

3
4
6
7

54
32
48
66

46
68
52
34

1894
1893

43
47

20
21

11
14

17
6

9
12

17
28

83
72

* Data inadequate

670

PHILANTHROPY, EDUCATIONAL

PHILANTHROPY, EDUCATIONAL

merit is to a large extent the history of private
munificence in an effort to solve some of the
problems of secondary education The work
of the General Education Board (1902) was,
up to 1905, devoted to secondary, ruial, and
negro education in the southern states, and

$21 000 000
22000000
21 000000
20 000 000
10000 000
IK 000 000
17 000 000
16000 000
15000 000
h- 14000 000

§ noooooo

O 12000000
2 11 000000
< 10 000 000
« 000 000
8 000 000
7 000 000
tt 000 000
5000000
1 000 000
JOOO 000
2000 000
1 000 000

— — Total Benefactions to Uighrr Education in the United State*
— — — Per cc'uf uf Total Incotiu to lltyher Education
# Data not complete for ItiU and lb<Jl

one of its present aims is the development of
a system of public high schools in the south
The experience of England which resulted
in the establishment of government commis-
sions for the investigation of the influence of
the " dead hand " in education, and finally
in 1869 in the Endowed Schools Act (7 v )
should have suggested to America the wisdom
of accepting the1 aid of philanthropists in edu-
cation with due precaution The early gifts
to Harvard, Yale, and Columbia were in large
part direct to the college, leaving the Tiustees
to apply them as they saw fit Yet the early
Presidents of Yale several times complained
that with all the money received, so much of
it was given for the development of some pai-
ticular, often some new, line of woik that the
college was very much in need of funds A
gift for a new wing to a hospital lavs upon
future benefactois the burden of its support
Many peculiar and too often unwise gifts
have thus been made in the briei history of
American philanthropy Yet, if we take note
of the modern methods in giving, there seems
to be reason to believe that we aie forestalling
some of the misfortunes which befell the en-
dowed schools of England In 1867 George
Peabody, probably thiough the assistance of
Robert C Winthiop of Boston, suggested
a new and important idea in philanthropic
methods. With him there not only begun a

new eia in respect to the size of gifts, but
he attached no religious or ecclesiastical con-
dition to his gift The only conditions govern-
ing its administration are general in character,
arid adequate provision is made for further
modifications as social and educational changes
seem to warrant Since
this foundation there
have been established
six others — the John
F Slater Fund, the
Carnegie Institution,
the General Education
Hoard, The Carnegie
Foundation for the Ad-
vancement of Teaching,
the Russell Sage Foun-
dation, and the Annie
T Jeanes Foundation —
ranging in amounts from
one to over $50,000,000,
and in the provisions
for the administration
of these funds and their
income the ideas of Mr
Peabody are embodied
Still more recently (1911)
are the Rockefeller and
the Carnegie Founda-
tions chartered under
special acts of the state
of New York (For the
particular influence of
each of the great founda-
tions upon American education, see articles
under their respective heads ) J B S

PHILANTHROPY, EDUCATIONAL AS-
PECTS OF MODERN —The earlier con-
ceptions of chanty regarded it chiefly from
two aspects, neither oi which related it to
educational woik It was regarded hist as a
means of promoting the spiritual development
of the donor, and second, as the distribution
to unfortunates of a bounty, prompted by
sentiment and not based on rational grounds
The bestowal of alms was an event which did
not relate itself in any important way to the
life histoiy of the donor, or to that of the re-
cipient In the case of the donor it was a
distribution of a suiplus by methods having
no relation to those by which the surplus was
iicquired In the case of the recipient it
dealt with the passing need which, presumably,
no one could have foreseen, and which it was
hoped would soon disappear through the
operation of economic forces, or which, if
permanent, would be cared for in an elementary
way by the provisions of the poor law.

Later conceptions of charity try to rational-
ize the giving of relief of every nature; to
relate it to the life history both of the donor
and of the lecipient, to take into account,
fully the facts, both social and individual, which
have resulted m the condition of need: to

671

PHILANTHROPY, EDUCATIONAL

PHILANTHROPY, EDUCATIONAL

take into account all the impoitant factors
in the life of the recipient and not merely those
lying on the surface; and to deal with present
need with a view to future efficiency as well
as to immediate relief The donor also feels
increasingly the need of making his benefac-
tions square with all his othei social relations
Not only must the left hand know what the
right hand does, but it must be admitted frankly
that one and the same mind directs both
These points of view having been met, the
giving of chanty in wlmtevei fonn relates
itself directly and in numerous aspects to the
held of education The following educational
aspects of modern chanty will b'4 considered
(1) training the recipient in efficiency , (2)
social work becoming a profession, (3) popu-
lar education, looking towaid the removal of
some of the individual causes of poveitv, (4)
research and agitation for legislatue and ad-
ministrative reforms, (5) education by con-
ferences, (0) education by periodicals

(1) The larger and truer view of the recipi-
ent of charity, taking into account not meiely
his condition of need at the moment, but his
social relations and responsibilities, trying
to understand his past and to safeguaul his
future, leads necessarily to considering whether
his need is due to fault or to misfortune, and,
if due to his fault, it points to an effoit to re-
vive, develop, or tram whatever latent powers
he may have, in order that he may become, if
possible, a fully self-supporting economic unit
The educational development, especially of
juvenile charges, the training of the adoles-
cent in industry, and the development- of the
unused faculties on the part of the adult have
become a part of all well-considered relief
work

(2) This conception of chanty calls for a
considerable degree of acumen and a high
degree of efficiency on the part of those who
are to administer it It calls for specialization
in work Any one can pass out coins to beggars
on the street, but only men of training and
efficiency can so give relief as to increase the
power of self-support and thus diminish the
future need of relief Until quite recently
those who had been failures in some other line
of work, or suffered from impaired health, or
lack of tact, or want of energy, were regarded
us clearly marked out for the position of almoner
or relief agent It is now evident that such
persons cannot be considered competent to
undertake the delicate, difficult, educational
problem of modern charity In the late
eighties and the early nineties a considerable
number of important charitable agencies in
the larger cities began to look to the colleges
and universities for trained men and women,
not only as their chief executives, but also
to fill the subordinate positions At, the
International Congress on Philanthropy, held
in Chicago in 1893, the writer presented a paper
on benevolent work as a profession, calling

attention to the fact that charitable and correc-
tional activities offered an attractive field
which college and university men were just
beginning to appreciate From about that
time the number of well-ti amcd men and women
who chose the field of social work as a career
lapidly increased As a result the work of the
agencies choosing such executives became much
more vital and stimulating, attracted much
more attention from the communities in which
they were placed, and brought into the field of
discussion and action many matters of civic,
economic, social, and political interest having
a direct bearing upon the condition, needs,
or relief of the poor

It had now become evident, however, that
the graduate of a college or university still
lacked much in the way of preparation The
Charity Organization Society of New York
City led the way in a further departure, the
establishment of a school for the training of
social workers This school, organized as a
summer course in 1S98, developed into a course
extending through the usual school year in
1903-1904, arid was gieatlv strengthened by
an endowment of a quarter of a million dollars
from the late John S Kennedy m 1904, which
was increased to a million dollars by a legacy
from Mr Kennedy, received in 1910

Similar institutions have1 since been estab-
lished in Chicago, Boston, St. Louis, and Phila-
delphia. The School for Social Workers in
Boston was established in 1903 under the
joint auspice* of Harvard University and
Simmons College. The Chicago School of
Civics and Philanthropy, established in 1903,
and the St Louis School of Social Economy,
established in 1901, are not directly connected
with other educational institutions, but are
carried on in each case by groups of persons
closely identified with the leading agencies
for social betterment The Philadelphia Train-
ing School for Social Work was estab-
lished largely by those interested in child-
caring work in that city All four of these
institutions are rapidly becoming fully devel-
oped professional schools, and social work
is rapidly gaming recognition as a trained
profession

(3) From the study of the best methods of
relieving individuals and families, the trained
social \\orker naturally passed on to consider
the possibility of ascertaining and of restrain-
ing some, at least, of the great causes of pov-
erty The development of medical and social
sciences has given new and most important
information as to the relations of disease to
poverty, and new and most valuable weapons
for the conquest of disease. The first society
for the prevention of tuberculosis in the
United States, that in Pennsylvania, was an
independent organization The second or-
ganized effort for the prevention of tuber-
culosis, and perhaps the most effective and
far-reaching agency of the kind in existence,

072

PHILANTHROPY, EDUCATIONAL PHILANTHROPY, EDUCATIONAL

is the Committee on the Prevention of Tuber -
culosis appointed by the Charity Organization
Society of the City of New York'm 1902 The
campaign for the prevention of tuberculosis
in the state of New York, outside of Now
York City, has been carried on by the State
Charities Aid Association, which was organ-
ized in 1872 for the special purpose of securing
the improvement of the condition of public
charitable institutions and the administration
of public relief The National Association for
the Study and Prevention of Tuberculosis
was composed at the outset hugely of phy-
sicians, but included also a group 'of active
and effective representatives of social woik
It is generally the case throughout the United
States that state and municipal campaigns
for the prevention of tubeiculosis arc cithci
carried on by committees appointed bv chan-
table or relief societies, or that the active work-
ers in independent agencies foi the pieven-
tion of tuberculosis arc drawn fiom the ranks
of those who have been active in charitable
work These campaigns for the prevention of
tuberculosis arc, howcvci, now piinianly edu-
cational The tubeiculosis exhibition, with its
accompanying publicity, populai leaflet and
popular lecture is practically a new departme
in popular education

The effectiveness of the exhibition as a factor
in popular education has been developed by
charitable agencies more strongly than bv any
other group A tenement house exhibition,
organized by the Charily Organization Society,
was the first, step in a scries of events which
led to the creation of a tenement house depart-
ment in the government of New York City
The State Chanties Aid Association, in prose-
cuting its movement for the prevention of
tuberculosis, has sent popular exhibitions to
the county fairs throughout the state of New
York, and to the State Fan Plans are al-
ready in hand for the utilization by chantablc
agencies of this same form of popular education
for restraining other great causes of poverty
The relation of intemperance and of immorality
to disease, insanity, blindness, and other mis-
fortunes is likely in the neai f ut me to be
brought home to people generally bv chan
table agencies, in a manner which bids fan to
be far more convincing than any othei presen-
tation of the arguments for right and simple
living

(4) In their search for the causes of poverty
and in their efforts to control such causes,
charitable agencies have, in a number of in-
stances, taken the lead in informing and arous-
ing popular sentiment as to the need of new
forms of administration and in securing leg-
islation for such changes in administration
The search for the causes of poverty, empha-
sizing in certain aspects the responsibility of
the individual, has nevertheless done its chief
service in pointing out the direct relation
between certain social conditions, legislation,

VOL. iv — 2x

673

and adminstiation and poverty The move*
ment to secure better legislation in the matter
of employers' liability in a number of states
has gamed its chief impetus directly from in-
quiries set on foot by social workers The
Pittsbuig Survey, undertaken by Chanties,
now The tfurvei/i which, in turn, is a department
of the Chanty Organization Society of the
City of New York, is probably the most widely
known, as it is perhaps the most comprehensive
and i.ii-n aching efloit to give a concrete
description of the actual conditions of life
and woik in an American city, in such form
as to disclose the responsibilities of the various
fact 01 s in the community for conditions affect-
ing health and life, and the directions in which
municipal administration, legislation, and con-
scientious employers should move

(5) The development of the professional
spirit among social workers led naturally to n
desire for an exchange of experiences and views,
and for the discussion from tune to time of
problems of common interest What is now
known as the National Conference of Charities
and Collection came into existence in 1874,
thiough the agency of the American Social
Science Association The National Confer-
ence of Chanties and Correction, while pri-
maiily a meeting place for the expression of
opinion, and while it does not formulate plat-
forms, nor suggest nor approve legislation,
has become an educational factor of great im-
portance In the absence of any federal bu-
reau or depaitment dealing with questions of
this nature, it lias served to a considerable
extent as a means bv which active citizens
in the different states have been informed in
some degree as to legislation and administra-
tion in other states It has tended to prevent
excessive divergences in legislation or in policy
as between different states, and has afforded
at least an opportunity for advocates of vary-
ing systems to set forth their claims and to
defend them While the difficulties of secur-
ing anything like a harmonious development
of social work in the different states under our
federal system seem almost insuimountable,
the National Conference of Charities has made
a substantial contribution toward the develop-
ment of a common body of knowledge and
toward an interchange of experiences More
recently there has been developed in many
states an annual state conference of charities
and correction \\hich, bv enlisting the interest
of local officials and agents of local societies,
many of whom would not, attend a national
gathering at a considerable distance, has helped
to spread the influence of the national body,
to raise standards of work, to discourage easy
satisfaction with traditional methods, and to
make advanced legislation possible

(6) Modern charity has to its credit the
development, as part of its educational work,
of a number of periodicals, several of which
have merged in one, — The Survey, which ex-

PHILBRICK

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

crts a very substantial influence throughout
the country The Chanties Review, estab-
lished by the Chanty Organization Society
in 1891, under the editorship of Dr. John H.
Finley, then secretary of the State Charities
Aid Association, and now president of the City
College of New York, after a period of ten years
was merged in Chanties, a weekly started by
the same society, with which were subsequently
merged the Chicago Commons and Jewish
Chanties

It is perhaps not too much to say that in the
course of the last four decades, charity, from
being something incidental, irrational, unre-
lated to the main currents of social life, has
become a thoroughly vital influence, address-
ing itself consciously and directly to the prob-
lems of social education and of political reform,
as well as to the education of the individual

H F

References —

BKACKETT, ,T R Supervision and Education in Chan-
ties (New York, 1903 )
Chanties Review, Charities, and The Survey (NYw

York, 1890-1911 )
FOLKH, HOMER Care of destitute, negleeted, and ddin-

qucnt Children (New York, 1902)
HART, H H Preventive Treatimnf of neuteded Childn n

(Now York, 1910)

Proceedings, National Con ft n nee Chanties and Coi~
rection 187^-l^li, also (Cumulative Index and
Guide, 1907 Alexander Johnson, Angola, Ind
Proceedings, State Con ft remev of Charity Address

Secretaries of State Boards of Charities
ProeeedingK National Association — Study and Pre-
vention of Tuberculous (New York, 1905-191 1 )
Publications, National Child Labor Committee
(New York, 1904-1911 )

PHILBRICK, JOHN DUDLEY (1818-
1886) — City superintendent of schools, bom
at Deerfield, N H , the 27th of May, 1818, and
graduated from Dartmouth College m 1842.
He was teacher in the high schools of Roxbury
and Boston from 1842 to 1847 and principal
of a grammar school at Qumey from 1847
to 1852 He was for two years principal of the
State Normal School at New Britain, Conn ,
and two years state superintendent of the
schools of Connecticut In 1856 he was
elected citv superintendent of the schools of
Boston, which position he held until 1878.
He was special educational commissioner to
the Vienna exposition of 1873 and director
of the United States to the Pans exposition
of 1878 He was also a member of the inter-
national jury of education at both these ex-
positions. "He was the first American city
superintendent of schools to win international
distinction "

Mr Philbrick's educational writings include
Truancy and Compulsory Education (1862),
City School Systems in the' United States (1885),
several addresses in the Proceedings of the
American Institute of Instruction, articles in
Buisson's Dichonnaire de Pedagogic, reports
on the educational exhibits at Vienna in 187,3
and Paris in 1878, American Union Speaker,

Primanj Speaker, and reports on the schools
of Boston For several years he was editor
of the Connecticut Common School Journal
and the Massachusetts Teacher. He was prom-
inently connected with the Connecticut
Teachers' Association, the American Institute
of Instruction, and the National Education
Association (qg.v ), and held offices in all these
associations His report on the Tenure of
Office of Teachers is a valuable educational
document W S M

See BOSTON, CITY OF; TENURE OF TEACHERS.

References —
DUNTON, LAIIKIN, editor Memorial of the Life and

Si rvices of John D Philbnck (Boston, 1888 )
WINSHIP, A E Great American Educators (New York,

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS, EDUCATION

IN THE — Consists of islands and islets,
3141 in number, with a total area of 127,853
square miles and a population in 1910 of
8,276,802 Formerly Spanish possessions, they
were ceded to America in 1898 Manila is
the capital

Historical — The Filipinos were not wholly
illiterate before the arrival of their Spanish
conquerors The influence of the civilization
of India had extended to Malaysia and modi-
lied the culture ot the primitive forest-dwell-
ing and seagoing Malays Syllabic systems
of writing were in use in the Philippines
Clnrmo (lidacwn de /a.s 7,s/a.s* Filipinos, 1604)
states, " So given are these islanders to reading
and writing that there is hardly a man, and
much less a woman, that does not read and
write in letters peculiar to the island of
Manila " " They write upon canes or the
leaves of a palm, using for a pen a point of
iron " These syllabaries passed quickly out
of use among the peoples Christianized by the
Spanish, and no actual examples have come
down to us, though the form of the syllabaries
has been preserved as used by Bisaya, Taga-
log, Pampango, Pangasman, and Ilokano
Similar syllabic forms of writing are still
employed by the uncivilized Mangyan of
Mmdoro Island and the Tagbanwa of Palawan.

Mohammedanism had also entered the south-
ern islands of the archipelago and sent
colonists to Manila Bay The entrance of
this faith meant a new source of civilization,
with writing in the Arabic characters, and
books of laws, genealogies, and devotion
The Moro peoples of Mindanao and the Sulu
Archipelago still maintain teachers and imans,
while the proportion who can write their Moro
languages in Arabic character is surprisingly
large

But the dominant influence in the civiliza-
tion of the islands was destined to be Euro-
pean and Christian The permanent occupa-
tion by Spain began with Legazpi's expedition
m 1565. It was an American undertaking and
it enjoyed the profit of three generations of

674

A Village School of the Old T\pc

A Three-loom Village S< hool of Steel und ('o
Tho New Type, Plan No 3

An Aint'iiniii Supeisihor with his Filipino

Laco Making in tho Primary Schools

The Old Amusements Cock Fighting

Athletic.s undei Amciicari Influence . Volley Ball.

PHIUPIMM EDUCATION.

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

Spanish colonization in America The Span-
ish conscience had revolted against the cruelty
of the West Indies, Las Casas was still living
in the monastery of his order at Valladolid,
and the experience of years with the American
Indian was available to guide the conqueror
in his efforts to subdue and civilize the Malay.

The conquest was achieved with surprising
rapidity and with little conflict The "In-
dians," in accordance with the system in vogue
in America, were given in encomiendas to the
Spanish soldiery Their numbers at this time
were few, probably not over 600,000 in the
portions of the islands subdued There were
no large settlements and few powerful chief-
tains other than the sultans of Magindariao and
Sulu

The spiritual conversion of the Filipinos
was for a time delayed A few Augustmian
friars went out with the first conquerors, but,
after more than a decade, Governor Saride
wrote that there were only thirteen friars who
could say mass, and he was not sure that anv
understood the language of the natives A
year later arrived a company of Franciscans,
two Jesuits, shortly followed by others, carne
with the first bishop in 1581, the Dominicans
arrived in 1587, and in 1606 the Recollects or
unshod Augustmians As late as 1594 the
report of a friar relates that there were no
missionaries on the islands of Levte, Ncgros,
Bohol, Samar, Mindanao, Masbate, or many
other smaller islands where the natives had
been under tribute for nearly a geneiation,
but in that year the king of Spain began to
provide generously toward the sending out of
missionaries, and there were soon 300 scattered
among the islands, the number rising to
approximately 500 in the succeeding century

These missionary friars gathered the Indians
into towns or reducciones, built churches and
parish houses or conventos, and organized the
communities both civilly and religiously
By the middle of the eighteenth centuiy they
had the whole archipelago reduced to docility
to Christian rite and practice, except the
" Moro country," the mountain region of
Northern Luzon, and the forested arid moun-
tainous interiors, inhabited by wild people

Some attention was early given to educat-
ing the natives The missionaries learned the
divers Malayan languages spoken in the
Philippines, reduced them to written form,
introduced the Roman alphabet, and early
established printing offices where were pub-
lished catechisms, books of doctrine and devo-
tion, and grammars and vocabularies of the
native tongues In each convento it was usual
to conduct a native school m the dialect,
taught by the sacristan or some humble
dependent of the church, where boys and girls
of the town were prepared for communion and
perhaps learned to write their native tongues
The teaching of Spanish was not attempted
until late in the Spanish regime and was

opposed and condemned by the friars as likely
to loosen the authority of Church and govern-
ment

Musical instruments were introduced for
purposes of worship and recreation, and the
astonishing aptitude of the Filipino in musical
directions has made common in every village
pianos, harps, violins, and the bandurna.
Organs are played in every church, and it is
a poor town that has not a native orchestra
and band

The motives which led the Spaniards to
establish secondary and high schools in the
Philippines were the education of their own
sons arid training for the priesthood The
pioneer institution was the Col6gio de San
Jose", a college and seminary established by
order of the king of Spam, opened in 1601.
In 1610 it secured a bequest from the encomi-
endcro of Mindanao and from this endowment
supported and educated from twenty to forty
students (becos) for many decades In 1644
it obtained by papal brief the right to grant
degrees A royal decree of 1722 recites that
<( the greater part of those who to-day obtain
their prebends have been reared arid prosecuted
their studies in San Jose" " In 1768 on the
expulsion of the Jesuits it was confiscated,
then erected into a school of medicine and
pharmacy Its possession became a subject
of controversy that lasted to the close of
Spanish authority and was revived under the
American government

In 1619 the Dominican order founded the
College of Santo Tomas, which in 1645 by
papal bull was made a university A letter
of the king in 1644 stated the desire to see it
possess the sa,me qualifications as the uni-
versities of Avila, Pamplona, Lima, and
Mexico At this period it taught grammar,
rhetoric, logic, philosophy, and scholastic and
moral philosophy, had about thirty secular
students, arid bestowed the bachelor, licenciate,
master, and doctor degrees By decree of
1785 it received the title of " Real " and
became known as the " Royal and Pontifical
University of Saint Thomas Aquinas " The
teaching of civil and canon law was added
in the eighteenth century, and in 1875 courses
in medicine arid pharmacy. The " Moret
Decree " in 1870 attempted to secularize this
institution and bring it under government
control as the " University of the Philip-
pines," but the opposition of the Church pre-
vented the enforcement of the decree Since
the American occupation it has reorganized and
amplified its courses and is attended by large
numbers of Filipino students, especially those
seeking a training in law

A number of other secondary schools, in-
cluding beatenos for orphan girls, existed from
an early date The Cole*gio de San Juan
de Letran, established about 1640 as a school
for orphan boys, developed into a secondary
school and, in charge of the Dominicans, be-

675

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

came a preparatory school to the University
It still exists and is largely attended.

At the beginning, these and similar institu-
tions were not open to Filipinos, but during
the eighteenth century the practice grew of
ordaining native curates, arid this opened the
way for Filipino education. In 1800 five
" conciliar seminaries," one for each diocese,
were opened to tram native priests, and in
1862 they were placed in charge of the Pauhst
Fathers. The instruction at these seminaries
was not adequate to prepare a trained clergy,
and the curates became subject to harsh depre-
ciation, especially after the opening of the
Suez Canal (1869), when the numbers of the
regular orders increased and antagonism devel-
oped between these Spanish missionaries and
the Filipino priests (clengo*)

Up to and past the middle of the nineteenth
century, education remained wholly in tho
hands of the Church, and while the mass of
Filipinos received instruction in the parishes
in doctrine and catechism, there were practi-
cally no educated Filipinos outside of the
clergy In spite of repeated decrees of the
king enjoining the use and teaching of Spanish,
this language had made no progress among the
natives Travelers in the islands up to 1870
are unanimous that the Filipinos able to speak
the Spanish tongue were rarely met

Meanwhile the increase of commerce, duo
to the opening of the archipelago and the
production of hemp, sugar, and tobacco,
largely in tho hands of native families of local
prominence, had produced a Filipino aristoc-
racy with wealth and ambition Knowledge
of Spanish was a great distinction, and educa-
tion for their sons was eagerly sought by men
of means.

About 1862 began a movement of young
men abroad for study This practice con-
tinued, many being dnvon to study abroad
because of the obstacles presented in tho
Philippines arid the danger of being marked
as a separatist or filibustero At tho ond of
Spanish rule some hundreds of young Filipinos
had roamed the countries of Europe gratifying
their curiosity and their thirst for knowledge
Many of these young men bore dramatic parts
in the ponod of Ho volution

Tho education of the Filipino was greatly
advanced by the return in 1859 of the Jesuits.
In 1866 they established the Ateneo Munici-
pal, a secondary school supported by the city
of Manila, reorganized since the American
occupation as a private college. In 1863
tho Spanish government resolved to establish
a system of public instruction It was an
important stop in the Spanish program to
reform and modernize the Philippine adminis-
tration The important decree of Decem-
ber ^ 20, 1863, was issued by the colonial
minister, Jose* de la Concha It decreed a
normal school in Manila under the Jesuits;
a school of primary instruction for boys and

one for girls in each town of the islands, the
instruction to be gratuitous arid attendance
obligatory, expenses of the schools to be
charged on the local budgets, school teach-
ers to be exempt from the personal service
tax and after five years' service to become
" principakx " or local aristocrats Govern-
ment clerical positions wore to be filled by
preference fiom the ranks of experienced
teachers; a Superior Commission of Primary
Instruction was to consist of tho Civil Governor
of the islands, the Archbishop of Manila, and
seven others, tho parish priests were to bo
" local inspectors " and direct instruction in
Christian doctrine arid morals Fifty years
ago so comprehensive a scheme of native
enlightenment was more of a novelty in colonial
administration than it would be to-day
Despite tho defects and limitations of the
plan, it must take place as a pioneer scheme
in the modern education oi backward peoples

The plan thus inaugurated found slow reali-
zation, nevertheless, at the close of Spanish
rule some 2100 schools were leported to be in
operation, and most towns had buildings for
boys and for girls Tho teaching, however,
was far from satisfactory, the methods poor,
and the instruction was usually confined to
tho native dialect of the locality In spite of
these drawbacks, it is surprising how consid-
erable a number of natives gamed at least a
slight knowledge of Spanish and the rudiments
of education Suoh was tho educational
situation when, in 1898, the Philippines
passed from the sovereignty of Spain to the
United States

Present System — Tho American army
occupied Manila August 13, 1898, and on
September 1 the public schools of the city
were reopened Little attempt was made at
first to change the teaching or discipline, but.
American teachers wore engaged to commence
instruction in English A yeai later, as the
occupation of the islands advanced, schools
wore opened generally, army officers were
charged with their oversight, and teaching of
English was begun by enlisted men Probably
a thousand schools wore in this way conducted
by the army, oven during the period of war-
fare. The Military Governor urged on the
school work as a measure " calculated to pacify
the people and to procure and expedite the
restoration of tranquillity " These highly com-
mendable efforts opened the way for the edu-
cational work established by the Philippine
Commission

The above Commission, under instructions
from President McKinley to organize a civil
government for the archipelago, reached the
Philippines in Juno, 1900, and commenced its
labors as a legislative body on September 1.
Before reaching the islands, it engaged Dr.
Fred W Atkinson of Springfield, Mass , as
a general superintendent of education A
broad survey of the educational needs was

676

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

made, qualified soldiers* discharged fioin the
volunteers were engaged as teachers, and new
schools were opened with the cooperation of
army officers

On January 21, 1901, the Commission en-
acted aii organic school law (Act 74, sub-
sequently amended by act 477 and othei
acts) which centralized the administration of
all public schools in a Bureau of Education
It was provided that instruction should be
free and secular, that the English language
should be the basis of instiuction, that reli-
gious instruction might be given in public
schools on certain days by priests 01 other
qualified persons but not by teachers The
education of both sexes together, while not
provided for by law, was assumed A normal
school and a trade school were authorized
Authority was given to the (General Superin-
tendent to engage 1000 American teacheis
and bring them to the islands, assigning them
to towns where conditions weie most favorable
These teachers were promptly sccuied, and
by October, 1901, 765 were at work in nearly
all parts of the islands In 1902 the number
increased to 926, the hngest number evei at
once in the held This pioneer work was
greatly embarrassed by difficulties of com-
munication, disturbances due to bandits or
ladrdnes, the disorganization of local govern-
ment, upon which the maintenance of primary
schools depended, and especially by a severe
epidemic of cholera which swept over the
archipelago in 1902-1903 In spite of extreme
disadvantages, some 2000 schools were con-
ducted, the naturalization of the English lan-
guage was begun, and a considerable nurnbei
of promising young people were brought under
the personal influence of high-minded American
teachers These young natives were the
nucleus of the new clerical and teaching force
indispensable to the purposes of the govern-
ment Night schools for adults were early
established in Manila and, proving popular,
night classes were authorized and conducted
by American teachers in many towns They
were gradually discontinued after 1904, except
in Manila

The first work was of a primary character,
the aim being to lay a broad basis for popular
enlightenment But the demand for higher
instruction in English was soon felt, and by
Act 372 (Maich 6, 1902) secondary schools
were authorized to give normal training,
agriculture, arid manual training, besides
academic and commercial instruction

At the end of 1902 Professor Bernard Moses,
first Secretary of Public Instruction and
Philippine Commissioner, resigned and was
succeeded by General J F Smith. Dr
Atkinson resigned at the same time, and was
succeeded by Dr E E Bryan, Superintendent
of the Normal School He was followed in
August, 1903, by Dr D P. Barrows, who had
been for two years Chief of the Ethnological

Survey Di Bai rows continued at the head of
school \\ork until November, 1909, when he
was succeeded by Mr Frank K White, who had
entered the teaching service in 1901

During 1903 and 1904 improved conditions
made possible a rapid building up of school
work and considerable improvement in admin-
istration The admimstiation is highly cen-
tralized The Dnector oi Education (formerly
General Superintendent) appoints and pro-
motes superintendents and teacheis, prescribes
the courses oi study, authonzcs the opening ol
new si hoolb, selects and purchases all text-
books and supplies, which are furnished fiee
to public school pupils, and approves building
plans The Director is responsible to the
Secretary of Public Instruction, who is a mem-
ber of the Commission and who has in his de-
partment, five othei bureaus besides Education
The number of division supeimtendents orig-
inally provided (ten) was inadequate, and the
number was increased until one was appointed
for each province The provinces were divided
into some 400 u districts," and an American
teacher was designated as "supervisor" oi
each Under these active men new primary
schools were established, and many young
Filipino teachers engaged and set to work
The aim was to extend the public school
:id vantages to the people, of the " barrios "
This aim lias been kept, constantly in view and
has been neaily realized

The expenses of all instruction are divided
between the insular, provincial, and municipal
governments, the expenditures for 1911 being
$1,765,9:>S, $104, H43, and $1,258,230, icspec-
tively, a total of $3,128,831

Eli'tnentan/ Education — In the school year
ending March, 1909, 4194 primary schools
were conducted and attended by no less than
570,502 pupils, about two fifths being girls
In 1904 the complete program of studies wan
issued It represents a departure from Ameri-
can school cuincula It provides for three
sorts oi public schools primary, 3 years (ex-
tended to four years in 1906), intermediate,
three veuis, and secondary, four years The
subjects taught in the primary schools aie
reading, language, arithmetic, geography,
hygiene and sanitation, municipal government,
music, drawing, and industrial work All
instruction is in English, and all teaching at
the present time in primary schools is done by
Filipino teachers Industrial teaching has
received much emphasis. The Filipino is a
deft and artistic worker The varied and
useful native manufactures, such as basketry,
mat and hat braiding, were selected in 1904
for teaching in primary schools Loom weav-
ing, lace working, and embroidery have been
added, and by the diffusion of these arts re-
munerative household occupations are being
created and extended Gardening is also
taught as a primary school subject, and thereby
new vegetables and food plants are introduced

677

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

into many parts of the islands Since 1909,
industrial teaching has been standardized,
and nearly 400,000 pupils are now engaged in
some sort of industrial work The primary
and intermediate textbooks have been written
especially for Philippine schools arid are
models of good methods and of the publisher's
art.

The intermediate schools were from the
first vocational as well as academic Six
specialized intermediate courses were fixed
upon in 1909; namely, general, teaching,
farming, tool work, business, and housekeep-
ing and household arts There were 245
intermediate schools in 1911 attended by
25,000 pupils

Secondary Education — Secondary schools
m 1904 were limited to one for each province
Comprehensive plans were framed for their
development and the aid of provincial govern-
ments was secured for obtaining lands arid
buildings. These schools have become the in-
tellectual centers of the provinces, and many
possess large tracts of land for athletics and
for farming, and groups of buildings including
shops, domestic science buildings, and dor-
mitories

Attendance at all schools is voluntary
Compulsory attendance, though frequently
urged, has never been authorized by law.

The school system is closely coordinated
with the public service, and the examinations
given by the Civil Service Bureau are taken
by hundreds of intermediate and high school
graduates who thereby become eligible for
public appointment The Bureau of Educa-
tion has also provided courses of training for
producing skilled assistants in several branches
of the Government nurses for the Bureau of
Health, appi entice surveyors for the Bureau
of Lands, and rangers for the Bureau of
Forestry, besides training clerks, stenographers,
and a teaching force of over 8000 men and
women.

In 1903 the Government provided a plan
of sending selected students to the United
States. Some 209 have been appointed,
usually for four years, but the plan has been
discontinued, as University facilities have
been provided in the Philippines

ftchoolhouses — The rapid growth of the
system of schools made necessary the use of
hundreds of rude schoolhouscs of native con-
struction, but notable progress is now being
made in erecting permanent school buildings
of concrete The first Philippine legislature,
on its organization in 1907, passed, as its
first act, a bill providing $500,000 for banio
school buildings. It has since duplicated
this sum There have been other important
insular appropriations for school buildings
and numerous private donations

• Athletics. — A most important part of
school work is athletics American sports
are coming to exert great physical and moral

678

influence Field meets are held in all prov-
inces, and there are four interprovmcial
meets, besides the insular meet at the annual
carnival in Manila In 1911, 482 competing
baseball teams played 1201 official games,
while a single province had 110 organized
school teams Basket ball is played by girls

Teachers — From the beginning great at-
tention has been given to training the native
teacher, without whom education must have
continued on narrow lines and without a per-
manent foothold This is accomplished by
"training classes" conducted by the super-
visors for their corps of primary teachers, by
" vacation normal schools " held in each prov-
ince for four weeks each year, and by "vaca-
tion assemblies " at Manila and a few other
important places Correspondence courses for
teachers are conducted by the central office of
the bureau All native teachers are carefully
graded in respect to attainments, and en-
couraged to keep constantly advancing

The American teachers, who now amount
to over 700, come from all parts of the United
States Those first appointed m 1901-1902
were selected by the General Superintendent
without examination test In 1903 some 125
were selected, under authority of the Civil
Governor, by the Catholic Church in the
United States Since that date all appoint-
ments have been under the civil service of the
islands, and eligibility is obtainable only by
passing examinations There is an agent in
the United States for meeting prospective
teachers, and the Bureau of Insular Affairs
at Washington gives assistance Each year
an average of 100 new teachers, mostly men,
are appointed A vacation assembly for
American teachers was established at Baguio,
the summer capital, in 1908 The region is
a cool, elevated plateau covered with pines
Courses are given by lecturers from American
Universities and conferences on school work
are held

Special Schools — There are several " insu-
lar schools " The Normal School at Manila
provides an advanced course for training
teachers and, previous to the opening of the
university, prepared pupils for college, medi-
cal studies, and study of the law The trade
school at Manila is equipped for teaching
mechanical drawing, woodwork, machine shop,
motor repair, wheel wrightmg, wood carving,
ceramics, textiles, and minor industries In
addition to this central trade school, each
provincial secondary school has woodworking
shops and a mechanical drawing department,
while several have machine shops also. Alto-
gether 358 manual training shops in the schools
are reported In Manila are also a higher
School of Commerce and the School for the
Deaf and Blind The Nautical School in-
herited from the Spanish regime was closed in
1907

Results. — The results of this wide attempt

PHILIPPINE ISLANDS

PHILLIPS ACADEMY

at education are becoming manifest English
is spoken by young people and children in
practically every village, and the door to useful
and enlightened life has been opened to thou-
sands of young men and women The Bureau
aims to abolish illiteracy and give the entire
population the basis of an education If the
present efforts are sustained, this end will be
nearly attained for the youthful population in
the course of anothoi decade

The school effort among non-Chiistian
peoples, numbering about one million, is
not as extensive, but significant results have
been secured Central schools, with provi-
sion for boarding pupils, are placed at the laig-
est centers of the pagan population and an in-
dustrial and literary education is givon Such
are the Igorot schools in the Mountain Prov-
ince of Luzon, schools for Ifugao and Ibilao
in Nueva Vizcaya, for the Bukidnon and
Manobo on the Island of Mindanao and for
the Tagbanwa of Palawan Over 12,000
pagan children are being thus educated

The schools of the Moro Province are not
under the Bureau of Education, but aie con-
ducted by a superintendent who is an official
of that government Mohammedan preju-
dice and opposition have hindered the develop-
ment of schools among these peoples, but
some sixty schools aie conducted, including a
secondary school at Ramboanga

Higher Education --The Philippine Legis-
lature by Act of June 1S; 1908, established the
University of the Philippines It is a cor-
poration composed of six CT offlcio and five
appointed members called " regents " The fol-
lowing colleges have boon established Medi-
cine, organized in 1906, Liberal Arts, Agricul-
ture, Veterinary Science, Engineering, Law,
and Fine Arts The College of Agriculture
is located at Los Banos, Laguna Province,
the other colleges are at Manila These
colleges, except Fine Arts, receive only grad-
uates of high or secondary schools The
College of Liberal Arts is divided into the
junior college, bachelor degree, two years, and
senior college, master degree, three additional
years The other University courses are from
three to five years' duration The six col-
leges were attended during the school year
1911-1912 by 599 students, the School of
Fine Arts by 801 students

The freedom of instruction made possible
by American sovereignty has resulted in a
large increase in private institutions and the
general prosperity of such schools In 1902
the Liceo de Manila was established, almost the
first Philippine secondary school under secular
management. Many of the provincial towns
now have private secondary schools Until
recently their courses of study were modeled
after that of San Juan de Letran, the Ateneo,
or other Spanish schools, and embraced no
more than five years, following the primary
school of three or four years. The bachelor's

degree \\as conferred The desirability of
raising the standard of secondary work in all
these institutions being clear, the Secretary
of Public Instruction began in 1908 to urge
such reforms, promising therefor government
recognition of their degrees In 1910 a
special examiner was appointed All together
seven institutions, not including Santo Tomas,
have had their bachelor degrees recognized
These aie Ateneo, San Juan de Letran, San
Beda, Assumption College (women) in Manila,
Silhman Institute at Dumaguete, San Vicente
de Fen or, near Iloilo, and the Colegio Semi-
nano at Bigan, llokos Sur D P. B.

References —

ATKINSON, F W

The Philippine Inlands (Boston,

BAKROWH, 1) P A History of the Philippines (Yon-

krrs, N Y , 1912)
BLAIR, E H , and ROBINSON, J A The Philippine

/stands, Vols XLV and XLVI (Cleveland, O.?

1WM- )
FIIEMI, V\ H V KxtHrwnea of an American Teacher,

a Nuiratiw of H o/A and Tiavd in the Philippine

1 dan fix (New York, 1(XW )
Philippine Islands, Bureau of Kdueation Reports of

the Dneetoi of Edueation, 1(>0()-1<H1 (Manila)
S< rvit( Manual

( '</<*. MS of the Philippines, Vol III, 1905
University of the Philippines, Catalogue

PHILIPPINES, UNIVERSITY OF, MA-
NILA — See PHILIPPINES, EDUCATION IN

PHILLIPS ACADEMY, ANDOVER, MASS.

— Founded in 177S l>v Samuel Phillips (qv),
then Lieutenant Governor of the common-
wealth It was designed to prepare boys
for the higher institutions and to fit them
for the laigest civic usefulness The school,
which was founded on bioad democratic lines,
early acquired a national reputation and pres-
tige It was \isited by President Washington,
who latei sent nine of his nephews and grand-
nephews to enjoy its benefits The Academy
was incorporated in the last act of the " Great
and General Court " just prior to the forma-
tion of the new state government Phillips
Academy has grown steadily in numbers, in
material equipment, in efficiency and influence.
Its eniollment in 1911-1912 was 571 boys Its
equipment consists of 35 buildings Its faculty
numbers thirty-three men Its students come
from practically every state in the Union, and
from many foreign countries, and its graduates
are accustomed to enter annually a score or
more of the higher institutions of learning
The school prides itself on its democracy, boys
who are compelled to work their way mingling
and competing on equal terms with those of
generous wealth

PHILLIPS ACADEMY, EXETER, N H.

