Full text of "Cyclopedia of painting : containing useful and valuable information on the following subjects : adulteration of paint, blistering of paint, brushes, calcimining, carriage painting, china painting, colors, color harmony, color mixing, color testing, exterior painting, gilding, graining, house painting, marbling, mildew, oils and driers, oil painting on glass, painting a bath tub, painting in distemper, paperhanger's tools, paperhanging, pigments, plain oil painting, primary colors, priming, scenic painting, sign painting, stains, staining, stencilling, turpentine, varnishes, varnishing, water color painting, when not to paint, practical points on painting, useful information"

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Cyclopedia of Painting

Containing Useful and Valuable Information
on the Following Subjects

Adulteration of Paint — Blistering of Paint — Brushes — Cal-
cimining — Carriage Painting — China Painting — Colors —
Color Harmony — Color INIixing — Color Testing — Exte-
rior Painting— Gilding— Graining— House Painting —
Marbling — Mildew — Oils and Driers — Oil Painting
on Glass — Painting a Bath Tub — Painting in Dis-
temper— Paperhanger's Tools — Paperhanging
— Pigments — Plain Oil Painting — Primary
Colors — Priming — Scenic Painting — Sign
Painting — Stains — Staining — Stencilling
— Turpentine — Varnishes — Varnishing
— Water Color Painting — When Not
to Paint — Practical Points on
Painting — Useful Information

GEORGE D. ARMSTRONG

OVER 100 ILLUSTRATIONS

CHICAGO

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO., PUBLISHERS

1908

INTRODUCTION.

The character of this work is indicated by its title.
The topics are treated with a view to technically instruct
those who desire to make a study of the art of painting
as practised in the paint-shops of this country.

Every effort has been made to ensure accuracy in all
the statements made. The employment of engravings,
wherever it was necessary to more fully explain the text,
will be found to add greatly to the value of the work,
while the many extended articles will, it is believed, be
interesting even to those who read only for information
on general topics.

The book is one easy of consultation, virtually a
Cyclopedia, and readily distinguishable from a collection
of scientific treatises.

The Author.

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING.

ADULTERATION OF PAINT.

To understand this subject intelligently it will be neces-
sary to possess some slight knowledge of chemistry and
of the materials used by chemists, but any intelligent person
can, by careful reading of these descriptions, test substances
qualitatively without the aid of expensive apparatus or ex-
ternal assistance of any kind. For quantitative analysis
a delicate chemical balance will, of course, be required.
Take paints first. White lead is now very seldom sold in the
dry state, but samples are occasionally met with. Its cover-
ing power being superior to that of any other known paint,
it is very largely used, and it is frequently adulterated
with substances of inferior quality. The most common adul-
terants are sulphate of baryta and chalk.

Sulphate of Baryta. Treat a small quantity with dilute
nitric acid, and heat on the sandbath. If any insoluble re-
mains, it is either sulphate of barj'ta or insoluble silicates.
Filter, take a portion of the insoluble on a piece of clean
platinum wire moistened with hydrochloric acid, and test
at the blowpipe. If the flame be colored green, the precip-
itate is sulphate of baryta. By moistening the wire in
hydrochloi'ic acid the green color is reproduced many times.

Insoluble Silicates. If no green color appears, the in-
soluble is a silicate. This may be proved by forming a bead
with microcosmic salt on a loop at the end of the platinum
wire, and taking some of the precipitate on this bead, fusing
it again in the blowpipe flame. If small infusible particles
whirl around within the bead while in the flame, the pres-
ence of silicates in the precipitate may be inferred.

6 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Chalk. The presence of chalk can only be ascertained after
separating the lead. This is best done by adding ammonia
solution to the nitric acid solution until alkaline, then sul-
phate of ammonia in excess, and boiling for five minutes.
Filter ofit" the black precipitate which is formed, and to the
tiltrate, first tested with an additional drop or two of sul-
phate of ammonia to insure the removal of the whole of the
lead, add ammoniac oxalate. If a white precipitate appear,
it is calcic oxalate. Test a portion of this precipitate at the
blowpipe. A brick-red color imparted to the flame verifies
the presence of chalk.

White Lead. The presence of lead should be ascertained.
This is indicated by the black precipitate given v;ith sul-
phate of ammonia. It may be best ascertained by boiling
the nitric acid solution to expel the free nitric acid, adding
dilute sulphuric acid to the clear solution, dissolving the
white precipitate of sulphate of lead thus formed in ain-
inoniac acetate, and adding potassic ehromate to this solu-
tion. A heavy yellow precipitate (ehromate of lead) forms
when load is {)resent.

Sulphate of Baryta and Silicates. Take 20 grains of the
sample, treat with dilute nitric acid as before. The quan-
tity taken for analysis may be weighed in a watch-glass or
a small basin, but should be transferred to a beaker, and the
glass or basin washed with distilled water before the acid is
added. If this precaution be not taken, and the acid added
directly in the watch-glass or basin, to be washed into the
beaker afterwards, the violent effervescence which takes
place on the addition of the acid will occasion considerable
loss by spurting. If, after heating with nitric acid, an in-
soluble remains, a few crystals of chlorate of potash may
be added to the boiling liquid to insure the solution of all
soluble substances. The boiling is continued for a few
minutes, then cold water is added, and the whole passed
111 rough a filter. The insoluble on the filter is washed with
Iiof water until the water leaving the filter is no longer

ADULTERATION OF PAINT 7

acid to litmus paper. It is then dried on the water-bath,
ignited, and weighed. Test at blowpipe as before. Sulphate
of bai'yta and silicates, if both present, are not usually
separated.

Weighing Precipitates. This general direction applies to
almost all precipitates. If strong acids or acid and chlorate
of potash are used, the liquid should invariably be diluted
before filtering. In washing, allow the whole of the wash
water to drop from the filter before adding more water.
When thoroughly washed, fold the filter paper flat in the
funnel, or, better, transfer the filter paper and its contents
to a large watch-glass or flat basin, and dry on a water-bath.
When dry, carefully unfold the filter over a quarto sheet of
stiff glazed paper, with a feather brush off every particle of
the precipitate adhering to the filter paper, collect the pre-
cipitate on the glazed paper, again using the feather, and
cover over the precipitate with the funnel. Fold the filter
paper till it assumes the appearance of a solid cylinder about
one inch in length, and ignite with the Bunsen burner over
a weighed platinum or porcelain capsule. After a while the
filter paper becomes a charred mass of smaller dimensions,
and drops from the wire into the capsule. The wire is
cleaned into the capsule, by means of the feather, of any
adhering particles, the charred paper is crushed with a glass
rod, and ignited over a Bunsen until the ash is no longer
black. The capsule is then stood on a porcelain slab, and the
precipitate carefully transferred from a glazed paper into
the capsule, the feather being employed to remove the last
traces. The capsule is then ignited over an Argand burner
until the weight is constant. The filter paper must always
be ignited before the bulk of the precipitate is transferred
to the capsule.

White Lead. The nitric acid solution obtained a& before
is boiled nearly to dryness, and if a precipitate forms a little
water is added, then dilute sulphuric acid in small quantity,
and the boiling continued for some minutes to expel the last

8 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

trace of nitric acid. An excess of sulphuric acid
is then added to precipitate the whole of the lead
and lime as sulphates, which appear as a white
heavy powder. The beaker and its contents are then cooled
by immersion in cold water. When cool, double the bulk
of alcohol is added, and the whole allowed to stand for some
time — over night if possible. It is then filtered and washed
with alcohol until the washings are no longer acid, dried,
ignited in a porcelain capsule, and weighed as above. From
the weight obtained deduct .05 grain, the amount of ash
contained in an ordinary Swedish filter paper, the remainder
multiplied by five for the percentage of sulphate of lead,
and (if chalk is present) this again by .852 for the percentage
of white lead. If the sample contains chalk, the percentage
of white lead must not be estimated until the percentage bf
chalk is determined. The percentage of chalk is converted
into its equivalent of sulphate of lime. This latter de-
ducted from the percentage of sulphates of lead and lime,
and the remainder multiplied by .825 for the percentage of
white lead.

Chalk. The readiest way to estimate chalk is to divide
the nitric acid solution obtained above into two equal parts,
in one estimate the lead as above (multiplying the weight
found by ten instead of five), and in the other estimate the
chalk. The lead is removed with ammoniac sulphide in the
manner described before, to the clear filtrate, ammoniac
oxalate is added, if chalk is present, a white precipitate of
calcic oxalate is produced. This precipitate is assisted in
its separation by boiling. Then collected on a filter, washed
with hot water, dried and weighed. The ignition is complete
when the contents of the capsule assume a tinge of gray
color. The weight obtained after deducting .05 grain of
filter ash is multiplied by ten for the percentage of chalk.
In inexperienced hands it will be better to ignite strongly
and weigh as lime, multiplying by ten for percentage of lime
and by 1.7857 for percentage of chalk. This chalk may be

ADULTERATION OF PAINT 9

converted into sulphate of lime by multiplying by 1.36, and
the product deducted from the percentage of lead and lime
obtained above, prior to calculating the percentage of white
lead. The chalk precipitate should be tested at the blow-
pipe for its characteristic brick-red flame. Some analysts
treat the mixed precipitate of sulphate of lead and calcium
with concentrated solution of ammoniac acetate, and weigh
the insoluble as chalk. This method is unreliable. The oil
must first be burnt off, and the ignition continued until no
black carbonaceous matter remains. It must be ignited in a
porcelain basin over an Argand burner, turned low at first
and gradually raised. The ignition must be completed over
a Bunsen. Much time is saved and the analysis rendered
more accurate by spreading the mixed paint in a thin layer
over the bottom of the basin, and when the ignition is nearly
complete, by crushing the scaly crust with a glass rod, care-
fully remove the adhering pieces on the glass rod by means
of a feather. The difference in weight before and after igni-
tion represents the oil plus loss by reductions of white lead
to metallic lead. The residue is washed into a beaker with
water as before, and afterwards with nitric acid. The metal-
lic lead, which adheres strongly to the bottom of the basin,
must be rubbed vigorously with the end of a glass rod until
entirely removed. This requires a little patience, but it
yields to persistent rubbing. The remainder of the process
is the same as in the case of dry white lead.

BLISTERING OF PAINT.

In the following- lines are laid down some general rules
that govern this phenomenon^ and from the same draw some
practical conclusions, the object of which will be to set the
question at rest. The blistering of paint is in a large measure
traceable to the position of the surface, it is usually found
on work presenting a south aspect, or exposed to the full
rays of the sun. As a defect it is associated with the sum-
mer season, winters being opposed to its action. The deduc-
tion to be drawn from this is that it is the effect of heat.
Paint is a body both mineral and metallic, made into a
plastic condition by oil, the object of which is to keep out
the moisture from exposed surfaces in buildings, and to offer
on intei-nal work a uniform and pleasing surface to the eye.
The oil used is linseed, which by boiling attains setting or
drying qualities and becomes better by keeping, its thick
or heavy nature when loaded with mineral and metallic
matters being reduced for Avorking purposes by spirits of
turpentine, a volatile spirit that is a mere aid to the spread-
ing of paint. Paint so largely composed of oil will never
fairly set or assume a dry state. However dry and brittle
if: may appear, it is capable of being rendered soft and
plastic by the application of heat, and hence the hand stove
of the painters is the most ordinary instrument for the re-
moval of old paint. We mention this, for it is clear that,
approach the subject as Ave will, we find heat the prime cause
of the blistering of paint. Closing in with the subject, and
bringing it into narrower lines, blistering, properly speaking,
is wholly confined to wood as a base or groundwork. It is
true it is not unknown to iron or plaster, but in these cases
it is variant in form, and not blistering in the true sense of
the term. The blistering of paint on iron is not traceable to

BLISTERING OF PAINT

the softening of the paint, and the shelling up of the same,
but to water making its way to the naked iron through some
crack or defect in the paint, and becoming an active agent in
oxidization. The blister thus forced is clearly the separa-
tion of the film of paint from the iron by the formation of
rust upon the face, which, as a foreign material, forms an
effectual separation of the two bodies. The extension of
these blisters is dependent upon the supply of water, and,
unlike the true blister, is not dependent upon heat or a
south or sunny aspect. The blistering of paint on iron occurs
in any aspect or position, in the full light or in the dark,

Fig. 1. Ordinary Paint Brush.

in the summer or the winter, the destructive agent being
water, it is dependent upon no other conditions. The blister-
ing of paint upon plaster is in a large degree analogous to
that of iron, inasmuch as it is formed by the disintegration
of the base by the action of water. Painted plaster-work,
so long as water can be kept from percolating through the
cracks or faults, or gaining entrance from above by filtra-
tion, or from below by capillary action, is a highly durable
material, but the moment water gains a footing the lime
in some degree is dissolved, and, upon being removed and
redeposited, undergoes the process of I'ecrystallizatioji, a
powdery substance is thus formed that comes as a s,tranger

12 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

between the paint and the plaster, in wliich respect it bears a
strong resemblance to rust, the result of the oxidization of
iron. Large faces of plaster are subject to fractures from
expansion under the heat of the sun, or from the lifting
the upper members of a building, consequent upon the adm
sion of water from gutters or copings, the lifting being t.
result of secondary crystallization set up in the joints ot
mortar. This is an explanation of the fact that the blister-
ing of paint always occurs in the neighborhood of craeks
or fractures in the plaster, and is more pronounced in tht
cornice or upper part than in any other part of a building.
In proof of its being the result of crystallization, the face
of the plaster is always found to be covered over with
powdered lime. The painter, finding this, takes care to
saturate the disintegrated face of the framework in effect-
ing repairs, but this, as he finds to his chagrin, is no protec-
tion against a recurrence of the evil, for so long as water or
moisture is admitted at any point, so long will this abnormal
llistering ensue. The blistering of paint upon plaster work,
like that upon iron, is not dependent upon heat, it is a
chemical action set up by water upon a body of dry lime
in a partial state of crystallization, it is caused by the
lime dissolving, and its removal — it may be but in an infini-
tesimal degree — and its recrystallization. Upon the water
evaporating, the result is a dry powder that works an ef-
fectual separation between the film of paint and the ground-
work of plaster, and it does not attach itself to either of the
bodies, but remains a powder until the film of paint or
blister is removed, when it may be dusted off with a brush.
The blistering of paint upon wood is distinct in its order,
and is the general blister known in the trade. It occurs on
the face of woodwork exposed to the sun, and is traceable
to the influence of heat. It is not pronounced in the case
of new work, where the body of paint is not great; but it is
a great evil and an eyesore on old work, where the coats of
paint are layered one on the other. Wood, as a groundwork.

BLISTERING OP PAINT 13

is a porous body highly charged with moisture in a natural
state, and never free from it in a so-called dry state when
used in exposed situations. It may be taken that wood, dur-
2; the winter season, or one-half of the year, is absorbing
aoisture. This is seen in outer doors, gates, sliding sashes,
jnd shutters, as the carpenter is constantly being called into

' requisition to ease the same. This moisture, so largely pres-
ent in the atmosphere, cannot be kept out of the wood
by the most careful painting. In store fronts it has ready

racct'ss to the back of the woodwork, the face sides being
the only ones which are painted, in doors and gates it is
absorbed from the sills or the ground, from the fact that
the lower edges are unpainted. There is always some por-
tion of the woodwork hidden from the eye which is un-
painted, and there the system of absorption is active during
the winter or rainy season. Wood in this state during the
hottest days in summer will make efforts to thi'ow off this
moisture. Then the heat of the sun is applied with great
force to the painted face, and the unpainted face is in the
cold shade. The effect of this powerful heat is to draw the
moisture to the face of the wood, where its course is arrested
by the sundry impervious coats of paint, it is here generated
into ste.im, the expansive power of which forces away the
paint, and the familiar blister is formed. Paint, as a mineral
or metallic body, does not incorporate with the wood, it
simply adheres thereto, forcing its fronds, so to speak, in
the pores of the wood, and filling up the interstices formed
by the bundles of fibers. Hence we find that paint fails to
adhere to highly resinous or greasy woods, and the knots
themselves, from being hard and compact, must be faced
with knotting composition as a ground for the paint.

BRUSHES.

Cheap goods of any kind never reflect credit on the maker.
Neither do they give satisfaction to the consumer or dealer.
It requires skill and art as well as quality of material to
produce high grades of goods, and such must always bring
their price and never fail to give satisfaction. For this
reason, the intelligent, practical and thoughtful workman
will alwaj's look for the best tools. Good bristle brushes can-
not be made of any substitute for imported bristles, and
cheaper grades are always produced by adulteration and
mixtures. The cheapening of goods is generally done so that

Fig. 2. Badger Hair Flowing Brush.

it shows least to the eye, in the center of the brush, and
covered by good quality to make the goods as marketable as
possible. Such goods cannot be expected to be durable or
give satisfaction.

First-class goods can also be ruined or lose half their
value if they are not properly cared for. Paint and varnish,
as well as calcimine and whitewash brushes, should never be
allowed to stand on the ends of bristles over night, but should
always be cleaned thoroughly before quitting work, and care-

BRUSHES 15

fully bung up, paint and varnish brushes in oil or varnisb,
and calcimine and whitewash to dry. It will injure any
brush to let it remain in water. Should paint, varnish,
leather-bound whitewash or wall brush be found that has be-
come loose from shrinkage, take a tablespoonful or so of
Mater, open the brush and pour the water into the center.
This will swell the parts and make the brush as firm as when
first made.

New brushes when first put in work are apt to shed any
loose bristles that have not been fastened when made, and *
while such loose bristles are always cleaned out before the
goods are put up for market, not all such loose bristles or
hair can be cleaned out, and such are sure to come loose
when the brush is first used. This defect will cure itself in
one day's use.

Do not condemn the maker if one brush is brought back
by a practical workman, who possibly has had one or more
brushes out of the same dozen that were all right and gave
perfect satisfaction, but look for the cause or defect in the
user. Remember that goods are made up in large quantities,
and when the bristle is prepared it is in large batches. It
must naturally follow that if one brush, or one dozen, or any
quantity of such a lot is good that all must be, or if one is
bad all must be so.

The greatest annoyance that manufacturers have to con-
tend with is the improper or careless use and care of good,
first-class brushes.

Good goods of all kinds are a credit to the manufacturer,
give satisfaction to the mechanic in use, and pleasure and
profit to the dealer to sell. They are sure to bring their
own reward.

Brushes are made of bristles and of hair, bound to a
handle by cord, wire, metal stamped to imitate wire, tin,
copper and brass. The oval and round paint and varnish
brushes are generally bound with cord, wire or its imita-
tions, and copper and brass. The flat bristle, fitch, badger.

16 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

bear and camel 's-hair brushes with tin. The ordinary paint
brushes contain the inferior or coarser grades of bristles,
the varnish brushes are selected or finer qualities. The oval
and round brushes are numbered by the brush-maker to
designate sizes, from No. 6 down to No. 1. thence from one
0 to 000000. For carriage painting the sizes between one
and four naughts are considered best, the smaller ones may
be used, but it is advantageous to use as large a brush
as possible on most of the Avork. Small brushes called tools
are numbered from 1 up to 10, the latter being the largest.
Brushes are genei'ally used in sets, as, for example, in
painting a body or gear, a large brush for laying the paint
would be used, and a small tool for cleaning up around
the moldings, nuts and bolt-heads. It would be an almost
endless task to illustrate and describe all of the many
varieties of paint and varnish brushes, and a few of the
principal ones only will receive attention here. Russia is
the great bristle growing country, and her exports reach as
high as 5,000 tons of this commodity every yeai'. Hogs in
countless herds roam the deep Muscovite forests, where the
oak, the pine, the beech, larch and other nut bearing trees
cover the ground with acorns and nuts to the depth of a
foot or more. But these swine are not all of value for
their bristles. The perfect bristle is found only on a
special race, and that race fattened in a certain way. On
the frontiers of civilization all over the Muscovite territory
are the government tallow factories, where aiiiinals reared
too far from the habitation of men to be consumed for
human food are boiled down for the sake of their fat. The
swine are fed on the refuse of these tallow factories at cer-
tain seasons, and become in prime condition after a few
months' feeding. It is from these animals that the bristles
of commerce mainly come. When the swine are fattened,
and their bristles in fine color, they are driven in kraals
so thickly that they can scarcely stand — irritated and
goaded by the herdsmen till they are sullen with rage —

BRUSHES

kicking, striving, struggling- and scrambling together in
feverish rage, they are seized one by one, by the kak koffs,
a class of laborers educated to plucking swine, a»nd their
bristles pulled out by the roots. The perspiration into
which the poor creatures are thrown by their exercise
causes their bristles to yield easily. The process is pleas-
ant neither to the eye nor the ear. The hog strenuously
resists with loud outcries, and vehement opposition. It
does no good. Once seized, he is instantly divested of

Fig. 3. Fitch Varnish Brush.

his clothing and then immediately released, goes grunting
off to the woods.

The so-called French bristles are principally from Rus-
sia stock, cleaned and bleached to render them white and
exceedingly elastic, yet soft as an infant's hair. From
these are made the fine pencils of the artist. Length, elas-
ticity, firmness and color are elements that constitute their
excellence, and the bristle expert can readily assort them
for their special uses.

The ordinai-y paint brush for general work is made either
from selected Russia bristles, or with an inferior gray
center, inclosed by fine white bristles. Can-iage and wagon

18 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

painters usually select the best Russia bristles, and the
size known as 0000 is used for rough-stuff and foundation
coats, while the house painter would choose a larger one
possibly. A new brush of this description will not work
well unless bridled, that is having an extra binding added,
and this may be done in several ways.

By winding a strong cord around the bristles to about
the middle of the same, or, as far from the original bind-
ing as desired. By covering a portion of the bristles with
leather stitched on tightly. By wrapping a piece of muslin
around the brush, then tying a cord at the center of the
bristles turn the muslin back and tie it securely to the
handle. By using a patent metallic band or binder, and
by other means, the object being to shorten the exposed
bristles until the brush is partly worn down, when the
extra binding may be removed.

Badger-Hair Varnish Brush. The badger-hair brush is
next in importance. It is well bound in tin, hair set in
glue, handle nicely japanned, and chisel-pointed. For var-
nishing small panels or parts of a body it has no equal.
The best badger-hair is imported on the skin fi-om Germany
and Russia.

Camel's-Hair Brush. For laying fine color no better
brush can be had than the camel 's-hair brush, called by some
mqttlers, by others blenders, and again by others spal-
ters, each term, however, is foreign to the American painter,
and the camel 's-hair brush is by far the most appropriate,
and most commonly used. The hair used in these brushes,
however, is not all taken from the camel, much of it being
from the tail of the Russian brown squirrel. The hair is
first cut from the tail with scissors, the wool or under fur
combed out, and then tied in bunches ready to be straight-
ened. This requires skill and practice. The hair is placed
in metal cups having a thick, loaded bottom, and by quick
motion of the hand, drummed on the bench for a consider-
able time, until the pointed or fine ends are all even with

BRUSHES 19

each other. In the process of cutting and cupping the
lengths are kept separate as far as possible. The hair is
now ready for the brush-maker, who cups and combs it out,
weighs the quantity required, and places it into the ferrules
or tin bands. It requires skill to handle the short, slippery
hair and keep it in shape. It is not many years since
work of this kind was all done abroad. Now, it is claimed
by experts that the American manufacture of most kinds
of brushes excels the foreign goods. The chiseled camel 's-
hair brush is something entirely new, and is certainly a
very fine brush and well calculated to do smooth, particular
work. Another class of these goods are made extra thick
and from picked camel 's-hair, the binding of brass having
its edge turned under, which gives additional security to
the hair and prevents cutting the hair on the edge of the
binding, which too frequently happens.

Camel's-Hair Tool. Small brushes, called tools, made
of camel 's-hair are used for blacking irons, lacquering,
and other work of like nature. The next brush to be con-
sidered is the camel 's-hair duster, a tool used mostly by
gilders in removing the loose gold leaf from their work
when gilding. These are bound in split quill and fastened
with wire. The next to claim attention is the gilder's
camel 's-hair tip. This is made by laying a thin layer be-
tween two pieces of card-board and gluing the whole firmly
together; it is used to lift and carry to the work the pieces
of gold leaf. A slight moisture or stickiness is given the
hairs by simply passing them over the face or hair of the
head, and then the gold leaf can be easily lifted from
the cushion on which it has been cut and dexterously laid
upon the gilding size.

For painting walls a large flat bristle brush is used, made
of all white bristles, bound in copper, brass or galvanized
iron. It has always been a difficult task to make a wall
brush to stand the hard usage it generally receives, but
now that machinery of the most approved pattern has been

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

introduced in the brush factory these brushes are made
under warranty.

Flat Bristle Varnish Brush. These are made of the best
white bristles, set with glue, doubled nailed, soft yet very
elastic, with chiseled points. They are considered the best
brush made by many of the best varnishers. They are put
up in sets from one inch in width to three inches. These
brushes, if used with care, will wear a long time.

Flat Chiseled Brush. Flat paint brushes are preferred
by some. These are chiseled or ground off on the sides to
form a thin edge. They are bound in tin or rubber and
are graded in size by their width.

Fig. 4. Flat Varnjsh Brush.

Flattened Round Tool. This is superior to the sash tool
for cleaning between the spokes, and for finishing around
the various parts of the gear. This brush is tin-bound, well
riveted, and the bristles are set in glue, which is insoluble
in turpentine and oil, and therefore superior to the cement
used by some brush-makers. The size best suited for the
carriage painter is about one and a quarter inches in width.
This is also an excellent tool for varnishing, in trimming
up around moldings.

Fitch-Hair Brush. This brush was formerly in extensive
demand as a varnish brush but of late years the badger has

BRUSHES 21

supplanted it, owing, in a degree, to the numerous imita-
tions in the market, and also to the liability of the rotting
away or breaking of the hairs when in use. The hair is
mostly from the tail of the skunk.

Sash-Tool. A sash tool, or small brush, is necessary as
an auxiliary to the large brush, for cleaning up in corners,
etc.

Oval Varnish or Paint Brush. As the under parts of a
carriage are not rubbed with lump pumice-stone, the
same as the body, the paint must be applied with greater
care, and the 000 oval brush will work best, laying the
paint smoothly and leaving but few, if any, brush marks.
The chiseled brush should always have preference over a
partly worn one, as the bristles are as a rule softer upon
their extreme ends.

The Care of Brushes. However good a brush may be
it will soon be ruined unless it is properly treated when out
of use. The following hints will suffice as a guide in this
respect :

Writing Pencils. Wash in turpentine until quite clean,
and if they are not to be used for some time, dip in olive
oil and smooth from heel to point.

Stipplers. Wash thoroughly in pure soap and hot water,
rinsing with cold water. Place point downwards to dry.

Varnish Brushes. The best method of keeping varnish
brushes is to suspend them in the same description of var-
nish as that they are used for. As this is not always pos-
sible, boiled oil may be used instead.

Brushes made for Use in Color should first be soaked
well in water to swell the bristle in the binding. This ap-
plies also to whitewash brushes which are bound either by
wire or leather.

A Brush after use should be thoroughly cleansed out in
turps or soap and water. If left in water any length of
time they are liable to twist, and the bristles lose their
elasticity.

22 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

A Brush made for Paint should not be used in varnish,
the spirit of which dissolves the cement with which it is set,
and loosens the bristles. "When a ground brush has been
well woi-n down in color, it may be used in varnish.

Varnish Brushes when not in use should be suspended in
either varnish or oil, the brush not resting on the bristles.
No brushes should on any account be kept in tuipentine.

Stippling Brushes should be well cleaned and dried after
use, the bristle being carefully kept from crushing; a box
in which they can be slid, allowing the bristle to hang
downwards is recommended.

Should a Brush become quite hard with Paint it should be
soaked for twenty-four hours in raw linseed oil, after which
time in hot turpentine.

Cleaning Paint Brushes. All brushes, after being used,
should be carefully cleaned. This is best effected by im-
mersing the hair of the brushes in a little raw linseed oil,
the oil should afterwai'ds be washed out with soap and
w^arm water, till the froth which is made bj' rubbing the
brushes on the palm of the hand is perfectly colorless. The
brushes should next be rinsed in clean water, and the water
pressed out by a clean towel. The hair should then be
laid straight and smooth, and each brush restored to its
proper shape, by passing it between the finger and thumb,
before it is left to dry. Care should be taken not to break
the hair by too violent rubbing, as that would render the
brushes useless. Many painters use turpentine instead of
linseed oil in the cleaning of brushes, it effects the object
more quickly, but the only use of turpentine that should
be permitted is to rinse the brushes in it slightly when it
is required to clean them quickly, but on no account should
they be permitted to remain soaking in turpentine, as this
practice is certain to injure the brushes, rendering the hair
harsh and intractable, and frequently dissolving the cement
by which the hair is held in the socket of the handle.

BRUSHES

iSiili F-T ' '■ . ■-! ; "

wm'i'' vi'i,''i'M'''v''i''';':ij)''';V-,r:,;'i

Mu, ;/:;,^'l;'ir^(i:!i:^'';7';:!V:!',-,|

Fig. 5. Oval Chiselled Varnish Brush.

CALCIMINING.

Plaster ceilings are usually finished with calcimine, which,
besides the advantages of cheapness and of covering in
one coat, where with oil paint three would be required,
shows superiority in many other respects.

In places where people congregate, the moisture in the
atmosphere, unless the ventilation of the apartment is ex-
ceptionally good, will condense upon a painted surface and
run down the walls. When calcimine is used in such situa-
tions, no unpleasant effect is seen, the distempered surface
will absorb the moisture for the time being, and ultimately
give it forth again without any detriment to its color.

This property of distemper also indicates the necessity
of removing, with brushes and water, all old coloring and
calcimine from the ceiling, instead of which, the dirty un-
healthy coating is in many cases coated over with size. The
size binds the dirt, and the opacity of the distemper does
not show the dirt through, nevertheless, it is a practice to
be condemned by all who desire sanitary homes. This labor-
saving plan would be used to a greater extent but for the
fact that continuous coats of distemper and size soon dis-
cover the bad worker by the surface cracking and peeling
off, owing to excess of size.

When about to calcimine a ceiling, the first thing is to
have the room as clear as possible, and to protect the wall-
paper.

Next with hot water thoroughly wash off from the ceiling
the old calcimine, being careful to wash only the ceiling,
and not to let the dirty water run down the wall-paper nor
splash about.

It is important to have the board at such a height from
the floor that the ceiling can be comfortably reached. Have

CiVLCIMINING 25

at each end of the board a pair of steps. Now, with a pail
of clean hot water, a distemper brush, a large piece of
sponge, and a piece of coarse canvas on a board or table,
start at one corner of the room to lay or soak in a patch
with water, gently stirring the old distemper with the
brush. Get the old distemper thoroughly soaked, then
wash it off with the canvas, finishing with the sponge, fre-
quently rinsed in water. This is to get rid of every trace
of the old distemper. This is a most important process,
which cannot be too strongly insisted upon. Neglect in this
part of the work will result in a dirty or uneven appear-
ance in the finished ceiling. If only the loose portions are
removed, even the most skilful application of calcimine
cannot hide the patches. They will be either of a different
color or else will show the shade from a different level of
surface. Do not wet the surface more than necessary, and
frequently change the water as it gets dirty. Sometimes the
calcimine is especially difficult to get off on account of the
original coat having been bound down, as it is called, in-
stead of having been washed off before it was last calci-
mined, which is very often done for the sake of cheap-
ness. Liquid ammonia in a separate pail half full of
water will greatly assist when soaking bound distemper.
Avoid touching the wall-paper with the brush, but finish
the last inch or so of margin with the sponge or canvas.

When the surface of the ceiling has dried, any rough
patches there may be should be scraped or rubbed smooth.

If there are any cracks in the ceiling, run the point of
a small trowel along them, to clear out any loose bits; with
a sash-tool wet the parts of the ceiling where the cracks
are, and then, using a stopping-knife, fill them in with plas-
ter of Paris mixed with water in which a little alum has
been dissolved. A little whiting mixed with the plaster
will keep it from setting too quickly.

Or mix fine plaster of Paris with glue size, and fill up
holes and cracks, and when dry level with a knife or

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

coarse glass-paper. Whiting mixed with glue water is also
suitable. Use a square piece of wood to mix the cement
upon, and nail a handle to the other side.

-sw-

^^^

■"=— ^^

-- J

'%' ' 9

•

' A'

•

♦111

' --

■"^ •■

. 1

'^'^9

lllllllllllllllllhllilill

Fig. 6. Wall Brush.

If the cracks are bad, they should be cut out, the face
of the plaster on each side cut away for half an inch, and
the gap then finished to a level surface with plaster laid

CALCIMINING 27

on with a small trowel. A broad thin strip of wood with
a bevelled edge is very useful when stopping plaster walls,
for in trying to stop a crack or hole with a sharp steel
stopping knife, the surrounding face of the plaster may be
badly scratched, which is only seen when the job is finished.

Repairing should be done to new ceilings before the finish
is applied, and to old ceilings at the time they are washed
off, that is, when the old coating of dirty distemper is re-
moved with water and brushes.

If necessary, when dry, the ceiling can be rubbed quite
smooth with glass-paper,- and is then ready for re-calcimin-
ing, after which, if carefully done, the repaired cracks will
be invisible.

If there are stains in the ceiling that cannot be removed
by washing, the stain should be painted white, in flat color
or paint mixed with turpentine. If this has to be done, it
will be well to paint also the filling with which the cracks
have been stopped.

Finally, the ceiling should be rubbed down with a cloth
previous to applying the calcimine.

To prepare the calcimine, break into large pieces about
four balls of whiting, and put them into a pail, and just
cover the material with water, let it stand all night. In
the morning pour off all water that will run away, and
thoroughly mix the wet whiting by hand until it becomes
a thick even paste. Add about half an egg-cupful of dry
ultramarine blue, stirring it well in with the whiting. Next
put 2 pounds of patent size in a saucepan over the fire,
with only just sufficient water to keep it from burning,
and stirring it all the time, taking great care that it neither
boils nor burns. When it is thoroughly dissolved, pour it
on the whiting, and mix the whole well together. The
proportion of size is about one teacupful to two gallons of
the mixture. Now set it aside in a cool place until it
turns to a jelly. When it is quite cold, with a distemper
brush rub it through a coarse piece of canvas stretched

28 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAlNTINa

over the top of a clean pail, and it will then be ready for
use.

Before commencing the actual calcimining, lightly rub
over the whole of the ceiling with a piece of fine glass-
paper, to take off any little knots or brush-hairs left on
the finishing coat. Then dust the ceiling before proceeding
to whiten it.

In laying on the wash, a large flat brush should be em-
ployed, and if this is not over-charged a ceiling or wall
may, with a certain amount of care, be white or color-
washed with little or no splashing. The way to lay the
distemper on is not to take up too much in the brush,
and not to flick the brush at the end of each stroke, or you
will splash everything. "Work the brush in any direction,
but be sure that everj- part of the ceiling is covered with
the calcimine taking care to keep the edges of the patches
going, that is, do not let any edge get dry before coming
to it again. To do this, it is essential to have a scaffold
that is easily movable from one end of the room to the
other. The calcimining must be done very expeditiously, and
any ceiling over 14 feet square should not be attempted
single-handed without some previous practice.

Ceilings should always be calcimined by working away
from the light. Two men are required to do a good-sized
ceiling-flat; they should start at the window end, and, keep-
ing their work in one general line, spread the distemper
from the end as far towards the center as they can both
conveniently reach. The scaffold is then brought forward
and another shift covered, and so on until the whole ceiling
is finished. The solvent used for distemper work being
water, it will be seen that extreme heat or a draught of air,
such as will evaporate the water, is to be avoided during
the process, but so soon as a ceiling is completed, the ob-
ject is to dry it off as quickly as possible, and hence it is
well to open every door and window to create a draught.

Properly executed distempering should have a level, but

CALCIMINING

Fig. 7. Wall Brush.

30 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

not perfectly smooth, surface, which should show no joints
or coarse brush-markings, and should have a perfectly dead
appearance, be solid and uniform throughout, and should
not rub off by ordinai^y wear or leaning against.

Distemper of any kind should never be spread over old
or dirty stuff, these should be first washed off. An expect
will not flap his brush in working well-made distemper,
but will use the tip of the brush only, and make very little
noise. Calcimine or any distemper can be laid on in any
direction from the outer or working edge. Splashes result
from the use of watery wash and want of experience in
working'.

A distemper brush should be worn oft' a trifle before
being used to whiten a ceiling. The work of washing off
a ceiling- will be sufficient to wear down a new brush to a
fit condition. After the brush is done with, wash it out
thoroughly and lay it by, before attempting to use it, soak
it in water, or the hairs may fall out, through it being too
dry. This last caution applies to nearly all brushes used
in house decorating.

If there is a delicate ornamental cornice in the room
that cannot be got at with the ordinary distemper brush,
a smaller brush, called a distemper tool, is used both for
the washing off and whitening. In the whitening-, push
this brush up into the ornamented parts. It does not much
matter how the distemper is laid so long as it is put on
evenly, and all the surface covered.

There appears to be an idea that a new ceiling requires
some special treatment before it is calcimined, but this is
not so. Providing that the ceiling has been left by the
l>histerer in a proper condition, it is a more simple job
than wliitening an old one, on account of there being no
washing-off or making-good to do. The most ordinary cause
of failure is that the ceilings are not thoroughly dry before
the wliitewash is put on. If there is the least sign of sweat-
ing or moisture on the ceiling, it mav be taken to indicate

CALCiMiNma 31

that the ceiling is not dry, and if this is so, no amount of
care in making or putting on the calcimine will make the
ceiling white. Another cause of failure may be due to the
fact that some people do not consider it neeessaiy to finish
a new ceiling. This is also a mistake, for the finish stops
absorption, and if there is a little whiting in it, it helps
to cover, and, moreover, makes the distempering a much
easier job, as it prevents it dragging, and, to use a paint-
er's term, the distemper spreads like butter. The addition
of a little alum is also an improvement to the finish.

The following is a brief list of tints that are most usual-
ly required on ceilings and the method of producing them:

Cream. A variety of cream colors of different shades
and hues are produced by mixing ochre, which gives a yel-
lowish cast. A little umber or Venetian red may also be
added.

Gray. A nice effect is produced by a gray ceiling, espe-
cially when the walls are highly colored. Blue black is the
best for the purpose.

Green. Very light greens look very pretty, but if they
are too dark the effect is wholly spoiled. A variety of lime
greens are made suitable for mixing with lime, and a very
small quantity will be required. A touch of blue black may
also be added when a neutral green is required.

Pink. A little Venetian red gives a nice pink, but if
something more pronounced is required lake may be used.

Blue. A large variety of blue tints can be obtained by
using the color sold under the name of "lime blue." These
blues are really a variety of ultramarine.

Browns. Very light browns may be obtained by using
sienna or umber or a mixture of both.

Almost as great a variety of colors in distemper may be
obtained as in oil colors, but certain colors cannot be used
with whiting at all. The following is a list of them : Prus-
sian blue, Antwerp blue, Naples yellow, veimilion, lakes

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

and chrome yellows. White lead and red lead are also un-
suitable for the purpose.

For all ordinary distemper work one of the many sani-
tary distempers which are to be obtained in a wide range
of colors is recommended. They are sold in di'y form, and
require but the addition of water to* render them ready for
use.

The secret of success in applying distemper is to get as
much on the surface as possible without making a mess

Fig. 8. Wall Brush.

or splashing any of it on the walls and floor. The brush
must be used smoothh-, and not slapped against the work!
Dip fairly deeply and squeeze out some of the calcimine.
Then apply all around as far as the brush will reach. Be
very careful not to go over the work a second time. Dis-
temper is unlike oil paint. If it does not look satisfac-
tory when applied, the only thing to be done is to wash
off and commence again. It is usually necessary to have
a stick in the pail with which to occasionally stir up the
mixture.

CARRIAGE PAINTING.

After the body is completed by the wood-worker, the
painter gives it a thorough dusting inside and out, and pro-
ceeds to prime it. Pouring from the can a small quantity
of filler with an ordinary paint brush, perfectly clean, or
one kept for the purpose, and not used for paint, he coats
over a portion of the body, the back, or one side, taking
no great pains to spread it evenly, he may daub it on, then
immediately wipe over and rub in every part with rags.
This rubbing with rags spreads the priming evenly, and
forces it into the pores. Go on in this manner until the
whole is done, over wood and iron alike, leaving no surface
coat as of paint or varnish, the hand should scarcely be
soiled or greased if passed over a finished portion of the
work. The canvased parts inside, if any, may be painted
with slush paint, for they would absorb a great amount of
filler with no corresponding benefit. It cannot be too
strongly impressed upon the mind of the painter desiring
to make a successful use of the filler, that it must be put
on sparingly and be well wiped or rubbed into all parts of
the work, and that only one coat should be applied.

The body should now be set aside to dry, and forty-eight
hours should be given, unless the weather is favorable, when
the time may be shortened to 36, and even to 24 hours with-
out detriment. There will be a thin film covering the hard
parts of the wood, and the iron work, and the filler being-
composed principally of oil and a gummy or filling sub-
stance will have entered the pores and sealed them against
the entrance of dampness or the liquids from subsequent
coats of paint.

Priming the Wheels and Under Parts. When the wheels,
beds and bars are finished by the wheelwright, and before

34 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

the grain of the wood is i-aised by the atmosphere, a coat
of filler is put on every part in the same manner as the
body, wiping it well with rags, being careful to coat the
bottom of bars and tread of wheels, for this material is
a bar to all dampness, and will thus render the work more
durable. This preliminary coat is not properly the priming,
for it is put on to prevent the grain of the wood from ab-
sorbing oil and dirt from the smith's hands, and to prevent
the rims or felloes from swelling with the water used in
putting on the tires. When the ironing is completed, every
part of the wood is sandpapered and filed down until noth-
ing but clean wood and iron are seen, and eveiy trace of
filler is removed from the surface — for the preliminary coat
has fulfilled its mission.

The preparation of the gears at this stage is the main
operation, for if they are well done, but little labor re-
mains to be accomplished. The priming is now in ordei',
and going over every part with the filler in the same man-
ner as at first, this is soon ready for standing aside to dry.
The wood pores are sealed up, the surface of the wood has
a thin film covering it as also the ironwork, and a more
tenacious coating is not easily found. The time employed
so far upon the gears has been trifling, compared to the oid-
fashioned method of filling up with white lead and oil.

White Lead Priming. White lead, the base or founda-
tion, should be pure, but dealers have many means of adul-
terating it with sulphate of baryta, or barytes, gypsum, or
plaster of paris and carbonate of lime, or common chalk,
all of which are detrimental. Linseed oil, the purest raw
oil, should be used, but this is often adulterated with fish
oil or cotton-seed oil. The next requisite is pure black, in
order to form a gray or lead color. With these ingredi-
ents the priming is formed. The white lead is beat up with
the raw oil until of paint-like consistency, then a little of
the black is added to form a clean lead color. Some add
driers, such as brown japan or japan gold size, but many

CARRIAGE PAINTING

w'l.lliillJil.UiijIU

Fig. 9. Sash Brushes.

36 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

prefer to use none whatever. The priming thus made is
now spread on the wood, and the painter runs the job out
in the drying shed or other convenient place to dry. The
oil of the priming gradually leaves the pigments, white lead
and black, and seeks the interior of the Avood, sucked in,
as it were, by capillary attraction, and the pigments are
thus virtually strained and left upon the surface in a semi-
dry porous state, Avhile the oil that entered the wood, not
being a gummy or filling substance, stains the interior of
each little pore only. Next, a coat of white lead and oil
of similar consistency is put over it. The oil from this
coat is absorbed in by the porous pigments, through which
it passes and spreads itself over the stain which the first
coat gave to the pores, and the second coat pigments are
strained and left porous, so on until possibly five coats
of lead color are given, by which time the pores may have
become filled by the successive layers of oil, and the pig-
ment on the surface too, is finally cemented together or
partially so. This is called the foundation, and it was the
only known way to paint a carriage for many years.

Rough- Stuff. The leveling or rough-stuff coats consist
of a coarse mineral paint, designed to level down or fill up
all imperfections in the surface of the carriage body, such
as plane and file marks or brad holes.

The pigment is mixed with oil, japan varnish and tur-
pentine, and although the painter may have a good recipe
for this paint, and may mix it himself, he cannot rely
upon getting exactly the same amount of elasticity at one
time as at another time, if mixed in small quantities. There-
fore the ready-prepared paint, mixed from a formula, which
experience and careful tests have proved best, and mixed
in large quantities by weight and measure is bj' far the sur-
est and safest to use. The filler priming on the body being
dry, it only requires a good dusting when it is ready for
the rough-stuff. This for the first coat should have a very
little raw oil added to make it more in keeping with the

CARRIAGE PAINTING 37

elastic priming, and it must not be spread too thick, thick
coats are apt to show brush marks, and brush marks in
the rough-stuff will show in the finishing varnish. Put the
rough-stuff on smoothly and set the body away for 48 hours
to harden, or, if preferred, when 24 hours have passed the
largest holes may be puttied part full, then give the other
24 hours for drying.

The second, third and fourth coats of rough-stuff may
be put on one day apart, then a thin coat of stain, to guide
the workman while rubbing, some yellow ochre or other
cheap pigment mixed in japan and turpentine, may be add-
ed.

Rough-stuff will always give better satisfaction when
applied in a medium thin coat. It is entirely against com-
mon sense to plaster on a great mass of this paint, with
the desire to level the work quickly.

When the work of rubbing is completed, the body should
be washed clean, and well dried off with a chamois skin,
then set aside for the evaporation of moistuve from the por-
ous paint.

This drying out is of vital importance, and should never
be neglected.

Rough-stuff, providing it is good-rubbing rough-stuff, is
necessarily porous, no matter what pigment or vehicle is
used, and a portion of the water used in rubbing is absorbed
by it, therefore it is essential, after the moisture has all
been evaporated, that the pores be closed, in order that the
oil of subsequent coats may not be absorbed by them.

It is the aim in this system of painting to form a non-
absorptive surface, and it will be seen that if the filler
closed up the pores of the wood it will assuredly
close up the pores of the leveling paint, therefore, a coat-
ing is applied to the rubbed surface of paint in the same
manner as in priming the wood, wiping off all that will read-
ily leave the surface, thus rendering the paint elastic, yet

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

proof against the entrance of oil from all subsequent coats
of color or of varnish.

Coloring the Body. The filler put on over the rough-stuff
having been allowed from 24 to 48 hours for drying, the
coloring is now in order. The surface must not be disturbed
by sandpaper, but a simple dusting off may be necessary.
It is customary with some painters to lay on a ground coat
of some color corresponding with the color they intend to
make the job, but this is more to economize time in making
a solid job and to save expensive color, and with the ex-
ception of a few extra fine or transparent colors, which are
intensified or made more brilliant by application over par-

Fig. 10. stucco Wall Paint Brush.

ticular grounds, the color projier may bo laid directly on
the prepared surface.

For black, either lamp black or coach black may be used
for the first coat, having sufficieut oil in the mixture to
cause an egg-shell gloss, lay it on with a camel's hair brush
and give 12 hours for drying.

To better illustrate the painting of a body, take, for ex-
ample, a job to be painted a dark grccMi. w'licli is a standard
color and one of the most durable colors used in carriage
work, and can-y it through to the finish. The panels only
are to be put in color, the remainder to be black. The first
duty is to prepare a ground or ]ii-eparation coat, and the
following will be found a good foniiula :

To produce a dark green ground, mix lamp black and

CARRIAGE PAINTING 39

chrome yellow, with coach japan and tuxpentine to a proper
consistency for grinding in the mill, approximating as nearly
as possible the desired shade of green. When ground add
a tablespoonful of raw oil to a pint of paint, and when well
stirred together test its drying qualities by spreading a
little on the thumb-nail and blowing upon it to hasten
evaporation, if it dries dead add a few drops of oil or rub-
bing varnish, or if too glossy add turpentine until an egg-
shell gloss is obtained.

This ground work or preparation coat should be put on
with a camel 's-hair brush as smoothly as can be, allowing
no laps or brush marks to remain visible.

The black portions are next to be done, and this paint
may be mixed in the same manner as the green, of lamp
black or ivory black. When all is coated set the job aside
to dry until the next day, at which time it should be well
inspected and if any scratches or indentations are found,
soft dark putty must be used to fill them, then rub over
gently with No. 1 sandpaper, partly worn, to prepare it
for the color proper, dark green and ivory black. The dark
green may be made as follows:

Pulverize, on the stone, some Dutch pink, and mix it
with half and half japan gold size and turpentine and grind
it fine. Then mix in the same manner some Prussian blue
and grind it into another cup. Now, little by little, add the
blue to the Dutch pink, stirring it constantly, until the de-
sired shade of green is obtained, and temper the mixture
with raAv oil in the same manner as explained for the ground
coat. Apply with camel 's-hair brush. The back parts
may now receive another coat of ivory or drop black. If
ready-mixed colors are used, instead of mixing them as
above, take royal gi'een for the green parts, and jet black
for the black portions, tempering them as described with
oil.

It is the usual custom to make color-and-varnish by add-
ing to a partly filled cup of varnish a little color, but it

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

is considered best by some of the first-class painters to
grind the dry pigment directly in varnish, and thus over-
come the objection to the oil and turpentine in the color-
and-varnish. However, in the work in hand it is desired to
produce a rich or deep shade of green, and to carry out
the plan, the color is glazed, instead of putting on color-
and-varnish, in its ordinary mixture. Yellow lake possesses
the power, when used for a glazing over green, to increase
the intensity or depth of the color, and many handsome
shades are made in that way. It may be mixed as follows:

Pulverize the lumps and mix it in hard-drying body var-
nish, grind fine, then add a very little of the Dutch pink

Fig. 11. Painter's Duster.

color. Stir well and apply with badger-hair varnish
brushes.

The black parts are now ready for color-and-varnish and
as in the case of the panels, a first-class black is desired,
so, instead of using ordinary color-and-varnish, black japan
is used. Three coats of this well rubbed with pulverized
pumice between each coat, will give a good, jet-black surface
for finishing over.

The glazed panels having been rubbed lightly with pum-
ice-stone, and a coat of hard drying body varnish given, at
the time the black japan was applied, the whole is now
ready for a final rubbing down and finishing coat of wear-
ing body varnish.

The Gears. After 24 hours apply either a thin coat of

CARRIAGE PAINTING 41

lamp black color, or a thin lead color, the object of which
is to see the open grain and imperfection so that putty may
be used to plaster over and fill them. The surface of the
filler must not be rubbed, the paint should be applied as
smoothly as possible, for no great amount of sandpapering
is to be done. Putty all imperfections after the paint has
dried, which will be about 48 hours, for this first coat over
the filler should be a little more oily than is necessary in
any other coatings.

When the putty is dry, gently rub over with fine sandpa-
per, but do not cut through the paint. When done, dust off,
ai^ply the color and color-and-varriish, as usual, moss down,
give a second coat of eolor-and-varnish, rub this latter with
pumice-powder, wash off, stripe, and give a coat of clear
elastic leveling varnish, let dry, rub again and finish with
elastic gear varnish.

CHINA PAINTING.

Mediums. These are requisites, and upon the kind used
and upon their qualit}' depends, to an extent greater than
is generally supposed, the appearance of the finished work.
The mediums are, as their other general name of vehicles in-
dicates, the carriers of the paint, the means by which it may
be spread. The mediums in general use and which give every
satisfaction are of two kinds, a spirit and an oil, the latter
being the vehicle projDer, the former, the thinning agent to
render practicable the spreading of the mixed oil and paint
in a coat of any desired depth or thickness. The spirit and
the oil are both either of turpentine or of tar, spirit and
oi{ of turpentine being used together, and spirit and oil of
tar.

Turpentine. The ordinary turpentine of the house-painter
will answer the purpose, but it will be fount! best to pro-
cure rectified spirits of turpentine as sold by the druggist,
which is as clear as the proverbial crystal, and as limpid
as the purest water. The common turiDcntine may be used
for washing brushes. The oil of turpentine is also known
as fat oil. It is viscid, much of the consistency of golden
syrup, and has something of the color of clouded amber.
This may be purchased for a few cents a small bottle, but
it may be prepared from spirits of turpentine by any one,
thus: Into a flat saucer pour a little spirits of turpentine,
say a tablespoonful, according to the size of the saucer, and
over the saucer place a layer of muslin, sufliciently close
in texture to prevent dust getting to the turpentine, and yet
not so close as to prevent evaporation. The saucer with the
muslin drawn tight over it should now be put in a place
where evaporation will be free, but not over the fire or
stove so as to hasten evaporation, or the heat miglit dis-
sipate the whole. When the spirituous part of the liquid has

CHINA PAINTING

passed off there will be found left the oil at the bottom of
the saucer. Fresh spirit may be added, and the process re-
peated until there is enough oil to pour off.

Tar. The spirit of tar is in two shades, one a rich amber,
the other a dark brown, but both are alike in nature. The
oil of tar corresponds to it in the same way as the oil of
turpentine does to the spirit of turpentine. The spirits of
oil of tar are of similar use to the other spirit and oil, and
are employed principally by those who object to the vapor
of the turpentine as causing headache or affecting the throat.
The spirits of turpentine and of tar are extremely volatile,
the former being somewhat more so than the latter; and

Fig. 12. Painter's Flat Duster.

during the working, sufficient may pass off to render the
paint somewhat troublesome to deal with. This difficulty is,
however, only a slight one, and is easily overcome by the
use of a little

Oil of Lavender. Oil of spike, as it is sometimes called,
is a perfectly volatile and fluid oil, but very much less vo'a-
tile than either of the above mentioned spirits, and a small
quantity is added to the other mediums used when it is
desired to keep the work open, to counteract its drying or
fattening through loss of spirit.

The mediums should be kept in bottles with closely fit-
ting stoppers, especially the spirits, as otherwise these would
quickly become "fat" by evaporation.

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Paint. The colors used in painting upon china or earth-
enware are, for the most part, oxides of certain metals. A
few colors, however, such as the deep transparent blues, and
j'ellows from one source, are really, to a certain extent,
stained glass, the glass having more or less completely dis-
solved the coloring matter. China or enamel colors then,
from their containing, as an essential constituent, a glass
or flux of vitrifiable composition, are called vitrifiable pig-
ments.

The following list of colors in dry powder will serve all
purposes :

Black.

Soft.
Deep.

Blue.

Azure.

Old Tile.

Turquoise Outremer.

Schwartzenburgh.

Brown.
Austrian.
Brunswick.
Chestnut.
Chocolate.
Fawn.
German.
Golden.
Olive.
Sepia.
Vandyke.

Cannine.
Carmine.
Pink.
Rose Coral.

Gray.

Red.

Black.

Flesh.

Pearl.

White Shadow.

Ordinary.
Salmon.

Scarlet.

Green.

Celadon.

Silver.

Deep.

Prepared,

Dover.

Emerald.

Gordon.

Rose-leaf.

Sevres.

Violet.
Lilac.
Mauve.
Violet.

Orange.

White.
Hard.

Dark.
Light.
Opaque.

Medium.
Soft.

Strong Deep.

YeUow.

Buff.

Purple.

Ivory.

Ordinarj'.

Light.

Royal.

Opaque.

Ruby d'Or.

Persian.

CHINA PAINTING 45

Moist Oil-Colors. These, as well as moist water-colors
prepared expressly for this kind of painting, can be pur-
chased at any large paint dealer's store.

Having all the general requisites at hand we are ready
to begin work. Before, however, we bring out the brushes
and mix the colors, we must decide where the color is to
go when it is mixed. The first concern is .the design, and
this whether we intend to have a background or not. There-
fore, the first operations will be directed toward producing
the outline.

According to the method which may be adopted for
sketching the outline, there will be required a black lead
pencil, HB or B, lithographic crayon, a tracing point, trac-
ing paper, transfer paper, a pounce, Indian ink, rose pink,
or lamp black, and gummed paper or modelling wax.

Lithographic crayon may be made by mixing 32 parts
bees-wax, 4 parts purified tallow, 24 parts soap, 1 part
nitrate of potassium, dissolved in 8 parts water, 6 parts
lamp black.

The surface of the china having been thoroughly cleaned
by washing and dried, the design may be marked on by
either of the following plans : By marking with lithograph-
ic crayon, black lead pencil, pricked stencil pattern and
pounce-bag, copying or transfer paper. The design being
drawn on the ware proceed to mix the color with the
mediums. Different pigments require different proportions
of medium, and the same pigment requires varying propor-
tions, according to the end sought. It may be said gen-
erally that the ordinary blues, rose, and purple take most
fat and the yellows the least. More fat, again, is required
when it is desired to lay color flat, as in backgrounds, either
with the brush, or when the use of the dabber is contem-
plated, or to have the color flow to a very slight extent
as in delicate shading, or to lay a very thin tint.

Powder Color. In mixing powder color, the orthodox
direction is to lay a little powder on the slab, and add to

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

it just so much oil as will make it into a thick paste, to
be subsequently reduced to the requisite thinness by spirit.
The grinding is done on the slab with the muller, and when
ground to a thick cream consistency it is called prepared
color.

Moist Oil-Color. Those who adopt moist oil-color in
tubes will find that the color when fresh contains exactly
the right quantity of oil. The color only requires thinning
to be fit for use.

Moist Water-Colors. Require no grinding, simply dilu-
tion, but it must be remembered water-colors cannot be
used where the outlines are made with lithographic crayons,

Fig. 13. stucco Wall Paint Brush.

for these being greasy would grease the brush, and the wa-
ter-color instead of laying flat, would ridge and spot.

Firing. The ware being painted the next step is to make
the work imperishable by fire; this part of the pi'ocess need
not be done by the painter, for the maintenance to a nicety
of different definite degrees of heat in furnaces of special
adaptation are not to be found united except in factories
devoted to the business. If the painting has gone to the
kiln with too much oil in it, it is certain that the color will
blister. If it comes back with a dry powdery look, with

CHINA PAINTING 47

the color scarcely adhering, it shows that the color was
over-diluted with turpentine.

The remedy for dryness is simply repainting, using more
oil. The remedy for blistering is simply chipping off the
blisters, and then rubbing down the irregularities.

COLORS.

Blacks. Lamp black is the soot produced by burning oil,
resin, small coal, resinous woods, coal tar or tallow. It
is in the state of very fine powder, works smoothly, is of
a dense black color and durable, but dries very slowly in
oil.

Vegetable black is a better kind of lamp black made
from oil. It is very light, free from grit and of a good color.
It should be used with boiled oil, driers and a little var-
nish. Raw linseed oil or sj^irits of turpentine keeps it
from drying.

Ivory-black is obtained by calcining waste ivory in close
vessels and then grinding. It is intensely black when prop-
erly burned. Bone-black is inferior to ivory-black, and
prepared in a similar manner from bones. In Europe some
other blacks are used, but are seldom met with in this
country.

When camphor gum is burned and the soot collected by
means of a paper funnel or a saucer inverted over it, the
result mixed with gum-arabic will be found far superior to
the best ivoiy-black.

Black japan is a composition of asphaltum and oil, and
is a liquid of about the same consistency as varnish, of a
jet-black color, although of a brownish tint wlien applied
over a light color, or on tin or glass. While ordinary
blacks have a greenish hue when varnished, this article will
retain its jet color. It has no grains as a mixture of pig-
ment and varnish, and its flowing qualities are good. Many
err in supposing that it Avill cover at once, and thus take
the place of color, and furnish with two or three applica-
tions a perfect surface over any ground, but this is not the
case. It was never intended for such a purpose, it is

COLORS

semi-transparent, and when put upon a white ground pro-
duces a brownish tint or glaze.

Besides the black pigments described above, there are
several other substances known as Prussian black, black
lake and tannin black, which have been proposed as black
pigments, but their use is so limited that it is not neces-
sary to give a description of them.

Frankfort black is made of the lees of wine, from which
the tartar has been washed, by burning in the manner of
ivory black. Similar blacks are prepared from vine twigs
and tendrils which contain tartar, also from peach-stones,
etc., whence almond black and peach black, and the Indians
employ for the same purpose the shell of the cocoanut.

Fig. 14. Handled Roofing Brush.

Inferior Frankfort black is, in fact, merely the levigated
charcoal of woods, of which the hardest, such as box and
ebony, afford the best. Fine Frankfort black, though al-
most confined to copper-plate printers, is one of the best
black pigments we possess, being of a fine neutral color,
next in intensity to lamp black and more powerful than
that of ivory. Strong light has the effect of deepening its
color, yet the blacks employed in the printing of engrav-
ings have proved of very variable durability. It is prob-
able that this black was used by some of the Flemish paint-

50 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

ers, and that the pureness of the grays is attributable to
the propert}- of charred substances to prevent diseolonnent.

Blue black is a well-burnt and levigated charcoal, of a
cool neutral coloi*, and not differing in other respects fi'om
the common Frankfort black. Blue black was fonnerly
much employed in painting, and, in common with all car-
bonaceous blacks, has, when duly mixed with white, a pre-
serving influence upon that color in two respects, which it
owes chemically to the bleaching power of carbon, and chro-
matically to the neutralizing and contrasting power of black
with white. A superior blue black may be made by calcin-
ing Prussian blue in a close crucible, in the manner of ivoiy
black, and it has the important property of drying- well in
oil. Innumerable black pigments may be made in this way
by charring.

Vegetable black is a pigment now very extensivelj'^ em-
ployed, superseding to a great extent the use of lamp black,
to which it is in every way superior. The best way to
procure it is to buy it in a dry state, in which it resembles
soot, and is so exceedingly light that an ounce or two will
fill a gallon measure. It is free from gi'it, and only re-
quires to be rubbed up with a palette knife on a marble
slab, instead of grinding. It should never be diluted with
linseed oil, because, if it were, it would never dry, and it
is not advisable to employ turpentine, but always the best
boiled oil, and a little varnish will improve it. A small
quantity of driers should be added, to ensure its drying
with a uniformity of surface.

Blues. Prussian blue is made by mixing prussiate of
potash with a salt of iron. The prussiate of potash is ob-
tained by calcining and digesting old leather, blood, hoofs
or other animal matter with carbonate of potash and iron
filings. This color is much used, especiallj' for dark blues,
making purples and intensifying black. It dries well with
oil. Slight differences in the manufacture cause consider-
able variation in tint and color, which leads to the material

COLORS 51

being known bj^ different names, such d^ Antwerp blue,
Berlin blue, Harlem blue and Chinese blue. Indigo is pro-
duced by steeping certain plants in water and allowing them
to ferment. It is a transparent color, works well in oil or
water, but is not durable, especially when mixed with white
lead.

Ultramarine was originally made by grinding the valuable
mineral lapis lazuli. Genuine ultramarine so made is very
expensive, but artificial French or German ultramarines are
made of better color, and cheaply, by fusing and washing
and reheating a mixture of soda, silica, alum and sulphur.
This blue is chiefly used for coloring wall papers.

Cobalt blue is an oxide of cobalt made by roasting co-
balt ore. It makes a beautiful color and works well in
water or oil.

Smalt, Saxon blue and royal blue are colored by oxides
of cobalt.

There are a few other blues, such as celestial or Bruns-
wick blue, damp blue and verditer, that are chemical com-
pounds, compounds of alum, copper, lime and other sub-
stances.

Brunswick blue is essentially a mixture of Prussian blue
and barytes. It is prepared by thoroughly mixing barytes
with water, adding a solution of copperas, then a solution
of red or yellow prussiate of potash, stirring constantly so
as to ensure the thorough incorporation of the barytes with
the blue. After filtering, washing and drying, the blue is
ready for use.

As a pigment it is quite peraianent and resists exposure
to the air, light and most of the other influences which act
on pigments. It has the curious property of fading a little
on exposure to light and of recovering its original intensity
of color in the absence of light.

Prussian blue can be mixed with nearly all other pig-
ments without being affected or changed by them or affect-
ing them in any way.

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Indigo, or Indian blue, is a pigment manufactured in the
East and "West Indies from several plants, but principally
from the Anil, or Indigofera. It is of various qualities,
and has been long known and of great use in dyeing.

In painting it is not so bright as Prussian blue, but is
extremely powerful and transparent, hence it may be sub-
stituted for some of the uses of Prussian blue, as the lat-
ter now is for indigo.

It is of great body and works well both in water and oil.
Its relative permanence as a dye has obtained it a false
character of extreme durability in painting, a quality in
which it is verj- inferior even to Prussian blue.

Fig. 15. Roofing Brush.

Indigo is injured by impure air, and, in glazing, some
specimens are firmer than others, but not durable, in tint
with white lead they are all fugitive; when used, how-
ever, in considerable body in shadow it is more permanent,
but in all respects inferior to Prussian blue in painting.
Intense blue is indigo refined by solution and precijiitation,
in which state it is equal in color to Antwerp blue. By this
process indigo becomes more durable and much more power-
ful, transparent and deep. It washes and works admirably
in water; in other respects it has the common properties of
indigo.

COLORS 53

The indigo plant, in its general appearance, is not un-
Kke the lucerne of our fields. The seed is sown in drills,
about 18 inches apart, and soon makes its appearance above
the ground, when it requires incessant care to keep the
weeds down, which would otherv/ise soon choke so tender
a crojD. In about two months the plants begin to flower,
and are then cut down, but shoot up again and give two
or three more crops in the same year. Formerly indigo
was carefully dried after being cut, and even fire heat was
sometimes used for the purpose; but now, at least in India,
the practice is abandoned, and it is fovmd in every respect
better to use the plant whilst fresh and green. The first
process is to place in a shallow wooden vat as much as Avill
loosely cover the bottom of it; water is then let in so as
to cover the plants about three inches, and heavy wooden
frames are put on the top to prevent them from floating.
Being left in this state for from fifteen to twenty hours,
fermentation is set up, and much gas is disengaged, the
water becoming a light green color. The green liquor is
then run off into the second vat, which is placed below the
level of the first, in which, whilst the fermentation proc-
ess is being repeated upon a fresh supply in the first vat,
it is violently agitated by being beaten with poles; this
causes the grain, as it is called, to separate, and the green
matter suspended in the liquor becomes blue and granular,
and this change is promoted by the addition of a little lime-
water from time to time. When this operation is sufficiently
advanced the contents of the vat are allowed to settle, and
in a short time the now intensely blue granular matter has
sunk to the bottom, leaving the supernatant liquor almost
as clear as water; this is then run off nearly to the bottom,
and the sediment is run into the third vat, which is below
the level of the second; here it awaits several other addi-
tions from successive operations, and, a sufficient quantity
being accumulated in the third vat, it is suffered to subside
and when thoroughly settled the clear liquor is drawn off,

54 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

and the granular matter is removed and filled into coarse
bags, which are hung up to drain. When sufficiently
drained the blue paste is filled into very small boxes, about
three inches square, and set to dry in the sun, which soon
renders it fit for packing.

There are, of course, other blues, but the above will be
sufficient for all purposes, and the painter is urged not to
adopt others until he knows their qualities from actual trial,
and from having watched the effect which time and ex-
posure to atmospheric action have had upon them.

Browns. Browns generally owe their color to oxide of
iron. Raw umber is a clay similar to ochre colored by
oxide of iron. The best comes from Turkej'; it is verj' dur-
able both in water and in oil; does not injure other colors
when mixed with them.

Burnt Umber is the last mentioned material burnt to
give it a darker color. It is useful as a drier, and in mix-
ing with white lead to make a stone color.

Vandyke Brown is an earthy dark brown mineral; it is
durable both in oil and water, and is frequently employed
in graining.

Purple Brown is of a reddish-brown color. It should be
used with boiled oil and a little varnish and driers for out-
side work.

Burnt Sienna is produced by burning raw sienna. It is
the best color for shading gold.

Brown Pink is a vegetable color often of a greenish hue.
It works well in water and oil, but dries badly, and will not
keep its color when mixed with white lead. Spanish brown
and brown ochre are clays colored naturally by various
oxides.

Sepia is a brown pigment, of slightly varying hue, and
is obtained from various species of cephalopodous animals.
It is a blackish-brown pigment of a very fine texture, mix-
ing well with both oil and water. It is much used by ar-
tists, especially for monochrome work. It is a fairly per-

COLORS

Fig. 16. Kalsomlne Bruslj.

56 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

manent pigment, being but little affected by exposure to
light and air.

Manganese brown is an oxide of manganese, of a fine,
deep, semi-opaque brown, of a good body, and dries well
in oil. It is artificially prepared from the waste still-liquors
of the chlorine manufacturer by precipitating the liquors
with sodium carbonate, collecting the precipitate and cal-
cining in a furnace to a low red heat, until samples taken
out and allowed to cool show the desired shade. It is a
good and permanent pigment, but it is difficult to use on
account of its excessively strong drying properties.

Greens. These, of course, may be made by mixing blue
and yellow together, but such mixtures are less durable than
those produced direct from copper, arsenic, etc. The latter
are, however, objectionable for use in distemper or on wall
papers, as they are very injurious to health. Brunswick
green of the best kind is made by treating copper with sal-
ammoniac. Chalk, lead and alum are sometimes added.
It has rather a bluish tinge, dries well in oil, is durable,
and not poisonous. Common Brunswick green is made by
mixing chromate of lead and Prussian blue with sulphate
of baryta. It is not as durable as real Brunswick green.
Mineral green is made from bi-basic carbonate of copper;
it weathers well. Verdigris is acetate of copper. It fur-
nishes a bluish-gi-een color, durable in oil or varnish, but
not in water; it dries rapidly, but requires great care in
using owing to its poisonous qualities. Green verditer is a
carbonate of copper and lime; is not veiy durable. Prus-
sian gTeen is made by mixing different substances with
Prussian blue. There are a number of other greens made
from copper, but they ali possess in a greater or less de-
gree the same qualities as the foregoing. Emerald or
Paris green is made of verdigris mixed with a solution of
arsenious acid. It is of a very brilliant color, but is very
poisonous; is difficult to grind, .mikI drios badly in oil. It
should be purchased ready ground in oil, as in that case

COLORS 57

the poisonous particles do not fly about, and the difficulty
of grinding is avoided. Seheele's green and Vienna green
are also arseniates of copper, and highly poisonous.
Chrome green should be made from the oxide of chromium,
and is very durable. An inferior chrome green is made by
mixing chromate of lead and Prussian blue, as above men-
tioned, and is called Brunswick green. The chrome should
be free from acid or the color will fade; it may be tested
b}' placing it for several days in strong sunlight.

Bremen green is essentially copper hydrate, and forms
an extremely loose and pale blue mass, the color of which
has, however, a somewhat greenish tinge. When used as
a water color it gives a pale blue, but when employed as
an oil paint the original blue color turns green in 24 hours,
owing to the copper oxide combining with the fatty acids
of the oil to a green copper soap.

Reds. Carmine, made from the cochineal insect, is the
most brilliant red color known. It is, however, too expen-
sive for ordinary house painting and is not durable. It is
sometimes used for inside decoration.

Red lead is produced by raising massicot, which is the
commercial name for oxide of lead, to a high temperature,
short of fusion, during which it absorbs oxygen from the
air and is converted into red lead or minium, also an oxide
of lead. The color is lasting, and is unaffected by light
when it is pure and used alone, but any preparation con-
taining lead or acids mixed with it deprives it of color, and
impure air makes it black. It may be used for a drier, as
it possesses many of the properties of litharge; it is also
often employed in painting wrought iron work, to which
it adheres with a tenacity not equaled by any other paints;
it is sometimes objected to for this purpose, on the ground
that galvanic action is set up between the lead and iron.

Vermilion is a sulphide of mercury in a natural state as
cinnabar. The best comes from China. Artificial vermilion
is also made, both in China and in this country, from a

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

mixture of- sulphur and mercury. Genuine vermilion is
very durable, but when mixed with red lead, as it is some-
times, it will not stand the weather. It can be tested by
heating in a test tube; if genuine it will entirely volatilize,
German vermilion is the tersulphide of antimony, and is of
an orange-red color.

Indian red is a ground hematite ore brought from Ben-
gal; it is sometimes made artificially by calcining sulphate
of iron. The tints vary, but a rosy hue is considered l..e
best. It may be used with turpentine and a little varnisli
to produce a dull surface, drjdng rapidly, or with bulled
oil and a little drier to produce a glossy surface.

Fig. 17. Flat Knotted Badger Blender.

Tuscan red is essentially a mixture of Indian red with
some sort of lake color. The cheapest article is made from
a reduced Indian red and rose pink. The richness of such
article is very fleeting, particularly if the rose pink be sim-
ply whiting colored with a coal tar dye. It is apparent that
the real value of a Tuscan red lies in the permanency of
the lake coloring material employed to give it richness.

Orange is a chromate of lead, brighter than vermilion,
but less durable. Orange ochre is a bright yellow ochre
burnt to give it warmth of tint; it dries and works well in
water or oil, and is very durable. It is known also as Span-
ish ochre. Orang^e red is px'oduced by a further oxidation

COLORS 59

than is required for red lead. It is a brighter and better
color.

Chinese red and Persian red are chromates of lead, pro-
duced by boiling white lead with a solution of bichromate
of potash. The tint of Persian red is obtained by the em-
ployment of sulphuric acid.

Venetian red is obtained by heating sulphate of iron
produced as a waste product at tin and copper works. It
is often adulterated by mixing sulphate of lime with it
during the manufacture. When pure, it is called bright
red. Special tints of purple and brown are frequently re-
quired, which greatly enhance the value of the material.
These tints should be obtained in the process of manufac-
ture, and not produced by mixing together a variety of
different shades of color. When the tint desired is at-
tempted to be obtained by this latter course it is never so
good, and the materials produced ai'e known to the trade
as faced colors, and are of inferior value.

Venetian red originally consisted of a native ferric oxide
or red hematite. But of recent years the name appears to
have been transfen-ed to a particular quality of artificial
ferric oxide made by calcining green vitriol. When this
salt is heated in a crucible the upper portion of the prod-
uct, which has been less strongly heated than the lower, is
of a brighter red than the remainder, and after washing
and grinding is sold as Venetian red.

Rose pink is made of a sort of chalk or whiting stained
with a tincture of Brazil wood. It fades very quickly,
but is used for paper-hangings, common distemper and for
staining cheap furniture.

Lakes are made by precipitating colored vegetable tinc-
tures by means of alum and carbonate of potash. The
alumina combines with the organic coloring matter and
separates it from the solution. The tincture used varies
in the different descriptions of lake. The best, made from
cochineal or madder, is used for internal work. Drop lake

60 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

is made by dropping a mixture of Brazil wood through a
funnel onto a slab. The drops are dried and mixed into
a paste with gum water. It is sometimes called Brazil wood
lake. Scarlet lake is made from cochineal, so also are
Florentine lake, Hambui-g lake, Chinese lake, Roman lake,
Venetian lake and Carminated lake.

Whites. The most important gi'oup of painters' colors
are the white pigments. White is the basis of nearly all
opaque painting designed for the laying and covering of
grounds, whether they be of woodwork, metal, stone, plas-
ter or other substances. It should be as pure and neutral
in color as possible, for the better mixing and compounding
with other colors without changing their hues, while it
renders them of lighter shades, and of the tints required;
it also gives solid body to all colors. It is the most advanc-
ing color; that is, it comes forward and catches the eye be-
fore all other colors, and it assists in giving this quality to
other colors, with which it may be mixed, by rendering their
tints lighter and more vivid.

White is the nearest among colors in relation to yellow,
and is in itself a pleasing and cheerful color, which takes
every tint, hue and shade, and harmonizes with all other
colors, and is the contrast of black, added to which it gives
solidity in mixture, and a small quantity of black added
to white preserves it from its tendency to turn yellow.
The most important of the white pigments is
AVhite lead, which may be obtained either pure or mixed
with various substances, such as sulphate of baryta, sul-
phate of lead, whiting, chalk, zinc white, etc. These sub-
stances do not combine with oil as well as does white lead,
nor do they so well protect any surface to which they are
applied. Sulphate of baryta, the most common adulterant,
is a dense, heavy, white substance, very like white lead in
appearance. It absorbs very little oil, and may frequently
be detected by the gritty feeling it produces when the paint
is rubbed between the finger and thumb.

COLORS

Oxide of zinc, or zinc white, is durable in water or oil;
it dissolves in hydrochloric acid; it does not blacken in the
presence of sulphuretted hydrogen, and it is not injurious
to the men who make it, or to the painters who use it; but
on the other hand, it does not combine with oil well, and
is wanting in body and covering power, and is difficult to
work. It is easily acted upon by the carbonic acid in rain
water, which dissolves the oxide, and it therefore is unfit
for outside work. The acids contained in unseasoned wood
also have a great effect upon it. When pure and used for
inside work, it retains its color well, and will stand washing

Fig. 18. Camel's-Hair Lacquering Brushes.

for many years without losing any of its freshness. When
dry it becomes very hard, and will take a fine polish. This
paint is suitable for any place that is subjected to vapors
containing sulphur, or in places where foul air is emanated
from decaying animal matter.

The purity of white lead is ascertained by dissolving a
sample of it in pure dilute nitric acid, 1 part of acid to
two parts of water. On adding dilute sulphuric acid to the
solution, after diluting it with water and filtering off the
precipitate of lead sulphate thus obtained, no further pre-
•ipitate should be formed on successively adding ammonia,

62 CYCLOPEDL\ OF PAINTING

ammonium sulphide and ammoniuui oxalate to the filtrate.

The purity of zinc white in oil may be tested by buni-
intif out the oil by means of a blast lamp, on an iron spoon
or ladle. Take of the zinc white a piece al)out the size of
a pea, place it in the center of the spoon and dii'ect the
blast on it until it is burned white and perfectly dry. Crush
the white cinder which is left to a line powder and drop
this into a glass of diluted sulphuric acid, 1 part of acid
to 10 parts of water. If the powder be fine and very little
dropped in at a time, it will, if pure, dissolve completely
before reaching- the bottom and without effervescence. If
there be any effervescence it indicates the presence of whit-
ing, which will precipitate as sulphate of lime, which is,
however, sparingly soluble, barytes is insoluble, and a con-
siderable adulteration of terra alba is not readily soluble;
clay is insoluble.

Gypsum mixes well with either water or oil, and, being
neutral in its properties, it can be mixed with all other pig-
ments without affecting them or being affected by them.
It is used very largely by paper stainers and makers of
wall paper, who prefer it to barytes on account of its hav-
ing more body when used for that class of work. It is used
in finishing of cotton goods, in paper making, and for a
variety of other jDurposes where a cheap white pigment is
required.

Whiting is sold under a variety of names, such as Span-
ish white, Paris white, English white. Whiting is the car-
bonate of calcium, purified by washing. It is prepared by
grinding chalk under water to a very fine powder by pass-
ing it through several mills. The powder is run into tanks
in which the coarser and heavier particles settle, while the
liner chalk passes on to other tanks in which it settles. When
the settling tanks ai"e full, the chalk or whiting is dug out
and dried. When partially dry it is cut into masses of a
cubical shape and dried. When dry it is ground.

Paris white is a finer quality of whiting, but the grinding

COLORS 63

is more thoroughly done. Spanish white is a name given
to Paris white sold in a cylindrical form prepared by mould-
ing the wet material into that form, and allowing it to dry
in the open air.

Whiting is a dull white powder of an amorphous char-
acter, and soft to the feel. It is quite insoluble in pure
water, but is soluble in water containing carbonic acid gas.

Kaolin or China clay is essentially a hydrated silicate of
alumina. It is a natural product and only requires levi-
gating and drying to prepare it for use as a pigment. It
occurs in large deposits along with other constituents of
undecomjDosed granite, the china clay usually forming from
15 to 20 per cent of the whole deposit.

Kaolin is a fine, white amorphous powder, having slight
adhesive properties and adhering to the fingers when moist.
The best qualities have a very soft unctuous feel and a
pure white tint, while the common qualities are rather
rougher and of a more or less yellowish hue.

As a pigment kaolin is quite permanent, resisting expos-
ure to the atmosphere and to light for any length of time.
It is, however, not much used as a pigment. In oil it
loses its body and becomes more or less transparent. It
can be used in water colors and in distemper work with
good results, and is emjDloyed in paper-making and paper-
staining.

Yellows. Chrome yellows are chromates of lead, produced
by mixing dilute solutions of acetate or nitrate of lead and
bichromate of potash. This makes a medium tint known
as middle chrome. The addition of sulphate of lead makes
this paler, when it is known as lemon chrome, whereas the
addition of caustic lime makes an orange chrome of a
darker color. The chromes mix well with oil and with
white lead either in oil or water. They stand the sun well,
but like other lead salts, become dark in bad air. Chrome
yellow is frequently adulterated with gypsum.

Naples yellow is a salt of lead and antimony, supposed

CYCLOPEDIA OP PAlNTINdl

to have been originally made from a natural volcanic prod-
uct at Naples. It is not so brilliant as chrome, but has the
same characteristics. King's yellow is made from arsenic,
and is therefore a dangerous color to handle, or use for in-
ternal work. It is not durable, and it injures several other
colors when mixed with them. Chinese yellow, arsenic yel-
low and yellow orpiment are other names for this yellow.

Yellow ochre is a natural clay colored by oxide of iron,
and found abundantly in many parts of the world. It is
not very brilliant, but is well suited for distemper work,
as it is not affected by light or air. It does not lose its

Fig. 19. Round Badger Blender.

color when mixed with lime washes as many other colors do.
There are several varieties of ochres, all having the same
characteristics differing only in color which varies from a
golden to a dark brown.

All the hues and tints, from the palest lemon cadmium
to the orange red, are due to one compound only of cad-
mium, namely the sulphide, which contains 112 parts by
weight of cadmium to 32 parts of sulphur. As commonly
prepared cadmium yellow is of an orange hue; when this
compound separates slowly from a solution, or is made in
any way to take a dense or aggregated form, it becomes

COLORS 65

of a decided reddish orange. The orange-yellow variety,
when very finely ground, becomes less red and more in-
clined to yellow. Some of the jialest cadmium yellows con-
tain white pigments or flour of sulphur, added to reduce
their depth of color. Yellow cadmium is prepared in sev-
eral ways. A slightly acid solution of any cadmium salt is
prepared and through it is passed a current of sulphuretted
hydrogen gas. The product thus obtained has a pure
chrome yellow shade. A lemon yellow shade may be ob-
tained by dissolving 1 pound of cadmium sulphate in 4 gal-
lons of water and adding 1^4 gallons of the ordinary yel-
low ammonium , sulphide.

Cobalt yellow is a compound of the nitrates of cobalt and
potassium. It is prepared by precipitating cobalt nitrate
with sodium carbonate, dissolving the precipitate in acetic
acid and adding a strong solution of potassium nitrate. On
allowing the mixture to stand for some time the color is
gradually precipitated, and is collected, washed and dried,
when it is ready for use.

Cobalt yellow is a pure yellow color, and is almost trans-
parent whether used in water or oil painting.

Orange ochre also called Spanish ochre is a very bright
yellow ochre, burnt, by which operation it acquires warmth,
color, transparency and depth.

Mars orange is an artificial ochre similar to the above.
It is made by taking equal weights of ferrous sulphate and
alum, and adding a solution of cai'bonate of soda, thereby
precipitating the iron and alumina. The precipitate, which
forms a yellow pigment, the so-called Mars yellow, is col-
lected, washed well with water, dried and converted into
orange, by slightly calcining.

Oxford ochre is a native of the neighborhood of Oxford,
England ; it is semi-opaque, of a warm yellow color, and
of a soft argillaceous texture, absorbent of water and oil,
in both ©f which it may be used with safety, according to

66 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

the general character of yellow ochres, of which it is one
of the best.

Stone ochre has been confounded with the preceding,
which it frequently resembles, as does also Roman ochre.
True stone ochres are found in balls or globular masses of
various sizes in the solid body of stones lying near the sur-
face of rocks among the quai-ries in Gloucestershire, Eng-
land, and elsewhere. These balls are of a smooth compact
texture, in general free from grit, and of a powdery frac-
ture; they vary exceedingly in color, from yellow to brown
murrey and gray, but do not differ in other respects from
the preceding, and may be safely used in oil or water in
the several modes of painting. Varieties of ochreous colors
are produced by burning and compounding with lighter,
brighter and darker colors, but often very injuriously and
adversely to a certainty of operation, effect and durability.

Raw sienna is a ferruginous, or impregnated with iron,
native pigment, and appears to be an iron ore which may
be considered as a crude, natural yellow lake, firm in sub-
stance, of a glossy fracture, and very absorbent. It is
in many respects a valuable pigment, of rather an impure
yellow color, but has more body and transparency than
the ochres, and being little liable to change by the action
of either light, time, or impure air, it may be safely used,
according to its powers, either in oil or water, and in all
the modes of practice. By burning, it becomes more trans-
parent and drying, and changes color to a red brown. Raw
sienna is a valuable color in graining.

There are several pigments called yellow lake, varying
in color and appearance according to the coloring substances
used, and modes of preparation; they are usually in the
form of drops, and their colors are in general of a bright
yellow, very transparent, and not liable to change in an
impure atmosphere, qualities which would render them
very valuable pigments were they not soon discolored
and even destroyed by the opposite influences of oxygen

COLORS 67

and light, both in water and oil, in which latter vehicle,
like other lakes in general, they are bad dryers, and do not
stand the action of white lead or metallic colors. If used,
therefore, it should be as simple as possible.

COLOR HARMONY.

The most difficult subject with which the painter has to
deal is that of color harmony. In other words, how to use
different colors in decoration in such a manner as to pro-
duce a perfect harmony and a pleasing result. The sub-
ject is a difficult and comprehensive one, and it would be
impossible within the limits of this book to do justice to it
A few general hints, however, will no doubt be of service.

It should first be recognized that there are distinct rules
and laws regulating harmony in color. Just as some people
have an ear quick to recognize the slightest discord, so
some are fortunate enough to possess an inherent talent
for recognizing color haiTaony. It ie to be feared that while
the musical ear, so to speak, is fairly common, the ability
to harmonize colors is much rarer. Speaking generally,
ladies have more natural talent in matters concerning color
than men have. Possibly the reason is that they are called
upon more frequently to choose and determine upon matters
relating to color in connection with their dress. It is true
that if one is inclined to be satirical one might suggest that
some ladies, judging by the extraordinai-y combination of
colors they wear, must be color blind. It has been proved
by statistics that one person in ten is color blind, but this
does not mean wholly devoid of the ability to distinguish
one color from another, but simply that there are certain
colors which the person who is color blind cannot distin-
guish from others.

In almost everyday work the painter is called upon to
mix colors that shall harmonize, as, for instance, to paint
the woodwork of a room in colors that will harmonize with
the wallpaper.

COLOR HARMONY

Matching the Wallpaper. The simplest plan, and there-
fore the one which is usually followed, is to take the pre-
vailing color of the wall and to use this on the woodwork
and introducing other colors which may occur in the paper-
hanging as may be thought to be judicious. If the room is
a bed-chamber and the paper has a cream ground with a
floral pattern printed in green with a pink flower, the stiles
and rails of the doors might be painted a light green, the
panels cream, and the mouldings, or a portion of them,
pink. The same plan may be followed successfully with
many papers, but on the other hand much more pleasing

Fig. 20. Ox Hair Fresco Brushes.

and artistic results may often be obtained by using a dis-
tinct, but harmonizing contrast. A single example will
suffice. A striped wallpaper, printed in brilliant red, might
cause wonderment in the eyes of a novice as to how it
could possibly be used successfully in an ordinary room.
The excessive brilliancy might at first sight appear to be
certain to produce an effect too glaring to make a comfort-
able living-room. Yet such a paper used in a room very
soberly furnished say, with old dark oak, ebony or black
walnut, would look very handsome, or in a more modern
room tlie doors, skirting, in fact the whole of the wood-

70 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

work, might be finished in white enamel, and the effect
would also be very g'ood.

Contrasting Harmonies. From this single example it can
readily be seen that contrasting colors often give the
very best results. A Avail painted green may look very
monotonous, but if a frieze, having some bright red used
liberally in it, is used in conjunction there will be a vast
difference in the ajipearance of the apartment.

RED.

A Red Wall. Red may graduate from Indian red to
Avhat would i^ractieally be a warm gray. Any color going
with a selected tone or tint needs to be modified so as to
harmonize with it. If a wall has a paper colored in light
red and gold, and it is desirable that the woodwork should
be red too, it must differ from the color of the wall in tone
and in intensity.

A Crimson Wall may have amber woodwork with cream
colored mouldings, or they maj' be heliotrojie for contrast.

A Scarlet Wall may have light snuff brown, or a sage
green, for the woodwork, with yellow green mouldings, or
they may be white.

A Yellow Red Wall, in which scarlet has been tempered
Avith an excess of chrome, will bear a raAV .umber tone of
brown for the Avoodwork, with ivory or white mouldings.

A Pink Toned Wall. With this the Avoodwork may be a
yelloAvish green, Avith or Avithout straw colored mouldings,
or two shades of citrine, with pearl gray for contrast in
the mouldings.

For a Dark Red, inclining to purple, the AvoodAvork may
be a sage or myrtle green, Avith amber mouldings.

A Poppy Red. Gray green, lavender and black may be
used for this.

All warm tones and shades of green or gray may be used
with red, provided they get their hues by contrast Avith
the red. Any blue associated wi1li red must be slaty or

COLOR HARMONY 71

piu-ple in tone. If the color of a wallpaper is heliotrope,
inclined to red, the woodwork m?y be cream. If the helio-
trope inclines to yellow, straw color should be adopted.

BLUE.

A Blue Wall of a Purple Tone. With this yellowish
orange, amber, salmon pink or terra cotta will harmonize
according to the value of the wall color.

A Peacock Tone or Blue Wall. This calls for orange
red, deep amber, warm brown, cool brown, or both.

A Sapphire Blue Wall. Chocolate woodwork in two
tones, with amber mouldings. Pearl gray and cream will go
with this color,

A Wall of an Ultramarine Tone. Light warm gray and
cool yellow brown go happily Avith this.

A Neutral Blue Wall will unite with citron and choco-
late, or a warm gray green, or a blue green gray and sal-
mon.

A Slate Colored Wall of a Blue Tone. For this there is
plum color and lavender, i^uee and orange to choose from.

YELLOW.

This color ranges from a rich sienna to a lemon tone,
from citrine to a cream

A Yellow Wall. Plum coloi% slate, brown or citrine may
be used with this.

A Gold Colored Wall. The woodwork may be in two
tones of lavender, with citrine mouldings.

An Orange Colored Wall. The color for the wood may be
purple tone of red, with maroon mouldings, or if light
mouldings be required, citrine would serve.

A Canary Colored Wall. Vellum color, with deep ivory
mouldings, may be adopted for the woodwork.

A Deep Terra Cotta WaU. A selection from buff, sage
green, Indian red, vermilion, white and black either or any.
may be selected, the strong colors in the small parts.

CTCLOPEDLV OF P.UNTINa

Fig. 21. Fresco Bristle Brushes.

COLOR HARMONY 73

A Primrose Tone of Wall. Tones of snuff orown, me-
ilinin yellow green, and lavender may be selected.

A Neutral or Drab Wall. Shades of olive green, Vene-
tian red, and lilac go well together.

BROWN.

This color is perhaps the best wearing color for wood-
work. There are infinite tints and shades, from sober to
rich, from cool to warm. Blue agrees especially with brown.

Deep brown, light bine, and gold go well together.

Light Purple Tone of Brown Wall. The woodwork may
be yellow red, with cream mouldings.

A Brown Ingrain Wall. The woodwork may be in t\^o
tones, made from indigo blue, with amber mouldings.

A Gold Colored Brown Wall would unite with woodwork
of a red tone of purple, with plima colored mouldings, or a
warm gray may be used.

Burnt Sienna Brown Tone of Wall. With this, salmon
and myrtle harmonize.

GREEN.

This color, so extensive in nature, will agree with all
colors, provided they are toned to suit each other, warm
or cold, neutral or bright.

An Olive Green Wall will agree with maroon woodwork
with a crimson lake, straw or pink tone for the mouldings.

A Medium Green Colored Wall. If two tones of red,
a crimson tone and a yellow tone be adopted, the mould-
ings, if desired, may be a salmon buff.

A Gray Green Wall may have a primrose tone of wood-
work, with a scarlet tone for mouldings.

A Moss Green Tone of Wall will associate well with
citrine woodwork, and salmon colored panels or mouldings.

A Pea or Leaf Green Wall goes well with a chocolate
and a lavender.

74 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

GRAY.

This neutral color agrees with and helps every other
color.

A Warm Gray Wall. With this the woodwork may well
be a tawny leather color, with either buff or cream in
the mouldings. A quiet red would also suit.

A Silver Gray Wall sympathizes with a salmon color, as
well as with a deep blue. Should there be blue and red
in the pattern on the paper, the styles of the woodwork
could then be a delicate raw umber tone of broAvn. The
mouldings the same brown, with burnt sienna added to it.
The panel may be a cameo pink. A snuff colored brown
would also do well.

A Drab Tone of Wall, having an ornament upon it, low
in tone, a citrine for instance, would need some force in
the woodwork. A rich burnt sienna brown suggests itself
for this, with a reddish brown for the mouldings.

These schemes of color can be reversed. Should the
general tone of the wallpaper be that tone suggested here
for the woodAvork, it takes then the color of the paper.

Color Combinations. The following list is based upon
Chevreul, Briicke, Rood and other experimenter's:

Normal red Avith violet Bad.

" blue Excellent.

" blue green Good, but strong.

" green Good, but hard.

" green yellow Fair.

' * yelloAV Unpleasing.

Scarlet Avith violet Bad.

' ' turquoise Good.

" blue Good.

'* yellow Unpleasing.

COLOR HARMONY

Orange red with violet Good.

" purple Fair.

' ' blue Excellent.

" turquoise Good.

' ' blue green Unpleasing.

' ' yellow green Fair.

Orange Avith purple Bad.

' ' violet Good.

' ' blue Good, but strong.

" turquoise Good.

" blue green Good.

" green Fair.

Orange yellow with purple Good.

" violet Excellent.

" blue Good.

' ' turquoise Fair.

" blue green Moderate,

' ' green Bad.

Yellow with violet Excellent.

purple Good.

normal red Poor.

turquoise Moderate.

blue green Bad.

green Bad.

Greenish yellow with purple Good.

" violet Excellent.

" scarlet Strong and hard.

" orange red Fair.

" turquoise Bad.

" normal blue Good.

Yellowish green with normal red Good, but hard.

" purple Difficult.

" blue green Bad.

" blue Good.

7o CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Normal gTeen with i)urple Strong, but hard.

" scarlet Difficult.

' * orange red Hard.

'* turquoise Bad.

Blue green with purple Fair.

" violet Good.

" blue Bad.

*' green Bad.

*' yellowish green Bad.

*' turquoise Bad.

COLOR MIXING.

The following compound colors or tints can be made by
mixing the colors as given herewith. The exact shades re-
quired can be made to suit by the exercise of a little judg-
ment in proportioning the colors.

BLUES.

When it is desired to tone a blue down, a little burnt
sienna and white should be added.

Fig. 22. Angular Bristle Fresco Blushes.

Antwerp Blue. This color should always be bought i-eady
made. If necessary to imitate it, mix one part of bright
green with two parts of ulti'amarine, add a very little zinc
or other white, but not lead. Brunswick blue is frequently
used in the place of Antwerp blue.

Azure Blue. One part of ultramarine blue and forty

78 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

parts of zinc white. Another shade may be obtained by
mixing forty-four parts of white, twenty-nine of green and
twenty-seven of blue. Or celestial blue and a little red
on a base of white will give an azure shade.

Berlin Blue. This is another name for Prussian blue.

Blue Grass Tint. One part of Prussian blue, three parts
of emerald gi'een, seven parts of white lead.

Bremen Blue. This is a color to be bought only ready
made. It is not much used, and is not suitable for an oil
color.

Bronze Blue. A dark blue color, which may be made by
mixing three parts of black with one of Prussian blue.

Brunswick Blue. This is sold ready made, but can be
imitated by adding white lead to Prussian blue in sufiicient
quantity' to obtain the desired tint.

Coeruleum. This is an artist's color of a light and some-
what greenish blue tone. An imitation may be made from
ultramarine and white, with a little yellow, although the
color is a difficult one to imitate successfully.

Celestial Blue. About equal parts of Prussian blue,
chi'ome g-reen and white lead will give this color, but there
should be most white, and the tint should be more blue than
green.

Chinese Blue. Another name for Prussian blue.

Cobalt. This color is one of the best artist's colors, and
cannot be successfully imitated. It is a beautiful and most
useful color, but unfortunately it is expensive, and it is
therefore used only in the finest w'ork.

Dark Blue. Obviously this is no definite color. Manufac-
turers often use one part of white, two of chrome green,
and seven of Prussian blue. But ultramarine, or indeed
any blue, may be used, and this may be first lightened with
white, and black added as may be desired.

Fog Blue. Equal parts of burnt sieinia and Prussian
blue, lightened up with about twenty parts of white lead.

French Blue. Mix four parts of while, one of green, and

COLOR MIXING 79

four of ultramarine blue. The name is also applied to the
best quality of artificial ultramarine.

Grobelin Blue. Mix together four parts of ivory black,
two of white, one of chrome green, and three of Prussian
blue.

Granite Blue. To produce this shade mix two parts of
black with six of white and one of ultramarine blue.

Heliotrope. This color is obtained by using two parts
of zinc white, three of bright red, and four of ultramarine
blue.

Implement Blue. This is made simi:>ly by mixing ultra-
marine with white. Barytes and zinc mixed are frequently
used for the white, as lead cannot be employed in the pres-
ence of ultramarine.

Indigo. This dark blue is a natural vegetable pigment.
An imitation may be produced by using nine parts of black
and four of Prussian blue, but this will not look like the
real thing. Indigo should not be mixed with lead or lead
chromates. It is a very useful color and deserves to be
used to a much greater extent than it is at present.

Lavender. Three parts of ultramarine blue and one part
of carmine, added to zinc as a base, give a very good laven-
der tint for inside work. Ivory black mixed with a little
carmine and ultramarine and added to white lead may be
employed for outside work.

Light Blue. This is simply an ultramarine blue tint
jiioduced by the addition of zinc white, or the color may be
obtained by tinting Avhite lead with Prussian blue.

Lime Blue. This is a color much used formerly for mix-
ing distemper, but artificial ultramarine has to a great ex-
tent supplanted it. It must not be used in oil. The color
usually sold for lime blue is a variety of ultramarine.

Marine Blue. A very dark blue, which is obtained by
mixing one part of laltramarine blue with nine of ivory
black.

Mascot. This is a very dark blue shade, which is got

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

by mixing black and blue in the proportion of seven parts
of the former to one of the latter with a very little green.

Mauve. Four parts of cobalt, twelve parts of oxide of
zinc, and one part of carmine lake give an excellent mauve,
or the color may be obtained by mixing j-ellow ochre, blue
black, and Venetian red with a little white lead. Another
shade is obtained with blue, red and white mixed in the fol-
lowing proportions: blue three parts; white, two parts; red,
one part. Or white may be tinted with ivory black, carmine
and ultramarine.

Fig. 2.".. (\iiiul Hair Striping Pencils.

Methyl Blue. Mix green with twelve times its (luantity
of blue and a touch of red.

Mountain Blue. One part of ivory black, two parts of
rose madder, three parts of cobalt blue, and four parts of
white lead. This color is only intended for artists' use.

Navy Blue. Ivoiy or drop black mixed with one-fourth
the quantity of blue will give this shade.

Neutral Blue. A series of neutral blues may be made
by tinting white lead with Prussian blue and adding burnt
umber, the quantity of blue and umber being varied accord-
ing to the tint required. Good neutral l)lues may also be
madfl by tinting white with raw umber and a Little Prussian

COLOR MIXING 81

blue. Add either a little burnt sienna if a warm neutral
is requii'ed, or a little black if one cool in appeajrance is de-
sired.

Nile Blue. Mix a little white with Prussian blue and
chrome green, using- rather less of the latter than the
foi-mer. The result is a pale greenish blue.

Normandy Blue. To get this greenish blue shade mix
green and blue in about equal proportions with white.

Oriental Blue. One part of lemon chrome yellow, two
parts of Prussian blue and twenty parts of white lead.

Peacock Blue. This color is one upon which opinion
varies considerably. A splendid color is made by taking
cobalt as a base and adding a little white and a little
Chinese blue.

Perfect Blue. Some manufacturers produce this beau-
tifully rich color. It is very like cobalt, but slightly darker.

Pompeian Blue. This is made h\ tinting white Avith
ultramarine and adding a little vermilion and Italian ochre.

Porcelain Blue. To get this shade mix one part of zinc
white and chrome green with four parts of ultramarine blue
and a touch of black.

Prussian Blue. This color is certainly the most import-
ant blue the painter has. It cannot be imitated. It works
well in both water and oil, and is transparent. It is very
strong and care must be exercised in using it lest too great
a ciuantitj' is added to a batch of paint, which might be
spoilt in consequence.

Quaker Blue. Add a little black to Prussian blue, and
lighten up vv'ith Avhite.

Robin's Egg Blue. Use white for base, tint with ultra-
marine until a fairly strong blue is obtained, and then tinge
with a little lemon' chrome green.

Royal Blue. This is made by adding a little white to
Prussian blue with a touch of crimson lake. Some manu-
facturei"s make -a very rich blue, which they sell under the
name of Royal blue.

82 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Sapphire Blue. One part of Chinese blue mixed with
double the quantity of oxide of zinc. This should not be
used for outside work.

Sea Blue. Two parts of Prussian blue, three parts of
raw sienna, thirty parts white.

Sky Blue. One part of Prussian blue added to one hun-
dred and twenty parts of white lead give a sky blue, but
some prefer cobalt, and this is for many purposes doubt-
less the best. Still another method of obtaining sky blue
is to tint white lead with a little lime blue, adding a very
little middle chrome, but the latter is more suitable for a
distemper color than it is for an oil paint, as lime blue
is not very lasting in oil.

Steel Blue. Zinc white tinted with lime blue gives this
color for distemper.

Stone Blue. One part of raw umber, twice the quantity
of Prussian blue on a base of white lead will give this color.

Transparent Violet. Mix together four parts of ultra-
marine blue and one part of crimson lake. This is suitable
only for artists' use.

Turquoise Blue. Two parts of cobalt blue, one part of
emerald green, twelve parts of white lead.

Ultramarine. This is one of the chief blues used by
painters, and must be bought ready made. It cannot be
imitated, but it can be bought in many different qualities.
It must not be mixed with chromes or white lead, as it con-
tains sulphur.

BROWNS.

The painter will probably be surprised at finding the
number of browns obtainable.

Acorn Brown. This is very similar to a rich chocolate,
and may be made in the same way.

Alderney. This is an orange brown in hue, and may be
made by mixing fourteen parts of black, one of white, two
of orange and three of yellow.

COLOR MIXING

Arabian Brown. This is a dark terra-cotta, and may be
made by adding white and black to Indian red.

Argus Brown. This is a very dark brown, and may be
made by mixing twelve parts of black with two parts of
orange and one part of yellow.

Auburn Tan. Mix together one part of burnt umber, three
parts of golden ochre and twenty parts of white lead.

Fig. 24. Camel Hair Pencils.

Autumn Leaf. This is also called leather lake. It may
be made by mixing on a base of white lead, French ochre,
orange chrome yellow and Venetian red.

Bismark. A shade of this name may be produced by using
two parts of black, one of red and one of orange, which
mixed together fonn an orange brown.

Bismark Brown. This color is obtained by mixing with
six parts of black, one part of orange and one of yellow,

84 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Bistre. This color is principally used by artists. It must
not be mixed with oil, and it is not always reliable for its
permanency. It may be imitated by mixing together ten
parts of black with two of red and a little green.

Bronze Brown. Black colored with a little orange chrome
and bright green.

Brown. The methods of obtaining different browns will
be found under the headings of the respective names, such
as Chestnut, etc. A good average brown may be obtained
by mixing together three of Indian red, two joarts of lamp
black and one part of 3'ellow ochre. A lighter color is ob-
tained by using more ochre and less black, in fact, a large
variety of brown tints may be produced by varjdng the pro-
portions of ochre and black.

Burnt Rose. This is a dark red brown shade. To produce
it use eight parts of black, one and half parts of red, two
parts of orange, and one of blue.

Burnt Sienna. This is a sienna calcined, the effect being
to produce a darker shade.

Burnt Umber. This is a rich dark greenish brown, but the
shade varies considerably in different qualities. Turkey
umber is the richest. Umbers should always be purchased
ground ready for use.

Cafe au Lait. To produce this shade mix five parts of
black, three of white, one of yellow and a little orange. A
little red may also be added if desired.

Cappagh Brown. This is an artist's color of a reddish
brown color, being very like umber.

Chestnut. This rich brown may be obtained by mixing
four parts of medium chrome yellow and two parts of Vene-
tian red. One part of yellow ochre maj' be added if desired.

Chocolate. Five parts of burnt sienna and one part of
carmine or lake give a rich chocolate. A less expensive
color is obtained by mixing Indian red and lamp black with
a little yellow ochre. A touch of vermilion will clear and
brighten this mixture. Another way to produce chocolate

COLOR MIXING 85

is to mix twenty, parts of black with three parts of red, but
this gives a more or less muddy shade.

Cinnamon. Six parts white lead, two pai'ts burnt sienna,
and one part of golden ochi'e make a good cinnamon, or
French ochre, English Indian red and a little lamp black
will produce the same color. Another way is to mix Italian
sienna and burnt umber.

Clay Drab. Mix equal parts of white lead, raw umber
and raw sienna, and add a little chrome if desired. Some
painters prefer to add a little medium chrome yellow.

Cocoanut Brown. This shade may be obtained by mix-
ing one part of white lead with double the quantity of burnt
umber.

Coffee. To produce this color mix together five parts
of burnt umber, two parts of yellow ochre and one part of
burnt sienna.

Copper. Tint zinc white with French ochre, Italian sienna
and lamp black. A very good copper shade is obtained by
mixing two parts of medium chrome yellow, one part of
Venetian red, and one part of drop black or two pai'ts of
lamp black, three parts of medium chrome yellow and six
parts of Venetian red.

Cork Color. Tint white lead with French ochre, Indian
red and a little lamp black, or with raw Italian sienna and
burnt umber.

Dark Drab. French gray, Indian red and lamp black
added to white lead give this color.

Dark Lava. Mix French ochre, Indian red and lamp
black, and lighten with white lead.

Dark Oak. Add French ochre and Venetian red to white
lead as a base.

Doe Color. This may be produced by mixing raw Italian
sienna and burnt umber with white lead, or French ochre
and mineral brown with a little lamp black.

Dove Color. White lead, with a little Prussian blue and a
touch of ivory black will produce an excellent dove color,

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

but French ochre, Indian red, and lamp black may be em-
ployed, or a mixture of raw and burnt Turkey umber and
Italian sienna.

Drab. A good drab is made by using burnt umber and
white lead in the proportion of one of the former to ten
of the latter, but raw umber and a little Venetian red may
be used instead.

Fig. 25. Red Sable Brushes.

Fawn. This might also be called deep drab. It is pro-
duced b}' tinting white lead with a mixture of French ochre,
Indian red and lamp black, or raw Italian sienna and raw
Turkey umber. Another shade of fawn is obtained by using
eight parts of white lead, one part of chrome yellow, one
part of Indian red, and one part of burnt umber, or eight
parts of white lead, two parts of medium chrome yellow, one
part Venetian red, and one part of biu'nt umber.

COLOR MIXING 87

Fawn, Light. Tint white with sienna and a touch of raw
umber.

Foliage Brown. Mix burnt umber with raw and burnt
sienna and lif^hten with white as may be necessary.

French Ochre. This color, of course, is sold ready made,
and it must be observed that, in addition to the fineness,
the particular tone of this color is very important, especially
to grainers.

Grolden Brown. Sixteen parts of white lead are mixed
with one of burnt sienna and three parts of yellow ochre.

Indian Brown. Mix equal parts of Indian red, lamp black
and yellow ochre.

Lava. An orange brown lava shade can be had by mixing
fifteen parts of black, five parts of orange, four of yellow
and a very little white.

Leather Brown. Four parts of yellow ochre, three parts
of Venetian red, two parts of white lead, and one part of
blue black give a rich leather brown. If a lighter tint is
required less black should be used. Or the following recipe
may be used : mix white with three times the quantity of
red and the same amount of yellow. Some painters use
French ochre for a base and tint with burnt umber or Vene-
tian red.

Light Lava. A mixture of raw umber and raw sienna
added to white will give this color.

Light Oak. Add French ochre and Venetian red to white
as a base.

Lizard Bronze. Fifteen parts of black, one of oi'ange,
live of yellow, and four of green will produce this dark
greenish yellow shade.

Madder G-reen. A reddish brown madder shade is pro-
duced with one part blue, three parts each of orange and
red, and six parts black.

Mahogany. Mix orange and yellow in equal proportions
with five times the quantity of black.

Mast Colored Paint. The following recipe gives good

88 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

results. Mix twelve parts of genuine dry white lead with
two parts of French ochre, two parts of gray bai-ytes, and
o«e part of genuine oxide of iron.

Nut Brown. Equal quantities of red and j^ellow mixed
with ten times as much black will give this shade.

Old Wood. To get this shade mix one part of blue and
red, two of orange and five of black.

Olive Brown may be made by mixing three parts of burnt
umber and one part of lemon chrome yellow; or another
shade is given by mixing equal quantities of orange and
green with about twelve times as much black. Some paint-
ers add lemon chrome yellow to raw umber for a base.

Orange Brown. Two parts of orange chrome yellow mixed
with three parts sienna.

Pomegranate. A golden brown shade sometimes called
by this name is given by mixing three parts of red, six of
orange, four of yellow with twenty parts of black.

Purple Brown. Mix four parts of dark Indian red with
one part of ultramarine blue and of lamp black. The addi-
tion of white lead will usuall^^ make a more satisfactory
tint, if the shade is too purple, a similar quantity of blue
should be added, if too red, more black may be used, or a
little j-ellow added, but purple brown pigment is cheap.

Raw Sienna. Siennas are valuable earth colors most use-
ful for staining or tinting, but jDractically useless as body
colors. The degree of transparency determines to some ex-
tent the quality.

Raw Umber. A valuable earth color.

Russet Brown. Indian red lightened with white produces
a tint sometimes called by this name.

Russet. A very good russet shade is got by mixing twen-
tj^ parts of black, twelve of red, ten' of orange, three of yel-
low, and five of green. Oi' medium chrome green, raw umber,
and a little orange chrome yellow added to white as a base
will give an excellent russet.

COLOR MIXING

Sandstone. A tinting color made by mixing raw and
burnt umber will produce this color.

Fig. 26. Plat Bristle Fitches.

Seal Brown. Four parts burnt umber, one part golden
ocbre.

90 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Sepia. This is a natural color used chiefly by artists. It
cannot be imitated and it must not be used in oil.

Sienna Brown. The color is variously called sienna brown,
teak brown, and other names. It is made by mixing burnt
Italian sienna and French ochre with pure zinc.

Snuff Brown. French ochre and Indian red added to
zinc white will produce this coloi-. Another way to pro-
duce a snuff color is to mix four parts of medium yellow
and two parts of Vandyke brown, or burnt umber may be
substituted for the Vandyke brown if desired. Another
snuff color may be obtained by mixing burnt umber and yel-
low ochre, tinging with a little Venetian red.

Tan. Mix ten parts of burnt sienna and four parts of
medium chrome yellow with three parts of raw umber.
White lead and burnt sienna, to which has been added a
very little lamp black, will also produce a tan color. A
very rich tan color may be made from ochre, burnt Turkey
umber and a little orange chrome with white lead.

Thrush Brown. One part yellow ochre, three parts burnt
umber, twelve parts white lead.

Vandyke Brown. This is an important brown to the
house painter. It cannot be imitated, although a little red
added to umber produces a color somewhat similar to it.

Vienna Smoke. The best burnt umber should be tinted
with lemon olirome yellow and a little Venetian red.

Wallflower Brown. This beautiful brown may be made
by a mixture of medium chrome jellow and brown lake. Or
crimson lake and burnt sienna may be mixed with medium
chrome.

GRAYS.

Argent. A reddish gray tint, which can be produced by
mixing together nine parts of black, sixteen of white, one
of red and a little orange.

Ash Gray. Lamp black and a little French ochre added
to white lead give this color. Another mixture is as fol-

COLOR MIXING 91

lows: two parts of burnt sienna, three parts of light ultra-
marine blue, sixty party of zinc white.

Black Slate. Mix togetlier black and Prussian blue in the
l)roportion of about thirteen parts of the former to one of
the latter and add a little white.

Dark G-ray. Mix eight parts of black, one of white and a
touch of red or blue to produce this shade; but practically
any admixture of black and white in which the former pre-
dominates and to which has been added a little color will
give a dai'k gray.

Dark Lead. This is a dark gray, being produced simply
by adding lamp black to white lead.

Dark Slate. This also is black added to white. The mix-
ture under Black Slate would answer.

Deep Lead. Black, a little bright blue, and Indian red
mixed with white lead produces this color.

French Gray. This can be made by tinting white with a
little ivory or drop black and adding a little carmine oi
crimson lake and ultramarine. This produces a very slight
violet tinge. White tinted with a little ultramarine and
Venetian red also gives a good French gray. Celestial blue
or cobalt may be used instead of the ultramarine if desired.
Another good mixture is made by tinting white lead with one
part of black and two parts of orange chrome.

Granite. French ochre and lamj] black added to white
lead produce this color.

Graystone. — Mix five parts of black with three of white
and three of blue and add a little red.

Gray Drab. Mix five parts of black with four of white
and a little deep chrome yellow.

Green Slate. Same as lead, but with more black and
blue.

Iron Gray. Mix eight parts of black with two of white
and a little orange.

Jasper. This may be described as a pepper and salt shade.

CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

Fig. Z7. Artist's Bristle Urusljes.

COLOR MIXING 93

Mix nine parts of black with two of white, with a touch of
deep chrome.

Lead. This is simply a dark gray, and is made by adding
lamp black to white lead with sufficient blue.

Light Gray. Mix together one part of Prussian blue, one
part of lamp black, ten parts of white lead. By adding
more or less white lead a darker or a lighter shade mav be
obtained if required. Another shade is obtained by mixing
two parts of black, eight parts of white and one part of
blue.

Mastic. This is a dark gray shade. To produce it mix
twelve parts of black with one of white, rather less than one
of yellow and just a touch of orange.

Moss Gray. Tint Avhite lead with French ochre, a bright
green and a little lamp black.

Mouse Color. Eleven parts burnt umber, to which has
been added one part of Prussian blue, mixed with about
twenty times the bulk of white lead, will give this tint. An-
other shade may be had by mixing sixteen parts of white,
three of black and one of blue. Some painters tint white
with lamp black and add a veiy little Venetian red and burnt
umber.

Neutral Tint. An artist's color is sold under this name.

Olive Gray. Three parts of lamp black, one part of
chrome green, with about forty times the quantity of white
lead, will give this color.

Opal Gray. One part of burnt sienna, two parts of cobalt
blue, and thirty parts of zinc white.

Payne's Gray. Is an artist's color, which may be de-
scribed as a gray having a lilac tinge.

Pearl. This is the same as French gray, but is much
lighter.

Pearl Gray. Forty parts white lead, five parts of ver-
milion and one part of deep chrome green. Some deco-
rators tint white lead with lamp black and call that pearl
gray. Strictly speaking, however, it should not be called pearl

94 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

gray, there being no color present. Six parts of white lead,
two parts of Venetian red, and one part of lamp black gives
a somewhat dark pearl gray, but a lighter tint may easily be
obtained by adding more lead. Ivory black answers equally
as well as lamp black.

Quaker Drab. This greenish gray shade is produced by
mixing two parts each of yellow and gi-een and five parts of
white.

Rustic Drab. Tint white lead with French ochre and
lamp black.

Silver Gray. Tint white lead with French ochre and lamp
black, or yellow may be employed instead of the ochre if
preferred. White lead tinted with a little lamp black and
indigo gives an excellent silver gray.

Smoke Gray. Tint white lead with French ochre and lamp
black.

Steel Gray. Tint white lead with a mixture of lemon
chrome and medium chrome and lamp black.

Stone Gray. Add black and chrome to white lead.

Verdant Gray. Two parts of oxide zinc and one part of
terra verte.

Warm Gray. Tint white lead with French ochre and lamp
black or sienna and lamp black. A better mixture is pro-
duced by taking white as a base and adding a little burnt
sienna and raw umber with a very little burnt umber and a
touch of Prussian blue.

GREENS.

Aloes. A pale sage green shade. To obtain it mix six
parts of black, three of white, one of chrome yellow, and
three of Brunswick green.

Apple Green. The simplest way to obtain this is to mix
medium chrome green with about thirty times the quantity
of white lead, but other greens may be employed with the
addition of a little Prussian blue when necessary. Or a little
orange chrome yellow may be added to the medium chrome

C30L0R MIXING 95

green and white lead. A very good shade ean be produced
by mixing one part of white with four of yellow and nine
of green.

Autumn Green. Mix one part of chrome yellow with
seven of black and two of emerald green.

Blue Green. Equal proportions of deep chrome green and
cobalt, or three parts of chrome green and one of Prussian
blue, added to white lead in the proportion of about four
times the quantity of lead to the mixture of green and blue,
will give a tint which is sometimes called blue green.

Bottle Green. Mix together five parts of medium chrome
green and one part of blue black. A similar color may be
obtained by adding Prussian blue and blue black and lemon
chrome. Another shade is made by using four parts of black
and one of green.

Bronze Green. The usual method is to mix black with
deep chrome yellow, but indigo may be used instead if de-
sired. A much brighter color is obtained from a mixture of
medium chrome yellow, Prussian blue and burnt sienna. Or
the following recipe may be used: Medium chrome green
five parts, blue black one part, burnt umber one part. A
light bronze color may be obtained by adding more green or
by using light instead of medium green. Other shades of
bronze green may be got by adding a little lamp black to
dark chrome green, or by taking medium chrome green
and adding lamp black and a little raw umber.

Brunswick Green. This color is sold in three shades. It
may be imitated by a mixture of Prussian blue and chrome
yellow, but chrome green, toned down with black, is some-
times used.

Chartreuse. This is a light yellowish green color. Mix
four of chrome yellow and five of chrome green lightenino-
up with white.

Chrome Green. This color can be bought ready made.
To produce it by admixture, add Prussian blue to lemon

96 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

chrome yellow in the proportion of about one part of blue
to eight parts of yellow.

Eau de Nil. Tint white lead with medium chrome yel-
low, emerald green and a touch of Prussian blue.

Egyptian Green. Add two parts of raw umber and one
part of lemon chrome yellow to white lead. Give the green
tone to it by means of a little Prussian blue.

Elephant Green. A dark green, obtained by adding a
little emerald green to black.

Emerald Green. This beautiful, bright gi-een cannot be
successfully imitated. It must not be mixed with ultramarine.
The pigment is a great favorite with some painters, while
others never use it. In this country the pigment is known
as Paris green, but it is not used to any extent by painters,
although it is used as an insecticide. In the absence of the
real thing, a more or less presentable imitation may be ob-
tained by mixing eight parts of white lead and one part of
medium chrome green, or a light shade of chrome green may
be used without lead. Emerald green, although so bright,
has very little body, but it is very useful for glazing. A
thin finishing coat is given over a good green ground to
brighten it.

Foliage Green. One part of blue black may be mixed with
four parts of lemon chrome. Use medium chrome yellow
if a darker sliade is required.

French Green. This is a bright yellowish green, which
may be obtained by adding to emerald or deep chrome green
about one-tenth part chrome yellow. Yellow ochre is some-
times used instead.

Gage Green. This is a variety of sage green. It may bo
made in the same way as pea green, and when that is
reached a little black should be added to bring it to the re-
quired sage color.

Genuine Green. This is usually to be had ready mixed,
but it varies considerably in name as well as in the exact tint.

Grass Green. The color sold as extra light chrome green

COLOR MIXING 97

makes a splendid grass green without any addition, but if it
is not available, lighten up medium or dark chrome green
with chrome yellow.

Green Slate. Tint white lead with a bright green toned
down with ochre and lamp black.

Green Stone. Twelve parts white lead tinted with one
part medium chrome green and one part of raw umber give
this tint, or the tinting colors may be French ochre and
emerald green with a little lamp black.

Gray Green. Use ultramarine blue, lemon chrome yellow,
blue black and white lead.

Invisible Green. A dark green made by mixing nine parts
of black and one of bright green.

Ivy Green. This is produced by a mixture of French
ochre, lamp black and Prussian blue.

Leaf Bud. This color is suitable for inside work. It is
made by mixing orange chrome yellow, light chrome green
and white lead in equal proportions.

Light Green. Equal quantities of white and blue and
rather more than twice the amount of green give a very good
shade.

Light Olive Green. Mix three parts of middle chrome,
two parts of black, and one part of burnt sienna and lighten
up with white lead until the desired color is obtained.

Lime Green. This is sold ready for use, and is only suit-
able for distemper. It cannot be used with oil.

Manse Green. This is produced from a mixture of a
bright green, medium chrome yellow and French ochre.

Marine Green. Mix one part of middle chrome green with
four of black.

Medium. A green of this name may be purchased ready
made. It is very similar to middle Brunswick green.

Mignonette. This is a dark green shade, obtained by
mixing one part of chrome yellow and one of Prussian blue
with three parts of chrome green and fifteen parts of black.

Muscovite. This is a dark sage-yellow greenish shade. It

98 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

may be obtained by mixing six parts of Prussian blue,
thirteen of chrome green, three of orange chrome, eight of
■white, and twenty of black.

Moss Green. Tint white lead with French ochre, a bright
green and a little lamp black.

Moss Rose. This pale greenish shade is obtained by mix-
ing chrome or Brunswick green, bright yellow and white in
the proportions of one part green, four of yellow and three
of white.

Mountain Green. Add to medium chrome yellow sufficient
cobalt to produce the desired hue, adding a little white if
necessary.