— Founded in 1781 by John Phillips (q.v ), the
chief benefactor of the institution for the
purpose of " promoting Piety and Virtue, and
for the education of Youth, etc." William

679

PHILLIPS, JOHN

PHILOLOGY

Woodbridge (q v ) \sas the first principal
Instruction is offered in all the studies required
for admission to the leading colleges and scien-
tific schools By the constitution of John
Phillips the academy is " equally open to
youth of requisite qualifications from every
quarter " The school enjoys a gieat reputa-
tion throughout the country and trains stu-
dents from all parts of the Union The stu-
dents are divided into four classes or years
The enrollment in 1911-1912 was 522, arid the
faculty consisted of twenty-six members
The equipment has been gradually augmented,
more particularly since 1SS3 The students
are distributed in a number of dormitones,
and throughout their stay in the school ate
under the chaige of advisers whom they con-
sult on matteis relating to studies and school
life.

PHILLIPS, JOHN (1719-179")) —Founder
of Phillips Academy at Exetei, bom at
Andovei He graduated from Harvard Uni-
versity in 1735 arid for a time taught school
He had some idea of entering the ministry, but
decided finally on a mercantile carcci at Exe-
ter. When his nephew, Samuel Phillips (</ v ),
founded Phillips Academy at, Andovcr (q v ),
he contributed to its endowment Probably
influenced by his nephew, he founded Phillips
Academy at Exeter in 1783, of which he was
the chief benefactoi Phillips was for twenty
years a trustee of Dartmouth College, where
he endowed a professorship, and was also
interested in Princeton College, to which he
made some donations

See ACADEMY

Reference —

BARNARD, H American Journal of Education, Vol
IV, pfj 75-SO

PHILLIPS, SAMUEL (1752-1S02) —
Founder of Phillips Academy at Andover (q v ) ,
born at Andover He was educated at Dum-
mer Academy and Harvard University, where
he graduated in 1771 Two years later he
became town clerk and treasurer of Andover
From 1775 to 1779 he was a membei of the
Provincial Congress, and later of the senate,
of which he was president in 17S5 In 1801
he was lieutenant governor Fioni 1782 to
1798 he was judge of the common pleas in
Essex County He was gieatly interested
in education, was an overseer of Harvard
University, and frequently visited the Andover
common schools He was the founder in 1777
of Phillips Academy (q v ) in his native town
and was largely instrumental in securing its
endowment. See ACADEMY

References —

BARNARD, H Ameiiran Journal of Education, Vol
VI, pp. 66-74

TATLOB, J L A Memoir of His Honor tiamuel Phil-
lips, LL.D. (Boston, 1856 )

PHILO JUD^EUS (20 H c -c. 40 \ i> )
Hebrew philosopher, a native of Alexandria,
Egypt —See NEO-PLATONISM , MYSTICISM; also
JEWISH EDUCATION

PHILOLOGY — The meaning of the term
philology has been different at various times.
Historically there are three main periods in
which philological studies have flourished,
(a) the Classical, (b) the Renaissance, and
(<•) the Modern peuod

Classical Period — The earliest use of the
word <l>i\o\oyta is found in Plato, where it
has the meaning " lover of dialectic," or " of
scientific argument " The corresponding ad-
jective, <£i\oAoyos, bears the sense of " lover of
discourse " in contrast to fucroA.oyo9, "hater of
discourse " The former adjective is used of
Athens as a city " fond of conversation," as
opposed to Sparta and Crete, according to
tradition places where brevity of speech was
more highly regarded (Sandys, Vol I, p. 4,
cf Acts XVII, 21) In general use, however,
the woid bore a broad significance, both in
Gieek and in the Latin uses of the word which
the Romans deiived from the Greeks In
Ticeio's letters the word philologus means
meiely " learned " or " literary " In the
post-classic poem of Martianus Capella, DC
Nuptus Philologur cf Mercuru, Jupiter at a
meeting of the gods demands the rights of
naturalization for one who has hitherto been
only a mortal virgin, i e Philology, the
bride of Mercury, who represents wisdom or
knowledge Philology is the goddess of speech
or expression, and she is attended bv seven
bridesmaids, who aie none other than the
seven divisions of the quadriviurn and trivmm.
The conception of philology which the poem
presents is therefore that of systematic learn-
ing and its expiession in speech or writing
Fiom these uses of the term, it is apparent
that philologu* in Latin and in Greek was a
woid of both widei and less definite significance
than it is in modern usage

Foi other and more special aspects of the
activity of the philological student, according
to the modern understanding of the term, the
Greeks and Romans employed two other
terms, ypa/A/mnKos, gramniaticus, and KPITIKOS,
cnttui* The first of these terms was used
chiefly in the Alexandrian period, and like
philology, its meaning was broad It signified
generally " student of literature," particularly
poetic literature The kind of study implied
by the term is indicated in the six divisions of
the subject given by Dionysius Thrax (c 166
B c ), in " the earliest treatise on grammar
now extant " (Sandys, Vol I, p 8) These
six parts are (1) accurate reading, (2) expla-
nation of poetic figures of speech, (3) exposi-
tion of rare words and of subject matter,
(4) etymology, (5) statement of regular
grammatical forms, (6) the criticism of poetry.
By criticism is meant the attempt to detect

680

PHILOLOGY

PHILOLOGY

spurious passages or spurious works. The
grammarian was one, therefore, who busied
himself with the study, the editing, as it would
be called in modern times, and the interpre-
tation of poetry. Criticism was the highest
function of the grammarian. There were
special reasons why the study of grammar
and criticism (i e. " the liigher criticism ")
should be cultivated m the Alexandiian period
The work of the Alexandrian scholar consisted
mainly in the classification of works, the
determination of their authorship, the estab-
lishment of pure texts, the study of grammar
in the narrower sense in on lei to determine
the relative authority oi different manuscupt
readings, and matters similar to these A
typical Alexandrian scholar was Eratosthenes
(c 276-c 196 lie), a -versatile man, and
the hrst of the Alexandrians to assume the
name <£iAoAoyos He wiote treatises on geog-
raphy, mathematics, astronomy, and chro-
nology His greatest wor k was one on the Old
Attic Comedy irf.pl T^S d/c>xu«*s Kw/xw&as, really
a series of monographs on questions of author-
ship, date, textual criticism, language, etc ,
in the plays But he was also a man of lit-
erary taste, and himself wrote poems and phil-
osophical prose treatises On the whole, the
Alexandrian conception of philology mav be
defined as a combination of scholarship and
hterarv versatility

Besides the three1 groups of linguistic stu-
dents represented by the philology, the gnnti-
mahcu*, and the online, in classical tunes,
notice must also be taken of the philowphus
and of his attitude towards speech and lan-
guage The phihwphus differed from the
other three in that he sought for first prin-
ciples, for the explanations of things, whereas
the [ihilologux, gnuninaticitu, and <nticu,\ were
concerned with specific pieces of literature or
with individual phenomena of language In
his search for first causes, the philosophic was
naturally brought to consider the nature of
speech, its origin, and the i elation of speech
to thought and to the world of concrete ob-
jects These questions wen4 considered by
the early Greek philosophers in great detail,
some of Plato's most careful thought being
given to them In many respects the linguis-
tic speculations of the philosophers entered
the special province of the philologists, as, for
example, the philosophers' study of etymology
in the endeavor to determine the true mean-
ings of words

From this brief survey, it will be seen that
the classical period never arrived at any unified
or, on the whole, any very profound concep-
tion of the philological study of language and
literature It attempted to some extent to
answer philosophically the question of the
origin and nature of language, to interpret
and correct the body of its traditional litera-
ture, and to a more considerable extent to
work out a system of grammatical classifica-

wvu and nomenclature There was, however,
no sense of the homogeneity of linguistic and
literary studies and there was but slight sense
of historical growth and development On
the side of attainment, encyclopedic learning
was the ideal Modern scholarship, in the
development of a theory of philology, does not
build therefore upon a classical basis Classi-
cal thought on matters linguistic IK not intro-
ductory to the modern science, but is more
important for logic and philosophy than it is
for linguistics The most important linguistic
inheritance of the modern period from classi-
cal tunes is to be found in the classifications
and terminology of descnptive grammar
These have come down from Plato and Aris-
totle and the classic grammarians in unbroken
transmission

Medieval and Renaissance Periods — The
neglect of classical literature in the medieval
period implied the decadence of classical
scholarship and philology The extent of
this neglect and decay may be inferred
from the fact that knowledge of the
classic idiom of Latin (and still more of Greek)
was so impeiiect as to guo rise to a new
form of the language so different from classic
Latin as to require a new name for itself, —
middle or medieval Latin (See MIDDLE AGES,
EDUCATION IN) The medieyal period was
not curious about philosophical or psycholog-
ical questions concerned with language It
accepted mainly the story of the creation of
language by Adam, and hampered by the
flat chronology which prevailed, and lacking
any clear sense of historical perspective, it
was naturally not concerned with questions
of change and development The medieval
period was incapable of adding anything to
classical theories of the study of language and
liter at in e At its best, it was conservative,
and even tins function was very inadequately
performed A typical scholar of the best
type in the medieval period was the English
monk, Bede ((] v ) His study of language
specifically was entirely practical, and he
developed a free, clear, and harmonious Latin
style which enables one to read his works with
pleasure

The Renaissance conception of philology is
closely bound up with the general movements
rn thought and culture which deeply affected
the life of Km ope rn the fourteenth and several
succeeding centimes The scholarship of this
time was hugely a revolt against scholasticism,
with its exaggerated sense of the importance
of dialectic in all matters concerned with the
intellectual life The Renaissance may be
regarded mainly as a humanistic movement,
and the study of literature was approached
from the aesthetic rather than the intellectual
side Of great importance in the development
of Renaissance humanistic studies was the
restoration of Greek to its proper place as a
learned language, and also the development of

(iSI

PHILOLOGY

a feeling for the purity of classical Latin idiom
and a respect for it which was unknown to the
medieval world Language was studied, how-
ever, almost exclusively as an approach to
literature The philosophy of the Renaissance
linguists never concerned itself with any ques-
tions deeper than that of the relation of a
learned to a popular language, as in Dante's De
vulgan cloquw, and with the consequent ques-
tion, how a popular language can be elevated to
a position on a level with the learned languages
Language and grammar were regarded as
handmaidens to literature, and the main
purposes of the study of literatuie were partly
higher criticism and partly appreciation but,
most of all, imitation Excellence in litera-
ture was to be attained by the imitation of
classic models, and the first thing necessary
was naturally a knowledge of classic typos of
literary ait As aids in attaining this knowl-
edge, the Renaissance scholar gave much
attention to the writing of grammais, diction-
aries, and helps to composition llis persist-
ence and enthusiasm have been effectively
and truly presented in Browning's poem, The
Grammarian's Funeral So great was the
respect which the Renaissance student felt
for the classics that language alono was often
regarded as sufficient to make a humanist
It was enough, many humanists thought, if
one imitated exactly the language of Vergil,
or Ovid, or above all, Cicero, logaidod by
almost universal consent in the Renaissance as
the perfect model of eloquence (See CICERO-
NIANISM) Nevertheless the scholarship of the
Renaissance, though sometimes nariow and
pedantic, in the hands of its best represent a-
tives was enlightened and astonishingly com-
prehensive Among typical scholars may be
mentioned the Frenchman Bude", or Budaeus
(1468-1540), who speaks of philology as his
altcra conjux, and who also declares that he
was the first to call himself a philologian (see
Delaruclle, B licit, p 215) Another famous
Renaissance scholar was Joseph Justus Scaliger
(q v ), whose learning and productivity are indeed
occasions for wonder But the modern stu-
dent is likely to fool with respect to Scahgor
and with respect to Renaissance scholarship in
geneial, that it is disorganized and often
smothered undor its own accumulation of detail
Modern Period — With the modem develop-
ment in scholarship, attempts have boon made
to oigamzo a system of philological study as
clearly defined as are modern botany, biology,
and astronomy. The beginnings of this move-
ment, which has resulted in tho foimation of the
theory of the science of philology, with clear
delimitations of subject matter and of method,
were in large measure, like the beginnings of
Renaissance scholarship, a protest against tho
intellectualism of a preceding period In Ger-
many, where philology was earliest cultivated in
modern times, it was at fust closely connected
with the neo-humamsm and romanticism of th(

PHILOLOGY

latter half of the eighteenth century, which in
turn wore largely a reaction against the pre-
ceding and contemporary philosophy of the
enlightenment (qv), with its contented but
somewhat narrow Aufklarang of the field of
human thought The general philological
movement was at first humanistic in that it
turned aside from philosophical and rational
systems, arid attempted to restore past civili-
zations It was a study of culture Later,
undor the influence of natural sciences, of the
historical method, of Darwinian theoiies of
evolution, and of similar developments of
modern thought, philology tended to take a
broader aspect than that of humanistic study
onlv There were thus developed the psy-
chological, social, and historical aspects of tho
modern science of philology Modern phi-
lology may bo most fitly regarded as beginning
with Friednch August Wolf (qv) The first
modem to call himself a philologist, Wolf,
desoiibod himself in the matriculation book
of the University of Oottingen, under date of
April 8, 1777, as studiosus philology As
student and later as teacher of philology,
Wolf defines his subject compactly but broadly
as tho biography of a nation The purpose
of it was to reconstruct all the life of a past
poiiocl which can bo recovered from records
Thoso records include of course not only
language, but all other forms of recorded
knowledge or oxponcnce Wolf's other name
for philology was Alterthumswisscnschaft, tho
science of antiquity But by antiquity Wolf
moans only Creek and Roman antiquity The
term is so limited for various reasons, eg.
because these peoples only have left abundant
records of their life, because of tho importance
of the civilization of the Greeks and Romans
for modern civilization, etc But the general
theory of philology, as tho biography of a
nation, docs not imply a limitation to the
Greek and Latin peoples, and if circumstances
permitted, a Hebrew, an Egyptian, and Bother
philologies would be possible. The aim of
philology should always be, however, in Wolf's
conception, the synthetic presentation of the
whole life of a people at a definite period.
Wolf was thus interested in language, litera-
ture, art, etc , in themselves only as each con-
tributes its share to the unified picture of the
life he was attempting to reconstruct. Phi-
lology thus becomes, in his mind, the recalling
to life of historical Greek and Latin civiliza-
tion, and it presents an organic conception
of the subject lacking in classical and Renais-
sance scholarly investigation In the carrying
out of this scheme, Wolf makes the following
divisions of the subject in his Fundamental-
theile der Alterthumswissenschaft (Vorlesungen,
Inlialt, p. v ff.) :

(1) Grammar, or tho study of language (merely,
however, for the practical purpose of acquiring ability
to rend texts)

(2) Heimeneutus, " Erklanmgskunst, defined as

082

PHILOLOGY

PHILOLOGY

the art of " comprehending the ideas of another just
as he would have them comprehended " (Vorlesimyen,
I, 271)

(3) Criticism, the rules by which we determine the
age, the genuineness, or the authorship of woiks, the
correctness or incorrectness of words, of passages, etc

(4) The geography of antiquity

(5) The political history of antiquity

(6) Antiquitates, " Alterthumei," by which Wolf
means allusions to ancient customs, beliefs, and prac-
tices

(7) Mythology

(8) Literature, sciences, and arts among the Greeks
and Romans

(9) History of Art, i c the study of the works of
art of the ancients, including archaeology, numismatics,
epigiaphy, architecture, sculpture, and painting

It will be soon at once that Wolf was a sys-
tem builder, and so also were his immediate
successors in the development of the theory
of philological studies August Bocckh, who
lectured on the methodology of philology from
1809 to 1805, proceeded on the basis of Wolf's
definitions His is the bioadest possible
conception of philology " die eigonthche
Aufgabe dor Philologie das Eikennen des vom
menschhchen Geist Producirten, d h , des
Erkannton" (Enci/h p 10), which translated
reads, " the leal task of Philology is 1be 10-
stormg to knowledge of that which has been
matter of knowledge " The subject is again
defined as " die Nacheonst ruction dor (\m-
structionon des menschbchen Geistes in ihrer
Gcsainmthoit" (Encifli p 16), " the putt ing to-
gethei again in its entirely of all that the human
spirit has fashioned" Wolf had made phi-
lology the reconstiuction of the past cult me
and life of a nation, more1 specifically of the
Greek and Roman nations Boeckh extends
the definition to include the reconstruction of
the culture and life of all past existence,
so far as that existence may be made known
through the records it has left behind Phi-
lology according to this conception compnses
all history in the nairow sense of nairative,
institutional and social history, all historical
linguistics, literature, art, science, etc It
excludes philosophy in so far as philosophy
is concerned with first causes, not with the
content, meaning, and value of lecords of
thought, it excludes also science in the sense
that mvestigational science endeavors to de-
termine the immediate and the actual, al-
though when science becomes historical and
concerns itself with man's activity and self-
expression in the past, as, for example in the
science of folklore, it falls within the limits of
Boeckh's definition. The necessity of sub-
division of the great subject is acknowledged
by Boeckh, but the theoretical definition is
defended on the ground that no science is
completely realizable, e g the biologist theo-
retically sets himself the unattainable goal of
knowing all about all animal life, and the
chemist cannot exhaust all the possibilities of
combination among natural elements It may
be pointed out that Boeckh adds to Wolf's
conception of philology also in that he assigns

a higher place to linguistics, which he would
study not only to gain a practical reading
knowledge of language, but he would have
languages considered in themselves as expres-
sions of the life of the people who develop
them

The difficulties in the way of any practical
realization of this general scheme of philology
are in ccitam respects obvious Any valid
criticism of Wolf's theory would apply as
well, but with more weight, to Boeckh's
theory Two main difficulties may be noted
(1) the student who would carry out Wolf's
or Boeckh's scheme must possess combined
qualities, i e the critical faculty for the
gathering and preparation of his material, and
second the constructive and artistic for its
composition The qualities of mind required
by the fiist half of the task are memory, criti-
cal judgment, sense of order, "learning" in
the specific sense The qualities of mind re-
quired by the second half of the task are con-
structive imagination, a sense of the relative
importance of parts, and the poetic faculty
which gives life to an assemblage of facts The
two groups of characteristics are not necessarily
mutually exclusive, — witness Jacob Grimm
and Sir Walter Scott, — but actually they are
riot often found in combination " As a rule,
one has dwarfed the other; either the creative
fancy, scorning a solid masonry of facts,
builds its castles in Spain without carpenter
and architect, or a hesitating exactness may
become the fetish to which the children of the
imagination are sacrificed " (Oertel, Lectures,
p 20) The second fundamental difficulty
which obstructs the path of the philologist of
Wolf or Boeckh's way of thinking is the vast
extent of inherently heterogeneous subject-
matter which he must command and assimilate
The specialist is necessary for the preparation
of the material, but the specialist is manifestly
incapable of spieadmg himself over the whole
field The nearest approach to a realization
of the synthetic idea is to be found in the Grun-
(Jnxb plan of collaboration, various scholars
of supposedly the same general point of view
taking each his special part in a harmoniously
elaborated scheme of presentation Thus
Paul, Giundnss I, 1, joins himself to the school
of Boeckh when he expresses the conviction
that " die Emzelnen Gebicte in welchc man
das Kulturleben ernes Volkes zu zerlegen
pflegt, in dor wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung
mcht isoliert werden durfen." And he also
extends Boeckh's formula, " das Erkennen
des Erkannten," in that he insists that the
philologist must not only know again what was
in the clear consciousness of individuals in
past tunes, but also must be able to see into
forces and streams of tendency which were not
clearly perceived, he must see relations of
cause and effect, and follow out lines of his-
torical development In practice Paul's Grund-
riss is the fullest attempt made to realize the

(583

PHILOLOGY

PHILOLOGY

broad conception of a philology of Iho Gcr-
manic peoples This work was planned and
executed under the general supervision of
Hermann Paul, assisted by special students,
such as Sievers, Kluge, Noreen, Wright,
Brandl, Luiek, R Kogel, and others The
work as it was finally executed consists of
fifteen parts, not indeed arranged in any
strictly systematic method so as to give a
philosophically unified interpretation of Ger-
manic civilization The various parts are
as follows (1) the meaning and purpose of
Germanic philology, a theoretical discussion
and definition of the subject by Paul, (2) his-
tory of Germanic philology, also bv Paul,

(3) methods of Germanic philology bv Paul,

(4) history of Germanic alphabets and of
writing by Sievers and Arndt, (5) Sptaeh-
qebchichte, the history of the various Germanic
languages, by different, scholars, (6) Lit era-
turgeschirltte, the history of the various Ger-
manic literatures, each ti rated separately, as
the languages aie, by a specialist, (7) histori-
cal and theoretical discussion of Germanic
meter, (8) ethnography (Brcmer), (9) Wiith-
bchaft, i c the practical arts of agriculture,
etc, (10) Recht, ic law and legal custom,

(11) Kueqswesen, war and its traditions,

(12) Mythology, (13) Heldvisage, le heroic
traditions, (14) fiitte, 'i c social custom and
formalities, (15) Kunxt, (a) bildende Kunst,
j)ainting, architectuie, and sculpture, (/>) music

Specialized Use — Although the broad philo-
sophic definition of philology as elaborated by
the theonzers of the school of Wolf and Boeckh
will be generally accepted by philological stu-
dents as true to the underlying purpose and
methods of their investigations, popularly the
subject is more narrowly conceived as equiva-
lent to linguistics " Philology," says the
Encyclopedia Bntavnica, " is the generally
accepted comprehensive name for the study of
the word; it designates that branch of knowl-
edge which deals with human speech, and
with all that speech discloses as to the nature
and history of man " Two mam definitions
are given in the New English Dictionary
(I) " Love of learning and literature, the
study of literature in a wide sense, including
grammar, liteiary criticism and interpreta-
tion, the relation of literature and written
records to history, etc , literary or classical
scholarship; polite learning Now rare in
general sense ", (2) a special sense, the usual
one m modern use, " the study of the structure
and development of language, the science of
language, linguistics " The second sense is
really one branch of the first, which represents
m some respects the classical conception of
philology, with additions from the broad syn-
thetic definitions of the Wolfian school

These narrow popular conceptions of philol-
ogy are to some extent forced upon the serious
student by the practical exigencies of subject
matter Obviously the Wolf-Boeckh theory,

though valuable as an ideal from which to draw
inspiration, is not one to be applied m detailed
practice Perhaps the definition which most
nearly describes the actual work of philologists
might run as follows Philology is the study of
culture as it is recorded m language This
definition implies that language itself is an
object of study for itself, since it is one of the
expressions of the cultural development of the
people that employ it It implies also that
the study of literature is a branch of philology
when such study is concerned with the inter-
pretation of the text of literary monuments,
and with their history and value as illus-
trating civilization If philology be defined as
the restoration to knowledge of past thought
through the medium of the word, it is ap-
parent that no study of literature, however
simple and however approximately contempo-
rary the literary monuments may be, can be
carried on without the employment m some
degree of philological methods The so-called
philological approach to the study of literature
has been at times not without its unwise advo-
cates To parse through the whole of Para-
dise Lovt and to examine the etymology of
every word rnav he philological study of a
kind', but it can scarcely be called literary
Philology must serve as a handmaiden to
literature in the interpretation and elucida-
tion of texts, but there is no immediate way
of entry into the processes of literature through
the study of individual words Among other
practical uses of philology regarded as linguis-
tics may be mentioned that of seeing that the
historical records of the speech and literature
preserved in manuscripts and in texts, often
few in number and difficult of access, are
brought to light and secured against the acci-
dents of time bv publication The reeditmg
of texts in the light of fuller modern scholar-
ship is also a duty of the philologists not to be
evaded Sound philological principles are
manifestly as important in the editing of a
modern text as of one of medieval or ancient
times Philology may also be of service m the
daily practical use of language, especially in
determining questions of propriety and con-
duct in language (See article on ENGLISH
USAGE ) A still larger field of practical
philology is to be found in the whole province
of rhetoric Rhetoric attempts to teach an
art of language, and instruction m this art is
greatly assisted by the ability of the teacher
and student to analyze and to comprehend
the principles of the art Rhetoric conse-
quently, if it means anything at all as a sys-
tematic discipline, means the application of
the methods of observation and analysis to
the processes of language expression upon
which the science of philology rests Other
practical applications of philological science,
e g the production of descriptive grammar for
the use of the students of a language who are
seeking to acquire a practical control over it,

084

PHILOSOPHICAL SYMB< >LISM

PHILOSOPHY

the analysis of speech sounds as an aid in the
teaching of spoken language, etc , are too ob-
vious to require mention

The present academic status of the study
of philology has been implicitly indicated in
part in the description which has been given
of the subject. A more detailed account of the
courses will be found in the articles on MODERN
LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE, also in those on
GREEK LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE, LATIN
LANGUAGES AND LITERATURE, SEMITIC LAN-
GUAGES AND LITERATURE G P K

See GRAMMAR, for comparative philology,
LANGUAGE, ENGLISH, LANGUAGE, PSYCHOLOGY
or, MODERN LANGUAGES AND LITERATURES

References —

BOECKH, AUGUST Encykloptiuhe und Mcthodologie der
philologischen Wissi'tischaft* n, Itkl Bratuwohek arid
Klussmann This work was not published during
Boockh'B lifetime (1785-1H<>7), but was odittd
from his MH lectures deln cred from 1SOQ- 18hf>
(Leipzig, 1880 )

DELBRUCK, B Einleitung in das Sprat h^iudium, ttd
ed , 1893

GUDKMANN, ALFRRD Outline* of th< Histoiy of Clas-
sical Philology (Bohton, 18l)4 )

OEKTEL, HANNH L(ctui<\ on ih( Study of Lanaii(ift(
(New York, 1^02 )

SANDYR, J K A History of (^la^icnl Mhohu^hip frotti
the Sixth Cuitunj it r to tin End of fht M iddl( lf/^s
(Cam bridge, 1903 ) (Two later volumes enrrv the
history down to modern timow )

SHELDON, K Pinetical Philology Publications of
Modern Lctnguagt Abt>oti(ttion of Anutua, A'ol
XVII, 91 ff

STEINTHAL, H Gc^ih-nhte dtr tiprachunxscnwhaft txi
den Gin'chcti nnd H timer n, 2d ed (Berlin,
1890)

VON JAGEMANN, H C (i Philology and 1'uriMn, in
Publication* of the Modtrn L<in()nttn< As^otiation
of Arntrwa, Yol X\ , j> 7 4 ft

WHEELKR, B I The Place of Philolog\ Cnivukity
Chroniclt (Umveisity of raliforma), Vol 111, 5,
p I><)7 ff

WOLF, FR A Vorlaungni -dher dit Alter thin) is in s-
Hensthaft, ed Ciurtlcr and Hoffmann, .'J volh
From lectures given from 1783 1790 Vol I is
entitled Vorlctsung ribcr dit EncyUopttdu dn AI-
terthum&wiswnschaft (Leipzig, 1839 )

PHILOSOPHICAL SYMBOLISM — See

SYMBOLISM IN EDUCATION

PHILOSOPHY — Definition and Scope —

The term philosophy (in the foiin of the verb
</HAocTo<£ttv) seems first to have been used by
Herodotus and Thucydides in its literal sense,
to denote the desire or pursuit of wisdom
The speculative bias of the Greeks made them
restrict the term philosophy to theoretic
knowledge only, i e. knowledge pursued for its
own sake as opposed to that which is technical
or immediately practical. The terms science,
true knowledge, and philosophy are used
almost interchangeably by Plato and Aristotle
The idea that philosophy is not ordinary
knowledge but has for its object something of
superior worth, to wit, the real as opposed to
the phenomenal, is due to the Platonic doc-
trine that true knowledge can be only of the
immutable and the eternal (Rep , 480). Aris-

totle also emphasizes the fact that philosophic,
or scientific knowledge is reasoned or demon-
strative, and, therefore, depends on knowledge
of causes or pnnciplcb Though Aristotle
wrote on political and natuial history he seems
to have clearly distinguished between history
and science or philosophy Both Plato and
Aristotle, while setting a high value on mathe-
matics, hesitated to apply the term philosophy
to it Thus Plato put mathematics in the
borderland between tiue science and opinion,
and Ai ist otic, \\Jule explicit in his statements
that metaphysics, physics, arid mathematics
are the thiee parts of theoretic philosophy, and
in his icfeience to metaphysics as the first and
to physics as the second philosophy, does not
explicitly lefer to mathematics as the third
philosophy Nevertheless, mathematics did
not become geneially dissociated from philoso-
phy until the Alexandrine period (eg Euclid),
and even latei \\e find the book of Sextus
Empirics, .l</ms//.s Mnth , directed against
the philosophers or metaphysicians

The distinction between philosophy and the
special sciences seems to have been accentuated
by the Stoic and the Epicurean philosophies,
with their emphasis on ethics as the major
portion of philosophy In the light of the
populai use of the tenn philosopher as synony-
mous with that of moral teacher or guide,
and the prevailing idea of philosophy as a,
mode of life, pursuits like those of Archimedes
could not be releiied to as philosophical At
any rate, the Alexandrine penod finds a num-
ber oi special sciences cultivated separately
irom philosophy

In medieval times, philosophy seems to have
been used to denote all the knowledge1 which
can be acquired by natural reason without the
aid of rex elation Jn practice, this meant all
the subjects treated by " the Philosopher," t e
Aristotle, and as these formed the substance
of all arts courses, the faculty of arts became
known as the faculty of philosophy The
" three philosophies " denoted moral, natural,
and metaphysical philosophy

As a result of the development of natural
philosophy into the independent science of
physics, and the emphasis on the problems of
thought 01 consciousness m writers like Locke,
the tcim metaphysics gave way to the term
mental science or intellectual philosophy As a
result, also, of the expansion of modern science
and its impel ati\e demand for specialization,
the partb of moral philosophy known as juris-
prudenoe, law of nature, politics, and economics,
— subjects on which an eighteenth century
professor of philosophy like Adam Smith was
expected to lecture, — soon became objects
of study on the part of specialists who did
not concern themselves with the rest of phi-
losophy For the last forty years empirical
psychology has been assuming more and more
the r61e of a special science, as independent
of philosophy as the science of optics In our

685

PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHY

own day there is a strong tendency for investi-
gators in the field of logic to regard their
subject as a branch of either psychology or
mathematics; and an increasing number now
view the field of ethics as part of sociology
or anthropology

After the special sciences have thus been
carved out of it, what, if anything, is left of
philosophy itself ? The typical answers to
this question may be arranged in three groups,
between which hard and fast lines cannot be
drawn —

(A) Those that deny that there is any
peculiar subject matter or method in phi-
losophy This is the view of the agnostic and
positivist schools. To both Spencer and
Comte philosophy consists simply in the uni-
fication or coordination of the vaiious sciences
In Spencer this unity is a mere juxtaposition, —
the only bond uniting the various sciences
being the fact that they all have certain vague
general laws of evolution in common In
Comte the unity is one of end In consti-
tuting the positive philosophy the various
sciences are subordinated to each other in ac-
cordance with the needs of the positive polity
In harmony with the above is the popular
view, supported in some respects by Paulscn,
that philosophy is simply the sum of the general
portions of the different sciences

(/?) Those that insist that philosophy still
has a subject matter distinct from that of the
special sciences, viz the real or the rational
This group includes representatives of most
diverse schools of philosophic thought, who, of
course, conceive this subject matter in differ-
ent ways Thus, the Hegelian school con-
ceives the subject matter of all philosophy to
be the ultimately real, or absolute Idea, a
knowledge of which we obtain by a system of
reasoning The mystic schools all conceive
the real, which is the quest of philosophy, to be
in the ineffable One attained in certain experi-
ences, called feeling or intuition Between these
two schools may be placed an influential group
of thinkers like Munsterberg, Duhem, and
Bcrgson, having little in common save the view
that the special sciences all deal, not with
reality, but with systems of useful construc-
tions of the mind, and that it is, therefore,
left to philosophy to deal with reality itself,
by intuition (Bergson), by dialectic reason-
ing (Munsterberg), or by faith and reason
(Duhem)

^(6') Mediating between (A) and (B) is the
view that philosophy has a distinct subject-
matter of its own, but that this subject matter
is no other than the system of the special
sciences, that is, that philosophy is itself a
special science, viz the science of the sciences
This science may be conceived in quite natural-
istic fashion . " Sciences, then, are as
real things as facts themselves We can
analyze them as we analyze facts, investigate
their elements, composition, order, and sub-

080

ject " (Taine). The view, however, which
has, owing to the influence of Herbart, Wundt,
and the Neo-Kantians, prevailed for the last
generation has been a more critical one It is
supposed to be the business of philosophy to
analyze and criticize the fundamental concepts
arid assumptions of the special sciences, and to
build up a consistent world view on the basis of
this critical work

The greater intimacy, however, between
philosophy and the special sciences during the
past decade has brought to light the following
considerations (1) that the criticism of the as-
sumptions of the various sciences can be made
only by those who are already in possession
of a certain definite Weltanschauung, (2) that
there are no contradictions infesting the
special sciences to such an extent that the
scientists are helpless and need the aid of
philosophers, and (3) that the fundamental
concepts of the different sciences can be
analyzed only in the light of the special con-
tent of these sciences, and that the specialist
is, if he undertakes it, the best qualified to
make this analysis

The feeling has also arisen recently that the
function of philosophy is obscured by a too
close assimilation of it to science, and that its
nature is m many respects akin to art and
poetry (see Journal of Philosophy t vol 7, p 406)

In spite, however, of all these diverse views
as to the nature of philosophy, all are sub-
stantially agreed that its aim is to give us a
coherent view, or outline chart, of the universe
and the place in it of man, the external world,
and the higher Reality, if there be any
There is also a practical agreement that a
department of philosophy in a college or uni-
versity should teach metaphysics (including
philosophy of mind, and philosophy of reli-
gion), logic, ethics, aesthetics, and the history
of philosophy Professor Fullerton has made
the interesting attempt to show that these
apparently diverse disciplines (including psy-
chology) have not boon grouped together by
mere accident, but that they all have something
fundamental in common, viz that they all
raise problems of reflective thought, ? e
problems involving the critical examination of
the meaning of our ideas (Intio to Phil.,
pp 223-2(30)

Metaphysics, logic, ethics, and the history
of philosophy, then, represent the irreducible
minimum of a department of philosophy.
Though many philosophers emphasize the
primacy of psychology as a philosophical
discipline, psychologists as a rule are anxious
to have their science free from all philosophic
entanglements In many of our universities
psychology now forms an independent depart-
ment, and at the St Louis Congress of Arts
and Sciences (1904) the psychologists were
grouped not with the philosophers but with
the other students of natural science. In
France lectures on sociology are still given by

PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHY

professors of philosophy and this is also true
of other Latin countries, especially Spanish
America where French positivism has boon
very influential No ono, however, doubts
that the specialization of the social sciences is
inevitable. In the United States courses in
education are often given by the department
of philosophy, but though philosophy must
always play a prominent part in educational
theory, it is only for administrative reasons
that the two departments aro united In
many American colleges courses in tho histoiv
of mathematics, chemistry, etc , aro given bv
the departments concerned, but in the \ en-
few instances where couises in the general
history of science are given, this is done bv tho
department of philosophy In Euiopoan in-
stitutions even the history of special sciences
is given by the department of philosophy,
and when a physicist like Mach begins to
lecture of the history of his own science, it, is
thought proper to transfer him to the depart-
ment of philosophy Tho history of science
is, however, a very much neglected field in
any case For the individual philosophic
disciplines, soo ^ESTHETICS, ETHICS, IXKJIC,
and METAPHYSICS. For schools of philo-
sophic thought, soo MATERIALISM, SPIRITUAL-
ISM, IDEALISM, REALISM, PHENOMENALISM,
RATIONALISM, MYSTICISM, EMPIRICISM, SCEPTI-
CISM, CRITICISM, POSITIVISM, INTELLECTUAL-
ISM, VOLUNTARISM, PRAGMATISM, MONISM, AND
PLUBATISM

History of the Teaching of Philosophy —
Among the Ancient* — India and China seem
to be the only Oriental countnos that inde-
pendently developed definite schools of phi-
losophy, i e bodies of doctrine more or loss
systematically and continuously taught from
generation to generation Thus wo haAe in
China the speculative school of Lao-tze,
Licius (Lieh-tzi) and Tschaung-tze, and the
moralistic school of Confucius and Moncius
beginning in the sixth century B c and con-
tinued into the Christian ora In India wo
have six great historical schools of which the
Sankhya, Vedanta, and Yoga aro best known
in the West.

The earliest form of teaching took place
under the form of voluntary diseipleship ,
the disciple attended the master and learned
from him in the course of ordinary conversation
or whenever the spirit moved the mast or
Such a life frequently mvolvod celibacy Tho
typical Hindu teachers of philosophy live
apart on a mountain or in a grove in simple
abstemious fashion, spending the time "in
listening to serious discourse and imparting
their knowledge to such as will list on to thorn "
(Max Mtlller, Six Systems of Indian Philosophy,
p 35). We also hear of philosophic and
religious congresses and of philosophic dispu-
tations at kings' courts, and, in Buddhist
times, of monasteries, famous schools, public
lectures, etc.

Before the o\tensn o uso of textbooks was
possible, instruction was given in the form of
shoit mnemonic aphorisms, easy to hand on
unnltoied fiorn goneiation to generation, but
so brief and packed with moaning as to need
extensive commentary to make them intelli-
gible Such teaching, therefore, tended to
become dogmatic and esoteric.

The (lia'co-Roman Period — Tho earliest
form of philosophic teaching among tho Greeks
was probably also in the form of aphorisms of
Wise Men, and Thalos, the founder of the
Milesian school of philosophy, was regarded
as ono of the Seven Wise Men of Greece.
Populai philosophic insti notion was also given
by the wandering bards, of whom Xonophanes,
the founder of the Eloatic School, was a re-
markable example Tho Pythagorean School
was definitely organized, and demanded certain
modes of life of its members to enable them to
puisne its characteristic studios

The expansion of Greek life and culture in
the fifth century B c brought into existence the
proiessional teachei 01 sophist The wander-
ing sophist was an itinerant university, gather-
ing all sorts of pupils and teaching them all
subjects Tho various schools which owe their
impulse to Socrates wore largely influenced
in their foundation by their fooling of protest
against the introduction of professionalism
into the life of culture Socrates taught
by moans of his peculiar method of question-
ing— noteworthy in the history of education
as an indication of the complete absence of
the authoritative note, and thus characteristic
of the spirit of fiee inquiry among the Greeks
Plato tnod hard to avoid tho lecture- system
of the sophists, but Aristotle returned to it
Socrates refused to accept any fees, and Plato
was too independent, but Speusippus, Plato's
successor in the Academy, found it necessary
to accept fees At tho end of the fourth
century B c we find separate and distinct
from the schools of rhetoric four well-estab-
lished permanent schools of philosophy (the
Academic, the Poiipatotic, the Stoic, and the
Epicurean) which made Athens tho world's
contoi for philosophic instruction These
schools continued their existence till closed
by Justinian (in 529) The corporate character
of these schools (for which see ATHENS, UNI-
VERSITY or, GREECE, EDUCATION i^ , UNIVER-
SITIES, etc ) made them emphasize adherence to
tiaditional doctrine of the school lather than
independence of thought

With the introduction of Greek culture into
Roman society, philosophy became a standard
form of education coordinate with jurispru-
dence, rhetoric, and medicine It became
customary for the great families to send their
sons to Athens to study philosophy. Phil-
osophic education at Rome, however, was
mainly carried on through private tutors who
regarded their office as that of a physician
to the morals of those whom they instructed.