Myrtle. Three parts of dark chrome green, one part of
ultramarine blue, and a little white lead will give an excel-
lent myrtle color.

Night Green. Seven parts of chrome green and three
parts of yellow ochre will give this shade.

Nile Green. Five parts of white, nine of emerald green
and six of Prussian blue will give this shade.

Olive. Mix together ten parts of lemon chrome yellow,
one part of ultramarine blue and one part of light Indian
red. Another method is to use eight parts of lemon chrome
yellow, one part of blue black and one part of Prussian blue.
Or the following proportions give very good shades: three
parts black, four parts white, four parts red, two parts yel-
low, and eleven parts green. Or, fifteen parts of white,
twenty of red, twelve of yellow, and fifty-three of green.
Some painters add equal portions of Prussian blue and lamp
black to lemon chrome yellow for a base, or the base may be
ochre instead of chrome, and a little of the yellow be added.

Oriental Green. Is made by mixing equal proportions of
raw umber and lemon chrome yellow.

Royal Green. This color is sold ready made.

Peacock Green. A mixture of seven parts of white, fifty
parts of emerald green and forty-three of Prussian blue will
give this shade. A little yellow is sometimes added. The

COLOR MIXING 99

color is best produced by giving a final transparent coat over
a ground color. For the ground mix a rich green, a very
deep Brunswick green and middle chrome. Over this apply
a very thin coat of a deep bluish green made from Prussian
blue and lemon chrome.

Pea Green. Forty-eight parts of white lead and one part
of chrome green will give this color, or emerald green may
be used if desired. Some makers mix medium chrome green
and white lead in the proportion of five parts of the latter
to one part of the fonner to obtain a pea green, but the
proportions may be varied considerably according to the
exact shade required.

Persian Green. This is only another name for emerald
green, the vivid and somewhat staring hue being sometimes
employed in oriental decorations and being then termed Per-
sian green.

Pistache. This is a yellowish green shade. It may be ob-
tained by mixing seven parts of black, one of yellow ochre
and one and half of chrome green. Or chrome yellow may,
if desired, be substituted for the ochre.

Prussian Green. To produce this, mix five parts black,
three parts chrome yellow and twelve parts emerald or me-
dium chrome green.

Quaker Green. Mix equal proportions of Venetian red
and medium chrome j'ellow and add blue black. Add to
this mixture a quantitj' of chrome green equal in bulk to
the three. This will give an excellent quaker green.

Reed Green. Mix white, chrome yellow and chrome green
in about equal quantities to produce this shade. The name,
however, has no special significance, and an admixture of
almost any yellow and green, lightened up with white, might
be used instead.

Sage Green. This maj' be produced by tinting white lead
with four parts of light chrome green and one part of ivory
black, or the white lead may be tinted with a mixture of
French ochre, lamp black, and Prussian blue. Another re-

100 CYCLOPEDLV OF PAINTING

cipe is as follows: Add raw umber and chrome green in
the proportion of about one part of the former to two parts
of the latter added to white lead until the desired shade is
obtained, A pale Brunswick green and a very little black
used to tint white also gives a good sage green.

Sap Green. Mix with white lead, medium chrome yellow
and a very little lamp black.

Sea Foam. Tint white lead with medium chrome yellow
and emerald green, or if too bright, use medium chrome
green instead of the emerald.

Sea Green. This color is obtained by adding deep chrome
to white lead. Another sea green, and a very good one, is
obtained by mixing light Brunswick green, raw sienna or
ochre and white.

Seered Green. Tint white lead with French ochre, medium
chrome j'ellow and a little bright green.

Starling's Egg Green. A mixture of light chrome and
Prussian blue, lightened up with white, will produce this
color.

Tea Green. Medium royal green, chrome j'ellow and lamp
black added to white lead will give this color.

Velvet Green. Mix three parts of burnt sienna, five parts
of light chrome green and eight parts white lead.

Venetian Green. Lighten up dark chrome gi'een with
white lead.

Water Green. Raw sienna mixed with a little deep
chrome green and added to white lead gives a water green
tint.

Willow Green. Tint white lead with medium chrome
green, and add a little burnt umber or ivory black.

JAPANS.

Rich Dark Red. Mix Indian red with a little black Japan.

Rich Dark Brown, Mix crimson lake and bh\ck Japan,

varying the amount of each according to the depth required.

Chocolate Brown. Mix orange chrome with black Japan.

COLOR MIXIJNG 101

Leather Color. This is obtained in exactly the same way
as chocolate brown excepting that rather more chrome is
used.

Bottle Green. Mix together Prussian blue, Dutch pink and
black Japan.

Invisible Green. Use the same mixture as for bottle green
but use less Japan.

Light and Dark Reds. A series to which there is no end,
may be obtained by mixing either vermilion or vermilionette
with black Japan in varying proportions.

Neutral Green. This is produced by adding lemon chrome
to a little black Japan.

REDS.

Acacia. This may be described as a dark maroon. It is
made by mixing five parts of black, three of Indian red and
one of Prussian blue. Less of the black will give a more
pleasing shade.

Amaranthine. This is a crimson which can be made by
mixing three parts of vermilionette with one of Prussian
blue.

Anemone. This is a reddish purple, and may be made
by mixing two parts of black, one of white, six of a bright
red, and six of Prussian blue.

Apricot. Mix middle chrome yellow with a little vermilion
and add a very little lake.

Armenian Red. Mix one part of yellow ochre with two
parts of Venetian red.

Aurore. A dull pink shade, which can be produced as
follows : Mix together one part of Indian red, two of
orange chrome, a little lemon chrome, and two of blue, light-
ening up with white.

Bay. Mix together five parts of black, three of Venetian
red, and a little orange chrome.

Begonia. A dark red purple, which may be obtained by

102 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

mixino: six parts of lamp black, five of bright red, and four
of Prussian blue.

Black Maroon. Take eight parts of black and mix them
with one of a bright red and a little Prussian blue.

Blood Red. Any bright red toned down with a little
black will produce a shade sometimes called by this name.

Bordeaux Red. Take nine parts of black and mix with
it two parts of orange chrome and one of Prussian blue.

Brick. Use two parts of French ochre to one part of
Venetian red and one part of white lead, adding more ochre
if required to lighten the color. This gives a good tint,
sometimes called brick red, and is suitable for outside work.

Bright Scarlet. Mix twenty parts of vermilion, seven
parts of pale chrome, and one part of golden ochre. A good
vermilionette slightly toned down with yellow answers the
same purpose.

Bronze Red. This is a red toned down with about a
fourth part of black, a little bright yellow or orange being
added.

Cambridge Red. Vermilion, to which is added about one
twentieth part of Prussian blue, gives a color called Cam-
bridge red.

Carmine. This is an artist's color, its rich red tint can
hardly be imitated. A light vermilionette of good grade, to
which is added a little bright yellow, may be used.

Carnation Red. Three parts of carmine lake and one
part of white lead give a carnation color, but a better result
is obtained by taking pure vermilion as a base and adding
carmine and zinc white until the desired rich color is ob-
tained. This color is not suitable for use outside.

Carnation Rose. White lead tinted with Indian red or
vermilioM, or one of the fast reds. A beautiful color can
be obtained by simply tinting white with permanent crim-
son madder.

COLOR MIXING 103

Cherry Red. Mix together crimson lake, burnt sienna and
azure blue, or two parts of vermilion and one part of car-
mine.

Claret. Mis two parts of carmine with one of ultramarine
blue. A little vermilion may be added if desired, and this
may render a little yellow necessary to tone down the color.
A less rich color may be made by mixing Venetian red and
yellow ochre.

Coral Pink. This color is useful only on inside work. It
is made by mixing five parts of vermilion, two parts of
white lead and one part of chrome yellow. Another recipe
for producing shades of coral pink is : one part of white,
three of red, five of orange, and three of blue.

Dregs of Wine. This shade is produced by mixing Vene-
tian red with a little lamp black and white lead*

Egyptian. A dull yellowish crimson made by using five
parts of black, one and half of white, two of orange, and
one of blue, and a very little red.

Firefly. A dull orange red produced by mixing two parts
of black, three of red, one of orange, and a little yellow.

Flesh Color. One hundred and twenty parts white lead,
two parts yellow ochre, and one part Venetian red will pro-
duce an excellent flesh color. Or mix eight parts of white
lead, two parts of orange chrome yellow, and one part of
light Venetian red. An increased proportion of red may be
employed where desired. A mixture of orange and white in
the proportion of one part of the former to three parts of the
latter may also be used, or a mixture of medium chrome yel-
low, ochre, and Venetian red added to white.

French Red. Use equal parts of Indian red and vermilion,
and glaze with carmine or permanent crimson madder.

Gazelle. To obtain this mix Venetian red, lamp black and
Indian red, and add sufficient white lead to produce the de-
sired shade.

Geranium. To produce this color use nine parts of bright
red and one of blue. Or Indian red may be used, afterwards

104 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

glazing with madder lake foi- good work. Most of the lar-
ger color manufacturers make geranium red which is better
than can be obtained by mixing.

Indian Pink. Tint white lead with a little Indian red.

Indian Red. This is a good permanent pigment to be
fcought ready made, and is most useful in mixing with other
colors.

Light Pink. Tint white lead with a little pure vermilion.
The word pink does not bear any very definite meaning, as
almost any bright red such as carmine or crimson added to
plenty of white give a good pink just as vermilion does, but
of another hue. A very pretty and useful pink is made by
adding white to permanent crimson madder.

Light Salmon. Tint white lead with raw Italian sienna,
burnt Italian sienna, and burnt Turkey umber. Or tint white
with any bright red, toning down with sienna.

Lilac. A great deal of difference of opinion exists as to
this tint. One part of ultramarine to one part of bright
carmine, added to eighty parts white lead, give a very good
lilac. A cheaper way is to use Indian red and lamp black
as a tinting color, or rose pink may be added to the lead
only. Yet another method for producing a lilac is to mix
three parts of bright Indian red, three parts of white lead,
and one part of ultramarine blue, but less white lead is pre-
ferred by some painters. A touch of yellow will help this
color if too raw for the purpose.

Madder Lake. This is principally used by artists, but it
is useful to the house decorator for glazing the best work
where a bright red is required.

Magenta. Carmine and vermilion, with a little ultrama-
rine blue, produce this color.

Maroon. This color is obtained by mixing carmine and
blue black, and adding a small quantity of medium chrome
yellow. It may also be made by mixing one part of ultra-
marine blue with three parts of Tuscan red. This gives a
tint that is often considered a little too red, but this defect

COLOR MIXING 105

may easily be remedied by adding more blue. Some paint-
ers add ivory black and a little chrome yellow to carmine.

Mexican Red. Mix one part of red lead with four parts
of Venetian red.

Mikado. Three parts of blue and seven of red, mixed
with a little white, give this purplish red shade.

Moorish Red. Mix together three parts of vermilion and
one part of rose pink.

Mulberry. This is a very dark purple obtained by adding
a little blue and just a tinge of red to black.

Old Rose. Tint white lead with French ochre, Indian red
and lamp black, or Venetian red and a very little lamp black
may be used if desired.

Opaque Pink. Tint white lead with red lead.

Opera Pink. Tint white lead with a mixture of five parts
of vermilion and one part of medium chrome green.

Oriental Red. Mix one part of red lead with two parts
of Indian red.

Orange Scarlet. This color may be obtained by adding
two parts of orange lead to one part of white lead.

Orange Vermilion. Orange lead comes nearest to this
color. The tone may be made by adding chrome to vermil-
ion.

Peach Bloom. This is a mixture of white lead and Vene-
tian red. Or it may be produced by adding sufficient In-
dian red to white lead to give a warm tint and mixing it
with equal proportions of white lead, lemon chrome yellow,
ultramarine blue and light Indian red. Or a mixture of
three parts of Indian red with seventeen parts of white is
sometimes used.

Pink. White lead tinted with orange lead gives a bright
pink.

Plum. Mix with equal parts of white lead. Indian red
and ultramarine blue in the proportion of two parts of
lead to one of each of the other colors. This makes a
dark plum that is only suitable for inside work. If a light

106 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

tint is desired add more white lead. A very rich plum
may be obtained by mixing tog-ether ultramarine blue and
carmine, and adding a little white and a little jellow.

Pompeian Red. Small quantities of bright red and orange
are mixed with black to produce this shade.

Poppy. Blue and vermilion mixed in the proportion of
one of the former to twenty-four of the latter give this
shade. Some color mixers prefer to add a bright yellow
instead of the blue.

Purple. Light Indian red, four parts; white lead, three
parts; ultramarine, blue, two parts; or a purple may be ob-
tained by mixing Indian red and white. A mixture pre-
ferred by some painters is made by mixing ultramarine and
vermilion with a little white. A little crimson lake gives
richness to the color.

Red Ochre. This earth color is cheap, and can be readily
bought in most places. It can be imitated by mixing In-
dian red and chrome and adding a little vermilion.

Red Terra Gotta. Use equal proportions of burnt sienna
and white lead. The tone may be varied by the addition
of either of the umbei's and the chromes. A good bright
terra cotta is also made by using Venetian red as a base
and coloring up with ochre and a touch of lake.

Regal Purple. Mix together four parts of white lead,
two parts of cobalt blue and one part of carmine lake.

Roan. Mix black with half its quantity of red and add
a very small proportion of blue and white.

Rose. Five parts of white lead mixed with two parts of
carmine give a rose color that is suitable for inside work
only. An admirable rose color may be obtained by using
zinc white instead of white lead, as the zinc is a much
purer white than the lead, and hence gives a purer tint.

Rose Carnation. Mix together one part of rose madder
and eight parts of oxide of zinc. This is a beautiful color,
but the madder is too expensive for use except by artists.

COLOR MIXING 107

A very successful color can be produced from permanent
crimson madder.

Rose Wood. To produce this color, red is mixed with
about twelve times the quantity of black and a very little
green. The shade given is a very dark red.

Royal Pink. Mix together two parts of zinc white and
carmine lake. This will only do for inside work.

Royal Purple. Mix one part of vegetable black, one and
one-half of rich red, and seven of Prussian blue.

Salmon. Six parts of white lead, one part of vermilion,
and a little lemon chrome yellow. This mixture produces
a color somewhat bright. Another salmon color is made
by a mixture of raw sienna, burnt sienna and burnt umber.
A tint preferred by some is produced by adding to the
white, Venetian red, burnt umber and French ochre. An-
other method is to add vermilion and golden ochre to white,
which gives a nice bright color. Venetian red and chrome,
added to white, gives a duller color. Still another mix-
ture is Venetian red, vermilion, yellow ochre and white.

Scarlet Lake. A color very similar may be obtained in
one of the many vermilionettes on the market. It will be
convenient to remember that all vermilions are lightened
by the use of pale chrome instead of white lead. Lead
takes down the brilliancy of the color, producing a pink.

Scarlet Red. It is the name given to the brightest of the
oxide paints.

Shell Pink. This color is sometimes made by adding a
little good Indian red to white, but some decorators prefer
to use vermilion with a little chrome yellow and burnt
sienna.

Shrimp Pink. Mix Venetian red, burnt sienna and white
lead, and add a little vermilion.

Signal Red. This is usually made by mixing orange
lead, vermilionette and Paris white, or orange lead by itself
may be tinted with vermilionette.

108 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Salmon Pink. Tint white lead with equal parts of orange
chrome and v«rmiIion. If zinc white is used instead of
lead the color will be found brighter.

Terra Cotta. Mix together two parts of white lead and
one part of burnt sienna. One of the best ways to produce
a good terra cotta wall is to give a good under coat of
white lead, orange chrome and a little Venetian red, and
when dry to apply a finished coat made from Venetian red
and a little orange chrome to which has been added a little
white,

Turkish Crescent Red. Mix equal proportions of Indian
red, vermilionette and rose pink.

Tuscan Red. This can be bought ready made, and may
be imitated by mixing ten parts of Indian red with one
part rose pink. Indian red is very similar in color but
somewhat darker.

Venetian Pink. Tint white lead with a little Venetian
red.

Venetian Red. This color is one of the most useful that
the house painter has, being cheap, and having good cover-
ing power and body. It is not very good for tinting pur-
poses. It would not, of course, be often imitated, but In-
dian red — a very similar pigment — could be tinted with
red. Or it may be imitated by mixing vermilion, yellow
ochre, madder, carmine and a little Cappagh broAvn, which
is an artist's color and is rarely used by house painters.

Vermilion. This bright red cannot be imitated by an
admixture of ordinary pigments, but there are many excel-
lent substitutes on the market, most of them being vermil-
ionettes.

Wine Color. Add a little ivory black to a mixture of car-
mine and vermilion.

WHITES.

A very little ultramarine green added to white lead makes
a white sometimes called Japan white.

Equal parts of white lead and oxide of zinc are frequent-

COLOR MIXING lOd

ly used as a white paint, although two parts of lead to one
of zinc gives a better mixture.

Some painters are under the impression that inasmuch
as lead and zinc are both derived from metals they will
not mix together to form a good paint, there being some-
thing of the nature of a galvanic action set up between the
two metals. This, however, is an error, for although lead
and zinc cannot properly be mixed together by hand, yet
if they are ground by the ordinary paint manufacturers'
machinery the result is a most durable paint.

On the other hand, it is doubtful whether the mixture of
lead and zinc is a good policy to follow. Many painters
get excellent results by using white lead for the under
coats and zinc white for the final coats.

Commercial White. Seventeen parts of white lead, three
parts of barytes. This is intended to be mixed in oil, not
water.

Permanent White. The best quality barytes or blane
fixe makes a permanent white when ground in water. In
oil it lacks body. For many purposes a white which will
last a considerable length of time is made by mixing two
parts of zinc white with one part of barytes.

YELLOWS.

If a yellow is too bright it may be lowered by adding a
small quantity of blue and red. Instructions for obtaining
the various grades of yellow are given explicitly herewith.

Alabaster. This is yellowish white in color. Mix four
parts of white with one of middle chrome yellow.

Amber. An imitation of amber can be produced by mix-
ing equal portions of burnt sienna, burnt umber, blue black
and orange chrome yellow, and adding a quantity of white
lead until the desired tint is obtained.

Antique Bronze. Add ivory black to orange chrome yel-
low in the proportion of about five parts of black and one
part of orange.

110 CYCLOt»EDU OF PAINTING

Asiatic Bronze. One part medium chrome yellow, two
parts raw umber, and lighten with white lead.

Brass Yellow. This may be obtained by mixing forty
parts of white lead, twelve parts of light chrome yellow,
one part raw umber, and one part burnt umber. Or a mix-
ture of French ochre and medium chrome yellow, added to
a little umber, with a touch of blue, may be used to tint
white as a base.

Bronze. Take fourteen parts of black and add one part
of yellow and two of green.

Bronze Yellow. Mix together five parts of medium
chrome yellow, three parts of white lead, and one part
of raw umber. A mixture preferred by some painters is
obtained from chrome yellow, French ochre and a little
burnt umber.

Buff. Two parts of white lead and one part of yellow
ochre produces a good buff, or white lead may be tinted
with French ochre alone. Other shades are obtained with
mixtures of two parts of black, four of white, one of red
and one and one-eighth of yellow.

Buttercup. White lead tinted with lemon chrome gives
a nice buttercup yellow.

Cadmium Orange. This is an artist's color of consider-
able value, but is, generally speaking, too expensive for
house painters. It should not be mixed with chrome yel-
low or emerald green. It is made in three shades: pale,
medium and deep, and it cannot be successfully imitated.

Canary. This is practically another name for straw tint,
and it may be mixed in the same way. The proportions for
an ordinary shade of canary are three parts of lemon
chrome yellow to one part of white lead, but less yellow is
often preferred. Another shade is obtained by mixing two
parts of white, six of yellow and two of green. Some manu-
facturers make an extra light chrome yellow which they call
by this name.

COLOR MIXING 111

Chamois. A dull yellow made by mixing four parts of
white, five of yellow ochre and one of green.

Chamoline. Mix together five parts of white lead, three
parts of raw sienna and one part of lemon yellow.

Citrine. Although this is a tertiary color, and theoretical-
ly can be made from green and orange, opinions as to the
exact shade somewhat differ. It may be made by mixing-
four parts of medium chrome yellow and one part of raw
umber; or five parts of lemon chrome yellow and two parts
of raw umber.

Citron. To produce this color use Venetian red as a base
and add one part of Prussian blue, two of chrome yellow
and two of white.

Colonial Yellow. Medium chrome yellow mixed with white
lead and a little dark orange chrome yellow gives this tint.

Cream. A good shade is obtained by mixing eight parts
of white lead, two parts of French yellow ochre and a touch
of Venetian red. French ochre and lead alone are often em-
ployed. Equal parts of raw sienna and orange chrome used
to tint white gives a nice cream. There are many other
methods of obtaining this tint.

Daffodil. Lemon chrome mixed with a little Venetian red
will give this color.

Deep Cream. This color is made by tinting white lead
with yellow ochre and a little Venetian red.

Ecru. Tint white lead with French ochre and medium
chrome yellow. A tint which is sometimes called stone
color is produced in the same way. Another shade of ecru
may be obtained by mixing three parts of black, eight parts
of white, three of medium chrome yellow and one of Bruns-
wick green.

Jonquil Yellow. Tint white lead with medium chrome yel-
low to which has been added a very little vermilion red.
One of the favorite methods is to employ sixteen parts white
lead, one part of indigo and two parts of light red, adding as
much chrome yellow as may be desired. Another way of

112 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

making jonquil yellow is by simply mixing with a little green
about forty times the quantity of yellow.

Gamboge. This is an artist's color. It is a gum resin,
is somewhat fugitive, and is useless for the purpose of the
house painter.

Gold. To obtain the color known as gold, white lead may
be tinted with five parts of golden or yellow ochre and one
part of vermilion, or a mixture of light chrome j-ellow.
French ochre and vermilion maj^ be used instead to tint
the white lead. The quantitj- of yellow used should be con-
siderably more than the ochre.

Hay Color. French ochre, medium chrome yellow and
lamp black used as tinting color for white lead will give a
hay color, or raw Italian sienna and lamp black may be em-
ployed if desired.

Ivory. The addition of a very little medium chrome yel-
low to white lead produces this tint, or a very little golden
ochre may be used. Another way is to tint white very slight-
ly with middle chrome and a touch of black.

Leghorn. This is a pale yellow shade, which is obtained
by mixing white and medium chrome yellow in about equal
proportions.

Lemon. For this color, lemon chrome yellow is used alone,,
but the tint may be made by using white lead for a base and
adding medium chrome yellow until the desii-ed tint is ob-
tained. The tint that is usually preferred is obtained by
mixing five parts of chrome to two parts of white lead, and
adding a little green. However, lemon chrome yellow pur-
chased ready made is the best.

Light Buff. A little yellow ochre added to white lead
gives a good buff color, the tint varying with the quantity
of ochre.

Light Stone. Tint white lead with French ochre and lamp
blafk.

Lemon Yellow. This is also called lemon chrome, and is
the palest shade of lemon chrome yellow. It is very useful

COLOR MIXING 113

foi- preparing- the lighter shades of yellow, and may be
imitated by adding cadmium yellow to zinc white.

Corn Yellow. Mix yellow and white in the proportion of
about three parts of the former to one of the latter to get
this liuht yellow shade.

Manilla. Is made by tinting white lead with French
ochre and chrome yellow. Or a mixture of white with four
times the quantity of yellow will produce a shade of ma-
nilla.

Marigold. This is obtained by mixing a very little bright
yellow with orange chrome.

Melon. Mix equal quantities of black and white. Add
twice the bulk of orange chrome and a quantity of medium
chrome equal to the mixture of black and white.

Mushroom. A dull yellow shade, which may be obtained
by adding one part of orange and two of yellow to ten
parts of black.

Middle Stone. Mix as described under Stone, but use
more umber and ochre.

Naples Yellow. This yellow is not now much used, chrome
yellow having to a large extent taken its place. It may be
imitated by tinting zinc white with cadmium yellow and a
very little yellow ochre.

Naples Yellow. This is obtained by mixing orange with
twice as much yellow and three times as much white. It
is also the name given to an artist's color.

Ochre Yellow. Mix orange and yellow in about equal
proportions with a rather larger quantity of black.

Old Gold. Use middle chrome with a little vermilion and
burnt sienna, and add a very little cobalt. A cheaper color
may be made by mixing ochre and burnt sienna. One part
of green and three of bright yellow mixed Avith a little white
will give an old gold shade. Or it may be obtained in the same
way as gold, but a little burnt umber may be added. Some
painters prefer to tint white lead with a mixture of chrome,

114 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

raw sienna and vermilion. White tinted with a little orange
chrome and burnt umber also gives a good old gold tint.

Olive Yellow. This color is sometimes called olive brown.
It is made by mixing three parts of burnt umber with one
part of lemon chrome yellow, a larger quantity of yellow
being added if a lighter shade is required. Another method
is to mix ten parts of black, one of orange, twelve of yel-
low and five of green.

Orange. Mix white, yellow and orange in the following
proportions: One part each of yellow and white and eigh-
teen parts of orange. Or another shade is got with seven-
teen parts of orange^ six of yellow and two of white. Orange
chrome yellow can be easily purchased, however, and gives
this color without any admixture being necessary.

Persian Orange. Mix fourteen parts of orange chrome,
five parts of yellow ochre and one of white.

Pompeian Yellow. Tint white with Italian ochre and add
a very little ultramarine and vermilion.

Portland Stone. Mix equal parts of yellow ochre and raw
umber and lighten up with white until the desired tint is
obtained.

Primrose Yellow. Lemon chrome used by itself answers
admirably.

Primrose. Ten parts of white, three parts of green and
four parts of yellow will give this light greenish yellow.
Another shade is got by mixing one part of orange, two
parts of green and five parts of yellow.

Spruce Yellow. Add a little Venetian red to a mixture of
French ochre and white lead.

Stone. This color, so much used, is usually made by mix-
ing together five parts of white lead, two parts of French
yellow ochre and one part of burnt umber. By adding a
little raw umber, the tint may be varied as desired. This
color is suitable for outside work. Another method for ob-
taining the shade is to tint white with medium chrome yel-
low and burnt umber.

COIX)R MIXING 115

Straw Color. Lemon chrome mixed with raw umber.

Straw. White lead tinted with a little chrome yellow pro-
duces an excellent straw tint, but some prefer to add a
little French ochre. Or medium chrome yellow may be used
as a base, and a mixture added of white, French ochre and
Venetian red.

Yellow Lake. This is a somewhat fugitive color which
has but little body, but is useful for glazing. To imitate it
use equal parts of burnt umber and white lead and tint
with chrome yellow and lake. Or, mix umber and white in
equal proportions and add Naples yellow and scarlet lake.
To obtain this color in its full richness it is quite necessary
to glaze either admixture with yellow lake.

Yellow Ochre. The ochres are natural mineral pigments,
which are among the cheapest and most useful at the com-
mand of house painters. They can be used in any vehicle
and are quite permanent, while they do not affect any other
color with which they may be used.

Zinc Yellow. This is a chromate of zinc which is quite
fast in light, and possesses the advantage of permanence
even in the pi-esence of impure sulphuretted hydrogen. It
may be mixed with other colors, without adversely affecting
Ihem.

COLOR TESTING.

Although to accurately test the quality of a color requires
somewhat elaborate experiments, both chemical and prac-
tical, yet there is no reason why the painter should not de-
termine with a sufficient degree of accuracy for his purpose
the quality of the color he uses. Indeed, if this was done
more generally, much of the adulterated trash would be
driven from the market, and none would rejoice more at
such a result than the color manufacturers themselves.
The manufacturers assert that they are as desirous that the
trade should use pure colors as the painters can possibly
be. Even the biggest houses produce cheap grades of colors,
and this they do, as a rule, almost under a protest and sim-
ply because they are compelled by painters demanding colors
for certain low prices, far below that at which it would be
possible to produce the pure article. Make careful com-
parison between pure colors and those being used. At the
same time, compare the prices and see which is cheaper
to use. If even they come out at the same price, remember
that by using a pure color all the benefit of the purity of
tone so necessary for the execution of good work is
gained.

The first thing to be done . in testing any paint material
is to have a standard. There must be no doubt about this.
Unless we have in each case something with which to com-
pare the particular sample of color that is being examined,
we shall have no useful information concerning it. Take,
therefore, good decorators' colors of well known make. If
necessai-y purchase small tubes of the best colors, such as
are put up for artists' use. This will be rather a severe
trial, but still it will afford a standard. Having such sam-
ples and going through the tests we are about to describe,

116

COLOR TESTING 117

the painter can, after some amount of trouble, arrive at re-
sults which are almost as accurate as those which could be
deduced by a chemist. An expert on this question some years
ago summarized the characteristics of colors which should
be considered in making the examination, under the follow-
ing heads:

1. Purity of the material.

2. Purity of the tone, brilliancy; richness, which indi-
cates the amount of care in selection.

3. Fineness of grinding or preparation ; this means the
degree of the division of the particles and upon the com-
pleteness of such division will depend

4. Its spreading capacity.

5. Its body. This applies, of course, only to opaque or
semi-opaque colors. Body is opacity, and means capacity to
conceal the surface to which the paint is applied, and must
not be confused with spreading. It is an inherent quality.

6. Its staining power or tinting strength with white or
colors.

7. The quality of purity of the tint with white.

8. If a paste color, the consistency of the paste.

9. Transparency of transparent colors and the quality
of the transparency.

10. The permanency of the color.

It will be observed that all of these tests will not neces-
sarily be applied to every color. For instance, a transparent
color would be tested for its transparency, but certainly not
for its body. The one condition is the converse of the other.

Purity of the Material. This is sometimes of considerable
importance, as in the case of white lead, whilst in others,
for example the earth colors, it can hardly be said that
there is a standard of purity. As a rule a knowledge of
practical chemistry is necessary in order to deteiToine wheth-
er a sample of paint or color is pure or not.

The purity of white lead, however, can readily be ascer-
tained by the painter who possesses no chemical knowledge

118 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

by aid of a blow-pipe. Take a piece of flat charcoal and
cut out a hollow space from it into which place a small piece
of white lead to be tested, about the size of a pea. Now
direct the flame of a blow-pipe upon it, using an ordinary
candle or a Bunsen burner, taking care that the blue por-
tion of the flame bears upon the lead. Keep up a steady
blow for a few minutes and the white lead will be converted
into metallic lead, which will show in the form of a bright
silver-like button. If the lead is adulterated the blowing
will only have the result of making it appear like a cinder.
To conduct this experiment successfully requires a little
practice with the blow-pipe in order to obtain a steady
flame.

Another method of testing is to place a little white lead
in a crucible and place this on a hot fire, when, if genuine,
it will be converted into metallic lead.

Purity of Tone. Some remarks on this subject will be
given under the heads of the various groups of colors. Speak-
ing generally, the richness of brilliancy of tone is easily dis-
cernible by placing the sample to be tested side by side with
another of well known excellence. In siennas, ochres and
umbers the selection of crude material by which the rich-
ness of tone is assured is of great importance.

Fineness of Grinding. The method of testing the fineness
of a pigment usually employed by the painter is to rub
a little on the finger nail, but this is a crude and unreliable
method. If the pigment is dry and it is desired to com-
pare it for fineness with a similar pigment or white lead,
the following is as good a plan as any:

Take two tall vertical glass jars, place in them an equal
quantity of turpentine and then take a small quantity of the
white lead to be tested. Place it in one jar, and an equal
quantity of the pigment with which it is to be compared in
t'le other; thoroughly stir up both and then note the time
it takes the sample to settle. If graduated marks are made
to the two jars the observations will be taken more readily.

COLOR TESTING 119

Another test is to weigh out equal quantities of the two
leads, and then to take a very small quantity of the same
color, say black, and add to each sample, thoroughly mix-
ing. The lead that is the lightest in color will be the finest.
The explanation of this is somewhat interesting. Suppose that
we have a number of cubes of white lead each measuring one
inch side. This will give us six superficial inches to be col-
ored. Now suppose that we break up these inch cubes into
half inch cubes, which Vv'ill give eight half inch cubes to
each inch cube. Now as each half inch cube has six faces
measuring half an inch by half an inch, it has a superficial
surface of three square inches, and as there are eight of the
half inch cubes, there are twenty-four superficial inches to
be colored against six in the inch cubes. It will be seen,
therefore, that by increasing the fineness of a pigment a
greater surface is presented to be colored, and hence more
color is required.

Another test for fineness is to paint different samples
thinned in turpentine on plate glass; when dry the two
specimens may be compared and the difference of fineness
between them will soon be apparent.

Still another test, and one frequently used by painters,
is to place a quantity of the color ground in oil that is to
be tested upon a level surface such as a piece of glass, and
to run the blade of a spatula or palette knife over it, and
then over another sample with which it is to be compared,
noticing carefully the difference in appearance of the two
samples. By these means the presence of grit is discovered.

Spreading Capacity or Covering Power. The spreading
capacity of pigments and their body are very nearly related,
although of two equal in body one ma}^ possess greater cov-
ering power or spreading capacity than the other. A prac-
tical method of testing covering power is to mix a small
quantity of a standard paint and an exactly similar quan-
tity of the pigment to be tested, taking care to use precise-
ly the same amount of oil and thinners in each case. Then,

120

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

taking a clean brush for each of the paints, paint a door, or
other surface that has been primed, on two panels side by
side, continuing to paint till all the pigment has been in
each case used up. The one that goes farthest has the great-
er covering power.

In comparing the two it will be well to notice whether
the body is equal in both cases, as one may go farther but
not cover so well.

Body. The word body, as applied to pigments, is almost
synonymous with opaqueness. It is the most important
property of a pigment, and it is because white lead pos-
sesses the quality in an eminent degree that it is so much
valued.

Body is sometimes called covering power, but this term
IS a little misleading, as some may suppose it to relate to
the spreading capacity of the pigment.

If two different white leads ground in oil to an equal
consistency are applied to different panels of a door, primed
in the same manner, the one of the two leads that possesses
the better body will be shown by it hiding the grain of the
wood better. Some white leads, especially those that are
manufactured by the new processes, lack this important
quality of body, and three coats will only cover the work as
well as about two of old process white lead.

There are numbers of methods of practically testing the
body of pigments, among the simplest being the following:

Prime and paint a board with alternate black and whi'te
squares, like a chess or draughtboard. Take a sample of
a pigment, similar to that to be tested, of which the body
is known to be good, and paint a wide sdip across the chess
board; then paint a smaller strip of the pigment to be
tested. When both strips are dry, by comparing them one
can tell almost at a glance which has the better body, the
superior pigment covering or hiding the black squares' bet-
ter than the other. A second coat may afterward be ap-
plied to each over a portion of the strip, if desired.

COLOR TESTING 121

It is important to notice that in all cases of practically
testing paints the results are obtained by comparisons be-
ing made, and hence it is necessary in every case to have a
standard with which to compare the sample to be tested as
has ah'eady been explained.

The test of painting over squares of black and white
may be varied by using stripes instead. The test answers
equally well for white lead, zinc or any color of which the
quality of body is of importance. In some colors it is of
little 'moment.

Tinting or Staining Strength. Any painter can test the
tinting sti'ength of any color himself in a very simple man-
ner. All that is necessary is to have a pair of druggists'
scales, some blotting paper, a palette knife, some pieces of
glass or a flat piece of marble and some pieces of waxed
paper. First weigh out say eighty grains of dry white
lead or dry zinc. Any other white will answer equally
well. Place these eighty grains on one side of the glass and
the second eighty grains on the other. Now take the dry
color and weigh one grain and add that to one of the little
piles of white, then weigh a grain of the standard color
and add that to the other pile. Now add to each pile a
few drops of oil, taking care that the number of drops is
the same in each case. With the palette knife thoi'oughly
mix until no streaks can be seen and the mixture is per-
fectly uniform. Then by comparing the two the differ-
ence in tinting strength will at once be apparent. The
same result would have been produced had ordinary white
lead ground in oil been used instead of dry lead or zinc. If
the color is ground in oil a little difference in the method
must be observed, the reason being that one color might
be ground much thinner than the other, in other words
might contain much more oil than the other, and hence
if equal weights of each were compared the result would
be misleading. Take then each color in oil, that is the
standard and the color with which it is to be compared,

12^ CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

place on a small quantity of blotting papei' anj allow it to
remain a few minutes so that the oil may be extracted. If
it is thought necessary the sample can be washed with ben-
zine, but for painters' purposes the extraction of the oil
by means of blotting paper is sufficient for the purpose.
The two samples having remained on the blotting paper
for a short time one grain of each is weighed out sepa-
rately on little pieces of wax paper, this being used so that
the color shall not stick to the scale. Then each grain is
mixed separately with the white and the result compared
as before. It is not too much to say that every painter
should be prepared to make this test, because it infor.iis
him not only as to the tinting strength of the color, but
also gives valuable information as to the tone. Of course
the quantities may be \'aried if necessary, and a larger
amount used instead of the single grains. It need hardly
be pointed out that scrupulous cleanliness is necessary for
successfully carrying out this test. The palette knife must
be wiped between each operation and every care taken to
do justice to both samples.

The Permanence of Colors. It must be admitted that it
is very disappointing to a painter to find, after taking pains
to produce the exact color required, that it flies or fades
after a little exposure to the weather. The tests for the
permanence of a color when exposed to light are simple
enough, and are to mix a little of the eoloi's to be tested in
oil and to spread them on different slips of paper, cut the
paper in half, number each half with corresponding figures
or letters, expose one half to a strong light for as long as
may be deemed desirable and put the other half away into
a safe place where the light does not penetrate. Waxed
paper is the best, as it will not absorb the thinners, or,
better still, glass may be used, this being cut across with a
diamond after the paint has been applied. It need hardly
be said that the permanence of water colors is entirely dif-
ferent from that of oil colors. As far as pigments are con-

Color testing 123

eerned, yellow ochres, siennas, umber, Vandyke brown and
the earth colors generally are permanent, as are Venetian
red, Indian red, chi'ome yellow and lemon yellow. Ultra-
marine, Prussian blue and vermilion are also permanent or
nearly so.

Colors Fast to Light. Some colors fly or fade very quick-
ly, while others are perfectly permanent. The following is
a list of the principal permanent colors under ordinary con-
ditions: Yellow ochre, light red, Indian red, umber, cad-
mium yellow, Prussian blue, cobalt blue, Vandyke brown,
red ochre, sienna, red oxide, Venetian red, vermilion, ultra-
marine, chrome green, lamp black, and other black pig-
ments.

Probably the simplest method of testing the durability
of colors is to provide a sheet of unglazed cardboard; that
known as Bristol board will do very well. It must have so
slight an absorbent property that if any coat of paint is
placed on the surface it will remain there, and not soak
into the substance of the cardboard. This sheet of board
is ruled into squares or rectangles measuring about 3x3
inches, or 2x2 inches.

A little of the color to be tested is ground up with a
little gum water into a smooth paste, and a portion of one
of the ruled spaces on the cardboard painted with it. It
is advisable to rule and prepare two sheets at the same
time. The name of the color can be written either under-
neath the patch of color in the square, or in a corresponding
position on the back of the card. It is also advisable to
grind a little of the pigment with oil, so that the relative
durability as a water color and as an oil color can be
tested.

One of the prepared cards is hung in a place where it
is exposed to as much sunlight and air as possible, while
the other card is placed in a drawer away from any such
influence. After a week or two of exposure the cards can
be compared to see if any chancres have occurred; they can

124 CYCLOl>EDlA OP PAINTING

then be replaced in their respective positions, and from
time to time are compared together. Any change which
may have been brought about by the action of sunlight and
air on the exposed card will be observable; some colors
will be changed in a few weeks' exposure, other colors re-
quire months of exposure to produce any effect.

By placing a card painted in the manner described, with
different pigments in a closed cupboard, in which is placed
a vessel containing some ferrous sulphide and diluted sul-
phuric acid, the action of sulphuretted hydrogen on the
colors can be tested; if any are affected by this test it is
certain that they will be similarly affected when exposed to
the action of impure air.

ESTIMATING'.

Exterior Work. To correctly estimate, one must know
that a square is 100 square feet and that a square yard is
9 square feet. He must then obtain the actual dimensions
of the surface to be painted. He must know how many
square feet there are in the work, the condition of the sur-
face and the amount of labor and material required to do
the work, whether one, two or three coats. He must know
on which part of the work he will have to double and treble
measure; that is, where the work must be measured two
or three times to arrive at the amount of time necessary to
paint it. After he has taken all of these points into con-
sideration he is ready to make an intelligent estimate;
however, all rules for measuring a surface to be painted
will fall short of the desired x'csult if good judgment is
not used. No definite rules can be furnished which will
give a basis for ari'iving at the exact amount of labor nec-
essary on work which is difficult to handle and requires
extra ladders, staging or scaffolding. Should the estimator
misflgure, he will either lose money or lose the job.

To measure a building, take a tape line and begin at one
corner of the building, measuring all of the same height
together; multiply this by the height of the building, com-
mencing at the outer edge of the cornice and running to
the lower edge of the baseboard, adding 1 to II/2 feet to
the height for the edges of weatherboarding. This will
give the number of squai-e feet in the building.

To measure a gable, take the length of rafters, multiply
by 1/2 of the height from the square to peak or comb of
the roof. This will give the number of square feet in any
gable.

This is all called plain work when painting and no extra

125

126 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

measurements nre allowed for two or throe stor}' woi'k.
Above three stories, one-half extra measurements are al-
lowed. Wall work measure solid, no windows or doors de-
ducted.

Stave or wainscoting cornices. l^/G measurement.

Shingle gables, ly^ to double measurement.

Dormer windows. IV2 to double measurement.

Dimension shingles cut. 11/2 to double measurement.

Dimension shingles dressed. Single measurement.

Dimension shingles cut, undressed. 11/2 to double meas-
urements, according to the amount of work.

Spindle work, turned. Measured solid on both sides.

Shingle work and pickets, square. 3 measurements.

Veranda railings and columns. Measured solid.

Veranda ceiliiags, beaded and rafter finished. Double
measurements.

Verandas, jilain. Measure floor and ceiling, allowing for
the brackets and columns.

Verandas that have heavy columns and rails. Measure
floor, ceiling and the entire veranda solid.

Columns, rails, lattice and turned work. Double meas-
ure.

More elaborate scroll or ornamental work, also square
spindle work, close set. Treble measure.

Outside blinds. 3 measurements, usually done by the pair.

Lattice work. 2I/2 to 3 measurements.

Picket fence. 3 measurements.

Another system for measuring verandas which is con-
sidered one of the most dillieult by a great manj' painters
is to measure the floor and ceiling solid, then measuie
around the veranda the same as in measuring the building,
taking the height around over cornices to the lower edge
of base or lattice work, and double this measurement if
many brackets or raucli scroll work.

Roof Work. Roofs are measured solid except coping,
which IS extra if painted a different color.

ESTIMATING 127

Inside Measurements. Inside work is measured solid on
both doors and windows, with three inches allowed on each
square opening for tracing edges; base never less than one
foot. Stair, rail and balustrade, three times.

Wall Work. With wall work, where the doors and win-
dows are painted, one-half to two-thirds of the openings is
deducted; where the openings are not painted, one-third is
deducted; cupboards and pantry shelves, l^/^ measurement.

Floors measured solid — plain work.

CONSIDERATION OF SURFACE.

New Work. In figuring a piece of work, the considera-
tion of the surface to be painted is of as much importance
as measurements. There are certain lumbers used for ex-
terior building which cannot with safety, to produce satis-
factory results, be finished with two coats of paint, owing
principally to the great absorption of the lumber, as well
as its varied grain, ranging from dark to light. If the
paint is mixed heavy enough to cover the dark grain the
lumber will not be satisfied, and while a single painting
may show satisfactory results, it will not sufficiently pene-
trate nor bind to withstand contraction of future coats,
thus causing the paint to break from the surface.

Upon the reputation of a painter depends his success.
His reputation is his principal stock in trade and should
not be jeopardized by doing work against his judgment.
If an architect, contractor or property owner has specified
two coat work without consideration of the surface, and
three coats are necessary, an explanation as to the result-
ing danger through such should be given him. If his views
can not be changed, don't try to hide the surface by plas-
tering on the paint, but apply two properly reduced and
brushed out coats, remembering the surface must be satis-
fied even at the expense of hiding. It is much better for
all concerned to have the lumber satisfied, thus leaving a

128 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

good foundation for subsequent paint coats, even though a
surface may be left Avhich will soon show signs of wear
under weather exposure through not having suflficient pig-
ment to form protection, than to apply heavy coats which
will not properly penetrate nor bind and with future coats
soon break away, leaving a surface which will always be
a treacherous one to paint no matter how much judgment
may be used in future painting.

Old Work. The value of a practical painter is his prac-
tical knowledge in knowing how to treat or repaint a sur-
face in order to produce the best results, no matter in
what condition the surface may be. It is impossible to give
definite instructions regarding old work, as conditions are
too varied, but there are a number of important points
which should be carefully considered in figuring on this
work. In appearance the building may be in first-class con-
dition and apparently only need freshening up. Examine
the surface carefully and determine whether the foundation
coat is properly bound to the surface. Do not be responsi-
ble for some one else's careless work in not having prop-
erly satisfied the surface, thus not leaving a foundation to
which subsequent coats can be applied with satisfactory
results. If you work over such a surface, you are the one
who will be blamed, as invariably the statement is made
that the building was in good condition before the last coat
of paint was applied. Don't hesitate under such condi-
tions to recommend that the building stand for a longer
period before repainting, or, the application of but one
coat of paint so mixed that it will penetrate through the
old coating and into the original surface.

Never apply two coats of paint to an old surface when
one coat properly reduced will answer the purpose. There
is as much danger in applying too much paint as too little.

EXTERIOR PAINTING'.

New Work. Be sure the character of the lumber is un-
derstood as to its absorption of the paint, and to assure
satisfactory results see that the paint is reduced as tliin
as possible according to the conditions. Do not paint im-
mediately after rain storms, heavy dews, fogs or in frosty
weather. See that the surface to be painted is thoroughly
dry and in proper condition to receive paint.

Do not follow too closely after the carpenter, as siding
which has been tied in bundles is very often wet on the
inside. Allow time for the siding to dry out, remembering
that it is very hard to secure dry lumber. Do not apply
shellac too heavy to knots and sappy places. Have it thin
and brush well into the knots or other places that require
shellac. Where light shades of paint are to be applied,
use white or very light colored shellac.

Priming. It is bad practice to prime a building from a
carpenter's scaffold. It is best to have the entire building
ready to prime at one time so that the same mix of paint
can he used. In this way a more even and better coat of
priming can be given.

When a building or any part of it is ready to receive the
priming coat, the carpenter should remove all scaffolds,
blocks and braces. This leaves the building with no part
of the surface hidden and all of it can be primed without
interference. Ridges are left on a building primed with
blocks or braces nailed to the corner strips or any part;
when touched up, it is impossible to hide these spots so
they will not soon show through the second and third coats.

It is good policy to always prime a building before the
plasterer commences his work, as the priming coat will keep
the dampness and fumes of the mortar beds from

129

130 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

penetrating the surface. Reduce the paint according
to the absorbing properties of the surface. Do not be afraid
of getting the primer too thin. It must be thin enough to
both satisfy and fill the surface and not leave an excess of
pigment on the surface. The reduction must be with oil
and turpentine, according to the character of the surface.
Where hard, close grained woods are to be painted, a large
percentage of turpentine must be used to assist in opening
the pores of the wood and allow of greater depth of pene-
tration.

The main point in priming is to satisfy all of the sur-
face, thus leaving a uniform, even coating. A soft place
here and there that is not satisfied and has received only half
enough paint will soon dry out spotted ; other places, where
the wood is hard, an excess of paint which will dry with
a heavy gloss. A good and satisfactory job of painting
cannot be done over an uneven coat of priming. The prim-
ing coat should be applied with as much care as the fin-
ishing coat. Great care should be taken in keeping the paint
of a uniform consistency. Where it is possible, prime the
entire building at one time, as it is hard to prime a build-
ing in patches and obtain uniform results. In priming, use
a full brush of paint to satisfy the soft spots, brush well
and do not allow a surplus of paint to remain on the hard
places. The priming coat should be as thoroughly and care-
fully brushed out as the finishing coat. To accomplish this,
a good full stock brush must be used. Do not trj- to use
a half-worn or cheap brush, as good results cannot be ac-
complished with poor tools. Use a medium full brush for
painting under projections, cornices and under edges of
the siding, being sure to fill all of the joints with paint,
then use a full brush on the face of the siding and corner
strips, thoroughly working the paint out under the brush
so the pores of the wood will be filled. Be careful not to
use a dry brush on anj' pait of the work.

A building primed in the foregoing manner will leave ai;

EXTERIOR PAINTING 131

even surface over which to work and the second coat will
go on smoothly and can be brushed out, thereby saving time
and material.

Putty. Do not use cheap, ready-made putty. If it is not
possible to secure putty that is known to be made from
linseed oil and whiting, it is best for the painter to make
the putty himself. This will not take much time and he
can always be assured of overcoming some very annoying
results. Cheap putty will peel from glass or after being
traced with paint. Where used in grooves or over nail
heads, it will turn yellow after paint has been applied. It
is also ajDt to fall out, which is one of the most annoying
things that can happen. A formula still in use by old prac-
tical painters is to take 5 pounds gilder's whiting and 1
pint raw linseed oil, the whiting gradually added to the
oil and well kneaded in. As the mixture becomes too stiff
to work by hand, pound it off with a mallet until all of the
whiting is added and mixture is of a glazing consistency.

For a waterproof or harder-drying putty for use in
floor seams or other exposed places, to the foregoing add
one pound keg lead well worked in. If the keg lead is of
a thin consistency, a little more whiting may be necessary
to bring the putty to the pi'oijer consistency. This latter
mix will be found to be more durable and produce more
satisfactory results for glazing and all exterior puttying.
Knife putty into all seams, cracks and nail holes; do not use
the thumb in pushing putt}^ into seams and cracks.

Middle Coat. Be sure the priming coat is hard dry. Do
not have the second coat too oily, thus drying with too
high a gloss, as this will cause the finishing coat to crack,
peel and flatten. Do not paint over dirt, grease or mud
splashed on the building from down spouts. Do not paint
over frosts, dews or wet places. Do not paint while the
plastering is drying out. Be sure the basement is not wet
or damp. If such is the ease, the moisture is liable to go
up through the house between the walls and siding and be

132 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

attracted to the surface, causing dampness between
Goats, which will result in peeling in a short time. See
that the basement windows or ventilators are open, allow-
ing the basement to thoroughly dry oiit before applying a
second coat of paint. Use a full stock brush that has been
well broken in, even up by thoroughly brushing any skips
or uneven places in the priming coat.

Where light shades are used for trimming, better results
will be obtained by applying the trimming color on both
the middle and finishing coats. Medium dark shade trim-
ming colors can be used for the finishing coat only. Apply
two coats for solid colors, such as green, black and red, or
one coat over a suitable ground color.

Finishing Coat. Do not paint when there are indications
of rain or the weather becoming cold. Do not work late
in the evening on cold nights. The paint will pucker or
crinkle if a frost or cold wind strikes it when half dry.
Do not attempt to apply paint early in the morning, or on
a surface that has been- covered Avith frost the previous
night. Allow plenty of time for the surface to dry. After
the paint has set, do not attempt to touch up the spots that
have been missed. This will cause peeling of such places.
"Wait until the paint is dry, repainting the parts on which
such spots may show. The paint should be well brushed
and plenty of elbow grease used. Paint flowed on to cover
or hide the surface will soon crumble or break away in
scales. No paint can be properly applied to a surface with-
out heavy brushing; this makes one coat adhere to the
other. Heavy brushing also starts oxidation by forcing the
air through the paint. Thorough brushing keeps the paint
coat even and uniform and prevents the paint from crink-
ling or leathering, which is sure to be the result if it is not
uniformly applied. Improper bi*ushing will produce heavy
spots which are sure to pucker or crinkle, eventually caus-
ing the paint to blister or peel on these places.

Always finish a stretch before leaving for lunch or at

EXTERIOR PAINTING 133

night. Do not attempt to touch up ladder or stage marks,
as such will always show in spots. Paint the whole board
on which such spots show. Always have the paint for the
finishing coat free from specks and dirt. Good work cannot
be done with dirty or lousy brushes. Clean out pots at
night. Put bi'ushes away carefully. If skins have formed
or dirt has got into the paint, strain it before commencing
to work.

Two-Coat Work — Priming. Before commencing, be sure
that satisfactory two-coat work can be done on the lumber
to be painted. Be sure the surface is dry, as the priming
for two-coat work is of heavier consistency' than for three-
coat work and there is not the chance for the surface to
dry out that there is if a thinner coat is applied. Brush
the paint out well. Do not flow on, leaving the paint heavy
in one place and thin in another. Remember this coat is to
help cover the grain, as well as fill the wood, and only one
more coat is to be applied to complete the work. If not
uniformly applied, the last coat will soon show the effects
of bad priming. Work the paint well into nail holes, ci'acks,
beading and seams. Avoid holidays, as they will show up
when the second coat is applied. Have the paint of a
medium thin consistency, carrying sufficient turpentine to
assist in penetrating and filling the wood. This coat must
both satisfy and fill and leave sufficient pigment on the sur-
face to assist in covering or hiding the grain of the wood.

Finishing Coat — Two-Coat Work. Be sure the priming
coat is hard dry over the entire surface before commencing
to apply the second coat. It is very often the case that
part of the work has been primed for a month or six weeks
and other portions have stood for only a few days on ac-
count of the inability of the carpenter to finish the entire
building, or like causes. Places such as the latter will in
a short time crack or peel, and when a complaint is entered
the entire house is given credit for having been primed a
month or six weeks. Do not apply the finishing coat during

134 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

the time the plasterers are at work, as there is more or less
trouble caused by the mortar being splashed or thrown over
the work during this time; this necessitates retouching,
which cannot be done without showing spots. Do not apply
the finishing coat during the time the plaster is drying out,
as it will absorb the moisture from the plaster, causing
1 rouble through the paint peeling by having dampness be-
tween coats. Finish the interior of the building before ap-
plying the exterior finishing coat. This will give time for
the plaster to dry out somewhat before this finishing coat
is applied and result in a more clean and satisfactory job.
See that the basement ventilators are open. This assists
in properly drying out the basement. See that the surface
is perfectly clean and free from plaster mortar before start-
ing the work. Carefully putty all nail holes, seams and
cracks. Reshellac the knots or sappy places where the
pitch may have come through the priming. As this is the
finishing coat, exercise care in having the paint uniform
and kept to the right consistency to insure proper covering.
The paint should be of a full oil reduction so as to be elas-
tic, as this coat must both hide the surface and withstand
severe exposure; it must be carefully applied and of the
best matei'ial in order to accomplish these results. Use a
good stock brush and one that has been properly broken in.
A new brush will not allow of proper application or spread-
ing of the paint. Work out well under the brush to insure
proper binding and a smooth, even coat. Do not use a paint
which has to be flowed on to hide the surface, as this will
leave a spongj- coat without proper binding. Bring the
body and trimming color down together. Wipe off the body
color from corner strips, door and window frames. Do not
work this paint ofE with a trimming brush, as this will
cause spots. Square up the work at noon and night so as
not to have any laps.

Three-Coat Work — Priming. See that the surface is dry
and in condition to receive paint. Study the character of

EXTERIOR PAINTING 135

the lumber and reduce the paint according to its absorbing
properties. Note general information in regard to prim-
ing new work. The paint should be mixed to a thin con-
sistency to fully satisfy the lumber with only enough pig-
ment used to fill the grain of the wood and not leave an
excess of pigment on the surface. This will allow the mid-
dle coat to penetrate through the priming coat to a suffi-
cient depth to adhere to the fiber of the wood, as well as
the pigment in the primer, thereby assisting in binding it-
self to the surface as well as to the coats that are applied
over it.

If the primer is mixed to a heavy consistency, it will
retard absorption or penetration and leave an excess of pig-
ment on the surface that will under contraction and expan-
sion break loose when successive paint coats are applied.

Second or Middle Coat. Before applying the second or
middle coat, be sure the priming coat is hard dry over the
entire si;rface. As this is the medium between the founda-
tion or priming coat and the protecting or finishing coat,
extreme judgment must be used in mixing the paint for this
coating. It must not be too elastic and should di*y with-
out a high gloss. The paint for this coat, being the easiest
working of any applied to the building, requires thorough
and careful brushing to assure satisfactory results. Reshel-
lac knots or sappy places if necessary. Knife putty into
cracks, seams or nail holes. The paint should be mixed
heavy so as to brush out well, also assist in filling and pene-
trating the priming coat, leaving a surface to which the
finishing coat will readily adhere, as well as a surface which
properly dries from the bottom out.

Too heavy an oil reduction will leave a high glossy sur-
face over which the finishing coat will not adhere or prop-
erly dry. The reduction should be with sufficient turpen-
tine to form penetration and still make a paint which will
he elastic enough to Avithstand contraction and expansion
and dry firm. Over such a surface the finishing coat can be

136 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

brushed out smoothly and evenly without crawling or slip-
ping under the brush. The paint will dry without danger
of iDuckering, leathering, or flattening of the finishing coat
as would be the case in a short time if applied over a high
gloss. It is also very apt to crack and peel if oily coats
are applied one over another. It is almost impossible to
have solid painting with an excess of oil in undercoats as
the coats will most alwa3's be spongy, rarely adhering close-
ly to one another.

Finishing Coat — Three-Coat Work. See that the under-
coat is hard dry over the entire surface. The surface should
be perfectly clean and free from dust and dirt. Reputty
where necessary. Follow the same precautions as previ-
ously given for finishing coats. Brush thoroughly and care-
fully. Use a full stock brush properly broken in. Do not
use new brushes for finishing coats. The paint for this
coat should be the most elastic one applied, as it must stand
the most severe exposure. It should be of good consistency
with a full oil reduction, mixed so as to brush out smoothly
and evenly, remain where left without danger of running
or sagging and dry from the bottom out. The drying and
gloss are always assisted by having the under or middle
coats properly reduced and applied. Follow previous in-
structions as to cleaning off body color on parts that are
to be trimmed. Bring down and square up the work so as
not to show laps or poor workmanship.

Roof. Be sure the surface is dry. Do not use tar oil or
other offensive smelling oils that will ruin the cistern water.
Turn supply pipe from cistern when painting the roof. Mix
the full amount of paint requiied for the first coat, as it is
very difficult to make two mixes for shingles which will ap-
pear the same. Apply uniform coats to prevent spotting.
Have the priming coat thin so it can be easily worked into
the cracks. Keep ladders from resting on tin or in gutters.
Hook over the comb of the house. Trim the ridge-board
and coping as the work progresses. In doing this work do

EXTERIOR Painting 137

not go over the roof with the ladders after it is finished.
The life of a shingle roof can be more than trebled if the
shingles are dipped into properly prepared paint before be-
ing laid.

In dipping the shingles, they should be dipped at least
eleven inches. This will allow 4I/2 inches to the weather
and 6^/2 inches for the under lap. Never dip damp shingles;
break the band around the bunch and spread them out to
allow of drying before dipping or applying the paint. For
dipping shingles, use paint of the proper consistency for
finishing coat, reduced with not less than 50 per cent raw
linseed oil. When the shingles are laid, finish with one coat
of paint of a finishing coat consistency. Remember the
roof is subjected to very severe weather wear and soon
shows defective work.

The Paint. The paint for the roof should be of good
material. A mistake which is often made is that a very
cheap mixture will do for shingles. Have the priming
coat thin and enough of it mixed at one time to cover the
entire roof. Keep the paint uniform while working and
avoid having heavy laps or spots, as they will soon show
through the second coat and make an ugly looking job. The
second coat should be of good consistency and be well
brushed out, using care to keep from applying the paint
unevenly.

roundation and Flues. Do not paint damp brick. Oil
paint is the best size for brick. If the flues run from the
foundation to the roof on the outside of the building and
are to be painted a different color from the house or given
a ground color of Venetian red, they should be painted be-
fore the siding is painted, especially the first coat, as it is
very hard to keep paint from splashing over the siding in
working on rough brick. Where flues are to be penciled
and flat brick used, the flat color can be very easily applied
after the body color has been applied. Never apply less
than three coats on brick. If after the second coat has

138 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

been applied the soft brick show, touch them up before ap-
plying the finishing coat. This will even up the work.

The Paint. The first coat for brick and foundation flues
should be mixed thin so as to strike into the brick to a
good depth and form a foundation for subsequent coats.
Ten per cent of the total amount of thinners used in the
priming should be turpentine. The second coat should be
mixed half flat and well brushed over the surface. The
third or finishing coat should be elastic, of good consist-
ency and applied smoothly and evenly.

Window Sash. If the house is to be finished in natural
wood on the inside, shellac the sash on the inside and prime
on the outside. Paint the rabbit for the glass so that putty
will adhere. Before setting the glass, apply a coat of var-
nish to the inside and a coat of paint to the outside of the
sash. This will save a great deal of time in tracing. If
the sash is to be black or dark color, give the surface a sec-
ond coat of lead color mixed half flat. Never use black or
dark sash color on bare wood.

Outside Blinds. Outside blinds should be primed before
the carpenter fits them to the window. This will assist in
keeping the blinds from swelling. Paint for all coats on
blinds should be thin and well brushed out. Do not allow
the paint to be heavy on the rail or ends of slats. Lay
the blinds on a trestle with the stick side up. In paint-
ing, care must be taken not to get too much paint on the
ends of slats, otherwise they will stick. If the work is to
tie painted green or any dark color, finished Avith two coats,
the best results can be obtained by applying a priming coat
of oil paint lead color. The finishing coat must be mixed
with raw oil and sufficient dryer to set the paint. If three-
coat work, prime with oil paint lead color, second coat with
a finishing color mixed with part turpentine. Do not paint
the ends of the slats or inside rails with this coating. This
surface should receive but two coats of paint. The finish-

EXTERIOR Painting 1:^9

ing coat should cover the entire surface and should be
mixed with raw oil and sufficient dryer to set the paint.

Brush out well between the slats. Never use paint of
heavy consistency on blinds.

When drying, open the slats. Care must be taken never
to allow the slats to turn down flat when drying, other-
wise they will stick.

Veranda Columns and Rails. These should be primed
as soon as set, as they are usually made of heavy lumber
and liable to crack if not primed. Do not paint columns
and rails unless dry. Paint will soon blister or peel on
heavy timber if the least dampness is present. Do not
paint over shop or mill priming without thoroughly sand-
l^apering or scraping off as much of this paint as possible,
as it is usually a cheap mixture applied heavy, preventing
penetration and not fit for priming. It will generally peel
in a short time after another paint has been applied over
it. Do not be responsible for paint applied over primers
other than the ones you applied. Do not apply paint heavy
on round columns, as very little paint is required on a
round or convexed surface. If applied heavy, it will soon
blister, crinkle or peel. Carefully guard against an excess
of paint on this kind of a surface. Use very nearly a dry
brush and work the paint out well. The same applies to
spindles and other turned work. Guard against painting
the toiDS of rails and like surfaces which are damp from
frosts or dews.

The Paint. The paint for veranda columns and rails
should be reduced in the same manner as for the siding,
but requires an extra amount of brushing. The paint
should be well brushed out to insure smooth, even coats.
Knife putty into all cracks and nail holes, using a good,
hard-drying putty. Sandpaper the columns and rails be-
fore applying the finishing coat, dust off and apply a well
brushed coat. This work, together with veranda and porch
floors, should be the last finished on the exterior of the

140 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

building, as such v/ill insure the surface from being scuifed
or damaged by use.

Veranda and Porch Floors. A heavj^ coat of paint ap-
plied on the tongue and groove before laying will more than
double the life of the floor through keeping out the water.
Do not apply coats which are too oily. Brush well into
the surface. Do not have an excess of i^aint or pigment on
the surface. Remember the floors have to be walked on,
consequently the paint must dry firm and hard. Thorough-
ly fill all cracks and crevices with paint, then brush out.
Keep the work clean. Do not paint over mud, grease or
plaster. Do not use old, fatty or skinny paint for floors.
It will not make satisfactory work, Avill never dry hard and
will soon scuff off. Do not paint floors immediately after
frosts or heavy dews. Allow plenty of time for the sur-
face to become dry and warm. Sufficient turpentine should
be used in all coats to assist the paint in drying and hard-
ening. More trouble is caused from floors not properly
drying than from any other condition. The finishing coat
can not drj^ solid if undercoats are spongy; neither will
the paint wear well Avhere the undercoats are not thor-
oughly hard. A finishing coat of elastic paint can be
applied over a flat coat without causing trouble, but a flat
or quick-drying paint applied over an oil coat will cause
cracking or peeling. Do not flow paint on floors and expect
successful work. Two coats will not make a passable job
on a porch or veranda floor.

The Paint. For jn-iming, the paint should be of a thin
consistency, reduced with a liberal amount of turpentine
so as to penetrate well into the surface. See that the
priming coat is thoroughly dry before applying subsequent
coats. Putty all seams, cracks and nail holes with putty
Avhich will dry hard. The second coat for floors over good
solid priming should be mixed half flat so as to dry hard
and firm. Enough paint should be left on the surface to fill
and form a good protecting coat, but should not dry with a

EXTERIOR PAINTING 141

gloss or tack, as such retards the drying of the finishing
coat. The third or finishing coat should be elastic and of
good consistency, carrying sufficient turpentine to work
free, penetrate into the previous coating and dry hard and
firm. Remember that walking has to be done over this
coat, therefore it must be brushed out smoothly and evenly
so as not to leave heavy places which will dry unevenly
and soon scuff up from usage.

Fence. Do not neglect the fence. Paint it as well and
as neatly as the house. The pickets, rails and caps should
be primed before nailing up, as this will save a great deal
of time and allow of all edges to be painted. Do not paint
the tops of rails or caps when damp from rain, dew or
frost. The paint should be of the same consistency as
that used on the main building, and if the rails, pickets
and caps are primed well before nailing up, two coats are
usually sufficient for the fence. The fence should receive
the same trimming as the house. The paint should be of
the same material as used for the main building and as well
and neatly applied as on any other part of the work.

EXTERIOR PAINTING.

Old Work. In repainting an old surface, it is especially
important that the contractor consult a practical painter.
Carefully examine the surface to he painted befoi-e com-
mencing the work and determine whether there is any loose
paint or whether the undercoat is in condition to break
loose as soon as an elastic coat is apiolied over it. If
the building has previously been primed with ochre, watch
out for spots that have received a heavy coat and are ready
to break loose. Examine the surface for dampness from
basements, drain pipes, down spouts and wet soil. Before
starting to paint, see that dampness has not undermined
the paint and that the boards do not contain enough mois-
ture to cause the paint to break loose as soon as other
coats are aiDplied over them. Look out for loose scales,
fine or powdered. They do not appear to be dangerous,
nevertheless, they will keep the paint from adhering solidly
to the surface and make it soon break away. Be careful
about mildew, as this condition is always a sure sign of
dampness, and paint applied over mildew will soon spot or
peel. Examine the surface to see whether the paint of
previous coatings has shriveled. Paint applied over a
shriveled undercoating will soon break loose. Prepare the
paint according to the surface over which it is to be applied.

Repainting. When the surface to be repainted is in good
condition and not cracked or peeled, thoroughly clean the
building free from dust, dirt or soot. Wash mildewed
spots with turpentine. It is seldom that one mix of paint
will answer for all parts of the building. Portions of the
house that are the most exposed and weather-beaten should
receive the most elastic coat of paint. Portions that are

142

EXTERIOR PAINTING 143

protected, like under porches and verandas, and portions
shielded by trees and other buildings, which would render
them in about the same condition as under verandas, should
receive a coat of paint mixed so as to penetrate the old sur-
face and dry hard and firm without high gloss. If one mix
of paint, which will satisfy the exposed portion of the
building, is applied over the entire surface and to the pro-
tected or hard parts of the building, this oily or elastic
coat of paint will dry with a full or heavy gloss, retarding
the drying of the second or finishing coat, also causing
blistering, checking, cracking and flatting in a short time.

First Coat. For an exposed or weather-beaten surface,
the paint should be mixed with 2-3 oil and 1-3 turpentine
to assist in penetrating the old surface, as well as parts on
which some paint still remains. It should be applied with
a full brush to fully satisfy the surface and be well and
evenly brushed out so as not to have an excess of paint ou
the surface where the old paint remains.

The cornices and protected portions should receive paint
that is mixed half flat or with enough turpentine to force
penetration through the old paint, thus firmly binding this
coat to the surface and preventing the second or finishing
coat from crawling. The paint should be applied smoothly
and evenly and be well brushed in. Do not flow the paint
on and expect a uniform coat.

Second Coat. When the surface is thoroughly hard,
putty all cracks, seams and nail holes, knifing the putty
well in. One mix of paint for finishing coat can be applied
over the entire surface. This will dry uniformly. The
paint should be mixed to medium heavy and elastic con-
sistency and be well and evenly brushed out.

Cracked and Peeled Paint. Owing to the many kinds of
cracked and peeled surfaces, as well as the innumerable
causes from which they come, it is impossible to give
definite directions for repainting under all of the varied

144 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

conditions. Judgment must be exercised in studying the
surface and treating the same according to its needs.

The following suggestions as to repainting a cracked or
peeled surface will meet the most common of both found in
the general run of painting.

The preparation of a surface before painting is one of
the most important matters to be considered. Properlj' pre-
paring the surface will often go a great way in assisting
to make a successful job of painting over a very badly
cracked or peeled surface.

To properly clean a surface, it should be scraped and
carefully gone over with a wire brush. The kit should con-
sist of a good scraper and two wire brushes, one stiff and
coarse, the other fine and soft. On a surface where the
cracks are small and fine, a soft brush will assist in clean-
ing the dirt from the cracks and leaving the surface in bet-
ter condition than will a coarse brush. On a surface with
large cracks or a peeled surface, a coarse, stiff brush will
assist in forcing off the scales, also breaking the peeled
edges that have begun to turn out and are sometimes very
hard to break loose.

The amount of turpentine recommended in the following
reductions is based upon a gallon of hand mixed or pre-
pared paint of a full linseed oil reduction.

Cracked Surfaxies. When the paint is cracked in small
hair lines, it is usually called crazing of the paint. Gener-
ally these hair lines run crosswise of the grain the entire
width of the boards to which the paint is applied. The
paint is invariably very hard and this crazing is often at-
tributed to an excess of zinc. It is usually caused from an
improper reduction or combination of pigments which do
not dry uniformly, one being more easily affected by heat
•-^•i o.old than the others, therebv leaving a paint surface
■wdicfl xs nut anilorm as to coniraccion and expansion. /hiO
trouble is especially noticeable on parts of work that have
to withstand a g^reat deal of vibration. If the paint has not

EXTERIOR PAINTING 145

been applied too heavy and upon examination is found to
be perfectly bound to the wood, it can be successfully re-
painted in the following manner:

A great deal of care should be taken in the preparation
of the first coat, as the surface is usually hard and brittle.
If the paint is mixed half flat it will have sufficient turpen-
tine to penetrate well into the undercoats, and if well
brushed will thoroughly bind to them.

The finishing coat should be of good consistency and
well brushed. It should contain from 1-32 to 1-16 gallon of
turpentine to a gallon of paint, as the paint should nut be
too elastic, otherwise it is liable to blister on this hard sur-
face if exposed to heat when fresh.

Paint found to be cracked only through the top coat,
the checks not running through to the work, makes a very
treacherous surface to i*epaint, as the first coat applied is
liable to penetrate only through the hard glaze which has
already commenced to crack and possibly breaking loose
from the undercoats, and when a second and more elastic
coat has been applied this glaze will break loose and cause
the last coats to peel. The first coat should be mixed with
14 gallon of turpentine to the gallon of paint, so as to pene-
trate, if possible, the glazy surface to the undercoats which
are more firm, thereby binding itself as well as the finish-
ing coat to the surface. The finishing coat should not be
applied too elastic. This is to avoid having an excess of
oil on the surface.

Large and deep cracks, running to the primer or under-
coats, are usually caused by coats being applied too rapidly,
not allowing sufiScient time for pi'oper hardening, or under-
coats being mixed heavy with boiled or rosin oil or an excess
of japan which did not allow the paint to properly harden
and left the under-surface soft and spongy. Such paint is
usually tough and elastic and the undercoats are found to
be spongy and easily affected by hot or humid weather.
This paint usually shows no si^s of peeiiog, ae it is very

146 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

tough and seems to be firmly adhering to the wood, but to
repaint the surface requires a gi-eat deal of care in keeping
the new paint from following the first coats and cracking
in like manner. Be careful not to have an excess of paint
on the surface, as such will blister and peel.

Thoroughly clean the surface with a wire brush. Mix
the first coat of paint fairly elastic or with 1 pint to II/2
pints of turpentine to a gallon of paint. This will not dry
too hard and will be sufficiently elastic to withstand con-
traction and expansion over this treacherous surface, also
penetrate to a good depth. Brush out well and do not at-
tempt to fill the cracks with this coat. The finishing ooat
should be mixed to a good consistency with 1-32 to 1-16
gallon of turpentine to the gallon of paint and be well
brushed over the surface. If, however, all of the old paint
is solid and dried through, a half-elastic coat, % gallon of
turpentine to a gallon of paint, can be applied and should
be well brushed into the cracks. This will dry firm and
hard and a second coat of elastic paint can be applied over
it. This, well brushed into the cracks, will to a certaiji
extent fill them and make a very passable job without
danger of blistering, which would be the result if a first
coat of very elastic paint had been applied.

Alligatored Paint. Where the paint is cracked in every
direction, forming blocks, triangles, and in fact, every con-
ceivable shape, it is called alligatoring. This comes from a
number of causes, but can usually be traced to non-drying
undercoats and heavy coats of different mixtures. Ochre or
similar slow-drying pigments mixed with boiled oil will
very often be found at the bottom of this trouble. Fatty
paint or the use of adulterated oil also causes paint to
alligator. Such paint is usually tough and hard except
where it is well protected and there the undercoats will be
found to be tacky and spongy. The only successful way to
repaint this surface is to burn off the paint. This is a very
difficult job, as the heat softens up the excess of oil and a

EXTERIOR PAINTING 147

gummy, sticky mass of paint is the result. This soon gums
the knife, also fonns a cement over the wood, which is very
hard to remove. This is especially true where excessive
painting has been done, the paint having been mixed with
boiled oil or an excess of japan added, or where the paint
has cracked when first applied and paint heavily applied
over it in an attempt to fill the cracks, leaving the surface
with an excess of oil paint spread over it.

If it is not possible to burn the paint off, it can be painted
with fairly good results if first cleaned with a wire brush,
breaking the edges of the paint that may have commenced
to show signs of peeling and turning out, also removing
all the dirt from the cracks, then applying a coat of paint
mixed with from a pint to a quart of turpentine to the
gallon of paint, according to the elasticity of the surface.
Do not apply a heavier coat than is absolutely necessarj'.
Be particular to brush the paint well. Do not have the
paint too flat on the protected or more elastic portions of
the building, as these parts are very easily affected by hot
or humid weather. Do not attempt to rush the work.
Allow ample time for the paint to harden, then apply a fin-
ishing coat of paint mixed to a good consistency reduced
with 1-32 to 1-16 gallon turpentine to a gallon of paint.
Brush out well. This will not blister nor pull the under-
coats and will make a fairly satisfactory job.

Peeled Paint. In pi-eparing the surface for the repaint-
ing of peeled work, the same care should be exercised as
with cracked paint. Where the paint has commenced to
peel in small chips and upon examination it is found that
the trouble is with the last or finishing coat, such is called
chipping or fluffing. The trouble can usually be traced to
the improper application of the paint or its having been
applied over dampness caused by dews or frosts, also the
paint becoming chilled or applied in freezing weather, not
allowing sufficient penetration, which caused it to soon chip
or fluff off. This trouble can very easily be overcorqe by

148 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

scraping or going over the building with a wire brush and
coarse sandpaper, removing all the loose paint and then
applying one coat of paint of good consistency mixed elastic
with Yg gallon turpentine to the gallon of paint. This
mixture will thoroughly penetrate and bind to the under-
coats, generally making very satisfactory work.

If the paint is peeling in small thin scales and the trouble
only goes as far as the priming, it usually will be found
upon examination that this coat was of material like yellow
ochre which has been applied heavy and dried with a gloss,
the second coat not reduced with a sufficient amount of
turpentine to penetrate the hard surface. To repaint this
surface, the scales and loose paint should be scraped and
brushed off and a coat of paint, mixed with sufficient tur-
pentine to penetrate the priming coat, applied over the
spots where the paint has peeled, then apply a well brushed
finishing coat over the entire building. This should not
be too oily or elastic, otherwise it will break loose from the
undercoats, but it should carry from 1-32 to 1-16 gallon
turpentine to assist in brushing and penetrating the old sur-
face.

Where the paint is peeling in patches, exposing the bare
wood, and it is found upon examination that the backs of
the scales have a heavy coat of ochre or some other diy
pigment which is absorbing the oil from the wood, and the
paint has not been applied uniformly and is breaking away
in spots, these places can be scraped and thoi'oughly
brushed, then a coat of paint mixed with a percentage of
turpentine to assist in penetration applied over these spots.
One coat of paint can then be applied over the entire build-
ing, if the surface is in fair condition, and the undercoats
have not been applied too heavily. However, if the build-
ing has been standing and one coat is not sufficient, the
first coat should be mixed half flat so as not to leave an
excess of oily paint on the surface. This will even up the

EXTERIOR PAINTING 149

work and an elastic finishing coat can then be applied over
the entire building.

When a building has been painted a number of times
and the surface is peeling to the bare wood, the only sat-
isfactory way to repaint this is to burn the surface to the
wood, following special instructions given for burned sur-
face.

Where the paint has peeled in spots from dampness,
caused either by wet basements or plaster, the surface can
be successfully repainted after the house has been allowed
to dry out, by cleaning it and touching up the spots where
the paint has peeled, then covering with one coat of paint.
This will even up the surface and avoid repainting the
entire building if only part of the house is peeling.

Repainting a Surface on Which the Paint Has Been
Burned. Where paint is peeling or cracking badly, the only
satisfactory way is to burn the paint to the bare wood.
This leaves all of the surface practically new, and if the
character of the work is understood good results can be ac-
complished, but it must be borne in mind that all paints
when burned do not leave surfaces in the same condition
and the resulting character of each must be understood
before mixing the priming coat. Where an excess of boiled
oil has been used in successive repainting and the work has
commenced to crack or alligator, it will be found very hard
to get the work in good condition, as the oil will set on the
surface and form a glaze which is very hard to penetrate;
likewise where fatty oil or paint with a percentage of gloss
or rosin oil has been used. While the heat of the burning
lamp softens the oil and paint, it is very hard to remove
all of it from the surface.

To repaint this surface, care should be exercised in thor-
oughly sandpapering and scraping or breaking this glaze
where it is possible and a liberal amount of turpentine
should be mixed with the first coat to force penetration
through this hard surface. Where dry ochre or similar

150 CYCLXDPEDIA OF PAINTING

primer has been used, causing the paint to peel from its
not having- penetrated the surface, only a small proportion
of oil having gone into the wood, it is very easy to remove
with a burning lamp, leaving a surface which is practically
new, as most of the oil will have been drawn from the wood
during the process of burning. This surface can then be
treated the same as any new wood, with possibly the ex-
ception of some protected parts where the oil has pene-
trated to a greater depth and the paint is in better condi-
tion than on exposed j^ai'ts. The cause of blistered and
peeled work can often be traced to too elastic a coating
of paint having been applied over a burned surface. This
is esiJecially true where boiled or heavy oil has been used
in the primer of the paint which was burned. Boiled oil
should never be used in a paint applied over a burned sur-
face, it will not penetrate but will lay on the surface and
will soon crack, blister and peel. These troubles are often
laid to dampness or the paint used, or some defect in the
building which supposedly did not allow the paint to prop-
erly harden, while the true cause is from the paint not
having been properW reduced or applied over the surface.

Blistering. When paint blisters, the cause is usually at-
tributed to dampness, and it is perhajos true that more
trouble of this character on new buildings can be traced
to wet or unseasoned lumber or fresh i^lastering, than to
any other cause, and on old buildings to bad roofs, leaky
gutters, broken down spouts and wet basements. There are
so many chances for dampness to get under the paint of
eitlier Jiew or old buildings that it naturally follows there
would be more blisters from this cause than from all others.

As to buildings being in the foregoing condition, the
weather before and during the time the paint is applied has
niucli to do with it.

Dampness causing blistering of paint is more easily de-
tected than any other condition. This is especially true
where the dampness comes from wet plastering, as the

EXTERIOR PAINTING 151

blisters will be full of discolored water which stains the
paint when they break, and upou removing the paint over
the blisters it will be found that there is very little, if any,
paint or oil left in the grain of the wood. When examin-
ing surfaces where the water or dampness is not percep-
tible at the time of the examination, it is safe to assume,
without fear of an error in judgment, that dampness has
been the cause of the trouble, but there are also many other
causes for paint blistering which are often laid to the fore-
going.

Where linseed oil has been used from the bottom of a
tank and the settlings or foots are mixed with the paint, it
will cause blistering. This has the appearance of dampness,
there being spots where the paint has not penetrated and
the surface is almost bare. This paint will sometimes pull
away in large blisters, the underneath of which show that
the paint has adhered to the surface but contained some-
thing which would not allow of solid dr3dni4'. This trouble
can be attributed to non-drying mucilaginous matter which
separated fi'om the linseed oil and did not allow of uniform
penetration, binding or drying. Such blisters are invariably
oblong and folIoAv the grain of the wood.

New linseed oil will often cause the paint to blubber in
very warm weather, these blubbers causing small blisters,
that is attributed to the moisture in the oil which the heat
draws out in the sliape of different sized blubbers, breaking
and forming small blisters when the paint is dry.

Paint mixed with rosin oil will blister under extreme
heat. Paint applied over old work blisters more often from
the application of excessive oil coats than from any other
cause outside of dampness. As stated before, dampness is
easily traced in either old or new work. Numerous coats
of oil paint will often blister very soon after the paint has
been applied. The back of these blisters will show that the
paint has at one time been dry and was hard enough to hold
to the surface, but when paint was applied over it, it could

152 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

not stand the tension or pull of the other coats. This is
caused by numerous coats of oil paint which do not thor-
oughly cement together and form a solid foundation. This
can be proven by the backs of the blisters which often
have glossy spots that would not show had the coats of
paint thoroughly cemented or adhered. Other parts of the
blisters show gummy points, proving the paint had once
been cemented together in spots. This also shows that the
paint was over-elastic and had pulled away from the surface
by the heat which broke the coats apart. This latter trouble
is sometimes called a splitting of the paint. An excess of
oil on a hard surface like ochre priming, where there has
not been sufficient penetration, will cause the paint to
blister on protected parts of the building, such as under-
neath porches, etc. This trouble is very hard to understand,
but the true cause is excessive heat on a porch or veranda
floor, reflecting on the sides of the building, causing blister-
ing or the raising up and breaking loose of the paint from
the under-surface, this is especially true where the sun
reaches porches and verandas which have an enclosed end,
preventing free circulation of air and causing intense heat.
Blistering sometimes takes place from excessive paint-
ing on the sides of buildings where the sun does not reach.
This is caused by radiation of the heat, which is very intense
at certain times of the day, and no free circulation of air,
also from stone or cement walks which become very hot
from the rays of the sun, radiating this heat and blistering
the paint for some distance above these walks. Freshly
painted veranda floors will reflect enough heat on the side
of a building to cause the paint to blister and break away.
Veranda ceilings will sometimes blister. The cause can be
traced to water which has been thrown on the floor or to
pools of rainwater which reflect the heat of the sun on the
ceiling, forming a lens the same as would a convex glass
if laid in the same position. This reflection will cause the
paint to blister on ceilings and the trouble is often misat-
tributed to leaky roofs, gutters or like causes.

EXTERIOR PAINTING 153

Blistering Over Ochre. If a coat of oil paint is applied
over a heavy coat of ochre priming which has dried hard
and flinty, it will often cause it to blister badly when ex-
posed to the heat of the sun. This result is due to the
paint not penetrating into the hard surface, thus leaving an
excess of oil on the ochre coat. Where ochre is mixed dry
with oil, it is impossible to thoroughly incorporate thfe two
and when applied will sometimes raise up in small
blisters: the under part will be found dry and the paint can
be powdered. This is caused by the dry ochre lying on the
surface, absorbing all of the oil and leaving nothing to
satisfy the wood, consequently, the heat of the sun will
soon pull it away. This is more noticeable after another
coat of paint has been applied over the priming.

To successfully repaint blistered work, the character of
each kind of blister must be understood; study the cause of
the trouble and repaint the surface accordingly. If water
or dampness is the cause, the paint for retouching should
be mixed with a full oil reduction to satisfy the bare wood;
if from fat oil, it must be mixed with sufficient turpentine
to penetrate the surface which this oil leaves; if from fatty
or non-drying oil, the surface must be first washed with
turpentine to remove the grease, then touched up with paint
mixed with part turpentine to assist in penetrating to a
good depth.

For ochres and like surfaces, the same directions apply
for touching up as for a peeled surface. On old work where
the paint has blistered from an excess of oil, retouch with
paint mixed half flat. This will penetrate through the old
paint and give a good foundation. After the work on the
foregoing has been touched up, the entire building can be
given a coat of paint: this will even up fairly well, but the
spots caused by the blisters will show to a certain extent.

Roof. Do not paint damp shingles. Allow time for rain,
dew or frost to dry off and the roof to become thoroughly

154 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTINa

dry. Sweep the roof with a good broom and remove all
dirt, lint, cinders and soot.

The mix of paint depends upon the condition of the
roof. Use good material reduced with raw linseed oil in
painted shingled roofs.

On old shingles apply a uniform coat of paint mixed
to the consistency of satin. It is necessary to have the
paint of a very thin consistency to fully satisfy the old
weather-beaten shingles. When thoroughly dry, apply a fin-
ishing coat of heavier consistency, well worked into the
cracks.

If the roof has been pi'eviously painted or the sliingles
dipped before laying, and are in a fair condition, the paint
can be used of heavier consistency and one coat is usually
sufficient to do a satisfactory job on this surface.

It is sometimes claimed that a roof has faded or spotted
out in a comparatively short time. This is more often the
case where combination pigments which go to make up
greens or olives have been used. In the majority of cases
such complaints can be traced to the color not fading, but
the oil having been absorbed by the shingles, these not hav-
ing been fully satisfied by the undercoat reductions. A little
oil rubbed over the surface will demonstrate that the full
color is thei'e but has flatted out through having been robbed
of the oil required to bring out the original shade or bril-
liancy.

Foundation and Flues. Foundations or flues which have
been painted should be treated the same as new work.
Wiiere foundations or flues have been kept painted, with oil
paint, one coat of similar color mixed to a good consistency
is usuallj' sufficient. This should be applied after the house
has been finished. If previously finished in flat color and
is to be painted again in the same manner, one oil paint
coat of good consistency and one coat of flat color should
be applied.

Window Sash.. Break sashes loose so they can be worked

EXTERIOR PAINTING 155

without trouble. Scrape off all loose paint and putty, then
sandpaper. If the putty is soft or broken away, it is best
to remove all and not attempt to patch up broken places.
Apply a heavy coat of paint in the groove where the putty
has been removed. The same paint used for trimming or
body color is often used for this coat, but should usually be
of a heavier consistency and requires a different mix, how-
ever, where blacks or reds are used, it is a good idea to have
a groundwork of diirk lead color for black and terra cotta
for reds. If the sash is in good condition, not badly weather-
beaten, the paint should be mixed half flat and a finishing
coat of black or red varnish color applied. Before applying
this finishing coat, reputty the sash where necessary. If
the putty is to be painted, it is best to reputty some days
before tracing, so it will become set.

Outside Blinds. Remove blinds from the building and
examine the slats to see whether they will work. If stuck
together from previous painting, they are sometimes very
difficult to break loose and require a great deal of patience
to keep them from breaking. Use a sharp knife and cut in
between the slats, also at the ends. Break one slat loose at
a time. As soon as broken loose, cut or scrape the old paint
from the edges of rails, also ends of slats, and break the
paint from around the staples on stick so they will work
freely. Sandpaper exposed parts and dust off thoroughly.
If the blinds have been closed and the inside is in good con-
dition, they will require only one coat of paint on this part.
Exposed and weather-beaten parts should receive the first
coat of paint of medium consistency mixed with 2-3 and 1-3
turpentine, well brushed out. The ends of slats and inside
of fi'ame work do not need this coat. After the first coat
has become hard dry, the blinds should receive a coat of
paint all over. The paint should be of good oonsisteuey and
be well brushed out so as not to have an excess of paint,
causing the slats to work hard. Leave the slats open until
the paint is dry. If closed, they are very apt to stick.

156 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Veranda Columns and Rails. Be sure that the surface is
dry. Scrape and sandpaper loose paint from veranda
columns and rails before first coating. Fill the cracks and
nail holes with paint. See that there is no mildew on the
base, skirting boards or lattice work caused by dampness
underneath the porches and verandas. Knife putty into
cracks and nail holes before applying finishing coat. Use
the same paint as for the building, well brushed out on the
round columns and turned Avork.

Veranda and Porch Floors. Sweep the floor clean, also
remove dirt from cracks so that the paint can be brushed
into them. Paint applied too heavily on floors will not dry
solid and will soon scuff up. Be sure there is no damp-
ness coming from underneath, as such will cause the paint
to blister or peel and not allow of proper hardening. It is
very hard to avoid blistering in the repainting of floors
that have been kept oiled. First wash the floor with tur-
pentine and wipe off dry, then apply a thin coat of paint
mixed half flat. Allow ample time for the paint to harden,
then apply the finishing coat mixed with 2-3 oil and 1-3
turpentine, well brushed out.

On old floors that have been kept well painted, one coat
is often sufficient. Where they are badly weather-beaten
they should receive a coat of paint of good consistency
mixed with 2-3 oil and 1-3 turpentine. When hard dry,
putty the cracks, nail holes and seams, then apply a coat of
paint of heavier consistency mixed with the same propor-
tions of oil and turpentine. The floors and steps should not
receive the finishing coat until all of the other painting has
been completed.

The fence should receive the same care as to preparing
the work for painting as the building. Sweep and dust the
work thoroughly before painting. The same mixture of
paint should be used on the fence as on the house and the
fence trimmed with the same color.

Old Work— One Coat. Where the paint has stood for two

EXTERIOR PAINTING 157

or three years and one coat is to be given over a
shade similar to the one already on the building, the sur-
face should be thoroughly cleaned with a wire brush or
broom, then thoroughly dusted. It is sometimes necessary
to wash the surface with sponge and water to remove the
smoke and dirt, which otherwise will work up through the
paint, changing the color and making un-uniform shades.
It is almost imiDOssible to brush dirt streaks out and the
only way to get the work in condition for painting is to first
wash the surface with water. Allow time for the surface
to dry, then, if the wear of the paint is found to be uniform,
one coat mixed to a good consistency with a full oil reduc-
tion and sufficient turpentine to assist the working will
make a satisfactory job. If, however, upon examination
the paint is found to be weather-beaten or weai-ing off in
spots on the exposed parts, the building will have to be
touched up on these exposed portions and a coat of paint
applied to the entire surface to even it up; otherwise it
will be spotted when the paint has dried out, making an
unsatisfactory job.

If the paint has not worn down to the wood and is only
worn off to the undercoats which are solid, mix the paint
with half turpentine and half oil, go over the exposed por-
tions of the building with a smooth, even coat, and as soon
as hard dry give the entire surface a coat of paint mixed
to a good heavy consistency, as before directed. The paint
should dry out even, thus making satisfactory work.

As all portions of a building do not have uniform expos-
ure, it is very hard to find a surface where one coat will
produce satisfactory work over the entire building. On the
most severely exposed parts of a building, the paint will
naturally show more wear than on the protected parts and
thpse exposed parts will need to be touched up or painted
over CO even them up with the less exposed portions.

GILDING.

Gilding may be broadly luulerstooc! to mean the applica-
tion of metals in thin leaf form to decorative purposes, by
the use of mordants and vehicles. Oriuiually limited in
scope to the application- of gold loaf, it has now become
a general practice to substitute manj^ kinds of metal, both
in imitation of gold, and in order to produce other metallic
color effects. This is not altogether to be regretted, as the
use of the more precious metal in such a form that it is
ultimatelj' totally lost to the community is a deplorable
waste, which is not entirely defensible, especially as it
draws a large quantity of the metal away from its more
legitimate use in ' the arts of the goldsmith and metal
worker. The small proportion used for really high-class
decorative work, as in illuminating and iDerraanent decora-
tive schemes and pictures, is in proportion less than one
per cent of the enormous amount used for commercial ad-
vertising, and the overlaying of plaster and composition
picture frames.

The various metals in common use for gilding in the leaf
form are:

Platinum.

Gold, in many degrees of fineness and tint.

Alloys of gold and copper.

Alloj's of gold and silver.

Alloys of copper and silver.

Alloys of copper and tin.

Silver.

Aluminium.
The alloys are known as metal d'or, Dutch metal, gold
metal, etc. The commonest and cheapest forms are thick
and brittle in quality, while the better degrees of gold leaf

158

OILDIKG 159

are beaten to extreme thinness, the malleability and duc-
tility of the metal allowing as many as 2,500 leaves, 3
inches by 3i/4 inches, to be obtained from 1 ounce of fine
gold, or to put it in another way, the total thickness of 300,-
000 leaves is less than 1 inch. Gold leaf is usually put
up in books of 25 leaves, each leaf being 31/4 inches square.
It is sold by the 1,000 leaves — viz., 40 books. Silver leaf
is usually 4 inches by 4 inches, and metals are made in
both sizes, and larger.

Gold leaf is termed white, pale, medium, deep, extra deep,
citron, red, etc., according to its color. Gold is readily
damaged in the book by handling, damp, and shaking, for
this reason good gold leaf of recent make should be selected.
The best work cannot be produced by any other. It should
be kept in a dry place, and may, with advantage, be placed
upon a hot plate, or in the oven prior to using. The red
powder on gold books is put on to prevent the gold sticking
to the leaves of the book, it is bole, a red earth from Ar-
menia, of peculiarly flaky, smooth, and soft texture. A red
French clay is sometimes used for the same purpose.

Methods of Gilding. The various methods of applying
gold leaf used by painters and decorators are termed: Oil
gilding, Japan gilding, and Water gilding.

These methods vary in detail upon different kinds of
grounds. Oil or Japan gilding is used upon painted sur-
faces, or grounds that have been strongly sized or var-
nished.

Oil Gold Size. Oil gold size is a preparation of fat lin-
seed-oil, which has, by exposure to the atmosphere, lost
its power of absorbing oxygen, and become viscid and less
hard drying, it may be prepared by exposing linseed oil to
the air and light in a wide, open-mouthed vessel for about
six months. To make it usable and give it a little body and
color, ochre is ground up in about one-third of the whole
quantity and added to the whole bulk, a little driers, usually
litharge, is also required, and, if too thick for use, it must

160 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

be thinned to proper consistency with boiled oil. A small
quantity of good varnish, one part to twenty, added to gold
size, gives it hardness and additional luster. Good oil size
will be ready to receive the gold at any time between twen-
ty-four hours and a week from the moment of using it, and
the longer it holds its tackiness the better is the result,
provided that the size ultimately dries firm and hard, like
a piece of gold-beater's skin.

Japanners' G-old. Size is a quick varnish drying in about
half-an-hour to two hours, and is ready for gilding as
soon as sufficiently dry. It must be gilded upon at once
when this is the ease, as the tack soon changes into a hard
varnish surface.

Gilding can be done with varnish, but the excessive gloss
gives a blackish look to the gold, and as the varnish hard-
ens it loses its hold of the metal, which will then wash off
with soap and water. Notwithstanding this fact, it is often
used in large proportions added to gold size by certain
decorators, who admire the additional gloss, but do not
trouble about durability.

Many special sizes of a varnish nature are made for sign
writers.

Water Grold. Sizes vary in their nature for different pur-
poses. For gilding on prepared wood, papier mache, plas-
ter, or composition, as for picture frames, two kinds are
used, burnish and matt gold size.

Burnish Gold Size is made from pipeclay and black lead,
with a small quantity of mutton suet added in the grinding.
It can be purchased ready made, and is used with ordinai-y
parchment or gelatine size as a binding medium. Gilding
on this size will take a good polish, or burnish with an
agate burnisher.

Matt Gold Size. Matt size is for gold which is required
to have a matt or dead surface, and is made from pipeclay,
Armenian bole, and other materials. It can be purchased
ready for mixing with the clear parchment or jelly size.

GILDING 161

Isinglass Gold Size. Gilding upon glass is done with isin-
glass size. Take a pinch of best Russian isinglass, put it
into a pint of water, and stand the whole in a covered jar
in the oven for a few hours, when dissolved or cooked add
a ^ pint of spirits of wine and strain or filter through
white filter paper. The spirits of wine removes the solid
or waste portion of the isinglass, and also serves to counter-
act grease on the glass, or in the hairs of the brushes used,
its action is similar to that of wine in milk.

Clear Size for Gold. Gold is often clear sized to im-
prove its color and pi-event blooming. This size, as well as
that used for matt and burnish work, is best prepared from
finest gelatine, or from boiled parchment cuttings.

Tools for Laying Gold. The operation of gilding is the
same, whatever process is used, in as far as laying the gold
is concerned. The best and general method is by means of
a cushion and tip. The cushion is a small board about 8 by
5 inches, covered with flannel, and over this a tightly
stretched chamois leather. A draught screen of parchment
is fitted round one half of it, this to prevent the wind re-
moving, the gold from the cushion. It has a thumb strap
beneath, and loops for the knife, etc., and is held like a
palette on the left hand. The other tools required for the
laying are a gilder's knife and a tip.

The knife is a long flexible blade of equal breadth
throughout its length. The tip is a flat brush made by set-
ting a row of hairs, either camel or badger's, between two
pieces of card. The fingers of the left hand hold the tip
and knife alternately when either is not being used by the
right hand. Dabbers and camel-hair brushes, and mops,
are required to press the gold down in its place, and remove
superfluous scraps.

Laying Gold Leaf. The size being ready to receive the
gold, about a dozen leaves are put in a heap in the back
part of the cushion, then the cushion is taken in the left
band and the knife in the right.

162 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

The gold is taken from the book by merely opening each
leaf and gently blowing the gold out on the cushion. With
the knife a leaf of gold is taken to the front of the cushion,
laid squarely, and deftly blown out flat, cut to any size re-
quired by a sharp jerking, saw-like .movement of the knife
not like ordinary cutting, the knife is then transferred to
the left hand, and the tip to the right, the gold is then
taken up by the tip and laid uj^on the work. The whole
process is extremely simj^le after practice. Breathing must
be carried on gently thi'ough the nostrils, so as not to dis-
arrange the gold. "When blowing a leaf flat, aim a smart
jet of air right into the center of the leaf, sudden and
short. When cutting, lay the edge of the knife, which must
not be keen, on the gold leaf firmly, give a little jerk, lift it
up, and the gold will separate. Take care not to cut the
leather of the cushion. The knife must not be sharp enough
to do so. If the gold does not at once adhere to the tip,
pass the same lightly over the hair or beard to slightly
grease it; this also sets up a magnetic action which assists
to hold the gold. It must not adhere too firmly to the tip,
or the gold will tear in transferring itself to the gold size.
Always allow each leaf to lay Y^ inch in lajang, to secure a
good joint. Use whole leaves wherever possible, and fault
up every hole and crevice before dabbing down. Well press
down all joints or there will be a slight gap apparent at
the junction.

In gilding a plain surface, hammer well down with a firm
touch and a good cotton wool pad before skewing off, and
then skew with a soft new stencil tool, using a circular
motion, and polish with a soft piece of cotton wool. Laying
gold upon oi'dinary oil or Japan gold size is sometimes done
by a process of transferring. This process is economical
and useful for outside work, or for etched and partial gilt
work. To accomplish the process, the gold must be what is
known as transfer gold, gold leaf which has been put upon
tissue paper. Sheets of thin tissue paper are cut into con-

GILDING 163

venient sizes and slightly waxed with a tablet of white
wax. When pressed against the gold leaf in the book, the
leaf adheres to these waxed sheets and is from them in turn
transferred to the work. The waxed sheets being slightly
adhesive, only those portions of the leaf that are in contact
with the gold size leave the tissue sheet, and so there is no
waste. The tissue being somewhat transparent the oper-
ator can see exactly what gold is still left upon the tissue,
and utilize every portion of it for the work in hand, he can
also see when the gold size has not been covered with the
gold. Gold can be transferred to the tissue leaves without
the necessity of waxing them, by merely interleaving the
gold book with tissue and putting the book into a copying-
press and well pressing.

The exceptions to these two methods of laying the gold
are fanciful and individual, the most general being what
is termed laying from the book. "\^nien gilding a large flat
surface, the gold leaf can be laid direct from the book and
much time saved thereby, by the use of a long-haired tip
which can take up a leaf at a time without the necessity of
cutting. The odd spaces and small bits are afterwards filled
from the cushion in the usual manner. Another method is
to dispense with the tip, and by taking the book m the left
hand, and opening it with the right to turn the leaves
straight on to the work. This is a great saving of time for
large letters out of doors or for large flat surfaces of oil
size gilding, but it requires some dexterity to be sure and
economical.

All gilding for interior decoi'ation, and all out-door gild-
ing that can be conveniently left long enough before gilding,
should be done in oil gold size. The exceptions are, when
lime is an object of importance, or where the work is fine
and intricate, as in small lettering.

To Prevent Gold Sticking to Ground. The ground for
■.-old sizing must be free from any tackiness, hard, dry, and
impervious. If it is not so it must be coated with some

164 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

preparation to prevent the gold sticking where it is not re-
quired. The white of an egg beaten up with a little water
is the best preparation upon varnished or enamelled work.
The white of one egg to 4 ounces of water is sufficiently
strong. Upon ordinary painted work, a good rubbing with
a pounce bag, that is, a small calico bag filled with fine
sifted whiting, will suffice. A little size and water is also
effective, and if a little whiting is added to it, it is still
more so. White of egg must not be used too strong, never
more than two-thirds water to one-third egg. This is the
least detrimental to the luster of the gold. Ordinary
painted work that has to be partly gilt and then varnished,
may be prepared by rubbing with a piece of very fine glass
paper and some dry whiting. Whiting preparations have a
tendency to cause the gold size to run.

The gold size must be laid evenly and sparely. If laid
too heavily it will crinkle up after the gilding has been
done. It is sometimes necessary to add color to the gold size
in decorative work, so as to see better where the size is put
on level, etc. Tube colors may be used for this purpose, and
they should always approximate to the color of gold as
nearly as possible, as the gold leaf is full of innumerable
small holes, and the color used in the size has an effect upon
the appearance of the gold when laid. Chrome, burnt
sienna, vermilion, or ochre are suitable colors.

Gold size should never be gilded unless quite ready. The
size should be just tacky enough to hold the gold leaf, but
never wet enough to smear or move if rubbed with the fin-
ger tip. Gold laid upon too wet size will turn black and
lusterless. The precise condition is ascertained by the ap-
plication of the clean finger tip, and practice will enable the
operator to judge very accurately.

Turpentine should not be used as a thinner in gold size,
because it leaves behind it, after evaporation, a resinous oil,
which never properly hardens. A little boiled oil is the best

GILDING 165

thinner. Japanners' gold size may be thinned with a little
turpentine if both are heated to boiling point together.

Oil gilding should always be well washed down with clean
water and a soft sponge, and then sized with clean gelatine
size, this washing hardens the oil, and the size protects and
preserves the gold and gives it a more uniform luster, in
place of the broken metallic brilliance it has as the result
of its beating. Before washing, it should be carefully
pressed down with cotton wool, all faults made good, and
the whole dusted off with cotton wool or a camel-hair dab-
ber.

In gilding enriched and molded surfaces, the gold Avill
sometimes require double laying, in order to reach the in-
terstices of the work.

All waste gold, known as skew, should be saved and used
for dusting into the carved portions, and when these are
dusted out, the skew should be carefully collected in a tin
canister for future use, or for disposal to the dealer in old
gold and silver.

Burnish and Matt Gilding. Burnish and matt gilding are
much alike in method of procedure. They are principally
used for enriched ornament, cornices, and picture frames.
The work is brought up to a good surface in size and whit-
ing, and then coated with five or six coats of the matt size
or burnish size, as the case requires, each coat being rubbed
down with very fine glass paper, and the size laid on with
a camel-hair brush and allowed to dry thoroughly between
each coat. When the ground has a sufficient number of
coats to be perfectly solid, the gold is laid with water only.
The size is well wetted with water in a camel-hair brush,
and the gold laid on the water, which, as it dries, carries the
gold on to the size coat and fixes it there. The leaf must be
laid immediately following the water while it is yet live, to
accomplish this quickly, the expert gilder uses the water
brush with his right hand by clenching it with the two
little fingers in his fist at the same time as he has the gold

166 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

upon the tip held between the forefinger and thumb of the
same hand. The floAving -water catches the gold from the
tip, and spreads it out smoothly on the surface of the water
in the moment or two between the application and the ab-
sorption of the water by the distemper ground. This com-
pletes the gilding as far as the matt portion is concerned,
except for a final clear sizing and sometimes coloring or
coating with ormolu.

The burnished portion, howevei*, requires polishing or
burnishing. This is done at the moment the gilding is drj',
and before it becomes so hard as to be brittle. An agate
or flint stone, set in a handle, is the burnisher. These are
of different shapes. They are rubbed lightly against the
gold, which takes a remarkably high polish, and retains it.
Burnished gold must not be sized.

Burnish and matt gilding are confined to the flat or curved
plain portions of the work, and are done first. The en-
riched and fancy parts are afterwards oil-sized and gilded
in the usual manner.

Ormolu for matt gold is prepared from best garnet shellac
and white sticklac dissolved in spirits of Avine, and tinted
to the required depth with dragon's blood, a few drops are
added to the usual gelatine or parchment size to produce
an even, lusterless and rich surface of any desired depth.

Glass Gilding. Gilding upon glass is done in the same
manner as described for water gilding, isinglass size being
used in the place of water. The glass is well cleaned, freed
from grease, and set before the operator at a slight angle,
sometimes the glass is upright, as in a window, and has
to be done in that position. The isinglass size, before de-
scribed, is used in precisely the same way as the water in
water gilding, and the gold laid on the flowing size so as to
stretch itself out as the size recedes. The size must be used
freely and allowed to run off quickly. It must not be strong,
the weaker it is the brighter will the finish of the gold be.
The less size there is remaining between the glass and the

GILDING 167

gold and between the two coats of gold, the better polish
can be obtained.

In all other methods of gilding the gold is attached from
the back of the leaf, and the finished work shows the un-
alloyed brightness of the metal, but in the case of glass gild-
ing, the size comes between the gold and the eye, and the
glass interposes a further medium, so that it is at once ap-
parent that the cleaner the glass, and the clearer and thinner
the film of size, the less is the brilliance of the gilding in-
terfered with. The purity and cleanliness of the size and
glass will be assured if the size can be laid upon the glass
without cissing or gathering. If it runs off like water on
a duck's back, the glass is greasy or the size is not clean,
or perhaps the water used is too harl, boiled rain water
makes the best size, but it must be clean and clear.

Gilding on glass requires a second coat in order to make a
solid job. The first coat of gold when dry is lightly polished
with finest cotton wool, and fixed and burnished by scalding
with very hot water as near boiling as can be used without
splitting the glass. It may be poured over from the spout
of a kettle, so as to run over the whole of the gilding, and
then down on to the ground, or laid over with a broad 4-
inch camel-hair flat. This removes the scum of the size from
betAveen the gilding and the glass and adds to its clarity
and brilliance. The work may then be carefully polished
with a piece of finest cotton wool. It is then alloAved to dry
and the whole of the gilding and clearing with hot water
repeated. After this the gold is backed up by a coat of hard
Japan or varnish which will dry in about eight hours and
have a perfect gloss. In cold weather the whole of the glass
must be treated with the hot water whether gilded or not,
or breakage will result from the inequality of expansion
produced, and if the day be frosty, the job must be done
very cautiously in a hot shop, or defended. The water must
never be boiling.

The gold used for glass gilding is specially prepared, being

168 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

more even in thickness than the ordinary gold, and put up
in books of special paper that does not require dusting with
French chalk or Armenian bole to prevent the gold adher-
ing to the book. The gold thus supplied is much cleaner
than that used for general purposes. It is important that
glass gilding be made to dry off quickly and that no time
be allowed to elapse between the operations, or it will accu-
mulate dust and get discolored.
J Although gilding on glass is looked upon as a difficult
matter to successfully carry through, all the difficulties ai-e
overcome by the exercise of cleanliness. The cleanliness of
the glass may be tested by breathing on it, and if the mois-
ture evaporates quickly, leaving the glass clear, it will do.
Glass may be made chemically clean by the use of dilute
nitric acid, and well rinsing with water.

Tissue paper is a good glass polisher. Filtered rain-
water makes the best isinglass size, or distilled water, as it
is free from metallic taint.

Gilding upon paper, parchment, and vellum can be best
done by using a size made from yolk of eggs and glycerine.
This is ground together with a little ochre and thinned with
water. If used in a very liquid state as a mere water wash
size, and the gold is laid directly thereon, as in glass gilding,
it may be tooled or burnished. All gold work should be
sized before writing or painting upon it.

Platinum and Silver Laying and Metaling. Platinum leaf
is used in the same manner as gold lead, and is applicable
to all the same purposes.

Silver leaf and gold leaf of very pale tint, that is, which
contains a large proportion of silver, should never be laid
on the oil gold size, neither should metals which are subject
to oxidization, as the oil has a strong affinity for oxygen,
and the oxidization of the metals is set up and goes on more
rapidly. If used upon a spirit size or water size, and well
protected with lacquer or spirit varnish, these metals will
be perfectly lasting. Their durability depends entirely on

QlLDINa 169

their perfect enclosure and envelopment in an air-tight case
of lacquer or varnish, both under and above them,

Japanners' gold size, with, or without, the addition of a
little Venice turpentine makes as good a size as can be had
for metals. There are many special sizes for the purpose
prepared ready for use, but nothing is better than a good
full bodied japanners' size exposed to the air for a few days
to fatten a little.

Aluminium leaf may be used best on a mixture of ochre
ground in oil and japanners'. It is reported to be un-
changeable, and is so as far as it has been tested in actual
decorating. It cannot be lacquered into a good gold, but
silver leaf can. Silver is more lustrous than aluminium,
which has a rather leaden look when used alone. It makes
a pretty combination with gold, being grayer than silver.
The cheaper metals can be laid by hand, as they are so
thick as to stand handling freely, and can be cut into pieces
with a pair of scissors.

The principal qualification for success in gilding is a deft
and delicate handling of the metals, especially gold leaf,
and there must also be a ready recognition of the possibil-
ities and peculiarities of each kind. Always remember that
whatever the condition of the under size or ground, it is
hermetically sealed up when the leaf is put on, which thus
prevents any change or further drying in the ordinary way,
so that if gold is laid on soft coats of paint, they will not
all harden off together, but will go on working under the
gold, expanding and contracting, and will ultimately ruin
the gold leaf.

Bronzes. Bronzes have the same qualities as the baser
leaf metals, and the same precautions must be observed in
using them. They must not be mixed with oil varnishes, or
oil mediums, but can be put upon japanners' gold size, or
upon any spirit varnishes in powder form. They can be
mixed and ajDplied as liquids in any spirit varnish, or in size
or gum, though the tendency of gum to become acid some-

170 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

times turns the bronze black. In bronzing with the powder,
the size, usually japanners' gold size, is applied, and when
tacky, the bronze is dusted on with a rabbit's foot, a wad
of close cloth, or a chamois leather pad. The bronze is pro-
tected by a thin coat of lacquer, and then varnished in the
ordinary way.

Bronzing should never be varnished over with oil cupal
varnishes, as it will rajndly lose color and oxidize if so
varnished, some of the commoner house-painters' oak var-
nishes have so little oil in them that this eft'ect does not fol-
low rapidl}'. If metals, silver, or gold be sized with a clear
jelly of gelatine size, or thinly lacquered, they may be var-
nished with any kind of varnish, as the interleaf of size will
stop the direct action of the varnish upon the metal.

Bronzing is sometimes used over paint to give the effect
of metal. Thus a piece of iron casting may be painted
green or copper color, and then the highest portions of the
relief touched with bronze. This is done by coating the
article with japanners' varnish or gold size, and when
tacky dusting over a little powder bronze, which can be
applied by a piece of cloth or velvet rubbed in the powder.
The bronze should not be applied to the bare oil paint.
The color of the bronze must bear a correct relation to the
color of the paint used.

Lacquer for Metals. Various lacquers are used to give
gold or metal a different color. Any lacquer can be made
from an ounce of good shellac dissolved in half a pint of
spirits of Avine, and tinted with saffron, turmeric, sanders,
or other dye-woods, dragon 's blood, or any of the aniline
powders. The most useful colorings are turmeric and drag-
on's blood, a colorless lacquer may be used, and the tinting
done by the use of transparent oil colors in varnish.

The house painter often has to re-lacquer small brass
fittings. These are better gilded and thou coated Avith
French polish or a good lacquer. This does not apply to
bandies, but to certain hooks, curtain pole ends and brackets,

GILDING 171

bell pulls, etc., clean, and give them a coat of patent knot-
ting before gold sizing, gold size with japanners', and
gild in the usual way.

Preparing Open Grain Wood and Stone for Gilding. To
prepare rough cut deal, ash, open grain oak, or stone, foi'
gilding, give a couple of coats of French polish and spirit
varnish in equal parts, or two coats of patent knotting, then
gold size in the usual manner. Japan gold size sometimes
works cloggy in fine lettering. When working indoors at
line gold lettering on a black ground, if the Japan size be
stood in a jar of hot water it keeps fluid and works ex-
tremely well, setting quickly when once on the work. It
must not be too hot. A pot may be filled with hot water
and the size in a smaller pot stood in it.

GRAINING.

The art of graining consists in working transparent color
over an oil ground, the ground being of a color that will
match the lightest tone in the markings on the wood. The
transparent colors used for the general markings match
the colors in the real wood, and are applied with large
brushes, the effect is further assisted by still darker touches
of color, put on here and there in places with smaller brushes.
To produce a good piece of graining, the most important
matters to be considered are, the ground on which the
graining is to be worked, the figuring, the over-graining, the
glazing, the tools, the state of the color and the manner of
applying it, and, because there are several modes of pro-
cedure, the particular process to be adopted. There are
three different kinds of graining — namely, water color (dis-
temper), spirit color, and oil color, outdoor work is done in
oil, water color is used for facility and for fine gradation,
and spirit color for quickness. The several methods are
frequently combined, as, for instance, water color over oil,
in order that the second coat of the figure may not disturb
the first. If water color is used over water color, the under
coat must be fixed with a mixture of equal parts of varnish
and turpentine.

It is assumed that the reader already is acquainted with
the practical elementary stages of brush work, as the plain
painting is termed, and that he is capable of producing a
good ground upon which the graining can be worked. The
ground of the graining is very important, for although a
skilful workman could work on a white or even a poorly
constituted ground, yet he could do far superior work on a
ground of good tone and in good condition. The ground
is a technical term involving two distinct ideas, surface and

172

GRAINING 173

color. A properly prepared surface should be free from
grittiness, from coarse brush marks, from dents, etc., and
should be hard and smooth. The amount of gloss depends
on the proportions of linseed oil and turpentine in the
grounding paint, and is a matter for individual preference,
some grainers jjrefer a groundwork of a brilliant bright tone,
trusting to the brown glazing color to break it down, others
prefer to have the ground of a dull color, and work a
brighter tone of graining color over it. Some prefer the
color mixed up with three parts oil to one of turps, others
prefer the color to be made up of half turps and half oil.
The former gives a hard gloss suitable for oil-graining with
steel combs. For water or distemper gi-aining, more tur-
pentine, giving a dull gloss, is better, for this class of work
two coats of varnish are ultimately required, while, if the
ground is hard and oily, only one coat of varnish is neces-
sary, as the varnish binds the pigment when the water has
evaporated. A good ground cannot be obtained by the use
of dead or flatting paint, there must always be sufficient oil
in the color to allow it to be thoroughly spread and laid off,
and so ensure the absence of coarse brush marks. The
color of the ground is determined by the wood about to be
imitated. Correct judgment as to the combined effect of
ground and graining colors is the result of much careful
observation and experience.

The preparation of the woodwork has been already men-
tioned. Rough and imperfectly got-up woodwork is often
grained in imitation of oak, the graining being supposed to
hide the defects, but to obtain a serviceable grained surface,
a smooth ground is essential. Ordinary woodwork as it
comes in its rough state from the carpenter can be filled up
or levelled in the following manner: First, well rub it down
with glass-paper, and then remove the dust with a painter's
dusting brush. Coat any knots with the transparent var-
nish known as patent knotting, when this is dry, prime
the wood with a paint made by mixing together three parts

174 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

of white-lead, one part of red-lead, and one-tenth part of
liquid driers, then dilute with three parts of linseed oil and
one part or less of turpentine. When this priming is dry,
putty up any nail-holes and allow the work to stand un-
touched for a day or two. The next coat should contain
much less turpentine and no red-lead, and should be stained
a few shades darker than the desired ground, this being
obtained by the application of a third coat. Strain the
paints before using, and lightly glass-paper down between
each coat.

Oil paint is apt, after a time, to present a greasy surface,
so that it will ciss, even if oil color is laid over it, that is to
say, the color will not lie, but will curl up into small beads.
This tendenc}'. as well ;is tlio wnnt of aflinity between water
and oil, makes it necessary to prepare the ground for the
reception of the graining color. This ma}' be done in sev-
eral ways. A small quantity of drj- whiting may be rubbed
over the work with a piece of flannel, and the superfluous
whiting brushed awaj', or the work may be brushed over
with weak ale to Avhich a small quantity of whiting has been
added, or with water mixed with fuller's earth, or stale
beer alone, or even size, may be used, the liquid being
allowed to dry before the graining is begun, but care should
always be taken not to use too great a quantity or too strong
a solution. Anything of a solid nature, such as whiting,
should be cleared away when it has accomplished its pur-
pose. The ground should be slightly glossy, and should not
be glass-papered, especially for light woods, as the marks of
the papering are liable to show.

Properly prepared graining color works freely and cleanly
not only from the brush but during the subsequent manipula-
tion, it also combines the correct and particular color with
the transparency of the pigment which, when laid upon the
ground, is to imitate the color of the genuine polished wo*^
This matter of combined color eflect must be thoroughly
grasped, as it is the chief working principle upon which

GRAINING 175

the imitation of wood is based. An opaque body grain-
ing paint wliich shall give the appearance of oak, without
necessitating the two distinct grounding and graining pro-
cesses, is impossible. As soon as white-lead is mixed with
t];e pigments from which the graining color is made, the
transparency and richness of the latter are decreased, whilst
the graining color alone, being only a stain, lacks the pre-
servative qualities of a white-lead or body preparation.

The graining colors should be purchased in bulk, and if
to be used merely for practice, obtain such cheap grainers
and stainers as burnt umber, burnt sienna, Vandyke brown,
Venetian reds, Italian ochre, and after a little experience
the madder lakes, scarlets and Prussian blues may be pro-
cured. Graining colors should be of the best, and in every
case be ground very fine, since they ' are always used as
transparent colors.

The following remarks apply to grounds and colors for oak
graining. The basis of all oil ground colors for oak grain-
ing should be white-lead ground in linseed oil. Any colored
pigments that may be added to obtain a dark ground can be
considered only as stains, as none of them furnishes the
opacity, solidity, or durability, for all of which qualities
white-lead is so noted. Of course, if a very dark ground,
such as that for antique oak, is required, not so much white-
lead is used in its comi^osition as for light or medium
grounds. It may not be out of place to say that the grainer
who relies on the use of white-lead to obtain a good ground
seldom produces those unnaturally bright and garish grounds
that always offend the trained eye. As a general rule, in
making grounding paint, sufficient white-lead for the pur-
pose, together with one-tenth the quantity of patent driers,
should be broken up in linseed oil, and the staining pigments
added and well mixed in. The paint should be strained
through a mesh, and then thinned to a working consistency
with about two parts of linseed oil to one part turpen-
tine. This gives a good gloss, but if a ground is required

176 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

which may be quickly grained, the proportions of the lin.
seed oil and turpentine should be reversed.

The following are recipes for ordinary oak grounds : Foi
light oak, use a mixture of white-lead and yellow ochre
(sometimes with a touch of chrome to brighten it). Oxford
ochre and Venetian red are used for dark oak, with the
addition of burnt umber, and raw sienna for still darker
wood. A rich tone of buff, given by vermilion and chrome,
is sometimes adopted. A buff ground is made with 7
pounds white-lead, V2 pound of yellow ochre ground in oil,
1/^ pound of driers, mixed with linseed oil 2 parts and tur-
pentine 1 part, and stained when thin enough for use.
White-lead, stained with orange chrome, and thinned with
one raw oil to two turps. Mix 1 pound of white-lead, 2
ounces of patent driers, and 2 ounces of Oxford ochre.
Thin with oil and turpentine.