687

PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHY

DiMiiteujsted play ol tho intellect gave way,
under this regime, to the inculcation of
Hound moral maxims or precepts (Seneca, K{> ,
49, §5) We have, however, picturos of lec-
ture theaters crowded to heai philosophic
orations or debates between ihetoncul philoso-
phers. We also hear of philosophic mission-
aries, like Apolonms of Tvana, exhorting and
appealing to the crowds in the market place

Alexandrian Schools and Auilnc Influence —
In the third centuiy H r (he great libianes
and museums and the hbeial policy of the
Ptolemies towards scholais made Alexandria
(see ALEXANDRIA, SCHOOL OF) an endowed re-
search university, a gieat center of learning
lather than of instruction It became also the
chief meeting place of Oieek philosophy and
Oriental religion From it issued Philo's doc-
trine of the Logos (see PHTLO or JITIM<;\), and
the chief intellectual moulds for the dogmas of
the Christian Church In the revival of leh-
gious and speculative philosophy in the third
century (A D ) Alexandria was also the hiith-
place of Neo-Platonism (q v ), which, by claim-
ing to unite and restore the philosophy of Plato
and Aristotle, became1 the rallying ground for
those who wanted to maintain the old Hellen-
istic culture against, the rising tide of Chiis-
tiamty It was also principally at Alexandria
that Christianity, under the leadership of men
like Clement and Ongen (qq v ), begun to yoke
Greek philosophy into its service The cate-
chetical schools (q v } of Kgypt and Syria were
the first to introduce the study of philosophy
into Christum schools From the Syrian
schools of Kdessa and Nisi bis the study of
philosophy was carried into Arabic or Saracen
culture The Arabic translations of Aristotle
were carried across Nort h Ainca into the Mooi-
ish centers of learning in Spain, and there they
were, together with Arabic commentaries,
translated into Latin and brought back to
Kurope, principally through TIebiew translators

The Middle Aye* — In the fifth century,
with the barbarian invasions and the decay
of Roman culture, philosophic study became
practically extinct in Western Europe Some
logic, however, continued to be taught as a
part of the cycle of liberal studies, and when
the Christian monastic schools took over the
elements of the later Craeco-Roman system
of education, logu leinamed the only school
discipline having any connection with phi-
losophy (See article on LOGIC )

Though Porphviy's Introduction stated the
problem of umversals out of which medieval
philosophy grew, the regular school teaching
of logic was mainly formal While there were
noted examples of philosophic speculation, as
John Scot in the ninth and Cerbert in the
tenth century, it was not until the end of the
eleventh century that philosophic teaching
may be said to have been resumed in what
had been the Western Empire

The revival of philosophic study received its

impetus first from the theologies interest in
the question of universals, secondly from the
recovery of the more important Aristotelian
logical writings (the Analytics, etc ) either in
Boot hi us1 translation or that of Jacob Clericus
(1128), and thirdly from the introduction of
Aristotle's Metaphysics, Physics, and Ethics,
through the Arabic translations and commen-
tai les, at the end of the twelfth century Aftei
1254 logic and philosophy formed nearly the
whole of the curriculum, the old quadnvium
being relatively neglected No uniform 01
sharp line was at first drawn between the
universities and the older monastic schools
The latter continued to teach logic and some-
times one or other of the " three philosophies
As late as 1540 we find Ferrenus publicly lec-
turing in the chaptei house of the Abbey at
Kinloss on Aristotle's Ethics, Politics, Physic*,
ftlctap/ii/sics, Kconomic*, and Psychology The
growth of the universities, however, led the
grammar, burgh, and landschulen to restrict
themselves to grammai and logic and some-
times to the lonnei only (See UNIVERSITIES
and MIDDLE ACJES, ED r CATION IN )

The logic of the syllogism, howevei, ex-
tended its sway over the whole range of higher
education Eveiy study was i educed to a,
numbei of " questions " and thus made suitable
for syllogistic reasoning The presence of a
huge body of authoritative doctrines in the
form of unquestioned self-evident principles,
sentences from the Bible, the Christian
Fathers, the "Philosopher," and the Doctois
of the Chinch, made this proceduie possible
Syllogistic disputation also adapted itself to
the strong controversial spirit of the medieval
age The disputes between the nominalists
and the realists were carried on with such
violence that, the king of France had to foibid
all disputations on such "mflammatoiy sub-
jects " In an age devoid of our modern means
of publication and dissemination of the news
of the intellectual life, the wandering scholai
provided d means for intellectual entertain-
ment and popular instruction

The Renaissance and Later — The mo\(v
nient known as the Renaissance brought back
to Km ope Creek philosophy other than Aris-
totle, and even Aristotle began t.o leceive a
new interpretation in the light of the Cieek
text and the commentaries of Alexander
Aphrodisuis instead of the commentaries of
Ayenoes The spirit of free inquiry led to a
questioning of the classic medieval view of the
universe based on Aristotle, and brought Plato
and Plotmus (q v ) to the fore University
teaching of philosophy, however, was not pro-
foundly affected by this movement, which was
organized in societies or academics like the
Florentine and supported by liberal princes
The humanists approached philosophy from
the literary rather than from the logical or
" scientific " side The universities substi-
tuted the Greek text of Aristotle for the Latin

088

PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHY

one, and some of Plato's dialogues were ad-
mitted into the orthodox curriculum, but the
old methods remained Logical disputations
and the public defense of these continued to be
requned for graduation, even in the medi-
cal faculty, down to the nineteenth century

Outside of the universities, also, began the
mathematical-physical philosophy of Coperni-
cus, Keppler, Descartes, Galileo, and Leibnitz
This new philosophy found its support m the
great scientific academies (q v ) founded in the
seventeenth century To a certain extent this
new philosophy also found suppoit from the
new liberal culture which began in France un-
der Louis XTV and which was supported by
al1 the liberal courts ol Eiuope Leibniz, who
disdained to seek a university position, is the
typical representative of this new culture and
philosophy Cambridge seems to have been
the first university to hear the appeal of men
like Barrow to stop speculating about "entia
ratiotiis, mater i a pnma, and such like scholastic
chimeias " and turn (1(5.>9) to the mathematical
philosophy of Galileo and Descartes But
even hero the influence of its own Newton
was comparatively slight throughout the
eighteenth centurv In Germany the scholas-
tic philosophy was replaced, aftei a struggle in
which the aiifhonty of the liberal Frederick
the Gioat proved the decisive factor, by the
Leibmtzo-Wolffian philosophy oi " leasonablo
thoughts " Through the influence of men like
Martin Knutzen and his more famous pupil,
Kant, the Newtonian view of the physical
universe enteied into the univeisities In
France the removal of Church contiol over the
faculty of philosophy in the eighteenth centurv
made possible the introduction of Descaites
The modern scientific, as opposed to the
scholastic spirit, did not, however, completely
triumph in academic philosophy until the
second half of the nineteenth century

Of great importance to the teaching of phi-
losophy was the change of the language of
instruction from Latin to the vernaculai
This change was begun, in spite of bittei op-
position, by Thomasius at Halle, in 1694, and
was not completed until the first quartei of the
nineteenth centurv The poverty of material
in the old scholastic philosophy was hidden
by the learned language in which it was de-
livered When men began to lecture in the
vernacular they had to attend more to the
substance of then teaching

Philosophy in the American College -
History — From the beginning, philosophy was
taught by the class tutor on the basis of
the scholastic manuals then used in England
Before 1664, when the three-year curriculum
prevailed at Harvard, provision was made for
logic and physics in the first year, ethics and
politics in the second, and philosophic dis-
putations in the third At the end of the
seventeenth century we find logic taught in
the first two years from the Latin manuals
VOL. iv — 2 y <

of Peter Ramus and Burgerdicius, in the third
year llemy More's Ethic* and Dr Morton's
Physics and Metaphysics, arid in the fourth
year Divinity At the beginning of the eight-
eenth century Locke's Essay oti the Human
Understanding was introduced into the cur-
riculum, and remained throughout the eight-
eenth century the starting point of American
philosophy , as can be seen in such different
types as Franklin and Jonathan Edwards
Boikelov arid Hume had i datively little in-
fluence, the lonner being a Bishop of the
Church of England and the lattei suspected
of being both a sceptic and a toiy The
deistic contioversv and the question of free
will in relation to Calvimstic theology limited
almost entnely the range of philosophic inter-
est At the end of the eighteenth century new
influences began to come in, French material-
ism as lepresented by Priestley, and Scotch
milism as brought over by Piesident Wither-
spoon Tho former was influential mainly in
the South, but the latter swept the country,
and in the middle of the nineteenth century was
the predominant influence in the philosophy
taught in American colleges Reid, Stewart,
and Biown weie several times reprinted in
America, and in the second third oi the nine-
teenth century Hamilton's lectuios went
through several American editions and abridg-
ments Palev's Monil and Political Philoso-
phy and his Evidence* of Chnstiamty also
came in at the beginning of the nineteenth
century In the fouith decade of the nine-
teenth centuiv Cousin and French Eclecti-
cism became influential Paitly through the
influence oi German irnmigiants and the St
Louis School of Philosophy, headed by Di
William T Hams, and paitly through the
influence of teachers trained in Germany,
Kant and Hegel began to dominate academic
philosophy in the last quarter of the nine-
teenth centuiv Though Mill and Spencer
weie widely lead, they had little influence on
the academic teaching of philosophy

By the beginning of the nineteenth century
sepai ate chairs in mathematical and physical
science were established in most American
colleges, but so late as 1838 the course in
philosophy at Amheist included mechanics,
electricity, etc In the hist half of the nine-
teenth centiuv economics was separated
iron i philosophy in some of the largei colleges,
but this separation was not completed in other
colleges before the twentieth century The
modern pciiod of the American college with
its large field of electives may be said to have
begun in the last quartei of the nineteenth
cent ui y Previous to that, philosophy was all
prescribed and generally ciowded into the last
yeai 01 two, as one of the higher branches cal-
culated not only to train the student in scholar-
ship but to fit' him foi piactical life

Ann — It is agreed by all that the training
of specialists in philosophy is beyond the scope

PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHY

of the American college Is philosophic train-
ing, then, an indispensable element of a liberal
education for citizenship in the larger life9
In urging an affirmative answer the following
points have been made -—

(1) Philosophic knowledge is a desirable
end in itself " Just to iace these profound
problems concerning the being, the origin of,
and the destiny of man just to know that
there are such problems, and something of
how the soul of man has 111 thought and feeling
responded to them, is of itself no small pait
of liberal culture " (Ladd, Educational Review,
X, p 232 ) Even if we regard philosophy
as setting or solving no problem, the inspira-
tion which comes iiom the knowledge of man's
search for the thoughts that give value and
dignity to human hie is one of the be^t things
that a liberal education can offer

(2) Others emphasize not so much the
knowledge itself as the philosophic habit
The philosophic or reflective habit is ab-
solutely essential in order to enable the stu-
dent to bring together the4 diveise fragments
of knowledge picked up in the different de-
partments, and to organize the contents of his
mind into some unity The need for such

nearest the pupil's own experience rathei
than with the abstract elements of the subject,
has not yet found full recognition in philo-
sophic teaching, though some philosophic,
teachers have exemplified it beautifully. The
philosopher is peculiarly apt to think that he is
going from the simple to the complex when he
is really proceeding fiom the abstract to the
concrete (qv), forgetting that the abstract ele-
ments familiar to himself are strange and
dim cult of apprehension to the beginner.

The peculiar difficulty about philosophic
teaching is that it involves on the part of the
pupil an appaiently different mode of thinking
from the one to which he has been accustomed,
a peculiar turning back on one's usual ideas,
and this undoubtedly appears to the beginner
both forbidding and fruitless The pioblem,
then, is how to make philosophic, pioblems
real to the student How is the student to
be seriously interested in philosophic issues
and to be trained in the difficult art of philo-
sophic thinking7 \Ve must show the vital
importance of the subject from the beginning
Koi unless we succeed in showing the student
that philosophy i* a mutter of life and death,
essential to his own intellectual salvation, we

unity is especially evident when one reflects cannot generally draw out the best efforts,

on the chasm which generally separates the The pedagogic means gen ei ally used in the

religious ideas which the student brings to teaching of philosopln are the lecture, the

college from the scientific ideas which he quiz, the assigned leading, the essay, the reci-

gatheis in such courses as geology, biology, 01 tation, discussion, and the pamphlet 01 ques-

psychophysics The philosophic habit pre- turn syllabus As a method of philosophic

vents a man from becoming a narrow partisan, teaching the lecture has, besides the disad-

and in this way it is one of the finest flowers of vantages incident to it. in other subjects, the

culture

added one that it must, in oidei to enable the

This last aspect of the situation leads some student to follow it intelligently, necessarily
to emphasize the ethical aim in philosophic avoid intricate questions or very close reason-
teaching More important than a knowledge inp, The philosophic lectmer may have to
of philosophic problems past or present is it present example's of reasoning as closely knit
that the student should be started in the busi- as that of the mathematician, but lie has not
ness of philosophizing for himself Students the advantage of making it all visible on

as a rule come to college slaves of traditional
forms of thought and conduct, and to train
them to become freemen of the intellectual
life is the function of the devoted teacher of
philosophy Just because its results aie not
so certain as those of mathematics or the natu-
ral sciences, the student cannot hud the answer-
before thinking the matter out for himself

the blackboard To offset this partly, some
teachers put an outline syllabus in the hands
of the pupils before the lecture Even so,
the lecture seems well adapted only to intro-
duce or open up a topic and to summarize a
discussion

In many of our large colleges the professor
gives two lectures a week, and an assistant

Most people doubtless get this training in meets the class, usually in smaller sections, for
actual life in. the school of experience, but, quizzes on required leading or on the sub-
philosophic training accomplishes it at less stance of the lectures The attitude of the
expense students who, judging by the position of the
Methods. — No other teachers have, as a assistant, regard the quiz as of secondary
body, given so little attention to the pedagogy importance, makes this airangement a nioie
of their subject as the American teachers of or less perfunctory affair, seldom productive
philosophy; with the result that at least one of genuine enthusiasm It is generally felt
professor of philosophy confesses, " It is possi- that the quiz should give way to the full
ble that there has been more poor pedagogics recitation where the student and instructor
in this field throughout trie ages than in anv can discuss the subject matter at length and
other branch of the university " (Journal of not be compelled to take up any new topic
Phil , VII, p 569) The pedagogic principle before coming to a satisfactory termination
which has revolutionized modern science of the one in hand

teaching, viz to begin with the concrete The objections to discussion, especially

690

PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHY

when instructors allow students to discuss
with each other m class, are. (1) It is apt to
give students the impression that philosophy
is all a matter of opinion (2) The variety of
views that come into discussion is apt to be
confusing to the beginner (3) The discussion
is apt to run into very minor matters and make
students lose sight of the big issues Dis-
cussion frequently degenerates into repeti-
tion of opinions, with no advantage except,
at best, developing the student's cleverness
at finding arguments (4) Discussion or
Socratic questionings must be piofitless if
students have not some previous knowledge
of the subject to be discussed, and have "no
method of ordenng their thoughts in truth-
giving directions "

In answer to these it may be maintained

(1) that philosophy must begin with opinions,
but opinions have to bo made systematic and
consistent with the whole of experience The
age of dogmatic manuals of absolutely ceitam
truths is past, and those who sigh for them,
as after the fleshpots of Egypt, do so in vain

(2) A critical attitude to one's opinion is the
most effective method of philosophizing

(3) The teacher can correct the shortcomings
by actively and critically guiding the dis-
cussion without dogmatically assorting his
own opinion more than is necessary for ef-
fective summaries or searching questions

(4) Discussion has been called by Professor
James the philosopher's laboratory, and the
mere clash ot one's opinion with that of others
is an illuminating experience preventing one
from returning to previous narrow dogmatism
It must also be maintained that philosophy
does not have to start with a clean slate and
that it may and must, to be effective, glow
out of what the student already knows and
thinks

A device which Professor (iarman intro-
duced, and which he considered as much of an
invention as printing by movable type1, is
the pamphlet In these pamphlets some
problem is stated or developed, but without
any definite1 solution Those are loaned to the
student, who, thus shut off from the possibility
of turning to the next page to find the solution,
is compelled before enter rng the discussion
in the classroom to think the matter over and
formulate his own answer The instructor
is then in a position to know whether the stu-
dents are taking serious hold of the subject

The intensive reading of classical texts forms
pait of most courses in philosophy The fre-
quent writing of essays is now recogm/ed as
a powerful instrument to bring the student's
ideas together and make them clear to him-
self For this reason some teachers encourage
their students to write on subjects on which
the latter have little information, or on topics
which have not yet been discussed in the
classroom The essay is thus a means to com-
pel the student to think on the subject The

reading of texts, however, needs elucidation,
and both text and essay need to be supple*
mented by thorough discussion and criticism
to make them effective

Philosophic clubs in many of our colleges
frequently increase interest in philosophic
studies In many of our colleges connected
with graduate schools senior students also
have the privilege of entering the seminar
courses

Organization of a Department of Philosophy
— Philosophy is usually regarded as a difficult
subject requrimg some maturity and knowledge
of other studies Hence, it is considered ad-
visable to begin the study of philosophy in
the upper classes This arrangement, how-
ever, limits the number of courses that the
undergraduate can take, and teachers who are
anxious that students should have the ad-
vantage of the more advanced courses are in
favor of opening the philosophy department
to sophomores or even to freshmen

As so much depends on the starting point
in philosophy, the question, " Which course
should be given first," is of great importance
There is, however, nothing like agreement in
the answer The historical answer, of course,
is logic, which has for over 2000 years served
as a propaedeutic to philosophy Even the
driest treatise on formal logic raises a number
of distinctly philosophical issues Thus the
relation of the universal to the individual, of
terms to objects, judgment to reality, etc , all
lead to philosophic issues of deepest moment
But the dry and apparently fruitless character
of syllogistic exercise seems to postpone rather
than introduce the vital issues of philosophy

A great many colleges now offer psychology
as the first course The plausible argument
is made that acquaintance with the workings
of the human mind is a prerequisite for phi-
losophy But the growing disfavor of analytic
or non-laboratory psychology raises difficulties
in the way of this 'mode of introduction to
philosophy, and raises the doubt whether
physiology or physics is not just as much a
prerequisite for philosophy as psychology
At any rate, neither logic nor psychology con-
tain enough philosophy

The main issue seems to be, however, be-
tween those who believe in beginning with the
history of philosophy and those who believe
in beginning with some survey of philosophic
problems The great arguments for the his-
torical introduction aro (1) that an approach
through a survey of problems is apt to be
partial and one-sided, and (2) that the history
of philosophy gives one the proper perspec-
tive to appreciate the problems In answer,
however, it may be urged (1) that there is
nothing pedagogioelly wrong in starting with
a partial and one-sided view, provided we
supply the motive power to enable the student
to go on to a wider view As a matter of fact
the great historical system grew out of certain

691

PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHY

problems. (2) The student cannot get the
proper perspective of the history of philosophy
without some preliminary appreciation of the
problems themselves The student is too
immature to grasp the pi obtains confronting
Plato, Aristotle, or Descartes without having
done any philosophic thinking on his own ac-
count The effort on the part of teachers to
simplify the teachings of the great masters and
to make them intelligible to beginners leads to
a certain conventionalization of their teaching,
amounting to caricature (See Owen Wistcr's
Philosophy Four.}

Among those who urge that we should begin
with the study of problems, no general agree-
ment as to the content of these problems exists
Whore such courses are given, they generally
consist in an excessive simplification of the
main problems of metaphysics arid epistemol-
ogy, i c an elementary treatment of the issues
between monism and pluralism, idealism and
realism, etc As an introduction to the tech-
nical problems and to show how these prob-
lems grow out of ical life, the fields of Religion,
Science, Literature, History of Civilization, or
Ethical and Political Problems have been sug-
gested as supplying the proper material

Metaphysics or General Philosophy — The
course in metaphysics in the seventeenth and
eighteenth centimes was predominantly one
in natural theology, with special reference, in
the eighteenth century, to the dcistic contro-
versy The introduction of Locke in the be-
ginning, arid of the Scottish philosophy at
the end of the eighteenth century, brought
psychologic elements into the course and soon
led to separate courses in theism and mental
or intellectual philosophy The introduction
of German philosophy in the latter part of the
nineteenth century brought cpistemologic con-
siderations forward, and for a time it seemed
as if epistemology would replace metaphysics
This tendency, however, to regard epistemol-
ogy as independent of metaphysics is now
on the wane, but separate courses in epistemol-
ogy, the theory of knowledge, 01 philosophy
of mind are still given frequently, for episte-
mologic questions are decidedly in the fore-
ground of cunent philosophic discussion In
detei mining the scope and the setting of the
problems in the modern course of metaphysics,
Lotze's Metaphysics has been very influential
Recently Taylor's Elements of Metaphysics has
become popular with American teachers

Within the past decade there has been a
revival ot interest in classical metaphysics, i e
m problems of ontology and cosmology, and
courses on the philosophy of nature are increas-
ing It is urged on behalf of the latter course
that its subject matter is concrete and that
the student has a feeling of dealing with the
actual world The course in the philosophy
of evolution given m several colleges belongs
to the same category

A course which has now almost disappeared

from the curriculum of the American college is
the one in the philosophy of history Under
the influence of books like Bunsen's God in
History and Hegel's Philosophy of History this
course was frequently given With the re-
action against a priori methods in history this
course fell into bad repute Recently, how-
ever, several have urged its remtroduction in
a form consonant with the spirit of present-
day philosophy Professor Hudson has advo-
cated making it the introductory course in
philosophy (Journal of Phil , Vol VII, p 426 )

History of Philosophy — The course in
the history of philosophy is like the study of
history itself, a comparatively modern addi-
tion to the curriculum of the American college
The history of philosophy acquired the dignity
of an academic discipline when Hegel made it
appear as a rational system At any rate,
Schwegler's History of Philosophy (in Seeley's
or Stirling's translation) seems to have been
the first widely used textbook in this field in
American colleges One or two terms are
usually devoted to this course When the
latter is the case, ancient philosophy is taken
up m the first and modern philosophy in the
second term Little attention is given to medi-
eval philosophy, and modern philosophy is
usually ended with Hegel or Lotze, if not with
Kant In one or two of the colleges connected
with graduate schools students have the op-
poiturnty of taking the special course in con-
temporary philosophy

Courses in special periods of modern phi-
losophy such as Continental Rationalism
(Descartes, Spinoza, and Leibnitz) or British
Empiricism (Locke, Berkeley, and Hume), are
given in most colleges having a developed de-
partment of philosophy Sometimes we have
also special courses in Plato, Aristotle, or Kant
But almost no courses are given in the history
of special holds such as logic, epistemology,
or ethics

With the waning of the metaphysical inter-'
est in the latter par t of the nineteenth century,
the history of philosophy threatened to absorb
all the vitality of the philosophy department,
and m the United States as in Germany the
number oi courses in the history of philosophy
was almost equal to the combined number
of all the other philosophic courses; but this
historical wave is now receding

In the teaching of the history of philosophy
some emphasize the history and others the
philosophy. The former method has been the
hitherto prevailing one, — so much so that a
recent college textbook in this field includes
and emphasizes a great deal of geographic in-
formation The generally recognized danger
m the teaching of the history of philosophy
is the breeding of a shallow skepticism through
the kaleidoscopic picture of the rise and fall
of different systems To offset this, many
teachers try to emphasize the historical con-
tinuity of philosophic problems. The at-

092

PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHY

tempt, however, to minimize philosophic dif-
ferences or the controversial element tends
to exaggerate the conventionalization of the
doctrines of the great philosophers To guard
against this, some reading in the sources,
Plato, Descartes, Locke, etc , is frequently
prescribed, even in the general course on the
history of philosophy To niake this reading
effective, however, intensive studv is needed,
and one has to give up the continuity of the
historical survey

Those who would emphasize the philosophy
i ather than the history in this course are quite
willing to leave a great many lacunae in the his-
tory and to select only those problems " which
bear a significant relation to the issues and
interests of our own time In expounding a
philosopher we should not try unsuccessfully
to take the view point of his contemporaries,
but should treat his pioblems and theories
frankly from the standpoint of the present "

For the course in ^Esthetics or Philosophy
of Ait, see article ESTHETICS

Relation of Philosophy to the Other Deport-
ments — The growing specialization in the
different fields of human knowledge and in
departmental teaching has brought about a
stiong habit on the part of teacheis of philos-
ophy to avoid all issues of fact which aie the
subject matter of the various sciences This
has tended to eviscerate philosophic teaching
and to give it the appearance of a fruitless
occupation with oinptv forms devoid of con-
tent Fortunately, however, the sciences,
especially physics and biology, aie now out-
giowmg then juvenile feai of metaphysics,
and the philosophic spirit is gi owing in the
various sciences, as well as in the plulologic
and hteiarv courses Teachers of philosophy
now advise then students to take vanous
courses in other departments in ordei to make
their philosophic study moie thorough

Philosophy in the Universities - - The Am-
erican Giaduatc School — The aim of graduate
instruction in philosophy is to give the student
the technical equipment needed to teach and to
advance philosophic knowledge It ter inmates
with the conferring of the Doctorate of Phi-
losophy. As the requisite philosophic ability
is not widely distributed, our best graduate
schools make it distinctly understood that this
degree will be granted only to those who have
distinctive ability in this field

Graduate students in philosophy are (1)
those who intend to teach philosophy, (2)
students of divinity, or (3) students of othei
subjects, such as education, who regard ad-
vanced philosophic studies as helpful in the
preparation for their special careers Of these
three classes only the first and part of the sec-
ond try to complete the work necessary for
the doctorate in philosophy, the others are
usually satisfied with the M A in this branch of
study, or, where the group system prevails, they
choose it as one of their minors for the Ph D

Instruction is given mainly through lectures
and seminar or research courses The lecture
in the graduate schools can be more frankly
the statement of the lecturer's own philosophic
views or interpretation of classical doctrines
than is possible in the college The distinc-
tive work of the graduate school, however,
consists in the training for research, and this
is done principally in seminar courses The es-
sence of the seminar course is that the student
should have the opportunity to repoit from
time to time the result of some research, or his
own constructive thinking, and have it
subjected to the thoiough criticism of his fellow
students and of his instructor Many courses
not announced ah seminars are practically
conducted in this \\av (practica) The typical
seminal is announced as restricted to some one
general held, e g advanced logic, and the
different membeis report on different topics
in this field which they have chosen for the
year Some professors assign only one topic,
eg the relation of mind and body, as the
subject for the year, and various students
repoit either on different aspects of this
question or on the different classical views
which ha\e been maintained with regard to it
In this latter foim of seminar all students
leport at tneiy session, instead of devoting an
entire session to one or two reports

RcxeanJi Couiscs — The minimum require-
ments for the Ph.D. are generally two years'
attendance and the thesis As the topic of
the thesis seldom falls \vithm the subject of a
legular seminar course, the student misses
any direct help in the pieparation of his thesis.
For this reason, some graduate schools have
instituted icsearch courses in which the student
individually reports to the professor in charge
ol his field of inquny

In some of our graduate schools, instructors
and advanced students meet from time to
time to discuss philosophic problems of cur-
rent interest More often a journal club is
formed in which the diffeicnt members report
on recent publications in the held of philos-
ophy Many of oui universities make provi-
sion for the publication of philosophical studies.
They are generally devoted to the publication
of theses or syllabuses by the professors

Philosophy in the German Universities —
The students now entering the university from
the gymnasia have had practically no training
in philosophy, and the great majority of the
courses are, therefore, elementary and, for
the most part, historical in character. Nearly
all of them are lecture courses, whether public
or private, requiring no work on the part of
the student except such reading as he chooses
to do on his own account The students
taking philosophy belong to different groups
besides those who are candidates for the Ph.D.
in philosophy Philosophy is one of the sub-
jects of the state examination which every
candidate must pass in order to teach in the

093

PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHY

classical gymnasia A good many of the
universities still require philosophy as an
additional subject (Ncbenfach) from all can-
didates for the Ph D in the faculty of phi-
losophy (i.e Faculty of Arts and Sciences)
Besides these, a great many people in Germany
regard some university work in philosophy as
essential to a liberal education, and even
students of medicine, law, or technology attend
many of the " public " lectures The student
has his first chance to report on his own work
in the seminar which each ordinary professor
gives in his field

Courses in philosophy are either historical
or systematic Logic, epistemology, psychol-
ogy, philosophy of history, ethics, pedagogy,
and aesthetics form the topics of the system-
atic couises, but even these are largely
historical Philosophy of religion is left to
the theologic faculty and philosophy of law
to the faculty of law. In the reaction against
the post-Kantian systems which ruled in
Germany in the first half of the nineteenth
century, the predominant interests developed
were the epistemologic and the historical,
and they are still foremost

The requirements for the doctorate arc the
oral examination and the thesis, which is also
most frequently historical The tact that a
doctorate is given with various grades, cum
laude, wngna and \iinnna cum laudc, makes it
rather easy to get the degree with a merely
passing mark The result is that GOT many
grants more degrees in philosophy than any
other country The doctorate dissertation it-
self has been the subject of a great deal of
criticism on the part of thoughtful German
teachers, because, owing to the historical tend-
ency, most students spend all their time in
mere reading and senseless amassing of quota-
tions (See Paulson's Gentian (f?/?wrM/tp,s ) A
great deal of criticism has also been directed
against the extensive use of the lecture sys-
tem. The appropriateness of the lecture in an
age of quick printing has been questioned,
especially by non-academic philosophers (K
von Hartmann)

Philosophy at Orford and Cambndgc —
Philosophic instruction at Oxford and Cam-
bridge is nearly all undergraduate At Oxford
philosophy is required only of those who take
the examination for final honors in Literw
Humaniores (" Greats ") and at Cambridge
of those who prepare for the Moral Science
Tripos Only a little logic is required of
passmen

At Oxford philosophy is viewed simply as
part of a classical education in the liberal arts
The content of philosophic study continues
the humanistic tradition, and centers itself
in Plato's Rcpublu and Aristotle's Ethic*, and
the logical, metaphysical, ethical, and political
questions they raise No interest 's taken in
the history of philosophy, and medieval phi-
losophy is entncly unknown in the Univeisity

of Duns Scot us, Roger Bacon, and William
of Occam Of modern English philosophy
only Bacon's Novurn Organum is required.
Though Hegelian philosophy has been very
influential at Oxford in the persons of T. H.
Green, Wallace, and Caird, Hegel has not
figured in the official instruction given by the
university.

In Cambridge the study of mathematics and
physics has absorbed (he vitality of phi-
losophy The Cambridge Platomsts, a group
of N eo- Platonic philosophers of the latter part
of the seventeenth century, seem to have
exerted no lasting influence on the University.
Locke and Clarke were studied during the
eighteenth century, but no importance was
attached to such studies Due largely to
Paley, moral philosophy and natural religion
were added to the legular examinations in
1779, and Palcy's Moral and Political Phi-
losophy became a standard textbook In
1850 the Moral Science Tripos was instituted,
largely through the efforts of Whewell, but it
did not confer a degree till 1860 The Moral
Science Tripos is somewhat more* systematic
than the philosophic portion of the examina-
tion inLf/era1 HUHKIHWICS, but success in it does
not carry the eclat that goes to the student
in the Classical or Mathematical Tripos

Lectures at the various colleges arc given by
professors, leetureis, or readers, on the topics
covered by the examination papers, but there
is no discussion at these lectures, nor is there
any task imposed on the student. Indeed,
these lecture courses are simply supplemental
to the real work of instruction given by the
tutor Students report weekly to their tutor,
discuss then difficulties with him, and submit
their essays to his criticism The mode of
life at both these universities is also conducive
to a great deal of vigorous discussion among the
students

The advantage of the comprehensive final
examination in philosophy is that the student
cannot pass off his courses one after another
(which can be done on the basis of piecemeal
knowledge), but, instead, has to keep all his
studies together throughout the entire period
of study (about two years and a half) This
undoubtedly is conducive to a genuine philo-
sophic attitude in which the different portions
of the field are compared, coordinated, and
synthesized At the same time Oxford and
Cambridge teachers generally recognize that
study \\ith constant reference to certain ques-
tions to be asked on an examination is bound
to be narrow and " calculated to forfeit the
native instinct of curiosity of which, as
Austotle says, philosophy was born " (Mark
PaltLson) " It would be difficult for Aristotle
himself to obtain a serious audience of under-
giaduates unless his teaching was understood
to ' pay ' in some Tripos" (Professor Sidgwick).
The effort to win honors in a final examination
i*> n ioi e likely to develop skill in answering

PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHY

certain questions than genuine* philosophic in-
sight.

Graduate study in philosophy may now bo
pursued at Oxford by those \vho 'enroll as
candidates for the* B Sc decree But the
number of such students is very small, and no
special courses are given for their benefit
They simply pick out, subject to the approval
of the governing committee, a series of courses
from those given to undergiiiduates, and sub-
mit a final thesis

Philosophic instruction in J)ublin tTmvei-
sity is modeled on the (Kfoid and Cambridge,
plan

The ticoich i'tuvct s^/rs — Philosophic in-
struction in the colleges of the Scotch uni-
versities is given in regulai classes, somewhat
as in the American college* The tendencv in
the Scotch college, howevei, is to concentrate
the philosophic teaching in one yeai and not
subdivide it into fragmentary course's, except
that additional courses are given for honoi
students The regent or tutoiial system was
abolished at the beginning of the eighteenth
centurv (though some of the professors con-
tinued to be called legents until the middle
of the nineteenth century)

Owing to excessive religious dnision which,
lor historical reasons, arose between Catholics
,md Protestants, Episcopalians and Presby-
terians, Established and Free Chinches, the
Scotch people ha\e developed a keenness for
controversy and 2111 ability to tiace subtle
intellectual distinctions Philosophy has,
there! ore, al \\avs been a laxonle study with
them, and thc\ ha\e de\eloj>ed thevir o\\n
national philosopln , \\luch, however, has been
profound! \ influenced bv (Unman idealism
More than anv other English-speaking people,
they June developed the studv of the phi-
losophy of law

Most of the Canadian, Austiiilun, and even
the ne\\er Knghsli universities lesemble the
Scottish univeisities more than they do Oxford
or Cambridge in their oigiinization of philo-
sophic instruction

Tin Ficuth {'///WM//<',S — Elementarv in-
struction in philosophy is given in the last
year of the lycee or college1 — coi responding
to the, American high school The giaduatc
receives his baccalaureate degree and is then
allowed to choose his professional couise
Some students, however, attend courses in the
faculty of letters or science before enteiing
on their professional studies In addition
to the doctorate in philosophy, the various
state examinations for the licentiate, and es-
pecially for the 4< aggregation," also require
a gogd deal of philosophical knowledge In
the Ecole Normale two years of philosophy
are required of all intending to qualify as
teachers of history and letters, and additional
special instruction is given to those who want
to teach philosophy in the secondary school

The French unr\ersitie\> aie htcialK and

primarily so many faculties, i.e. groups of
professors The primary duty of the profeewor
is to advance his subject, and for this reason
he gives a course or two every year. They
generally take the form of lecture orations to
which the public is admitted practically free.
Seminar courses arc* given for the benefit of
candidates for the Ph D The standard for
the doctorate is much higher than that- of
(iermanv Not only the thesis but the oral
examination before conferring the doctorate
is taken very seriously by all concerned and
is generally reported in the Revue de metaphii-
s /(///r et de motfih

In France, philosophy is closely associated
with psychology, sociology, and the philosophy
of law In no other country is there less
pedantry or more scientific, spirit in the teach-
ing of philosophy, while attention to clearness
and logical form is still maintained

The Neo-Seholastic philosophy is vigor-
ously developed in the Catholic schools arid
has several notable periodicals for its organs
It is characteristic of the status of French
philosophy that in the* Institute of France it
is represented in two sections of the Academic
des Sciences Morale et Pohtiquc

J'/nlobopht/ in Other Universities — French
positivism is still a vital force in the teaching of
philosophy in Italy, Spain, and Spanish Amer-
ica, especially Mexico In Italy positivism
has to meet not onl> scholasticism and the
native Catholic philosophy (Rosmmi, Mami-
am, etc ), but also adaptations of German
idealism In Spain and Mexico, howevei,
the issue is sharply drawn between positivism
and scholasticism, while in countries like
Argentine and Chile, French positivism seems
to hold the field

Philosophy in Secondary Schools — ///
(rdHuiny — The study of logic, as we saw
above*, formed part of the curriculum of sec-
ondary schools from the very beginning It
was ke»pt in the curriculum of the grammar
school by Sturm, Hatke, and Comemus, and
Luther, with all his hatred of Aristotle, saw
the value* ejf uniting the gospel with the Ans-
toteliun logic as a weapon against the lawless
vagaries of the *' spiritualists." The Lehrplan
e>f Fianeke (1698) provides for six hours a
week e>f philosophy to prepare students for
the university, and in the selecta of the Halle
padagogium, metaphysics, and natural law
were taught in addition to logic. J. A
Ernesti and Cfesnor lectured on psychology,
logic, natural theology, metaphysics, and
ethics, ami embodied them in their manuals
for secondary schools (1736 and 1756) Fred-
erick the ( Treat ami his minister of education,
Zedbtz, emphasized the value of logic as an aid
to independent thinking In their school for
young nobles they mtiexiuced the history of
philosophy, mttuial law, and psychology, which
sve'ie taught, feuir hours per week for the last
thie»c ^semesters The breakdown erf Ihc Wolffwn

PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHY

philosophy through Kant left no settled phil-
osophic doctrines which could be dogmatically
taught in secondary schools Hence philosophy
was gradually discontinued, and the original
plan of the Prussian gymnasia of 1812 made
no provision foi it Repeated complaint,
however, was made by the university pro-
fessors that students coming from gymnasia
were entirely unprepared for university lec-
tures on philosophy In 1825 the minister
of education, von Altenstem, after obtaining
the opinion of Hegel, issued an order intended
to remove this sharp cleft between the gym-
nasia and the universities It provided for
an introduction to philosophy by means of
logic and empirical psychology to be taught
two hours per week in the last two years
Systematic philosophy and its history were
expressly excluded

The ministerial order of 1825 did not make
the teaching of this philosophic propaedeutic
obligatory, since teachers were not everywhere
available for this purpose Tn 1837 the subject
was made obligator )r on all gymnasia, and it
was ordered that teachers of mathematics and
physics be assigned to teach it This last
arrangement proved unsatisfactory Thus the
leading and most satisfactory textbook of
logic, designed as an introduction to phi-
losophy, was Trendelenberg's Elcnienta logic?*
Aubtoielita, which involved difficult Greek
The collapse of the great post-Kantian systems,
and the growing contempt for philosophy
which characterized the middle1 of the nine-
teenth century, caused othei studies to crowd
out the philosophic instruction In 1856 the
number of hours to be devoted to philosophic
propaedeutic was reduced to one in each of
the last two years, and it \vas associated with
instruction in German This i eduction from
the rank of an independent study caused it to
be neglected, and in 1882 it was made optional
The official Lchi plan of 1891 still considers it-
important that, the student .should become
familiar with the more important " general
concepts and ideas," but German prose read-
ings might serve as the means The last
official order on this point (1901) leaves the
situation unchanged The dnector may, if
he is so inclined and has a suitable teacher,
give this course, but the crowding of the
curiiculum with prescribed woik, the general
attitude to philosophy, and the difficulty of
hnding teachers \\ho can teach both German
and philosophy has caused the distinctive
coui.se in philosophic propaedeutic to fall into
general disuse in Prussia, Saxony, and othei
German states

In Austria, arid in some of the southern
German .state* like Baden, plulosophic pro-
pa'deutic LS still taught In Austria it was
introduced in 1849 by Exner and Bonitz, who
followed HeibarTs plan Psychology, logic,
and a little of the history of philosophy are
taught two houis pei \\eek in the last two

years In Baden, the same order is followed,
but the course is reduced to one hour per
week Hungary and the Scandinavian coun-
tries, in the main, follow the Austrian system.

In France — French secondary schools
are now no longei regarded simply as pre-
paratory schools, but as schools of liberal
culture Hence philosophy is not taught in
them simply as propaedeutic, but to provide
insight into the problems at the basis of
civilization, especially the scientific problems.
The basis of the present mstiuction in phi-
losophy was laid by Cousin, who as minister
of public instruction made Eclecticism a
sort of state philosophy The Revolution
of 1848 was hostile to this state philosophy,
and the reaction which followed was equally
so; but DUTUV restoied it in 1863 Under
the Duruy regime philosophy in the lyee'es
included introduction, psychology, logic, ethics,
theology, and the history of philosophy

Under the present, arrangement students
are divided in the last, year into two forms,
— -the philosophical and the mathematical
The former devotes eight and one half hours
pei week to philosophy and the latter only
three The official requirements in the former
coiuse include (1) introduction to philosophy,
(2) analytic psychology, (3) a little of the ele-
ments of aesthetics, (4) logic and the methodol-
ogy of the mathematical, the physical, and the
moral and social sciences, (5) ethics, personal
and social, and (0) metaphysics, covering the
questions of the value arid limits of human
knowledge, the problems of mattei, soul, God,
etc In addition four texts, chosen from a
long list of ancient and modern authors, are
read and discussed in the classroom, arid used
as the basis for the exposition of the phil-
osophic systems which they represent

In the mathematical form, only the logic
and the ethics are developed The close
i elation between the study of the methodology
of the sciences and the student's other scientific
studies, makes this course more popular with
students than the larger course in the phil-
osophical form A thesis in philosophy is
required foi the baccalaureate only in the
lattei form

Philosophy DI the ticcondcirif School* of
Othci CountiH"* - In Italy the organic law of
1859 (law of Casati, § 188) made philosophy
tin essential part, of the curriculum of the
I K en Four hours an1 now devoted to it in
the last yeai, and the subjects covered are
mainly logic and psychology as taught in the
French schools Many, however, are urging
its extension (See Dtzionaiio di Pedag, art.
" 1'Insegnamento della Filosofia ") The French
system of teaching philosophy as a branch
of liberal cultuie in the secondary schools is
followed, on a somewhat reduced scale, in
Argentine and Chile For the philosophic
teaching in the Jesuit schools, see article JESUIT

Kl) I) CATION. M. H. C.

69(3

PHILOSOPHY

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

References —

Definition and Scope —

EISLEB, R Worterbuch der Philosophie, B v Philosophic
(Berlin, 1910)

History of Philosophy —
KRDMANN, J E History of Philosophy (systematic)

(London, 1891 )
.]\NET and SEAILLEH Hixtort/ of tti< Piohlew* of

Philosophy, Vol 1, Chap 1 (London, 1902)
PAULHKN, F Gettdnthh dc* (ftlehrttn Vntcrruht^

(Leipzig, 1885 )
VBERWEG-HEINZE Gcxchichte da J'hilowphit ((\>n-

taina exhaustive bibliographies of the vanouH

periods The English translation is somewhat

antiquated ) (Berlin, 1880-1905 )

WlLAMOWITZ-MoLLENDORFF PhllolofllXcJu Cntci IHCh-

ungen, Vol IV (Berlin, 1881), p 2GH ff
WULF, M D*. H istory of M(diwa) Philosophy (London,

1909)
ZELLER Die Philoxophu der Cruchen (Leipzig, 1870-

1889 )

Philosophy in the American Collect —
ARMSTRONG Philosophy in the American College

Ed Rev , 13 (1897), p 10
DODHON, G R Jout of Phil , 5, p 454
EWKR, B C Jour of Phil , 7, p US
GARMAN, O E , in Amer Join of /S// , Vol 9, p 000
HALL, G S Mind, Vol IV, p 89 (1879)
HINMAN, E L Joui oj Plnl , 7, p 5ul
HunsoN, J W Join of Phil , 7, p ,%9, and 9, p 1>9
MONTAGUE, W P Kd R(v , 40 (15)10), p 488
SNO\\ , L F Tfn College Cuinndujn in tin Vtnttd
Mate* Teadicrh College, 1907

Ptnlouophi/ in (h< lruiv< jfiitH"*
Fiant< —
LIARD, L L'En\n0rnnicnt Superior en Franc* (Paris,

1888-1S94 )

HIUUT, T Philohophv in Franee Mind, \ ol 11
(1887), p i(Mi

(lerwanij —
HVKTMANN, E v Modern* Pioblitm (Zur H< form rf< s

I'nirervitfltbunttrnrht) (Leipzig, 1888 )
P \ULHhN, F Th< (firman I nivtivilx^ (ti Pern)

(New York, 189,") )

WUNDT, \\ PhiloHophy in (Jerrnniiv, Mind, Vol 11
(1877), p 49-5

Cambridfie —

vSiDGWK'K, H Philosophy at (1nmbndgp Mind,
Vol I (1876), p 235

Oxford —

PATTIHON, MARR Philosopln at Oxford Mind,
Vol I (1876), p 84

Scottish Universities —
JARDINE, G Outlineh of philosophical oducution, as

illustrated by the method of twirhmg the logic

class in the Umversit\ of Glaagou (Kdmbiiigh,

1825)
VEITCH, J Philosophy at the Scottish L niveifuties

Mind, Vol II (1877), pp 74, 207

Philosophy 171 the Secondary School -—
Germany —

BAUMEISTER Handburh dei Eizuh-ungs nnd Vntri-
nchtalehrc, Vol III, article by Wendt

Also article on Philosophische Propadeutik by Rausch
in Handbuch ftir Lehrer hohertr Schuien (Leipzig,
Tcubner, 1905), and by Kern, in Schmid'h Kmt/klo-
pddtf der Padogogik

HEGLL Werke, Vol XVII (Berlin, 1835;, pp 3.13-
368, and.Vol XVIII (Berlin, 1840)

HERBART Ubtr den Unterncht in der Philosophic auf
Gyninasien Pad Werke (Willman), II, pp 121 ff

HOFLER, A Zyr Propadeutik Fragc (Wien, 1888 )

MKINONG, A Uber Philosophische Wwaennchaft und
ihre Propadeutik (Wicn, 1889)

LEHMAN, It Wcgc und Ziele der Philoaophische Pro-

pddcutik, Saniml v Abhandl aua d Gebieto d.

Phdagog Psych u Phjs, Vol VIII (1905)
LEUCHTENBERGER, G Die Phil Prop auf den hoheren

Schulen (Beilm, 1893 )
TKENDKLENBKUU Erl&utcrungen zu den Elementen

der Arttt , Logik (Berlin, 1846 )
VAIHINOKR, H Dif Philosophic in dtr Skiatttpiufung

(Berlin, 1906 )
ZIKKTMANN, PA TIL Dn Phtfow/thii /mt ht'twndiren

Bt ni< kbHhtifiunfj de> Obcn calm huh , 1900 (Pro-

gram dei SteKhtzcj Obcrrealsehule )
Fiancr ~—

'i, A 1/Annet Ptti/<,holo0tqnt (Pans, 1908 )
F\RRINGTON, F K Fienth tftfondaty School* (New

York, 1910)
tiBOT Knqn$tc (tut l'< nieianetncnt t<(ondairt (Pans,

1899 )

\NDERKM, and others Knrut Bleiu , 1S94 Vol 5.i,
1> 125

La filottofia t la scuola (Naples, 1888 )
// Inwonamerttv ddla filosofia tu' Jicei
(Milan, 1900)

ROMANO LJ mtttynaniLnto thlla filot>ofia net, luci di
Fiauctu c db Itaha (Abti, 1898 )

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION —Re-
lation of Philosophy and Education — A clear
conception of the nature of the philosophy of
education in distinction from the science and
principles oi education is not possible without
some antecedent conception of the nature
of philosophy itself and its relation to life.
Is philosophy capable of being generated and
developed without any reference to education?
Then a philosophy of education will be simply
the application to educational ideas of an out-
side ready-made standard of judgment, with
all its dangers of forcing the facts of educa-
tion so that thev conform to and support the
philosophy already formed In this case, we
shall have as many philosophies of education
as are required to illustrate diverging philo-
sophic systems The case will stand quite other-
wise if there is an intimate and vital relation
between the need for philosophy and the ne-
cessity for education In this case the phi-
losophy of education will simply make explicit
the reference to the guiding of life needs and
purposes which is operative in philosophy
itself It will not be an external application
of philosophy, but its development to the
point of adequate manifestation of its own
inner purpose and motive. While different
philosophies of education will still exist, they
will not be so many corollaries of divergent
pure philosophies, but will make explicit the
different, conceptions of the value and aims of
actual life held by different persons It will
be seen that different philosophies exist be-
cause men have in mind different ideals of
life and different educational methods for
making these ideals prevail The chief point
of this article is to develop the conception of
the internal and vital relation of education and
philosophy

Every seriously minded person may be said
to have a philosophy For he has some sort
of a working theory of life. He possesses,

697

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

in however half-conscious fashion, a st arid-
point from which weight and importance are
attached to the endless flow of detailed hap-
penings and doings His philosophy is his
general scheme and measure of values, his
way of estimating the significance that at-
taches to the various incidents of experience.
If pressed to state and justify his working
principle, he might reply that while it would
not satisfy others, it served its owner and maker
No individual, however, is so eccentric that
he invents and builds up his scheme except on
general pattern that is socially transmitted
to him The exigencies and the perplexities
of life are recurrent The same generic prob-
lems have faced men over and over; by long-
continued cooperative effort men have worked
put general ideas regarding the meaning of life,
including the connections of men with one
another and with the world in which they live
These conceptions are embodied not only in
the codes of moral principles which men profess
and the religions in which they find suppoi I
and consolation, but in the basic ideas winch
have become commonplace through their very
generality: such ideas as that things hang
together to make a world, that events have
causes, that things mav be brought into
classes, the distinctions of animate and inan-
imate, personal and physical, arid so on through-
out the warp and woof of oui intellectual
fabnc Philosophy aims to set forth a con-
ception of the world, or of reality, and of life
which will assign to each of these interests
its proper and proportionate place It aims
to set forth the distinctive i61e of each in a way
that will harmonize its demand with that of
other ends

Need of a Philosophy of Education — Three*
classes of motives, unconsciously blended with
one another, usually operate in making the
need for systematic and rational ideas felt,
and in deciding the point of Aiew from which
the need is dealt with These motives are
the conflict of conservative and progressive
tendencies the conflict of scientific concep-
tions of the world with beliefs hallowed by
tradition and giving sanction to moials and
religion; and the conflict of institutional de-
mands with that for a freer and fuller expres-
sion of individuality (1) Some philosophies
are marked by a reforming, almost i evolu-
tionary, spirit They criticize the world and
life as they exist, and set in opposition to them
an ideal world into conformity with which
the existent scheme of things ought to be
brought Other philosophies tend lather to
justify things as they are, pointing out that
if we penetrate to their true nature and essen-
tial meaning, each class of things is found
to serve a necessary purpose and embody a
necessary idea. Plato and Aristotle, Fi elite
and Hegel, for example, are all of them classi-
fied as idealists, but the tendency of Plato
and Fichte is to set up an ideal over against,

698

the actual, while that of Aristotle and Hegel
is to exhibit the rational nature or ideal al-
ready embodied in the actual — a difference
that clearly corresponds to the ordinary divi-
sion of men into reformers and conservatives

(2) Different philosophers interpret their
material veiy diffeiently according to the
respective weight they instinctively attribute
on the one hand to scientific conceptions of the
world, and on the other to ethical tendencies
and aspirations If one takes his departure
from the former, he will explain men's moral
and religious beliefs on the basis of the prin-
ciples furnished by contemporary science, and
will deny the validity of all ideas, no matter
how influential in life, that do not harmonize
with these principles To others, men's moral
aims and efforts are the most significant
thing in life and are taken as the key to the
nature of leality The results of science are
reinterpreted to bring them into line During
the rapid development of natural science since
the seventeenth century, many philosophies
have thus made it their chief business to pro-
vide a view of reality in which the seemingly
divergent claims and standpoints of natural
science and morals should be reconciled

(3) The thud moving force concerns the
value attached to -the principle of fiee in-
dividuality— individuality that confers upon
each person a distinctive worth not supplied by
any othei person and not capable of being
Hummed up or exhausted in any general for-
mula 01 principle Some thinkers start by
natural preference with the standpoint of law
or a general older, or a pervasive and uni-
fying force Strictly individual traits are
then biought into line by reduction (or at least
approximation) to the universal If individu-
ality is not denied a,s an ultimate reality, it is
explained and justified fiom the standpoint
oi a comprehensive uniform principle. Such
philosophies tend to be deductive in character
and to assign great ei value to leason, which
deals with geneial conceptions, than to per-
ception, which reveals particulars Persons
with a strong interest in individuality reverse
the standard of value and the method of con-
sideration Specific individuals are taken to
be the primary facts, general principles, laws,
classes, are derived from comparison of the
individuals 01 are subordinate to them. In
method, such philosophies tend to be empirical
and inductive, accepting the observations of
sense and the particulai situations of conduct
as the most certain data, and employing ra-
tional conceptions only as secondary means
of connecting particulars or filling their gaps.

The totality or completeness at which philos-
ophy aims is not quantitative, it is not the
greatest possible sum of accurate knowledge
As to this sort of completeness or wholeness,
philosophy cannot compete with the special
sciences taken in their totality. For all its
special facts, philosophy must depend upon

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

these sciences, and so far as organization of the
facts into a larger system of knowledge is
concerned it must also walk humbly in the path
beaten by science But there is another kind of
unity and wholeness with which science is not
concerned, unity of attitude and wholeness of
outlook. But wholeness means also balance,
interaction, and mutual rcenforcement of the
various values and interests of life religion,
poetry, industry or the business of making a
living, politics or the art of living together,
morals, science itself An account of " experi-
ence as a whole " is a conception of experience
that shows the special contribution which each
of these typical interests makes, and the
claim for recognition it may legitimately put
forth The only "experience as a whole"
that concerns man is an experience whose parts
change continuously, but all change into one
another as there is occasion, with ease and
flexibility, and so as to enrich one another
Its opposite is not our everyday experience
with its fluctuations and its endless running
out into the new, but one-sided exaggeiations
of some phase of this everyday expcuencc, or an
isolation of its interests so that they icstnct
one another, and thus impoverish life

Philosophy of Education, Science of Edu-
cation, and Principles of Education — Edu-
cation is such an important interest of lilt;
that in any case we should expect to find a
philosophy of education, just as there is a
philosophy of art and of religion We should
expect, that is, such a tieatment of the sub-
ject as would show that the nature of existence
renders education an integral and indispen-
sable function of life We should expect an
interpretation and criticism of the materials
and methods cmreiitly used in education,
using this necessary function as the stand-
ard of value Such a treatment is usually
presented undei the title of " Principles of
Education " While no rigid line marks off
this discussion from what is teimed the
" Science of Education," there aie differences
of aim and spirit that are worth rioting, be-
cause of the light they shed upon the nature
of a philosophy of education It is possible
to start with education as an established fact,
with education as it is currently practiced, ana
to describe and analyze the various factors
that enter into it, factors of school organiza-
tion and administration, of management and
discipline, of instruction and the various
branches of study So far as the analysis
reveals general principles of individual growth
and of social grouping which are operative
in the degree that teaching and training are
effective, its result rises above the level of
recounting and cataloguing relevant phenomena
Hence it deserves the name of a science This
science affords the basis for a critical compari-
son of the various processes that are currently
employed As teachers are put in intelligent
possession of it, their own work becomes less

blind and routine, the science, asm other cases,
develops a corresponding art which lifts its
practitioners from artisans into artists

Notwithstanding its intellectual and practi-
cal value, such an account of education does
not covei the whole ground Jt works, so to
speak, inside of education as a given fact.
Another and larger view is possible and de-
sii able, a less professional and a more human
view Education is a concern not merely
of school administrators and teachers, of pupils
and then parents, but of society We may
have a definite and systematic knowledge of
the principles that are at the bottom of the
most effective current practice of the day, and
may be able to use this knowledge to criticize
and coirect detective phases of this practice,
and yet be thrown back upon mere opinion or
mere custom for a judgment as to the value of
an educational system as a whole. The general
spirit and trend of an established education
might be wrong, and yet make possible a
scientific account of itself which would be
available for rectifying it in details But the
improvement would still be within a scheme
which in its mam direction and purport was
not what it should be

We have to judge every educational in-
stitution and piactice from the standpoint
of that " whole of experience " which calls
it into being and controls its purpose and
materials There exist not merely the prin-
ciples by which the existing system of educa-
tion is made effective, but also the piinciples
that animate the entire range of interests of
the whole life of the community and that make
the existing system what it is An interpreta-
tion and valuation of the educational system
in the light of this inclusive social context is
the larger and more human view of which
we spoke It utilizes the contributions of
science in all its branches to give society an
insight into what sort of thing it is undertaking
in the tiaining of its members, and it gives so-
ciety a clearer consciousness of the meaning
of the educational office so largely performed
by instinct and custom

Philosophy is the General Theory of Educa-
tion — The connection of education and phi-
losophy is, however, even closer and more
vital than this sketch of the principles of
education, as distinct from the science of edu-
cation, would indicate Philosophy may be
defined as the general theory of education t the
theory of which education is the corresponding
art or practice. Three interlinked considera-
tions support this statement . (i) Men's in-
terests manifest their dispositions; (n) these
dispositions are formed by education; (ih)
there must be a general idea of the value and
relations of these interests if there is to be any
guidance of the process of forming the dis-
positions that lie back of the realization of the
interests (i) If at any time the various
values of expeiience are out of harmony with

699

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

one another, the ultimate cause of the difficulty
lies in men's habitual attitudes toward life
the habits of judging and of emotional appre-
ciation that are embodied in their habits of
action Interests, attitudes, dispositions, fun-
damental habits of mind arc mutually convert-
ible terms.

(ii) If we but consent to extend the term
education beyond its narrow limitation to
schooling, we shall find that we cannot stop
short in this extension till we have broadened
it to coyer all the agencies and influences that
shape disposition Not merely books and pic-
tures, but the machinery of publication and
communication by which these are made
accessible must be included — and this means
the use made of railway and telegraph as well
as of the printing press, the library, and the
picture gallery Ordinary daily intercourse,
the exchange of ideas and experiences in con-
versation, and the contacts of business com-
petition and cooperation are most influential in
deciding the objects upon which attention is
fixed and the way in which attention is given
to them. Every place in which men habitu-
ally meet, shop, club, factory, saloon, church,
political caucus, is perforce a school house,
even though not so labelled This intercourse
is in turn dependent upon the political 01-
ganization of society, the relations of classes
to one another, the distribution of wealth, the
spirit in which family life is conducted, and so
on Public agitations, discussions, propaganda
of public meeting and press, political campaigns,
legislative deliberations, are in this regard but
so many educational agencies In brief, every
condition, arrangement, and institution that
forms the emotional and imaginative bent of
mind that gives meaning to overt action is
educational in character

(in) There are but two alternatives Either
these agencies will peiform their educational
work as an incidental and unregulated by-
product, molding men's mind blindly while
conscious attention is given to their other
more tangible products, or men will have an
idea of the results they wish to have attained,
will judge existing agencies according as they
achieve or come short of these ends, and will
use their idea and their estimate as guides in
giving the desired direction to the working of
these agencies This brings us, again, to phi-
losophy, which, as we have seen, is the attempt
to develop just such an idea This is what is
meant by saying that philosophy is, in its
ultimate extent, a general theory of education,
or that it is the idea of which a consciously
guided education is the practical counterpart.

It is, of course, possible to exaggerate the
importance of philosophy even when it is
conceived in this vital and human sense
Reflection is only one of the forces that move
our action, and in the thick of events it gives
place to necessities of more urgency But
on the other hand, reflection is the only thing

that takes us out of the immediate pressure
and hurly-burly of overt action. It is a tem-
porary turning aside from the immediate scene
of action in order to note the course of events,
to forecast probable and possible issues, to
take stock of difficulties and resources, to
bring to explicit consciousness evils that may
be remedied, to plan a future course of action.
Philosophy cannot create values by thinking
about them, by defining and classifying and
arranging them But by thinking about them,
it may promote discrimination as to what is
genuinely desirable, and thereby contribute
to subsequent conduct a clearer and more
deliberately settled method of procedure in
attaining what is desired.

There is always danger that the student of
philosophy will become simply a student of
philosophic traditions, of something that is
conventionally called philosophy but from
which philosophic life has departed because the
genuine problem in life which called out the
formulation has departed from consciousness
When philosophic distinctions are approached
from the standpoint of their bearing upon life
through the medium of the educational process
in which they take effect, the perplexity, the
predicament, of life which generates the issue
can never be far from recognition

Relation of the History of Philosophy to
Education — The conception of the intimate
connection of philosophy with the fundamental
theory of education is borne out by reference
to the history of philosophic thought So far
as European history is concerned, philosophy
originated at Athens from the direct pressure
of educational questions The earlier phi-
losophy, that of the Greek colonies, was really
a chapter in the history of science, dealing
with the question how things come to be what
they are and how they are made Then the
traveling teachers, known as the Sophists,
began to apply its results to the conduct of
life, and to use the same methods to discuss
moral and social matters Up to their time,
men had attained skill and excellence in the
various callings of life and in the business of
citizenship through apprenticeship in the cus-
toms of the community The Sophist professed
to be able to teach " virtue"; that is, ability
in the various functions of life Some limited
their claims to ability to teach the arts of
poetry and oratory; others gave instruction
in the various industrial arts or in military
tactics Others broadened these pretensions,
professing ability to convey power in the
management of human affairs, private, domes-
tic, and public It is impossible to exaggerate
the historic significance of these claims They
implied that matters which had always been
left to practice, and to practice controlled by
the habitudes and ideals of the local commu-
nity, could be set free from their customary
provincial setting and be taught on theoreti-
cal grounds, on grounds of intellect. Natu-

700

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

rally these pretensions evoked violent protests
from conservatives, who felt that the lite of
the community was at stake This conflict
of devotion to social customs with a reliance
upon abstract knowledge provoked the first
great speculative issues What is the real
basis of social organization and of moral
responsibilities7 Do these rest upon custom,
upon enactment by superiors, or upon uni-
versal principles of nature?

At first these questions were discussed, as
was natural, in a casual and superficial way
But Socrates, Plato, arid others disentangled
the basic questions involved. What is the
nature of the state and of law? Wrhat is the
true end of life? How shall man know this
end? Can virtue or excellence be taught?
Is it a matter of practice and habit, or some-
thing intellectual — a kind of knowledge ?
If so, what kind? What is knowledge? What
is its standard? If virtue can be learned, how
is learning related to knowledge ?

These questions might be multiplied almost
indefinitely, but it is more profitable to note
that they tended to group themselves into
three main problems (?) What is the relation
of knowledge, of reason, to practice, custom, and
the opinions that go with custom? (//) What
is the relation of human life, especially of
social organization and its virtues and re-
sponsibilities, to the nature of the universe, of
reality itself? (tit} What is the relation of
change, and of the paitieular things that change,
to the universal and permanent ? In a gen-
eration or two these questions were largely cut
loose from their original connection with educa-
tion Their discussion developed into distinct
disciplines, often isolated from reference to prac-
tical or social matters, into logic, as a theory
of knowledge, into metaphysics, as a definition
of the nature of things, into cosmology, or a
general account of the constitution of natuie
But the fact that the stream of European
philosophic thought arose out of the dis-
cussion of educational ends and means, remains
an eloquent witness to the ulterior motive
and purport of philosophic reflection If
philosophy is to be other than an idle and
unverifiable speculation, it must be animated
by the conviction that its theor> of experience
is a hypothesis that is realized only as experi-
ence is actually shaped in accord with it
And this realization demands that man's dis-
positions be made such as to desire and strive
for that kind of experience The philosophy
of education is riot the external application to
educational affairs of a conception of reality
ready made independently of education, it
is just the philosophic conception of a bal-
anced and articulated experience stated so as
to be available for shaping intellectual and
emotional disposition, so that the existence it
describes may become a living fact, not the
dream of a philosopher's brain

Problems of Philosophy and of Education

the Same. — Since upon education falls the
burden of securing the practical realizing and
balancing of the various interests of life, the edu-
cator faces, if only in half-conscious, unsys-
tematic form, precisely the same questions
that philosophy discusses in the abstract.
In the attitude taken to matters of hygiene,
physical training, manual training, corporal
punishment, etc , there will be expressed, for
example, some idea of the connection, or lack
of connection, of mind and body, an idea that,
made explicit and fitted in with other beliefs,
corresponds to some typical philosophical
theory of the relation of bodily and mental
action. Some practices imply that man is an
external compound of body and soul, in them-
selves two independent forces Others pro-
ceed on the assumption that the body is a
temporary shell in which mind is housed, or
that the body is a clog upon the development
of spirit Other projects imply that only
through the adequate functioning of the bodily
organs can there be realized a symmetrical
and sound mental life The various theories
held by philosophers as to the relation of
knowledge to practice are paralleled m educa-
tional procedure Some assume that contem-
plative knowledge is an end in itself, others,
that knowledge is a mere external prerequisite
for successful action, success being measured
on the basis of material possessions and power,
others that knowledge is an intrinsic condi-
tion of a practice that is free and full of mean-
ing In educational discussion, one or other
of these ideas appears in some disguised form in
every dispute about cultural versus professional
or vocational education, and shows itself in most
debates concerning t he relation of the acquisition
of knowledge to the formation of character
The old (almost 1he first) philosophic ques-
tion as to the relation of the individual to the
established objective order appears in instruc-
tion as the question of individual initiative and
choice over against the accumulated body of
organized knowledge which forms the ready-
made subject matter of teaching The phil-
osophical controversy as to the method of
knowledge, with its division of camps into
sensationalist and rationalrst, has a counter-
part in the different methods of learning that
are encouraged in schools The philosophic
split between mind arid physical nature cor-
responds to the educational antagonism of
humanistic and scientific studies, which also
has a genuine, even if indirect, bearing upon the
philosophic issue of idealism versus realism
To sum up Various partial tendencies and
interests of life are reflected in native home-
spun intellectual schemes possessed of strong
emotional coloring These are traditipnal-
izcd; they float, so to speak, upon the insti-
tutions of a society, giving them their sanction
and explanation Philosophies in the formal
and technical intellectual sense are generated
when these traditional systems arc sub-

701

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

jected to independent intellectual examina-
tion with a view to their rational criti-
cism and supplementation As the more
popular schemes express the standard and the
subject matter of the educational procedures
of a community, since they naturally aim to shape
disposition in the continued acceptance of the
customary beliefs and ideals, — so the more
conscious philosophies can be tested and ob-
jectively embodied only as they are made the
working bases of educational processes that
develop an experience in harmony with them-
selves To convince a small number of the
theoretical soundness of the philosophy, while
men's lives are still ordered in the mass upon
quite another basis, furnishes such a contradic-
tion of the claim of the philosophy to evaluate
"experience as a whole" as to place the latter
in a ludicrous position

Character of the New Philosophy of Edu-
cation — Every generation and period has
its own special problems which decide where
the emphasis is thrown When social condi-
tions and scientific conceptions and methods
are bath in a state of rapid alteration, the
tendency to philosophic reconstruction is
especially marked, and the need of working
out the newer point of view so that it will
throw light upon the spirit and aims of educa-
tion is especially urgent The present time
is characterized by at least three great move-
ments, of which education must take account
m the most radical way if it is to boar any
relation to the needs and opportunities of
contemporary life — and otherwise intellectual
and moral chaos must be the result These
movements are: (i) the rapid growth of demo-
cratic ideals and institutions, (n) the transfoi-
rnation of industrial life — the economic revolu-
tion that began in the later eighteenth century
with the application of steam to manufactur-
ing and commerce, (in) the development of
experimental science, culminating in the idea
of evolution and the thoroughgoing modifica-
tion of older beliefs about the piocesses and
organs of life.

(i) The democratic movement radically
influences education if only because it inevi-
tably produces the demand for universal edu-
cation It is impossible that the type of
education adapted to the small class m aris-
tocratic and feudal societies, that alone had an
opportunity for an intellectual culture, should
be adapted to the needs of a democratic society
which demands the development of all By
no possibility could the education of a class
become the education of all, foi a class educa-
tion is made what it is by the exclusion of
most of the people from the opportunities for
which it prepares A democracy, moreover,
signifies a social organization which is main-
tained, upon the whole, by the voluntary wish
of the mass of the people, and which is re-
sponsivo to changes in their purposes. This
implies a much greater dependence upon the

intelligence and sympathetic good will of all
the members of society than is required in
communities where authority and precedent are
the mainstays of social arrangements A
distinct type of education is demanded to
meet the need for individual freedom and
initiative combined with respect for others
and an instinct for social unity

(11) The industrial revolution, with the
changes it brought about in modes of associ-
ation, habits of mind, and increase of commodi-
ties, is both cause arid effect of the democratic
development From every standpoint it ex-
acts modifications of educational ideas and
practices. The importance of labor which it
proclaims is a note new in the world's history.
The effect of the new inventions in eliminating
distance and bringing all mankind within the
same circle makes interdependence, which
had been preached as an ideal, an operative
fact Since the new industrial regime depends
upon the application of science to the control
of natural forces, men's best and truest knowl-
edge of nature is put in effective circulation
Men's actions are servile or intelligent accord-
ing as men do or do not have an appreciation
of the ideas which govern their occupations.
The extreme specialization and division of
labor tend to make men simply small parts of
the machines they tend, and only the fore-
thought and oversight of education can avert
this menace The multiplication of material
goods makes necessary a higher aesthetic
taste to prevent general vulgarization It
also affords new opportunities to the masses
which they must be educated to take advan-
tage of Conversely, the luxury and kind
of leisure that had been tolerable or even
graceful in past regimes becomes a social
menace when the social mechanism makes the
responsibilities of pi eduction and consump-
tion more and more important

(m) Philosophers have debated concerning
the nature and method of knowledge It is
hardly cynical to Hay that positiveness of
assertion on those points has been in propor-
tion to the lack of any assured method of
knowing in actual operation The whole idea
and scope of knowledge-getting in education
has reflected the absence of such a method,
so that learning has meant, upon the whole,
piling up, worshiping, and holding fast to
what is handed down from the past with the
title of knowledge But the actual practice of
knowing has finally reached a point where
learning means discovery, not memorizing
traditions, where knowledge is actively con-
structed, not passively absorbed, arid where
men's beliefs must be openly recognized to be
experimental in nature, involving hypothesis
and testing through being set at work Upon
the side of subject matter, the ideas of energy,
process, growth, and evolutionary change have
become supreme at the expense of the older
notions of permanent substance, rigid fixity,

702

PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION

PHONETICS

and uniformity The basic conceptions which
form men's standards of interpretation and
valuation have thus undergone radical alter-
ation.

Even this bare sketch should suggest the
new forces at work in education, and the need
of a theory corresponding to the new attitudes
and tendencies of our times, if the present
situation is to be approached in a spirit of clear
intelligence We need to know the difference
that the democratic ideal makes in our moral
aims and methods, we need to come to con-
sciousness of the changed conception of the
nature of existence that its spread imports
We must reckon intelligently with the new and
gigantic industrial forces that have come into
being, securing by education a disposition to
subordinate them to general welfare and to
equality of opportunity so that they may not
plunge us into class hatreds, intellectual dead-
ness, and artistic vulgarity. Unless our science
is to become as specialized and isolated a
thing as was ever any scholastic scheme whose
elaborate futility we ridicule, we must make
the experimental attitude the pervasive ideal
of all our intellectual undertakings, and learn
to think habitually in terms of dynamic pro-
cesses and genetic evolution Clearness upon
the issues, problems, and aims which GUI own
period has bi ought to the foreground is a
necessity foi free and deliberate paiticipa-
tion in the tasks that present-day education
has to perform Attaining 1 his clearness,
with whatever revision of stock notions it may
entail, is the peculiar problem of a contem-
porary philosophy of education J D

For the act ual plan of the study of the Philos-
ophy of Education, in the modern curriculum,
see EDUCATION, ACADEMIC STUDY OF

See also AKT OF EDUCATION, COURSE OF
STUDY, THEORY OF, CULTURE, DEMOCRACY
AND EDUCATION, EDUCATION, EXPERIENCE, IN-
DIVIDUALITY, KNOWLEDGE, etc , and the refer-
ences there given.

References —

BAULEY, W C Educative Process (Now York,

1908)

BRYANT, S Educational Ends (London, 1887 )
BUTLEH, N M Meaning of Education (New York,

1905)

DEWEY, J School and Society (Chicago, 1900 )
School and tht Child (London, 1900 )
Child and th< Curriculum (Chicago, 1902 )
Educational EsiayH (London, 1910 )
MU Pedagogic Cn«I (Nt>w York, 1897 ^
Influence of Darwin on Philosophy (New York,

1910 )
HARRIS, W T Pathologic Foundation* of Education

(New York, 1908)
HENDERSON, E N Textbook in the Pnnciplet* <>/

Education (Chi( ago, 19(M )
HORNE, H H Th< Philosophy of Education (New

York, 1905)

Idealism in Education (New York, 1910 )
MACVANNEL, J A Outline of a Couise tn the Phi-

losophy of Education (New Yoik, 1912 )
O'.SHEA, M V Education a.s Adjustment (New

York, 1906)

PAIITHIDGE, G K The Gtnetie PJi)lom>f>h)i of Edu«t-
tion. (N("v\ York, 1912 )

ROSENKRANZ, J K F Philosophy of Education.
(New York, 1894)

RuEDKtER, W C Principles of Education (New
York, 1910)

SINCLAIR, S B The Possibility of a Science of Educa-
tion (Chicago, 1903 )

VINCENT, G Social Mind and Education. (New
York, 1897)

PHOBIA —A fear, of the nature of a
delusion (q v ), a fixed idea (q v ), or an obses-
sion (q v ) The more common phobias are:
pyrophobia (fear of fire), claustrophobia (of
closed places), agoraphobia (of open places),
and mysophobia (of dirt) S. I. F

PHONETIC METHODS —See READING,
TEACHING BEGINNERS, SPELLING, TEACHING OF.

PHONETICS -Judged by its derivation,
tho word " phonetics " should mean the science
of sound Among teachers of languages,
however, it is restricted to the science of
speech sounds of human beings Considered
in this manner, phonetics is usually divided
into two main divisions the acoustic and the
organic The former is generally classed with
physics, since it concerns the sounds of speech
aw sounds, independently of their origin or
mode of i urination The latter could be
classed with physiology (q v.), though it is,
generally speaking, given ovei to students of
languages and philology (q.v,). It will appear
later, however, that experimental phonetics,
the most recent of the branches of the science
to develop, overlaps these divisions, and is at
the same time " physical," physiological, and
philological

Historical — The earliest studies of pho-
netics of which we have any knowledge were
theoretical Tho Sanscrit grammarians seem
to have been remarkable phoneticians, as were
later the grammarians of Alexandria It is
to the desire of the latter to represent accu-
rately the Greek vowels that we owe the intro-
duction of the accents which enable foreigners
to pronounce Gieek with less difficulty. The
Roman phoneticians, though probably in-
fenoj to their piedccessors, brought to bear,
none the less, on the study of foreign languages,
especially Greek, a fund of close observations.
These observations, like others by ancient
grammarians and phoneticians, frequently
enable us to uudei stand just how certain letters
were pronounced Indeed, without these data,
philology could not have developed so rapidly
and certainly as it has, bringing with it a flood
of light concerning the ancient monuments of
literature and history, whose country, age,
dialect and authorship (single or composite)
we are able to establish This often over-
looked side of phonetics — its power to vital-
ize, to give a soul to, the dead symbol or letter
— has led some scholars to divide phonetics
into two great divisions the historical (which
we have just mentioned), and the descriptive

703

PHONETICS

PHONETICS

or modern. History and geography, accord-
ing to a remark of Louis Havet, bear somewhat
the same relation to each other as these two
branches of phonetics, Since the latter branch
— the descriptive — is for teachers by far the
more important, the present article will be de-
voted in the main to a consideration of this

Descriptive Phonetics — The descriptive
branch of phonetics involves a minute study
of the manner in which the sounds of living
languages are produced, the nature of these
sounds, and their relation to one another
This minute study makes clear to us, first, the
sounds of our own language, secondly, those
of other languages We learn, for example,
what distinguishes the b of Spanish or French
from the b of English By carrying this study
through all the sounds of a given foreign lan-
guage, we are able to pronounce it better and
more intelligently, — to speak it with as
little " accent " as possible This being the
case, it is evident that descriptive phonetics
is of great value to scholars, teachers, students
of dialectics, philologists, missionaries, dip-
lomats, interpreters, as well as to the increas-
ing number of persons who realize that, to
appreciate the literal y beauties of a foreign
language, one must be able to read it aloud with
a very considerable degree of coricet utterance

Descriptive phonetics is one of the few
strictly modern developments of science which
are due to the English nation In fact, the
" English school " of phonetics is now the
dominant one the world ovei (leaving aside
experimental phonetics, of which more pies-
ently) We mav therefore omit all further
mention of the history of phonetics, arid pass
immediately to the inception of the " English
school," which mav be said to have begun with
Alexander Melville Bell (the fathei of Alexan-
der Graham Bell), who published in London,
in 1867, a work called Visible Speech (second
edition, London, 1882) Bell made what mav
be called an organic study of phonetics , that
is, a study of the action of the organs of speech
(especially of the tongue) in the production of
vowels and consonants This had of course
been done many times before The originality
of Bell lay in his constructing an alphabet in
which the form of the symbol should bear some
indication of the position of the organs of
speech. The mere appearance of the symbol
was to tell how the sound was produced The
alphabet which resulted was exceedingly cum-
brous, and the scholars who have ever learned
to read it or write it are few in number
The importance of Bell's work lay in the im-
petus which it, gave to succeeding scholars
His work suffers from being too theoretical
The name Visible Speech is in itself an instance
of colossal exaggeration Fortunately, Bell
counted among his immediate followers a few
men of practical sense and of sound philologi-
cal knowledge, the chief of whom was Henry
Sweet, professor at Oxford Sweet and others

perfected Bell's alphabet, and carried to a very
high point the minute observation of the
spoken word Their study of the tongue
positions for the vowels was especially close,
for these scholars were Englishmen, and in
English the tongue is relatively of great im-
portance while the lip action is reduced to a
minimum Bell, Sweet, and others of the Eng-
lish school established an elaborate system
of nomenclature They spoke of vowels as
lound or unround, as front, mixed, or back; as
high, mid, or low; as narrow or wide Space
is lacking here to explain this terminology

For a while, there was considerable opposi-
tion on the continent to the adoption of the
English system Germany was especially
rebellious and scornful The advance in
France was rapid, largely because of the early
conversion of Paul Passy He adopted the
English system, with slight modifications, but
saw clearly the impossible nature of the Bell-
Sweet alphabet His wide linguistic knowl-
edge (he has spoken from childhood four or
live languages) gave him unusual advantages
His most important reform lay in the alphabet.
Adopting several letters from A. J. Ellis, the
author of On Early English Pronunciation
(London, I860), and taking some hints from
Bell and Sweet, he perfected little by little
what is now called the international phonetic-
alphabet As the editor of the Fonetik Titcer
(founded in 1885), which became the Maitre
Phonetigue in 1889, he was in a position to
offer an increasing publicity to the new al-
phabet. The MaUic Phon&iquc is the organ
of the Association International Phone* tiquc,
the most- powerful and widely diffused lin-
guistic society in existence. As for the alphabet
founded by Passy, it is rapidly becoming the
phonetic alphabet of the world, and hundreds
of treatises employ it Even Germany has
adopted (unofficially, of course) this alphabet
for work in phonetics and modem languages

The following table gives the phonetic sym-
bols and their explanation according to the
International Phonetic Association- —

CONSONANTS

The following loiters have their usual values b, d, f , g
fuh in 0o), h, k, 1, m, n, p, r (rolled as in Scotland),
s, t, v, w, z

j IB the sound of y m yes

H is the sound of nq in song

0 18 the sound of th in thin

ft is the sound of th in the n

\ is the sound of sh in show

x is a weakened form of the ch in German ach

9 ib a weakened form of the ch in German ich

3 is the sound of « in measure

VOWELS

i is the vowel in Modern English see, but pure as in the
North of England, not diphthongized as frequently
in the South

i is the vowel in Modern English hp
€ is the vowel in Modern English get
o is the vowel in Modern English get lengthened
so IH the vcwel m Modern English hat lengthened

704

PHONETICS

PHONETICS

A is the vowel in French pattc

a . is the vowel in tho first, syllable of father, as pro-
nounced m London dialect

3 is the vowel in French bonru

o. is the vowel in French port (i e D lengthened)

u : is the vowel in Modern English too, but pure as in tho
North of England, not diphthongized as frequently
in the South <

u is the vowel in Modern English put
When unstressed, the \oweK c, a, o are somewhat
obscured, that is, the> toiid tow aids the neutral
vowel heard in the unstressed ^syllables of abovi,
sofa (modern pronunciation)

DIPHTHONGS

iu The sound i followed bv the sound u the first

element being stressed
ci The diphthong heard in Modern English day as

pronounced in the North of England
cu The sound < followed bv the .sound u
ai Tho sound a followed b\ the sound i
3U The sound 3 followed b\ the sound u
ou The diphthong heard in Modern Engh-sh go as

pronounced in the North of England
01 The first element of the diphthong ou followed by

the sound i

The Scandinavian countries were among
the first to accept the English school of pho-
netics. In this connection the celebrated Xoi-
wegian scholai Johau Stoim, and Otto Jes-
persen of Denmark, one of the keenest and
most original of living phoneticians, deserve
special mention In Germany there are at
present probably only one or two phoneticians
who refuse to accept the main tenets of the
English school This is largely due to Wil-
lielm Vietor, who, like Passy in France, has
been a potent influence of popularization of
the new ideas The English school, with its
terminology, has also spread through the le-
mainder of Europe, and has from the first been
virtually the only form of instruction in Amei-
ica (leaving aside, of course, experimental
phonetics, as will appeal later) If an ex-
amination were to be made of the courses
now being conducted in phonetics in this
country, it would doubtless be found that,
except in experimental phonetics, all of the
literature used involves an acceptance of the
English school There are, none the less, many
teachers of the subject both here and else-
where who modify considerably the teachings
of Sweet and his closest followers, and who do
not believe that their system is a finality,
because of such considerations as these like
everything of English origin the system is
" insular " and lop-sided , it bears the birth-
mark of claiming too much for itself; it is
suspiciously regular and schematic, vowels,
for example, to the number of seventy-two
appear in perfect regularity, like so many
pigeon-holes in an enormous case ; the system
seems to have been laid out on paper, so much
so that a scientist would declare it an admi-
rable example of un-science