As regards the graining color, for water color work, it
should be ground up vei'j' fine in beer, and kept in a bottle
tightly corked, when used it should be thinned with weak
beer and water. A permanent water color graining is ob-
tained by melting gum arabic in hot water, and mixing enough
of the gum with the graining color to bind it. If the gum
is in excess it will cause cracks. Softness, flatness, variety
and permanence are produced by this method. The grain
of oak is frequently done in spirit color. Gilders' whiting
is ground up stiffly in turpentine, and stained to the re-
quired tint with burnt umber and raw sienna, which are
also ground up stiffly in turpentine. A small quantity of
japanners' gold size and boiled linseed oil or ordinary
varnish is now added to bind it, and it is then thinned
with turpentine and strained through a piece of muslin into
a large-mouthed pot, when it is ready for use. If too much
varnish is used, the color will set so quickly as to be un-
manageable. Only a small portion of graining, just enough
to allow for combing, can be done at a time, as the color
dries so quickly. The lights arc taken out with a fitch,

GRAINING 177

dipped in a fairly strong solution of soda in water or in
turpentine. Both the soda and the turpentine should be
stained with a little burnt sienna, otherwise the markings
will be too staring. Hold in the left hand a rag on which
to wipe the fitch, so as to prevent the fluid running down
and spoiling the work. Spirit graining should not be var-
nished for twenty-four hours, and even then must not be
rubbed too much.

When oil is the medium in oak color, raw sienna, with
burnt umber or Vandyke brown, according to the depth of
color required, is finely ground in linseed oil. Patent driers
is then added, this acting as a megilp, giving substance or
body to the color; I/2 ounce of patent driers to 1 pound of
color, mixed with equal joarts of oil and turpentine, is the
proportion. Without this megilp the color will be flat and
uninteresting. To get the ribbed appearance of the grain
of oak, beeswax, soft soap, lime-water and rain-water are
often used when patent driers is not available. The meth-
od of preparation is as follows : Wax must be thoroughly
incorporated with oil by shredding the wax into an earthen-
ware receptacle, covering it with linseed oil and stirring
Avith a red-hot poker till the wax is thoroughly dissolved;
then add the staining color, well mix and dilute it with tur-
pentine. An excess of wax with the color will cause the
combing to stand up too much. In the natural wood the
markings are depressions, but in the graining they appear
as ridges of color. The markings should not, therefore,
stand up more than is absolutely necessary to produce the
desired effect. The lines must to a certain extent be dis-
tinct, although softened down in places. Soft soap must
be broken up with either patent driers or whiting, a)ul
thinned with boiled oil, or it may be made up into a lather
with plain water, and in this state mixed with oil color.
The objection to soft soap is its alkaline nature, all alka-
lies weakening and destroying paint. Lime must be slaked
in water, about 2 pounds of lime and 1 gallon of water,

178 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

allowed to settle, and the clear liquid poured off for use.
Sufficient lime-water is mixed with the graining color and
well beaten up. But graining by this method is liable to
fade, the lime desti'ojang the color, and causing the paint
to crack. Rain-water used alone and beaten up thoroughly
with the color has many advantages; it does not exert in-
jurious action, the color does not spread and as soon as the
color has set the water evaporates.

The best megilp, seldom, however, used for graining on
account of the expense, is made from mastic varnish and
boiled oil. To make it, pour the boiled oil into the varnish,
and use the jelly formed by the mixture. As a hard and
fast rule cannot be laid down for mixing graining colors,
the proportions depending on the conditions under which
the work is done, the colors should always be tested before
use. The color should rub out cleanly, easily spread, and
the lines left, by the comb should keep their place, not run-
ning into each other or settling down. A method of oak
graining now seldom practiced consisted in first laying the
markings in with a flat, square-edged fitch, dipped in a mix-
ture of sweet oil and beeswax. When this was dry, the
graining colors, made up with weak beer, were applied.
When the work had thoroughly dried, the beeswax was
carefully washed off with turpentine. Ordinary graining
eolor is best made with about equal parts of oil and turpen-
tine, to which is added paste driers, one-eighth of the whole
bulk, with sufficient coloring matter.

The coloring pigments used as ingredients of all oak
grounding and graining paints may be briefly classified as
either opaque or transparent. Of the former class are the
chromes,, yellow ochres and Venetian red, which should be.
used only in making stains for grounding paints. Raw and
burnt sienna, or terra di sienna, raw and burnt Turkey
umber and vandyke brown may be considered as being
transparent, though the quality is possessed by them in a
varying degree. They are sufficiently translucent to give

GRAINING 179

due effect to any colored ground upon which they may be
superimposed. For purposes of glazing and overgraining,
ivory and blue-blacks and Prussian and indigo blue may be
used, though the two latter are required seldom.

Prussian blue is a good working and staining color, and
a quick drier. Venetian red is cheap but permanent, and
must be procured ready ground in oil. It is useful for
grounds.

Lemon and orange chromes, when of best quality, are
chromates of lead. They are brilliant, have good body
and covering power, and make good tints when mixed with
white. When used in oil they must be protected by var-
nishing, especially if exposed to impure air, which in time
will turn them black. The chromes destroy Prussian and
some other blues. The yellow chromes are made in three
shades; the fourth shade is the orange chrome, a deep rich
color. The shades are varied by increasing the chromate
for deep orange, and lessening it for the pale yellows. These
colors are injured by damp and impure air, sulphur fumes
and hydrogen, but the orange chrome is said to last better
than orange oxide of lead.

Chrome of either middle or orange tint, may be useful to
a slight extent in staining gi'ound colors, when very bright
and rich imitations are required. Generally, however,
chrome conduces neither to good coloring nor to the attain-
ment of a natural woody effect. The "chrome-yellow tint
sometimes forms a ground for light oak, whilst orange-red
is used for medium oak.

White-lead, the basis of all graining grounds, is one of the
most frequently used pigments, and also one of the most
faulty. It is made by suspending rolls of ordinary thin
sheet lead over malt vinegar or pyroligneous acid, in close
vessels, the evaporation from the acid being kept up by a
steam bath underneath. The lead is thus reduced to a
white powder ready for being ground with linseed oil into
a paste. White lead improves by keeping and for gop4

180 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

work should be stocked for at least twelve months after
purchase. Very pale and old linseed oil should be used in
the thinning, otherwise it will probably soon discolor. It
is, however, about the best pigment for preserving wood
from the effects of the weather. Zinc white is an oxide of
zinc. It does not discolor and is a very pure pigment. It
is a substitute for white-lead, but is not so employed in the
practice of graining.

Vermilion is used only in the most exceptional cases; it
can be had as a fine dry powder, free from grit, and is a
very brilliant color in oil. The best quality only is perma-
nent, and that is a sulphuret of mercury. Chinese red, or
vermilion, is of a deep crimson tone, but has bad covering
power, and, unless well protected, will soon fade under the
action of light and impure air.

Indigo possesses great body, and is a good glazing color.
It is not very durable and is injured by impure air.

Ivory black is made by placing ivory dust in a covered
crucible exposed to a great heat. An inferior color known
as bone black is made by treating bones in a similar way.
Ivory black, the deepest and purest of the blacks, being
somewhat hard, requires very careful grinding, and unless
ground very fine is useless. It is best ground in turpentine,
and diluted for use with turpentine, gold size and a little
varnish. In drying it will become dull, so that it should
not be used unless it is afterwards to be varnished. If
thinned down too much with turpentine it will not bind, so
that when the varnish is applied it will rub off onto the rest
of the work and spoil the whole. Ivory black, when pur-
chased unground, resembles drops and is sometimes called
drop black, but bone black is prepared in the same way.

The various ochres, Oxford, yellow and Italian, are
u-sed only in the composition of grounding paint, and never
in graining color. Really, commercial yellow ochre is the
only one of this class of pigni(>nt there is need to use, since
the addition of a little Venetian red will give any warmer

GRAINING 181

tint desired. This latter tint, a kind of burnt ochre, can
alone be commended for obtaining warmth in grounds.
Yellow ochre is not a very bright color; it is best purchased
in tubes, otherwise it is not thoroughly ground. Ochre is
an earth found in most countries, and is of all shades, from
the wai'm yellow of the Oxford ochre to the pale straw yel-
low of the French earth. The ochres are not liable to
change through any chemical action, and may therefore be
considered permanent.

Umbers, natural pigments consisting of a mixture of clays
and brown hematite, are valuable on account of their trans-
parency and of their good drying qualities when in oil; the
latter qualities are so pronounced that umbers may be em-
ployed as drying agents. Raw umber is unsurpassed as a
graining color for light imitations, whilst burnt umber may
be used for antique oaks from light to the darkest. In
mixing grounds, also, umbers are invaluable. Raw umber
does not injure colors with which it is mixed. Burnt umber
is very permanent, and is sometimes used instead of Van-
dyke brown.

Raw sienna is the yellow pigment used for very rich and
light oak, but, properly, should seldom be required, as de-
cided yellow and bright tones are not characteristics of real
oak. The siennas are used in oak colors to produce a forced
richness. Similar in natui'e and preparation to the umbers,
they are more ti'ansparent, but lack the natural diying quali-
ties of umber when used in oil. Siennas are used to pro-
duce those imitations which are obtained by the use of pig-
ments ground in water; they are useful for graining in ma-
hogany, maple and walnut. Raw sienna is rather an im-
pure yellow, but has more body than the ochres and is also
more transparent. By burning it becomes burnt sienna,
which has similar properties. Burnt sienna is a rich, trans-
parent and red-brown pigment; gold size may be used as a
drier with it. It dries better than raw sienna, and is verj'

182 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

permanent, as it is not liable to change by the action of
light and oxygen, or by damp and impure air.

Vandyke brown, a transparent earth pigment, is a very
slow drier, and, if used in oil, requires to be diluted with a
drying agent. It has a dark color, inclining to neither yel-
low nor red, but yet extremely I'ich and deep. In oak grain-
ing, it is generallj' ground in water, its color being warmer
and richer than when used in oil. It is the principal pig-
ment used in overgraining oak. It is a bog earth.

Neutral blacks and blues, previously mentioned, are also
to some extent transi^arent. Blue-black in conjunction with
Vandyke brown is largely used for overgraining oak. Black
enters into the composition of the dark grounds for an-
tique oak. The effects of transparent blues may be regard-
ed by some grainers as questionable, but it must be remem-
bered that richness of color in woods is only a matter of
compari.son and contrast, and, therefore, if instead, of forc-
ing the color values by bright grounds, bright graining
color and rich overgraining, some contrasting cool tones are
introduced, it is possible to obtain more natural color
variety and yet retain the subdued contrasts of the real oak.
Prussian and indigo blues are vastly different when ground
in v.-ater from what they are in oil; whilst the tints are
considerably mellowed by the final coating of copal or oak
varnish. The first stages of oak graining should be worked
in subdued tones rather than in false bright ones, and any
desirable enrichment should be left for the glazing and
overgraining to accomplish in preference to struggling in
the final phase to modify early faults.

Megilp is added to oil graining color to, ensure that the
latter shall not spread when combed. In ordinary and
cheap oak graining an excess of the drjung agent is made
to serve the purpose, but the megilp generally acknowledged
to give the most satisfaction is a preparation of beeswax.
A few ounces of pure wax is shredded and dissolved, by
the application of heat, in linseed oil ; add to the dissolved

GRAINING 183

beeswax 1 pint each of linseed oil and oil of turpentine, 1
gill of patent dryer and the pigments ground in oil. The
wax must be thoroughly mixed with the other constituents,
or the drying qualities of the color will be affected. It
must be remembered that wax is not added as a drying
agent, but solely to make the color more amenable to the
dividing and wiping-out action of the combs.

Distemper graining pigments are bound by the use of
beer. Vandyke brown, however, does not require a binder
for overgraining in water, nor do the siennas very often.
When using black or the cool tones, either alone or in com-
bination with warmer colors, a little beer is necessary, be-
cause black has no binding power; if mixed with Vandyke
brown in equal proportions no binder will be required, but it
is always best to ensure that the overgraining will not work
up when the varnish is applied. In finishing antique oak
in black alone, the wash must be strong in beer; for mixed
washes, one-half beer is a safe proportion.

For very light oak, the ground cclor is made from white-
lead paint, and is tinted to a decided cream with yellow
ochre. The graining color may be stained with raw sienna
and raw umber, or the latter alone ; the work may be pver-
grained in water with Vandyke brown and Aveak blue-black,
or indigo.

Ordinarily light oak requires a clean buff ground, stained
by ochre, and occasionally a touch of Venetian red or' um-
ber. Raw umber is suitable for the graining color, though
burnt umber gives a richer cast. For the overgraining,. Van-
dyke brown and blue-black are used.

Medium oak looks best on a warm buff, the red and lochre
therein being slightly toned down with umber. Burnt um-
ber alone makes a good grr.iuing color, whilst Vafidyke
brown is generally sufficient for shading.

The grounds for dark oak are best made with three pig-
ments, ochre, burnt sienna and burnt umber. In this mix-
ture red should show "prominently, but it should^ together

184

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

GRAINING 185

with the yellowness, be sobered by the umber. For the
graining color, burnt umber or burnt sienna and black may
be used, overgraining with washes of black and Vandyke
brown, used either separately or together.

Very dark or antique oak has a neutral ground, in which
the red and yellow are subservient to the umber or black
tones. The graining color may be Vandyke brown or ivory
black and burnt umber in oil; blue-black or ivory black is
used for the overgraining. An overgraining of Vandyke
alone is rich, but transjDarent black tones are more charac-
teristic of real antique color. A little Vandyke toning here
and there is an improvement.

The use of the graining brushes shown in Fig. 28 are
given in the accompanying list:

A — Badger Blender, set in wood.

B — Camel-Hair Cutter, square.

C — English Bristle Oval Grainer.

D— Thin Bristle Mottler.

E — Bristle Oak Grainer.

H — Bristle Marbler.

J — Angular Bristle Cutter.

K — Bristle Snake Grainer.

L — Bristle Blender, set in wood, style A.

M — Knotted Bristle Grainer.

S — Bristle Pipe Over Grainer.

In oak there are markings of little black lines, varying
in length from Vs to % inches, and in width from 1-32 inch to
a point. These require to be imitated, and nearly every
grainer has his own dodges and ways of working, which
are to him the best. These dark markings do not appear
all over the natural woods, but only in places. They may
be produced during the overgraining by drawing a coarse
comb down the whole length of the lines, finishing it after-
wards with a fine steel one, leaving long, unbroken lines.
The fine steel comb carried down with a sharp, wavy mo-

186

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

tion of the. hand breaks up the line. The badger gives the
rest. A special comb is made, much like a hairdresser's
comb, in which the teeth are cut in such a manner as to
cause the hair to divide with a sharp edge at the point.
This pressed on an overgraining brush will divide the hairs,
and form up the streaks of color into thin lines.

Another method of producing the little lines in oak grain-
in"' is to use an oak combing roller. The rollers are used
as a mechanical means of printing fine lines or irregular
lengths on veined work, producing an excellent imitation of

Fig. 29. Graining Comb.

the natural grain. The roller has to be fed with a brush
containing the color while rolling the work. The color used
is a little blue-black and Vandyke mixed with stale beer.

After the combing is done and the paint dry, but before
varnishing, a little black jjaint i.s mixed on the palette. A
short, stiff, hog-hair brush is dabbed vertically upon this,
so as to take up color on its end only. The brush is then
held in the operator's left hand in front of the graining,
with the handle about parallel with the face of the work
and a few inches from it. By taking a chip of wood and
- drawing back the hairs with it so that they will spring for-

GRAINING

187

ward again suddenly, a number of splashes or small dots
of black are sprinkled over the work. On drawing a small
badger brush downwards over the dots, they are drawn out
into the lines noticed. A great deal of oak graining is done
without these lines appearing in it at all.

Shading or glazing, which involves the use of oil paint,
alters the tone or color of either new or old oak graining.
Very thin color is spi'ead over those parts which require to
be deepened and enriched. A drying mixture is stained to

Fig. 30. Graining Comb.

the required color, the addition of megilp not being neces-
sary. In matching old graining, the oil-glazing process
assists in getting the mellowness which, independent of the
graining, the aging of varnish imparts. The student who
has mastered the foregoing instructions will find no diffi-
culty in glazing certain portions of new work, in convert-
ing light to medium oak or the latter to dark oak. Occa-
sionally the glazing principle is reversed, inasmuch as a
panel is rubbed in, figured with lights and half-lights, but
not combed; when dry, the oil color is again spread, and

1S8

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

then combed with gutta-percha or cork combs. The grain
which crosses the lights is wiped out, and the work is then
overgi'ained and varnished. This method is too tedious for
ordinai-y purposes, but the student will benefit by studying
this process, with which far more natural effects can be
obtained than with the usual methods.

In glazing over water color, allow the under work to dry,
then apply a coat of turpentine and gold size mixed. Glaz-
ing is frequently executed in oil, in which case it is easy
to wipe out the lights wnth a rag. When the glazing is done
in water color, the lights are wiped out w'ith a damp wash-
leather, a sponge being sometimes used to get certain de-

Fig. 31. Double Line Check Graining Roller.

sired effects. Vandyke brown, because of its richness of
tone and transparency, is the color generally used for glaz-
ing. It is toned with burnt sienna for a warm tone, and
with blue-black for a cold tone.

For oak graining a wainscot in oil, make up the color
for the ground from white-lead tinted with small quanti-
ties of yellow ochre and burnt sienna to match the lightest
portion of the grain. If the oak is gray in tone, a touch of
blue will secure the desired tint. To eveiy 2 pounds of
white-lead add 1 ounce of driers. When the work is dry,
and before applying the graining color, rub it over with
fctale beer to which a morsel of whiting has been added. For

GRAINING 189

combing, take raw sienna with burnt umber or Vandyke
brown, according to the depth of color required. These
colors can be jDrocured very finely ground in oil. Mix up
the colors with half oil and half turps, and add 1/2 ounce
of driers to each pound of color as a megilp to enable the
color to stand the combing. The overgraining color should
be gTound in water. Mix it up with equal quantities of
beer and water. The work should be so managed that the
overgraining will not contrast with the under work, but
will darken it. A slight coat of turpentine, with which is
mixed a small quantity of japanners' gold size, added after
the work is dry, will bind down the overgrain and allow
of the work being finally glazed with Vandyke brown mixed
with oil.

POLLARD AND KNOTTED OAK GRAINING'

The distemper or water color method for ordinary oak
graining has little to recommend it. For graining in imi-
tation of pollard oak, however, this method is invaluable.
Pollard, or rather pollarded, oak belongs to the same natural
class of oak as the ordinary figured variety. Its sticking
appearance is brought about by combined artificial and nat-
ural means. When a young oak tree has its branches lopped
off, and provided that loppings take place at intervals of a
few years, the wood that comes from the mature tree will
show clusters of knots — gnarled and twisted grain, with in-
tervening spaces of plainer grain — in which condition it is
known as pollard oak. The imi^ortanee of working from
and studying natural specimens of this wood cannot be too
strongly emphasized, and really good imitations cannot be
executed without such previous study.

The brushes required for this imitation are a large thick
mottler, a large sash tool such as that used for overgraining
oak, the badger softener, a piece of old open sponge, a
wash-leather, medium and small round fitches, sable pencil,
and sable overgrained in tube. The ground color should be
made from white-lead, ochre, a little Venetian red, and,
when the graining is to be cjuiet, a little burnt umber.

A recipe for pollard oak ground is to mix together 2
parts of ochre, 2 parts of orange chrome, 1 part of Vene-
tian red, 1 part of burnt umber, 20 parts of white-lead,
and 2 parts of patent driers, and to thin for use with equal
parts of raw linseed oil and turpentine.

In imitating pollard oak, there are two slightly diiTerent
methods of treatment, the first aiming at reproducing the
general effect of the wood in a broad and natural manner
on a buff oak ground, and the utlier aiming at a eonven-

190

POLLARD AND KNOTTED OAK GRAINING

191

tional appearance, the ground being made for a warm and
rich final tone, such as the real wood acquires as the result
of polishing and age. In the latter treatment, the plain

Fig. 32. Wiping Out Figure in Oak Graining.

and knotty features of the grain are more distinctly sep-
arated and the details are shown more minutely.

Mix some Vandyke brown with beer in one vessel and

CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTINO

some burnt sienna with beer in another vessel. With the
large sash tool rub the sienna wash into the panel, which
should then be dabbed and rolled with a damp washleather,

Fig. 33. 0;ik Panel Figurtil ami (Jveri^raiiud.

to give an irregular but connected mottle. This mottle is
at once softened by the badger into stronger but softer
masses. Put in clusters of knots, which should have an

POLLARD AND KNOTTED OAK GRAINING

193

open appearance, with a stiff round fitch dipped into Van-
dyke brown and blue-black mixed with beer. When, in a
few minutes, this is diy, pass the mottler, dipped in clean,

Fig. 34. Wiping Out Sap in Oak Graining.

cold water, over the work, and, with the sable overgrainer
charged with Vandyke brown wash, put in fine grain which
crosses more or less irregularly the plain spaces between

194

CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

the knots. "When a few lines of grain have been done, each
one is softened by the badger to a dark edge, and when all

Fig. 35. Oak Panel Finished.

have been so treated, the numerous fine veins that cross
the fainter cross grain and work from knot to knot, are

POLLARD AND KNOTTED OAK GRAINING 195

painted in black with a sable joencil. "When the work has
been varnished or coated with a mixture of equal parts of
japan, gold size and turpentine, it is ready for the final
glazing or ovei'shading.

This glazing is a similar process to the first mottling,
but a weak beer Avash of fine blue-black is used instead of
burnt sienna. The wash having been well brushed over the
panel, the sharp lights amongst the knots are wiped out
with the leather, which is then I'olled over the work in
such a manner as to give more depth and transparency. If
these instructions are carefuUj' followed a rich and natural
woody effect will be obtained, and a panel so treated is an
admirable foil to the maiden oak stiles of a door. The
work, after it has been coated with copal varliish and al-
lowed to stand untouched for a few days, is ready for flat-
ting or felting down with finest pulverized pumice-stone,
rubbed Avith folt and water. Finally, a good coat of car-
riage copal varnish gives a finish that will last, with occa-
sional re-varnishing for many years.

Another imitation of pollard oak, based on the same
principle as that just described, is obtained by slightly dif-
ferent means. The ground, which is rich and warm, has a
strong wash of burnt sienna rubbed in. The dark masses
of knots are dabbed in with a sponge dabbed in the Van-
dyke wash and also slightly into the blue-black; the con-
necting touches of dark color are also put in. The color
surrounding the knots is now Avorked Avith the mottler in
one direction; use the brush at right angles to the board,
and get one natural lead across the plain spaces from one
nest to another. The graining surrounding and amongst
the knots is Avorked Avith the round stiff fitch into the same
natural curves indicated by the mottler; anj' knots that
appear too spotty or set ai-e opened with the fitch. When
the Avork is dry, wet it Avith beer and proceed to overgrain,
using the thin overgrainer charged Avith a thin Vandyke
wash and separated into divisions. Soften the grain to a

196

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

dark edge, and put in with a sable pencil dipped in a blue-
black wash the fine markings which cross the gi'ain. The
varnishing or binding coating is now given, and the work

Fig. 36. PoUard Oak Graining — First Stage.

glazed with Vandyke brown, if desired full and rich, or
with blue-black if the warmth requires to be toned. If
beer is used with the pigments, the work can always be
safely wetted to ascertain the color when varnished. Any
slight alterations or additions can therefore easily be exe-

POLLARD AND KNOTTED OAK GRAINING

197

cuted by rewetting parts that may have dried too quickly.

Pollard oak in oil is grained similarly to that in water.

To execute pollard oak in oil, the colors required are umber,

Vandyke brown and raw sienna, ground to a paste in boiled

Fig. 37. Pollard Oak Graining — Second Stage.

oil, placed on separate palettes, and thinned for use with
tuipentine. With a large hog-hair tool or a sponge, give a
thin coat of burnt sienna over all the work, and before it
is dry dapple it over in various directions with the pre-

198 CYCLOPEDIA OF PxVINTING

pared colors, putting plenty of color where the knots are to
be shown. The best tool for this purpose is a well-worn
flat mottler, having a thin, uneven row of hairs, and it
should be dipped first in one color and then in another. To
form the knots, dip the brush into the burnt umber made
thin with turpentine. The knots can be further shaped by
taking out the lights witli a brush moistened with turpen-
tine. Small fitches rinsed in turpentine will take out sharp
lights. When this color is set, put on in a curly direction
a thin glaze of burnt umber. There must be enough oil in
the color to bind and keep it open so that it may be easily
worked. The softener must be liberally used. A cork is
sometimes useful for forming knots on the dark part of
the color, and it should be twisted with the finger and thumb
to give the light and shade. The heart and sap of the
wood should be taken out with a fitch, in the same way as
for light oak, but there is not much of the ordinary figure
in pollard oak. A flat graining brush, well filled with thin
black, will produce the top grain in a curly form, and fin-
ally the work should be glazed with Vandyke brown, with
a touch either of black or of burnt sienna. The knots and
dark parts may be finished with a eamel-hair pencil. The
glazing may be done either in oil-color or water-color. If
done in oil, the lights can be wiped out with rag. The color
is made up of Vandyke brown, with a little burnt sienna
or black, according as warm or cold tones are required.
Really, final glazing is the same as in the distemper proc-
ess, except that the colors do not require binding.

Root of oak is similar to pollard oak. The grain, how-
ever, instead of flowing from each set of knots, encircles
the masses of knots in irregular rings of overgrain, and the
dark pencil veins are more in evidence.

Knotted oak, so called, combines the knotted and fig-
ured portions of the wood. It is often employed, when
graining oak in oil, for the panels, with ordinary oak stiles. It
has a warm buff ground, containing a dash of umber, whilst

POLLARD AND KNOTTED OAK GRAINING 199

for the graining color the best burnt Turkey umber is used.
The color is rubbed in, and one side of the panel combed,
while on the other side the dark knots are put in by means
of a stiff titch dipped m umber and drier. With another
fitch give these knots and the surrounding space a growing
motion towards the other half of the panel. Now put in
llie fine lights across the slightly combed half with a lead
towards the knots, and then work up the knotted half with
a pencil and rag. When this is dry, overgrain with a dis-
temper wash of Vandyke brown.

GRAINING GROUNDS.

Maple. White lead tinted with a very little venniliou
and about an equal quantity of lemon chrome. Some pre-
fer yellow ochre only, others ochre and raw umber in the
proportion of four ounces ochre and one ounce umber to
thirty pounds of lead.

Medium Oak. Add French ochre to white lead in the
proportions of about one hundred and twenty of lead to
five of ochre. Add a little burnt umber.

Mahogany, Dark. Four pounds of medium Venetian red,
one pound of orange chrome yellow and one pound of burnt
umber, or a little less burnt umber may be used according
to the strength.

Mahogany, Light. Mix six pounds of pure white lead
with one pound medium Venetian red and five ounces of
burnt umber.

Light Oak and Birch. Eighty parts of white-lead to one
of yellow ochre produces a good ground, but sixty pounds
of white lead, half a pound of French ochre and one ounce
of lemon chrome is sometimes preferred.

Dark Oak. Sixty parts of white lead and one part of
golden ochre may be used, or the following mixture if pre-
ferred. Six parts of white lead, one part of French ochre,
one part medium Venetian red and one part of burnt um-
ber.

Satinwood. Mix six ounces of lemon chrome to fifteen
pounds of pure white lead and add a little deep English
vermilion.

Pollard Oak. Tint one hundred parts of white lead with
twenty-seven parts of French ochre, four parts of burnt
umber and three and three-quarter parts medium Venetian
red.

200

GRAINING GROUNDS 201

Pitch Pine. Tint sixty parts of white lead with half
part medium Venetian red, and quarter part of French
ochre.

Italian Walnut. One part of French ochre mixed with
ten parts of pure white lead and quarter part of burnt um-
ber and medium Venetian red give this ground.

American Walnut. Thirty parts pure white lead tinted
with nine parts of French ochre, four parts burnt umber
and one pai't medium Venetian red.

Antique Oak. Thirty parts pure white lead tinted with
nine parts of French ochre, four parts burnt umber and
one part medium Venetian red.

Ash. White lead tinted with a very little vermilion and
about an equal quantity of lemon chrome. Some prefer
yellow ochre only, others ochre and raw umber in the pro-
portion of four ounces ochre and one ounce umber to thirty
pounds of lead.

Birch. Eighty parts of white lead to one of yellow ochre
produces a good ground, but sixty parts of white lead, one-
eighth of a part of French ochre and one-sixteenth part, of
lemon chrome is sometimes preferred.

Knotted Oak. Sixty parts of white lead, nine parts of
French ochre and three and one-half parts burnt umber.

Rosewood and Dark Mahogany. Four parts of medium
Venetian red, one part of orange chrome yellow, and one
part of burnt umber, or a little less burnt umber may be
used according to the strength.

The graining ground mixtures must be taken as an aver-
age arrived at from comparison of the methods employed
by different painters in various parts of the country. As
has been explained, the mixtures given are those which may
be considered an average, and a variation of them may be
made according to individual taste and judgment.

GRAINING COLORS.

It will be understood that the method of obtaining a
graining- color varies just as much as it does in the case of
the ground color, according to the opinion of the painter.
The following are given as what may be safely followed to
get an average good result:

Light Oak. Mix one-third burnt umber with two-thirds
raw sienna, and add a very little drop black.

Bird's Eye Maple. Mix raw umber and raw sienna with
a little Vandyke brown or ivory black.

Ash. Same as light oak.

American Walnut. Burnt umber to which is added a
little Vandyke brown will give a good graining color for
walnut.

Mahogany. Burnt umber, burnt sienna and Vandyke
brown with the addition of a little crimson lake for over-
graining, will answer well for mahogany.

In producing the color for ordinary use, such as, for in-
stance, Anaglypta or lincrusta or other relief material, mix
Venetian red with equal parts of burnt umber and burnt
sienna, and even add a little orange chrome to give bright-
ness.

Rosewood. Vandyke brown, with the addition of a little
black, should be used, and rose pink may be added if de-
sired.

Pollard Oak. Mix burnt umbei', Vandyke, raw and burnt
siennas and add a little black or ultramarine.

Cherry. Use raw and burnt siennas and raw umber.

Chestnut. Mix raw sienna, Vandyke and raw umber with
a verv little burnt sienna.

202

HOUSE PAINTING.

New Work. Do not use cheap ground ochres or Venetian
red to produce tints or gTound work. They will cause paint
applied over them to blister and varnish to curl and flake.

For work that is to be varnished, do not use colors ground
in oil for the solid ground color; even though reduced with
tui'pentine and dry apparently flat, they still contain too
much oil for a satisfactory ground for japan color or to
allow of varnishing over them with safety.

For application over the lead coats, use colors ground in
japan for deep gTOund colors or tints which require a large
percentage of coloring matter.

New store fronts, vestibules, etc., which are built of soft
wood and are to be painted in oil, should receive a priming
or first coat mixed with 2-3 oil and 1-3 turpentine. Allow
ample time for thorough drying. Putty and sandpaper.
The second coat should be mixed with half turiDentine and
half oil to a good consistency. When hard dry, sandpaper
lightly and appl,y a coat of oil paint. This will not blister,
provided the wood does not get wet from the sweating of
glass or like causes.

If the fronts are to be painted and varnished, they should
receive a priming coat mixed with half turpentine and half
oil. When hard dry, putty and sandpaper and apply a coat
mixed with 2-3 turpentine and 1-3 oil. The paint should be
tinted to approach the shade of the ground work. When
hard, sandpaper lightly and apply a flat coat of ground
color. Rub this coat smooth with flne steel wool and apply
one or two coats of color ground in japan, according to the
strength of the color. All that is necessary is sufficient
japan color to make a solid coat. Stripe and ornament ac-
cording to specifications, then finish with a coat of exterior

203

204 CYCLOPEDLV OF PAINTING

varnish. If more fixpensive work is desired, a coat of color
varnish can be applied over the japan color. This color
varnish can be made by adding a small percentage of the
japan color to the rubbing varnish. When hard, rub smooth
■with fine steel wool or curled hair. Stripe or ornament as
desired, then finish with a coat of elastic varnish.

If the finish is to be black or green, the undercoats should
be dark lead color; if wine, dark terra cotta or dark I'ed;
if vermilion, dark yellow for light or terra cotta for dark,
and vermilion for carmine or lakes where a . deep effect is
desired.

Old Work. When store fronts and vestibules are to be
painted in oil and are in good condition, showing no cracks
or signs of peeling, they should be sandpapered smooth. If
two coats are to be applied, the first should be reduced with
half turpentine. Over this apply an oil paint. It should be
borne in mind, however, that too much oil must not be
used, especially where the fronts are exposed to the hot
sun.

When store fronts and vestibules are to be repainted and
varnished and the old paint has stood for two or three years
and is in good condition, the surface not having received too
numerous coats, they can sometimes be sandpapered smooth
and a coat of flat ground color applied, then a coat of color
in japan. Stripe and ornament, then finish with a coat of
exterior varnish.

When the fronts have been repainted a number of times
with oil paint, they will not stand sun exposure after re-
ceiving the varnish, without danger of blistering. In such
cases the paint should be burned off or removed with a
paint remover. The surface is then practically new and
the work can proceed as with new work, with the exception
of the priming or first coat, which should contain a larger
percentage of turpentine to assist in penetrating through
any old paint left on the wood. Then proceed as with new
work, building up the surface in the same manner by using

HOUSE PAINTING 205

flat ground colors and color ground in japan and exterior
varnish.

Iron Store Fronts. Thoroughly clean the surface. If the
work has been covered with a shop coat, scrape and thor-
oughly sandpaper before applying the paint.

In painting an iron store front in oil or flat color and
varnish, the treatment should be the same as for a wooden
front, with the exception of the first coat. The surface
being non-absorbent, the first coat must be mixed so as to
dry firm and hard by oxidation and evaiDoration. If to be
finished in oil paint of a light tint with a lead or zinc base,
the first coat should be reduced with 1-3 oil and 2-3 tur-
pentine. If a solid oil is to be used, such as black, red,
etc., reduce Avith turpentine and a small proportion of japan
to assist in hardening. Allow ample time for thorough oxi-
dation. Finish with one coat of oil paint. If to be painted
and varnished, the first coat should be mixed with % tur-
pentine and 14 oil> tinted to approximate the shade of the
ground color to be used. When hard dry, sandpaper and
proceed with a flat coat of ground color as for a wooden
surface.

Interior Finish — New Work. The protection and prepara-
tion of the surface should be the first consideration and
should be as carefully planned and carried out for plain
painting, staining, varnishing or natural finishing as for
more expensive work, as these are often the foundations for
a better class of futui'e finishing.

Inside door frames should not be set until after the plas-
tering has been completed, then put in with the other finish,
otherwise the mortar will stain the Avood badly and these
stains cannot be removed without a great deal of trouble.
In fact, frames are often ruined by mortar stains and
bruises from plasterers removing their scaffolding. These
bruises and stains especially ruin the work when it is to
have a natural stain or finish.

If the frames are set, they should be protected before

206 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

the plasterer commences work. If the work is to have a
natural finish and the frames are hard wood, they should
first be filled with paste filler, then a coat of shellac or
liquor filler applied. If the frames are soft wood and are
to be stained, they should be given a coat of oil stain; if
to be painted, they should be primed. If water or spirit
stains are used, cover with a coat of shellac or liquid filler,
otherwise the lime water in the plaster will change the
color of water stains. A strip should be tacked to the face
of the frames to protect them from being bruised or scuffed
up during the plastering.

Floors which are to be finished natural or stained should
not be laid until after the plastering is done. Floors should
be the last work of the carpenter as well as the painter.
This requires laying an extra floor. On the best and more
expensive buildings this is looked after by the architect
in his specifications. However, there are a number of build-
ings in which the floors are laid before the plasterer com-
mences his work, and as these are to be finished either nat-
ural, stained or painted, they should be protected from plas-
tering.

As soon as the caipenter has finished sandpapering and
dressing down the floors, they should be carefully swojit and
dusted off. The cracks should be filled with either a good
linseed oil putty mixed with 1-3 keg lead, or a good crack
and crevice filler, which is not so likely to be affected by
shrinkage of the floors as is putty.

If hard, open-grained wood, the floors should first re-
ceive a coat of paste filler, then a light coat of shellac or
floor finish.

If the floors are soft or hard pine and to be finished nat-
ural, they should receive a coat of shellac or liquid filler of
good quality, applied thin. If to be stained, they should
receive a coat of oil stain.

When dry, cover the floors with heavy building paper
or plain carpet lining tacked down solidly. Sprinkle dry

HOUSE PAINTING 207

sand ai'ound the walls to keep the mortar from soaking into
the paper. Allow this covering to remain on the floors until
after the painting or finishing is done on the other parts of
the room. The floors should be finished last.

Before the carpenter turns the work over to the painter,
he should remove from the rooms all blocks, shavings, etc.,
and turn as much of the building over to the painter at one
time as is possible.

The painter should sweep the room clean and thoroughly
dust off the work before commencing to i^aint, stain or var-
nish.

Putty nail holes, joints, etc., with good putty, one which
will not soften with age or turn yellow if white or light
tints are applied over it.

If the work is to be painted, soft pine doors and casings
should first receive a coat of size to keep them from spot-
ting. This should be a shellac size if the work will permit.
Good liquid filler is often used with good results by reduc-
ing to a thin consistency and applying a smooth, even coat.
Hard drying varnishes, such as copal and hard oil finishes,
are successfully used by applying them thin. Glue size
can also be used if applied hot and very thin. It should not
be allowed to get cold, as it will not strike into the wood
but remain on the surface and is liable to break away. It
is very hard for ordinary dampness to affect glue size after
it has been properly applied and covered with paint or var-
nish. Where the price of work will not permit of sizing
or the specifications do not call for it, satisfactory work
can be done by mixing varnish with the priming coat. Var-
nish and turpentine will, to a certain extent, keep the work
from spotting.

The paint for interior work should be mixed with a large
percentage of turpentine. Oil will turn the work yellow.
If white work, such as flat white, white enamel, is to be
done, it is absolutely necessary tfiat the priming coat should
be mixed with turpentine, otherwise the work will yellow

208 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

in a very short time, especiall}' where sizing has not been
used. An excess of oil will also cause the work to crack
and check badly. Too much oil cannot be used for in-
terior work with safety. Where the work is to be finished
with oil paints, more oil can be used in the priming. It
should be borne in mind, however, that interior work should
always dry hard and firm to insure good results from its
present painting, also to allow of satisfactorily repainting.

In giving these directions for the different classes of
work, the one principal object has been to caution against
the application of too numerous coats. It is not the amount
of paint applied to a surface which produces the results,
it is the manner of application, the proper mixing of the
paint and the preparation of the surface. lu enameled or
grained work it is especially true that where too numer-
ous coats of ground work are apjolied, it is very hard to
repaint such a surface if at any time a different class of
work should be desired.

Throughout the directions for undercoats on all classes
of work it will be found that vai'nish is specified in place
of oil and japan. This gives the most satisfactory under-
coat surface that can possibly be made, especially if a good
grade of varnish is used. The work will remain in good
condition for an indefinite length of time; it will not craok
or check; the grain of the wood will be thoroughly filled
and with this method of reducing the paint, the number
of coats to produce satisfactory work can be cut down.

Mixtures of japan and oil for undercoats are not always
satisfactory for interior work. Too much oil makes spongy
work which is liable to crack and check badly. Heavy mix-
tures of oil and japan will do likewise.

The directions given are not new but have been tried
out in the most practical ways and have aiwa3-s proved en-
tirel}' satisfactory.

Sandpaper or smooth the surface with fine steel wool
and dust off thoroughly before applying the paint.

HOUSE PAINTING 209

"Where paint, enamel or varnish are retarded in their
drying by weather conditions or other causes, the work can
be assisted in dryin^^ and hardening by sandpapering or
mossing off, killing the gloss and allowing it to be exposed
to a free circulation of air. This will harden work in a
few hours as much as if allowed to stand for a consider-
able length of time.

Cheap paint should not be used for inside work any
more than on the exterior of the building, if good results
are to be expected. It is a mistake to use eheajD ochre for
priming. The same paint, or something as good, should be
used for priming or first coat as is used for the finishing
coats or for building up the ground work for enameling,
graining and like work.

Oil Paint in White. Where two coat oil paint work is speci-
fied, without sizing, the first coat should be reduced with
half turpentine and half oil to a good consistency, then a
half pint of good hard drying or enamel varnish added.
This will dry hard and will not spot as badly on soft pine
wood as a turpentine oil reduction. After it is hard dry,
putty crevices and nail holes with good putty, one which
will not turn yellow, or the puttying can be done before
the priming coat is applied. Should there be holes that are
not properly filled, they can be reputtied over the first or
priming coat. Sandpaper or rub with fine steel wool to a
smooth, even surface, dust off and apply a second coat
mixed to a good, heavy consistency with half oil and half
turiDcntine, or 1-3 good hard drying varnish, 1-3 oil and
1-3 turpentine. Either mix will dry with a good gloss and
can be washed.

For three-coat work the primer should be mixed as be-
fore stated, the second coat mixed with three parts turpen-
tine and one part oil or hard drying varnish. This will dry
with an eggshell gloss. Sandpaper or rub with fine steel
wool to a smooth, even coat and apply the finishing coat
of medium consistency, mixed with half turpentii^e and half

210 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

oil, or 1-3 each turpentine, oil and varnish. This should
dry with a good gloss and can be scrubbed. This work,
however, will turn yellow with age, as will enamel if ap-
plied over it.

Gloss Work in White. Satisfactory two-coat gloss work
cannot be done on bare wood. If the work is not filled or
sized, the primer should be mixed to a thin consistency with
■% tui-pentine and Vg hard drying or enamel varnish. The
second coat should be of the same mixture but of heavier
consistency. If for a size or filled surface, the first coat
should be of the same consistency and mixture as for sec-
ond coat over bare wood. This will dry flat. Sandpaper
or rub with fine steel wool to a smooth, even coat.

If the work is to be finished in lead, use 1-3 of the sec-
ond coat flat mixture and 2-3 hard drying or enamel var-
nish. If a white finish is desired, zinc in place of lead
should be used. For zinc finish, prime with lead reduced
as before stated. Second coat with zinc varnish reduced
with turpentine. Sandpaper between coats and finish with
1-3 second-coat zinc mixture and 2-3 white or enamel var-
nish. Either of these finishes will dry with a good gloss
and should not turn yellow or cheek.

Oil Paint in Tints. Reduce the priming coat with half
turpentine and half oil. To one gallon of paint add a half-
pint of good varnish. The paint should be of good con-
sistency and applied smoothly and evenly. When hard dry,
sandpaper, dust off and apply a coat mixed as before stated,
only of a heavier consistency. This paint will dry with
sufficient gloss to allow of washing.

For three-coat work the primer should be mixed as noted
and the second coat mixed with three parts tui-pentine and
one part oil. This will di-y about flat and can be sand-
papered smooth before applying the finishing coat which
should be mixed with half turpentine and half oil. To a
gallon of the mixture add a half-pint of good mixing var^

HOUSE PAINTING 211

nish; this should dry with fair gloss and can be washed or
scrubbed.

Gloss Work in Tints. The primer can be mixed with half
oil and half turpentine. It is safer to cut down the amount
of oil, using 2-3 turpentine and 1-3 oil. After the priming
is thoroughly hard, putty and sandpaper and apply a coat
of flat color of good consistency. When hard, sandpaper to
a smooth, even surface and apply a coat of 1-3 flat color
and 2-3 good color mixing varnish. This paint should be
flowed on smoothly and evenly. It will dry with a good
gloss and make a very satisfactory finish.

Flat Finisli in Three Coats. A satisfactory flat finish
cannot be obtained with less than three coats unless the
wood has been filled or sized. The priming coat for bare
wood should be mixed to a thin consistency with % tur-
pentine and Ys varnish. Putty with good, hard drying
putty, one which will not show gloss spots or turn yellow.
Sandpaper or rub with fine steel wool to a smooth surface.
The second coat should be mixed to a heavier consistency,
carrying a little larger percentage of varnish so as not to
leave a surface which is too flat. This same mixture should
be used for the first coat over a surface which has been
filled or sized. If for white work, white enamel varnish
should be used where varnish is specified. Rub smooth with
curled hair, dust off and apply a finishing coat mixed flat.
This will dry without gloss spots. It can be mixed with
either lead or zinc, according to the specifications, also white
or tints according to the work desired.

If a dead flat finish is desired, when lead is used, the lead
should first be washed with turpentine. If a zinc finish,
use zinc reduced with turpentine.

Enamel in Three Coats. The priming or first coat should
be mixed according to directions for flat work. If the lead
used is soft ground, it should be washed with tur-
pentine and allowed to stand over night and the turpentine
poured off in the morning. Reduce the paint with all tur-

212 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

pentine to which reduction should be added 1-32 to 1-16
gallon of the enamel to each gallon of paint. This will
assist in hardening the paint and the mixture can be used
either on bare wood or over a sized surface. When the
priming or first coat is thoroughly hard, putty with good
hard-drj'ing putty, one which will not turn yellow, then rub
with fine sandpaper or steel wool, after which apply a
second coat mixed flat, to which has been added a pint of
the enamel to a gallon of paint. Rub this coat smooth with
fine sandpaper or curled hair. Apply a good, smooth, even
coat of enamel of good consistency. If properly applied,
the enamel can be left in full gloss finish or lightly rubbed.
If a higher finish is desired, reduce the first coat of enamel
with a small amount of turpentine, one pint to the gallon
of enamel. Rub this coat with fine steel wool to kill the
gloss and level down the surface, then flow on a smooth,
even coat of enamel. This can be rubbed to the finish de-
sired and polished after three to four days' standing. If
desired, zinc can be used for the flat coats in the foregoing
directions; however, it is best to use lead for building up
undercoats.

Zinc Finish. The priming coat for zinc should be as di-
rected for flat work. Lead is best to use for priming or
first coat over a sized surface. Where two or three coats
of flat zinc work are specified, reduce zinc that has been
ground in varnish with turpentine to a medium thin con-
sistency and apply over a first coat of lead. When dry, rub
with curled hair and appl.y a second coat of the same mix-
ture of a heavier consistency. This will dry flat and make
a beautiful finish.

If a gloss finish is desired, apply the finishing coat of
zinc in varnish reduced with turpentine to a consistency of
cream. To one part of this mixture add two parts white
enamel varnish. If a higher finish is desired rub this coat
with fine steel wool and apply a coat of clear varnish. This
can be rubbed to the desired effect.

HOUSE PAINTING 213

Ebony or Flat Black Finish, \\niere work is to be fin-
ished in ebony, either in gloss or flat, the wood should be
prepared according to the finish. If soft wood and is to be
finished in ebony, it should receive a coat of shellac; putty
with black putty and apply a coat of dark lead color, mixed
flat, to which has been added a half-pint of good hard-dry-
ing varnish to the gallon of paint. When hard dry, rub off
smooth with curled hair. Over this aiiply a coat of flat
black. If a gloss or polish is desired, apply a coat of black
color and varnish or ebony finish. This can be rubbed to
a dead effect. If a more expensive finish is desired, slightly
reduce the first coat of varnish color or ebony finish, ac-
cording to the temperature of the room. When hard dry,
cut down smooth with fine steel wool, dust off and fiow on
an even coat of the color varnish or ebony finish. This can
be rubbed and polished.

Where grill work and plate rails or hard wood are to be
finished and the open-grain effect is desired, add to the flat
black a few drops of oil and apply a coat to the bare wood.
Allow to stand a short time, then wipe off to the desired
effect of flat black or Flemish finish. If, however, the hard
wood is to be finished in gloss or polish, it should first be
filled with paste filler, then proceed as with soft wood var-
nish coats, leaving off the dark lead color coat.

Cupboards and Pantries. When cupboards and pantries
are to be painted, the first or priming coat should be applied
to the bare wood and mixed with 2-3 turpentine and 1-3
oil. This will dry hard and can be sandpapered smooth.
If two coats only are to be applied, the finishing coat should
be mixed to dry hard and firm. If oil paint, it can be mixed
to a good consistency with 2-3 oil and 1-3 turpentine and
a small amount of good japan, or mix the desired color flat
and use half color and half good-drying varnish. The
paint should be of the same consistency as varnish. To
this a further percentage of turpentine can be added to

214 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

insure ease of working, or a small percentage of oil can
be used, but not enough to cause the paint to dry tacky.

If three coats of oil paint are specified, the second coat
should be of the same mixture as the primer, but of a
heavier consistency. When hard, sandpaper and apply a
coat of paint mixed with 2-3 oil and 1-3 turpentine. If
sufficient time is allowed, this should dry firm and hard.
If a varnish finish is desired, the finishing coat varnish color
can be applied as recommended for two-coat work.

In painting the pantries, cupboards, etc., it is very essen-
tial that the doors and drawers should not be closed, so as
to allow the paint drying hard. A free circulation of air is
absolutely necessary.

Graining Ground. Graining grounds which are mixed with
all oil are very liable to crack and check after varnish has
been applied over them. Care should always be used in
noting that the undercoats are thoroughly hard before ap-
plying subsequent coats. There should not be too much oil
used.

If the priming is to be applied to the bare wood, reduce
with half oil and half turpentine. Allow this to thoroughly
harden through, putty, sandpaper smooth and apply a coat
of paint, mixed flat, to which has been added a half-pint of
hard-di'ying varnish to the gallon of paint. When hard,
rub smooth with fine sandpaper or steel wool and apply a
coat of the same paint with the addition of varnish to allow
of drying with a slight gloss, or a small amount of oil can
be used, but not enough to cause the paint to dry tacky.
If the surface has been sized, the first coat should be mixed
with 2-3 turpentine and 1-3 oil, smoothed off and finished
with one coat as recommended for finishing on bare wood.
Graining color can be worked over this ground without
danger of cutting through with the graining combs or when
cutting out growths, as is often the case when oil is used
in ground work.

It is best to grain in distemper for interior work. For

HOUSE PAINTING 215

exterior work, more oil can be used for building up the
ground work than for interior. However, if the work is to
be varnished, most of the oil should be cut out. A great
many painters prefer not to varnish exterior work, but ap-
ply a coat of oil, rub off with a soft cloth and let the work
remain with this finish. Where varnished work is used on
the exterior, the graining should be done in distemper if
possible, or the oil graining color should be allowed to
stand until thoroughly hard before applying the varnish ;
this insures against blistering and cracking.

Floors. Where the priming can be allowed to stand a
sufficient time to thoroughly harden, the paint can be mixed
with half turpentine and half oil. Where time will not per-
mit, 2-3 turpentine and 1-3 oil should be used. Floor paint
should dry hard, remembering that the priming or founda-
tion coat is very important. After hard dry, putty and
apply a second coat of paint mixed with 2-3 turpentine and
1-3 copal or mixing varnish. This will dry hard with a
slight gloss. Sandpaper and dust off and apply a coat of
the same shade mixed with 2-3 varnish and 1-3 flat color.
This will dry with a good gloss and can be used without
fear of scratching or peeling if the varnish used is of good
grade. After the floors have been used and have become
somewhat worn, they can be renewed by washing clean and
applying a thin coat of floor finish. This can be repeated
as often as the floor shows wear.

STAINING.

Where it is possible, the wood should be stained before
being nailed to the wall or as soon as the carpenter has fin-
ished dressing. This will save time and labor in finishing.
The stain should be of thin consistency so as to penetrate
into the wood and not remain in spots on the surface. Al-
low the stain to remain on the wood a short time, then wipe
off with a cloth to even up the work. On very soft pine,

216 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

it is often necessary in order to produce uniform work to
size the same with a thin sizing before staining. This size
should be very thin, and it is well to wipe it off immediate-
ly after appljang so as not to have an excess on the surface,
thus keeping the stain from striking in and the soft and
sappy places from absorbing so much of the stain as to
make the finished work spotted.

Where size is used, the stain should be allowed to re-
main on the surface longer than on the bare wood so as to
allow of good penetration before, wiping off. It is not neces-
sary to wipe if care is used in brushing on the stain. Where
it is not possible to stain the wood before nailing to the
wall, the work should be thoroughly dusted, then puttied.
Knife the putty into nail holes or cracks, after which apply
the stain. Allow the stain to remain on the surface a short
time, then wipe off to even up the work. When hard, sand-
paper lightly and apply a shellac or liquid filler. When
hard, rub with fine sandpaper or fine steel wool to a smooth,
even coat, after which apply varnish, the number of coats
depending on specifications.

Cupboards and Pantries. Where cupboards and pantries
are to be stained inside on the shelving, inside drawers,
etc., they should receive a coat of shellac or good liquid
filler over the stain, then a thin coat of hard-drying var-
nish, one which is not easily affected by heat, otherwise
there is danger of warm dishes or other utensils sticking
to it.

Floors. Where floors are to be stained and finished, they
should be stained and protected according to instructions
previously given. Where these instructions have been fol-
lowed, and as soon as the interior is finished, remove the
paper and dust off the floors. If there should be dust from
the plastering which cannot be removed with a duster, dam-
pen a cloth with a mixture of half turpentine and half oil
and with this remove all the dust and leave the floors clean.
Do not have enough of the mixture on the cloth to make

HOUSE PAINTING 217

the floor oily, just a sufficient amount to take up the dust.
If shellac is to be used ovei- the stain, use turpentine for
cleaning. Apply over this stain a thin coat of shellac or
good liquid filler. Rub off lightly with fine sandpaper or
steel wool and aioply a coat of floor finish. This can be left
in the gloss, rubbed with pumice stone and oil, or sand-
papered to kill the gloss, then waxed in the usual manner.
Should a deeper stain be wanted or the floor be marred
or scratched, use a mixture of 1-3 stain and 2-3 floor finish.
If the floor has not been protected before the plastering
was done, it chould be thoroughly cleaned, the mortar
scraped off, sandpapered and dressed down smooth and the
cracks filled with crack and crevice filler or puttied with
good putty; then apply a coat of stain, after which the floor
can be finished as noted.

TO PAINT PLASTERED WALLS.

Plastered walls should receive a coat of size before paint-
ing. The best size which can be applied to a wall is a thin
coat of oil paint. This is hard to apply without showing
laps, but these can be easily covered with subsequent coats.
When hard dry, apply a coat of warm glue size which will
fully stop absorption.

If the walls are to be painted in oil with a full gloss,
they should receive the finishing coat of a full oil reduction.
If to be half flat, the finishing coat should be mixed to a
good consistency with half turpentine and half oil. This
will cover the work in a solid manner and make good two
coat work.

If a varnish size is used, reduce a fair grade of hard oil
finish or varnish to a thin consistency and apply freely with
a full brush. When hard dry, apply a first coat mixed with
half oil and half turpentine.

If a full gloss is desired, the finishing coat of full oil
reduction can be applied over this surface, or, if half fiat

21S CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

is wanted, the same mixture as for first coat can be applied,
but must be of a heavier consistency.

If the walls are to be finished flat, three coats over a size
must be applied. If an oil paint and glue size are used, a
second coat mixed half flat will produce a satisfactory
foundation for the flat color.

If varnish size is used, apply two coats of half flat paint,
the second coat of a heavier consistency than the first coat.
If to be left flat, apply one even coat of flat paint mixed to a
good consistency.

If to be stippled, the paint should be mixed flat to a
heavy consistency, carrying- a small percentage of varnish.

In applying a flat color on large rooms, two men should
work together in order to avoid showing laps. In stippling
large surfaces, it is customary for two men to apply the
paint and one man to follow with the stippler.

Where the walls are to be stippled in oil paint, the finish-
ing coat should be mixed to a heavy consistency with 2-3
oil and 1-3 turpentine. Apply the paint medium heavy and
allow it to stand a short time, then proceed to stipple. One
man can apply the paint as well as do the stippling.

Where walls have been stippled or decorated, they can
be protected by applying a thin coat of good starch. Boil
the starch and strain. Be sure it is uniform throughout,
then reduce to a thin consistency and apply a thin coat and
stipple the same as with paint. This will protect the deco-
ration, and after it becomes soiled with smoke it can be
washed off and another coat of starch be applied in the
same manner as before, thus saving the decoration for an
indefinite length of time.

HOUSE PAINTING'

Interior Finish — Old Work. In repainting a surface that
has been painted, varnished, enameled or stained a number
of times, it is important to know the character of the sur-
face to be finished, the kind of work that can be satisfac-
torily done over it, also necessary to know how to properly
prepare the surface to receive the finish, as well as to know
that certain kinds of work cannot be successfully done over
numerous coats.

Flat white and enamel cannot be applied over numerous
coats of oil paint, as they will turn yellow and are liable to
crack. Grained work cannot be successfully done over an
enameled surface, as the surface is so hard and brittle that
when oil graining colors are used, it is liable to break loose,
chip, crack or check. A surface which has been enameled
cannot be successfully refinished except in enamel. The
only satisfactory way to remove enamel is with paint re-
mover or to burn the surface.

Painting cannot be done over numerous coats of varnish
without danger of checking or cracking, therefore the var-
nish should be removed before the paint is applied. Where
numerous coats of oil paint have been applied and are of a
spongy character or have not dried solid, the surface should
be burned or the paint taken off with a paint remover. If
the surface is cracked or alligatored, it should be cleaned
to the wood with a burning lamp or paint remover. If the
work is badly cracked and will not permit of burning, it
should be painted in flat color. Cracks will not show so
badly finished in flat as in gloss.

Oil Paint. Where oil paint is to be used over old work,
sandpaper the old paint to a smooth surface and apply a
coat mixed with half turpentine and half oil. If more than

219

220 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

one coat is desired, the second coat can be applied of the
same paint mixed to a heavier consistency; however, one
coat is usually sufficient over old paint. It is not necessary
to apply extra coats if the color used is of a similar shade
to the old paint. A well covered surface can be made with
one coat. Avoid aiDplying- more paint than is absolutely
necessary to produce a solid finish.

Gloss Finish. If the work is to be refinished in gloss,
clean the surface and sandpaper or rub with steel wool to a
smooth surface, then apply one coat of enamel or gloss fin-
ish as directed for new work, finishing coat.

Flat and Enamel Finish. If the work has received two or
three coats of oil paint which have dried solid without signs
of cracking or checking, it can be repainted with fair re-
sults if first sandpapered smoothly, then covered with a
coat of paint mixed flat. When this is hard dry, apply a
second coat if necessary; however, if the one coat will pro-
duce a satisfactory finish, it is all that should be applied.
If an enamel finish is wanted over this same surface, the
enamel can be applied over the flat color. The first enamel
coat should be reduced with a pint of turpentine to a gallon
of enamel. When hard, rub the surface with fine steel wool
to cut the gloss and level the surface, then apply a smooth,
even coat of enamel, using a full brush and flowing on the
enamel. This can be rubbed or left in a gloss finish.

If the work is to be painted or enameled white and the
surface has received numerous coats of oil paint and good
results are expected, the old paint will have to be removed.
Then the surface, if thoroughly cleaned and sandpapered,
will be in good condition to receive paint and should be
treated in the same manner as new work which has not
been sized.

To enamel over a varnished surface, it is very necessary
to remove all of the varnish. The ground work for enamel
should be built up with a portion of the enamel or a good

HOUSE PAINTING 221

mixing; varnish added to each coat. The paint should be
mixed flat, with the enamel or varnish added. The first
coat should contain from 1 pint to IV2 pints of enamel to a
gallon of paint. Apply the second coat of the same mix-
ture of a heavier consistency. Each coat should be thor-
oughly sandpapered or rubbed smooth with steel wool be-
fore applying another. The third coat can be applied with
a good enamel reduced with a pint of turpentine to a gallon
of enamel. If a deeper luster is wanted, apply a heavy coat
of enamel of the original consistency. This can be rubbed
to a flat finish or left in the gloss. If the enamel used is
of good quality and the undercoats of varnish are not of a
cheap rosin quality, this work will not check nor crack.

Kitchens and Pantries. Kitchens and pantries, to be re-
painted, should be thoroughly cleaned. The best way is to
wash the woodwork and walls with rainwater and washing
compound, using ^4 pound of Avashing powder or soda to
three gallons of rainwater. Thoroughly sponge and brush
the surface, then rinse with clear water. This will remove
smoke or grease more readily than will turpentine or ben-
zine. For the walls of the kitchen or pantry to be repaint-
ed, the first coat should be mixed half flat, then apply a
full oil coat of a flat color mixed with varnish, in the pro-
portion of 1-3 color and 2-3 mixing varnish. Either of the
foregoing will dry with a good gloss and can be washed.

The woodwoi'k should be thoroughlj' sandpapered, and,
if in very bad condition, scraped. If the old paint is thor-
oughly hard and two coat work is necessary the first coat
should be mixed half flat, then a full oil coat applied over
this, or flat color and varnish in the proportions directed for
wall work.

Shelves in cupboards and pantries should be thoroughly
washed, sandpapered and then a coat of flat color applied.
The finishing coat should be mixed with varnish and flat
color to dry hard and solid so as not to be softened with
moderate heat. Very warm cooking utensils are often

222 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

placed in pantries and on shelves, and if the paint is not
hard dry this is liable to soften it.

Kitchen and Pantry Floors. Floors should be scrubbed
three or four days before paint is a}iplied. If there are any
grease spots, wash them with turpentine or benzine. The
first coat of paint should bo mixed to dry firm and hard in
the wood. Reduce lead in t)il with 2-3 turpentine and 1-3'
good copal or mixing varnish. When hard, sandpaper ligiit-
ly, dust off and apply a coat of 2-3 mixing varnish and 1-3
flat color. This will dry with a good gloss, firm and hard
and make a coating which is not in danger of being scratched
or scuffed up.