Sound Production — Before discussing ex-
perimental phonetics it will be well to men-
tion briefly the manner in which speech sounds
are produced Speech is the conveyance of

thought through sounds produced by modifi-
cations of the stream of air which passes from
the lungs to the outer air. It is a system of
signals which have been agreed upon.
If we imagine a person shut up in a
windowless tower, but having access to a
rubber tube through which water continuously
flows from a spring in the tower to the open
air outside, it will be apparent that he can
devise a system of signals which can convey
messages to those without He can devise a
succession of pressures and of stoppages of
the tube, and his problem is not unlike that
of Morse when he contrived his telegraphic
code Human speech is built on this model
In our case, however, the channel through
which the an passes has fortunately a number
of stops, of mf mentions, of ciooks and corneis
These enable us to vaiy to a large degree the
sounds to be produced, so that we dispose of
a clear, highly d<^ doped code of signals

Speech Organs — The main places where the
column of an emitted from the lungs is rnodi-
iied m speech are as follows (The column, of
course, moves horn within outwards, — towards
the listener, — which facilitates the convey-
ance of signals ) The first modification of
the column of air may be produced in the
larynx, which is at the enlargement known as
the Adam's apple In this enlargement are
two muscles, named erroneously the vocal
cords, which can be held apart, as in ordinary
breathing, or made to approach each other
to any desued degree, even to the point of
complete closure When these muscles are
touching loosely, the an may be forced be-
tween them by pressure fiom the diaphragm
in such manner that a buzzing, which we call
voice, is produced. If the buzzing or vibrating
column of an meets no appi enable obstruc-
tion in its progress to the outer air, the sound
is called a vowel, if it meets one or more ob-
stiuctions, it is called a consonant There
is perhaps no briefer statement possible of the
generic difference between vowels and conso-
nants If we limit ourselves to the ordinary
European languages, there is no other place
of stoppage or stricture in the passage towards
the outer an, until we reach the lower fringe
or edge of the soft palate It is evident that
the back of the tongue can rise against this
fringe, and, by jerking awav just at the instant
when the air pressure is at the right degree,
cause a consonant sound , or, that the tongue
remaining against the fringe, the uvula (the
hanging end of the soft palate) may be made
to vibrate, as when children " trill " or
" gargle " Again, the soft palate itself may be
pressed against the wall of the throat back of it,
which will close the channel into the nasal pas-
sage, or it may hang down somewhat, leaving
that passage free The former is the position
of the soft palate for vowels (except, of course,
nasal vowels, such as exist in French, Portu-
guese, and American English), and for the oral

VOL. IV — 2 2

705

PHONETICS

PHONOGRAPH

(that is, non-nasal) consonants. If now wo
consider the vault of the mouth, beginning
just above the fnnge of the soft palate and ex-
tending to the front upper teeth, we realize that
the tongue can touch any part of this surface
In fact, the majority of consonants arc pro-
duced against this vault It is unnecessary
to name these consonants, since any one can
experiment for himself It should, however,
be remarked that the tongue is able to execute
quite a varied system of " signals " It can
stop the passage entirely, as in g, /r, f/, t, or
nearly stop it, as in the initial consonant of
yesy in that of xhe, in the consonant of the dol-
man word ich, etc It can make its tip vibrate,
as in a lingual r Again, it is clear that the
upper teeth offer a convenient place of partial
stoppage, as in th, f, v, and, hnallv, that the
lips can offer stoppage, as in />, 6, w

Experimental Phonetics — Such being
briefly the physical facts, phoneticians at-
tempted to contrive mstiuments which would
record the movement or action of the vari-
ous organs The result is the most recent
development of the subject, — namelv, experi-
mental phonetics This branch of phonetics
arose in France, in a committee appointed in
1874 to examine into the possibility ol em-
ploying instruments in phonetic research
The committee received encouragement from
Etienne Marey, the ingenious physiologist of
the College de France, some of whoso appara-
tus proved of great value One membei
of the committee, Dr Rosapellv, a physician
of Paris, invented several instruments of the
highest utility, such as the trembleitr, which
records, by means of an electrical connection,
the vibrations of the larynx, instruments foi
registering the vertical movement of the
larynx in speaking or singing, for recording
the passage of air through the nose, for the ver-
tical movements of the lips Dr Rosapelly,
however, forced to give most of his time to
the practice of medicine, did not long continue
his career as a phonetician His work was
taken up in 1885 by the Abb6 Rousselot, who
then made the acquaintance of Rosapelly,
Marey, and of the skillful constructor, Charles
Verdin From that time to this, Rousselot
has not ceasod to devote himself with enthu-
siasm and patience to the now science, and
is considered its founder His laboratory
at the CoUege do France has boon and still
is the best in the world, and his publications,
which bogan in 1890, have been numerous
He has perfected several inventions of others
and contrived sorno of his own His pupils
are numbered by hundreds and have carried
his principles into many countries His most
brilliant pupil in France has been A Zund-
Burguet, who has invented several ingenious
and valuable instruments The largest courses
in experimental phonetics (general phonetics as
well) are those conducted by Professor Rosset
in the summer school at the University of

drenoble Hundreds of students from a
score of nationalities gather here every summer
for the subject The first instrument having
an application to phonetics which was in-
vented by an American was the phonograph
of Edison (1877), an instrument which is
snnplv a perfection of the phonautograph of
a Fiench printer, Scott de M&imville (1859)
The first work in experimental phonetics as
such appears to have boon done oy Professor
C H (irandgont, who published in 1890 an
article on Vowel Measurements (Publications of
the Modern Language Awociatwn) Professoi
Raymond Weeks contrived in 1890 an artificial
vowel rounder, and later an instrument for re-
cording the movements of the soft palate, an in-
strument for the vibrations of the larynx, the
spirograph (which writes the varying pressure
of the air in the mouth during speech), and a
perfected apparatus for the movements of
the lips Professor F M Josselyn published,
beginning in 1899, some valuable work on
Italian phonetics Professor E W. Scripture
has done exhaustive work in the tracing and
study of speech curves

There is great need of an extension of the
teaching of phonetics in American institutions
of learning Not only would this aid in making
philology more vital, but it would prove of the
utmost value to teachers of elementary Eng-
lish Strong courses should be established
in all summer schools, where the eager arid
conscientious public school teachers would
assimilate rapidly the new and vivifying
knowledge of phonetics R W

See MODERN LANGUAGES, TEACHING or,
PHILOLOGY

References —

JONKH, D The Pronunciation of English (Cam-
bridge, 1909)

Lc Mattrr Phonftique, a journal appearing six times a
year, and containing scores of articles written pho-
netically in the important languages of the world
"Published at Bourg-la-Reme, Seme, France

V\SHY, P Petite Phonttique comparer (Leipzig, 1906)

RIPPMANN, W Element* of Phonetics (London,
1905 )

ROUPRKLOT, ABBE Pnncipes de Phonttique experi-
mental* (Pans, 1901-1908 )

SCRIPTURE, K W The Elements of Experimental
Phonetics (New York, 1902)

SWEET, H Primer of Phonetics (Oxford, 1906.)
Tht Sound* of English (Oxford, 1908)

VIBTOB, W Kleine Phonehk (Leipzig, 1907 ) This
work is translated into English by W Rippmann
(London, 1907)
The best constructors of instruments for phonetics

are G Bouhtte, 7, Rue Lmn£, Pans, and R. Montal-

betti, 28, Rue Gay-Lussac, Pans

PHONIC

METHOD

METHOD — See PHONETIC

706

PHONOGRAMMIC METHOD —See

RE \DING, TEACHING BEGINNERS; also PHO-
NETIC METHOD, SPELLING, TEACHING op.

PHONOGRAPH —See MUSICAL INSTRU-
MENTS, MECHANICAL, IN THE SCHOOL

PHONOGRAPHY

PHYSICAL EDUCATION

PHONOGRAPHY — See COMMERCIAL ED-
UCATION; SECRETARIAL PROFESSION, EDUCA-
TION FOR

PHRASE BOOK — See COMMONPLACE
BOOK; DICTIONARIES, LATIN GRAMMAR, TEACH-
ING APPARATUS.

PHRASE METHOD —See READING

PHRENOLOGY — A pseudo-science which
attempts to discover the mental characteris-
tics of the individual through an examination
of the external configuration of the skull
This science was first suggested by F G Gall
(1758-1828) It was afterwards developed
by Spurzheim and others. Gall examined
a large number of persons and noted their
special mental characteristics as well as the
configuration of their heads His attention
was especially drawn to persons of marked
characteristics, such as he found in the pnsonb
and hospitals A man who had been confined
because of his tendency to steal was evidently
an interesting character for Gall, because his
mental traits were clearly defined by his
misdemeanors Comparison of a number of
individuals who were of this marked type
led to a mapping of the outside of the skull
and the designation of the various regions
of the brain to which certain mental faculties
were supposed to be related

There can be no doubt that such investiga-
tions as these stimulated a discussion of the
relation between mental charactenstics and
the development of the central nervous sys-
tem Indeed, certain enthusiastic writers
have regarded Gall as the father of the modern
science of cerebral localization Gall un-
doubtedly suggested the possibilities of such
a science, but he is in no wise lesponsible for
the technique which was later developed and
which put the whole matter on a definite
scientific basis. In the form in which Gall
projected the science, it was hopelessly in-
volved in two fundamental errors In the
first place, his subdivision of mind into certain
faculties was grossly inadequate To assume
that discrimination of color is a separate men-
tal faculty, or that the faculty of reverence
or veneration can be distinguished as a separate
mental characteristic, shows the crudity of
the psychological analysis on which phrenology
is based As a matter of fact, each of these
functions is a composite including certain forms
of perception, and certain foims of ideation
With the development of modern psychology,
the classification of faculties proposed bv
phrenology has come to be entirely untenable
In the second place, it has been shown con-
clusively that the external configuration of the
skull is no indication of the internal form of
the cerebrum Furthermore, the cerebrum
has been mapped out bv thoroughgoing scien-
tific methods in such a way as to show that

the localization of functions depends upon an
entirely different physiological structure from
that which is assumed in the phrenological
system We may therefore say in general
that with the advance of physiological knowl-
edge the anatomical assumptions of the
phrenologists have also become entirely un-
tenable

The pseudo-science, as cultivated to-day, is
commonly emploved for charlatan purposes
The practitioner announces that he is able
to describe to the individual his capacities
for future training and occupation. Such
guesses as he is able to make with regard to the
individual's characteristics are derived from
a general inspection of the individual rather
than from reference to the external configura-
tion of the skull C H J

References —

COMBE, G System of Phrenology (Edinburgh, 1825 )
FOWLLR, L N Lectures on Man, Dascoujsrs on

Phrenology and Physiology (London, J886)
FOWLER, J A Manual of Mental Kcienct,or Child-
hood, its Character and Culture (London, 1897 )
HOWLER, O S Education and tfilf-impjovement

(No* York, 1S47)
GALL, F J Sui let, Fonctions de (\rvcau (Puns,

1825 )

HETKER, J Scientific Ba-sis of Education, demon-
strated by an Analysis of the Temper 'a mints and
Phrenological Facts (Now Yoik, 190S )
HOLLANDER,!? Mental Func turns of the Brain (Lon-
don, 1901 )

Scientific Phrenology (London, 1902 )
SPURZHEIM, J K Phrenology, or the Doctrine of the
Mind (London, 1825 )

PHYLOGENY — The term employed to
designate the evolution of a race or species.
It is distinguished from ontogeny, which refers
to individual development as contrasted with
racial development C II J

PHYSICAL DIRECTOR —See PHYSICAL
EDUCATION

PHYSICAL EDUCATION —Historical —

In time past and in our own time physical
education has been exalted, tolerated, neg-
lected, or denounced, accoiding to the pre-
vailing conceptions as to the nature of the
human hotly and of its relations to the human
mind The character of these conceptions
has depended chiefly on the ideals of human
excellence held at different periods in the his-
tory of education Those ideals, according
to Hartwell, mav be characterized as the
Greek or aesthetic, the monkish or ascetic,
the military or knightly, and the modern or
scientific

The Greek ideal recognized the unity or
symmetry of body and mind as expressed
by Plato in the Twuxus " Everything that
is good is fair, and the fair is not without
measure Now, we perceive lesser symmetries
and comprehend them, but about the highest
and greatest we have no understanding, for
there is no symmetry greater than that of the

707

PHYSICAL EDUCATION

PHYSICAL EDUCATION

soul to the body. This, however, we do not
perceive, nor do we 'allow ourselves to reflect
that when a weaker or lesser frame is the vehi-
cle of a great and mighty soul, or, conversely,
when a little soul is incased in a large body,
then the whole animal is not fair, for it is
defective in the most important of all symme-
tries; but the fair mind in the fair body will
be the fairest and loveliest of all sights to him
who has the seeing eye." Gymnastics were
accorded a large and important place in the
educational program of Greek youths The
teaching of gymnastics afforded positions
of honor and emolument to distinguished and
ambitious men Bodily training furnished
themes for poets, philosophers, and historians,
sculptors and painters sought models in the
gymnasium, and Greek physicians studied and
adopted exercises and procedures originated
by teachers and gymnasts. In the breadth and
sanity of its aims, the completeness of its
development as a national institution, and its
abiding influence upon succeeding generations,
Greek physical education has no parallel
(See GREECE, ANCIENT, EDUCATION IN )

The ascetic ideals of the monks, which after
the first few centuries of the Christian era
exercised a profound influence upon European
thought and life, was the antithesis of the Greek
ideals of education The conception that the
soul and the body are independent and mutu-
ally antagonistic entities was responsible for the
complete abandonment of physical education
by the monks They believed that all flesh
was the creation of Satan and that spiritual
health was best subserved by self-torture and
bodily weakness The influence of the monks
continued to antagonize and retard bodily
training in education until the beginning of
the nineteenth century (See MONASTICISM
AND EDUCATION; MIDDLE AGES, EDUCATION
IN)

The military or knightly ideal of human ex-
cellence existed side by side with the ascetic
ideal of the monks It played a conspicuous
and important part in the education of the
sons of noblemen and gentle folk The young
knight was trained to ride, draw the bow, use
weapons, and hunt, some attention was given
to manners, but very little to letters The
aim was the development of efficient soldiers
and gentlemen This form of education was
popular in England and the Continent until
the seventeenth century (See CHIVALRIC
EDUCATION, GENTRY AND NOBLES, EDUCA-
TION OF )

Modern Views — The modern or scientific
ideal of physical education owes its origin
to the belief " that to work the mmd IB also
to work a number of the bodily organs, that
not a feeling can arise, not a thought pass,
without a set of concurring bodily processes "
The sciences of biology, physiology, and psychol-
ogy have furnished a basis for the study and
application of the laws governing the growth,

development, and education of the body and
mind Man's knowledge of himself has been
immensely increased and his conception of
nature and his place in nature radically
changed One of the most prominent re-
sults of the progress made in these sciences is
a deeper appreciation of the vital importance
of motor training in education.

The modern or scientific ideal of physical
education recognizes two chief aims : (1)
health, normal growth and development of
the body as an efficient organism, (2) psycho-
motor education, with emphasis on bodily
control and the expression of personality or
character of the individuals.

These ideals are based on the sciences of
biology, physiology, psychology, and educa-
tion, but physical education itself has not yet
attained the dignity of a definite science
Since the somewhat crude attempt of Ling
(q v ) early in the nineteenth century to devise
a system of gymnastics based on physiology
and coordinated with educational procedure,
much progress has been made in placing
physical education on a scientific basis
During; the period of evolution from crude
empiricism to scientific principles, physical
education has passed through many phases

Three distinct systems originated in Europe
and developed simultaneously, the Swedish
system of educational, military, and medical
gymnastics devised by Ling and his followeis,
the German system of gymnastics developed
by Guts Muth, Jahn, and Spiess (qqv), and
the British wcheme of athletics and garnet?
fostered and developed in the universities and
public schools (See ATHLETICS, GYMNASTICS)
The Swedish and German systems had for their
chief aim the training of strong, self-reliant,
and patriotic citizens The athletics and games
of England developed naturally in response to
the normal play instinct of English boys and
young men

These well-defined national schemes for
physical education have survived to the present
day and spread to many lands. The Delsarte
system of exercises was devised by Francois
Delsarte (q.v ) in Paris, about 1840, to train
actors in dramatic expression The Delsarte
plan had such a limited scope that it could not
gain recognition as a system of physical edu-
cation.

In Colleges and Universities — In the United
States physical education had no place in our
schools and colleges until the latter part of the
last century Before 1860 the population was
very largely rural, the school terms were short,
and a large proportion of the children obtained
physical vigor and psycho-motor training
from participation in the varied activities
of the rural home. The need for systematic
bodily training in the schools was small and
its importance not recognized A few sporadic
attempts were made by educational reformers
to arouse interest in some phase or other of

708

PHYSICAL EDUCATION

PHYSICAL EDUCATION

physical education, but without success One
of these attempts, the introduction of German
gymnastics by Dr Charles Beck, at the
Round Hill School Northampton, Mass , in
1823, attracted considerable attention for a few
years. The New York High School and the
colleges of Harvard, Yale, Amherst, Williams,
and Brown followed in 1825, 1826, and 1827
Dr Follen (q v.) and, later, Dr Francis Lieber
had charge of gymnastic instruction at Har-
vard College and the Boston Gymnasium. The
enthusiasm then aroused by the new move-
ment was not permanent; by 1830 physical
education had been discarded as a passing fad

During the period 1830-1850 physical edu-
cation was completely neglected The decade
1850-1860 marks the beginning of the modern
revival of interest in athletics, gymnastics, and
hygiene, which after twenty-five years of slow
growth has since developed into a large and
important phase of modern education. The
nascent interest in gymnastic and athletic
forms of exercise during this decade was
promoted by the newly established inter-
collegiate contests in rowing; the organiza-
tion of gymnastic societies (Turnverenic) by
political refugees from Germany who came to
this country after the revolution of 1848;
the lectures and exhibitions of Dr G B Wind-
ship, who advocated heavy lifting, the intro-
duction of calisthenics (q v ) bv Dr Dio Lewis,
and the prominence given to topics relating to
physical education by speakers at teachers'
conventions and institutes, by editors of
educational journals, and by public school
officials

Gymnasiums were built at Harvard, Yale,
and Amhorst colleges in 1860, and in the same
year. Amherst organized the first college
department of hygiene and physical education,
with gymnastics as a compulsory branch of
college work The example of Arnherst was
not followed to any extent by other colleges
until after 1885, but since that time the ex-
tension of the movement has boon very marked,
as shown by the following figures for 124 of the
leading colleges in 1910 —

TMt CENT
Colleges having organized departments of

Physical education 84 3

Colleges having gymnasiums . . 08 2

Colleges having swimming pools . 36 6

Colleges having athletic fields . 95 8

Colleges having tennis courts 97 0

Colleges having regular instruction in gymnastics *H 7
Colleges having prescribed courses in physical

education . 87 1

Colleges giving credit towards bachelor's degree

for courses in physical education 58 2

Title of Officer in Charge of Department of

Physical Education

Professor 21

Associate or Assistant Professor . 4

Director of Gymnasium . . 38

Physical Director . . 20

Instructor . , 17

Colleges in which officer in charge of depart-
ment of physical education has a seat in the
faculty . . 757

Courses in physical education are prescribed
for freshmen only in about one fourth of the
colleges, for freshmen and sophomores in about
one half of the colleges, and in about one
fourth of the colleges the prescription is for
three or four years The usual credit for
each year is two units or about one sixtieth
of the total required credits for the bachelor's
degree

The following description of the course
prescribed for freshmen in Columbia College
shows in a general way what is usually taught
in a college physical education course meeting
two hours a week for one year: —

(1) Physical and medical examination, 1 hour,

(2) instruction in track and field athletics (outdoors),
12 hours, (3) instruction in marching and gymnastics,
34 hourb, (4) instruction in hygiene (lectures, etc),
6 hours, (5) instruction in swimming, until qualified
Examinations are held and students graded as in other
subjects

The typical depait merit of physical educa-
tion in the American college includes three
distinct lines of activity (1) The gymnasium
and accessories, such as swimming pool, rooms
for handball, boxing, fencing, wrestling, etc ,
in which physical education courses are con-
ducted and the mass of students meet for
general exercise, (2) the care of the students'
health, which includes medical examinations,
consultations, medical and surgical treatment,
and instruction in hygiene and sanitation;

(3) organized athletics, including intracollegi-
ate and intercollegiate contests in the various
games and sports The forms of organization
and methods of administration vary over wide
limits in the colleges, but there is a marked
tendency towards concentration of all the phys-
ical education, athletic and health supervision
activities in one department, under the direct
control of the college authorities. In this
respect American colleges and universities
are far in advance of similar institutions in
other countries where the health, physical edu-
cation, and recieations of the students are not
regarded as matters for which the institutions
are responsible

In Schools. — In the private secondary and
preparatory schools, physical education is
organized much the same as in the colleges.
The importance of motor education, health
supervision, and moral education during the
adolescent period is generally recognized by
educators in the secondary schools All the
large schools and most of the smaller ones
have well-organized departments of physical
education in charge of professionally trained
directors The first attempt to include physi-
cal education in the program of the public
schools was duiing the decade 1860-1870,
when the calisthenics advocated by Dr Dio
Lewis had a wave of popularity. The interest
lasted only a few years and physical education
was again neglected until the decade 1880-
1890, when a number of Western cities with a

709

PHYSICAL EDUCATION

PHYSICS

large German population introduced light
gymnastics of the German type in the public
schools. The growth of cities, industrial
development, and the rapid expansion during
this period were factors in arousing the interest
of educators and the public to the importance
of providing physical training for the children
in the schools The city homes could not
furnish the necessary environment for the
normal physical development and motoi
training of the growing generation, and the
need of modifying the school curriculum to
meet the new conditions was recognized In
1889 ^ conference in the interest of physical
education took place in Boston The con-
ference was presided over by United States
Commissioner of Education William T Harris,
and addresses were made bv prominent edu-
cators, physicians, and specialists in physical
education The purpose of the conference wa&
to " place before educators different svstems
of gymnastics and to secure discussion of the
same, with a view to ascertaining elearlv the
needs of schools, and determining how the\r
may best be met " A direct result of the
Boston conference was the organization of
a department of hygiene and physical train-
ing and the adoption of the Swedish system of
gymnastics in the public schools of Boston
New York and many other cities soon fol-
lowed, with the result that by 1900 neailv all
the cities in the East, Middle West, and West
had some form of physical education in the
school progiarn The most common system
of gymnastics in use in the school is the Swedish,
or some modification of this system A few
large cities, particularly in the Middle West and
Southwest, have adopted the German system

Special directors and teachers are employed
for physical training in about half of the cities
where this subject is taught The most
common form of organization is a department
with a director of physical training for the
city, special teachers in the high schools, and
supervisors in the elementary schools, who
visit each class once or twice each month to
criticize and help the grade teacher The
athletic activities of the school boys were de-
veloped by the boys in many cities without
direction or supervision from the school
authorities Since the organization of the4
Public Schools Athletic League the school
authorities in many cities have taken control
of this important phase of phvsical and moral
education

Training of Physical Instructors — The i apid
growth of physical education in the schools
and colleges since 1885 has been due m large
measure to the development of professional
schools for the training of teachers and direc-
tors of this branch of education Between
1880 and 1900 six normal schools and as many
summer schools were established for the training of
physical education teachers. The course of study
in the normal schools extended over two years,

710

including courses in anatomy, physiology, his-
tology, kmesiology, anthropometry, hygiene,
history of physical education, methods and
practical work in gymnastics, athletics, and
dancing. Since 1900 three of the normal
schools have lengthened the course to three
years, and in two of them the course leads to
the bachelor's degree

The rapidy increasing demand for teachers
and directors of physical education with a
good general education and professional train-
ing has led a number of colleges and universi-
ties to establish professional courses in physical
education. These courses are usually open
to students who haA^e completed two years of
college work The professional courses ex-
tend over two years arid lead to the A.B. or
B S degree

In addition to a good general education
and professional training, a medical education
is considered essential for directors of physical
education in colleges, secondary schools, and
the public school systems of large cities The
character arid personality of the teacher or
director are even more important than his
education and professional training. He
comes in closer contact with a larger number
of students than any other school or college
officer He advises students in matters of
exercise and hygienic habits He influences
the ethical amd moral standards of the stu-
dents in games and athletic contests Only
men and women of high ideals and deep human
sympathy aie qualified to assume the respon-
sibilities of directing the physical education
of school and college students G L M.

Other aspects of the subject are treated in
greater detail under ATHLETICS, EDUCATIONAL,
and the various articles on HYGIENE See
also the articles on the various educational
games and sports.

PHYSICAL EXAMINATION.— See MED-
ICAL INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS.

PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY. — See GEOL-
OGY, GEOGRAPHY

PHYSICAL SCIENCE. — See CHEMISTRY,
PHYSICS, etc.

PHYSICAL TESTS AND EXAMINA-
TION — See MEDICAL INSPECTION.

PHYSICIAN, SCHOOL —See MEDICAL
INSPECTION OF SCHOOLS.

PHYSICS —Historical Development —

Physics has been a subject of study in univer-
sities ever since their rise in the thirteenth
century Before 1600, however, the official
text was the Physics of Aristotle, and work
in the classes consisted mainly of scholastic
disputations on the contents of that work
During the two centuries (1450-1650) in

PHYSICS

PHYSICS

which the experimental method of investiga-
tion was slowly winning recognition, the nature
of the university study of physics gradually
changed. The magnitude of this change may
be measured by comparing the physics of
Aristotle with that of Galileo (qv). The
former is static, seeks final causes, and finds
them by classifying phenomena by genera and
species, using in this classification not the
whole phenomena with its progressive changes,
but some one of its static aspects which has
been arbitrarily selected as expressing the
nature of things For Aristotle the stone falls
because it belongs to the class of objects whose
natural condition is one of rest on the earth
The physics of Galileo makes no effort to study
final causes, but merely recognizes that the
longer the stone falls the faster it moves,
and seeks by measurement to determine
whether there is any constant relationship
between the time of fall and the velocity
acquired This method is dynamic, since
it takes account of the constant changes of
phenomena and enables us to control and to
predict them

Because modern phvsics consists of two parts,
namely, (1) mathematical discussion based on
(2) observation and measurement, these two
have of necessity developed side bv side in the
growth of the science They have not, how-
ever, always been equally emphasized In the
early stages of growth the experimental side
has been more prominent, while m the later
stages the mathematical analysis has assumed
the more prominent position Thus in static
electricity, Gilbert (1600), Gray (1730), Von
Kliest (1745), Franklin (1747) — all observ-
ers and experimenters — preceded ( -avendish
(1773) and Coulomb (1785), who put the science
on a mathematical basis In current elec-
tricity, Galvam (1780) and Volta (1800) dis-
covered how to make electucitv and Mmght
to find out what it would do befote Ohm's law
(1827) and the Wheatstone Budge (1843)
ushered in the quantitative treatment Gali-
leo made thermometers (1593), Watt patented
his steam engine (1769), and Rumfoid (1798),
Mayer, and Joule (1842) published then cele-
brated observations before Kelvin (1848),
Clausius (1850), and Rankine (1850) traced
the mathematical consequences The ob-
servations and measurements of Oersted (1819)
preceded the mathematical treatment of elec-
tromagnetism by Ampere (1823), and Faraday,
the keen observer (1831), preceded Maxwell
(1873), the mathematician

As in the growth of the science itself, so in
the teaching of physics in the universities,
the emphasis has fluctuated between the
mathematical and the experimental aspects.
At the time of Newton and for some tune there-
after, the mathematical treatment was most
prominent Mersenne's Opera (1644), Bai-
row's Lectiones Ophcorum (1669), Keill's In-
troductio in veram Phy^icam (1739), and New-

ton's Princtpia itself are evidence of this.
For there was at that time no chance for stu-
dents to work in laboratories, and even class
experiments were practically unknown.

During the latter half of the eighteenth
century demonstration lectures at the French
Academy became very popular in Pans, and,
as is well known, the popular demonstration
lectures of Sir Humphry Davy at the Royal
Institution in London (q v ) were the inspira-
tion of Faraday (q v ) and started him on his
great career Thus while experimental work
necessarily precedes mathematical discussion
in the early growth of the science, it seems to
have been introduced into teaching because of
a popular demand for it.

In Universities and Colleges — In the
university teaching, the emphasis remained on
the observational and experimental side from
the end of the eighteenth century nearly to
the end of the nineteenth century (1890), as is
shown by the common use of such books as
those of Ganot and Deschanel as texts, —
books in the early editions of which there is
practically no mathematical work Since 1890
mathematical work has been rapidly intro-
duced into the teaching This was a neces-
sary result of the introduction into the courses
of individual laboratory work by the students,
and of the development of the spirit of re-
search at universities At present the em-
phasis, both in the laboratory work and in the
theoretical discussions, is very decidedly on
the mathematical side No one can advance
beyond the first year of college work in physics
unless he lias mastered the calculus In many
of the current courses in mechanics, thermo-
dynamics, and optics it is often hard to realize
that there ever was an observational and ex-
perimental side

In America the first laboratory teaching of
physics to college students was done by E ('
Pickering at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology in 1869 Since that time it has
been gradually introduced into all college
courses These courses have also been ex-
panded enormously, owing to the very rapid
growth of the science itself The result of
this has been that students who wish to
become specialists in physics now have to pass
through foui or five years of formal training
m the technique of laboratory manipulation
before they aie admitted to original research
The great physicists of to-day were submitted
to no such formal training. Whether the
present formal system will produce greater
scientists than did the rather informal train-
ing of the past, remains to be seen

The changes that have taken place during
the last fifty yeais in the methods of teaching
physics in colleges and universities are the
necessary accompaniment of the development
just presented For college work the stand-
ard texts at the beginning of this period were
books like those of Arnott, Ganot, and Des-

711

PHYSICS

PHYSICS

chanel. These are largely descriptive of
phenomena and processes At present the
college texts, like those of Hastings and Beach,
Carhart, and Watson, bristle with algebraic
symbols and geometrical diagrams. In the older
books phenomena usually preceded explana-
tion, while at present definitions, axioms, and
laws generally come first, with phenomena
dragged in reluctantly at the end in the r61e
of applications. Then men were engaged in
solving the problems of nature, and students
were interested in learning about it, now the
student must first learn the man-made defi-
nitions and laws and then be shown that
nature observes them. The most recent texts
show a marked tendency to treat phenomena
before laws, and to justify definitions by facts
before stating them.

The philosophy of physics has changed much
in the past century, but the teaching of it has
been slow to follow. In the early part of the
past century matter and motion were the
controlling ideas; hence all courses began with
" properties of matter " and discussions of
motion. This is still the customary order,
although the doctrine of energy is now tht1
central idea in physics Physicists have,
during this last century, known that laws are
but statements of constant relations among
measured quantities, and that these laws are
true only in so far as further measurements
verify them. The majority of college students
seem, however, still to get the impression that
the laws of physics are true in the absolute
sense, — that they express truths that are
absolutely true beyond and outside of human
experience This fallacy persists among the
students because the current emphasis on
mathematical treatment gives to the subject
an air of finality which is not properly its
own.

In the European universities physics is now
taught mainly by demonstration lectures
The type of lectures given is well shown in
books like Kundt's Vorlesungcn uber Expcn-
mentalphysik, or Pellat's Cour* de Physiqiu
It does not differ materially from that given
in American colleges in their first courses in
physics The time devoted to the course is
usually one hour daily for two semesters

Laboratory woik is required only of those
who are specializing in physics, medicine, or
engineering The laboratory course or prac-
ticum for these specialists usually takes two
three-hour periods a week for two semesters
The grade of work done is well set forth in the
well known manual of Kohlrausch. After
completing these one-year lecture and labor-
atory courses, the student of physics is at once
admitted to research work.

In Secondary Schools — The United State*
— In the secondary schools of America phys-
ics, under the name of natural philosophy,
was one of the subjects included in the course
of study from tho verv beginning Since both

the academies and the public high schools
were founded to meet a public need for an
education of a more practical kind than that
given by the colleges, natural philosophy was
taught in them for the value of its information.
The people were living m the beginnings of
the age of steam and machinery, and they were
eager to know something about physics. The
early books and courses, therefore, contained
no mathematics and much discussion of every-
day phenomena and experience

The early work from 1780 down to 1825
usually consisted in the study of and recita-
tion from a text In 1827 the city of Boston
equipped its schools with some " philosophical
apparatus " for experiments by the teacher
or by teacher and class together Laboratory
work by the pupils was practically unknown
until after 1865. In 1880 the United States
Bureau of Education reported but four schools
that were giving a full year of physics with
laboratory work by the pupils; 53 that
were giving experiments bv the teacher, and
1 13 that were giving mere textbook instruction.

In 1872 physics came on the list of subjects
accepted for admission to Harvard College,
but no laboratory work was required Arnott
was mentioned as the book defining the re-
quirement The Harvaid Descriptive List of
laboratorv experiments required for entrance
credit in physics at Harvard appeared in 1887
The influence of this list was strengthened by
the report of the Committee of Ten (1895),
and by that of the Committee on College En-
trance Requirements (J899) of the National
Education Association Following the adop-
tion of this lattei leport, several apparatus
companies put on the market relatively in-
expensive si'tfe oi apparatus with which all
the experiments called for by the report might
be made As a result of all this, the introduc-
tion of laboiaiory woik into high school phys-
ics has continually progressed until such work
is now given in piactically every school where
phvsH's is taught at all.

While this development of laboratory in-
struction in physics was taking place, the
methods of treating the subject changed
lapidly In 1882 Gage issued his book which
bore the motto, " Read Nature in the Lan-
guage of Experiment " This book is typical
of the work done at that time. In the in-
troduction to the Harvard Descriptive List
(1887) it is stated that the experiments therein
described were selected with a view to their
having the greatest practical utility in the
thought and actions of educated men. In the
report of the Committee on College Entrance
Requirements (1899) the same set of exercises
is said to be designed to give the pupil a " com-
prehensive and connected view of the facts
and laws of elementary physics " Thus it
was during this period that " utility to men "
waw eclipsed by "the logical development of
the laws of physics '

712

PHYSICS

PHYSICS

This general change in the point of view is
evident from a study of the changes that have
taken place in the content of the texts intended
for school use. The descriptions of machines,
daily experiences, and familiar processes,
which were plentiful in the days of Natural
Philosophy, now give place to more quanti-
lative material, like Newton's laws of motion,
the absolute system of units, and instruments
for accurate measurement The 1882 edition
of Gage makes no mention of the dyne and
the erg as units of force and work In the
edition of 1888 these units are introduced in
fine print In the older books we find many
statements like this A cannon ball that
weighs 10 pounds and is moving with a veloc-
ity of 100 feet per second has a momentum
of 10 X 100 = 1000 No units of momentum are
specified. This sort of vagueness as to units
has largely disappeared, though there are
still books which say that the acceleration of
gravity is 080 centimeters

The increasing recognition of the importance*
of quantitative work in phvsics has been a
mark of real pi ogress It was, however,
earned too far, with the result that, in most
schools a pupil was introduced into physics
thiough micromotor calipers and tho absolute
svstem units It was the logical method to
pioceed from tho simple to tho complex, and
what, simpler beginning could bo found than
tho gram mass, tho centimeter, and tho second
Under tho desne for logical ngoi, tho subject
matter was oigamzod about tho system of
absolute units and the effoit made to teach
physics in this way

This eclipse of tho needs of vouth by tho
science of physios was cooidmato with and
dependent upon tho similar changes that took
place in tho college world, as doscnbod above
While Ganot gavo way in tho colleges to tho
University Physic* of Caihait and the liko,
Gage yielded in tho high schools to texts claim-
ing logical ordei, mathematical treatment,
and up-to-dateness as their chief virtue Tho
inevitable result has followed Phvsics is
generally regarded bv tho high school pupils
as a subject to bo avoided if possible In 1900
most of tho colleges specified phvsics as a
subject that must bo presented for college
entrance Now few, if any, make this a speci-
fied subject It was dropped from tho list
of specified subjects largely because tho num-
ber of students who wore conditioned in phys-
ics at entrance to college became largo,
owing to a decrease in tho number of students
who took it in tho high schools

Present Movement --During the past ten
years a decided reaction has been developing
against the so-called logical methods of treat-
ing physics in high schools This reaction
took an organized form in the National Com-
mission on the Teaching of Physics (1906),
which was appointed by tho cooperative
action of a number of associations of scion or

teachers. The work of this commission cul-
minated in the definition of the unit in physics
adopted by the North Central Association of
Colleges and Secondary Schools in 1907
This definition is noteworthy for its brevity
and for the complete absence from it of all
demand for abstract mathematical work
In 1909 the College Entrance Examination
Board adopted a new definition of its require-
ment in physics This definition was framed
by a committee of six secondary school
teachers without assistance from the colleges,
and warns teachers against the disguise of
unfamiliar units

Physics teachers are now working, through
sovoial committees, on the problem of bringing
their work close to the pupils by using in their
classes problems and apparatus such as the
pupils inoet in their daily lives This is a
complete reversal of the methods of a few
years back Then it was considered necessary
to present definitions and general principles
first , and to bring in the home experiences and
familiar machines only by way of illustration or
application Now tho pupil begins by a study
of some particular familiar thing, — a water
motor, a hoisting crane, a gas stove, an elec-
tric boll, — and is led thence to the formula-
tion of the principles involved

Europe — In the secondary schools of
Franco and Germany physics is taught in
small doses extending over a long period The
pupils in tho scientific courses carry the sub-
ject during tho last five years of their work, —
two hours a wook for throe years, and then
three hours a wook for two yeais. This is
equivalent to a little more than two units in
tho American system, but its extension over
five yoai s has obvious advantages m the way
of allowing the difficult concepts of physics
to develop slowly in the pupils' minds Out-
lines of tho woik done in those five years are
given for Germany in Gutzmer, Die T&tigkeit
dcr Untcrnchtxkojnmibswn dcr Gesellschaft
dcut^thcr Naturfoischer und Acrtzte (Teubner,
1907), and for Franco in the Plan d' Etude*
ct Programmes d'Enneignement (Paris, Ha-
oheUe)' The total ground coveied in these
courses is a little more extended, but not very
different from that which many American
high schools attempt to cover in the time of
one unit

It has been noted that students abroad enter
research after the equivalent of throe units
of training in phvsics This again raises tho
question whethei the four or five years of
preliminary training required in America is
a benefit to tho students or not

The foreign secondary bchools are consider-
ably behind the schools of the United States
in the development of individual laboratory
work in physics It is only during the last
eight years that serious attention has been given
to this matter Much progress has been
made in this short period, and at present

713

PHYSICS

PHYSICS

laboratory work by the pupils is being rapidly
introduced everywhere The kind of work
done is practically the same as that done in
America under the standaidized system of
the national physics course. A reaction
against this formal arid logical method is also
well under way in Germany From many
sides the demand for more practical and vital
work is heard The term Arbeitsunterncht
has there come into piommence of late.

Elementary Schools — In the elementary
schools physics has received relatively little
attention During the early years of their
development (1820-1870) some little work
of a descriptive character was attempted, but
from 1870 to 1900 very little effort was made
to teach physics in any form in the grades
In 1895 the Committee of Fifteen on Elemen-
tary Education recommended to the National
Education Association that one fall hour a
week be devoted to science during the whole
eight years of the course, and that in the
seventh and eighth grades the time be devoted
to physics and chemistrv This recommcrida-
tion, as far as physics was concerned, was not
followed eagerly by the schools as a whole
The nature study movement was just beginning
to develop, and its emphasis was on physical
geography and the biological sciences

In some few places, notably in New York
City, a serious attempt has been made to
develop a course in physical science in the
seventh arid eighth grades In that city
in 1903 a new plan of nature study wab
adopted A syllabus was issued according to
which the work of the seventh and eighth
grades was to be a complete course in ele-
mentary physics The aim of this course
is not only to acquaint the pupil with the
fundamental laws and principles of physics,
but also to train him in habits of close observa-
tion, accurate thinking, and correct expres-
sion; in short, the emphasis is on physics as a
well-organized mass of knowledge and on men-
tal discipline, rather than on the need of the
child This course occupies two forty-minute
periods a week Laboratory work has been
introduced, in which the pupil does set ex-
periments and writes them up in his notebook
The method of presentation recommended is
(1) presentation or demonstration by the
teaohei , (2) individual laboratory work by
the pupils, (3) recitations on the demonstra-
tion and the laboratory work The kind of
laboratorv experiments recommended are
(1) those that verify laws demonstrated by
the teacher , (2) those that are wholly or
largely quantitative in character, (3) those
that will impart, a rertain degree of mechanical
skill It is claimed that this work also fosters
in the pupils the scientific habit of mind
Notwithstanding this effort in New York City
and elsewhere, the teaching of physical science
in grade schools has not made much progress
in the country at large

Another type of work in physical science in
the seventh and eighth grades has recently
been developed in experimental schools like
that of the Teachers College in New York
and that of the College of Education of the
University of Chicago A practical problem
is presented to the class, such as Is it cheaper
to make a still and distill water on a gas stove
than it is to buy distilled water from the
druggist ? The pupils construct stills, measure
the gas consumed in distilling a measured
quantity of water, and compute the cost
per gallon This type of work creates a
lively interest among the pupils It makes
no pretense of logical order or rigorous treat-
ment Its chief aim is to teach the children
to analyze familiar phenomena and to solve
by the method of science simple and real
problems in physics which yet he well within
the range of their daily experiences The
child and his needs are the centei of the course
rather than the organized science of physics
Courses of this kind have not yet been organ-
ized with sufficient definiteness to make them
available for use in city school systems, nor
has an adequate supply of teachers competent
to carry on work of this kind successfully been
forthcoming as yet

The general lack of work in the physical
sciences in the grades has led recently to a
demand foi a course in " general science " in
the first year of the high schools Physiog-
raphy is usually given in the first year in the
secondary schools, and many claim that it.
serves the purpose of opening the eyes of the
pupils to the importance and the interest of
further scientific study In many cases, how-
ever, physiography has become too much
specialized to serve the purpose of a general
introduction to science Courses in general
science have, therefore, been organized in
numerous places, which usually consist of
a senes of topics and problems such as
How are grease spots most easily removed
fioni clothes ? What are the conditions for
making good pictures with a pinhole camera ?
How do sped aeles improve eyesight ? Which
kind of gas burner is most economical ?
What are the traps on the waste pipes
of sinks for9 How is water purified ? Nu-
merous first-year courses of this general type
have been developed in secondary schools
In most of the places where the experiment
has been tried, it is pronounced a great success
in inci easing the general interest of the pupils
in science and in swelling the numbers of those
who take 1 he later more advanced courses in
phvsios The courses that have been ar-
ranged differ widely as to content There
is as yet no general agreement either as to
content, or as to the organization of it. The
entire movement is still in the experimental
stage, but it shows very clearly an effort to
develop a type of science teaching which
shall make the needs of the pupils rathei than

714

PHYSIOGNOMY

PHYSIOLOGICAL AGE

logical organization the controlling element in
the work

The justification of the new methods of
treating physics is readily found in the history
of physics, in the recent analysis by the
psychologists of the doctrine of formal dis-
cipline, in the present demands of the people
for the development of social and industrial
efficiency in education, and in the recent
developments of the philosophy of science

C. R M
References. —
BAQLBY, W. C. The Educative Process (New York,

1910)

Educational Values (New York, 1911 )
BOUA.SSE, H De la Method? dans lea Science* (Paris,

1909)

DBWEY, JOHN How We Think (Boston, 1910)
DUHBM, P La Throne physique, son Ohjet et sa

Structure (Paris, 1900 )

England, Board of Education Report on Science

Teaching in Public Schools, etc (London, 1909 )

HALL, G S. Adolescence, Vol II, Chap XII (New

York, 1905)
Educational Problems, Vol 1, Chap V11I (New

York, 1911 )
HLCK, W H Mental Discipline and Kdutatwnal

Value (New York, 1911)
HODHON, F , ed Btoad Lints in Scietuc Teaching

(London, 1909 )
McMuRRY, C A Special Method in Elemtntaiy

Science (New York, 1904 )
MACH, E The Science of Mec ham< H Open Court,

1893

Th( History and Root of the Principle*, of the (Con-
servation of Energy (London, 1911 )
MANN, C R The Teaching of Physic* for Purposes

of General Education (New York, 1912 )
New Movement among Physics Teachers School
Science and Mat he-mat tea, March, 1900, to June,
1908 Also in the School Reouw, June, 19()<>, to
April, 1907
NuNN.T, P The Aims and Athicmmentv of the Sen n-

tiflc Method (New York, 1909 )
POINCARE, H Science and Hypothutw (New York,

1905 )

The Value of Science (Neu York, 1907 )
School Science and Mathematics This journal con-
tains many excellent articles on thih subject
United States Bureau of Education Bulletins of In-
formation, No 6. 1880, No 7, 1884
WOQDHTJLL, J F The Teaching of Physical Science
Teachers College Record, January, 1910

PHYSIOGNOMY — See LAVATER, J K

PHYSIOGRAPHY —See GEOLOGY, GEOG-
RAPHY

PHYSIOLOGICAL AGE - A term which
refers to stages of development and is, there-
fore, to be distinguished from chronological
age, which refers to the calendar of years and
months. The succession of the stages of
development, maturity, and senescence form
the calendar to which any living individual
may bo referred for designation as 1o physio-
logical age It is held that thr statement of
the stage of development is more fully descrip-
tive of the individual than is a statement of
years and months of age, alone, for the former
gives information as to structural condition,
physical and mental abilities, characteristic
of the stage, while the latter refers only to

length of life Owing to different rates of de-
velopment, chronological age gives imperfect
information as to actual mental 01 physical
status

The physiological calendar of developmental
stages is a scries of anatomical, physiological,
and mental signs which serve as data for
reference This has given rise to the addi-
tional terms " anatomical " and " psychologi-
cal " age, depending upon the nature of the
sign noted for refeience Of the former,
Rotch has presented a series of developmental
epochs based upon the appearance of the ossi-
fication centers of the bones of the wrist; of
the latter Bmot and his followers have pre-
sented <i series of tests of mental abilities
These signs vary in significance as to the num-
ber and closeness of their correlations with
other important features of development
Of the least importance at present are the
anatomical signs of earlier tooth appearance
and the development of the bones of the wrist,
for with them little correlation with othei
features of maturation has been determined
Of greater importance arc the signs of puberty
and menopause with which many significant
qualities are closely correlated At puberty,
of which pubic pubescence is the sign, the
voice changes, a growth acceleration begins,
physical proportions change, many mental
abilities wax and wane, and the whole social
attitude changes,

Strength of grip, right hand Stage of pubescence of a
group of (>(t!2 high school boys hetwetn 1J 6 and 15 year*
of age

1 Pn pubeucentb

2 Puhc*cent\

3 Po^tpubcscitttx

PHYSIOLOGICAL AG*

IVILOH

15-19

3

2

2

20-24

17

22

16

25-29

:u

52

41

30 34

26

49

79

35-39

15

22

113

40-44

1

~7

78

45-49

1

43

50 54

21

55-59

12

f><)-64

<2

65-69

2

70-74

0

75-79

1

HO -H4

1

Number

96

155

411

Avciagr kilos

2937

30 79

38 80

Viiriahihtx

496

5 6<>

846

Since puberty may occui at any age between
six and twenty, and commonly from eleven
to sixteen, the mere statement of a chronologi-
cal age, as, for instance, thirteen years, gives
no information as to whether or not these

PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY

PHYSIOLOGY

most significant changes have or have not
occurred; while the statement of physiological
stage with reference to pubescence will more
accurately describe the individual

We divide children from eleven to sixteen
into three classes — prepubescents, pubes-
cents, and postpubescents, according to the
absence, first appearance, and evident presence
of pubic hair The preceding table illustrates
the fact that postpubescents are much stronger
than prepubescents Similar investigations
determine that they are proportionately taller
and heavier, and that their success in school
and their growth rates arc also very different

Owing to the fact that this thesis is new, the
physiological calendar is incomplete, and the
significance of each of its data of reference
has not been fully stated The importance of
basing education upon the observed succession
of developmental stages, instead of the chro-
nological basis, has become apparent, and
efforts have been made to bring about the
change. The recognition of the fact that the
neuromuscular abilities of the postpubcscent
boy arc superior to those of the prepubescent
boy has led to a classification for purposes
of athletic competition upon the basis of
weight, which is closely correlated with
pubescence, and m many cases the division
is made upon the actual observation of pubes-
cence

The following table, taken mainly from Boas,
exhibits the anatomic and physiological de-
velopment calendar as it is at present formu-
lated The corresponding psychological calen-
dar is at present unforrnulated

OBJECTIVE SIGN

AVEK4UK VAKIABIL-
DATK ITY (SIGMA)

PrcKiianey . .

r?V

0 0 04

First incisors

rT?

0 6 21

First molars

rT?

1 6 31

Innei permanent incisors

9

7 1 (>

Inner permanent incisors

rf

75 14

Outer permanent incisors

V

89 21

Bicuspids

V

9 28

Outer permanent incisors

-f

95 , 21

Bicuspids

rf

98 16

Permanent canines

rf

11 2 14

Permanent canines

9

11 3 1

Second molars

9

12 8 1 b

Second molars

0*

132 2

First stage pubescence

rf

13 5 1 ft

Second stage pubescence

rf

147 17

Puberty

?

14 9 2 01

Wisdom teeth .

rf

19 3 21

Wisdom teeth

9 i

22 1 8

Menopause

9

44 5 $ 3

Death due to arterial diseanes

d-9 -

62 5 13 2

rf male , 9 female

c w c

PHYSIOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGY. — See
PSYCHOLOGY.

PHYSIOLOGY — That phase of biology
which treats of the functions or life activities

716

of animals and plants. General physiology
deals with fundamental processes which are
common to all organisms. The terms animal
physiology and plant or vegetable physiology
are commonly applied to the subdivisions
which treat of life processes in animals or
plants, respectively (See BIOLOGY; BOTANY.)
Human physiology in the strict sense is the
science of human functions; and it is chiefly a
division of animal physiology, for the compara-
tive study of animal life has contributed
numerous facts and principles applicable to the
human aspect of the science. Human physi-
ology is popularly more or less confused with
hygiene, probably because personal hygiene
is largely an application of physiology supple-
mented by some applied bacteriology. Public
hygiene, on the other hand, depends primarily
upon applied chemistry and bacteriology in the
public control of conditions which affect the
health of communities Having now defined
the field of physiology as a subscience of
biology, an outline of its various relations
to education will be more intelligible

In Universities and Medical Schools —
Onlv in advanced courses in some universities
and medical schools is human physiology pre-
sented as a separate branch of science, while
the necessary farts of anatomy and histology
are taught in prerequisite courses More com-
monly, college courses and large textbooks
which are designated " physiology " contain
a large admixture of anatomy, chiefly micro-
scopic, but sometimes gross also Moreover,
in some colleges there arc no announced courses
of physiology, but the human side of physiol-
ogy is presented as a culmination of general
biology

In Schools — With reference to schools
of secondary and elementary grade the term
" physiologv " has been very loosely used,
especially in America, and has been applied
to various courses of study of the human body,
some of them based on textbooks with less
than 10 per cent of their pages devoted to
physiological topics In defense of the use
of the word " physiology " for such elementary
studies of the human body, it has been urged
that the whole study revolves around func-
tions, and the same kind of argument might
also justify the more recent use of " hygiene/'
for such studies as are of value chiefly with
reference to health Numerous authors of
elementary textbooks have avoided such
unwarranted use of the term physiology by
adopting such titles as " human anatomy,
physiology, and hygiene," " human mechan-
ism," and " human body and health "

Instruction concerning the human body, and
especially aiming at health, is in many states
required by law in the six or seven years be-
tween the second grade of the primary school
and the second year of high school. (See
TEMPERANCE, INSTRUCTION IN.) In most
cases the laws do not specifically require anat-

PHYSIOLOGY

P1ARISTS

omy and physiology, but obviously some
fundamental facts in these lines are necessary
as a scientific basis for teaching hygiene
The general tendency of recent years has
been to reduce the amount of human anatomy
and physiology in elementary courses for
public schools, in order to make way for more
hygiene, particularly the problem of germ
diseases. There is excellent authority for
teaching in elementary schools only as much
physiology as is needed for application in
hygiene and only as many facts of anatomy as
are useful in physiology

The most recent movement affecting public
school " physiology " is the attempt to make
it an integral part of nature study for ele-
mentary grades and of general biology, or
sometimes zoology, courses of high schools
The elementary school adjustment to nature
study has been studied in only a few schools,
although advocated by many prominent
science teachers (See NATURE STUDY ) The
inclusion of high school physiology and hygiene
in biology courses is very common in many
high schools, and is officially recognized in
courses of study in some states, notably Now
York Practically all prominent, teachers who
have tried presenting human physiology and
hygiene in connection with high school biology
favor the plan because so much of the usual
studies of animals and plants holps to inter-
pret human structure and functions, In fact,
the only possibility of teaching physiology and
hygiene on the laboratory basis is by making
use of illustrative materials selected from the
fields of botany and zoology

In some systems of elementary schools and
in a few high schools the teaching concerning
the human body has been designated hygiene
and placed in the charge of teachers of physical
training The experiment has been far from
successful, chiefly because hygiene is best
taught by classroom and laboratory methods
and with illustrative materials which are quite
foreign to the standard physical training
Moreover, there are relatively few possible
correlations between hygiene and physical
training outside of breathing and muscular
activity Probably most useful of all ele-
mentary hygiene is that relating to food and
germs, and these certainly have no relation
to physical training On the other hand, they
are natural applications of biological nature
study and high school biology M A B

For more detailed presentation of the educa-
tional status of the entire subject, see HY-
GIENE, PERSONAL, HYGIENE, SCHOOL, HY-
GIENE, TEACHING OF, PHYSICAL EDUCA-
TION; TEMPERANCE, INSTRUCTION IN; also
NATURE STUDY; MEDICAL INSPECTION, SANI-
TARY SCIENCE, SEX HYGIENE

References : —

BIQELOW, M A Teaching of Human Physiology,
Chapter XII, in Teaching of Biology in the Sec-
ondary School, by Lloyd and Bigclow New York,

Longmans, 1904 (contains bibliography). Place of
Physiology in Elementary School Nature-Study
Review, Vol II, February, 1906, pp 67-72
See also reference lists under Hygiene

PIANO PLAYING, HYGIENE OF. —

Sec DESKS AND SEATING, MANUAL TRAINING,
HYGIENE OF, OVERPRESSURE

PIARISTS — A teaching order established
by Joseph Calasanetius (155(5-1648), a Span-
ish priest, who was born near Pctralta in
Arragon and after studying at Lenda, Valen-
cia, and Alcald proceeded to Rome Here he
was struck by the lack of educational oppor-
tunities for the poor, and with the aid of two
priests opened a free school in 1597 The
work grew rapidly and further assistance was
obtained In 1606 there were 900 pupils under
instruction, in 1613 there were 1200 In 1621
Pope Gregory XV permitted the establish-
ment of a teaching congregation — Con-
gregatw Clericonnn regularnnn pauperum Ma-
ins Dei ftcholarum pniruw, known also as
the PatreH piarum Scholarum After much
opposition and internal troubles the order
was once more confirmed by Pope Clement
IX The members wore a habit much like
that of the Jesuits, whose geneial organization
was also copied in the mam The Piarists
undertook primary education — ad majus pie-
tatts incrementum From Rome they were
soon invited to other parts of Italy and then
Spain In 1631 they took up work in Moravia,
in 1640 in Bohemia; in 1642 in Poland; and
after the Thirty Years' War in Austria In
the eighteenth century and in the early part
of the nineteenth the Piarists weie particularly
influential in Austria and Hungary, especially
after the expulsion of the Jesuits Besides
element ai v education they had been allowed
by Pope Clement XII in 1731 to give higher
education, and they established many higher
schools From 1804 to 1849 they had charge
of the Acadenna There si an a in Vienna
Throughout the latter half of the last century,
however, there has been a decline in the ac-
tivity of the Piarists in Austria Their chief
centers arc now in Italy, Spain, and America
While they followed a scheme very similar
to the Ratio of the Jesuits, they did not adhere
to it so rigidly, nor were they so narrowly
classical as the Jesuits They divided the
school work into nine classes reading, writing,
ciphering, schola parva or i udinientoruw, schola
pnncipiorum, grammatica syniaxis humanitas
or poexis, and rhetonca To avoid fatigue
school work was never continued beyond
periods of three days The work of the con-
gregation is organized in provinces. At the
head stands a Prcepositus gcnerahs with four
assistants and a Procuratoj generalis, all in
Rome The chief authority in each province
is the Dicasterium provinciate , the head of
a college is the Rector, of a settlement, the
Superior A general chapter takes place at

PICCOLOMINI

PIETISM

ftome every six years for the discussion of the
larger questions of administration

References —

HEIMBUOHKR, M Die Orden und Kortgrcyationen dcr
kathohschen Kirchc (Paderborn, 1907 )

SCHALLER, J Gedanken ilber die Ordenxverfuxauny der
Piaristcn und ihre Lehrart (Prague, 1S05 )

PICCOLOMINI, AENEAS SYLVIUS —
See JSNEAB SYLVIUS

PICO DELLA MIRANDOLA — See REN-
AISSANCE AND EDUCATION

PICTOGRAPHS — See LANGUAGE, WRITTEN
PICTORIAL METHOD —See READING
PICTURES. — See VISUAL AIDS

PIERPONT, JOHN (1785-1X66) —Text-
book author, graduated at Yale College in
1804 For five years he was teachei in Ihe
academy at Bethlehem, Conn , and private
tutor in South Carolina lie studied law at
Litchfield, Conn , and piactieed a few years
at Newburyport, Mass He then took the
course in theology at the Cambridge Divinity
School and devoted the remainder of his life
to the ministry He was the author of a series
of school readers, including the well-known
Atncncau Class Booh (1831), W S. M

PIERSON, ABRAHAM (1645-1707) —First
president of Yale College, graduated from
Harvard College in 1668 He was ordained
to the ministry, and was assistant pastor (un-
dei his father) at Newark, N J , and pastor
at Killmgsworth, Conn He was the first
rector of Yale College (1701-1707) He pub-
lished an Indian catechism and a work on
natural philosophy, which was studied in
the college foi many years. " He was an
excellent scholai, a great divine, a faithful
preacher, and wise and judicious in all his
conduct " W S M

See YALE UNIVERSITY.

PIETISM — A movement which occuired
within the Lutheran Church m the seventeenth
century, stimulated by the opposition to the
formalism and intolerance in the dogma and
practice of the church The result of the
Thirty Years' War had been to establish a
number of " little popes," each with his own
official clergy to protect an intolerant creed
Theological quibbling on questions of doctrine, a
cold, logical, and intellectual religion, had sprung
up, and close adheience in forms was demanded
Against this condition came a movement for
practical Christianity, pious conduct, and
faith, the heart rather than the intellect, was
the seat of religious beliefs Philip Jacob
Spener (1625-1705) is generally regarded as
the leader in the movement He had, how-

ever, several predecessors whose work tended
in the same direction. Among these may
be mentioned Johann Arndt, Johann Valentin
Andreas (q /'.), and Balthasar Schuppius.

Pietism was a demand for the expres-
sion of piety and devotion in individual ac-
tion, conduct was to be inspired by inner
light, deep reverence, and true conception of
religion Hence there followed naturally love
of God and love of man; the spiritual and the
social went together To pietism in no small
measure was due the humanitarian and phil-
anthropic activity of the eighteenth century

Strong as the influence of pietism was in
religion, it was even more powerful m educa-
tion Both Spener and Francke held that
the faults of the age were due to bad upbring-
ing of children in home and school, and to poor
teaching They recognized the evil of allow-
ing the memory to run ahead of intelligent
comprehension, and furthei they saw the
defects of an education which stressed verbal-
ism and neglected the real and practical. As
in religion the chief cause of prevailing con-
ditions was a divorce between doctrine and
practice, so the remedy in education was to
be found in a combination of the word and the
thing But the leaders of the movement also
realized that the benefits of education were
confined to only a few The lower classes,
the pool and destitute, were almost entirely
neglected Accepting the theory of the total
depravity of children, the pietists were com-
pelled logically to accept and provide educa-
tion as a discipline for the conduct of life
The result of the two views on the function of
education was to relate knowledge to the needs
of life, a life directed to higher ends — love
of God and human sympathy Thus a change
in the curriculum m the direction of the modern
and practical was no longer impossible From
the social-philanthropic aspect a new movement
began for the provision of schools for orphans
As Spener was the leading influence on the reli-
gious side, so Francke (q v ) was the moving
spirit on the educational. All the implica-
tions which flowed from the pietistic move-
ment were realized in the great Stiftungen
of Francke at Halle (1695) Throughout
Germany this influence was felt almost im-
mediately, and led to the establishment of
schools for the poor and to the foundation of
orphanages Connected with these went
the training of teachers, also in imitation of
Francke's system. At Halle, too, was es-
tablished the first " real " school by Semler
in 1706, based on the principle non scholce sed
inter discendum. Although this school did
not meet with success, it was the prototype
of the " real " school established by J. J
Hecker in Berlin m 1747 and so of the'" real "
schools of Germany Through Hecker the
stamp of pietism was also laid upon Prussian
elementary education, for he was in large part
responsible for the Generallandschulreglement

718

PIKE

PITTSBURGH, UNIVERSITY OF

of 1763 But the influence of pietism which
thus emphasized the value of the vernacular
did not end with the elementary and secondary
schools. Through Spener, Francke, and
Thomasius (qv), after the failure of the two
latter to introduce the use of the vernacular
at the University of Leipzig, the University
of Halle (qv), probably the first modern
university, was established

As a religious movement pietism, like other
similar movements, at times degenerated into
fanaticism, and while it had originated to
vindicate human values, it ended in decrying
every thought and action in the slightest
degree worldly In education, however, it laid
the foundations of modern ideas an in-
creased importance was attached to the vernac-
ular, the " real " studies were encouraged,
practical needs were not disregarded, better
methods replaced the old emphasis on dis-
cipline and memory, schools were provided
for the lower classes; " real " schools were
introduced; and teachers began to be trained
N"or were these influences confined to Germany
The Moravians (q r), a direct oifshoot of the
pietist movement, established schools as soon as
they were organized In England the chanty
school movement (see CHARITY SCHOOLS)
was due to similar influences, in England and
America the Quakers were an equally impor-
tant factor IH the development of education
(see BBITIHH AND FOREIGN SCHOOL SOCIETY,
FRIENDB, EDUCATION OF SOCIETY OF, LAN-
CASTER, JOSEPH, etc); while sinnlai move-
ments, almost contemporaneous with pietism,
led to educational reforms in France (See
CHRISTIAN BROTHERS, LA SALLE, ST JOHN
BAPTIST DE, PORT ROYALISTS )

See FRANC KE, AUGUST HERMANN, and the
references there given

References —

GRUMBERG, P Ph J Rpenrr (GoitinRou, 18C)3-

1906)
HEPPE, H L «J Geschichte dw Pwtiannui und der

Myatik in der Reformirten Kircht. (Leipzig,

1879)
Ht/BKNER, W PietixmuK, geirhuhthch und dogniatisch

Qeschildcrt (Zwirkcn, 1901 )
MONROE, P Textbook m the History of Eduiatwn

(New York, 1910 )
RlTSCHL, A. Gewhuhte dex Pictisma* in der Liithcran-

isrheri Kirchc deft 17 und 18 Jahrhinidrrt* (Bonn,

1880-1880 )
SACHSBK, C Umprung und Wetun tf<,s Pii'tixniuB

(Wiesbaden, 1884)
SCHMID, K A Geschichtf der Krzietuin(j,Vo\ IV, pt 1

(Stuttgart, 189ft )
THOLUCK, A. Geschtchte dex Ratio nuhmtiu*, Part I

Qeschichte dea Pietwrnus, etc (Berlin, 1865)

PIKE, NICHOLAS (1743-1819) — Author
of one of the earliest popular American
arithmetics, was graduated at Harvard Col-
lege in 1766 He taught for several vears and
in 1788 published his New and Complete
System of Arithmetic, which for nearly half
a century was in general use in America

W S IV!

719

PILLANS, JAMES (1778-1864) — Scotch
educator, born and educated in Edinburgh
He graduated M A at the Edinburgh Univer-
sity in 1801 , for several years he was a private
tutor at Eton, and from 1X10 to 1820 he was
Rector of the Edmbuigh High School As
Rector he met with considerable success,
increased the number of pupils, and introduced
the monitorial system for the first time in a
secondaiy school lie was especially inter-
ested in the teaching of Latin, Greek, and an-
cient geogiaphy. His experiment at the high
school attracted much attention, particularly
in France, \\here he was made a member of
the Sonete f>otn rKnsetynewcnt elementaire
In 1820 he was appointed to the chair of Hu-
manities and Laws, a position held by him
until 1863 Professoi Pillans had an intimate
acquaintance with all types of school in Eng-
land, Scotland, Piussia, France, Switzerland,
and Ireland In 1856 lie published a volume
containing most of his writings on education
under the title Contributions to the Cause uf
Education The speeches and essays are char-
acterized by breadth of view and are the fruit of
wide educational experience Professor Pillans
was a warm supporter of the professional edu-
cation of teacheis and of the improvement of
their social status Professional education he
did not consider to lie in higher education 01 a
training in devices and methods, but in prin-
ciples and psychological foundations of educa-
tion He urged the establishment of chairs
of education in Scotland as early as 1828, and
continued advocating these to the end of his
career

See ED v CATION, ACADEMIC STUDY OF

Reference —
Dictionary of National Biography

PISA, UNIVERSITY OF — See ITALY,
EDUC \TION IN

PITCH —The quality of a tone The
tonal range of the normal ear extends from the
lowest audible tone, about twelve vibrations
per second, to the highest audible tone, about
fifty thousand vibrations per second The
lower limit is usually determined by means of
laige tuning forks, and the upper limit by
means of a Gal ton whistle The range is
greatest in early youth The upper limit is
lowered with age to such an extent that at
sixty a person may not have more than about
two thirds of the range he had at sixteen. Some-
times gaps occur within the tonal range, i e
a person is incapable of hearing tones of a
certain pitch, although he may hear both
higher and lower This is analogous to color
blindness C. E. 8.

See EAII, SOUND.

PITTSBURGH, UNIVERSITY OF, PITTS-
BURGH, PA — The oldest existing institu-
tion of learning west of the Alleghames. It was

PITTSBURGH, UNIVERSITY OF

PLACE

first chartered on February 28, 1787, as Pitts-
burgh Academy; later, in 1819, as the West-
ern University of Pennsylvania. Tn 1908
the title was changed to University of Pitts-
burgh. In 1822 the first college faculty was
installed. By state appropriation the first
college building was erected Fires in 1S45
and 1849 destroyed the buildings In I860
the University acquired the Allegheny Ob-
servatory, and new buildings upon the ob-
servatory site in Allegheny were completed
in 1890. In 1908 a new site was chosen,
consisting of forty-three acres in the Oakland
district. By 1912 five buildings had been
completed on this site. The Chancellors of
the University, at first called principals, have
been as follows- Robert Bruce, 1819-1843,
Heman Dyer, 1843-1849; D H Riddle, 1849-
1855, John F McLaren, 185,5-1858; George
Woods, 1858-1880; Henry M MacCracken,
1881-1884; Milton B Goff, 1884-1890, Wil-
liam Jacob Holland, 1890-1900; John Alfred
Brashear, 1901-1904; Samuel Black McCor-
mick, 1904-. The purpose of the second
charter, to create in western Pennsylvania a
university similar to the University of Pennsvl-
varna in the east, was partially carried out irom
1840 onward, in the establishment of courses
in law, in advanced English, in engineering,
in astronomy, and in medicine In 1892, under
the chancellorship of Dr. Holland, this pui-
pose was fully realized in the establishment of
schools of medicine, law, dentistry, pharmacy,
and mines All these are now located on
the university site, with the exception of the
observatory (situated permanently in Rivcr-
view Park), and the schools of law and phar-
macy, which will shortly be transferred

The University of Pittsburgh now consist H
of eleven schools, as follows* college, engineer-
ing, astronomy, graduate, mining, economics,
education, medicine, law, dentistry, arid phai-
macy It. is managed by a self-perpetuat-
ing Board of Trustees, consisting of thirty
members, together with the Chancellor and
the mayor of the city. The entrance re-
quirements are the usual fifteen units The
school of medicine requires two years of col-
lege work. Entrance to the law school is
determined by the rigorous requirements in
that profession in Pennsylvania, the student
body for the most part holding bachelor's
degrees In the year 1911-1912 the faculty
of the University consisted of 271 members
The students numbered 2258, distributed as
follows: graduate school, 68, college, 345,
engineering, 176, mines, 46, economics, 425,
education, 502; law, 170; medicine, 190,
pharmacy, 200, dentistry, 165 The Uni-
versity has (April 1, 1912) assets amounting
to more than two million dollars. Its support
comes from private endowments, individual
gifts, and biennial appropriations from the
state.

The location of the University in the world's

greatest industrial center gives prominence
to certain of its departments Among these
are medicine, with the splendid hospital
facilities, engineering, with its unrivaled lab-
oratories in the mills and manufactories,
which make possible the new cooperative sys-
tem whereby engineering students gain prac-
tical experience while engaged in study; re-
search work in industrial chemistry, with the
system of industrial fellowships, which are
rapidly multiplying, economics, sociology, etc.,
courses in which are extending with rapidity
and effectiveness, education, with its plans for
cooperating with the public school system in
western Pennsylvania. S. B. M

PLACE, FRANCIS (1771-1854) —Publicist
and educationist He was born in a " sponging
house," or private debtor's prison, in Vinegar
Yard near Drury Lane, London, his father,
Simon Place, being a bailiff to the Marshalsea
Court Afterwards the father took a tavern,
and Francis was brought up with arab-like
street, life out of school, and actually taught
other pupils in school From 1784 to 1789
he was apprenticed to a leather-breeches
worker In 1791 he married Elizabeth Chadd,
when their joint earnings amounted to seven-
teen shillings a week With a period of un-
employment in 1793 he became overseer
of parish scavengers, but notwithstanding
every discouragement he gave himself up to
intellectual improvement by borrowing books
on loan Bv 1796 he had become an agnostic,
and took part in publishing Tom Panic's Age
of Reason In 1799 he opened a shop as a
tailor, determined not to exercise the ordinary
tricks of tradesmen Place came into contact
with Joseph Lancaster (q v ), sent a son to one
of his schools, and endeavored to make the
movement, not only a charitable plan for the
children of the poor, but the basis of an or-
ganization of a complete system of primary and
secondary education, at least for London,
and was one of the pioneers in the movement
of " Schools for All " One of Place's dis-
tinctive suggestions was a system of higher
schools in connection with the Lancaster
Society, so as to help the middle classes
as well as the poor He was particularly
anxious, like Ellis (q v } later, that syste-
matic courses of morals should be included
in the curriculum Bentham offered a site
for such a school, and the proposed curric-
ulum was founded on the Chrextomathia
of Bentham (q v). James Mill joined Place
in drawing up the proposed plan in 1815, but
the scheme finally failed in 1820. In 1823
Place was instrumental in founding a London
Mechanics Institute (q v ), which was further
developed by Dr Birkbeck (q.v ), and which
with day classes attached has become one of
the most important recognized " schools "
of the University of London. Place advo-
cated, at the beginning of the nineteenth cen-

720

PLAMANN

PLANTA

tury, schools for all, buildings to be erected at
the cost of public authorities, compulsory rates
for education, and good teaching on a strictly
non-sectarian basis He was a leader against
the laws forbidding combinations of workmen,
and was an important source4 of information
on social questions for the first half of the
nineteenth century, having left seventy-one
volumes of manuscript and materials, largely
autographical, now placed in the British
Museum Library F W.

References —

Dictionary of National Biography

WALLAH, GHAHAM Lift of Francis Place (London,
1908)

PLAMANN, JOHANN ERNST (1771-
J834) — German educator, born m Berlin and
there educated at the Royal Real School and
the Joachimsthal Gymnasium After study-
ing theology and pedagogy at Halle, he was
private tutor for a time, until he became
so full of enthusiasm for Pestalozzi's work that
he decided to visit him in S wit zei land He
remained at Burgdorf from May to Octobei
of 1S03 and was in intimate touch with Pesta-
lozzi On his return he opened a Pestalozzian
institute in Berlin with loyal authority The
first effort failed, owing to trouble with the
school authorities In 1805 Plamann opened
another school on Pestalozzian lines and met
with gieat success This institute became
the center of Pestalozzianism in Prussia The
authorities encouraged young teachers from
all parts of Prussia to visit Plamann, and Von
Humboldt sent his son to the school, through
which he was converted to Pestalozzianism
Among the futuie educational leaders who
received their training through Plamann may
be mentioned Harmseh, Jahn, Kawerau, and
Dreist Plamann visited Pestalozzi a second
time in IS 12 Plamann was the author of
several books on the Postaloz/ian system:

Einzigc Gmndieyel da lTntenichti>ki<n$t noch
Pcstalozzi* Method? , ongeirandt in ciei Natuj-
qexchichte, Gcogifiphic and tiprache (Some

Principle* of the Ait of Inxtniction according
to Pextalozzi'b Method applied to Natural

H \douj, Geography, and Language, 1805),

inordnung de* Unternrhtf* fur etn Pevtaloz-
zitsche Ktwbe Hitch tile (Course of Instiuctwii

for a Pestalozzian Schools foj Boys, 1806);

Klernentarformen, fiprach- nnd wibsenschaft-
lichen Unlernchtskunst (Elementary Method*
of Instruction in Language and ticiciice, 1006),
Heitrage zur padagogixchen Krilik, znr Ver-
Iheidigung der Pestalozzixchcn Methode (Con-
tributions to Educational Criticism, in De-
fense of the Pestalozzian Method, 1815)

Reference- —

BARNARD, H American Journal of Education, Vol
VII, pp. 308-311.

PLANCHETTE — See MUSCLE READING;

AUTO MA TO Git A PH

PLANS, LESSON — In order to train
teachers to anticipate and prepare for all the
essential demands that will be made by the
conditions of the classroom and the standards
of effective teaching, it is customary to require
the preparation of lesson plans by students
of the teaching process At first such plans
are usually for a single lesson period; later,
they may cover a group of lessons; later still,
with more experienced teachers, a scheme of
procedure for the work of a month or a term
A common type of lesson plan makes a pre-
liminary statement of aims (for both teacher
and pupils), and then in parallel columns
suggests the subject matter and the method of
procedure to be utilized in developing the
lesson

The advantage of the lesson plan lies in its
usefulness as a device — (1) in anticipating the
situations which are to bo used m controlling
the experiences of children, (2) in stimulating
the teacher to an adequate gathering of the
materials \\hich are the basis of instruction,
and (3) in defining the teacher's activities
so as to avoid discursiveness Mechanically
used, the lesson plan tends to make teaching
formal and inflexible It should be used as
a guide (rather than as a fixed plan), elastic
enough to be modified to meet the un-
foreseen situations and spontaneous interests
that constantly appear m every classroom
Fullness of detail in such careful advance
planning is icquisite for beginners in order
to clarify tho teacher's thinking and to give
a basis for advance criticism on the part of the
supervisor More schematic planning cover-
ing widei units is moie profitable for experi-
enced teachers in service, inasmuch as they
have1 in large degiee perfected their scholarly
and pedagogical resources, and have attained
an easy self-command in the classroom For
trained teachers, a demand for detailed
written plans may prove wasteful of time and
energy H S.

References —

CHARTERS, W W Methods of Teaching, Ch XIX.

(Chicago, 1909 )
McMuRRY, C A and F M Method of the Recitation,

Ch XIV (Bloomington, 111 , 1897 )
SrHAY^R, G D. Brief Course in the Teaching Process,

Ch XVI (New York, 1911 )

PLANTA, MARTIN (1727-1772) —Swiss
educator born, at Siis in the Grisons and edu-
cated by his brother After studying theology
at Zurich, he \\ as tutor for a time in Germany
and then (1750) pastor of a German congrega-
tion in London Here he also studied mathe-
matics and physics, to which he contributed
several inventions Returning to Switzerland,
he became pastor at Zizers in 1754. In 1761,
after consulting the French Minister Ulysse
de Sahs-Marschlms, the diet of Grisons, and
members of the Societt Hclvetique, he with a
friend, J Peter Nescnuum, a former pupil

VOL IV 3 A

721

PLANTS

PLATO

of the Franckesche Stiftungen, opened a
•school, the Stminaire or Rtminar This was
soon transferred to Haldenstem and met with
great success, attracting foreign as well as
native pupils The aim of the school was
" first to give a Christian education, and
secondly to prepare pupils for the various
careers, political, administrative, military, and
commercial " The curriculum was broad and
included. Latin, French, German, history,
geography, law, natural law, practical mathe-
matics, bookkeeping, design, music, and draw-
ing Mechanical methods were leplaced by
attention to individuality, appeal to the in-
telligence, and independence Ulvsse dc Salis-
Marschlms m a tribute to Planta referred to
the following featmes in the school " Self-
government of the pupils as a stimulus 1o
ambition and preparation for a lepubhcau life,
the Socratic method, arid the jehgiouh founda-
tion " The school was organized on the model
of the Roman republic Emphasis was placed
upon physical exercise, including gymnastics
and excursions The pupils were encouraged
to make collections of minerals, plants, and
insects, and were also taught manual work
of different kinds In 1771 the school, having
now ninety-six pupils, was once more moved
to the castle of Marschlms About this time,
too, Planta designed to open a free school for
poor pupils of ability On Planta's death in
1772, K Fr Bahrdt, a disciple of Basedow
(q v ), was given charge of the school, now
known as a Philanthtopinum But Bahrdt
did not have the personality to carry on the
school with success, and it was closed in 1776

See PHILANTHROPINISM

Reference —

HUNZIKER, O Genchichtc dtr schweizenscken Volks-
schule (Zurich, 1881 )

PLANTS, PROTECTION OF — See GAR-
DENS, SCHOOL, NATURE STUDY, also HUMANE
EDUCATION

PLANUDES —See MAXIMUS PLANUDE*

PLASTICITY — ModifiabiliU That piop-
erty of living organisms which enables them
to adapt their behavior to changes in their
environment The term may also be applied
widely to cells of which the organism is com-
posed or even to non-living matter that
retains the modifications which result as a
consequence of action upon it The term is
generally used, however, in connection with
those changes which are clearlv adaptive

Under the condition of rapid changes in
environment any animal species which is
plastic will have an advantage over those
which are not capable of modifying their be-
havior to suit the new conditions According
to the theory of organic selection the presence
of pl.'isticitv serves 1o modify the influence of

natural selection by enabling the animal pos-
sessing it to form new habits suitable to the
changing environment, which promote the sur-
vival of the animal until natural selection has
time to secure more fundamental adaptation

According to this view, therefore, in a species
which survives because of its plasticity, each in-
dividual will require education in order that it
may be brought into harmony with its environ-
ment Man's nervous system is preeminently
the most plastic of all animals' by virtue of the
comparatively large size of his cerebral hemis-
pheres Corresponding to this fact we have
the lengthened period of infancy, which is the
period devoted to the learning of new modes
of behavior Man ih, therefore, comparatively
much less dependent upon instincts and re-
flexes than the lower animals and much more
dependent on habit, making education a
virtual necessity The human nervous sys-
tem becomes much less plastic in middle and
old age, as shown in the relative difficulty in
learning new habits both of thought and
action. K H C

See ACQUIRED CHARACTERISTICS, INFANCY
AND KDVCATIOX, HEREDITY

References —

FisKk, ,1 Tht M( ailing of Infancy (Boston, 1909 )
JAMEH, W Pnnciph* of Piycholof/u, Vol I, pp 105-

114 (Now York, 1MM) )
MORGAN, O L Animal Behavior, pp 171-178.