Graining Ground. If the surface has been previously
painted and is in good condition, thoroughly sandpaper and
apply a coat of paint mixed fiat and tinted to the i^roper
ground color with a pint of hard-drying varnish added.
Should the paint dry too flat for good working or combing
of the graining color, an additional amount of varnish can
be added, or a small amount of oil. If numerous coats of
oil paint have been applied, or if the surface is badly
cracked, the paint will have to be burned or removed with
paint remover, then proceed as with new Avork.

Where graining is done over an old varnished surface, it
is best to remove the varnish before applying the paint to
avoid cracking; however, if it is impossible to do so, the
ground work can be mixed to a semi-paste with a good mix-
ing varnish, then reduced to a painting consistency with
turpentine. A small amount of oil can be used should the
color not work freely, but not to exceed four ounces of oil
to the gallon of paint. Should the paint dry too flat for
good working or combing of the graining color, an addi-
tional amount of varnish can be used in the second coat to
produce an eggshell or semi-gloss, whichever is desired.

Staining. If a surface which has been previously paint-
ed or varnished is to be stained, it must be handled and
built up with the proper shade of ground color according

HOUSE PAINTING 223

to the wood to be imitated in the same manner as a simi-
lar surface for graining ground. The stain must be of a
heavier consistency than for bare wood. Brush out thin
and even. It cannot be wiped off as on new work and the
effect depends upon the brushing. If the grain of the wood
is to be imitated, the surface must be grained.

Drying, It should be borne in mind that light and air
are necessarj' to the drying of paint. Paint will not harden
in tightly closed rooms. This is especially true of kitchens,
pantries and work of this character where there are numer-
ous shelves and drawers, and if closed the paint or varnish
will remain tacky and not harden through.

Floors which are to be painted should be exposed to a
free circulation of air from underneath. If they are over
damp basements or cellars, the windows or ventilators of
same should be opened to allow of free air circulation from
underneath, as dead or damp air will prevent the paint or
varnish on floors from hardening.

MARBLING.

Sienna Marble. The ground of Sienna marble is white
lead; the work is then to be evenly gone over with white
paint mixed with equal quantities of turpentine and oil.
After this, mix two light tints, the one consisting of yellow
ochre and white lead and the other of vermilion and white
lead, both mixed with equal quantities of oil and turpen-
tine, and with separate tools dab patches on the white paint
whilst yet wet, and with a brush well soften the patches
together, great care being taken not to allow the red tint
to be too dominant.

On a palette, on the side of which is placed a tin dipper
containing turpentine, place a small quantity of blue black,
the oil colors sold in collapsible metal tubes are the best
for marbling, and a small quantity of purple lake; then
with a sable pencil dipped in turpentine take a thin wash
of the blue black and vein on the wet work, and soften;
then work up the veins further with more blue black, so
that the color may be a little darker, but still thin; after
this, with a flat camel's hair fitch dipped in turpentine, and
a small quantity of the purple lake and blue black mixed,
apply very thin washes in some of the open spaces, and
soften lightly. When dry, put in whites, with white lead
mixed with turpentine, using a sable pencil, and subsequent-
ly softening the work with a badger, ^\^)en the paints are
quite hard, apply a light varnish.

Italian Pink Marble. Over a white ground apply a coat
of white paint as in the last case, compound tints of ultra-
marine and white lead and vermilion and white lead, each
being mixed with equal quantities of oil and turpentine,
and with these dab patches, as already described, and soften.
On the palette place some Indian red and with a small

224

MARBLING 225

pigeon feather dipped in turpentine and some of the In-
dian red, work the pattern and well soften. When this is
dry, mix some white lead mixed rather thinly with turpen-
tine, and flat the whole of the work; then with a feather
dipped in turpentine scumble over the work and subse-
quently put in whites with white lead and turpentine. When
the work is perfectly hard it is to be varnished.

Verde Antique. The ground of Verde antique is either
black or dark green, the marbling colors being dark brown
and green. Scumble over the work with these, then with
Brunswick green and white lead scumble over again and
soften with a badger; next with a fitch paint masses of white
of various shapes, squares, irregular triangles, etc., and
similar masses of black.

The painter may here be reminded of the difference be-
tween scumbling and glazing. In the latter the colors are
thinly mixed so as to be transparent; in the former, the
color is mixed thick and thinly spread or rubbed on it with
a hard brush.

Egyptian Green Marble. This marble in color nearly re-
sembles the Verde antique; it is superior serpentine, and
there are several sorts, which are called by different names,
which would be of but little service to the painter, as they are
all for his purposes comprehended under the above title.
Egyptian green differs from Verde antique in the form of
the veins, which run in a more horizontal direction, having
a greater quantity of small fossil substances mixed with it,
and the dark veins frequently running in streaks which
often appear as if broken by violence.

Serpentine. The same kind of marble, though not so
variegated in vein or color, is found in Germany, Russia
and England. It is called serpentine from its supposed re-
semblance to the skin of a serpent and in its rich variety of
color and almost indestructible hardness, and is therefore
eminently suitable for architectural ornaments.

Noble or Precious Serpentine has nearly the same ap-

226 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

pearance with the green marbles of the East, called Egj'ptian
green. The green is generally the cold color of the leek, but
varies in shades, some appearing in the darkest olive. The
veins which appear black sometimes run in a horizontal
direction, and then suddenly break and appear nearly up-
right; in other eases thej^ seem to have undergone a vio-
lent concussion, and become broken and shivered to small
pieces. It is the business of the geologist to explain the
cause of this appearance in one of the most solid of min-
erals; it is sufificient for the painter to note the character,
so as to reproduce it as far as possible by means of his art.

The common Serpentine is found in great abundance in
the Isle of Anglesea. It is not so bright or so varied as
the precious; the dark shades of green are much broader,
and the light veins not so fine and reticulated, and conse-
quently the fossil remains that are white show more dis-
tinctly in small, long, square pieces of various sizes and
forms. The black vein is so mixed with the darkest shades
of green as to be scarcely perceptible in some instances, and
this renders the marble somewhat dull and not fit for orna-
mental painting.

The mode of producing all the green marbles, both in oil
and distemper color, must be the same as that directed for
Verde antique. The ground must in all eases be black and
the different shades of green may be formed by scum-
bling the white over the black, more or less thickly according
to the variety of shade required, and, when the whole is
finished, glazing with green according to the tint of the
marble.

White-Veined Marble. The ground for this marble is
white laid perfectly smooth. The first vein will be found,
on inspecting a specimen, to be very faint; it is the broad
vein of the mica seen through a great depth of the semi-
transparent body of the white. The shadows of white al-
ways partake of a yellow hue, and thus the faint vein Avill
appear of a reddish gray, which is formed by mixing white,

MARBLING 227

black and Indian red to a propex' tint. This must be scum-
bled or spread very thinly in the forms that it is intended
that the veins should take. In relation to the formation of
marbles, it must here be observed, that they are beds of
rock that are veined by metallic or other substances run-
ning- amongst them, and that the veins always run in the
direction of the strata, precisely as thin streams of water
would if poured upon an inclined plane, such as the top
of a table slightly raised on one side. If this experiment
is tried it will be found that the streams, if they commence
regularly, will, from some inequalities of the surface, soon
alter their course and turn in various directions, sometimes
joining together, forming a sort of star, and then spread-
ing into finer threads, while others will join and form a
thick vein, but still running in various forms towards the
bottom. This is precisely the way in which the various sub-
stances sjDread themselves on the limestone, of course pene-
trating the surface and intersi^ersed with the strata.

From this experiment the painter will see that however
the direction of the veins, they must all appear to be trav-
eling to the same point by different roads and nothing can
be more contrary to nature than those violent and eccentric
breaks which painters of veined marbles usually practice.
This will ajjply to all marbles except Porphyry, Black and
Gold and Florentine.

The first broad vein of the marble having been rather
faintly painted, the veins nearer the surface are next to
be put in. They are made a little darker by the addition
of black and are to be drawn very thin, taking the direc-
tion of the broad faint vein and being divided according to
pi-evious studies from nature. The veins which are nearest
the surface must, of course, be darker than the othei'S, and
the color may be darkened and warmed by the still further
addition of black, with a little lake and blue. This vein
should be drawn with a fine sable pencil very thin, and
made to take nearly the direction of the last veining. Only

228 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

very little is i-equired, but it must be put in with spirit
and skill and the beauty of the work will thereby be greatly
enhanced.

The whole of these veins are put on one upon the other
whilst wet and blended together with the badger softener.
When quite dry the dark vein may be retouched either
wholly or in parts.

Lay on a ground of white and put in the veins with a
marbling craj'on or camel's hair brush whilst the ground
is wet, and soften with the badger. This is, of course, a
much inferior method to the above, as the different degrees
of depth of the veins, and the pale smooth portions caused
by the confluences described are not as well represented.

riorentine Marble. The ground for this marble is white,
Indian red and black, mixed together to form a very light
reddish neutral tint. The veins are umber or burnt sienna;
they are laid on very irregularly, while the ground color is
wet; sometimes they are very close together, and then seem
to break suddenly into the forms of rocks or ruins, an effect
which must be studied from natural specimens and must
be imitated by hand.

Black-and-Gold Marble. The ground is black. Paint
the large spots from which the fibrous veins are to run with
yellow ochre and white, the bright tone of which must be
heightened by the addition of a little vermilion. These
masses must be dabbed with freedom upon the ground with
a l)rush full of color and, whilst quite wet, threads must be
drawn from them in all directions, some, of course, being
larger and thicker than olliers.

A white vein is sometimes seen running in the deepest
parts of the black, with small threads attached to it, cross-
ing each other and the yellow veins in all directions. Care
must be taken that the threads are connected with, and run
in some degree in the same direction as, the thicker veins.
If the ground of this is properly prepared, the yellow and
white veins may both be painted at once in oil color.

MARBLING 229

In cabinet work, most beautiful imitations of the finest
specimens of this marble may be produced by spreading a
leaf or two of gold in any part of the work where the gold,
and silver leaf where the white, veins are intended to run.
The black ground is then to be rather thickly painted over
the whole surface, covering the gold and silver leaf, and,
after the color has been on a short time, take a round-
pointed bodkin, or similar implement, and draw the color
in small reticulated veins from off the gold and silver leaf;
the metal will then show in fine lines; the larger masses
are to be wiped off with the wash-leather spread over the
point of the thumb or a piece of wood. When the black
is dry, the yellow and white veins are to be painted as be-
fore directed, and drawn over the gold and silver, which
will by this means show through them and give great bril-
liancy water when the work has been subsequently var-
nished.

Paint the ground a deep ivory black; put on the veins
in white, yellow ochre and burnt and raw sienna, using a
camel's hair brush; glaze the spaces between the veins with
a thin coat of gray or white, over which pass a few white
veins. The veins may also be put in with gold leaf.

Porphyry Marble. Mix the ground color of Venetian red
with a little vermilion and white, until it is of the tint re-
quired. The first layer of spots is produced by sprinkling
in the following manner: Mix some of the ground color
with a larger quantity of white, in a paint-pot, and use a
large brush which has been well worked in the color; hold
the palette knife over the paint-pot and press the hairs of
the brush against the edge so that as much as possible of
the color may be forced out of it; then, taking the handle
of the brush between the palms of the hands, roll it to and
fro with a rapid motion, the ends of the hairs being below
the level of the paint.

Now hold a stick firmly in front of the work and strike
the handle of the brush against it; the color that still re-

230 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

mains in it will thus fall on the surface in a variety of
small dots. Great care on the part of the painter is neces-
sary at this stage, so as to distribute the spots equally;
otherwise, whilst one part of the work will be left only par-
tially spotted, others may be so thickly covered that the
urops will become confluent and not be visible as spots
afterwards.

When this work has become sufficientlj^ di-y, the sprink-
ling may be repeated by dipping the brush into a color
rather deeper than the ground; it may be Indian red, with
suflBcient white to give it a bod3\ The sprinkling with this
color must be done very sparingly and rather more in
some parts than others.

The last sprinkling is to be done with a clean small tool
dipped in white paint only and the spots are to be very
fine; as much color, therefore, as possible should previously
be removed from the brush, and it will be found that, when
so little color remains in the brush that it will scarcely
mark a board when rubbed on it, there will still be enough
to produce the fine dots when struck against the stick. The
stick should be held at some distance from the work, as the
farther away the finer will be the dots. In imitating some
specimens, the three layers of spots are laid on and, in ad-
dition, a narrow opaque white vein is to be run amongst
the spots; from this transparent threads are drawn in vari-
ous directions; these cannot be added until the whole of
the sprinkling is quite dry and hard; they must then be
formed with a sable pencil and the threads drawn out with
a feather.

Egyptian Porphyry. The ground for this rare and beauti-
ful marble is composed of vermilion and white lead. A
tint of Indian red and lake is then sprinkled over the
ground by striking the handle of the brush containing the
color against a stick, and turning the wrist whilst striking;
some of the dots will thus become elliptical instead of cir-
cular. The sprinkling of the brush must be spread in every

MARBLING 231

direction, and the spots will, as already explained, be larger
as the brush is struck nearer to the work and smaller as the
distance is increased. The darker spots are a strong tint
of lake, sprinkled on the previously made spots by strik-
ing the brush very smartly once or twice over that part of
the work where they are required. The whole must then
be left to dry; after this, a light blue tint must be sprinkled
very lightly over different parts of the surface, but in no
part so thickly as to overpower the red. The larger spots
are to be done with white applied with a sable pencil near
the darkest sprinkling. Dark spots of a tint formed with
blue and lake are now to be added, and the work is to be
completed by white veins drawn with a fine camel's hair
pencil.

Blue-and-Gold Marble. The ground for this marble is a
light blue, and when this is quite dry dab on in separate
patches light blue, white and Prussian blue, leaving portions
of the ground visible. Soften these patches together and
then vein in every direction with white and fill up some of
the irregular spaces with yellow or gold paint, and finally
add fine white veins.

Blue Ruby-Spotted Marble. The blue ruby-spotted mar-
ble comes from Switzerland; it is light-colored, beautiful
marble which may be introduced either in large or small
masses with equally good effect.

The ground for this marble is a very light blue, with a
few patches of white in those parts where the yellow spots
are afterwards to appear. Both the blue and white of the
ground must be quite dry before any marbling color can be
applied. A bright tint of Prussian blue nnd white may be
painted on in spots over the blue ground, and above this,
whilst wet, a few touches of a darker tint must be laid on
in large spots sufficiently apart from each other to allow the
first tint to be seen between them.

The yellow spots may now be applied over the white
ground; this is done with King's yellow mixed with a little

232 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

vermilion. The work must be left to dry before it can be
proceeded with. The surface being quite hard, paint the
dark red or ruby veins with a tint of lake and blue. This
is rather dotted than painted over the blue, taking care to
avoid the yellow. These marks in some places are quite
red, and for these lake alone is used. As soon as the ruby
tint is applied, mix a much stronger tint of lake and blue
and draw the strong markings over the lake; these lines
are drawn out in a long succession of spots over the blue.
It is impossible to give a verbal description of the manner
of applying the tints in the various markings of this marble,
but the painter who keeps the general character cannot
greatly err from nature.

This is a most excellent pattern for distemper color. The
ground is white, the light blue is white and Prussian blue;
this may be sprinkled with a large brush. The darker spots
are a tint with a little more blue than the first.

Blue-Veined Swiss Marble. This mnrble is exceedingly
splendid in color and not very difficult to imitate. The
ground is white. Light blue spots or broken streaks are
drawn over the ground so as to let the white be seen be-
tween them. The blue must be omitted on that part of the
ground where the yellow markings are seen. On these
spaces a tint of King's yellow is painted and on this tint
broad spots or touches of burnt sienna. The work must
then be suffered to dry, after which the purple tint may be
applied over the blue spots; this tint is lake and blue; the
marking upon it is black; a glaze of burnt sienna in differ-
ent parts will give variety of tint to the representation.

To execute this marble in distemper the blue may be
sprinkled upon the ground with a large brush. The yellow
is King's yellow, touched up with lake; the purple tint is
indigo mixed with rose pink, and the darkest markings are
black.

Dove-Colored Spotted Marble. This differs from the Dove
marbles commonly seen by the contrast of the strong dark

MARBLING 233

and light spots, and the interspersion of thin light veins.
Dove marbles are used to heighten the effect of white-
veined or statuary marble in sepulchral monuments, etc.
The imitation in painting is mostly required for chimney-
pieces or common dark work, for which it is very appro-
priate.

The ground for this marble is a light grey formed with
black and white, mixed to the tint required; the sprinklings
on the ground are done with a very dark tint formed of the
same colors. The large spots are black, laid upon the
sprinklings while wet with a sable pencil. The white spots
and the veining may also be painted while the dark sprink-
ling is wet, as they will then blend with it and have a more
natural effect than it would if they were painted when the
dark sprinkling had become dry.

The process and colors are the same if the work is re-
quired in distemper, but as it is so easily and quickly per-
formed in oil it is seldom that distemper color for so dark
and common a marble can be used with advantage.

Dove Marble, For the ground of this marble two or three
coats of good lead-color should be laid, and these should
each be nicely smoothed with glass paper. The color used
for marbling is the same as the ground, but thinned with
turpentine. In order that the work may be satisfactorily
blended whilst wet, only a small portion must be taken in
hand, the whole being executed piece by piece until com-
plete. The marbling color having been rubbed over a cer-
tain portion, small specks representing fossil remains are
to be formed in it with a whitish tint, and these must be
blended into the color, but not so much as to lose their dis-
tinctions. Veins of various sizes are then to be put in with
the thinned ground color, using a small sash tool, distribut-
ing them with taste, and interspersing them with very fine
veins. The color is then to be made lighter by the addition
of white lead, and with a feather dipped in this color the
broader veins are to be passed over, thus forming numerous

234 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

thread-like veins. Next, with thin white in a camel's hair
pencil, pass partly over the same veins with short thick
touches, which may be continued in the narrower parts with
a fine striping pencil. When the work has become quite
hard it should be smoothed with very fine glass paper be-
fore being varnished.

Jasper Marble. The ground is composed of Venetian red,
red lead and a small quantity of chrome yellow, mixed with
oil and turpentine in equal j^arts. Or additional 'brilliancy
may be given to the color by vermilion or lake instead of
Venetian red. While the ground is wet, dab on spots of
white, using either a piece of sponge or a tool, and soften
with a badger, subsequently repeating the white touches in
parts to give them increased brilliancy. Spots of blue, brown
or yellow may be added in the same manner. When nearly
dry, veins and threads may be put in with a camel's hair
pencil.

Granite. Granite is a well-known igneous rock, composed
principally of three minerals, Quartz, Felspar and Mica,
united in a confused ci-ystallization, that is, without any
regular arrangement of the crystals. The following is the
order in which the ingredients are proportioned: Felspar,
Quartz, Mica. The name of the stone is derived from its
granular formation.

There are very many kinds of granite used in the arts.
Amongst these are the gray, red, green, violet, rose-colored,
etc.

For the gray granite the ground is a gray, mixed of black
and white, and, over this, spots are to be splashed with
black and white, used separately, the work being carried on
as described in relation to Porphyry. For the various shades
of red granite the ground is composed of Venetian red and
white, the spots being black, white and vermilion. In the
same way any of the other kinds may be represented.

MILDEW.

Mildew is a serious trouble. This is a vegetable growth
and always a sure indication of dampness. It is impossible
to satisfactorily paint a surface on which mildew has formed
unless the surface is first treated to destroy this growth.

Ochre primers and ochre colors are particularly liable to
this really sej'ious trouble, due to the fact that they are
largely of bog origin and contain the seeds or spores as
they are called from which the mildew mold develops. Such
growths result not only in a most serious discoloration of
the work which at times may be taken as fading or change
of color, but also are verj' destructive to the paint itself,
mildew not only developing at times at the expense of the
vegetable oil itself, but what is even more serious, growing
between the wood and the paint and thus forcing the paint
off.

Vegetable oils like linseed oil are not destructive to this
vegetable growth, but turpentine is, hence the first thing
to do in aggravated cases is to wash well and freely with
turpentine, removing any loose paint; this will very largely
destroy such growths. In ^addition, an exceptionally large
amount of turpentine should be used in the first coat ap-
plied over such a surface; the paint should be well flatted.
An undereoating well flatted with turpentine applied over
a mildewed surface which has been washed with turpen-
tine offers the best possible protection against repetition of
the trouble.

235

OILS AND DRIERS.

Linseed oil is produced by expression from the seeds,
either by hydraulic or steam power. This material varies
in cjuality : According to the goodness of the seed from
which it is expressed, and according to its age and clear-
ness; for, when a large stock is kept, it is found that, in
about six months, there is a considerable amount of accumu-
lation of refuse at the bottom of the tank, which is only
fit to be employed in mixing coarse paint for out-door work.
The best is yellow, transparent, comparatively sweet-scent-
ed and has a flavor resembling that of the cucumber. Great
consequence has been attributed to the cold drawing of this
oil, but it is of little or no importance whether moderate
heat be employed or not in expressing it. Several methods
have been contrived for bleaching and purifying this oil
so as to render it perfectly colorless and limpid, but these
give it more beauty to the ej-e, in a liquid state, without
giving it any permanent advantage, since there is not any
known process for preventing the discoloring after its dry-
ing, and it is, perhaps, better upon the whole that this and
every vehicle should possess that color at the time of using
to which it subsequently tends, so that the painter may
depend on the continuance of his tints, and a%'oid the dis-
appointment and annoyance arising from a change of color.

Linseed oil is sometimes boiled with litharge to make it
dry quickly, but when it is thus treated it is unfit for best
work.

The quality of linseed oil may be determined in the fol-
lowing manner: Fill a phial with oil and hold it up to
the light; if bad, it will appear opaque and turbid, its taste
will be acid and its smell rancid. The oil which is expressed

236

OILS AND DRIERS 237

from good and full-grown seeds should, when held up to
the light, appear clear, pale and bright; it is sweet to the
taste and has little or no smell.

Linseed oil may be purified by the following process:
Place the oil in a bottle or jar, and drop into it some pow-
dered whiting, stir or shake up the mixture and allow it
to stand on the stove, or in an oven, not too hot; the whit-
ing will very soon carry down all color and impurity and
form a precipitate at the bottom. The refined oil at the top
may then be poured off.

In rare instances, where the least yellowness in the oil
would be injurious, nut or poppy oil may be used with ad-
vantage; but, as already stated, linseed is the oil used for
general purposes.

Oils of a nature suitable for painting are the most com-
modious and advantageous vehicle to colors hitherto dis-
covered, first, because the unctuous consistence of them
renders their being spread and laj'ed on a surface with
more evenness and expedition than any other kind of ve-
hicle; secondly, because, when dry, they leave a strong glu-
ten or tenacious body that holds the colors together, and
defends them much more from the injuries either of the air
or accidental violence than the vehicles formed of water.
The principal and most general quality to be required in
oils is their drying well, which, though it may be assisted
by additions, is yet to be desired in the oil itself, as the
effects of the pigments used in it are sometimes such as
counteract the strongest driers, and occasion great delay
and trouble from the work remaining wet for a great length
of time, and frequently never becoming thoroughly hard.
There are some oils that have this fault to an incurable de-
gree. The next quality in oils is the limpidness, or approach
to a colorless state, which is likewise vei'y material; for
where they partake of a brown or yellow color, such brown
or yellow necessarily mixes itself with the pigments; but,
besides the brown color which may be visible in the oil

238 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

when it is used, a great increase of it is apt to appear some
time afterwards when the oil is not good. There are throe
changes which oils of the kind i:)roper for painting are
liable to suffer in their nature, and which affect them as
vehicles, that are mentioned by painters under one term,
that of fattening; notwithstanding, these several changes
are brought about by very different means, and relate to
very different properties in the oils.

The first is a coagulation by the mixture of the oil with
some pigment improperly prepared. This, indeed, is called
the fattening of the colors, but the real change is in the
oils and the pigments are only the means of producing it.
This change is generally a separation of the oil into two
different substances, the one a viscid body which remains
combined with the pigments, the other a thin fluid matter
which divides itself from the color and thicker part.

This last apjiears in very various proportions under dif-
ferent circumstances, and, in some cases, it is not found
where the pigments happen to be of a more earthy and alka-
line nature, for then only a thick clammy substance that
can scarcely be squeer.ed out of the bladder, if it is put up
in one, is the result of the fattening. This fattening not
only happens when oil and pigments are mixed together in
bladders or vessels, but sometimes, after they liave been
laid on the i3roper ground for them, instead of drying, the
separation will ensue, and one part of the oil Avill run off
in small drops or streams, while the other will remain with
the color, without showing the least tendency to dry.

The second is the change that takes place in oils from
long keeping. This, if it could be afforded by the oil-manu-
facturer or the paintei', is by far the best method of puri-
fying linseed and otlier oils, as, by thus keeping, they be-
come lighter colored and acquire a more unctuous consist-
ence; and, though they are said to become too fat, they
are in a very different state from that before mentioned,
which is caused by unsuitable pigments.

OILS AND DRIERS 239

The third is the change produced by artificial means, from
exiDosing the oil a long time to the sun, whereby it is freed
from its grosser and more feculent parts, and rendered color-
less, and of a more thick and less fluid consistence than
can be produced by any other treatment; but, at the same
time, it is made less likely to dry, particularly when used
with mineral colors, as vei'milion, Prussian blue and King's
yellow; it likewise becomes disqualified by other bad quali-
ties that render it of little use as a vehicle for painting.
Oils in this state are called also fat oils, though it is a
change that has not the least affinity with either of the
other, but, on the contrary, differs from both. In speaking,
therefore, of the fattening of oils or colors, attention should
be had to the not confounding these three several kinds
one with the other.

Linseed oil, from its cheapness, is the only oil in common
use for house painting, and it may, by proper management,
be made to answer for every kind of work. This oil is
jjressed from the seed of flax, and is best when manufac-
tured in great quantities. The general defect in linseed oil
is its brown color, and its tardiness in drying, both of which
are in a much greater degree found in some parcels than
others. There is also found such as, in consequence of its
being mixed with the oil of some other vegetable accidental-
ly growing near it, j^artakes of the nature of olive-oil, and
cannot be made to dry by any means whatever. The
faults of the color and want of drying quality may be
greatly reduced, if not entirely taken away, by keeping
the oil for a length of time before it is used; it then be-
comes fat in the second sense of the word, as before ex-
plained, and is a good vehicle for color without any mix-
ture; but it is generally used with a proper drier, as it
never by itself becomes sufficiently pure to use with white
or other light tints, without imparting a brown color to
them.

Poppy Oil. This is a colorless oil, and is in some in-

240 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

stances used for delicate works where the length of time
required for drying is no object. It is much celebrated
in some old books, under the name of oil of pinks and oil
of carnations, as erroneously translated from the French
ceillet, or olivet, a local name for the poppy in districts
where its oil is employed as a substitute for that of the
olive. It is, however, inferior in strength, tenacity and dry-
ing to linseed oil, although next to it in these respects, and,
though it is of a paler color, and slower in changing, it be-
comes ultimately not so yellow, but nearly as bi'own and
dusky, as linseed oil, and therefore is not preferred to it.

Nut Oil is the oil of walnuts, and is used in ornamental
painting, as it is nearly colorless, and can be used with
flake white and other delicate colors without the slightest
danger of tingeing them.

Driers. Driers are used to hasten the drying of paints.
These are ground up in oil and are mixed in small quanti-
ties with the color; some colors, in fact, will not perfectly
harden without them, but remain stickj', or, as painters
term it, tacky, until sufficient dust has clung to them to
render their external surface at least apparently dry;
though, as can be well understood, it will remain disagree-
able to the touch and much injured in color. Red lead is a
good drier, but, of course, can only be used in situations or
in paints where its color is not objectionable. Sugar-of-
lead is, however, the best drier, but is more expensive than
others. Patent driers, ground up in oil, may be purchased
at the various paint stores.

Drying Oils. All the fixed oils have an attraction, more
or less powerful, for oxygen, and by exposure to the air they
either become hard and resinous, or they only thicken
slightly and become sour and rancid. Those which exhibit
the first property in a marked degree — as the oils of linseed,
poppy, rape and walnut, are called drying oils, and are
used as vehicles for colors in painting; the others are termed
glutinous or non-drying oils.

OILS AND DRIERS 241

The resinifying or drying qualities of the oils are greatly
increased by boiling them, either alone or along with lith-
arge, sugar-of-lead or white vitriol, when the product forms
boiled oil, or drying oil of commerce. The efficacy of the
process depends on the elimination of substances which im-
pede the oxidation of the oil.

The following methods of preparing drying oils are culled
from various sources; the quantities of each formula are
given as in the originals, but these can, of course, be used
in relative proportions when the preparation is to be car-
ried on on a smaller scale.

Linseed oil, 1 gallon; powdered litharge % pound. Sim-
mer, with frequent stirring, until a pellicle begins to form;
remove the scum, and when it has become cold and has
settled decant the clear portion. Dark colored, used by house
painters.

Three hours boiling, with litharge one-tenth in weight
of the oil, renders the oil more perfectly drying than when
the boiling is continued for a much longer time, when the
oil acquires a darker color and so becomes injured in trans-
parency the longer it is boiled. Merely heating linseed oil
to 170° Fahrenheit, along with a small quantity of peroxide
of manganese, as completely renders it siccative as any
amount of boiling, and without any deterioration to its
color or transparency. It appears probable that litharge
acts more by its mere presence in inducing the oxidation
of the oil than by actually giving up oxygen to it, and
those engaged in boiling oils have remarked that the old
litharge, with which linseed oil has been already boiled, acts
more energetically in producing the siccative property in
it than new litharge.

Pale Linseed or Nut-Oil 1 pint, litharge, or dry sulphate
of lead in fine powder 2 ounces; mix, let it stand, frequent-
ly stirring it for ten days, then set the bottle in the sun,
or in a warm place to settle and decant the clear portion.

Sugar of lead 1 pound, dissolved in I/2 gallon of rain

242 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

water; 1 pound litharge in fine powder is then added, and
the mixture is gently simmered until only a whitish sedi-
ment remains; 1 pound of levigated litharge is next dif-
fused through 21/2 gallons of linseed oil, and the mixture
is gradually added to the lead solution previously diluted
with an equal bulk of water; the whole is now stirred to-
gether for some hours with heat and is lastly left to clear
itself by exposure in a wann place. The lead solution
which subsides from the oil may be used again for the same
purpose by dissolving in it another pound of litharge as
before.

Into linseed oil, 236 gallons, pour oil of vitriol 6 or 7
pounds, and stir the two together for three hours, then
add a mixture of fuller's earth 6 pounds, and hot lime 14
pounds, and again stir for three hours. Next, put the whole
into a copper, with an equal quantitj' of water, and boil
for about three hours; lastly, withdraw the fire, and, when
the whole is cold, draw off the water, run the oil into any
suitable vessel, and let it stand for a few weeks before
using.

Pale Drying Oil. The oil should be macerated two or
three days at least upon about an eighth of its weight of
litharge, in a warm place, occasionally shaking the mixture,
after Avhich it should be left to settle and clear; or it may
be prepared, without heat, by levigating the litharge in the
oU. Acetate of lead may be substituted for litharge, being
soluble with less heat, and its acid, being volatile, escapes
during solution and bleaches the oil, to which coai-se smalt
may be added to clear it by subsidence, increase its drying
and neutralize its brown dolor. This affords pale drying
oil for light and bright colors.

Boiled Oil. The above mixture of oil and litharge, gently
and carefully boiled in an open vessel till it thickens, be-
comes strong drying oil for dark colors. Boiled oil is
sometimes set on fire purposely, in making printer's var-

OILS AND DRIERS 243

nish and printing ink, and also for painting and the prepa-
ration of japanner's gold size. As dark and transparent
colors are in general comparative ill driers, japanner's gold
size is sometimes employed as a powerful means of drying
them. This material may be prepared in the following man-
ner: Asphaltum, litharge or red lead, burnt umber or man-
ganese, finely powdered, of each 1 ounce; stir them into a
pint of linseed oil and simmer the mixture over a gentle
fire, or on a sand bath, till solution has taken place, scum
ceases to rise, and the fluid thickens on cooling, carefully
guarding it from taking fire. If the oil employed be at all
acid or rancid, a small portion of powdered chalk, or mag-
nesia, may be usefully added, and will assist the rising of
the scum and the clearing of the oil by its subsidence; and,
if it be kept at rest in a warm place, it will clear itself,
or it may be strained through a cloth and diluted with tur-
pentine for use. Gold size for gilding is commonly made
of boiled oil and fine yellow ochre.

There is often a difficulty in obtaining the oils bright;
after boiling or heating them with the lead solutions, the
best way, on a small scale, is either to filter them through
coarse woollen filtering pajier, or to expose the bottle for
some time to the action of the sun, or to place it in a warm
situation; on a large scale, the fine oils are often filtered
through Canton flannel bags. The litharge and sulphate of
lead used in the above processes may be again rendered
available for the same purpose by washing them in hot wa-
ter to remove the adhering mucilage.

Drier for Zinc White. Purified linseed oil is boiled for
six or eight hours, and to every 100 pounds of boiled oil
there are added five pounds of powdered peroxide of man-
ganese, which may be kept in a bag like litharge. The
liquid is boiled and stirred for five or six hours more and
then cooled and filtered. This drying oil is employed in the
proportion of from five to ten per cent of the weight of
zinc white, and it should be added during the grinding of

244 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

the pigment in oil, the admixture then being more thor-
ough.

Drying Oils. Fifteen parts of lime made into paste with
water are added to 100 parts of oil oxidized by peroxide
of manganese. The whole is boiled or heated by steam un-
til the water has evaporated; the oil then forms with lime
a thick product which is a drier. It may be ground with
the ordinary oil of tuipentine, or with that of Venice, but
the dryer is less powerful than when it has been mixed
with oxidized linseed oil. Three to five per cent of this
drier are sufficient for a rapid desiccation.

Other driers may be made by combining lime with resins
and essence of turpentine in the proportions indicated for
fixed oils.

Powdered Drier. Pure sulphate of manganese 1 part,
pure acetate of manganese 1 part, calcined sulphate of zinc
1 part, white oxide of zinc 97 parts. The sulphate and ace-
tate are ground in a mortar to an impalpable powder, which
is passed through a metallic sieve. Three parts of this pow-
der arp dusted over the 97 parts of oxide of zinc, spread
over a board or a slab; the whole is then thoroughly mixed
and ground. The resulting white and impalpable powder,
mixed in the proportion of V2 to 1 per cent with zinc white,
will enormously increase the drying property of this prod-
uct, which will become dry in from ten to twelve hours.

Volatile Oils, procured by distillation from turpentine and
other vegetable substances, are almost destitute of the
strength of the expressed oils, having hardly more cement-
ing power in painting than water alone, and are principally
used as solvents, and media of resinous and other sub-
stances introduced into vehicles and other varnishes. In
drying they partly evaporate and partly, by combination
with oxygen, form resin and become fixed. They are not,
however, liable to change color like expressed oils of a dry-
ing nature, and, owing to their extreme fluidness, are useful
diluents of the latter; they have also a bleaching quality,

OILS AND DRIERS 243

whereby they in some degree correct the tendency of drying
and expressed oils to discolorment. Of the essential oils,
the most volatile and nearest in this respect to alcohol is
oil of sassafras, but that most used in painting is the recti-
fied oil, improperly called spirits of turpentine, preferable
only on account of its being thinner and more free from
resin. By the action of oxj'gen upon it, water is either gen-
erated or set free, and the oil becomes thickened, but is
again rendered liquid by a boiling heat upon water, in which
the oxygen and resin are separated from it. When colored
by heat or otherwise, oil of turpentine may be bleached by
agitating some lime powder in it, which will carry down
the color. The great use of this oil, under the name of
turps, is to thin oil paints, and, in the larger use thereof,
to flatten white and other colors, and to remove superfluous
color in graining. It, however, weakens paint in preventing
its bearing out, and when used entirely alone, it will not
fix the paint.

The name of turpentine is applied to a liquid, or soft
solid product of certain coniferous trees, and of the Pis-
tachia terebinthus.

There are several varieties, as follows: American or
white turpentine, Bordeaux tui-pentine, Venice turpeatine,
Strasburg turpentine, Canadian turpentine, or Canadian
balsam, Ohio turpentine and Frankincense.

In nearly all cases the processes of collecting are similar.
A hollow is cut in the tree yielding turpentine, a few inches
from the ground, and the bark removed for the space of
about 18 inches above it. The turpentine trickles down into
vessels placed to receive it. The incisions are made about
the close of March, and the turpentine continues to run
throughout the vegetative season, especially during the sum-
mer months. In general character these turpentines have
much in common; they are oleo-resins, varying slightly in
color, consistency and smell; they enter into the composi-
tion of many varnishes.

246 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Oil of turpentine is obtained by distilling American tur-
pentine, which has been melted and strained with water in
an ordinal^' copper still. The distilled product is colorless,
limpid, very fluid and possessed of a very peculiar smell.

The residuum, after the distillation of the oil or spirits
of turpentine, is the common resin of trade.

OIL PAINTING ON GLASS.

There are three principal modes of oil-painting on glass,
as follows :

Non- Transparent Painting on Transparent Glass. In
this mode the materials are the same, and the method the
same, except in one particular, as that employed in painting
on the front of mirrors. The sole particular in which it
differs from this kind ol mirror painting is this: it must
be much less transparent in the shadows and half tints,
for the reason that it has no silver foil or ground; the
paint, therefore, must have sufficient body in every part to
prevent anything dark or bright behind from being visible
through it, and thus affecting the coloring. This mode is
much used for decorating unsilvered plates of glass to be
inserted as panels in screens. As, however, the back of
the screen is not covered in the usual way, if both sides
are likely to be seen, and it be found desirable to hide the
unpleasant appearance of the back of the painting, this can
only be done by repainting on the back of the glass the sub-
ject on the front.

The outlines must be made to coincide with those show-
ing through and a study of the subject should be used to
fill in within the outlines^ but less finish will usually suffice.

Transparent Painting on Transparent Glass. This kind
of painting is applied to windows, magic-lantern slides, etc.

Mirror-Painting on the Back of the Glass. This style of
painting may be done either before or after the silvering.
The former is the usual course, because simpler and less
toilsome. In this case it is of the first imports nee that the
outlines, or rather the boundaries, should be rendered sharp
and true aiid with a good bod}' of coloi", otherwise their
ragged or blurred edges will be emphasized by the subse-
quent silvering.

247

248 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

The chief difficulty in painting on the back of the glass
is to calculate the effect each touch will have when viewed
in front. On so viewing his touches the artist will often
be surprised at the discordancy they present, though he may
have calculated their relative effect very carefully. There
is no expedient that will materially lessen this difficulty.
All that can be done is to register, so to speak, the value
of the transparent, and the solidity of the opaque couches
of paint, by placing a sheet of white paper behind the
former, and a sheet of black paper behind the latter.

The colors that are more or less transparent must be
applied at the outset, but they will only appear as such
and of their proper tint and hue when opaque paint is spread
over them. Of course, the transparent colors must not be
reserved for final glazing, the whole process of ordinary
painting being reversed, the last strokes of the latter hav-
ing to be the first strokes of painting on the back of a
mirror.

As the face of the paint must be as smooth as the pol-
ished surface to which it clings, texture, for the representa-
tion of the surfaces of objects, can only be obtained by
means less direct, for the most part, than those available
for other applications of oil-painting. When using trans-
parent colors, and texture be required, they must be applied
in a broken manner, and when using opaque colors for the
same purpose they should be spread thinly, then scraped,
and other tints or hues passed over them so as to show be-
tween the interstices of the scraping, according to the re-
quirements.

When the work is otherwise complete a solid coat of
white should be spread over the whole, and when this is
dry a thick coat of Brunswick black. The first will pre-
vent the second from showing through, as it might to the
great detriment of the coloring. Brunswick black is used
as the overcoat, because it effectually protects the painting
proper from injury by the subsequent silvering.

OIL PAINTING ON GLASS 249

If the plale is already silvered a separate study should
be made and the outlines of this study traced on the back
of the silvering. This being done, the portion of the silver-
ing that the painting must occupy is etched away by a
scalpel or other sharp blade, taking care not to scratch the
glass. The etching may be effected and outlines obtained
without much trouble if the silvering has been done by the
mercurial process. But it is not so with the modern silver-
ing, this being covered with a coat of hard varnish-paint
that is almost impossible to remove without leaving ragged
edges. Only for a large plate to be viewed at a distance
should it be attempted, and then, so great is the labor in-
volved, it would generally prove more economical to ex-
change the plate for a new one unsilvered.

All painting on the back of mirrors has, however, inevit-
able defects, which are apt to prove somewhat antipathetic
to artists. Its difficulties, while augmenting the cost to the
purchaser, preclude commensurate results. For the reason
that the painter cannot see the progress of his work with
the usual facility, the coloring can hardly be very har-
monious. To mix each first touch of paint to the required
hue or tint and lay it on at once in the right place is not
easy to an experienced artist, but the difficulty is enor-
mously increased when the work has to be turned to ascer-
tain how the last touch behaves relatively to all those which
preceded it. The coloring must also be comparatively dead,
owing to the opaque ground. The painting can hardly ap-
pear other than flat and monotonously smooth, or with little
spirit of handling, or touch, descriptive of texture and ex-
pression of light. And, although by this method there are
no reflections from edges of the painting when the mirrox
is viewed at an angle, yet the painting is obscured by re-
flections from the surface of the glass before it, as well
as lowered in brilliancy by the thickness and any green-
ness of the glass.

PAINTING A BATH TUB.

The method for painting- an ordinaiy room is the plan
which is followed in most cases of painting. The method
of painting a bath tub, however, is an entirely different
one. The wear and tear of an ordinai-y bath tub is very
gTeat ; the heat of the water is in itself very trying to any
paint or enamel, especially when, as often happens, the
water is allowed to enter the bath in a nearh' boiling state,
there to mingle with the colder water. It will be a hint of
value to know that the hotter the water the greater is the
wear and tear on the paint material, and this whether the
bath tub is of the highest quality or is of a cheaj^er make.
But apart from the heat of the water, the soap and grease
which abounds in the bath room is in itself a means of de-
struction to the paint. In renovating an old bath tub, the
proper plan would be to have it taken out and sent to an
enamelling firm, who paint it in a special manner and with
a special paint, which is known as baking enamel. This
is a description of paint specially made for articles to be
placed in a stove of high heat whence the enamel is greatly
hardened. The trouble and expense, however, of taking a
bath tub out and sending it away in this manner is very
great and many, therefore, prefer to paint their own bath
tubs, if even they have to repeat the operations everj' spring.

The first thing to be done is to thoroughly clean the sur-
face and this, as in all operations of repainting, is very
important. At the risk of being tedious the necessitj' of
getting every portion of the surface absolutely clean before
the paint is applied must be emphasized, and in this case
it must be added absolutely dry also. Sometimes the fau-
cets of the batli tub leak a little; if so this must be stopped
before the repainting is commenced, otherwise the job is

250

PAINTING A BATHTUB 251

hopeless. The best way of cleaning a bath tub is to first
thoroughly scrub with soap and water, using hot water and
plenty of elbow grease; any ordinary pure soap answers
the purpose. The next thing is to rinse freely with cold
water with a sponge or cloth, but even this, as a rule, does
not remove all the grease, and a further operation is nec-
essary to the same end of scrubbing with powdered pumice
stone and water. A small scrubbing brush is moistened
with water and dipped in the dry pumice stone and then
the surface is rubbed over briskly so as to literally grind
off any dirt or gi"ease which may remain. A thorough sluic-
ing with cold water completes the process and the bath tub
is, when dry, ready for the first coat of paint. If time
is limited a clean cloth may be used to wipe off the water
from the surface, but it is better to let the work remain for
24 hours until it is thoroughly dry.

Sometimes it will be found that the previous coats of
paint have chipped off in places; in that case, if a really
nice finish is required, it will be necessary to remove all
the paint and start from the iron, and that is a long and
tedious process.

The paint to be mixed for this job is either white lead
or zinc white, thinned with turpentine only, that is with-
out oil, but with the addition of a tablespoonful of gold
size. This paint should be somewhat thin and it will dry
without gloss. It is called by painters, sharp color. The
advantage it possesses is that it forms a very thin coat,
much thinner than ordinary oil paint, and it may, there-
fore, be applied much quicker, and being thin it is less likely
to shrivel or crack under the influence of hot water. If it
is desired to tint the paint this can readily be done by
adding a little of the color required. For instance, sea
green can be made by adding a little light Brunswick green
and a little raw sienna to the white lead or zinc white. As
a rule bath tubs look best a very light color. A light pink
looks well, and so does a light blue.

252 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

An ordinary paint brush will be used and care must be
taken not to miss any small parts, and not to apply the
paint too thick; a very thin, even coat is what is to be
aimed at. The coat of paint will dry in an hour, but it is
better to leave it for 8 or 10 hours before applying the sec-
ond coat. A good plan, if the weather is dry, is to apply
one coat early in the morning and the second at night. If
the paint shows any sig-ns of roughness it may be lightly
rubbed over with very fine sandpaper. In that case the
bath tub must be dusted out before a second coat is ap-
plied. As a rule three coats will be ample and two will
usually suffice. If the paint is properly mixed and properly
applied there will be no difficulty in determining when the
surface has received a sufficient number of coats; that point
will be reached when the tub is quite uniform in appear-
ance. The beginner will be likely to view the work, how-
ever, at this stage with some doubt, owing to the unfamiliar
appearance of the flat surface, without gloss. Persons have
abandoned the work at this stage under the impression that
the unfamiliar appearance looked too much like whitewash.
However, this appearance is quite what might be expected,
but it will quickly be removed by the next process which
is that of ajDplying a coat of varnish.

Now it must be very distinctly understood that ordinary
varnish, even of the best quality, is useless for painting
a bath tub. It must be special bath varnish, or one made
specially for resisting hot water. There should not be
any difficulty in getting a bath varnish at any good paint-
ers' supply house. Most of the best varnish firms manu-
facture excellent bath tub varnishes, which may be abso-
lutely relied upon, and as the quantity required for an
ordinary bath tub is but very small, the cost is nominal.

In applying the varnish it should be remembered that a
thin coat only is required, and it is far better to give a
second coat after the first coat is dry if a high degree of
brilliancy is required than it is to apply a thick coat at one

PAINTING A BATHTUB 253

operation. Dip just the point of the brush in the varnish.
Use the brush lightly first one way and then the other,
finally drawing it lightly in one direction to smooth out
the brush marks.

Another little point which seems so obvious as to be
hardly worth mentioning is to take care that every part of
the surface is reached by the varnishing brush. To ensure
this is much more difficult than would appear at first sight,
because the varnish is almost colorless, and when one looks
directly at the surface it is almost impossible to see which,
part is varnished and which is not. It is easy, therefore,
to skip a small portion of the surface without noticing it.
The only way to provide against this is every now and then
to look at the surface from a point at which the light re-
flects when the lines between the varnished and unvar-
nished surface will be readily discerned.

PAIXTIXG IX DISTEMPER.

This mode of coloiing, which, when applied to fine art
purposes, is termed tempera painting, is undoubtedly the
most ancient, and derives its name from the fact that colors
are mixed or tempered with some liquid or medium to bind
their separate particles to each other, and to the surface
on which the paint is applied.

The Italian noun temi>era admits of the widest applica-
tion, and would include any medium, even oil; but, in its
resti'icted and proper acceptation, it means a vehicle in
which the yolk of egg, beaten sometimes with the white,
is the chief ingredient, diluted as required with the milky
juices expressed from the shoots of the fig-tree. This is
the painting strictly termed a nuovo by the Italians. Vine-
gar probably replaced the fig-tree juice among the northern
artists, from the difficulty of obtaining the latter, and in
modern use vinegar is substituted. Vinegar should be used
to prevent the putrefaction of the yolk of egg, but the
early Italian painters preferred the egg vehicle Avhen it had
been suffered to stand until it had become decomposed,
hence the phrase "a putrido. "

The artist is often compelled to have recourse to very
offensive media to make known his most refined revela-
tions. On walls, and for coarser Avork, such as painting on
linen, warm size was occasionally used, but the egg vehicle,
undiluted, was generally preferred for altar-pieces on wood.
For various purposes, and at different periods, however,
milk, beer, wine and media composed of water, and more or
less glutinous ingredients, soluble at first in water, such
as gums, have also been used. Such are the media or velu-
cles described by the chief Italian writers, as used in the
days of Cimabue, Giotto and Fra Angelico, and by the

254

PAINTING IN DISTEMPER 255

early painters before the invention and improvement of
oil painting. The tiner egjj tempera in diy climates has
been found to attain so tirm a consistence as to withstand
ordinary solvents. The nse of wine in diluting these glu-
tinous vehicles was common for a long period. Buffalmacco,
of wliom so many humorous stories are told by Boccaccio
and Vasari, is related to have persuaded some nuns, for
whom he painted, to supply him with their choicest wine,
ostensibly for the purpose of diluting the colors, but really
to be imbibed by the thirsty painter himself. The northern
artists were sometimes compelled to content themselves with
beer. In the works of the northern tempera painters there
are, however, very marked differences observable in the
impasto or bodj^ of coloi-s. It is certain, therefore, that
these painters employed media of different degrees of con-
sistenc.v. In the distemper of scene-painting, the medium
is weak size of glue, but plaster of paris, sufficiently dilut-
ed, is worked with the colors. The carbonate of lime, or
whiting, is less active as a basis for colors than the pure
lime of fresco, but it is entirely destructive of transparency.
When the more viscid media were employed by the tempera
l^ainters, the effect must, with their purer use of the colors,
some of which were, moreover, transparent, have been very
lustrous and powerful in comparison Avith modern scene-
painters' distemper, and these qualities were heightened
by the addition of a strong varnish; still, however, tempera
fell far short of oil painting in richness and transparency.
The carbonate of lime, or whiting, employed as a basis
is, however, less active than the pure lime of fresco. The
vehicles of both modes are the same, and their practice is
often combined in the same work. Water is their common
vehicle, and to give adhesion to the tints and colors in dis-
temper painting, and make them keep their place, they are
variously mixed with the size of glue, prepared commonly
by dissolving about 4 ounces of glue in a gallon of water.
Too much of the glue disposes the painting to crack and

256 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

peel from the ground, while with too little it is friable and
deficient of strength. In some cases glue may be abated,
or altogether dispensed with, by employing plaster of paris
sufficiently diluted and worked into the colors, by which
they will acquire the consistency and appearance of oil
painting, without employing their limpidness or allowing
the colors to separate, while they will acquire a good sur-
face, and keep their place in the dry with the strength of
fresco, and without being liable to mildew, to which animal
glue is disposed, and to which milk, and other vehicles
recommended in this mode, are also subject.

There can be no doubt that distempering has its manifold
advantages, and that when well done it possesses a degree
of clearness and brightness, especially in white, pink, blue
and lilac, which is not attainable in oil colors, owing to the
admixture of the various oils, and to the changes likely to
occur in them subsequent to the application of the colors,

A fruitful cause of failure in distemper work is the
neglect of proper precaution in preparing the surfaces to
be colored, the great point at starting, assuming that the
wall has b'een well smoothed, or if necessary' scraped, in
order that the surface may present no roughness or inequal-
ities whatever. The first stage is but seldom attended to
by painters, who assume that the plasterer, as a matter of
course, leaves the wall properly finished, but this must not
always be taken for granted. At all events even if the
work has been carried as far as it is the plasterer's duty
to take it, there is no reason why the next stage should not
be considered to belong to the painter, who is so well aware
of the conditions on which a good result to his work de-
pends.

The process consists in this, the plasterers having left the
walls, the painters take them in hand. With a bucket of
water, a sponge, a rag, and a slab of wood, 6 inches broad
and 7 or 8 inches long, on the back of which a handle
made of leather is placed, and it must be mentioned that

PAINTING IN DISTEMPER 257

th'e wood is cut crosswise, each board being, as it were, a
slice of a tree. The workman wets the wall with his
sponge, and applies his wood brush, for this the instru-
ment practically becomes, since the ends of the fibers, di-
rected towards the wall, act like so many closely packed
hairs.

The wood brush is rapidly worked in a circular direc-
tion, the wall being kept moistened with the sponge, and
finally the surface is washed clean and well rubbed with
the cloth, and then allowed to become thoroughly dry. A
smooth surface is thus produced, and the next process is to
stop the absorbent properties of the plaster, and here the
process ends. The mixture used in this country is thor-
oughly well adapted for its purpose, and is compounded
in the following manner:

Saturate about 12 pounds of best whiting with water,
and beat it up, with a constant addition of water, until the
mixture assumes the consistency of a soft paste. Add
sufficient size to bind the color, 2 ounces of alum and 2
ounces of soft soap, each dissolved in water. Mix all these
ingredients thoroughly well, and strain through a coarse
cloth or metal strainer. Care should be taken that too much
size is not used, in fact, rather than use the mixture alto-
gether too strong, it is preferable to give two coats of me-
dium consistency, which, in effect, are better than a single
thick one. If the wall is known to be damp, no amount of
care, and no application on the one side of a wall, will keep
it dry if it is pervious to moisture on the other or from
below. The source of the evil must be sought for, and
efforts should, in the first place, be applied to the removal
of the cause rather than to ameliorating the injurious
effects.

The first and most general application of distempering
is the process known as calcimining. In commencing to
calcimine, the walls should be prepared as described above,
but, of course, if they have been colored before, they will

258 CYCLOPEDU OF PAINTING

merely require washing with clean water, scraping smooth
the rough patches, the cracks being stopped and made good,
the whole being then passed over with the wood brush. Care
should be taken that all the scrapings and other debris are
swept away before the walls are finally rubbed down with
a cloth and the coloring is commenced. The calcimine is
made by mixing whiting, which has previously been allowed
to soak for twelve or fourteen hours in water, to about
the consistency of cream, care being observed that the mix-
ture is very smooth. One teacupful of size is then to be
added to two gallons of the whitewash, or, if a perfectly
white wash is required, potato starch may be used. In lay-
ing on the wash, a large flat brush is employed, and, if this
is not overcharged, a ceiling or walls may, with a certain
amount of care, be white or color washed with little or
no splashing.

The following mixture will be found useful for common
work: ^2 bushel of lime, 1 pound common salt, ^2 pound
of sulphate of zinc, and 1 gallon of sweet milk.

For brickwork exposed to damp: i^ peck of fresh well-
burnt lime, with water sufficient to make it into a thin
paste, pass through a fine sieve, add a gallon of clear salt
which has been dissolved in boiling watei*. Make a thin
paste of 1 pound of rice flour and i/4 pound of best glue,
mix this paste, whilst hot, with the previously made com-
pound, and add 1/4 pound of Spanish whiting dissolved in
1 quart of water. Stir all well together, cover over, and
let the whole stand for a week, when it is to be applied
whilst quite hot.

In order to produce good work, two things are essen-
tially necessary in the mixing of the distemper, namely,
clean and well-washed whiting and pure-jellied size. The
whiting should be put in to soak with sufficient soft water
to cover it well and penetrate its bulk. When the whiting
is sufficiently soaked, the water should be poured off, which
will remove any rust or foreign matter from the whiting,

PAINTING IN DISTEMPER 259

it should then be beaten up or stirred until all the lumps
are broken, and it becomes a stiff, smooth paste. A good
workman will do this carefully with his hand, and will
manipulate it until it is quite smooth, but it may be done
most effectually with a broad stick or spatula, and then
strained through a metal or other strainer. The size should
now be added, and the two lightly but effectually mixed to-
gether. Care should be taken not to break the jelly of the
size any more than can be avoided, and this may be best
done by gently stirring the mixture with the hand. If the
jellied state is retained intact, the color will work cool, and
lay on smooth and level. The size, whether made of parch-
ment clippings, glue, or any other material, should be dis-
solved in a sufficient quantity of water to form a weak jelly
when cold. In j^ractice we find that distemper mixed with
jellied size will lay on better and make a better job than
when the size is used hot. Color mixed on the former plan
works cool and floats nicely, while the latter works drj',
and drags and gathers, thus making a rough ceiling or wall,
and the difference in the labor required is very much in
favor of jellied size. A little alum added to the distemper
has a good effect in hardening, and helps it to dry out solid
and even.

In distemper painting, or, as it is more frequently called,
calcimining, the base generally used for all the tints is
the finest whiting, which is prepared in large quantities by
various manufacturers. All the colors should either be
ground very fine, or should be washed over, so as to ensure
the most minute division of their particles.

It will require two coats, and sometimes more, of any
of the tints to cover plaster well, and to bear out with
absolute iiniformity. When old plastering has become dis-
figured by stains, it is necessary, in the first place, to prop-
erly scrape and prepare the wall, and then to give it one
or two coats of white lead ground in oil, the second being
mixed with an additional quantity of turpentine, this, if

260 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

well and sufficiently done, will cover all the stains, and will
take the size colors very kindly.

In order to produce an absolutely level tint in distem-
per, great care should be exercised in cai'rying on the work.
Whilst the color is being- laid on, the windows and doors
should be closed, and all draughts prevented, so that the
wash may not dry too quicklj', in which case the brush
drags, and all piecings or brush marks will show when
quite dry, but the moment the work is finished, all windows
and doors are to be opened, in order to afford free ingress
to the fresh air, for the moment the whole of the color
is laid on, the sooner it dries the better. In order to ensure
uniformity in drying, and to avoid parts becoming shady,
the wash must be laid on evenly, and when the ground is
once covered, no portion of it should be retouched, for
such portion would then receive an additional coat, and
would without fail present a more solid and brighter ap-
pearance than the rest, at the same time there is every
chance that the brush, passing over the half-dry or partially
set color underneath, would rub up some of it, and cause
a rough appearance, whilst the edges of the retouched part
would be visible, giving the idea of a patch having been
applied over the spot.

The colors of which the various tints are to be composed
should be ground up separately, and should be carefully
added to the white body. As far as can be calculated, as
much of any particular tint as ma}^ be required for one
room or job should be compounded at once, to avoid the
trouble of matching. Powder color should never be added
to the body white\ If only a small quantity of any addi-
tional color is required, it should be well ground on a slab,
and taken on the point of the palette knife, or at the end of
a stick, and thus mixed with the general mass. Where this
is not done, the white gathers around each separate particle
of the powder color, making a minute ball, with a colored
center and as it were a white shell, a number of these be-

PAINTING IN DISTEMPER 261

come agglutinated. The inexperienced woikman thinks the
color is well mixed, because he has, during mixing, lost
sight of the particles of color, but when he comes to spread
the wash on the wall, the dark specks emerge from their
temporary cases, and, as they are dragged along by the
brush, cause lines and streaks of more or less breadth, ac-
cording to the number of particles which have been bound
together. These may not perhaps be noticed whilst the
color is wet, but will soon appear as it dries, and the evil
result will not be in appearance only, for as these specks
of color have not been bound by the size with which the
whole mass has been mixed, the spots and streaks caused
by them will rub off, leaving the original color of the plas-
ter, or of the previous wash, visible. Sometimes, too, when
the powder color is of a heavier character than the mass, it
finds its way to the bottom of the bucket or pot, and when
the quantity is nearly used, the last part of it will be found
to become gradually darker than that previously used,
whilst if the brush be allowed to touch the bottom, it will
bring up a quantity of dark color which will be deposited
with the first stroke on the wall.

Great care must be taken in mixing tints, for some colors,
such as Prussian blue, are so strong that a very little of
them will produce the desired effect, and thus, if they are
used without consideration, it becomes necessary to add
more and more white, a greater quantity of the tint required
is compounded, and waste results. The safer plan is to mix
a small quantity of the tint in a jar or on a piece of glass,
and, having spread this on a piece of paper, the painter
will be able, when it is dry, to judge of the shade, and
to form an idea as to the relative qualities of the different
colors required. Other colors again, such as orange lead,
are of such density, that they will separate from the others
and sink to the bottom, and therefore tints compounded
with these must be worked in a size jelly, this, too, will
be learnt by trial and experience.

262 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Nearly all of the colors given herewith may be used in
either oil or distemper painting, the white, in the one case,
being white lead, diluted with oil and tui'pentine, and, in
the other, whiting mixed with size.

STRAW COLOR.

White lead, Massicot (in oil).
Whiting, Dutch pink (in distemper).
Whiting, Chrome j'ellow.

LAVENDER, LILAC, AND FRENCH GRAYS.

Produced according to the predominance of white, blue or
red.

White, Lake, Indigo.

" Lake, Prussian blue.

" Indian Red, Prussian blue.

" Vermilion, Prussian blue.

" Indigo, Rose pink.

PEARL GRAY.
White, Black, Prussian blue.

GRAY TINTS. (Of a blue hue.)
White, Verditer.
" Blue black.
" Lamji black.
" Indigo.

GRAY TINTS. (Of a brown hue.)

White, Madder brown, Prussian blue.

" Madder brown, Prussian blue, Yellow ochre.

" Indian red, Indigo.

" Light red, Prussian blue.

" Burnt sit'iiiia, Lake, Tndijjo.

PAINTING IN DISTEMPER 263

BROWN TINTS.