(London, 1900 )
Habit and Instinct, pp 157-159 (New York, 1896 )

PLATEAU — See HABIT, also LEARNING;
PRACTICE CURVE

PLATO — The educational influence of
Plato is so all-pervasive that it is impossible
to give an adequate statement of it, even had
tho subject, not been treated under a variety
of other topics In the general article on
GREEK EDUCATION it LS the ideas and influence
of Plato that are expressed for the most part
in the discussion on the THBOR\ OF GREEK
EDUCATION (Vol III, pp 153-155) Again,
in the article on IDEALISM AND REALISM
TN Em r \TION (Vol III, pp 371-375) it is
chiefly Plato's influence which is discussed
In the article on ETHICH, on Louie, on PHI-
LOSOPHY, and especially in PHILOSOPHY OF
EDUCATION, it is again Plato's influence which
is stressed as fundamental In the articles on
MYSTICISM and NEOPLATONIHM his influence
during the late classical and medieval periods
is considered Throughout the entire list of
topics relating to the philosophy of education
(see ANALYTICAL INDEX in the last volume),
Plato's influence is to be noted, especially in
such articles as those on KNOWLEDGE, IDEA,
LAW, etc The following aiticle, therefore,
is limited to a brief statement of the chief
points of Plato'h influence on education. The
Platonic schools of education, as worked out
in an ideal system, ttie found in their most

722

PLATO

PLATO

systematic form in The Republic As staled
above, these accord in general with the most
advanced educational theory of the Greek
people. In a similar way, Plato's most con-
crete statement of educational practices, as
found in The Laws, is in general a transcript
of contemporary Greek practices Both are
therefore given in substance in the general
article on GUEEK EDUCATION

Higher education in Plato's scheme was
almost exclusively mathematical, though we
know that he cncouiaged grown men, like his
nephew, Speusippus, and Aristotle, to study
other branches of science, such as geology,
botany, and zoology. That, however, belongs
to the history of scientific research rather than
to that of education, and it is clear that Plato
insisted upon a preliminary training in mathe-
matics for all his students The whole scheme
is really the development of a single thought,
which he owed in great- measure to the Pythag-
oreans The earlier education was directed
to the inculcation through time and tune of
an instinct for order and harmony An
ordered and harmonious soul is the first lequire-
ment of a good citizen, but, besides that, the
Greeks felt that the intervals of the octave
had their counterpart on a larger scale in the
ordering of the heavenly bodies, and that the
great universe itself was tuned like a lyic
The aim of education is, therefore, to put the
soul in tune with the world and with God
That is why it is mathematical throughout.

It is becoming more and more clear that
Plato's LawK had u very great influence in
the age which immediately succeeded him
Alieady in his own lifetime the Academy WHS
recognized as a school of politics, and especially
of constitutional law Many cities applied to
it for legislators, and in tins wax the theories
of The Laws came to be realized in the codes
of actual states This seems to have been the
case wiUi the educational principles contained
in the work also Tt is generally recognized
that, by founding the Academy, Plato became
the real author of the univeisitv system,
it is not always noticed that lie was also the
inventor of the school as we undei stand it
At Athens in the classical period theie weie
no schools at all, if we mean by a school a
public institution with a regular cuniculum
Parents sent their sons to one teacher to learn
reading and writing, to another to learn music,
and so forth, but all these teachers were
private tutors, as it were, and quite independ-
ent of one another.

In recent times, much attention has been
paid to Plato's theory of education, but this
has been almost entirely confined to the dis-
cussion of the subject in The Republic As
has been said, the guiding principles are to be
found there, and they aie rather assumed than
established in The Laws It is from The
Republic that we learn his view that education
is above all a sort of conversion, a turning of

the eve of the soul to the light It is also from
Th( Republic that we* lea in the psychological
basis of the system It is not corieet to say,
as people usuallv sav, that music is the educa-
tion of the soul and gvmimstics that of the
body Rathei these aie the education of
two diffeient " parts " or elements in the soul,
and the excess of either pioducos an ill-balanced
and mhaiinomous chaiactei

It is also from The Republic that we get a
fuller knowledge of the higher education in its
foui main branches of arithmetic, geometn ,
astronomy, and music, which long survived
in the medieval (juadj nnutn. But, on the
whole, what we chiefly owe to Plato is the
idea of an organized school with a definite
curriculum, and that is derived from The Lou*

Platonic Philosophy of Education — Plato's
tieatment of education is a closely intei woven
fabric of interpretation of the social and moral
conditions of his own day, with principles
and problems having a perennial import His
most important contributions to u permanent
philosophy of education may be enumerated as
follows —

I The problem of education is an inheient
poitum of the philosophic question, and con-
veisely education is treated as the social and
moral art through which the theoretical lesults
of philosophy shall be made effective in life
(See PHILOSOPHY OF EDUCATION ) It is no
accident that his two chief treatises on the
right organization of social life (The Republic
and The Lawx) are also chief authorities for
his ethics, metaphysics, and educational theory.
He retains and continues the Socratic notions
that right conduct presupposes true knowl-
edge, and that the theory of true knowledge (logic
01 dialectic) is of piactical or moral importance
since it is a necessary instrument in bringing
men to a consciousness of ignorance and
opinion, with their attending evils, and in
piOMding them with the means oi attaining
the knowledge that leads to the good The
genuine practice of dialectic as distinct from
the spurious (enstic and sophistic) is thus an
integral pait of right living Philosophy is
thus no ineiely theoretical exercise, but defines
the method of education, that is, of the conver-
sion of the soul to the good and of the latter '&
progressive realization Plato, in avoiding the
shaip antithesis of knowledge and practice,
also avoids the error, so common in subsequent
thought, of making educational theory a mere
external annex of philosophy

2. Plato adds a distinctly new factor to the
Socratic conception, in his conviction that
knowledge is relative to social organization
That is to say, ignorance and mere opinion
are inevitable in the degree m which self-
seeking and division infect society, whether
these are expressed in despotisms or in anarchic
democracies Such societies involve exclusive
" particularity " of knowledge as the counter-
prnt of the division of classes and interests.

723

PLATO

PLATO

Instead of affording the universality and per-
manence which are the patterns upon which
true knowledge is modeled, they generate
ignorance and casual opinions masquerading
as truth. This strict correlation between
right knowledge and right social organization
involves, as its consequence, the equally strict
correlation of educational theory and the
theory of politics or sociology — the theory
of the organization of the state So far as the
records indicate, Socrates had thought the
conversion of the soul to true knowledge
might be brought about by personal disci-
pline independently of the action of the social
environment

This interdependence of true knowledge and
the right organization of the state is Plato's
answer, in anticipation, to the charge brought
by Aristotle, and often repeated, that Plato
overestimated the importance for right action
of a purely theoretical knowledge, and ignored
the need of habituation and practice Accord-
ing to Plato, the attaining of the true theo-
retical knowledge itself implies and requires a
long period of education in a social medium
where the individual, acting in accord with
principles of unity, balance, and harmony,
absorbs into his practical habits the factors
which make possible later on an independent
theoretical vision The Platonic social hier-
archy, with philosophers at the top as social
rulers, follows from his insistence upon social
practice as un indispensable prerequisite for
genuine knowledge That Plato is caught in
a circle, on the one hand insisting upon true,
or philosophic, knowledge as a condition of
right social organization and, at other times
upon right social organization as an ante-
cedent of philosophic insight, must be freely
admitted Since he had no conception of
evolutional}' growth, or gradual progress, he
could not conceive that the true state should be
ushered in otherwise than by a happy conjunc-
tion of circumstances, when once hit upon, it
must be kept, at all hazards, intact against
any further change, even in its minor details

3 Plato clearly perceives, what later intel-
lectual specialization obscured, that the motive
and principle of the organization of the sciences
is educational The various sciences may be
literally said, in accord with the Platonic
spirit, to be studies; their differentiation and
coordination is an affair of specifying the sub-
ject matter of an adequate education and of
designating the proper aim of each branch
of knowledge in the educational whole A
purified music and gymnastic (the customary
content of Greek education) pave the way foi
the new studies of nature (astronomy and
physics in the form of cosmology); these pass
insensibly into mathematics; mathematics
into dialectic, dialectic culminates in the
apprehension of the final ends, centering in the
conception of the Good, whence a reverse, or
deductive, movement leads back to the study

of politics and ethics There is, of course,
much in the specific content of this account
that subsequent philosophy and science have
rendered untenable But the underlying idea
that the distribution and correlation of the
various sciences is ultimately an educational
matter, not an abstract intellectual one, must
be regarded as a permanent contribution.

4 Plato states and treats the problem of the
place and relations of the individual in society
as an educational problem Society is a
complex unity, it involves the active coopera-
tion of a number of diverse functions Indi-
viduals are born with distinctive capacities
From one standpoint the need is that these
various individuals' capacities be distinctively
harmonized with a coordinated, unified social
unity Fiom another standpoint, the need
is that every individual be trained to intensity
and efficiency of action in the particular
capacity which distinguishes him by nature
The unitv and order of the state suffer when
individuals, instead of sticking to the single
function for which they are naturally equipped,
assume a multitude of activities, thereby en-
croaching on the sphere of others and intro-
ducing conflict into the social whole Educa-
tion supplies the means of satisfying the need
from whichever side it be legarded. The busi-
ness of education is to determine the social
office for which individuals aie fitted by
a continuous process of selecting, sifting, and
testing, in which the special talents and limi-
tations of each individual are revealed
Practically, there is some truth in the com-
plaint that Plato sacrificed individuality to
the supposed requirements of social unity and
stability In theory, however, he held that
the discovery of the special capacities of an
individual so as to hold him to an occupation
that should utilize his powers in the interests of
the social whole was the sole method of securing
both the true happiness of the individual and
the good of the state The education that
discovers and trains the pcculiai powers of
itn individual is at the same time the method
by which intrinsic, instead of coerced, harmony
is achieved in the state This conception
appears to present a permanent factor in the
problem and ideal of education The limita-
tions in the Platonic treatment are due to the
fact that he held the individual variation down
to certain fixed limits and types, which corre-
sponded to certain fixed classes in the state
Having the idea of a small number of classes
within which variations in individuals fall, he
was also led to the notion that the correspond-
ing social classes have to be arranged in an ordei
of inferiority and superiority Advance since
the time of Plato is in the direction of recogniz-
ing that individual variations are of the very
heart of individuality itself, and that accord-
ingly the development of characteristically
individual powers is destructive of the exist-
ence of fixed social classes Variety of social

724

PLATTER

PLAY

activities conspiring to a cooperative unity of
result has thus been substituted for hierar-
chical subordination of classes as defining the
aim of education

5. The characteristic, iole, already alluded
to, of the aesthetic and the artistic in education
represents another permanent contribution
The aesthetic and artistic provide the connect-
ing link and the solvent factor with respect
to the relation of the practical and the theo-
letical in education — an idea which is a.t the
basis of Schiller's conception of education
On the one hand there is the need oi practice,
of repeated exercise, of habitual ion in educa-
tion This, by itself, tends to routine, and
thus to a limitation of rational insight, 13 ut
not so, if it is based upon spontaneous, un-
coercod tendencies — upon play instincts In
this case, education, even as habit nation, or
practice, involves the emotional attitudes of
the individual and an aesthetic subject matter
which, through its niheierit content of pro-
portion, harmony, balance, and nobility, effects
an insensible transition to rational insight
The treatment of gymnastic as well as of
music is directed by this principle, Plato's
well known attack upon poetry and dramatic
art is based not upon a depreciation of the
educational function of art and aesthetic
appreciation, but upon his belief in their
supreme educational significance and the
consequent need of their supervision and
control in the interests of the state J T)

References — •

BoHANQin'jT, B Th< Kdmaiion of th< Youny in the
Rcpublu of Plato (CarnhndK^, 1^01 )

NETTLESHIP, R L The Theory of Kdu(cttion in the
Rt public of Plato In Hellemca, edited by Evelyn
Abbott (London, 18S3 )

PLATTER, THOMAS (1499-1582) —

Swiss scholar, printer, and teacher, chiefly
known through his autobiogiaphy, which is
written in a very quaint and interesting style
and forms a valuable document for the history
of education in the sixteenth century He
was born at Grenchcn, in the canton of Valais,
and spent his early youth as a goatherd
Then he was taken out into the world by a
cousin and, as traveling scholars, they roamed
for years through Saxon v, Silesia, arid Bavaria
The description of then roving lite and then-
adventures affords a remarkable pictuie of
the times Platter finally found a home in
Zurich, in the house of the schoolmaster
Myconms There he studied Latin, Greek,
and Hebrew, but at the same time learned the
trade of a ropemaker In Zurich he also em-
braced the doctrines of the Reformation,
which had been introduced by Zwingh From
there he went to Basel, where he worked at
ropemaking and, in his spare time, delivered
lectures on Hebrew grammar at the uruvei-
sity. Latei he established a printing press at
Basel In 1541 he was put in charge of the

Basel school, where he taught for nearly forty
years, until he was retired in 1578.

See BACCHANTS

Reference —

MONROE, PAUL Thomav Platter and the Educational
ReriaisbdJLce of the Sixteenth Century (New YorK,
1904 )

PLAY — A name given to those activities
which are not consciously performed for the
sake of any result beyond themselves, ac-
tivities which arc enjoyable in then own
execution without reference to ulterior pur-
pose Foi a long time the theory of play
most generally held was that most thoroughly
elaboiated by lleibert Spencer, namely, that
plav represents the overflow of superfluous
energy, the base line from which to measuie ex-
cess being the amount of energy required to
maintain the level oi health and perform im-
posed tasks Since children are relieved of
most of the duties connected with getting a
living, they naturally have a relatively larger
amount of excess energy at disposal Since the
channels of the discharge of the superfluous en-
ergies are those of necessary and useful works,
it is not surprising that plays largely simulate
practical activities The more prolonged
study of the plavs of animals and savages im-
pressed Gioos with the extent to which plays
repiesent acts that are useful in Inter life
Jle formulated the idea that the chief thing
about plav is that it gives preparatory exeicise
in later necessary functions This is usually
regarded as a rival theory to that of " surplus
energy," but it is evident that the theories
are framed fiorn differ ent standpoints and
have no point whcie they touch each other
One theory might be correct as an account of
the causal conditions of play, and the other
as an account of its value

As a matter of fact,, however, the theory of
surplus energy seems to be influenced by a
survival ol the once general conception that
individuals are natuiallv averse to any kind
of activity, that complete quiescence is the
natuial stage of oigamc beings , and that some
fear of pain or hope of pleasure is required in
01 del to stir individuals to effort which in
itself is painful The fact of the ejise is that
from intra-organif stimuli, the organism is in
a constant, state of action, activity indeed
being t he v erv essence of life When the myth
of natural quiescence is surrendered with its
accompanying myth of the need of a special
piemium in order to arouse an inert agent, ^ it
ceases to be necessary to search for any special
cause or any special object order to account for
play The only thing necessary is to state the
conditions under which organic activity takes
this or that form So considered, we find various
forms, which are of sufficient importance,
educationally at least, to justify differentia-
tion, namely, play, amusement, art, work,
laboi, drudgery.

725

PLAY

PLAY

In any case the starting point is the active
processes in which life manifests itself As
stimuli direct this activity one way or another,
some of its modes are peculiarly rewarding
The stimulus not only arouses a certain kind
of activity, but the responsive activity returns
upon the stimulus so as to maintain it and to
vary it These variations supply the stimuli
for keeping up more action The moving
spool draws the oiganic response of the kitten
to itself, this response continues to give the
spool the kind of movements which continue
to excite organic reactions There is no dif-
ference in kind between the spool as a stimu-
lus and a mouse, save that the latter has pe-
culiar stimuli of the sense of smell and, when
crunched by the teeth, of taste, that call out
special responses In like fashion, a baby
plays with certain stimuli so as to keep up,
with certain variations, a certain mode of
action Seeing a thing in a certain way evokes
responses that make further seeings enjoyable

After such processes have been frequently
repeated, they are complicated by the fact
that an idea of the result of pnoi activities
is supcradded It may be that the idea of
this result as a possible outcome will be a
sufficient stimulus to keep the activity going
after it has ceased to afford adequate stimuli
so far as its direct results are concerned If
the idea of the result operates as a stimulus
to renew the otherwise flagging activity, arid
if, in addition, the accomplishing ot the result
involves a certain selection and arrangement,
of acts antecedent to it, we get a tvpe of ac-
tivity sufficiently contrasted to be termed
work But as action involving the idea of an
end grows natutally out of a spontaneous
activity, so " work " in this psychological
sense is inevitably pieceded by plav and glows
insensibly out of it The chief point of dif-
ference is not the agreeableness of one and
the disagreeableness of the other, but that in
the case of work the idea of an end enforces
reflection on the relation of means to end, and
stimulates a corresponding loadjustment of
activities onginallv spontaneous Not only
is the satisf acton ness of the activity not the
main differentia, but, with mci casing com-
plexity of powers, prior activities are too
simple to afford the necessary stimulation
(and hence the desired satisfaction) unless
they are expanded by a less immediate and
more indirect adjustment of means to ends.
At one stage of development, the relation
between end and means is so close that if the
dominating idea is that of playing " set the
table/' anything will be turned to account for
a table and for dishes With maturity of
perception, the activity is not sufficiently
complex to be enjoyed unless things can be
devised and employed that are objectively
adapted to the end Action requires a greater
amount of intellectual control and of practical
check in ordei to be satisfactory, or worth

while At this point, and not at that of utility
venus freedom, or of that which is an end for
itself versus that which is a mere means for
something else, lie the differentia between play
and work

Furthei distinctions are due to social con-
ditions. The stimuli to activity become more
social as intelligence develops The interests
and occupations of adults are the points of de-
parture and the directing clews of children's
actions (See IMITATION, and INFANCY )
Certain plays have outcomes and methods
that are determined by social conventions;
such plays, carried on by rules, are games.
But the distinctions of amusement, labor, and
drudgery also arise from social conditions

Labor is a fact of economic origin Wher-
ever industry is subdivided, as it is beyond
the fishing and hunting stage of civilization in
gi eater or less measuic, the product of work
is not a direct stimulus to the prior process,
for this product is not itself enjoyed or con-
sumed, but is exchanged for another object
(or for money). This means that the direct
end of action is not its adequate stimulus;
that something not directly caied for is done
for the sake of a more ulterior end This
implies the possibility at least of the direct
activity being itself so disagreeable that there
is an aversion to it, which is overcome only
because of the need for the ultimate object.
Under certain conditions of economic life,
labor almost inevitably takes on this exter-
nally enforced quality, and, as it KS intrinsically
irksome, becomes drudgery The notion, re-
ferred to earlier in this article, that man is
naturally averse to action and hence is moved
to it only by fear of evil or love of reward, was
taken into psychology from economic theory
at a time when industrial life consisted mainly
in wage-earning under conditions themselves
repulsive. Amusement is differentiated from
play by a sort of contrast effect Children
do not normally play for the sake of amusement,
any more than for the sake of any end beyond
the action itself They live in their actions, and
these actions are called play because of cer-
tain qualities they exhibit But adults (as
well as children whose surroundings are
socially abnormal) need relief from labor,
especially from drudgery Powers not used
at all, or used under enforced and distorted
conditions during working hours, need stimu-
lation The things outside the ordinary
routine activity of labor that yield this stimu-
lation constitute amusements The fact that
they are called recreations and are employed
for purposes of relief indicates a contrast-effect
not normally present in the play of childhood

It is also desirable to distinguish an attitude
of mind as playful Matthew Arnold, for
example, called ability to occupy the imagina-
tion fruitfully with a subject, the ability to
allow the mind to play freely about the subject,
a sign of culture. This attitude of mind is

726

PLAY

PLAY, HYOIENE OK

distinguished from inability to onjov mtellec-
tual activity upon a subject except in the
interest of some preconceived theoiy 01 some
practical utility This capacity to draw satis-
faction from the immediate intellectual devel-
opment of a topic, irrespective of any ulterior
motive, represents a genuine outgrowth of
the play attitude — a special form which it-
may take. Unless play takes this intellec-
tual form, the full spirit of scientific inquiry
is never realized, much, if not all, of what is
termed the love of truth foi tiuth's sake in
scientific inquiry represents the attitude of
play carried over into enjoyment of the ac-
tivities of inqunv foi its own sake The
putting forth of observation, leflection, test-
ing, is enjoyed on its own account, inespeetive
of ulterior by-products, just as in eaily child-
hood certain strenuous and even hnzaidous
forms of physical effort may be intrinsically
satisfactory

Play and Education — The account that
has been given indicates, in outline, the chief
educational problems connected wilh the
topic of play The original discovery of its
importance in education, by Plato, and its-
rediscovery bv Froebel, may be said to con-
stitute the basic pimciples of the method of
instruction The foundation of all latei
growth is the activity of the earliei period,
which, so far as the consciousness of the in-
dividual is concerned, is spontaneous 01 play-
ful Hence the necessity that the earhei
plays be of such a sort as to grow naturally
and helpfully into the hit IT moie reflective
and productive modes of beha\ior This
means that play should pass insensibly m1o
work (though not ncccssanlv into labor), and
that eailiei play and \\oik alike be of the
kinds which afford exercise in the occupations
that aie socially useful Foi a genuine initia-
tion into them through play means not only
that the individual has acquired, under con-
ditions of least resistance* and greatest
economy, the skill required for efficiency
judged from the socral standpoint, but that he
has done so through the engapmg of his own
imagination and emotions Fn oilier words,
the natural transition of play into work is the
means and the only means of reconciling the
development of social efficiency with that of
individual fullness of life

Other educational problems a use from the
economic conditions under which industry
is earned on at present, with its extreme
specialization of labor and its control by ref-
erence to a medium of exchange instead of bv
commodities valued on their own account
It is a part of the business of education to
fortify and enrich the imagination so that the
mechanical phases of industry shall not leave
an unformed mind at the mercy of sense,
appetite, and trivial fancy It is a part of
its business to come into sufficiently elose
contact with the conditions of industry so

that those who go from school into industry
shall be trained to understand the whole of
which then work is a small fraction, and thus
to see a meaning in their work which they could
not otherwise perceive Moreover, it is neces-
sary that the plays and games of the school
should be so directed as to instil a love foi
and capacity in wholesome forms of recreation
and amusement Perhaps there is no more
neglected aspect of social education at the
present time than just here Because amuse-
ment is contrasted with serious things we have
forgotten that the function of recreation, of
the spending of the hours of leisure, is one of
the most serious questions, intellectually and
morally, of life, and that any educational sys-
tem is defective \\hich does not make system-
atic provision for this as well as for the hours
of work J D

See ACTIVITY, ARTS IN EDUCATION, COURSE
OF STUDY, THEORY OF, FHOEBEL, GAMES,
INSTINCTS, KINDERGARTEN

References —

APPLI«PI<>\, L E Com punitive Study of the Play Ar-

tivitut* of Adult tf(iMifj( s and Civilized Children

AnJnv(*ti(j<itio7ioftht &CK ntific Basis of Education

(('bicaRo, 1(U() )
COLO/IA, G A P^utholoyu Hud Pfldagogik des Kinr

f/in»/w/* Ti fiom Italian by Chr lifer (Alten-

buitf, !<)()() )
<li ouuiLNH, J D Du^> tfjutl unddu tipuh dtr Jugend

(Leipzig, !Sb4 )
CiiioHs, K Play of Animals Tr by E L Baldwin

(New York, 180S )
Plan of Man Tr b> E L Baldwin (New York,

1001 )

1J \M,T (1 S \dolt wnt< (Now York, 1908)
Jsptr/s of Child Lifi and Education (Boston,

1007 )
Youth //s Mduffition, Jttffinun, and Hugicnt (New

^ oik, 10(M> )
HbNDLHhON, E N Pnn<i]rf<b of Mdmatiott (New

Yoik, 1011 )
JoiTNhOis, (1 10 Education bij Plant, and Get mis

(Bobton, 1007 )

MA< I)uu<rUJ,, W &H ml I\uiholo(ju (London, 1010)
IVliM>KHK\Ni>'i, P J)a\ Sptelzfuo irn Lcbcrt da> Kinder

t Berlin, 1001 )
MiniiLHiUh, K Die SpieU der Menschen Ptida-

(jogiMhik AI(i(jaznt, pp Ir57 (LaiiKensalza, 1899)
Si'*- ML, u, IT Principle*, of Psychology (New York,

1S05-1S9G )
fc>iHA(H\N, .1 What is Plau^ //*> Bianng upon Edu-

( at ion and Tiaining, n physiological Inquiry

(Edmbuigh, 1877 )

PLAY CENTERS — See PLAYGROUNDS

PLAY, FREE — In the kindergarten the
use of materials to stimulate free response on
the pait of the child, / c to insure self-activity,
is an activity of fiee play The term is op-
posed to directed play, where there is selection
from the responses of fiee play for the purpose
of inn easing, the educative value of the ae-
tivitv

See KlMDEHCiAUTKN, PLAY

PLAY, HYGIENE OF —Sec PLAY, PLAY-
GROUNDS

727

PLAYFAIU

PLAYGROUNDS

PLAYFAIR, LYON (1808-1898) — Eng-
lish scientist and politician, responsible in
large measure for the introduction and spread
of technical education in England He studied
at St Andrews University, the Andersonian
Institute at Glasgow, the University of Edin-
burgh, and at Giessen under Liebig, whose
book on applied chemistry he presented at the
British Association meeting in 1840 Always
interested primarily in applied chemistry, he
was appointed by Peel on a commission to
inquire into the sanitary conditions in large
towns He played an important part in or-
ganizing the Exhibition of 1851 and came into
close touch with the Prince C 'outsort, who was
interested at the time in promoting technical
and scientific education in England Play-
fair about this tune visited the Continent to
study the organization of technical instruction,
and on his return lectured on the subject in
England He was largely responsible for the
foundation of the Science and Art Department ,
of which he became one of the secretaries
(1853) He also took a large share in estab-
lishing the Royal College of Science1, the South
Kensington Museum, and the 1851 scholar-
ships for science In 1858 he was appointed
professor of chemistry at Edmbuigh In 1868
he entered Parliament as representative of
the Universities of St Andrews and Edin-
burgh, and 1885 as member for South Leeds
He held office several times, and in 1892 was
raised to the peerage Playfair used his
influence in Parliament in favor of education
and social improvement. Among the manv
commissions and committees of inquiry on
which he served may be mentioned those on
the Scottish universities, on endowed schools,
and on civil service reforms (Playfuir Com-
mission, 1876)

References —

Dictionary of National Biography

REID, SIR W Memoirs and Correspondence of Lyon
Playfair (London, 1890 )

PLAYGROUNDS — Plots of ground set
aside for the holding of games, sports, athletic
exercises, and amusing activities of various
sorts In the United States the deliberate
provision of these areas was begun in 1886
when " three piles of yellow sand weie placed
in the yards of the Children's Mission," in
Boston The next year this society estab-
lished eleven sand piles — one being in a
school yard, — and special matrons to look
after the. children enjoying them weie em-
ployed for the first time With the growth
in the number of the playgrounds they also
became larger, new games appeared, and
teachers trained in kindergarten methods were
put in charge of them In 189.3 two summer
playgrounds were started by philanthropic
people in Philadelphia The Children's Kin-
dergarten Association started sand gardens
in Providence, H 1 , in 181)4 About the same

time several private playgrounds were started
in New York City, but the movement did not
really get under way until 1898, when the
board of education, on taking over the vacation
schools of the Association for Improving the
Condition of the Poor, established twenty
school playgrounds or sand gardens. The
first summer playground in Chicago was
started m 1897 through the efforts of the As-
sociated Charities. Since that time the spread
of the playground movement has been rapid.
During 1911, according to reports received
by the Playground and Recreation Association
of America (75 cities known to have play-
grounds did not report), playgrounds were main-
tained in 257 cities of the United States, the
total number of such grounds being 1543. On
their staffs, not including the caretakers, were
4132 men and women. The total expenditure
for maintenance amounted to $2,736,506 16.
In 36 of these cities the playgrounds were
kept open throughout the year Public parks,
school yards, arid vacant lots are the usual sites,
but some of the larger cities conduct play-
ground activities on specially constructed piers
along the water front, and in the basements
and on the roofs of schools and other large
buildings

Equipment — The facilities provided vary
ftieatlv m character and quantity in accord-
ance with local conditions In Chicago, where
the playgrounds form integral parts of an
extensive park system, the typical layout in-
cludes a field huge enough for baseball or
football, a field house having a refectory,
reading, Hub, and assembly rooms, indoor
and outdoor gvmnasiuins for each sex; a large
swimming pool for adults and a wading pool
for small children The latter forms the
center of the children's space, which is equipped
\vith sand courts, swings, teeter boards, slides,
giant strides, and similar apparatus The
mam field can be flooded in the winter for
skating, and electric lights make it possible
to use the large swimming pool by night as
well as day from spring until fall While
such ample facilities are rather unusual, they
indicate the kinds of equipment which in
varying degrees of completeness are found in
the park playgrounds throughout the country

A typical school-yard equipment consists
of several swings and teeters, a sand pit, a
frame swing, basket-ball standards, a tether
ball equipment, a net for volley ball, a stand-
ard for high jumping, a springboard, and a
supply of playground balls, also materials for
sewing, basket making, and raffia work. In
many yards only jumping standards, hori-
zontal bars, and sand piles are to be found, and
in general more dependence is placed upon
organization than equipment when the play-
ground is managed by school officials

The principal playground activities have
been sufficiently indicated by the description
of the equipment Among those which are

728

\ Publu PKogiouml, East Oiangi , N .1

A School Plavgiound, Dctioit, Mich

A Pul)li( Playground, llaailcin, Holland

AsM'inbl\ Hall in the Field House of a Puf)hc' Play-
giound, Chicago, 111

A Park Playground, Chicago, 111 Roof Playground, Public School Building, New York City

PUBLIC PLATGUOUNDS

PL A Yf! HOUNDS

PLVYOHOUNDS

also found may bo mentioned \aiious kinds
of hand woik, gardening, stoi v-telling, sing-
ing, folk dancing, amateur theatricals, pag-
eants, and club \sork frequently of the self-
governing type Sometimes the playground
is the headquarters of boy scout patrols and
camping parties The nature of the work
carried on by the New York Board of Educa-
tion is shown in the following program —

NEW YORK DAILY PHOGHAM

M arching
( Singing

Salute to the Flug
( Talk h> the Principal

1 00-1 30 Assembly

1 30-2 30 Organized Games

2 30-3 00 Organized Free Play

3 00-4 00 Drills

Folk Dancing
Apparatus Work
O( enpation Work

4 00-4 45 Organized Games

{Basket Ball
Athletics
Good Citizens' Club

5 15 .330 Dismissal

f Kindergarten
Gymnastic

\ Gymnastic
/ Military

i Kama

! ('la\ Modeling

( Scrap Books

f Kindergarten
\ Gymnastic

f Mai fhm
j Singing

Roof Playgrounds — The utili/ation of the
roof as a playground is made possible by paving
the sui face and erecting light steel trusses ovci
which is spread a coarse wne netting The
schoolhouse roofs in New York City which are
used by the boys in this way are equipped
with basket-ball hoops and marked oft for
tennis and indoor baseball Those for the
girls usually have no apparatus, as the pnnci-
pal activitv is that of folk dancing Music is
provided by a band of four or five pieces, and
sometimes (during the hot summer evenings),
as many as 2000 girls assemble on one root.
Tri the afternoons some of these spaces are
enjoyed by the smaller children, who are fre-
quently accompanied by their mothers, and
swings, seesaws, sand boxes, and slides are
provided Through the furnishing of seats,
flower boxes, hammocks, and pavilions the
roofs of some of the more modern tenements,
apartment houses, hotels, and other institutions
in the large cities are being converted into
roof gardens and outdoor play spaces

The recreation piers, which have been es-
tablished in several huge cities, have the form
of huge pavilions, and the activities carried
on in them are mainly folk dances, marches,
and ring games Certain of the piers are
equipped with hammocks and folding cots for
babies and play outfits for very small children,
and these, under the management of trained
nurses, are effective in reducing infant mor-
tality during the hot season

Administration — The duration of the play-
ground season varies greatly, but in general it

coincides with the warm months. In park
systems where there are held houses, it. fre-
quently lasts throughout the year, and in a few
cities the privileges are open on Sundays as
well as week days School playgrounds are
usually open from 1.30 to 5.30 P.M. during
six or eight weeks of the summer, but there is
also a tendency to make their facilities avail-
able after class hours during the regular school
term The staff at some of the larger park
playgrounds numbers from fourteen to twenty
specially trained play leaders and gymnasium
instructors, but in general the number is from
four to six in systems under municipal
control the employes are usually selected by
civil service methods The instructors in the
Chicago park gymnasiums receive $1100 a
year, while in New Yoik the principals of the
school playgrounds receive $4 a session, and
the assistants' rates vary from $1 75 to $2 50
per afternoon Throughout the country the
usual rate of pay for a qualified play leader is
about $2 a day The technique of the work
has become so highly elaborated that a special
training is now indispensable, and many col-
leges and normal schools are giving courses
in the theory and practice of play and in play-
ground administration

The administration of about one half of the
American playgrounds is still in the hands of
the voluntary agencies, principally known as
playground associations, through whose ini-
tiative they weie started In over one fourth
of the cities they aie managed by the park
department, in one sixth by the school board,
while in the remainder they are under the con-
trol of municipal playground or recreation
commissions The novel and special character
of the problems involved, with the diversity
of the recreational resources in the average
community, makes it desirable that the ad-
ministration be in the hands of persons with
an enthusiasm and proficiency for its tasks
If they form an independent body they can
secure coordination in the management and
economy in the use of the various facilities for
play possessed by the park, school, dock, and
other departments of the municipal gov-
ernment The prime motive back of the
playground movement was to increase the
amount of vpace for play, and accordingly the
activity has been greatest in districts congested
by population The reenforcement of this
motive by the obvious moral and educational
values of directed play has made it relevant to
all kinds of population conditions, and the
movement is now extending not only to the
small cities, but also to the towns and villages
and e\en to the rural districts

Results — Among the more conspicuous
effects which have been traced to playground
work are a reduction of juvenile delinquency,
a lessening of street accidents to children,
an improvement in the racial relations in com-
munities largely populated by foreigners, and

729

PLAYS

PliUTARGH

,-i quickening of mental powei among school
pupils The popular demand for playgrounds
is tending to increase the size of school yards
and the provision of bathing and gymnasium
facilities in the school buildings

European Playgrounds — Abroad the em-
phasis has been placed upon the organiza-
tion of play rather than upon the extension
of places for it. The efforts are made almost
entirely by voluntary agencies, though
these, especially on the Continent, fre-
quently receive considerable financial sup-
port from municipalities In England the
education authorities of a score 01 more of
cities grant the use of school grounds, build-
ings, and public parks to such organizations as
boys' and girls' brigades, scouts, Children's
Play Centers committees, and Children's
Happy Evenings societies In a few cases
the authorities are also giving financial aid,
but usually the provision of apparatus and
organizing ability comes from the voluntary
organizations On the Continent the most
active agents are the Central Committee foi the
Encouragement of (James in Germany, the So-
ciety for the Promotion of Games of Vienna, the
German Society for the Promotion of Oigauized
Play at Prague, the Comitt de\ 6cole* de (/aide
of Paris, the Society for Open-air (lames of
Gothenburg, Sweden, and the Swiss Society
for Games and Excursions CAP

See GAMES, PLAY

References —

American Academy of Political and Social ^cionco

Annals Puhlu Recreation Facilities Vol XXXV,

No 2, March, 1<W)
ANUELL, EMMKTT DUNN Plan, tompuNing (itimr* for

the Kinderffart(n, Playgiound, Schoolroom, and Col-

leg< (Boston, 1910 )
BANCROFT, JESSIE H Garnet* for I hi Playground,

Hom<t School, and Gymnasium (Nc\v York,

1909 )
DHAUEHJKLM, HANH Z)as Spuhn d< r Kirtdfr im

Sande (Leipzig, 1909)
HERMANN, A Ratgibei zur Einfuhtunu tier Voll\*~

and J age ndt>p tele (L( ipziK, 1907)
Jahrbiicher fw Volk»- und Jugend^puh, 1S92-19U

(Leipzig )
JOHNSON, G K Education hi/ /•*/«// s and (taniev

(New York, 1907 )
LEE, JOSEPH Constructs and pjcwjitiix I*hilan1hro]nj

(New Yoik, 1902 )
LEL\ND, A , and LORN A, H Plai/ytoumi Ttthniqm

and Plaucraft (Spnngfu'ld, Mass , 1909 )
MERO, EVERIUT B Am cm an Playanmnd^, thai

Construction, Equipnmit, Afaintt 7ion< t ,and t'ttlidj

(Boston, 190S )

National League for Ph\sicttl Ediuation and Im-
provement Oiganiztd Play at J/onn and Alnoad

(London, 1911 )
P \RHONS, BELLE R Plays and Games /<>/ Indoois and

Out (New York, 1909 )
PERRY, CLARENCE ARTHUR Wider Use of the School

Plant (New Yoik, 1910 )
Playground and Recreation \Msomition of America

Proceeding^ (tf the Annual Playground Conf/nx^a,

(Vols I, II, and III ) Also its monthly magazine,

The Playground (New York )
TSANOFF, S V Educational Value of Playgrounds

(Philadelphia, 1S97 )

PLAYS, SCHOOL — See DRAMA AND
EDUCATION; FESTIVALS, SCHOOL

PLEASURE —See PAI\ \^D PLEASURE.

PLENUM SYSTEM — See VENTILATION.
PLOTINUS — See NEOPLATONISM.

PLURALISM — The opposite of monism
(q v ) , the theory according to which there are
a numbei of independent ultimate principles
of i eality or real beings It includes systems as
diverse as the atomism of Deniocntus, the
monadism of Leibnitz and Herbart, and the
radical empiricism of William James (qq v )

J D

PLUTARCH (r 46-125 AD)— One of the
greatest teachers, historians, and moral phi-
losophers of antiquity, who was educated at
Athens and traveled extensively He spent
some time at Rome, where he lectured on
ethics, acted as tutor of the youthful Hadrian,
and collected historical materials Returning
to Greece, he organized a school at Chseronea,
his bnthplaee, where for many years he lec-
tuicd to the voung and composed dialogues
aftei the manner of Plato and Cicero Here
he earned on his historical studies and wrote
his Parallel Lives These embodied the results
of enormous erudition and research Their
purpo>se was clneflv ethical, and they exerted
a powerful influence in upholding the highest
Greek and Roman ideals of conduct They
formed the basis of Roman education in both
home and school for manv generations and
furnished Shakespeaie, Milton, Browning, arid
other modern wnters with materials for some
of then greatest works His Opera M or aha
consists of sixty didactic essays, the first of
which, On the Education of Children, is an
educational classic It is the oldest extant
tieatise entirely devoted to education Plu-
tarch insists upon the importance of heredity
and a good example from parents, argues that
the schoolmaster must be of blameless life,
pure character, and great experience, subor-
dinates all ad\ antages of rank and fortune
to education, of which philosophy should be
the chiefs! udv, but not to the neglect of science;
approves of the higher education of women
in oi dei (hat they may help in the education
of their cluldi en, and recommends that pater-
nal discipline should be long and thorough

W R
References —

DIENHARDT, H Abhatidlung tiber die Erziehung der

Kinder Tn PadagonisLht Klaumker, Vol VIII

(Vienna, 1S79 )
MONKOK, P Source Hook of the History of Education

for the Grc<k and Roman Period (Now York,

1901 )
PLUTARCH Live* various translations North, Dry-

den, Clouch, J and W LuuKhorne (1886-1888),

Stewart and Long (1900)
PLUTARCH, Moralia, translated by W. W Goodwin.

(Bohtoii, 1H78 )
TRENCH, ARCHBISHOP A Popular Introduction to

Plutarch (London, 1873 )

730

POETRY

POLAND

POETRY — See LITERATURE

POGGIO BRACCIOLINI, GIOVANNI
FRANCESCO — See RENAISSANCE AND EDU-
CATION.

POISONS AND POISONING — See IN-
TOXICATION, INJURED, FIRST AID TO

POITIERS, UNIVERSITY OF, FRANCE

— Founded in 1431 by Charles VII to draw
students away from the University of Pans,
then in the hands of the English The Uni-
versity constitution was modeled on that of
Toulouse (qv), a compromise between those
of Pans and Bologna There were oiigmally
faculties of law, theology, medicine, and aits
The first mention of statutes appeals in 14K8.
but they were revised in 1553, and remained
in force until the Revolution The University
was at no time of great eminence1, and it was
already in a condition of decadence when it
was closed at the time of the Revolution
The law faculty was restored in 1SOG, followed
in 1846 by the faculty of letters, and in 1X5(>
by the faculty of science In 1S41 the Kiulc
de M6decine, now the fi«>h' Pripauitouc de
M6dccinc et Phnrmmu, was established The
enrollment at the University in 1(M1 was 1135
students, of whom 875 were in law
See FRANCE, KDUC \TIOX IN

POLAND, EDUCATION IN — History —

The division ol the territory ol Poland between
Russia, Prussia, and Austria, \\luch \\as accom-
plished in 1795, ended the independent existence
of one of the oldest and, foi a time, one of the
most powerful kingdoms of Km ope Its history
begins to take definite form in the latter part
of the tenth century, when Christianity was
forced upon the people by King Mieczyslaus I
Foi centuries following this kingdom seived
as the bulwark of Kurope against Mongolian,
Tartar, and Turkish hordes, and eventually
as the " Champion of Christendom " against
the Moslem power The early history of edu-
cation in Poland is a iccoul of clerical and
cathedral schools, of monadic schools main-
tained by the order of the Benedictines, who
were invited to establish themselves in the
country, m the eleventh century, by King
Boleslaus the Great, and of the rise of town
schools in the thirteenth and fourteenth cen-
turies,— the result of German migrations into
the centers of trade and industry. As in the
other European nations the studies of the prin-
cipal schools wen1 those of the trivium arid
quadnvium, and the language of mstiuction
was Latin, but the Polish language appears to
have been used conjointly with the Latin, and
the German language in the schools established
by German settlers

Both the weakness and the strength of Poland
and the character of its national education
were due to its political structure, which was

that of a feudal aristocracy or aristocratic
republic The nobles from the beginning had
absolute power ovei their serfs, and their
restraint upon the authority of the king
steadily increased until he became merely their
agent Education was the privilege of the nobles
and reflected their spirit Toward the close
of the twelfth century, the sons of the nobility
began to frequent the universities of Italy and
France In the thirteenth centur y t hev were suf-
ficiently numerous at the University of Paris to
form agnation " Thus intellectual attainments
were added to the military prowess for which
the nobles were distinguished The fourteenth
century was marked by the extension of the
power and the territory of Poland Wealth
increased through the commercial activity
of the great towns, two of which, Dantzic in the
north and Cracow in the south, at this time
the capital, joined the Hanseatic League; War-
saw and other towns on the Vistula sprang into
importance The political constitution of the
nation, as an aristocratic republic, was defined
by statutes passed during the reign of Casirnir
III (the Great) The supremacy of the nobles
was confirmed by these acts, but their power of
life and death over the peasantry was abolished,
and a degree of civil independence was assured
the towns The national Diet also assumed
form at this tune, the nobility and higher clergy
having chief representation 1 herein, although
merchants and the inferior clergy were admit ted;
the principle ol hereditary succession to the
crown was ultimately eliminated, and the sov-
ereign was elected bv the Diet

Education naturally engaged the attention
of a lawgiver like Citsiimi the Great, and in
1364 he laid the foundations of the first uni-
versity in Poland, at Cracow, having the pur-
pose of creating a gieat school after the model
of Bologna The statute authorizing the in-
stitution was published on Pentecost of that
veai, but its actual operations were deferred
for over twentv-fn e years Casimir the
Great died in 1370 and, having no direct heir,
he \vas succeeded by his nephew, LOUISA of
Hungaiv This event increased the foreign
relations of Poland and introduced new eccle-
siastic and scholastic influences After the
death of Louis, in 1382, his second daughter,
Jadvviga, was elected sovereign, but upon the
condition that she should take, for her husband,
a prince chosen by the diet As a consequence
of this agreement she was married, in 1386, to
Jagielto, prince of Lithuania, thus effecting
the union of this principality with Poland.
The new terntory stretched from the Baltic
to the Black Sea and eastward to Moscow Its
religion, that of the Greek Church, and
its official language, White Russian, were
brought by the union into immediate contact
with the Roman Church and the scholastic
Latin In 1402 the University of Cracow (q.v )
was inaugurated with great ceremony and
under strong ecclesiastical influences, Paris,

731

POLAND

POLAND

instead of Bologna, being the model Queen
Jadwiga, who died in 1399, had left her fortune
for the university; and it \\as richly endowed
by the king and the bishop of Cracow With
the introduction of punting, the city became
the center of literary aotmty, in the midst
of which the univeisity enjoyed great distinc-
tion by reason both of its valuable library and
of its learned members In the sixteenth cen-
tury it gave to Poland the historian Jan
Dlugosz, the mathematician Albert of Brud-
zen, and his immortal disciple, Copernicus

The dynasty of the Jagieltos continued with
a brief interruption nearly to the seventeenth
century, when the throne became entirely elec-
tive Under the successive rulers of this house
there weie repeated conflicts with the Germans,
the Turks, and the Russians, and those hatreds
were engendered which eventually proved
disastrous to Poland's national life During
the same period the power of the nobles was
constantly augmented through their control
of the Diets The elements of discord within
the kingdom were increased by the spread of
the Lutheran doctrines, which were accepted
by the order of the Teutonic knights, and
rapidly transformed the German schools
Kival schools increased their activity, and
under Sigismund IT, who leigned from 1548
to 1572, religious animosity gave rise to fierce
persecutions

The University of Cracow yielded nothing
to the new religious doctrines arid was un-
moved by the spirit of the Renaissance, which
was transforming the universities of Western
Europe, consequently the Protestants estab-
lished higher schools of their own Two of
these, created in the sixteenth century by the
Cahmists of Lithuania, at Kieydany and
Slutsk, respectively, are still in existence* The
Bohemian brothers established a higher school
at Lissa, which numbered among its directors
John Amos Comemus It was probably to
offset this movement that the Bishop of Var-
nne, in 1564, invited the Jesuits to open
colleges in his diocese From this time to the
middle of the eighteenth century the influence
of the Jesuits was supreme in educational
matters, but eventually they gave place to
the Piarists (qv), who entered into the field
in 1596 The schools of other religious sects,
the Lutherans, Greek Church, etc, merely
reached then own adherents Thus through
the divergence of ideals the educational pro-
vision of the country tended to destroy the
sense of national unity The situation is
illustrated by the following summary of schools
and higher institutions for 1740 —

Catholic Universities

(Cracow, Zamoso, Vilna) . ... 3

Secondary tichotth

Preparatory to Cracow arid Zamosc 10

Preparatory to tho Jesuit University, Vilna 67

Controlled by Piarists . . 97

Controlled by Pioto&tants 5

Total 112

732

In the higher and secondary institutions
there were 22,400 students and in the 1500
elementary schools above 30,000 pupils.

The great body of the people at this time
were in a state of ignoiant servitude; only the
nobles, the merchants, and a very small pro-
portion of the free peasantry were instructed;
the nobles constituted the nation, but a nation
broken by religious dissensions and feuds, and
menaced by hostile forces on every side In
this ciisis the reform of education was under-
taken bv Stanislas Konarski, a Pianst priest
who had been a student in the famous Nazarene
college at Rome. After completing his studies
he made a tour of France and came into inti-
mate relation with Charles Rollm, who had
completely reformed the higher schools of
his own country Encouraged by this example,
the Abt>e* Konarski, on his return to Poland,
established a school of a new order for the
young nobles, the Collegium Nobihum. Its
curriculum comprised the exact sciences,
physios, astronomy, mathematics, geography,
universal history, the history of Poland, and
the classics in restricted degree The influence
of the college was supplemented by that of
the " school of cadets," which was established
by Stanislas-Augustus Pomatowski, soon after
Ins election to the throne in 1704 Although
this king appeals to have boon a mere puppet
in the hands of the Empress Catherine of
Russia, the nnlitaiy school became a nurseiy
of nationalism Among its cadets was Kos-
ciusko, chief of the band of patriots who
sought to free their country from foreign in-
vaders The educational reform was opposed
by the Jesuits, but the disastrous contests of
1772, in \\luch Piussia and Austria wrested
entne pnmnces fiom Poland, gave irresistible
force to the national movement It was
fosteiecl by Rome as the only check to the
encroachments of Russia and the Greek
Church, and by Papal Bull of July 21, 1773,
the ordoi of the Jesuits was suppressed, arid
then confiscated pioperties were turned to
the service of the rofonn movement A few
months after this event, the Diet created
a Commission of Public Education and to it
committed the charge of all the schools, col-
legos, and universities m the country The
secretary of the Commission was Gregory
Pyramowicz, a Jesuit, but in full sympathy
with tho reform movement The measures
advocated by this commission anticipated
many of tho more important provisions of
modern systems Tho universities were trans-
formed, normal schools established, and laws
wore enacted (1783-1790) regulating the entire
service of public instruction In the colleges
the Polish language replaced Latin as the me-
dium of instruction, tho sciences and civil
and ethical subjects took tho place of the
scholastic philosophy and metaphysics, and
observation and experiment broke up the old
routine of memonter recitations. A special

POLAND

POLAND

committee was appointed to secure a new
order of textbooks, and provision was made for
the systematic inspection of elementary schools
and for supplying them with trained teachers

Thus, on the eve of its destruction as a
nation, Poland bore an important part in the
educational reforms of the eighteenth century,
and its school law remains a lasting memorial
of its awakened national spirit In 1792 the
second partition of the country was effected,
and in 1795, the third division, which ended
the ancient kingdom of Poland

The Divided Kingdom — Since the divi-
sion the Prussian government has suppressed
the use of the mother tongue in the Polish
schools, which have been gradually arid com-
pletely Germanized The similar attempt
in the Austrian division was abandoned in
1867, and the Polish language was restoied
as the medium of instruction , and at present
the educational conditions in Austrian Poland
are comparable to those of Western Europe
In 1910, beside the two universities, Cracow
and Lemberg, the polytechnic school and
several technical schools of a lower order,
there were in this division S4 secondary schools,
with 34, 853 students, and 5030 primary schools,
enrolling 953,500 pupils, for a population of
3,982,033

The Grand Duchy of Warsaw —- The Grand
Duchy of Warsaw, formed by Napoleon from
Polish provinces of Prussia under the treaty
of Tilsit, 1807, continued the movement staited
by the Education Commission of Poland In
1814 the Grand Duchy was united with Russia,
and by the agreement of the Congress of
Vienna, 18J5, it was organized with other
territory as a constitutional kingdom subject
to the Czar To this division of the ancient
kingdom the name Poland is still applied
It comprises an area of 49,157 square miles
and m 1909 had a population of 11,671,800

Russian Poland — The kingdom of Poland
within the Czar's domain was given a separate
educational system under the control of a
Commission of Worship and Public Instruc-
tion. For a few years the former director
of education in the Duchy of Warsaw, Stanislas
Patocki, was retained as chief of the commis-
sion, and the progressive movement continued
During his administration, the University of
Warsaw was created, 1816, and the following
year it was opened with imposing ceremonies;
a higher technical school and several middle
technical schools were established, and second-
ary schools and primary schools multiplied,
but reactionary influences set in and the futile
revolt of the Poles in 1830 resulted in the re-
duction of the " Congress kingdom " to the
state of a Russian province From that
disastrous year to a very recent date, the his-
tory of education in Russian Poland is a his-
tory of suppression and conflicts, excepting
for a brief respite during the administration
of the Marquis Alexander Weilopolski, a

Polish nobleman who was appointed Directoi
of Education in 1861 Moved by his counsels,
the Emperor Alexander II issued the decree of
May 8, 1862, reestablishing, in a measure, the
educational policies of the Duchy of Warsaw.
The work thus revived was terminated by the
second and fatal revolt of the Poles in 1863

Officially Poland no longer exists After
the suppression of the second levolt, the
Russian division was designated as the
territory of the Vistula, and later as the
Vistula govcinment Throughout its whole
extent the Russihcation of Polish insti-
tutions lias been enforced with relentless
severity The use of the Polish language
as the medium of instruction was prohibited
in the secondary schools at first, and finally
even in the primary schools and the Polish
university at Warsaw was transformed into
a purely Russian institution This policy of
suppression was embodied in successive ukases
and administrative oiders which were ruth-
lessly executed by the Russian teachers and
supervisors appointed over the Polish schools
The resistance of the Polish people culminated
in 1905, when the whole body of Polish pupils
withdrew fiom the schools Parents came
together in a great public assembly and sus-
tained this action, and finally the entire force
of teachers joined in the protest and with one
voice petitioned for the right to establish pri-
vate schools under the control of the Polish
society, in which the native language should
be employed and the histoiy and geography
of Poland included in the curriculum The
Russian government yielded so far as to au-
thorize the maintenance of private schools
without the privilege of the government
examinations and diplomas The following
year a law was passed which legalized prhate
societies and thus opened the way for the re-
markable development of social self-help
which has characterized the last few years in
Russian Poland

Most prominent among the societies which
sprang into existence was the Macierz Szkolna
(Mother of Schools), which after vigorous and
successful work was dissolved by an older of
Dec 15, 1907 The corporation of mei-
chants at Warsaw also established many
schools The chief private schools arc models
of construction, equipment, and hygienic
arrangements, and are provided with sys-
tematic medical inspection Polish gymnastic
societies for promoting school plays, school
colonies, and manual work in schools, have
also achieved excellent results in the last few
years

According to the last issue of the Year Book
of Russia (1911) there wore 6649 schools in
this government in 1909, having an enrollment
of 306,185 pupils distributed as follows, high
schools, 1743, middle schools, 16,236; special
schools, 15,725; primary, 272,481, but as the
private schools are not included it is impossible

733

POLAND

POLITICAL SCIENCE

lo form any idea as to the1 extent of school
attendance on the part of the Poles It is,
however, significant that whereas the propor-
tion of illiterates to the population above nine
years of age in the other divisions of the Empire
ranged from 70 to 93 per cent according to the
last estimates (1897), in the Polish section it
was only 59 per cent

Higher Education — The survival of the
Polish national spirit through the century of dis-
persion and suppression is one of the most strik-
ing facts in modern history It is a caste spirit
intensified by heroic traditions embodied in
a noble literature. The extent to which the
Polish people attend school under present
conditions is a question, therefore, of less
significance than that of the institutions which
still preserve the language and record of their
national distinction. In the number of these
must be included the University of Konigs-
berg, established in 1544 by Albert, Duke of
Prussia, for the purpose of promoting religious,
literary, and scientific culture among the
different peoples inhabiting his dominions
Failing in the effort to secure the sanction of
the Pope, this Protestant umversitv received
a charter in 1561 from King Sigismund II of
Poland The special object of the theological
faculty of the umversitv was to tram ministers
who could teach the scriptures to the Polish
and Lithuanian subjects of the duke in their
native languages, and with these peoples its
history and activities have been identified The
university still maintains a Polish " seminar "

Cracow and Lernbeig, in Austnan Poland,
are essentially Polish universities The Im-
perial Academy of Sciences maintained in
connection with the former is the present
center of the highest intellectual activity of
the Poles without regard to their geographic
location The University of Lernbeig was a
feature of the educational reform planned by
the Empress Maria Theresa, which was not
accomplished until 1784, a few years after
her death The university was completed
under the present emperor in 1894 bv the
establishment of the medical facultv Like
the University of Cracow, Lemberg possesses
a valuable library Although the University
of Warsaw has been transformed into a Russian
institution, its library is especially rich in
works of Polish literature, history, and law
The principal archives of the Pohs n kingdom
are also at Warsaw This citv, capital of the
Vistula government, is therefore the center
of research in respect to a history which on
account of interrelations is a matter of equal
concern to all Slavonic and Teutonic nations

ATS

References —

Agence Polonaise do Presse V Instruction Pubhque

,au Royaume de Pologne (Pans, 1()1() )
VEcole Prussienne en Pulognc (1906-1907) Docu-
ments, 1907 (Pans )

ftSON, F Nouveau Dichonnaire de Pedagogic, 8 v
Pologne

DAY, \\ A Russian Governments in Poland (Lon*

don, 1867 )
EncydoixEdia Bntanmca, llth Ed, a vv. Poland,

Poland, Russian.
MEISSNEH, R Der Polnische Schulkinderstreik im

Lichtc dcr Wahrheit (Liasa, 1907 )

PlAHEIKJ, EUG , Ct DUBANOWICZ, ED LcS EcolfS

Polonaises ct Icurn conditions hygiemqucs (Pre-
pared for III Intel national Congress of School
Hygiene (Paris, IS) 10 )

RASHMANN, .1 Die tithule im deutschen Oslen, cine
zntgnnabsc t>chuljjolihscht' Abhandlung (Lissa,
1907 )

SCHOKNFELD, HERMANN Higher Education in Russian,
Austrian, and Prussian Poland, in Rep Com Ed.
for 1S<)4-1S()5, Vol I, eh 15 Gives references
to original sources of information (Washington,
1895)

POLIOMYELITIS —See INFANTILE PA-
RALYSIS

POLITICAL ECONOMY — See ECONOM-
ICS

POLITICAL EDUCATION —See CITI-
ZENSHIP, EDUCATION FOR, PATRIOTISM, EDU-
CATION IN

POLITICAL SCIENCE —Definition,
Method, and Relation to Allied Sciences —

Political science (fttaatswissenschaft) is defined
bv Blunt schh as " the science which is con-
cerned with the State, which endeavors to
understand and cornpiehend the State in its
fundamental conditions, in its essential nature,
its various forms 01 manifestations, its de-
velopment " Some wnteis, especially in
France, piefer the pluial form, " the political
sciences " (,sor//aj,s /)o1itiques)j aigumg that
there is no single science of the State, but
rather a group of related sciences The term
" politics," used by many writers, is open
to the objection that in popular usage it
denotes the concrete1 and often partisan art
of government, rather than the systematic
study of political forms and phenomena
The tenn politics arose among the Greeks
and referred originally to the government of
the city (71-0X19) With the decline of the
city States and the development of modern
national oigamzations, the term was coire-
spondmgly widened The State, the insti-
tution with which political science deals, may
be defined as a population which occupies a
definite territory and which is politically
organized by means of a government Which
formulates and administers, m the form of
law, a sovereign will over all individuals and
associations of individuals within the State,
and which maintains a sovereign independence
by adjusting the mutual powers and obliga-
tions of the State in its dealings with other
States

The scientific investigation of political
phenomena is carried on under certain diffi-
culties The facts of history cannot be icpro-
duced or made the subject of experimentation,
and few artificial devices can be used to direct

734

POLITICAL SCIENCE

POLITICAL SCIENCE

or increase the observation of fads m the
registering of results Besides, social facts do
not recur at regular intervals, noi follow in-
variable general laws The influences affect-
ing them are complex and closely interrelated,
and the actions of individuals can seldom be
accurately predicted Accordingly, political
science employs a variety of methods Ex-
perimentation is carried on whenever the or-
ganization or activities of government are
consciously modified The biological method
which attributes to the State the qualities
of a living organism emphasizes the unity
and continuous evolution of political fonns
The psychological method, popular among
French writers, interprets social phenomena
in terms of psychological laws The juridical
method, favored by the (Jcinians, views the
State as a legal, rather than a social, institu-
tion, and draws its conclusions from an analy-
sis of the State's relations in public law The
historical and comparative method aims to
discuss the origin and development of political
forms, and the laws of political causation,
and by selection, comparison, and elimination
to derive general principles from the mass of
historical data This method, probably the
most fruitful, is also the most difficult, being
especially liable to errors icsultmg from per-
sonal bias or from the omission of elements
which invalidate the most important conclu-
sions

The growing realization of the fact that
no science dealing with mankind has special
data all to itself, and that political phenomena
are not the manifestations of a distinct side of
human nature nor of a distinct species of hu-
man beings, has emphasized the relations
between political science and the other social
sciences Starting with those acts that are
specifically governmental, political science
works gradually through related acts into the
general field of human conduct From his-
tory it draws its data, in sociology it observes
the development, structure, and functions of
social institutions closely related to the State,
in economics it finds that motives and action
chiefly concerned with the production, dis-
tribution, and consumption of wealth, influence
and are influenced by political forms and func-
tions, in ethics it sees a close connection
throughout the whole development of moral-
ity and of law Modern thought accentuates
relations rather than differences, and by uti-
lizing the mass of materials gathered in allied
fields, political science is no longer founded
upon shifting speculations, but is possessed of
sounder knowledge of the natme and tenden-
cies of the State, can build up more scientific
principles of political causation, and can make
possible more rapid and rational political
progress

Historical Development — To the histori-
cal development of political science two
main influences have contributed Rulers and

statesmen, in (he \vork of practical govern-
ment, necessarily conceive certain political
principles upon which to base their actions
These are embodied in institutions, or are
found, expressed or implied, in laws, constitu-
tions, treaties, and state papers, in the writings
and speeches of politicians, and in general
public opinion Such principles, often arising
unconsciously, are seldom comprehensive 01
systematic, but are often full of prejudices,
legal fictions, and inconsistencies On the
other hand, political philosophers, outside the
current of actual go\ eminent, have frequently
attempted to build up theories of the State
Sometimes these have aimed T.O explain the
origin of the State, to justify its authority,
or to determine the scope of its activities
Again they arise to uphold or to attack cer-
tain existing governmental forms or methods
Sometimes these theoiies have been purely
speculative or idealistic in nature Again,
they have resulted from the observation and
analysis of existing or historical governmental
institutions Through a combination and
interaction of these influences the science of
the State has, in the mam, developed

Political speculation proper scarcely existed
before the use of Greek philosophy In the
Oriental nations thought was based upon
tradition and belief rather than upon reason,
and sufficient political liberty to peimit ques-
tioning seldom existed The Greeks, however,
having no powerful priestly class and few
fixed dogmas, viewed the State and law as
" natural " m origin, as representing the high-
est form of life, and, in then small city units,
developed considerable individual fieedom
and much keen thinking in politics In the
philosophical idealism of Plato and in the
more scientific observations of Anstotle are
found the best statements of Cheek political
theory While the Romans took then phi-
losophy, with little modification, from the
Greeks, they worked out valuable practical
principles of go\ eminent The ideas of posi-
tive law, systematic junsprudonce, sover-
eignty, citizenship, municipal and colonial
administration, and world empire were among
then contributions They also emphasized the
\alue of checks and balances, and of political
compromises in securing stable government
Polvbius and Cicero best state their theories
After the fall of the Konmn Empne, the doc-
trines of the Christian Church and feudal cus-
toms based on landholding furnished the
chief political principles, and medieval theory
was chiefly concerned with the proper relation
of Church and State The papal party, rep-
resented by Gregory VI 1, Innocent III, and
Thomas Aquinas, claimed superiority for spirit-
ual power as more directly conferred by God.
But by the fourteenth century the revived
study of Roman law furnished principles for
the defenders of civil power, and Dante and
Occam supported the national monarchies

735

POLITICAL SCIENCE

POLITICAL SCIENCE

then arising The Renaissance spirit in poli-
tics was represented by Machiavelh, who
replaced scholastic; deductions by actual in-
vestigation and comparison, and again brought
political theory in 1ouch with actual facts
He also divorced politics from religion, justi-
fied conquest, and recognized nationality
After the Reformation, Oahm's doctune of
democracy m church government was applied
by his followers in Holland, England, and
America as a foundation foi political liberty
(See CALVIN, CALVJNISTS AND KDUC \TION )
Meanwhile, the existence of a numbei of well-
organized national monai clues, having icla-
tions one with another in war and peace, pre-
pared the way for modern political science
Bodin, in the sixteenth century, made the
first systematic study of politics since Aristotle,
and in the seventeenth century Grotms (q v )
laid the foundations of mtei national law In
the writings of these men the modem theory
of sovereignty as intemal supremacy and ex-
ternal independence was established The
growing contest between king and people next
influenced political theory The doctrine of
divine right upon which the absolute mon-
archies were based was upheld bv James I and
Bossuet, but was attacked by the growing
belief in " natuial lights " and in the " social
contract " as the basis for political authority
Hobbes utilized this theoiv to suppoit king-
ship, but in the hands of Locke and Rousseau
the new theoiv paved the way for populai
sovereignty Montesquieu pointed out the
influence of physical environment and empha-
sized the value of the sepaiation of powers
in government In the nineteenth century
the growth of historical knowledge and the
biologic doctnne of evolution chiefly influ-
enced political science Modern political
science, then, begins with Bodin, Grotius,
Pufendorf, Hobbes, Locke, Rousseau, and
Montesquieu During the last centuiy the
science has been enriched by the work of
numerous scholars, among whom mav be
mentioned Von Mohl, Waitz, Holtzendoiff,
and Bluntschh in (lei many, Do Tocqueville
and Laboulave in France, Lewis, Austin,
Maine, Mill, Freeman, Sidgwick, and Seeley
in England, and Hamilton, Madison, Lieber,
Woolsey, and Burgess in America

History of Academic Teaching — As an
academic study, politics arose as a division
of practical philosophy, to which the theory
of lt natural law " was added in the seventeenth
century During the eighteenth century the
Camerahstic sciences (see ECONOMICS) de-
veloped, and during the nineteenth century the
separate political and socio-economic sciences
were evolved The systematic and juristic
phase of political science has always been closely
connected with the study of law, and consider-
able impetus, especially from the comparative
standpoint, has been given by the recent growth
of historical knowledge and interest

736

German unueisities have held I he foremost
place in the development of political science,
Domimcus Arumaus first lecturing on public
law at the University of Jena between the
years 1605-1637 Between 1661-1668 Pufen-
dorf lectuied on the new theory of " natural
law " at the University of Heidelberg. During
the latter part of the seventeenth and the first
half of the eighteenth century the University
of Halle, and during the latter half of the eight-
eenth century the University of Gottmgen,
weie the chief centers of political studies.
Beginning with the nineteenth century, politi-
cal science shifted gradually from a tl natural
law" to an historical basis, and the political
transformations through which Germany was
passing ga\e additional impetus to political
studies. Among the teachers of this period
were Zacharia and Von Mohl at Heidelberg.
By the middle of the nineteenth century the
increasing knowledge of political institutions
in othei paits oi the world made possible the
comparative method of study Bluntschh,
who followed Von Mohl at Heidelberg and
(Ineist at Berlin, typified this development
Since the establishment of the German Empire
a host of scholars, among whom may be men-
tioned La hand, Brie, and Jelhnek, have em-
phasized the juridical rathei than the historical
method, and have paid particular attention
to the nature of the federal State In a few
uimeisities, Tubingen foi example, studies
relating to public affairs are combined in a
separate faculty, but in most German univer-
sities the courses are giouped under the facul-
ties of law or of philosophy. The first seminal
in political science was organized at Jena in
1X49 The titativhchc tiennnai at Berlin was
founded in 1862, and between 1871-1876 a
number oi the leading universities established
semmai s for the investigation of political and
economic problems

The chief influence in the academic develop-
ment of political science in France came from
Laboulaye, a contemporary of Bluntschli in
Germany and of Lieber in America His lec-
tures were given at the. College de France during
the third quarter of the last centuiy At the
University of Pans, political science is taught
in the faculty of law Unusually valuable lec-
tuies in practical politics aie given at the
ficolc bbrc (fen sciences pohtiques In England
the strong classical and mathematical tradi-
tions of Oxford and Cambridge offered con-
siderable resistance to the newer social sciences
To the professorships of civil law established
by Henry VIII, chairs of modern history were
added at Cambridge in 1724 and at Oxford in
1854 By 1X00 English law had been made a
separate department rn both universities
International law and diplomacy were intro-
duced in 1S54 at Oxford and in 1 867 at Cam-
bridge, and Oxford added in 1869 a professor-
ship of jurisprudence At present there is a
professor of colonial history at Oxford and a

POLITICAL SCIENCE

POLITICAL SCIENCE

lecturer in politics at Cambridge There are,
however, no distinct departments of political
science, as in the German or American univer-
sities, courses in government .being incidental
to law or to modern history For example,
Austin, Maine, Bryce, Dicey, and Pollock
have held chairs of law, Sidgwick was a lec-
turer in moral science, and Freeman and See-
ley taught political science in connection
with modern history Seeley's "conversation-
class " at Cambridge was a soil, of political
science seminar Sepaiate chans of political
science are found in some of the youngei
universities, Manchester, for example Much
of the best writing on political subjects in
England has been done by men not connected
with the universities

Jefferson's (q v ) influence dominated the
first teaching of politics in America Changes
made by him in 1779 at William and Marv
College emphasized political and legal studies,
and the curriculum which he constructed for
the University of Virginia (1825) contained
government as one of its main groups Menu-
while, in the North, crude beginnings in politi-
cal studies, usually in connection with phi-
losophy, were being made by McVickai ni
Columbia (1817) and by Boweii at Harvard
(1850) A more direct impetus \vas given
by Woolscv, who, as president of Yale in 1847,
taught political philosophy and intei national
law. One of his students, Andiew D White,
who studied later in France and (lennanv,
further emphasized political studies, first as
professor at Michigan (1857-1862), then as
president of Cornell (1868-1885) The most
powerful stimulus to the teaching of political
science was given bv a German, Fiancis
Lieber In 1857, on the ad\ice of McVickai,
a separate professorship of history and political
science was established at Columbia, and
Lieber, who for twenty years hud been teach-
ing and writing at Columbia, S C , was called
to this chair He introduced German methods
and ideals, and began in America the fruitful
cobrdmation of political science with history,
rather than, as formerly, with metaphysics
Licber's professorship was abolished in 1865,
but was reestablished in 1876 when John Bui-
gcss, who had studied in Germany and taught,
political science and history undei Seel ye at
Amherst (1873-1876). took Liebei 's place
In 1880 Burgess organized the School of Politi-
cal Science at Columbia, Mayo Smith, Good-
now, and Munroe Smith being his first assist-
ants This school sent many students to
study in Germany and has exerted a preponder-
ant influence on the study and teaching of
political science in this country More recent
teachers of politics include Hart and Lowell
of Harvard, Running, Moore, and Beard of
Columbia, Wilson of Princeton, Willoughbv
of Johns Hopkins, Merriam of Chicago, Roue
of Pennsylvania, Remsch of Wisconsin, and
Garner of Illinois

VOL. iv — SB

Academic Organization and Method —

American colleges offer a considerable and
gro\\mg amount of undergraduate instruction
in political science A recent study based on
forty repiesentative colleges shows that 72 per-
cent of these institutions offer courses in general
political science 01 comparative government,
50 per cent teach American government,
45 per cent teach municipal government, ^and
that courses in political theories, American
politics, and American diplomacy are given
in from 10 to 30 per cent of the number In
addition, fundamental courses in jurispru-
dence, international law, and American con-
stitutional law are frequently offered Some
of these colleges have distinct departments
of political science, but in others the work is
organized under the department of history, or,
in some cases, in connection with economics or
sociology The usual method of instruction is
based upon geneial textbooks, and consists of
lectures and discussions, collateral reading,
oral arid written repoits, and periodical ex-
aminations Clubs for the study of current
events are often formed, and, when conditions
permit, the operation of actual politics is
jbsen ed or piactical reform work is attempted.
Since the courses aic usually elective and
limited to juniors and semois, the total propor-
tion of students receiving collegiate instruction
in political science is comparatively small

In the organization of the departments of
political science in the leading American
univeisitics little uniformity can be found.
At Chicago, Johns Hopkins, and Wisconsin
theie are separate departments of political
science, at Harvard, history and government
are grouped together; at Yale, the social
sciences, law, and history are combined, and
at Columbia, the faculty of political science
includes the departments of history, econom-
ics, sociology, and political science proper
The usual courses include constitutional, ad-
ministrative, and international law, political
theory, comparative government, and certain
phases of American government, especially
municipal and colonial government, and polit-
ical parties The more elementary courses
aie usually limited to undergraduates; certain
other courses are open to both undergraduates
and graduates, and the more advanced courses
me oliered to graduates only A clear-cut
distinction between undergraduate and gradu-
ate courses and methods can scarcely be said
to exist However, in graduate courses the
lectures aie not dogmatic presentations of
fundamental pnnciples, but aim rather to
open up the literature of the subject and to
suggest its problems In the seminar, in-
structors and students meet periodically for
discussions and reports based on investigation
and research Voluntary clubs are often or-
gan i ml foi the purpose of discussing or debat-
ing political topics, 01 listening to lectures on
public affairs

737

POLITICAL SCIENCE

POLITICAL SCIENCE

Two especially valuable series of publica-
tions, resulting from the investigations of uni-
versity instructors and students, are the
Johns Hopkins University Studies in Historical
and Political Science, published monthly since
1883; and the Columbia University Studio*
in History, Economics, and Public Law, con-
sisting of over one hundred monogiaphs, issued
since 1891 The study of political science
is also furthered by associations affiliated \\ith
several of the large universities The Acad-
emy of Political Science in the City of New
York, organized in 1880 undei the direction
of the Faculty of Political Science of Columbia
University, has, since 1880, published the
Political Science Quarterly, and, since 1910,
issued four volumes of Pioceedings each vear
The American Academy of Political and Social
Science, organized in 1889, is affiliated with the
University of Pennsylvania and publishes
its Annals bimonthly The Ameiican Politi-
cal Science Association, established in 1903,
is a national organization for " the encoui age-
merit of the scientific study of Politics, Public
Law, Administration, and Diplomacy " It
holds annual meetings, usually in conjunction
with the American Historical Association,
publishes the addresses dehveied at such
meetings, and controls the quaiterly publica-
tion of the Ameiican Political Science Jtevicw

Political Science and Practical Politics —
The study of political science lies in the border
zone between those subjects that are especially
of cultural value and those that are more
specifically practical and professional From
the standpoint of the former, it bungs the
student in touch with the historical develop-
ment of thought and of institutions, and
familiarizes him with the issues and problems
of modern civilization Fiom the standpoint
of the latter it furnishes a direct foundation
for law, government service, journalism, and
good citizenship

The increasing importance of political science
in the university is both a cause and a result
of the increasing importance of the university
in practical politics The pioportion of college
graduates in public office is growing each year,
men actively engaged in university instruction
have recently been candidates foi important
elective offices, and the influence of the uni-
versity and its affiliated alumni associations
is a valuable political asset University
trained men hold impoitant positions in tin;
civil service, and university teachers are fre-
quently appointed to serve on governmental
boards and commissions The scorn in which the
practical politician formerly held the academic
teacher of politics is disappearing, and the State
tends more and more to apply scientific political
methods in actual government History and
present conditions are investigated before action
is taken on new questions, and an increasing
use is made of statistics Political phenomena
are observed and classified, and generalizations

738

are made from the data thus collected For
this work, dealing with conditions both at
home and abroad, the State draws largely
upon university teachers of political science
Especially close is the connection between
academic and practical politics in the state
universities of the Middle West, in some cases,
as in Wisconsin, the university .has become
in effect a coordinate department of state
administration, and exerts a powerful arid di-
rect influence upon public opinion and upon
legislation

In Europe an even closer connection be-
tween academic and practical politics is main-
tained bv the Seminary of the Prussian Statis-
tical Bureau at Berlin and the independent
School of Political Sciences at Pans The
former, a government institution opened in
1862 under the chief of the Bureau of Statistics,
aided by various university professors, is a
laboratory of political science It trains
university students for the higher branches
of the civil service and collects a vast amount
of data valuable for both the scholar and the
statesman The latter, founded in 1871 as a
pnvate joint stock company, prepares for
public affairs, especially f or certain branches of
the administration under the civil service sys-
tem, and many of its lecturers are men promi-
nent in public life The establishment of a
similar institution at Washington has often
been urged

Scope and Problems — The scope of politi-
cal science and its mam divisions are deter-
mined by seveial broad categories under
which the State mav be viewed There is, first,
a distinction between the subjective and objec-
tive phases of the State The former exists in
the human mind and creates political theory,
the lattei exists in outward manifestations and
gives use to political institutions Between
political theory and political institutions the
relation is close, each being both a cause and a
result of the othei A second distinction views
the State as both static and dynamic From
the foimer standpoint emphasis is laid on or-
ganization, fiom the latter, on function
Political science must tell what the state is, and
what it doc* The physical background of the
State in population and territory, the consti-
tutional organization of government, with its
separation into legislative, executive, and
judicial departments, and its division into
national, local, and colonial agents, the govern-
mental position of the electorate and of politi-
cal parties, must all be described The ac-
tivities of the State are determined by the fun-
damental relations of individual to individual,
some of which the State regulates under private
law, the relations of State to individual,
which the State determines in its public law,
and the relations of State to State, which are
regulated by the principles called international
la\v The share of individuals m governing
authority and their freedom from governmental

POLITICAL SCIENCE

POLYHEDRON

interference open up important questions of
sovereignty and liberty. Views as to the
proper scope of state function vary from an
extreme individualism to an extreme socialism.
Opinions as to the proper nature of interna-
tional relations show scarcely more agreement
A third distinction, views the state as past,
present, and future The origin and political
development of both theory and institutions
must be traced; present conditions both as to
organization and functions must be described;
and future tendencies may cither form the
basis of political speculation or lead to active
efforts at reform

Certain fundamental changes have taken
place during the past quartet century in the
attitude of mind \\ith which political scientists
approach their subject The doctrine of
natural rights is now seldom referred to as a
basis for political practice1, neither are political
events ascribed to the intervention of a divine
Providence There is also considerable hesita-
tion m explaining broad and complex move-
ments on the basis of jacial characteristics
The speculative (heonsts and the builders of
Utopias have been replaced by men trained in
historical research and in the scientific theory
of evolution Records of past political sys-
tems and theories aie carefully studied, present
day conditions aie minutely analyzed and
described, and pimciples of causation are
diligently sought Modern scholars, freeing
themselves as far as possible of personal bias,
and making little effort to praise or condemn,
or to point morals, aim to \iew 1he origin,
development, organization, relations, and func-
tions of the state, in the light of past condi-
tions and piesent tendencies, constantly re-
membering the close connection bet, ween the
political activities of mankind and those other
phases of development which make up the
total process of social evolution R G G

See (1ivics for treatment of the subject in
the lower schools

References —

ADAMS, H B The Study of History in American
Colleges and I7nivtr8iti(i> (Washington, 1887 )

BEARD, C A Politics A lecture dehveied at Co-
lumbia Univeisity, Fcb 12, 1<K)S

BOURINOT, J G The Study of Political Science in
Canadian Umveisities Pnntcdiny^ and Transac-
tions of tlu Royal Society of Ctinnda, Vol VII
(Monti eal, 1889 )

HAINEB, (' G Is Sufficient Time- Devoted to the
Study of Government in oui Colleges9 Pro-
ceedings of the Anuruan Political Km nit Associa-
tion, Vol VII (Baltimore, 1910)

JANET, P Histoire de la scientc politique, Vol 1, Intro-
duction (Paris, 1887 )

JfcLLiNEK, G Rtcht d(.t> modci run titaatet,, Bk I,
Chaps 1-2 (Berlin, 1000)

ML.YKK, G Staats- und Vmwtltungbretht, in Lexis,
W , Die deutschen UniverMtatcn, Vol I (Berlin,
1904 )

POLLOCK, Sm F History of th( Sciuicc of Politics
(London, 1890 )

HOWE, L S Problems of Political Science Annals
of the A nui Acad of Pol and Soc tici , Vol X

SMITH, MUNKOL The Domain of Political Science
Political jS'ci< ncc Quattuly, Vol I

WILLOUQHBY, W W Political Science as a University
Study Sewanee Review, July, 1906

POLYGON — A word derived from the
Greek and meaning many-angled In elemen-
tary geometry the term is usually limited to
convex plane figures bounded by a continuous
line, made up of straight lines We may,
however, have concave polygons, cross poly-
gons, and polygons that are not in the same
plane (skew polygons)

A polygon is said to be regular if its sides
are equal and its angles are equal The study

Equilateral

tquianguUr

lloxagou Convex Conciivo

of the regular polygons forms a part of the
work in elementary plane geometry. Of the
pimciples of polvRous, one of the most im-
portant is that relating to the sum of the angles,
this sum being equal to (?i — 2) times 2 right
angles The study of the stellar polygon was
prominent in medieval education D. K S.

POLYGONAL NUMBERS — The Greeks
paid much attention to the theory of numbers,
and there still remain in arithmetic certain
relics of their activity in this
field, as in the treatment of * A /C A*
prime nurnbcis, even and odd /' V V"Vf \
numbers, and square and cube
numbers A square number
derives its name from the fact
that, 4, 9, 16, 25 dots can

be anangcd in the form of a
geometric square A square
number is a special form of a
polygonal number, for it is pos-
sible to ai range the dots in the
form of other polygons, such as triangles,
pentagons, etc Among the polygonal num-
bers studied by the Greeks, and found in
the medieval education, are the following —

Triangular, 1, 3, 6, 10, 15, . .

Square, 1, 4, 9, 25, 36,

Pentagonal, 1, 6, 12, 22, 35,

Hexagonal, 1, 6, 15, 28, 45,

With the exception of square numbers the
polygonal numbers are no longer studied

D E S

POLYHEDRON— A term derived from
the Greek and meaning many-faced, or many-
seated A regular polyhedron has all of its
faces congruent regular polygons There are
five regular convex polyhedrons, and these
were studied so extensively in the school of
Plato as to have the name of " Platonic-
bodies " The Greeks attributed particular
mystic significance to these various bodies
One of the fundamental properties of convex

POLYHEDRON

POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS

polyhedrons is that the number of faces plus
the number of vertices equals the number of
edges plus two The polyhedrons of chief
importance in the teaching of elementary
mathematics are usually considered to be
those which are needed in the problems in
mensuration; namely, the cube, parallelepiped,
prism, pyramid, and frustum of a pyramid.
As a formula of mensuration the most impor-
tant one is the so-called prismatoid formula,

that v « -(& -I- &' 4- 4m) where h =

D

•• height, b and

b' = the bases, and m * a mid-section parallel
to the base (See GEOMETRY.) D. B. 8.

POLYTECHNIC HIGH SCHOOLS. —

See INDUSTRIAL EDUCATION; TECHNICAL EDU-
CATION

POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE, BROOK-
LYN, NY— See TECHNICAL EDUCATION.

POLYTECHNIC SCHOOLS. — See TECH-
NICAL EDUCATION.

Printed in the United States of America.

740