White, Lake, Prussian blue, Yellow ochre.
Lake, Indigo, Yellow ochre.
Raw sienna, Madder lake, Prussian blue.
Light red, Indigo.
Vandyke brown. Lake, Indigo.
Burnt sienna. Indigo.
Burnt sienna, Lake.

GREEN TINTS.

White, Italian pink, Antwerp blue.
" Italian pink, Prussian blue.
" Yellow ochre. Indigo.
" Burnt sienna. Indigo.
" Brown pink. Indigo.
" Raw umber, Indigo.

PEA GREEN.
White, French gi-een.
' ' Olympian green.
" Brunswick green.
" Prussian blue. Chrome yellow.

SAGE GREEN.

White, Prussian blue. Raw umber.
" Antwerp blue, Stone ochre.

OLIVE GREEN.
White, Raw umber, Prussian blue.

ORANGE TINT8.

White, French yellow.
' ' Orange lead.
" Dutch pink.
*' Chrome yellow, Vermilion.

264 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

PINK TINTS.
White, Rose pink.
" Crimson lake.
" Scarlet lake.

SALMON COLOR.
Wtite, Venetian red.
' ' Vermilion.

PEACH TINTS.

White, Vermilion, Indian red, Purple brown.

" Vermilion, Indian red, Purple brown, Burnt stone
ochre.

VIOLET TINTS.
White, Vermilion, Prussian blue, Lamp black. .

CHOCOLATE.
White, Spanish brown, Venetian red, Vegetable black.

SKY BLUE.
White, Prussian blue.

FLESH TINT.
White, Light red, Yellow ochre.

" Lake, Vermilion, Naples yellow.

FAWN.

White, Burnt sienna.

" Burnt umber, Venetian red
" Stone ochre, Vermilion,

BUFF.
White, Yellow ochre, Venetian red.
Cream-color is produced by a great preponderance of white.

PAINTING IN DISTEMPER 265

DRAB AND STONE COLOR.
White, Burnt umber.
" Raw umber.
" Yellow ochre.
" Yellow ochre, Lamp black.
" Raw umber, Lamp black.

LEAD COLOR.
White, Black.

" Black, Indigo.

It must of course be understood that the colors are not
to be mixed in equal quantities, but in such proportions as
will produce the required hue, the slightest predominance
of any one of the pigments gives the prevailing tone of the
tints, whilst the addition of a further quantity of white pro-
duces all the numerous gradations, from lavender and lilac
to French gray.

All colors in distemper are lighter when dry than they
appear in a wet condition.

White is the basis of all tints, and is necessary in com-
pounding the endless variety of pale colors required by
the painter and decorator. Thus, white tinted with blue
affords Paris white, French grays, silver gi'ays, while among
the red tints we have pink, carnation, coquilicot, and yellow
with white gives primrose, straw-color and Isabella. To the
colors compounded more or less with white we owe the
innumerable tints of lilac, lavender, peach blossom, pea
green and sage green, as shown in the preceding list of tints.

The painter is advised to mix the tints in different hues,
giving in each experiment a predominance to one or other
of the component colors.

PAPERHANGERS' TOOLS.

A number of the tools used bj' a paperhanger are shown
in the following illustrations.

Two styles of shears used by a paperhanger are shown
in Fig. 38.

Paperhanger 's paste brushes are shown in Figs. 39 and 40.

A paperhanger 's smoothing brush is shown in Fig. 41
and a combined smoothing brush and roller in Fig. 42.

The felt smoothing rollers as shown in Fig. 43 are made
of a number of specially prepared felt coils 2^/2 inches in

Fig. 38. Paperhanger's Shears.

diameter, which can be tightened or loosed at will. The
rollers are seamless and very resilient. They can be used
equally as well on rough as on smooth walls; they do not
need re-covering and can be easily cleaned. They can be
used for stippling paint or paper, or stenciling in oil or
water colors.

The smoothing roller shown in Fig. 44 is made with a
foundation of six-ply Canton flannel and a detachable cam-

266

PAPERHANGERS^ TOOLS

267

brie cover, held in place by removable ferrules, so that it
may be easily replaced.

The wall paper tiimmer shown in Fig. 45 has roller

Fig. 39. Paperhanger's Paste Brush.

bearings. This reduces the friction of the trimmer to a
minimum, enabling- the operator to manipulate it back and

Fig. 40. Paperhanger's Paste Brush.

forth on the edge of the straight edge with scarcely any
effort.

The graduating plumb and level shown in Fig. 46 is made

268

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

of highly polished brass and will fit any trimmer straight edge
■without the manipulation of screws by means of the spring
shown in the drawing. Any graduation for panel or relief
work is obtained instantly by moving the pointer, which re-

Fig. 41. Paperhanger's Smoothing Brush.

mains rigidly at degree of angle desired. By moving the
pointer to 90 degrees, it can be ascertained how much
the ceiling is out of level.

The paper trimmer shown in Fig. 47 has reversible cut
and automatic shifting relief for the cutters. It has feed

Fig. 42. Combined Smoothing Brush and Roller.

guides on both sides of the paper and trims 18-inch length
at each turn of the crank. The rollers in this machine are
of hollow composite construction, and will not warp by
reason of change of climate or temperature.

PAPEKIIANGERS' TOOLS

269

The paperhanger's pasting table, sliown in Fig. 48, is
made from the best selected and seasoned basswood. The

Fig. 43. Smoothing Roller.

Fig. 44. Smoothing Roller.

top is mode of four pieces, tongned, grooved and glued.
The legs are riveted in galvanized ii'on boxes. The top

270

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

folds, enclosing the legs, and has a space inside for straight
edge and tools.

Fig. 45. Vail Paper Trimmer.

Paperhangers ' knives are shown in Fi<j-. 49: A— Polished
blade, maple handle, natural wood, closed ferrule. B—

°<S LEVEL
Fig. 46. Graduating Plumb and Level.

Blade tempered and polished, maple handle, shellac finish,
closed ferrule. C— Tempered and polished steel blade, staia

PAPERHANGERS ' TOOLS

271

finish maple handle, closed ferrule. D — Blade tempered
and polished steel blade, beech wood handle, natural finish,
open ferrule.

Paperhangers ' seam rollers are shown in Figs. 50, 51 and
52: A — Polished oval maple roller. B — Rubber-covered
roller. C — Polished maple roller^ oval or flat face. D — Rub-

Fig. 47. Wall Paper Trimmer.

ber-covered roller. E — Oval rosewood or lignum vitae
roller. F — Flat rosewood or lignum vitae roller. G' — Side
ai-m roller, flat or bevel face. H — Corrugated rubber face,
hardwood core. J — Side arm roller, celluloid covered. K —
Double arm roller, celluloid covered, oval face. L — Double
arm roller, celluloid covered, flat face. M — Solid zylonite
ivory seam roller, for feather edge work.

272

CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

Paperhangers* wheel knives are shown in Figs. 53 and 54:
A — Short bevel, steel bracket, plain or saw-tooth blade.

Fig. 48. Paperhanger's Table.

B — Short bevel, malleable iron handle, serrated, plain or
saw-tooth blade. C — Double arm, steel bracket, saw-tooth,

PAPERHANCJERS' TOOLS

273

274

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Fig. DO. Paperhanger's Seam Rollers.

P.YPERHANGERS TOOLS

275

Fig. 51. Paperbanger'5 Seam Rollers.

276

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Fig. 52. Paperhanger's Seam Rollers.

PAPERHANGERS ' TOOLS

277

.«!!,!!►•».

ll;R

•«■',-

^^mm^

Fig. 53. Paperbanger's Wheel Knives.

278

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Fig. 54. Paperijanger's Wheel KnlveB.

PAPERHANGERS ' TOOLS

279

serrated or plain blade. D — Bevelled both sides, steel
bracket, serrated blade, E — Short bevel, double arm brack-

Fig. 55. Paperhanger's Wheel Knife.

et, plain blade. F — Short bevel, washers both sides, steel
bracket, plain blade. G — Short bevel, malleable iron handle,

Fig. 56. Paperhanger's Wheel Knife.

paste cleaner attachment. H — Short bevel, polished handle,
paste cleaner attachment.

Fig. 57. Paperhanger's Wheel Knife.

The wheel knife shown in Fig. 55 has a bevel on both
sides and blade made with an arbor revolving in the socket,
paste cleaner "attiachment and rosewood handle.

280

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Fig. 56 shows a wheel knife with steel blade ground with-
out a bevel. It makes a clean cut without crushing the
edge of the paper. The handle is said to fit the hand per-

Fig. 58. Paperhanger's Wheel Knife.

fectly. Fig. 57 shows the position of the wheel knife in
the hand when in use. The wheel knife shown in Fig. 58
has a short bevel, off-set steel bracket and maple handle.

Kig. 5"J. Combination Casing and Corner Knife.

It may be used on any depth straight edge, as it works on a
long axle.

Fig. 59 shows a combination casing and corner knife.
It has a cutter witli a short bevel, serrated edge. It is

Fig. 60. Wl^eel Knife witli Paste Cleaner.

especially adapted for ceiling work. The knife has a fluted
edge, so that it \yill nut tear tlie iiai)er.

The wheel knife shown in Fig. GO has a short bevel,
malleable iron handle and paste cleaner attachment.

PAINTERS' TOOLS.

Painters ' scrapers are shown in Fig, 61 : A — Clipped
point, metal bolster, coeabola wood handle, B — Square
point, metal bolster, coeabola handle. C — Clipped point,
steel ferrule, half elastic. D — Square point, flat coeabola
handle, two rivets, half elastic.

Painters' putty knives are shown in Fig. 62: A — Beech-
wood handle, open ferrule. B — Burnt wood handle, open
ferrule. C — Burnt wood handle, closed ferrule. D — Flat
beech wood handle.

Fig. 64. Paint Brush Holder.

Painters' steel wire brushes are illustrated in Fig. 63:
A — For removing paint, rust and all foreign accumulations
from the surface of plain and ornamental metals, stone and
brick. B — Painter's wire duster, made of very fine steel
wire. C — Used to apply preparations for removing old
paint, D — For removing old paint and cleaning moldings.
E — For cleaning cornices and out-of-the-way places.

A painter's brush holder is shown in Fig. 64. This is in-
dispensable for keeping' the brushes in good condition.

281

282

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Fig. 01. Painter's Scrapers.

painters' tools

283

Fig. 62. Painter's Putty Knives.

284

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

rfrtr Hendee WireBrustlCr

liiiii'iiil

Fig. G3. Painter's Steel Wire Brushes.

PAPER HANGING.

When re-papering an old wall the first thing to be done is
to remove the old paper. Now although this is very neces-
sary in order to produce a good job, as well as for sanitary
reasons, it is very frequently neglected altogether, and one
paper is pasted over another time after time, the accumu-
lation of dirt, decayed paste, and perhaps various insects
forming a most unsanitary dwelling place. The paper may
be usually removed by washing it over with hot water, giv-
ing a liberal quantity, and allow this to soak in, and then
scraping off with an old chisel or scraper.

If the paper is varnished, or is printed in oil, that is, if
it is of the quality known as sanitary paper, it may be
necessary to scoi-e over the surface with a chisel before
applying the water, so as to give an opportunity for the
moisture to soak in. Commence at the top, taking care not
to injure the cornice or ceiling, and to get every particle
of the paper away. Sometimes plastered walls which have
been papered with half a dozen or more papers are in such
a bad condition that when these papers are removed a con-
siderable portion of the plaster will be pulled away. In
such a ease it may be quite necessary to leave the old paper
on. In a fairly good wall the paper may be removed with-
out injury, provided that plenty of water is used, it is very
probable that there will be some breaks, which will require
mending before the new paper is applied. This can be done
without much difficulty by means of plaster of Paris mixed
in small quantities at the time with a little glue water, and
applied with a knife or piece of wood, and smoothed off
to a level surface. In mending the walls of an ordinary
room in this way it may be necessary to mix the plaster
half a dozen times, as if sufficient is mixed at one time for

285

286 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

the whole job it will be found to be set quite hai'd, and
therefore to be useless before the mending is completed. A
few drops of glj-cerine added to the plaster will retard its
setting, but this is not necessary if glue water is used. It is
best not to pajjer over a patched wall for several days, but
if time presses a coat of knotting may be given over all
the jjatches to prevent the plaster affecting the color of the
newlj'-aioplied paper. Coarse sandpaper should now be
rubbed over the whole surface, so as to make it as level as
possible, and then the room is ready for papering.

Choosing the Paper. This choice is usually left to the
lad^' of the house, probably on the supposition that she has
better taste in such matters than her husband. If the
paper is of a cheap grade in most cases the wallpaper dealer
will send a book of jDatterns measuring, perhaps, 24 by 18
inches, and from these small samples the occupant of the
house is expected to make a selection. It is this which
gives rise to so much disapiDointment. A small piece con-
veys a verj' little idea of the appearance the room will pre-
sent when the walls are covered all over with the same
pattern, and it is far better, where it is practicable, espe-
cially in the principal rooms, to obtain a roll or two of
those papers which appear to be most suitable, and to pin
them on the wall, so as to gain a good idea of the appear-
ance they will present. The following hints should be borne
in mind. For a small room choose a small pattern paper,
never a large one, which will make it look smaller still. A
room with a low ceiling will look higher than it is if a
pattern having vertical stripes is chosen. The reverse of
this is true of an unusually high room, which will not
look so high if a paper having horizontal stripes is used.
Gold papers, or those which have bronze or imitation gold
in the design, are now rarely used, being rightly considered
as somewhat vulgar, excepting in public or important rooms.
Large pronounced patterns are usually not desirable, be-
cause they detract from the repose or quiet appearance a

PAPER HANGING 287

living room should present. A bedroom should always be
papered with a cheerful design, and geometrical figures
be avoided as far as possible.

In choosing a paper for a hall or staircase, or any room
or apartment which is somewhat bare in appearance or
devoid of furniture, it is always well to select a hanging
of bold design and somewhat vivid coloring. Conversely
a room full of furniture, especially if small and with many
pictures on the walls, would be wholly spoilt by a bold
design. During the last few years there has been a distinct
tendency toward employing papers with little or no pattern
at all, ingrains are much in vogue. These papers are dj^ed
in the process of manufacturing instead of being grounded
or treated with the distemper color on the surface, as is
usual with ordinary wall papers. An excellent effect is
produced in decorating a room with such a plain ingrain,
especially if a good bold frieze is employed to form a finish,
and take away from the bare effect. The objections to in-
grains, however, is that they are very apt to lose their
color, and also that they are very difficult to hang, as they
are almost like blotting paper in texture, and they rapidly
absorb the moisture from the paste. For many purposes
an ingTaiu paper or its equivalent, having printed upon it
a very small set design, produces good results. In selecting
papers it should be remembered that it is not necessary to
pay a high price in order to get good designs.

Having made a selection of the paper, the next thing to
be done is to cut off one or more of the margins. This is
readily done by means of scissors or a trimmer. In some
wall-paper shops will be found a machine by which the
selvedge or margins may be rapidly removed, and in some
cases the paper may be purchased already trimmed, which,
of course, saves a good deal of trouble. It must be remem-
bered, however, that the wall-paper manufacturer left the
selvedge on for a definite purpose, to protect the body of
the paper, and that without it there is a likelihood of the

288 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

paper becoming quickly soiled. It should be remembered,
therefore, that when wall paper is bought ready trimmed it
is necessary to take great care in handling, so as not to
dirty or mar the edges. There are two ways of hanging
paper, one with what is called a butt edge, the other a
lapped edge. In the former both margins are cut off, and
the edges of the paper must then be drawn together, so as
to exactly meet, the pattern, of course, uniting accurately.
The difficulty of the paperhanger using the butt edge is that
he sometimes finds a difficulty in bringing the edges to
meet, and if there is a space between, the white wall under-
neath shows through. Sometimes the paper shrinks after
being hung, and produces the same objectionable effect. To
prevent this it is not a bad plan to mix a little distemper
to match the ground of the paper, and to paint this down
the wall exactly where the several seams will come. If in
this case there is an opening of, say, a thirty-second part
of an inch it will not be noticed. As a rule, the unskilled
workman will prefer to use a lapped edge. In this case
only one margin is cut off, and the paper is lapped or placed
over the other, care being taken to match the pattern as
before. The objection to lapping is that the joints show
somewhat conspicuously, as it will be clear that there will
be two thicknesses of paper instead of one wherever the
joins occur. A hint of importance is to remember that the
laps should be away from the light, as this will render them
less conspicuous than it would otherwise be.

Paperhanger 's Paste. There are several ways of making
paperhanger 's paste, but they all practically come to the
same thing in the end. Take a sufficient quantity of ordi-
nary white flour, place it in a big basin, add a littie water,
stir and beat it up to a stiff batter, and then Ihin with
additional water, taking care there are no lumps. Care
must also be taken not to add too much cold water, so as
to make the mixture too thin. When satisfied that there
are no lumps, pour in slowly boiling water, stirring vigor-

PAPER HANGING 289

ously meanwhile only in one direction. In a short time the
paste will begin to thicken, which means that it is cooked,
and is then about right for use. In order to stiffen the
paste, and also to prevent it becoming rancid, alum is some-
times added in the proportion of about a teaspoonful of
ground alum to two quarts of paste, this, however, must
never be added if the paper to which it is to be applied is
ingrain, as it is likely to cause the color to fade. It must
also never be used on gold papers, as it turns the so-called
gold black. To jjreserve the paste a few drops of oil of
cloves should be added, or a little carbolic acid. An excel-
lent preservative is formaldehyde, which may be added
in the proportion of about a teaspoonful to four quarts.
The paste should not be used while hot, it is better if it
stands for a little time. To prevent a skin forming on the
top a little cold water may be added. If the paper is a
very stiff one, a small proportion of glue melted in water
may be added, but this is not, as a rule, necessary.

Measuring Quantity of Paper Required. It will now be
necessary to ascertain the number of pieces of paper re-
quired for the room that is to be re-papered. Paperhangers
can, as a rule, tell the number of pieces by glancing at a
room, but the amateur will require to measure. A piece
of wallpaper is eight yards long, and when trimmed 21
inches wide, there is, however, more or less waste, and the
larger the pattern the greater will the waste be. In prac-
tice the simplest plan to follow is to take a roll of paper or
a piece of stick out to the right length, and to measure
around the room, and find out how many lengths will be
required, then measure the height, and see how many
lengths can be obtained from the eight yards in length,
remembering that something must be cut to waste, so as to
match the paper. The pieces left over will usually be suf-
ficient to paper over doors, windows, and any odd places.
The following table may be useful for reference, but it can-
not always be relied upon, because it is clear that one room

290

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

may have many more windows or openings in it than an-
other.

ALL

Paper

Table.

Showing the Num

3er

of P

ieces

of Wiillpaper,

21 Inches \^

^ide.

Measure

round

the

Four Walls

in feet,

including Doors, |

Windows, etc.

Height ir

Feet

Lengths of Fo

iR Wall

■; IN- Fkkt.

from Skirting to
Cornice.

24 26.3 29.3 32

34.3

37.3 40 42.3 45.3 48

50.3

7 and under 7^

8 9

7X "

9 10

8 "

9 10

8X "

10 11

9 "

9% 6

10 11

9X "

11 12

10 "

10%

12 12

lOX "

12 13

11 "

11)4

13 13

Hanging the Paper. It is suiDposed the paper is trimmed
and cut into lengths ready to hang. The lengths are rather
longer than is actually required, and the paperhanger will
find that at this point he reaches his greatest difficulty,
which is to paste the paper and carry it while wet to the
wall and hang it in a vertical position. A good plan for a
beginner is to take a plumb-bob, or if one is not available a
small weight tied to a piece of string answers for the jDur-
pose, and mark out upon the wall vertical lines at the points
where the joins of the paper are to come. This will at
least have the effect of keeping the joins upright. Place
the paper face downwards on a pasting board, and give it
a coat of paste, taking care not to apply too much, or it
will brush out when the paper is applied. If the table is
not long enough to take the whole length, as it probably
will not be, paste one half, fold the end toward the center,

PAPER HANGING 291

then carefully draw the strip over and paste the other end,
folding again so as to meet the end already folded. In
this condition the paper will not leave any of the pasted
surface outward, and as there are at least two thicknesses,
it will not be very difficult to lift it from the table. With
a little care the lower portion of the paper may be folded
again for convenience in carrying. Commence at a project-
ing corner of a. door or window, or at any other position
where a mis-match will show the least. Climb the step
ladder, Avliich must, of course, be provided, unfold the
upi3er end of the paper, place it carefully beneath the
cornice and down the marked line, press it against the wall
with a brush, taking care that there are no air bubbles left.
Then unfold another portion, and press this down also, and
proceed in the same way until the bottom of the length is
reached, when it will be found that a portion of the length
which was cut too long projects over the skirting board.
Draw the point of the scissors lightly along this edge, which
will mark the paper, pull the lower end of the strip away
from the wall, and cut otr this superfluous portion of the
paper, and press the whole back in position; one length of
paper will thus have been hung. Before pasting the second
length, see that you have it cut correctly at the top to
watch when placing it in 230sition. Paperhangers frequent-
ly manage this on the wall itself, using the lower member
of the cornice as a guide to mark the upper edge of the
length, and they cut this suiierfluous top edge while stand-
ing on the ladder. The paperhanger will do much better
to get the upper portion right before he pastes the paper.
A paperhanger 's brush should be used to press the paper
to the wall. These brushes are usually used where speed
is required; thej^ require a little practice before one becomes
expert with them. Where a border or frieze is to be hung,
the loroceeding is precisely similar to that already described,
except that the width of the jiaper is much less, and it is,
of course, hung horizontally instead of vertically. If the

292 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

paperhanger will take care to fold his paper several times
after it has been pasted, he should find no difficulty in
handling it. It must be folded in such a manner as to be
unfolded piece by jjiece as required to go up in its proper
position.

Borders and Friezes. Sometimes in the country, and
even in well-built houses, rooms are found finished entirely
without cornices. In such cases it is almost impossible to
produce a finished effect unless a border or frieze is used.
The boi'ders should be almost always used in rooms large
and small, with the exception, perhaps, of the servants'
bedrooms. They cost very little, and if a comparison is
made between a room finished without a frieze and another
in which a good design is employed, the difference will be at
once apparent.

Now that plain papers are so much in vogue, the frieze
becomes an important part of the design, and drawing and
dining-rooms from which a frieze is omitted is usually
considered spoiled.

Hanging Ceiling Papers. Papered ceilings are used at
present to a very much greater extent than they were for-
merly; in fact, in the better class of houses they are now
used almost invariably. A papered ceiling with a papered
wall gives an appearance of finish and completeness which
is not apparent when the walls are papered and the ceiling
is distempered. Distempered walls and distempered ceil-
ings give the best possible appearance in interior decora-
tion, but papered walls must always be used to a very con-
siderable extent, and then the apartment is not finished
unless paper is used on tlie ceiling also. Those who crave
for white ceilings can get them in paper, or, rather, they
can purchase many designs at very moderate prices in
which the pattern is so delicate and faintly defined that
it can only be discerned in certain lights. For a drawing-
room a very pretty paper is one having a cream or nearly
white ground, with a pattern printed in talc or some bril-

PAPER HANGING 293

liant material which, while nearly colorless, shows up very
prettily under the gas light. Excepting the very elaborate
schemes of decoration, bright colored ceiling papers should
never be used. Floral designs are out of the question for
ceilings, somewhat large geometrical designs, sometimes in
imitation of ribbed effects, being usually employed. To
hang a paper on a ceiling requires a good deal of thought
and planning, and it is by no means as easy as hanging
the paper on the wall. The paper having been carefully
schemed out so as to show to the best advantage, is
pasted and folded as before, and hung in the same man-
ner, excepting that a lath or stick must be used as an aid
in holding up the folded portion, while the other end is
being pressed to the surface. Before the paper hanging of
the ceiling is commenced, all breaks and cracks should be
mended in the same manner as already described in dealing
with broken walls. When cutting the paper around regular
angles, such as those which arise from a bay window, the
best plan is to cut the paper roughly to about the angle
required, leaving it rather longer than necessary, and then
to mark the exact line against the cornice with the point
of the scissors, then to cut off the superfluous end. Even
where care is taken, this will sometimes cause a little
trouble with the paste coming against the cornice, but this
can afterwards be made good with whitening or coloring the
cornice as already mentioned.

In rooms which have no pretensions whatever to a deco-
rative appearance, ceilings are often papered in order to
strengthen. We have seen old ceilings which appeared to be
about to fall off, kept in position for years by two coats
of strong paper pasted over them. In this case what is
known as lining paper is used. It is sold by every dealer
in paper hangings, and is cheap. It must not be forgotten
that a ceiling must never be papered in any room in which
there is steam at any time. For instance, in a laundry it is
entirely out of place, as the first washing day will mean

294 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

the descent upon one's head of all the paper from the ceil-
ing.

Cleaning Wallpaper. The tenant or house owner at those
unpleasant periods in the j'ear when spring cleaning ap-
pears to be inseparable from a quiet existence, or when
()arts of the house are re-decorated owing to a sudden fit of
generosity on the part of the landlord, often experiences
a good deal of difficult}' in determining whether a room
really requires' re-papering or not. Possibly the paper is
fairly expensive, and is only soiled over a small portion of
its surface. All ordinary papers maj^ be cleaned without
difficulty. There are on the market various preparations
for the purpose which do the work very effectually, but
their use is not necessar}'. One of the simplest waj's is to
take a loaf of ordinarj' rj'e bread, which is at least two
days old, cut off the crust, and trim the crust also from
around the edge, place on the floor sheets of newspaj^er or
cloths to catch the crumbs, and then go over the whole sur-
face of the paper, rubbing it with the loaf from top to bot-
tom in regular strokes. When the end of the loaf becomes
dirty cut off a very thin slice with a shai'p knife, trim back
the edge again, and proceed as before. Even better than the
loaf is baker's dough, or flour and water mixed to a stiff
dough answers equally well. A good plan is to add about
quarter of the bulk of plaster of Paris to the floui', as this
holds the dough together, and renders it less plastic or yield-
ing under the strokes. Still another way is to use bran, a
handful is taken and placed in a piece of flannelj and then
rubbed against the surface of the paper. If there are any
grease marks on the paper they can be removed in the fol-
lowing manner: Mix a little dry Fuller's earth into a paste,
place it carefully over and around the grease spot, when quite
dry take a hot flat iron and hold it nearly touching the layer
of Fuller's earth. This will dry out the grease, and the
Fuller's earth may then be scraped off, leaving the paper
comparatively clean and fresh.

PIGMENTS.

Names of pigments are not always synonymous with the
colors. Dutch pink is yellow, verditer is blue, lake is not
purple-blue always, but sometimes green, yellow, brown, etc,
or it may be found as a pigment color, with a chalk base, or
body.

Before proceeding to describe the actual method of mixing,
a few general remarks on colors may be given. White lead
is used for the base of paints, because that pigment possesses
greater covering properties, or body, as it is technically
termed, than any other. Zinc whitfe may be used for a base
under certain conditions, and color mixed with it will not be
so likely to fade as when mixed with lead. The tendency of
zinc white, however, to chip and crack renders the addition
of lead necessary in some cases. When practicable, the nat-
i;ral earth pigment should be used for tinting purposes in
preference to those which are manufactured. Raw umbers,
raw siennas, etc., will be found to last longer than burnt
umbers and burnt siennas. As a rule, burnt umber should
not be used for outside painting, but the required shade
should be obtained by mixing lamp black and an oxide color,
such as Venetian red.

Common colors include lamp black, red lead, white lead,
Venetian red, umbers, and all other common ochres, such as
greys, buffs, stones, etc. Superior or ornamental colors in-
clude bright yellows, warm tints, blues, mineral greens, etc.

In compounding pigments for painting, there is yet a
further matter requiring some little consideration by the
painter. All blue pigments are not chemically suitable for
mixture with yellows or reds, nor all yellows with reds; in
fact, a knowledge of the chemical source and affinities of
pigments is almost a necessity to the painter and decorator.

295

296 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

As the most brief and simple "way of aiding the student, it
will be well to mention those ordinary pigments which it is
usually advisable not to mix together.

For mixing with oil color paints, chrome is an undesirable
pigment, and it is particularly to be avoided when compound-
ing greens from Prussian or Antwerp blues, which latter
colors it would eventually destroy. In such an instance, for
common use the best substitute for the chrome would be
bright yellow ochre, or, as it is often called, yellow paint.
Raw sienna can also be used with the above blue pigments
without much detriment to either. In any case where a
bright mixed green is absolutely necessary the lemon chrome
can be used in conjunction with good ultramarine blue or
indigo.

In compounding the secondary color of purple from blues
and reds, there is less danger of trouble arising. The best
and purest is obtained by mixing ultramarine with madder
lake, which is a beautiful crimson and transparent pennanent
pigment, while lakes derived from cochineal are unstable,
ultramarine and vermilion will also answer. Prussian blue
and vermilion give very deep purple, which may be lighted
up with white. For common purposes, the cheap purple
brown is most useful, if required full in strength, but if
lighter and pure tints are wanted in oil or distemper, ultra-
marine blue and vermilion, or, for cheapness, Venetian red,
is necessary. Prussian blue in water would not suit so well,
but indigo could be used if cost is not a consideration.

The remaining secondary, orange, is not a color very much
called for. Orange chrome or orange red is a bright opaque
pigment, but otherwise like all the chromes, not a com-
mendable article. Burnt sienna is a very opposite pigment
in both nature and source. It is semi-transparent, reliable,
and permanent, and is, when of good quality, a remarkably
strong stainer, like Prussian blue in this respect. In com-
pounding orange color, the reds and ochres already men-
tioned are usually bright enough, yellow ochre and Venetian

PIGMENTS 297

red, or raw and burnt sienna together, give with white lead,
a good and serviceable variety of permanent orange and
salmon tints.

The comiDounding of the third division of material colors,
the tertiary, from either of the two secondaries, is a sub-
ject that need scarcely here be dealt with. The painter who
works at this subject will soon find those secondary pig-
ments of orange and green which j^roduce the tertiary citrine,
whether bright or sombre, such as occasion requires. Of the
remaining tertiaries, russet and olive, prepared from the
secondaries purple and orange, purple and green, respective-
ly, there is a good supply in the form of simple pigments.
Notwithstanding, therefore, the necessity and advantage of
the painter being able to obtain any color by the admixture
of the three primaries, it is always most desirable to use a
simi^le article of the desired color when it is to be had.

In the actual mixing of paints, it must not be thought
that there is any one way that is exactly right while all
other methods are exactly wrong. Every painter has his
own peculiar way. In nearly all cases, the simplest plan is to
use pigments ground in oil instead of dry powders. With a
pallet knife break up the lead rather stiff, adding a little oil.
Thin down each paint until it is rather stiffer than the whole
will be when ready for actual application, or if dry pigments
be used, add a little oil, and thoroughly mix. The lead, zinc,
or other base being ready, add some pigment, and well stir.
If several pigments are required to produce the tint, be sure
to add only one at a time, and take great care that each is
thoroughly mixed before the next one is added. As a further
precaution, it is well not to add the pigment all at once,
but to do so a little at a time. When it is certain that a
thorough admixture has been effected, the next pigment may
be added a little at a time. It is well to remember that
some pigments, such as Prussian blue, are very strong, and
the addition of too much will spoil the job. It is easy to add
a little more, while it is impossible to take any out. A little

298 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

precaution in this respect will save much trouble, and al-
though it takes longer to mix the paint, it is the much safer
plan. Of course, a practical painter who is used to mixing
paints can add the necessary amount of colors without taking
these precautions.

Having mixed the paint, add as much driers as may be
necessary, taking care not to use too much. Then the paint
should be strained through a fine wire strainer. It is well to
mix up enough of the paint in one batch to do the whole of
the job in hand, so that there may be no trouble or waste of
time in matching tints. Paint mixed in cold weather is very
likely to give unsatisfactory results, because the oil will
stiffen and be more difficult to form into a perfect admixture.
To remedy this, a gallon or so of the oil should be heated,
and this poured in will warm up the paint, and prevent it
pulling when applied, and so avoid the unnecessary force re-
quired to draw the brush along.

In preparing oil paint, the first question to be considered
is the nature of the surface to be painted, whether of wood,
stone, or metal, and to Avhat degree it is absorbent; second
to this must be remembered the conditions and position of
the work, such as refer to expense, durability, and drying
qualities; and lasth', to bear in mind the all-important mat-
ter of appearance and color, whether the paint is for the first
or last coat.

The quantities of driers, oil, and turpentine required to
bring 100 pounds of white lead to the consistency of paint
is a matter that must be varied according to the conditions
of the work it is required for. In summer-time, 1 pound of
good driers to 14 pounds of white lead is ample for out-door
purposes; in wintei'-time, 1 in 10 would be best. The quan-
tity of oils required would be about IV2 gallons for 100
pounds of lead. The proportions of linseed oil and oil of
turpentine it is advisable to use depends entirely, upon the
purpose it is intended for. With reference to the question
of boiled or unboiled oil, it should be remembered that both

PIGMENTS 299

oils are glossy when applied in sufficient quantity, boiled
linseed oil has more body, and is more brilliant than raw
linseed oil, raw linseed oil is lighter in color, and is not so
liable to blister as boiled linseed oil, boiled linseed oil dries
quicker than raw linseed oil.

To mix 1 pound of ordinary oil paint, take about S ounces
of pigment the desired color. White lead for white, light
grays, pinks, cream, etc., Venetian red or vermilion for red, .
and so on, according to the color desired. Add to this about
2 ounces of liquid driers, then make up to 1 pound with
either linseed oil alone or oil and turpentine in equal parts.
Remember, tlie more oil, the more driers is advisable, but
never less than 1 part driers in 8 or 10 of entire bulk. If
only small quantities of paint are wanted, that sold ready
mixed would be cheapest and would do for ordinary inside
work. A single pound could not be made cheaply, and some
of the colors, bright red, for instance, could not be made
at twice the retail price.

The ingredients for making about 40 pounds of best paint
for indoors, tinted to a French gray color, would be 28
pounds of genuine wdiite lead, 3 pounds of patent driers,
about 1/2 gallon of raw linseed oil, and 1 quart of turpen-
tine. Mix up the lead and driers wdth a broad stick to the
consistency of a thick paste, using linseed oil. If all is to be
tinted one color, for French gray add a little ultramarine
blue and either a little Venetian red or lamp black. If a
warm gray is wanted, add the red, if a cool metallic tint,
add the black. The ultramarine can only be bought in
powder; mix this well with a little oil before adding it to the
paint, the other colors can easily be obtained ready ground
in oil. For first coating on new jjlastei, nearly all linseed
oil and a little driers may be used, very little lead. This
will stop the suction of the plaster. As a rule, new plaster
requires four coats to get a good surface.

White Lead. The pure product dissolves completely in
dilute nitric acid, as well as in potash and in soda. lye. When

300 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

exposed to the sulphuretted hydrogen or moistened with am-
monium hydrosulphide it turns brown or black, whereby it is
distinguished from zine-white. When heated with the access
of air it yields its carbonic acid, and at 572° Fahrenheit
passes into lead oxide and finally into minium. When di-
gested under pressure with carbonated water for some time,
the water may contain 0.22 drachm of lead per quart. The
difference in covering power is due to the form, size, density
and composition of the smallest particles. The white lead
obtained by the French or precipitation process is looser,
of a coarser grain, and possesses less covering power than
the product obtained by the Dutch or German process, which
is denser, of a finer grain, and never crystalline, and, though
of a greater specific gravity, requires less oil.

When exposed to the light and air, white lead is fairly
permanent and will resist exposure to normal conditions
for a great length of time; on the other hand, when exposed
to the fumes of sulphuretted hydrogen and other sulphur-
ous gases, white lead turns brown or black through the for-
mation of the black sulphide of lead. The production of
this body is more likely to occur in large towns, where great
quantities of gas are used for lighting and other purposes,
which usually contains some sulphuretted hydrogen or other
sulphur compounds.

White lead can be mixed with all pigments except those
which, like cadmium yellow, ultramarine or King's yellow,
contain sulphur, such pigments sooner or later causing the
formation of the black sulphide, and thus bringing about
the discoloration of the pigment or paint.

In commerce w-hite lead is found in two forms, as a heavy
white powder, having a specific gravity of about 6.47 and
weighing about 180 pounds to the cubic foot, or as a paste
containing about 8 per cent of tlie linseed oil. To make
the latter, the dry white lead is first mixed in a mixing mill
with about 8 to 9 per cent of its weight of raw linseed oil;
it is then run through a grinding mill several times to en-

PIGMENTS 301

sure a thorough mixture of the oil and white lead. This
form is much liked by painters, it being more readily
miseible with oil and turpentine to make it into paint.

In order to obtain a cheaper product, white lead is fre-
quently mixed with barytes which is distinguished by its
white color and great specific gravity. The mixture is often
effected in fixed proportions and for certain varieties of
white lead, which are known by special names or numbers,
remains unchanged. Thus Venetian white consists of equal
parts white lead and barytes, Hamburg white of 2 parts
barytes and 1 part white lead, Dutch white with up to 75 per
cent barytes. The so-called Kremnitz white is a pure white
lead. It is produced by placing trays containing a paste
made of litharge and either acetic acid or lead acetate upon
shelves in a chamber built of brick or wood. When the
chamber is filled carbonic acid gas is sent into it and is
absorbed by the lead oxide present in the paste.

Zinc White or Zinc Oxide has, in recent years, made great
advances in popularity among painters. Compared to white
lead, it is as white to yellow. It is indeed beautifully white,
very fine, and easily worked. The whiteness is of impor-
tance in mixing paints, as the purity of color is retained,
while when mixed with lead the yellowish east to some ex-
tent destroys the jDurity of the original color. The fact that
oxide of zinc is non-poisonous is a point in its favor of
very considerable importance. It is claimed that paiuters
who take care to wash themselves frequently and to take
every precaution, are not likely to contract lead poisoning.
As a matter of fact, the best of painters are at times careless,
while in the rush of work, it is often impossible to take
the precautions required. The most important quality of
zinc white is its extreme durability.

Properly mixed it will last, at a moderate estimate, twice
as long as lead, especially in large cities where the air is
impregnated with sulphur derived from burning coal. Lead,
in such circumstances, turns yellow or black and quickly

302 CYCLOPEDLV OF PAINTING

decays, and some places, such as stables, where sulphuretted
hydrogen abounds, it is useless to jDaint with Avhite lead,
and if zinc is used these disadvantages are avoided.

Zinc white has a very good body, better, or as good as
white lead. If a proper comparison be made, and if both
be thinned out to a consistency suitable to be applied by
brush, it is true that zinc white will apparentl}' not have
so good body as lead, but it will spread much farther. If
an exactly equal quantity of lead and zinc are both i^ainted
on an exactly equal area, zinc will cover a little better than
lead. In this state, however, the consistency of the zinc
paint would be rather too thick. It is easily thinned, more
so, comparativel}', than the lead would be.

A consideration of these facts will show the practical
painter that less zinc than lead will be required to perform
a good job, and when the durability is also taken into con-
sideration as well as the beaut}-, it will not take long for
him to make up his mind as to the superiority of zinc.

There is one point, however, about its use which must be
explained. Zinc white is, when compared with lead, quite
light in weight, or, in other words, its volume is much
greater than lead. Now, it being an entirely different prod-
uct, it must not be treated in the same way as lead would
be. The painter, perhaps, takes some zinc, mixes it with
raw oil, with a liberal amount of patent driers and a more
liberal dose of turiDentine, and then he grumbles because it
does not show up to advantage. What he does is to destroy
its inherent good qualities. To repeat then, zinc Avhite
must not be ti-eated in the same way as white lead.

The proper way to treat zinc white is to mix it with
refined boiled oil, no driers should be used, and only just
sufficient turpentine to bring it to the required consistency.
Being pale, it does not destroy the whiteness of the zinc,
while it certainly aids considerably in drying. In fact, it
is the only practical drier for the zinc, far better than patent
driers, or any other goods of the kind. It is paler than raw

PIGMENTS 303

linseed oil, and hence it does not destroy the most delicate
tints, howevei' light.

PIGMENTS LIABLE TO CHANGE UNDER THE INFLU-
ENCE OF SULPHURETTED HYDROGEN,
AIR AND MOISTURE.

Yellow. Chrome yellow, mineral yellow, Naples yellow.

White. Cremintz white, flake white, pearl white.

Red. Red lead, purple led, iodine scarlet.

Green. Verdigris, Scheele's green, emerald green, moun-
tain green.

Blue. Prussian blue, Antwerp blue.

Orange. Orange chrome.

PIGMENTS LITTLE LIABLE TO CHANGE UNDER THE
INFLUENCE OF SULPHURETTED HYDRO-
GEN, AIR AND MOISTURE.

White. Zinc white, constant white, tin white.

Red. Vermilion, red ochre, Indian red, madder lakes.

Yellow. Yellow ochre, barium ehromate, zinc chromate,
aureolin, raw sienna.

Green. Chrome green, cobalt green.

Blue. L'ltramarine, smalt, Thenard's blue.

Brown. Vandyke brown, raw umber, burnt umber, man-
ganese brown, sepia.

Black. Ivory black, lamp black, Indian ink, graphite.

Orange. Orange vermilion, burnt sienna.

PIGMENTS LIABLE TO DETERIORATION WHEN IN
CONTACT WITH WHITE LEAD, CHROME OR
OTHER LEAD PIGMENT.
Yellow. Yellow orpiment, king's yellow, Indian yellow,
gamboge.

Red. Iodine scarlet, cochineal, carmine.

Orange. Golden antimony sulphide, orange orpiment.

Green. Sap green.

Blue. Ultramarine.

304 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

PIGMENTS WHICH ARE LITTLE AFFECTED BY
HEAT, AND WHICH MAY BE USED WHEN THE
MATERIAL HAS TO STAND FIRE.
White. Tin white, barium white, zinc white.
Red. Red ochre, Venetian red, Indian red.
Yellow. Naples yellow, antimony yellow.
Blue. Smalt and royal blue, ultramarine.
Green. Chrome green, cobalt green.
Orange. Burnt sienna, burnt ochre.
Brown. Burnt umber, manganese brown.
Black. Graphite, mineral black.

COLORS THAT MAY BE USED WITH LIME.

White. Permanent white, baryta white, gypsum, zinc
white.

Red. The vermilions, light red, Venetian red, Indian red,
madder lakes.

Orange. Cadmium, orange chrome. Mars orange, burnt
sienna, burnt Roman ochre, light red.

Yellow. Aureolin, cadmium yellow, lemon yellow, Naples
yellow. Mars yellow, raw sienna, yellow ochi-e, Roman ochre,
transparent gold ochre, brown ochre, Indian yellow, Oxford
ochre.

Green. Oxide of chromium, transparent oxide of chrom-
ium, viridian, emerald green, malachite green, verdigris, terre
verte, cobalt green, chi-ome green.

Blue. Genuine ultramarine, artificial ultramarine, new
blue, permanent blue, cobalt blue, cerulean blue, smalt.

Purple. Purple madder. Mars violet.

Brown. Bone brown, bistre, Prussian brown, burnt um-
ber, Vienna brown, Vandyke brown, Cologne earth, asphalt-
um, Cassel earth, manganese brown.

Citrine. Raw uml)er, Mars brown.

Blacks. Ivory black, lamp black, blue black, charcoal
black, cork black, Indian ink, black lead, drop black, plum-
bago.

PLAIN OIL PAINTING.

The processes of plain oil painting are in themselves ex-
tremely simple, and depend so much on manipulative skill
that a description of them must be taken only as a general
guide, not by any means sufficient in itself to make a good
paintei'. This result is not arrived at by theoretical knowl-
edge alone, however sound, but by long-continued and ear-
nest practice.

On the other hand, it must be urged on the attention of
painters the fact that practice alone will not accomplish
the end desired; a painter who can only spread a quantity
of paint over a given surface is little better than a machine,
and it is hoped by the instruction given in the following
pages, to awaken the interest of the painter, and to show
him that his occupation is not merely manual, but that each
branch of the trade, if properly understood, will afford
scope for the exercise of mental acquirements and for the
application of knowledge.

Before the painter can commence the absolute process of
painting new work, it is necessary that he should clear it
from any drops of glue or whitening which may have fallen
on the surface, or which may have been accidentally left by
the carpenter.

In this operation he uses the stopping knife. This knife
is held so that a large portion of its edge may touch the
surface, and it is slanted so as to be nearly horizontal, and
thus the edge works as it were under the pieces of glue and
putty and lifts rather than scrapes them oft". Care must be
taken that the knife is not held so that its surface would
be perpendicular to the wood, and that onl^^ the smallest
possible pressure is used, otherwise indentations might be
made, and thus more harm than good would be done.

305

306 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

It must also be borne in mind that tliis ])rocess is not to
be a universal scraping; it is merely remedial, to remove any
excrescences which may exist, but its puipose is not to
scraj^e or plane the wood. This is supposed to have been
already done by the carpenter, and if it has not, a tool differ-
ent from the stopping knife sliould be used.

The dusting brush, generally called the duster, must be
freely used during this process so that all the particles
scraped off may be removed. The largest of the brushes
used for painting is sometimes employed as a duster pre-
viously to being devoted to its proper purpose, in order
that it may be rendered softer; but this is not a good plan,
for a certain amount of dust necessarily finds its way up
the brush, and is liable to work out when it is being used
for painting purposes, thus giving the work a coarse and
gritty appearance and causing much annoyance.

The next stage of preparation is that called knotting,
the purpose of which is to guard against the knots appear-
ing in the finished work, by stop2:)ing their absorbent qual-
ity, or closing the apertures of the fibre, and thus prevent-
ing the effusion of gum or sap. It is, of course, strongly
urged that wood should be thoroughly dry before it is
used, but this is not within the power of the painter to
control; he must take the wood as he finds it, and must
do his best to counteract the effects of the new wood on
his work.

It must be remembered that in the knots the ends of
fibres, which are so many open tubes, are exposed, and thus,
if all the sap or gum has exuded, they will present spots
very much more absorbent than the surface of the board
itself, whilst if the wood be new and the gum and sap
fiesh in it, these will from time to time exude and force
off the paint, or cause it to become stick}'.

Patent Knotting may be purchased at the color shops,
and the following are two excellent recipes for making

PLAIN OIL PAINTING 307

similar compositions, which arc to be applied with a brush
of the second size called a tool.

Add together a quarter of a pint of japanner's gold size,
one teaspoonful of red lead, one pint of naphtha and seven
ounces of orange shellac. This mixture is to be kept in a
warm place whilst the shellac dissolves and must be fre-
.quently shaken.

White or rod lead iwwdcr mixed with glue size and ap-
plied whilst warm.

Knotting is a composition of strong size, mixed with red
lead for the first knotting, which prevents the gum com-
ing through; the second knotting is a composition of white
lead, red lead and oil, but in rooms where the knots happen
to be very bad they are often silvered, which is done by
laying on a coat of gold size and when properly dry a silver
leaf is placed on them, which is sure to prevent the knots
appearing.

When the knots are more than usually bad they must be
cut out.

Priming. The first process of painting is called priming,
which consists of laying on a coat of paint for the special
purpose of diminishing the absorbent quality of the wood
or plaster. The paint used for this puipose is generally a
mixture of white lead and red lead, with a proper propor-
tion of driers; but when the finishing color is to be black,
dark green or dark brown the priming may be done with
a lead color made of vegetable black and white lead in
equal quantities.

These colors should be mixed with boiled oil for out-
of-door, and with linseed oil for in-door work, a small
quantity of turpentine being added in either case, the pro-
portions being three parts of oil to one of turpentine. The
paint should be rather thin so that it may be well adapted
for rapid absorption by the new wood or plaster.

Some painters, in order to save the oil coats, have re-

308 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

sorted to the objectionable practice of spreading a coat of
size mixed with water and whiting over the new work.

This may serve for temporary purposes, but it will soon
be seen that it should not be adopted in good work or where
durability is expected. To a certain extent the size stops
the absorbent powers of the wood or plaster, but it pre-
vents the proper adhesion of the oil paint, which soon
cracks or peels off. It maj', however, be used with advan-
tage in old work, where the grease would prevent the proper
drj'ing of the oil paint, but even in such cases it is best,
when possible, to scrape the wood or plaster until a new
surface is reached, on which the oil paint may be success-
fully applied.

"When the priming is thoroughly dry, it is to be rubbed
down with glass paper and this operation, although in it-
self simple, requires a certain amount of care so that the
rubbing may be equally effective over the whole surface.
In order that this result may be attained, the glass paper used
should not be a mere scrap, rubbed carelessly about in vari-
ous directions, by which means some parts will be passed
over oftener than others, and the paint may be nearly
rubbed off in one spot whilst it is left almost untouched
on another. A piece of the paper should be wrapped round
a flat piece of wood, say 4 inches long by 3 inches wide
and 1 inch thick, forming a kind of brush, and this should
be rubbed equally over the whole surface, which will thus
be nicely smoothed, whilst its perfectly level character
will not be injured. A piece of glass paper which has
been used several times in this way should be saved for
use in the later stages of the work, when great refinement
is required. A strip of glass paper may be wrapped over
the edge of a piece of wood shaped like a chisel for use
in the edges of panels and similar situations, or round the
finger or a piece of rag for the curved parts of mouldings,
great care being taken that a stiff edge, such as is formed
by a sudden bend in the glass paper, may not come in con-

PLAIN OIL PAINTING 309

tact with the work, producing scratches which are very
troublesome to get rid of. Al] the dust caused by the glass
paper must be carefully removed by means of the duster.
When the priming has been properly rubbed down the next
operation is that of stopping.

Stopping consists in filling in and making good all nail-
holes, bad joints and cracks with putty, or with a paste
made of putty and white lead, called hard stopping; this
is done with the stopping knife.

This is another of the operations which, although simple,
require a certain amount of care, lest instead of contribut-
ing to, they may mar the success of the work. Thus let it
be required to stop a crack in a panel ; it will not be suffi-
cient merely to press into the interstice a small quantity
of stopping and then smooth it over, for as the stopping
dries it contracts and sinks below the surface, and the
crack becomes just as great an eye-sore as ever.

In such a case, the stopping should be forced as far
down into the crack as possible; this may be done with the
edge of the stopping knife, or with a thin piece of wood,
leaving the stopping, however, slightly raised above the sur-
face. In a day or two, before the second painting is pro-
ceeded with, the stopping will, owing to a certain amount
of shrinking during drying, be found nearly level with the
panel and may then be smoothed down with the stopping
knife.

The circumstance calling for the greatest care in stop-
ping, is where a panel or other part of the work has re-
ceived a blow and a delve or shallow concavity is formed,
for it will be clear that the mere skin of stopping required
to level up such a spot, would be almost certain to crack
off, leaving the place totally uncovered by paint. The best
way to avoid such a result is to deepen the recess in parts
by pricking holes in it with a bradawl and these should in-
cline in different directions and should be more closely
placed and more numerous near the edges than in the

310 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

middle of the space. The point of tlie stopping-knife may
he used for this purpose, and deep fissures will be formed
thereby; into these fissures or holes the stopping is to be
forced and the portion spread over the delve will thus be
as it were nailed to the wood by the filaments penetrating
into the holes.

This process should be sloAvly done, an interval being
allowed to elapse betAveen the first and second stopping,
but this is supposing a condition which cannot always be
fulfilled; the exigencies of business in these days of high
pressure demanding that work shall be pushed on with the
utmost rapidity; but it is desired to point out the means
by which failure may be avoided, and the intelligent painter,
knowing this, will be able in most cases to arrange his
work in such a way that some portions may be proceeded
with whilst the necessarj^ delay is afforded to others, and
thus, by economy of time, and proper organization of labor,
the desired end may be accomplished.

The surface having been again touched off with the glass
paper, the second painting is to be proceeded with. For
the second coat, the same paint used for the priming, or
white lead thinned with oil and a little turpentine and
driers, may be employed, the proportion of driers for ordi-
nary cases being lYo ounces to 10 pounds of white lead,
but in winter, or in a damp climate, the jjroportion of driers
must be increased. The following useful hints are here
given :

It should be observed that second color for new work
is made up chiefly witli oil, as it best stops the suction of
the wood, but second color for old work is made up chiefly
with turpentine, because oil color would not dry or adhere
to it so well.

The color should be spread on as evenly as possible,
and to effect this as soon as the whole or a convenient
quantity is covered, the brush should be passed over it in
a direction contrary to that in which it is finally to be laid

PLAIN OIL PAINTING 311

off; this is called crossing. After crossing it should be laid
off softly and carefully in a direction contrary to the cross-
ings, but with the grain of the wood, taking care that none
of the cross brush marks be left visible. The criterion of
good workmanship is, that the paint be laid evenly and the
brush marks be not observed. In laying off, the brush
should be laid into that portion of the work already done,
that the joining may not be perceived. Every coat should
be perfectly dry, and all dust carefully removed before the
succeeding one is laid over it.

In the third jjainting some apiDroaeh is made to the
finishing color. Thus, if the finishing color is to be laven-
der, Irhe third coat should consist of white, slightly tinted
with that color. In some cases it is desirable that the coat
preceding the finishing should be darker than that which
is to be laid ove*- it.

In the third painting, the oil and turpentine should be
used in equal proportions.

The fourth may be considered as the finishing coat, al-
though a fifth is often given, and always Avith great advan-
tage. The finishing coat must not by any means be aiDplied
unless the third coat proves perfectly satisfactory; that is,
unless the surface has dried absolutely uniform, as regards
surface, for if one part is glossy and the other dull it will
be clear that the absorbent quality is not stopped and the
third painting must be repeated.

In commencing to repaint old work, the surface should,
in the first case, be gone over with the stopping knife, re-
moving all excrescences, and it is then to be rubbed with
pumice stone and water, the greasy parts being well rubbed
with turpentine.

Parts from which the paint has been entirely removed
and decayed patches must then be gone over with a coat
of priming color, and cracks and holes are to be made good
with stopping. The first coat is then to be given and this
is to be mixed with turpentine. The quality of the next

312 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

coat will depend on the manner in which it is to be fin-
ished. If it is to be painted twice in oil and flatted, the
next coat should be mixed up chiefly in oil, and tinted like
the finishing color to form a ground for the flatting. The
greater the gloss of the ground, the more dead will be the
finishing coat, or flatting; likewise, the more dead the
ground the better will the finishing oil shine. It is, there-
fore, a general rule, that for finishing in oil the undercoat
should be turpentine, and for finishing flat the undercoat
or ground color should be oil; but all tui"pentine grounds
must have a little oil mixed with them, and all oil under-
coats must have a small quantity of turpentine added to
them, excepting the priming or first coat in new work.

In order to attain an absolutely solid appearance, some
painters apply two coats of the finishing color, b}' which
no doubt uniformity is secured, but the expense is, of course,
materially increased therebj'. There are, however, pig-
ments of a cheaper but still permanent character, which
approach in tone to the verj^ best, and these may with ad-
vantage be used as a first finishing coat, over which the
final color may be applied. Such colors must be carefully
selected and must be well covered by the finishing coat.

Flatting, When the work is to be flatted, that is, when
it is desired that the paint when drj' should present a flat
or dull appearance without any gloss, the paint used for
the previous coat should be rather thicker than would un-
der other circumstances be used ; it should be mixed with
linseed oil and turpentine and should be rather darker than
the flatting itself is to be.

Special care is necessary in laying all the coats which
precede the flatting; they must be very evenly spread and
must be smoothed with glass paper in order that they
may be perfectly level, otherwise the smallest irregularities
will appear in the finished surface, to the injury of that
perfectly flat appearance in which the beauty of the work
consists.

PLAIN OIL PAINTING 313

The paint used in flatting consists of white lead with
which, of course, the necessary coloring matter is mixed,
turpentine alone being used as the medium with which the
paint is thinned. The color should be rather lighter than
is required, as it darkens a little whilst drying; a brushful
should therefore be tried before the whole surface is paint-
ed in order to avoid subsequent disappointment. In order
to assist in drying, japanners' gold size is sometimes used
instead of driers.

Although it is, of course, necessary that the coat pre-
ceding the flatting should be dry, it ought not to be abso-
lutely hard, for it is necessary that the flatting, which is
mixed with turpentine only, should slightly dissolve the
surface, so as to become in a degree incorporated with it,
by which much beauty and solidity is obtained, whereas, if
the previous coat had become quite hard the flatting would
in most cases appear streaky when dry and would be liable
to crack or peel off.

Owing to the special composition of the paint used in
flatting, it dries very rapidly and two men should be en-
gaged at once in flatting a wall. A plank placed across two
step-ladders, or otherwise supported, is placed in front of
the wall at about half the height from the ground. One
of the painters stands on this whilst the other stands on
the ground. The last mentioned commences the woi'k, paint-
ing a strip about 18 inches wide and carrying it up as
high as he can conveniently reach, he works rapidly, cross-
ing occasionally, so that no brush marks in any one direc-
tion may be visible, laying off very lightly; that is, con-
tinuing the action of his brush, withdrawing it gradually
so that the points of the hairs may only skim lightly over
the work.

The painter above proceeds with the operation from the
line where his fellow painter left it, and carries it up to
the top of the wall, the first painter meanwhile getting on
with another strip, both painters being exceedingly careful

314 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

that no break shall occur and that the lines at which their
"work join shall not be visible in the slightest degree.

Brushes called stipplers are much used; these are broad
and flat, and in form resemble a hairbrush. In practice the
stipi^lers are gently dabbed against the wet paint, produc-
ing a level grain over the whole surface, something like the
tooth on the drawing paper called not hotpressed. These
brushes may be obtained of various shapes, the handles
of some being continuous with the back, whilst in others
it is fixed above, like that of a black-lead brush. The adop-
tion cf either form is, of course, a matter of taste.

In flatting a door, the panels must be finished first, great
care being taken to carry the paint clean into the edges and
corners. The stiles or framing should then be done. It is
convenient to paint the muntins, or munnions, first; these
are the upright pieces in the middle of the door. Next to
these come the upper, middle and lower rails, the horizon-
tals which cross the door, and lastly the upright stiles,
or external vertical portions of the frame of the door. The
brush marks, should any appear at the parts where the
work is necessarily in cross directions, will corresjiond with
the joints which would in reality exist at these parts.

Painting Plaster. The first coat is composed of white
lead mixed with linseed oil and a small quantity of litharge,
the paint being rather thinner than would be used for gen-
eral purposes, in order that it may soak well into the ab-
sorbent surface of the plaster. The next coat should also
be thin so that the plaster may be thoroughly saturated.
This will be only partially absorbed, and it will be neces-
sary to make the third coat much thicker, mixing with it
turpentine, and some of the coloring matter approaching
the future tint of the room. The fourth coat should be
thicker still and should be mixed with equal parts of oil
and turpentine, together with the dry ingredient, sugar of
lead, instead of litharge. The color should be much darker
than that which is to constitute the finishing coat. All

PLAIN OIL PAINTING 315

these coats must be laid on with the greatest attention as
to smoothing, and tliey should each be thoroughly dry before
the succeeding coat is applied, and should be well rubbed
down with glass paper. The last coat which is to precede
the flatting, however, should not be quite hardened before
the finishing is applied for reasons previously explained.
The process of flatting has already been described.

Painting New Walls or Stucco. It does not appear that
any painting in oil can be done to any good or serviceable
effect in stucco, unless not merely the surface is dry, but
the walls have been erected a sufficient time to permit the
mass of brickwork to have acquired a sufficient degree of
dryness.

When stucco is on battened work, it may be painted over
much sooner than when prepared as brick. Indeed, the
greater part of the mystery of painting stucco so as to
stand or wear well, certainly consists in attending to these
observations, for whoever has observed the expansive power
of water, not only in congelation, but also in evaporation,
must be well aware that when it meets with any foreign
body obstructing its escape, as oil paint, for instance,
it immediately resists it, forming a number of vesicles or
particles, containing an acrid lime water which forces off
the layers of plaster, and frequently causes large defective
2jatches extremely difficult to get the better of.

Perhaps in general cases, where persons are building on
their own property, or for themselves, two or three years
are not too long to suffer the stucco to remain unpainted ;
though frequently in speculative works as many weeks are
scarcely allowed. Indeed, there are some nostrums set forth
in favor of which it is stated, in spite of all the natural
properties of bodies, that stucco may, after having been
washed over with these liquids, be painted immediately with
oil colors. It is true there may be instances, and in manj'
experiments some will be found, that appear to counteract

316 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

the general laws of nature, but on following them up to
their causes it will be found otherwise.

Supposing the foregoing precautions to have been at-
tended to, there can be no better mode adopted for prim-
ing or laying on the first coat on stucco than by linseed or
nut oil boiled with driers, with a proper brush, taking care
in all cases not to lay on too much so as to render the sur-
face rough and iiTegular, and not more than the stucco
will absorb. It should then be covered with three or four
coats of ceruse or white lead, prepared as described for
painting on w^ainscoting, letting each coat have sufficient
time to dry hard.

If time will permit, two or three days between each coat
will not be too long. If the stucco is intended to be fin-
ished of any given tint, as gray, light green or apricot, it
will then be proper, about the third coat of painting, to
prepare the ground for such tint by a slight advance towards
it.

POOR TOOLS.

It is false economy to work with poor or cheap brushes.
A good painter can not do good work, or the amount of
work he should, with poor tools.

Time is money and time is lost by trying to paint with
a cheap stock brush.

It is a mistake to try to work half-handed or with too
few brushes.

The kit should consist of a good full stock body brush
for each color, the size depending upon the width of the
siding to be painted, 3I/2 to 4 inches long stock brush is the
one usually used, a full stock trimming , brush, well broken
in. There is no economy in using a half worn out body
brush for trimming colors. A good trimming brush is just
as essential as a good body brush, as it is impossible to cut
in on cornices, corner boai'ds and window and sash frames
with a ragged edged brush, a good chiseled sash tool or a
1 inch or IV2 inch chiseled varnish brush for brackets or
mouldings, also a ^ inch flat chiseled varnish brush for
sash colors, a good duster and putty and scraping knife.
This completes an ordinary kit of tools and is sufficient to do
good work. It is not economy to attempt to work with less.

317

PRIMARY COLORS.

The painter who wishes to obtain a correct knowledge of
his trade should, in the first place, endeavor to make him-
self acquainted with the nature and properties of the ma-
terials he is constantly using.

The ambition of a man of intelligence should be to rise
above the position of a mere drudge, and he should, there-
fore, by availing himself of the opportunities of culture
at his command, endeavor to develop the faculties with
which Almighty Providence has endowed him.

Nor will the time spent in the acquirement of knowledge
be wasted, for good workmanship will always command its
price, and thus a painter, who improves his scientific and
technical education, will without fail rise in the social scale,
with benefit to himself, his family and his country.

The facility wdth which ready-prepared colors can now
be obtained has no doubt led to a neglect of infoi'mation
as to their composition or special qualities, a small amount
of knowledge only being picked up in the course of pi-ac-
tice from the men with whom each painter is associated,
and who have obtained their own information in a similar
unreliable manner.

It is not here intended to advocate the idea that each
workman should, as in olden times, manufacture his own
colors and varnishes; the rate of wages as compared with
the expenses at the present day wholly forbid such a sys-
tem; but it is strongly urged that the painter should know
the qualities of the various substances he employs in order
that he may judge of their fitness for every kind of work,
and likewise that he should be able to prepare them if cir-
cumstances require him to do so.

318

PRIMARY COLORS 319

Yellow, Red and Blue are called the primaiy colors, the
presence of which, either pure or in combination, is found
to be necessary to satisfy the eye. They have each a differ-
ent relation to light, and must therefore be used in pro-
portions which fulfill these conditions. Any two of these
primaries being mixed, a secondary color is produced, thus

Blue and Yellow form Green,
Blue and Red form Pui-ple,
Yellow and Red form Orange.

In like manner, by the mixture of any two of the sec-
ondaries, tertiary colors are formed, thus: Orange and
Green produce Citrine, or the set of tints of a greenish-
yellow character approximating to citron; Orange and Pur-
ple form Russet, or warm brown; whilst Purple and Green
produce Olive, or dull brownish green.

By the varied and due admixture of these colors an infinite
number of hues, shades and tints are produced, whilst by
an indefinite and disproportionate mixture of the three
colors, or of the whole together, will be produced the hues
usually called dirty, or the anomalous color, brown.

There are five classes of colors: The neutral, the pri-
mary, the secondary, the tertiary and the semi-neutral.

Neutral colors are three only, White, Black and Gray.
According to the laws of optics, the two first comprise all
others synthetically and afford them all by analysis. These
are sometimes called extreme colors, gray being their in-
termediate.

Thus, if Black and White are mixed. Gray is formed,
or if a transparent Black is washed over a white surface,
a corresponding effect is produced.

Primary colors are three only. Yellow, Red and Blue.
They are such as yield others by being compounded, but
are not themselves capable of being produced by compo-
Bition of other colors. By way of distinction they are occa-
sionally designated entire colors. Secondary colors are

320 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

three only, Orange, Green and Purple. Each of these is
composed of, and can be resolved into, two primaries; thus
Orange is composed of Red and Yellow, Green of Yellow
and Blue and Purple of Blue and Red.

Tertiai-y colors are three only, Citrine, Russet and Olive.
Each of these is composed of, or can be resolved into, either
two secondary colors or the three primaries; thus Citrine
consists of Green and Orange, or of a predominant Yellow
with Blue and Red; Russet is compounded of Orange and
Purple, or of a predominant Red with Blue and Yellow,
and Olive is composed of Purple and Gxxen, or of a pre-
dominant Blue with Yellow and Red.

The last three genera of colors comprehend in an orderly
gradation all those which are positive or definite, and the
three colors of each genus, united or compounded in such
subordination that neither of them predominates to the
eye, constitute the negative or neutral colors of which black
and white have been stated to be the opposed extremes, and
grays their intermediates. Thus Black and White are con-
stituted of, and comprise latently, the principles of all col-
ors and accompany them in their depth and brilliancy, as
shade and light.

Semi-neutral colors belong to a class of which Brown,
Maroon and Gray may be considered types. They are so
called because they comprehend all the combinations of the
primary, secondary and tertiary colors with the neutral
black. Of the various combinations of black, those in which
yellow, orange or citrine predominates have obtained the
name of brown; a second class, in which the compounds of
black are of a predominant red, purple or russet hue, com-
prise maroon, chocolate; and a third class, in which the
combinations of black have a predominant hue of blue,
green or olive, include gray and slate.

It must be observed that each color may comprehend an
infinite series of shades between the extremes of light and
dark, as each compound color may eomiirise a series of

PRIMARY COLORS 321

hues between the extremes of the colors composing it, and
as the relations of colors have been deduced regularly from
white or light to black or shade, so the same may be done
inversely from black to white. On this plan the tertiaries,
Olive, Russet and Citrine, take the place of the primaries.
Blue, Red and Yellow, while the secondaries still retain
their intermediate station and relation to both.

Thus, Russet and Olive compose, or unite in, dark Purple,
Citrine and Olive in dark Green, Russet and Citrine in dark
Orange. The tertiaries have therefore the same order of
relation to Black that the primaries have to Wliite; and we
have black primaries, secondaries and tertiaries inversely,
as we have White primaries, secondaries and tertiaries di-
rectly. In other words, we have light and dark colors of
all classes.

It is important to the painter that he should understand
the difference between hues, tints and shades. By mixing
white with the original color, a tint is produced; by mix-
ing color with color, compound colors or hues are formed,
whilst from the mixture of colors or tints with black; shades
result.

PRIMING.

This is the most important paint coat applied to any sur-
face. It must fill and satisfy the surface and leave a foun-
dation upon which future paint coats can be successfully
built. It holds the same relative position in painting as
does the foundation of a house in building. It must last
and successfully hold the superstructure as long as it re-
mains. It must carry sufficient linseed oil to not onlj- sat-
isfy the surface but bind or hold the pigment to the sur-
face. It must carry sufficient turpentine to cause penetra-
tion and assist in forcing, by absorption, the oil and pig-
ment into the surface. The formation of the pigment must
be such as to allow of penetration into the surface, and
above all, the primer must be well and evenly brushed out
and into the surface.

The common idea that anyone can prime a building is a
serious mistake. The priming coat offers the best oppor-
tunity for judging a painter's work. If he is a capable,
careful man he will use as much or more care in applying
this coat as he would in the application of the second or
third coat. He will brush the paint into the wood, satisfy-
ing the soft grain, and carefully brush the hard grain
where there is less absorption, leaving an even, uniform
coating.

It is impossible to erect a frame building and have all
of the timber of the same absorbing qualities. The sap-
wood absorbs paint more readily than the heartwood, which
is of a harder grain. This fact does not necessitate a dif-
ferent reduction for each kind of grain in the same lumber,
but it does necessitate the jiainter's properly applying and
brushing out the paint.

322

PRIMING 323

In priming- soft wood, the paint should be applied with
a full brush and enough paint used at all times to satisfy
the surface. It should be well brushed and especially on
the harder grain to assist or force the paint into this close
grain and remove by hard brushing- any surjilus paint that
remains on the surface.

On hard or close-grained Avood a medium full brush
should be used in apphdng- the paint, as this class of wood
does not possess the absorbing proj^erties of softer woods,
but requires more brushing in order to force a sufficient
amount of oil and binder into the wood and at the same
time not leave an excess of paint on the surface.

If the priming coat is of the proper consistency, carry-
ing sufficient pigment to fill and hide the grain, and well
brushed into the grain of the wood, most of the absorption
will have ceased with this coat and no excess of pigment
left on the surface. This thin coat will allow the second
coat to penetrate through and satisfy any part of the wood
which was not fully filled at the time of priming, also allow
the second coat to bind itself to the wood and priming
coat.

An excess of paint on veiy porous woods will cause peek-
ing or chii^ping. This heavy coat prevents the oil from
penetrating the woods and assists in holding the coat on
the surface. The oil and binder in the second coat jDene-
trates into this heavy coat only and does not reach the wood
so as to assist in forming a solid coat well bound to the
surface.

Paint heavily applied to a hard or close grained surface
will dry with a gloss, forming a hard glaze over the sur-
face, into which the second coat cannot penetrate to any
depth; it will only fasten itself to the outside of this glaze
coat, whereas it should go through to the wood so as to
help strengthen the second and subsequent coats.

Do not prime a building and allow it to stand any longer
than is necessary in order to thoroughly hq,rden the paint

324 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

and allow of full absorption. If allowed to weather, the
priming coat will become porous and absorb the life of the
second coat and there will not be sufficient binder left to
properly adhere to the surface.

Never use a cheap primer. While cheap in the first cost,
it is without exception the costliest in the end. The primer
should be of the best and of the same material as the in-
termediate and finishing coats.

Dry colors mixed by hand should never be used for prim-
ing. All paint pigments are much more bulky in the dry
state than when properly handled under pressure and com-
bined with oil. When a mixture is made without pressure
the outside particles of the pigment are only coated Avith
the oil or thinners, and when applied to a surface, the
wood having a greater attraction for the oil than does the
pigment, the surface will absorb the oil from the pigment,
leaving a dry, porous coating to which subsequent coats
cannot successfully bind.

SCENE PAINTING.

When purchasing any burlaps to paint the scenery on,
confine the selection to a good article, which should not be
too thick, and should be of a close texture, evenly woven
and light. The stoutness should, however, be increased
for very large scenes or drops. In place of burlaps, stout
unbleached muslin is frequently employed, but it does not
by any means answer so well.

With respect to the width of the canvas, that which is
manufactured two yards wide is the most preferable, as
the scene will not require so many seams. For ordinary
sceneiy these seams should always run horizontally, but
for a moving panorama they must assume a pei'pendieular
direction, since the canvas on which it is represented has
to be unrolled from a cylinder placed vertically on the stage
at the time of exhibition.

These are the most needful articles to begin with: A
common iron or tin kettle, in shape resembling a fish kettle,
to melt the size in and a ladle to pour it out when required
for use; an earthenware pan, about fifteen or eighteen
inches in diameter, to contain the whiting that has been
moistened and made fit for use; about four dozen earthen-
ware paint pots, from the smallest to the largest; a grind-
stone and muller, or what would do still better, a gi-inding
color mill; a large palette knife; a good sized sponge; a
plumb line; some chalk and a couple of chalk lines; some
common charcoal, of which only the softest and finest pieces
are to be selected; some drawing charcoal, the large French
is the best ; a couple of pounce bags. These can be made
in the following manner: Take a piece, about eight inches
square, of very open canvas, of an old stocking, or of any

325

326 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

other material that will just allow the pounce powder to
pass freely through the surface of the bag. Pulverize some
charcoal, chalk, or whatever other substance may be con-
sidered best adapted to the purpose, to as fine a powder as
possible. Place a sufficient quantity of it on the middle
part of the canvas. Then draw up the four corners and
tie them together with a piece of string so as to form a
round pad which is to be rubbed over the pounce to be
transferred to the canvas.

Foils. These are used chiefly in fairy scenes, for the
purpose of imitating gold, silver and jewels of every shade
and color. They can be purchased at any theatrical ward-
robe and ornament maker's, as well as at oil and color
shops.

White, Gold and Copper-Colored Dutch Metal. This is
also sold by the above-mentioned dealers. It is, of course,
cheaper, but tarnishes sooner.

A couple of wooden palettes, one three feet by one and a
half, the other four feet by two, which any carpenter can
make. They should have a ledge three inches high at each
end, and one at the back to prevent the colors from flow-
ing off. They may be made with a separate division for
each color if preferred. Before making use of the palettes
they must have three or four coats of white lead laid over
them and afterwards be rubbed down with sandpaper to get
them as smooth as possible.

A Flogger, This implement is employed for clearing
away the charcoal after the sketching in is completed. To
make one, cut off a piece, about two feet long, from a
broomstick, and round one end of it nail about a dozen
strips of canvas or calico, each strip being two feet in
length.

Straight Edges. Of these, three or four will be required,
one being exactly two yards long and four inches wide and
marked off in feet, to serve as a measure. They should be
made of thin deal and have a flange at each edge. One

SCENE PAINTING 327

of them should be thin and pliable enough to bear being
bent whenever drawing curves or arches.

The mode of proceeding will then be as follows: Grasp
the handle with the left hand and press the lower edge of
the straightedge against the canvas, keeping the upper edge
away from it. Now, resting the brush on the upper edge,
draw it along the canvas and a line is ruled. It would be
advisable to practice ruling lines in this way as it will be
found to jDresent a little difficulty at first.

Brushes. Of these you will require :

Two each flat hog tools, Nos. 2, 4, 6, 8, 12 and 24.

One each sash tools, Nos. 1 and 12.

Two each sash tools, Nos. 2, 4, 6, 8 and 10.

One 4-inch flat camel hair brush.

Two each quilled tools, Nos. 2, 4 and 6.

Six each quilled tools, No. 1.

Two 9-oz. ground distemper brushes.

Two No, 8-0 oval ground brushes.

One No. 4-0 over ground brush.

One No. 1 oval ground brush.

One No. 3 oval ground brush.

COLORS.

White. Procure the best gilders' whiting, as it is well
washed and has more body than common whiting, and less
lime. It is sold in large lumps and only requires to be
broken up and plunged into as much water as will serve
to soften it without bringing it into a liquid state. This
last remark applies to all the colors when they are put into
the stock pots ready for use. Whiting is used to mix with
almost all the colors, to reduce them, in the same way as
Flake white is used in oil painting or as water is used in
water color drawing.

Flake White. A fine white, very solid, but turns a little
brown in distemper, after a short time. It is only used

328 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

where extra brightness is required and for the highest
lights. It is sokl in lumps and can be crushed in water
with a palette knife to be ready for use.

Zinc White. Verj' white, but has less body than flake
white, though more permanent. In all other respects it is
the same and is prepared in the same way for use.

Lemon Chrome. A brilliant light yellow, sold in lumps,
and only requires to be crushed as above.

Orange Chrome. A fine rich bright color, in all respects
of the same nature as the other chrome.

Dutch Pink. A most useful yellow for distemper paint-
ing and mixes well with any other color. It is sold in
lumps, but must be ground in water to be ready for use.

Light Yellow Ochre. This is a very useful and cheap
color. It is sold in a powdered state and only requires to
be plunged into water to be ready for use.

Dark Brown Ochre. Of the same nature as the above and
prepared for use in the same way; unfortunately, it is vei'y
sandy.

Raw Sienna. A fine rich golden yellow, for glazing,
chiefly; sold in broken lumps, very hard, and requires most
careful grinding in water to be readj- for use. As grinding
shall be often spoken of let it be understood that it is al-
ways in Avater.

Orange Lead. A very bright and powerful red, sold in
powder; requires only to be plunged in water to be ready
for use.

Vermilion. A fine red, sold in powder, and only requires
to be plunged in water.

Indian Red. A good color, also sold in powder, and pre-
})are(l in the same way for use.

Venetian Red. A very cheap and useful color-, also in
powdei", and prepared in the same Avay for use.

Damp Lake. A useful color in distemper. It is sold in
a damp, pulpy state and only requires to be kept damp for
use. It is a fine glazing color.

SCENE PAINTING 329

Carmine Paste. A magnificent color, has great power,
and is a fine glazing color. This, also, only requires to be
kept damp, as it is sold ready for use. It need not be put
on the palette till required.

Rose Pink. A useful color, sold in soft lumps, but re-
quires grinding for use.

Brown Lake. A good color, requires grinding.

Burnt Sienna. A fine color, requires most careful grind-
ing. This is a good glazing color.

Vandyke Brown. A fine useful color, is a good glazing
one, requires most careful grinding.

Raw Umber. A useful color, requires grinding.

Burnt Umber. A good color, requires grinding, and is
a good glazing color.

Drop Black. A very useful color, requires gi-inding.

Blue Black. Is also useful, requires grinding.

Indigo. A very useful color, very hard, requires to be
broken up and steeped in boiling water for some time, then
ground up in the usual way. A good glazing color.

German Ultramarine. A good blue, sold in powder, and
only requires to be plunged in water.

Prussian Blue. A powerful blue, hitherto scarcely used
in distemper, but likely to be of much use. Requires good
grinding.

Azure Blue. A fine, useful blue, better than Gennan ul-
tramarine for most purposes. A powder color and has only
to be plunged in water.

Blue Verditer. A fine night color, but of a sandy nature,
and very difficult to work with. A powder color and re-
quires only water put to it for use.

Dark Green Lake. A most powerful green and vei-y use-
ful. Requires grinding for use.

Light Green Lake. The same as the above, only much
lighter.

Emerald Green. A very bright green and should be spar-
ingly used. Requires no grinding, as it is in powder.

330 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

MIXING COLORS.

The most difficult feature of painting: in distemper is
that the colors dry so much lighter than they are when
first put on, and many of them have, by gaslight, an en-
tirely different appearance than they have in the daytime.
Most colors dry sevei-al shades lighter than they are when
wet, and, worse still, they do not all diy lighter in the
same proportion, so that any person new to the Avork can-
not estimate the particular shade of his paint when first
laid on. It is, therefore, advisable for the painter to try
his colors on a small scale at first, and dry them in front
of the fire.

To render the colors opaque, a certain proportion of
whiting or flake white is always mixed with them, accord-
ing to the shade desired. Transparent and glazing colors
being an exception to this rule, no whiting is used Avith
Ihem. The strength of the size also makes a vast differ-
ence; very strong size darkens. As to the appearance of
colors at night: French ultramarine, a bright blue by day-
light, is a muddy purple by gaslight, and thcFcfore unfit for
distant tints or for brightness. Verditer blue, cobalt blue,
celestial blue are best. Yellow is much lighter by gaslight,
and rose pink loses its brightness. The colors being all
mixed with water to a pulpy state are now put into the
compartments on the palette, putting no more on the palette
than is required for immediate use. In scene painting many
of the different shades are only obtained by mixing one
color with the other while on the palette. The way to do
this is as follows: Suppose a purple is wanted, the painter
would take up a clean brush and dip it in the size-can; he
would then transfer it quickly to the compartment on the
palette containing the rose pink, and having got a good brush-
ful of his color, would spread it on the palette; he would then
dip the brush in the ultramarine and mix this also with
the rose pink, and to get it a shade or two lighter he would

SCENE PAINTING 331

dip the brush in the whiting pan. Tints composed of three
or four colors can be rapidly compounded in this way, add-
ing moi'e size as often as required to render them work-
able. Where a lot of color is required, as for skies, the
colors are mixed in pots, and to get the various tints the
painter dijDs his brush first in one pot and then in another,
and in this way i^uts in a sky of jDcrhaps a dozen different
hues.

For foliage, a quiet general tint may be obtained by mix-
ing Dutch pink with black, indigo with blue verditer. Light
ochre with green lake gives a rich green, which may be
changed to a cool one by the addition of indigo. For sun-
set skies mix in separate pots the following: verditer and
indigo; verditer and damp lake; damp lake and orange
chrome. For clouds, mix verditer and orange red, or Vene-
tian red and azure blue; rose pink and azure blue. For
cold gray clouds add a little black. For lights in clouds,
mix yellow ochre and rose pink, or yellow ochre and orange
red. For distant foliage mix verditer and rose pink, or use
Dutch pink alone. For the sea, Dutch pink, verditer, in-
digo, raw sienna, azure blue and emerald green will be
found most useful. For rocks some of the following tints
will be useful : indigo, burnt sienna and rose pink — emer-
ald green and black — Vandyke brown and ultramarine —
indigo, rose pink and ochre. Black and Venetian red make
a useful gra}'. For gold colors mix brown ochre and Dutch
pink, or Dutch pink and sienna or Vandyke brown, these
for laying in. For the lights use flake white and lemon
chrome, orange and yellow chrome, chrome and Dutch pink.
Purple and mauve look fresh by day, but are dirty and
muddy by gaslight. For moonlight skies a good tint is ver-
diter and indigo mixed. For clouds add black and more in-
digo. Water is genei'ally the color of the sky and the ob-
jects that are reflected therein, such as trees, banks and
rushes. For branches and trunks of trees, use indigo, lake
and yellow ochre — burnt sienna and ultramarine — Dutch

332 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

pink, burnt sienna and indigo. For grass, use pure greens,
mixing more or less j'ellow chrome for high lights. In
painting dead leaves use chrome and burnt sienna. For
stone buildings, mix yellow ochre, umber and indigo, or
ochre, celestial blue and red. For bricks, Venetian red,
and for shadows add ultramarine. Where fire is reflected
use orange lead.

Great care should be taken in mixing tints, for some
colors like Prussian blue are so strong that a very little
will suffice, so if used without due thought it becomes nec-
essary to add more of the other colors.

Some painters mix molasses or golden syrup with their
size, which makes the colors work more freel}'. In paint-
ing a scene on a new cloth the first thing to be done, after
the canvas is strained, . is to size it all over. This is done
with strong size, size melted in a kettle with just water
enough to prevent burning.

MEDIUM FOR BINDING DISTEMPER COLORS.

Size is sold in firkins or by weight. Tliat called best
double is to be preferred and when melted must be mixed
with water in the proportion of one pint of size to four
pints of water to make what is called working size. An-
other called strong size, for sizing and priming a cloth or
any piece covered with canvas, may be made by drop-
ping the size, exactly as it comes from the shop, into a
size kettle in which there is just sufficient water to pre-
vent the size adhering to the bottom of the kettle. The
size is read}' for using as soon as it is completely melted,
without having been allowed to boil. Use is frequently
made of what is called half-and-lialf size, a mixture of
working size and strong size in equal quantities.

Should the painter be unable to procure manufactured
size, the best carpenters' glue is a good substitute for it.
This can be obtained almost anywhere, and, in an unmelted

SCENE PAINTING 333

state, will keep good in all climates. It can be melted in
a carpenter's glue pot in the usual way and then weakened
with water till it is of the consistence required. The quan-
tity of water will depend on the strength of the glue, which
varies considerably, but, in any ease, keep on adding as
much water as will allow the glue size to set in the form
of a firm jelly when cold, and if to one part of this there
are added four of water, the result will be working size.
Half-and-half can be made as before.

In moderately cool weather working size should assume
the condition of a weak jelly when perfectly cold. Test
the strength of it without waiting for it to cool, by the fol-
lowing means : Thin the strong size with water till about
the right consistency. Then, after dipping your fingers
into it, put them together a little while; if, on endeavor-
ing to separate them they adhere ever so little, the size is
properly made, but if they stick together quickly and rather
firmly, it is too strong and wants weakening. If, on the
other hand, the fingers separate quite freely, the size re-
quires to be made stronger. This method of testing the
strength of the working size is worth attending to as well
as practicing; for if use is made of size that is too strong,
your work will have a shiny appearance and the effect will
be spoiled, while the colors would soon wear off if the size
has been made too weak.

But should even carpenters' glue be unprocurable or not
at hand when required, use leather or parchment cuttings,
pieces of skin of any kind, or, in short, of any gelatinous
substance that has no grease in it. Put them with water
into any metal vessel and let them simmer till they are
converted into a strong jelly, from which can be produced
the same descriptions of size as those already alluded to.

As size does not keep well during the hot weather, when
it gives off a very offensive odor, do not make more then
than will suffice for the day's work. A little carbolic acid,
however, mixed with the size will prevent its decomposi-

334 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

tion. The mixed colors, likewise, will probably deteriorate
before the scene is finished, should the weather be hot. In
that case, if the color sinks to the bottom of the mixture,
the size will float on the top. Pour this out and replace
it with fresh size.

TO PREPARE THE CANVAS.

If the dimensions of the canvas do not exceed that of the
frame, strain it and nail it on with iy2 or 2-inch clout
nails, about four inches apart from each other, taking care
that the thx'eads of the canvas have perpendicular and hori-
zontal directions. The nails should only be driven home
about halfway, as, Avhen the painting is finished, they will
all have to be taken out again in order to remove the can-
vas from the frame. Having thus strained and fastened
the canvas so as to get it to lie tolerably smooth on the
frame, apply the size to it as afterwards directed and the
whole will be stretched as tight as a drum-head.

But suppose the canvas is too large to allow the frame
to take in the whole height of the scene, which frequently
happens even in regular painting rooms, resort must be had
to what is called a bight in the canvas and pi'oceed thus:
Nail the top of the canvas along a straight line drawn on
the top of the frame, and let the remainder lie evenly down
the front, dropping the portion of the canvas that extends
beyond the bottom of the frame through the cut, if there
be one, or gathering it up carefully below. Now drive a
nail through the end of a seam that is about halfway be-
tween the top and bottom of the frame, after having pulled
it slightly downwards, keeping the side edge of the canvas
even with the side of the frame. Then measure how far
the nail last drove in is from the top or bottom of the
frame, and nail the other end of the scam to the other
side of the frame at the same relative distance. Next
stretch a chalk line from one nail to the other and make it

SCENE PAINTING 335

fast. This will furnish a horizontal line, parallel, of course,
to the top and bottom of the frame. Now give a downward
pull to the middle part of the canvas at the bottom of the
frame till the seam before spoken of is level with the chalk
line at the center and fasten it to the frame with a clout
nail. In the same way pull and fasten the canvas at each
side of the above point, at intervals of four inches, till the
corners are reached, when the line in which the seam is
ought to coincide with that shown by the chalk line. In
doing this be careful not to pull the canvas sideways, but
quite perpendicularly and so that no wrinkles should form.
Strain out and nail down the sides, pulling them in a hori-
zontal direction and not harder than is necessary to make
the canvas lie tolerably flat. The work being thus far satis-
factorily' accomplished, remove the chalk line and com-
mence sizing as follows: Heat some of the strong size
before described, and with a two-knot brush apply it to
the canvas, commencing at the top of the frame and work-
ing crosswise from one side to the other to the depth of
about two feet. Keep the canvas tolerably well soaked
with the size, and let no part remain uncovered, except about
six inches above where the bottom row of nails are driven,
so that the marks caused by the latter may be afterwards
got rid of. Continue thus till the whole surface of the can-
vas is covered up to about six inches from the bottom nails.
When all the size that has been applied to the canvas is
perfectly dry, proceed with the priming. The priming is
made in the following manner: Take as much of the whit-
ing that has been soaked in water as will suffice to cover
the whole surface of the canvas, taking care that it is
thoroughly dissolved and free from lumps. Drain the water
well from it and mix it with strong size only. The priming
should now be of such a consistency that when a brush full
of it is drawn against the side of the pot or pail which con-
tains it, it will run down and as much remain on the side
as will leave no part uncovered. The priming should also

336 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

flow freely from the brush, but yet have euough body in
it to impart, when dry, a nice even white surface to the
canvas.

In laying in the priming, the flat of the brush, not the
edge, should fii'st be moved up and down the canvas with
as long a stretch as possible, then horizontally, and after-
wards perpendicularly again. Repeat these actions till the
canvas is well covered, finishing off horizontally. Begin
at the top, and the splashes will become smoothened as you
proceed downwards with the priming. Be very careful to
well cover the canvas, for it is most vexatious to have to
touch up those places that have been left bare or not suffi-
ciently covered, and the surface never looks so clear, or is
so fit to work on as when all the priming is done whilst
wet. The same precaution, also, must be taken in the
priming as in the sizing, namely, not to prime nearer than
six inches from the bottom row of nails.

As soon as the priming is quite dry, proceed to take in
the bight before spoken of which is done in the following
manner: Suj^pose, for example, that the canvas is eight
feet deeper than the frame. At the distance of three
inches from the top, which must be allowed for the row
of nails, measure eight feet downwards on each side of the
frame, and there strike a line across with charcoal. Then,
with a pair of carpenter's pincers, draw out all the nails
except those in the top row. Now let an assistant take
hold of the canvas at one end of line just struck, and one
or two other assistants, according to the width of the can-
vas, are holding the parts that are between. Let all then
pinch the canvas along the struck line into a straight fold,
and afterwards lift that part simultaneously till it is just
under the top row of nails, being careful that the canvas
which is folding itself at the back is made to lie evenly,
and with as few creases as possible. If the lifting has
been properly performed, the canvas vrill not have shifted,
either to the right or to the left, and will hang tolerably

SCENE PAINTING 337

even. Next drive a clout nail a little below and in the mid-
dle of the fold, and then other ones on each side, at intervals
of four inches, as before, some one else helping you to
keep the fold even and parallel to the top line of clouts
while the tacking is being carried on. All that remains to
b? done is to tack down the two sides, straining out from
the center towards each side. If there be a seam in the
part of the canvas just lifted up, get it horizontal by means
of the chalk line and nails, as before explained, which would
also serve to regulate the tacking at the bottom. Now size
and prime the new surface in the same manner as before,
using the size and priming hot, and the whole of the canvas
will present a imiform appearance.

SIGN PAINTING.

Before giving some specimens of letters especially adapt-
ed for sign Avriting, it should be impressed on the sign-
painter that all eccentricity in the forms of the letters is
for the purpose quite out of place on inscriptions over a
store or on a wall, and in the situations where his work
is called into requisition, however much the purposes of
posters and placards are supposed to be assisted there; in
the latter case the object is to catch the eye of the passer-
by, in spite of the numerous other announcements by which
each may be surrounded. The question in that ease, be-
comes how to make one more striking than the other, and
in this some of the placards succeed admirably. It is in
fact impossible to speak too highly of the progress made
in this respect by wood-letter cutters, some of whose works
may truly be taken as models by the sign-painter. The
test of beauty is fitness, and as the inscription of the name
and trade of a storekeeper is not likely to be eclipsed by
another inscription close to it, that the very architectural
members serve as a separation, or, as it were, a framing,
and that therefore no expedient is necessary to protect the
words from being confused by the proximity or brilliancy
of another inscription, but that simplicity, boldness and
clearness are the great conditions to be fulfilled by the
sign-painter.

The characters shown in Fig. 65 have been called Sans-
serif, Celtic and Grotesque, and are well adapted for situa-
tions when, owing to distance or other circumstances, fine
lines and minute details would be out of place, or would
diminish the boldness of the inscription. In Fig. 65 the
character is given in its heaviest fonn, such as would be

338

SIGN PAINTING

339

used high up on a wall, and where there is plenty of space
at the disposal of the painter. This character does not ad-
mit of shadows or thickness, as it is in itself so solid that
any addition to its form renders it clumsy.

For situations nearer the eye, Fig. 66 is given, in which
the letters are thinner and the general foi-m more open. The

MART

Fig. 65.

form is thus rendered altogether more elegant and may be
either used plain, or with thickness and shading. The let-
ters require great care in outlining, so that all the lines
may be kept of the same thickness, and that the same char-
acter may be preserved throughout.

The character shown in the last examiDle is well adapted
for situations where the inscription is only of moderate

MAPS

Fig. 66.

length, compared with the space at the disposal of the
painter. Fig. 67, however, shows how the letters given in
Fig. 66 may be narrowed, or, as it is termed, elongated, so
as to get a long inscription into a moderate space, and the
sans-serif letter is better adapted than any other for this
purpose, being, as it were, self-contained, that is, having

340

CYCLOPEDIA OP' PAINTING

no serifs or projecting ends to take up space. The above
is not by any means the narrowest letter of the kind, but
will serve as an indication of the style.

Fig. 68 shows the character given in Fig. 67 in a lighter

MUEK

Fig. 67.

form, and is perhaps one of the most elegant letters of the
kind. It may be used plain, or with the addition of thick-
ness and shading.

In Fig. 69 is given the Roman character, the most ele-
gant of all those in use, and requiring the greatest care in

PLATE

Fig. 68.

outlining. It is not well fitted for distant situations, for
as such a large proportion of the lines are fine, the whole
of the letter does not strike the eye equally, nor is it, when
the fine lines are properly rendered, well adapted for shad-
ing or for raising by means of thickness; it will, of course.

SIGN PAINTING 341

be supposed that the whole letter would be made of the
same thickness of wood, then the representation of this
would, in the ease of the fine lines, be broader than the
lines themselves, which would seem, as it were, the edges

MODES

Fig. 69.

of the wood of which the letter is composed, instead of the
surface.

As this character is often used for notices and other simi-
lar inscriptions, in Fig. 70 is given a specimen of the lower

repairing

Fig. 70.

case. Experienced sign-painters adopt two-thirds of the
height of the capitals as the height of the small letters,
and this is an admirable proportion. Any one who Avill
take the trouble to look, will observe that wherever the

MERCER

Fig. 71.

capitals tower above the other letters in an undue propor-
tion, the general forms and workmanship will indicate that
the inscription is the handiwork of a second-rate artist. In
types, the above character is called Canon, and in Fig. 71

342

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

examples are given of the character called Aldine, a very
refined letter of a narrower character than the other; these
are both adapted for situations where a rather long in-
scription has to be got in, but, although the last looks well
in print, it is not adapted for letter painting, in which
characters narrower than those in Fig. 69 should not be
used.

DRAPER

Fig. 72.

Fig. 72 is an example of a letter now very much used,
under the name of Runic, but it would be difficult to de-
fend the appellation, considering that it differs in every
particular from the truly Runic characters, but in the mul-
tiplicity of letters it had become necessary to give some
designation to this style, and on the principle that a rose
by any other name would smell as sweet, the title by wliich
this character is known has been bestowed upon it.

Runic letters possess much of the lightness and elegance

HAT

Fig. 73.

of the Roman, whilst at the same time, owing to the greater
equalization of the thickness of the lines, they are bolder,
and may be used with both thickness and shading, whilst
the thickening of the fine lines is gradually lost in a point-
ed termination of the sei-ifs.

SIGN PAINTING 343

Following up the system of thickening the fine lines of
the Roman characters, a letter called the Clarendon, Fig.
73, has been introduced. It is an exceedingly handsome
and dignified letter, and is, as far as general proportions
are concerned, similar in every respect to the Roman. It
is outlined by ruling two horizontal lines at bottom and
two at to]), to regulate the thickness of the serifs or feet,
and these may be made to project more or less, according
to the space at disfjosal, the example presenting the maxi-
mum in this respect.

In this, as in the Roman character, the vertical are
merged into the horizontal lines by curves at the angles,
and the sign-painter should beware of exaggeration in this

CASE

Fig. 74.

particular. The perpendicularity of the one line, and the
horizontality of the other, must not in any way be inter-
fered with; in the sketch they should, in fact, meet and
form a right angle, which should just be rounded off. Even
in this particulai', the work of a first-rate sign-painter is
evident, for in inferior work the curve is often begun from
the very beginning of the serif of the letter to hide the
failure in the horizontality of the line. The painter may in
this, as in other departments of work, be assured that it
is in the refinement of points such as these where the
skilled artisan, possibly only another name for the artist,
is distinguished from the common handicraftsman.

Fig. 74 is another specimen of Clarendon in a condensed
form, and nan-ower than this, the letter should never be

344 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

used, as the beauty of the character is lost when the space
forbids the proper extension of the feet of the letters.

We would suggest to the letter painter the use of the
Clarendon character in notice-boards, Fig. 75, where it is
bolder than the Roman, and is perhaps more rapidly exe-
cuted, as the thin lines do not require so much care as do
the fine lines in the Roman.

Next in solidity to the Clarendon is the Egyptian, or,

This Desirable

RESIDENCE

to be Let>

For particulars
apply to

Fig. 75.

as it is by some painters and jDrinters called, the Antique.
It is scarcelj' Avorth while asking which is the more correct
name, as neither of them is in the slightest degree jus-
tifiable. The nr.mes seem to have arisen from the letters
appearing as if made uji of l)l()cks, Iiavin^ thus some simil-
itude to the massive Egyptian buildings.

The letter is a most useful one, the boldest there is, and
is especially adapted for being rendered with thickness and
shading. It differs from Clarendon in being heavier, and

SIGN PAINTING 345

in its angles being accurately rendered, without being
rounded off as in the Clarendon. When Egyptian letters are
painted on a very large scale all the lines may be made of
the same thickness; the letters then have a very striking
effect. When of a medium or small size, the down strokes
should be rather thicker than the others.

DENT

Fig. 76.

Fig. 77 is an example of condensed Egyptian, and nar-
rower than this the letter should not be used, for if the
space be so limited that such a narrow letter is required a
sans-serif may be used, and as that character has no pro-
jecting feet it will allow of a wider letter being employed.

The characteristic features of what mav be called the
three great orders of plain letters have been given, and all

HOUSE

Fig. 77.

who would excel in letter painting should study and prac-
tice these until they become quite proficient in them, since
all the ornamental letters should be based upon them, the
general forms being the same, the difference consisting only
in the lines being curved or in the addition of ornamenta-
tion.

346

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Fig. 78 is called Classic. It is a very useful character,
elegant in its simplicitj'. The letters should be sketched
and spaced as for Clarendon, the difference consisting mere-
ly in the serifs turning round into scrolls. The effect of
this letter, when jDainted in black on glass with a diapei'ed
gold background, is very good. The addition of thickness
and shading to this character, owing to the amount of

WINE

Fig. VS.

draAving required, is a work of some difficulty and time,
whilst the appearance is not thereby improved.

The character shown in Fig. 79 goes by the name of
Tuscan, but it is, as it were, an ornamental rendering of
the Egyptian, within the outline of which it may very well
be sketched. The letter is given as usually drawn.

This letter may be shaded, or rendered with thickness.

Fig-. 79.

Fig. 80 shows another letter called open Tuscan. An
inscription in this charactoi- in a light color on a dark
ground with a darker line on the right and under side, and
the pattern on the letter in a ))right color, comes out, to.
use a technical phrase, very well. The main beauty of the
letter, however, consists in the correctness of its form, and
its rather angular character, and if these points are not
observed, the painter may depend that all his colors, how-

SIGK PAINTING

347

ever brilliant, and ail bis gilding, bowever well done, will
be thrown avvay or will serve to show only tbe more plainly
the defects in tbe form.

Wbicb to admire tbe most, tbe beauty of tbe letter sbown
in Fig. 81, or tbe plain sense of its designer, wbo, discard-
ing tbe terms Classic, Runic, Tuscan, or otber names abso-

lutely inappropriate to tbe character, bas called it simply
Ornamented, a name wbicb it really deserves, being one
of tbe handsomest characters in use. Tbe coloring must be
left to tbe taste of tbe paintei', but it must be pointed out,
that tbe space between tbe surrounding line and the letter
itself is not to be filled in, in which case it would form
a heavy broad border, but it is intended to be a single
outline only, thus lightening tbe effect of the letter, and in-
creasing at tbe same time its distinctness.

mkmM

Pig. 81.

Fig. 82 is an example of Rustic character, well adapted
for tbe name or inscription of a horticulturist or somewhat
similar trade. In order to elevate the art, tbe sign-painter
should be prepared to submit sketches of tbe inscription as
a whole, and of individual letters drawn full size, and a

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Avell-selected set of patterns in a book will afford the cus-
tomer an opportunity of examining the different characters
before giving his order, and the sign-painter may be as-
sured that this plan will be by far the most satisfactory
one that could be adopted in the interests of all parties
concerned.
A word is given in Fig. 83 in the Elizabethan eharacterj

Fig. 82.

which is perhaps the best adapted for business purposes.
Church text is not well fitted for general inscrij^tions, as
it is, of course, more or less associated with sacred things,
and as it has varied from time to time a great amount of
study is necessary in order to render it correctly.

In contrasting the Old English character with the G-er-
man text. Fig. 84, it will be observed that, whilst the for-
mer is essentially angular and severe, the latter is rounded

Fig. 83.

and free. Thus, flourishes seem almost necessary to Ger-
man text, whilst they are utterly out of place in Old Eng-
lish or Church text. They should always have some ap-
parent connection with the letters themselves, and should
not be used just to fill up a vacant space. A word or sen-
tence is often too crowded at one part of the surface on
which it is painted, leaving a blank space at the other,

SIGN PAINTING 349

and this is usually filled up with a meaningless flourish.
By the method already pointed out for spacing the letters,
this ugly expedient is rendered unnecessary.

The Old English and German text do not look well when
rendered with thickness. They are so essentially writing
characters that fine lines are indispensable to them, and the
beauty of these and the contrast of them with the thick

Xixmx

Fig. 84.

lines are diminished when both are viewed from the side,
and are seen to be equal in solidity, both characters, how-
ever, look well when outlined Avitli a darker color than
that in which they are painted, but in that case, more than
ever, the absolute correctness of form must be insisted
upon.

Italics, as in Fig. 85, are not by any means the easiest

MAKER

Fig. 85.

characters with which the sign-painter has to deal, the
main difficulty being the uniformity of slope. In the letter
M, the right-hand down stroke, which in the Roman char-
acter would be upright, must take the slant of the general
mass of letters.

The A and V afford subjects for some study and trial.
They may either be drawn so that their down strokes slant

350 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

like the other letters, or they may be outlined in a paral-
lelogram, their point being in the middle of one of the
sides. The X is necessarily drawn according to the latter
method. Fig. 86 shows the small letters, or lower ease,
of the Italic character. It is as it were a substitute for
plain writing, but no flourishes of any kind are admissi-
ble.

The words written in Italic small, must not be spread,
in fact, the character looks much better when packed, or
placed close together, the down strokes not being too thick.
It is very important that a uniform slant should be pre-
served throughout, and this slant should not be quite as

Good
Stabling

Fig. S6.

oblique as that of writing characters, a set square of a
different degree to the one already alluded to should there-
fore be provided for this purpose. Of the Script or writing
character, the most elegant of all, one specimen only is
given. Fig. 87, knowing that this character has been more
studied than any other, since it is the hand taught in
schools. Yet, Avriting with a pen is very different from
drawing the letters which are to be painted, the first is done
in an off-hand manner, the latter should be drawn delib-
erately and carefully. The writing done with a pen is as
a rule temporary in character, and the exact form of each

SIGN PAINTINO 351

letter and the spacing of the words are matters of but small
consequence, unless the work be a piece of ornamental
ealigraphy or illumination. But, a« already stated, the work
of the sign-painter is to have a permanent object, and must
therefore be carefully outlined and spaced. The painter
should take as models the engraved head-lines of some of
the copy-books now used in the schools, then proceed to
draw the letters on a much larger scale, outlining them in
pencil, and subsequently in color, and finally pi-acticing them
on an upright board.

As already stated, a fair but not exaggerated slant, and
much taste, are required in the arrangement of the capitals
and their heights, and of the heights and lengths of the

Fig-. 87.

long letters. If the capitals are too small, a degree of
meanness is given to the writing, and the effect of the tails
of the letters being too short is extremely unpleasant. Va-
rious teachers of writing and engraving have different rules
as to the lengths of the letters which are to project above
and below the lines, and these rules, which will be appar-
ent from the examples above referred to, must be taken as
standards, to be adapted to the circumstances of the case,
for the height of the surface on which the work is to be
executed being limited, and a certain inscription being re-
quired, the heights of the letters must in some cases be
modified, the letters should then be kept rather thinner
than otherwise, or they will look clumsy, the thickness iq.

352 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

fact of the script character should always be kept within,
rather than up to, the maximum, as the work never looks
well when the down strokes are too thick.

As a rule, the capitals should be at least double the
height of the line of the other letters, and the long letters
such as 1, d, etc., should be nearly up to the same level,
w^hilst the tails or loops of letters such as g or p should
extend the same distance below the line, the letter t be-
ing just half the height of the general letters above the
line. Thus if the body of a line of writing on an archi-
trave were to be 6 inches, the capitals and long letters
should be 12 inches high, whilst the latter should descend
6 inches beloAv the line, and the letter t should be 9 inches
high. It adds, however, to the dignity of the writing to
give the capitals still greater height, but the long letters
should never exceed the proportions laid down, whilst they
may, if required, be rather shortened.

Great care is necessary in forming the turns in writing
characters, so that the junctions of the up and down strokes
may be gracefuUj^ accomplished, the down strokes must be
drawn to their exact slant until near the turning, they must
not be kept, as it were, bending in their whole length, nor
on the other hand must the bend take i^lace too suddenly.

It is not advisable either to give the appearance of thick-
ness, or to shade writing eharactei's, for the lightness and
elegance of the work is much diminished by either process.

A very elegant style of writing, called the Italian, is well
adapted for inscriptions where the business is one of a re-
fined character.

It is in fact to such inscriptions Lliat the script character
seems specially adapted, the heavier or more solid charac-
ters being better suited to trades with which they har-
monize.

This idea cannot of course be carried out to its full ex-
tent, as the sign-painter is greatly in the hands of his em-
ployer, but it seems cloai- tliat there should be a certain

SIGN PAINTING 353

consonance between the trade and the inscription, for in-
stance, an inscription in church text must evidently be bet-
ter adapted to the shop of a bookseller, a clerical robe-
maker, or a Bible warehouse, than over a shoemaker's, a
butcher's, or a toy store, while the character of the writing
should as far as possible accord with the style of architec-
ture of the store front or building on which it is executed.

STAINS.

Mordants are chemical preparations, the effect of which
is to fix and enhance the colors given by stains and dye-
stuffs. Spirits of niter is used for the satin-wood stain, a
strong solution of oxalic acid for the oak, and dilute nitric
acid for mahogany.

Mahogany Stains. 2 ounces Dragon's-blood dissolved in
a quart of rectified spirits of wine, shake frequently during
process of dissolution.

Dark. In 1 gallon of water boil % jiound of madder and
2 ounces of logwood chips, brush the decoction, whilst hot,
well over, and when dry, paint over the work with a solution
of pearlash, composed of 2 drams of i^earlash to a quart of
water.

Light. In 1 quart of oil of turpentine dissolve 2 ounces
of Dragon's-blood, keeping the vessel in a warm^ place, and
frequently shaking it. When completely dissolved, the mix-
ture is to be applied to the work, or if the latter be small,
it may be steeped in the stain.

Grind raw sienna on a slab, using beer as a medium, dur-
ing grinding, add burnt sienna until the desired color is ob-
tained. This mixture is then to be thinned, either with
more beer or with water, and is to be applied with a brush,
and wiped off with a piece of flannel. It is desirable to
avoid foxey colored mahogany, and if this stain should give
too brown a color, a wash made of madder or logwood boiled
in water may be passed either entirely or partially over it.
The work may then be oiled, varnished, or polished, as de-
sired.

Dragon's-blood is a name given to several resins found
in commerce, which have a similar appearance, a fine dark

354

STAINS 355

red. They are produced by one or two species of calamus,
or eane-palm, and are used for coloring varnishes, and for
dj'eing horn so as to make it resemble tortoise-shell. The
following are the various kinds of dragon's-blood: In
sticks, called stick dragon's-blood. Dragon's-blood in drops
or beads, said to be the best. Dragon's-blood in tears. Dra-
gon's-blood in lumps.

Madder is one of the most important coloring substances
known, and there are several species of it. The plant is
extensively cultivated in Southern Europe and in Holland.
Very large quantities of the root come from Smyrna, Trieste,
Leghorn, and other Mediterranean ports, much of that which
is received from Holland is in powder, and comes in large
casks. The Turks formerly understood the manufacture and
uses of madder better than other nations, and the color thus
obtained the name of Turkey red. In commerce there are
the following varieties of common madder: Smyrna, French,
Syrian, and Italian roots, and French, Dutch-crop, Ombros,
and Mull ground madders.

Logwood. The tree producing this dye-wood is a native
of Yucatan in South America, the principal town of which,
Campeachy, situated on the river San Francisco in the bay
of Campeachy, was formerly the mart for logwood, but it
is now extensively cultivated in Jamaica, and the chief trade
is removed to Belize, a British settlement in the Bay of
Honduras, whence immense quantities are annually exported.

The coloring matter of the logwood tree depends upon a
peculiar principle called heematin or haematoxylin, a red
ci-ystalline substance w^hich is so abundant in some samples
as to exist in distinct blood-red crystals. The stems are cut
into large logs, and the bark and alburnum or white wood is
chopped off, the dark i-ed inner wood being the only valuable
portion. The color of a decoction of logwood is of a brown-
ish blood-red. Acids change it to the bright color of red
ink, which is often made of an infusion of logwood chips
to which acetic acid is added. The alkalies strike a purple

356 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

or violet, and the salts of iron a dark violet approaching a
black color.

Rosewood Stain. In 3 pints of water boil V2 pound of
logwood until the decoction is of a dark red color, then add
V2 ounce of salts of tartar. The wood is to receive three
or four coats of this liquid, which must be used whilst boil-
ing hot, each coat being allowed to drj' thoroughly before
another is applied. Veins may be formed in this with the
black stain, using grainers' combs or other implements, but
if this is done, the work is removed from mere staining and
becomes an imitation of graining. Immerse 14 pound red
sandalwood and I/2 pound of potash in 1 gallon of hot
water. When the color of the wood is extracted, 2^/^ pounds
of gum shellac are to be added, and dissolved over a quick
fire. The mixture may then be used over the stain above
described.

Red Sandalwood. This dye-wood is the produce of a large
tree growing to the height of sixty or seventy feet on the
mountains and other parts of India. It is usually imported
in small billets two or three feet in length, of a fine deep
red color, the concentric circles of the transverse section
being divided by dark, almost black, lines, with different
mordants it yields brownish red, scarlet red, deep crimson,
and yellowish red. These colors are not, however, very per-
manent. Another dye-wood, also called red sandalwood,
the native name of which is Rutka-chundun, is the produc-
tion of the largest trees of India. Neither of these must
be confounded with the sweet-scented sandalwoods which
are furniture woods.

Black Stains. To 6 quarts of water add 1 pound of log-
wood and two or three handfuls of fresh walnut jieelings.
Let the whole boil well until reduced to about half the
quantity of liquid, then strain and add a pint of best vine-
gar, boil again, and apply the stain whilst quite hot. Dis-
solve 1 ounce of green copperas in a quart of water, and
apply this whilst quite hot over the previous stain, Avhich

STAINS 357

will be very much improved thereby. In 3 quarts of water
boil 1/^ pound of logwood chips, and add 1 ounce of pearl-
ash, strain, and apply whilst hot. Boil 1/2 pound of log-
wood chips in 3 quarts of water, adding V2 ounce of verdi-
gris and V2 ounce of copperas. Strain this decoction and
add 1/2 pound of rusty steel filings. Wash this stain over
the previous one.

Brown Stain. Make a decoction by boiling 1 part of
Catechu, Cutch, or Gambier in 30 parts of water, to which
add a little soda. Apply this to the wood which is to be
stained, and allow it to dry in the air. Make a solution of
1 part of bichromate of potash and 30 parts of water, and
apply over the stain, which may be varied in color accord-
ing to the strength of the solutions used. Catechu, which
is much used in dyeing and staining, is the extract of the
wood of the Acacia Catechu, the seeds of the Areca Catechu,
and the leaves of the Nauclea Gambir. The Acacia Catechu
is a small spiny tree, rarely exceeding twenty feet in height,
the wood is hard and heavy, the center is of a very dark red
color nearly approaching to black, it is from this portion of
the wood that the extract is made. In India, it is made by
the poorer natives, who move from place to place, selecting
jungles where the Acacia is most abundant. They cut down
the trees, and chop the heart-wood into chips, which they
boil in water, when the water is deeply colored, it is strained
off and submitted to the process of evaporation, fresh sup-
plies of the decoction being added until the whole becomes
sufficiently thickened by evaporation. It is then poured
into clay moulds and left to dry in the sun. The Catechu
made from the Acacia Catechu is also called Cutch and
Terra Japonica. The term Cutch is said to be named from
the native language, in which the substance is called Kutt.
Commercially, one variety is called Catechu, and another
Cutch, although the source is the same. The former has
been poured out onto mats when about the consistence of
honey and dried in the sun. When sufficiently hardened, it

358 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

is cut into small square pieces, and, after being thoroughly
dried, it is packed into cane baskets for exportation. This
variety has a light chocolate-brown color, and the cubes are
about an inch square, having an earthy fracture and exter-
nal appearance. The other variety, Cutch, is of a darker
color, rich brown, with a shining appearance and fracture,
it comes much mixed with broken leaves, in which it has
been laid to dry, it is packed in a similar manner to the
Catechu, but is most generally run into one mass. Gambler,
or Gambir, is an extract of the leaves of the Nauclea Gam-
bir, this plant belongs to the natural order of the Cincho-
nas, or Jesuits' bark trees. It is made by boiling the leaves
and evaporating the decoction to dryness, in appearance it
resembles Cutch, but it is not so glossy in its fracture, and
rather lighter in color. It is mostly imported from Singa-
pore, where it is extensively cultivated.

Walnut Stain. Boil 1^2 ounces of washing soda, bichro-
mate of potash ^4 ounce, in 1 quart of water, and add 2V2
ounces Vandyke brown. This stain may be used either hot
or cold.

Red Stains. Boil 1 pound of Brazil-wood in 1 gallon of
water for three hours or more, add 1 ounce of pearlash, and
apply it to the wood whilst hot, then brush over it a solu-
tion made of 2 ounces of alum in 1 quart of water. A solu-
tion of dragon's-blood in spirits-of-wine makes a veiy good
stain, as already mentioned. The Brazil-wood is cut from
a tree about twenty feet high, with prickly branches and
yellow flowers, the decoction yields, in dyeing, rose-color,
red, and yellow, according to the mordant used. It is not
used in dyeing now as much as it was formerly, owing to
the introduction of superior materials.

A decoction of Archil forms a very good red stain for
common work, two or three washes of it should be given,
after which it should bo l)rushed over with a hot solution of
])earlash and water. Archil, or Orchil, is the coloring mat-
ter of the Orchella weed in soluiion. It does not in dyeing

STAINS 359

produce a fast color, but it greatly improves other dyes.
It soaks, however, into the fibers of wood, and is thus a
useful stain for common work.

Oak Stain, Mix 2 ounces of potash and 2 ounces of pearl-
ash in 1 quart of water, which will make an excellent stain.
Should the color be darker than required, it may be diluted
with water. It must be used vei'y carefully, as the potash
will blister the hands if allowed to touch them, the mixture
should also be used with a very common brush, as it softens
the hair so as to render it of little value afterwards,

Ebonizing Stains, The woods best adapted for ebonizing
are sycamore and chestnut, the work should be very well
smoothed and rubbed with glass paper before staining, and
should be finally rubbed with glass paper or cloth which has
been a long time in use, every particle of dust being rubbed
off with a smooth cloth.

Boil 1^ pound of logwood chips in 3 quarts of water, and
add 1 ounce of pearlash. Apply this whilst hot, then boil
% pound of logwood chips in 3 quarts of water, and add 5/2
ounce verdigris, i/^ ounce copperas, strain the liquid, and then
add 1/2 pound rusty steel filings and some powdered nut-
galls, and with this go over the wood a second time. When
dry, the work is to be well rubbed down, and if the color
should appear uneven, the second stain must be repeated, in
which case it must be again rubbed down. French polish,
made darker than usual by the addition of finely powdered
stone blue or indigo, is then to be used. Or, the black stain
first mentioned to be first applied, then a plate or slate is
to be held over a lamp until a quantity of the soot has
formed, this, which is fine lamp black, is to be collected and
mixed with French polish, which is then to be used in the
ordinary manner. This, too, may be repeated if required,
the work having been previously well rubbed down.

Boil in a glazed pipkin a handful of logwood chips to 1
pint of rain-water, allowing it to simmer until reduced by
about one-fourth, and with this liquid give the wood two or

360 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

three coats. Now add to the remainder of the liquid two
bruised nut-galls, a few very rusty nails, or a piece of sul-
phate of iron about the size of a pigeon's egg, and add rain-
water until the original quantity of liquid is made up. This
stain is to be applied hot, and the work is to be French-
polished, a little blue having been px'eviously mixed with the
polish.

Nut-Galls. Gall-nuts, oak-galls and galls are excrescences
formed upon the young twigs of the various species of oak.
Galls are also formed upon other plants, but the nut-galls
of commerce are produced on the species of oak called the
Quercus infectorius, a small shrub about 5 or 6 feet in
height. They originate in the puncture of an insect, Cynips
gallae-tinctoria. The puncture is effected by the ovipositor
of the insect, and an egg is at the same time deposited. An
interruption in the ordinary functions of the tissue of the
plant takes place at the spot where the egg is inserted, the
consequence is, that an excrescence of vegetable matter,
principally tannin, is formed round the egg, and furnishes
a nidus for the grub or larva when hatched. When this
takes place, the grub eats its way out through the side of
the gall, after which the vitality of the excrescence either
decreases or ceases altogether. Several varieties of galls
are distinguished in commerce, the principal of which are
the blue and white, the only difference is, that the former
are gathered before, and the latter after, the insect has
escaped. The color of the blue galls is a slaty blue, and
something of a grayish green, the white gall is of a light
drab color, and much lighter in weight, it is also less
valuable than the blue variety. Nut-galls are nearly round,
with a few small excrescences over their surface. They
yield a fine black color with any of the salts of iron, and
are used in the preparation of writing ink.

STAINING.

The practice of staining light and inexpensive woods
to the colors of more rich and costly varieties is a branch
of graining, and the advantage of being able to get a
permanent and decorative finish upon new wood without
preparatory painting is apparent to all.

Under the above heading ai'e two distinct treatments,
in one, the color effect alone is sought after, and in the
other, the figure and characteristics of the wood are also
imitated. Both of these methods have their proper sphere
and limitations. The description and quality of the wood
stained is a most important factor of its successful treat-
ment. For instance, white wood may be stained with the
colors of light oak or maple, and a rich and satisfying
effect obtained. Apply, however, the same ti;ansparent
glaze to sappy and knotty deal, or to light pine with a
strongly marked grain, and at once it is obvious that color
and grain do not agree. Ordinary pitchpine may be im-
proved greatly by staining to the effect of walnut, but if
afterwards the figure of ordinary knotted or Italian wal-
nut were grained upon it, then an unnatural attempt at
combination would be apparent. The very common and
popular red staining of cheap furniture, presumably in
imitation of mahogany, strikes in the mind at once a note
of discord. Mahogany is an expensive wood, and there-
fore imitations of its color on common stuff are rather
objectionable. Then, again, the color of even the cheapest
mahogany cannot be obtained by a bare coating of stain,
so that it is not satisfactory from either point, consistency
or appearance. Mahogany, walnut, maple, and other choice
woods, particularly those which are imitated best in dis-

361

362 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

temper color, can, however, be beautifully grained upon
prepared plain wood, with results almost equal to work
done upon painted grounds. As in most of these dark
varieties it is necessary to first stain the wood a general
color, the pigments and fluids most serviceable for plain
staining purposes may be considered from the painter's
and grainer's point of view, not from the polisher's.

Preparation for plain staining is a matter of circum-
stance, depending ujion the nature of the wood to be stained
and of that to be imitated. If the wood is of the poorest
quality, soft and sappy, coat it with patent glue size of fair
strength. All common staining requires to be sized to en-
able the varnish to bear out. It is, however, advisable
that, for floors and all similar surfaces exposed to hard
wear, the stain should be applied first; othei'wise, instead
of sinking into the wood, the color is merely lying on the
surface, and is more easily worn away. In oil staining
ordinary house woodwork and cheap panellings, apply the
size before the stain. When the former is dry, it will be
found that the oil stain, which now is gi-aining color, also
can be spread much better and more regularly, and that
those sappy places which would otherwise have absorbed
much stain are scarcely noticeable. In sizing white or
stained wood, poor work often results from the quirks and
mitres of mouldings receiving too much of the froth of
the warm size. This can be easily avoided by adding one
teaspoonful of turpentine to every pint of size. For pre-
paring a higher class of woodwork whose color it is chiefly
the desire to alter, there are several better methods avail-
able. For staining a good specimen of pitchpine to a
walnut shade, first coat with either japanners' gold size,
diluted with one-third of turps, or with raw linseed oil, a
little turps, and about one-tenth part of good liquid driers.
The dilute gold size is the most costly and quickest, as it
may be stained upon in a few hours, but for permanence
and cheapness the drj'ing oil is the best. Both aro brushed

STAINING 363

on in the same manner as varnish is applied, only rather
more sparingly. When plain staining or varnishing white
wood, it is often necessary to avoid all possible after-dis-
coloration arising from the oil darkening with age, and,
since it is prepared from the same source, the gold size
is liable to the same defect. In such a case, then, clear
size or patent size should be substituted, and the whitest
copal oil varnish used for the finish. One drawback com-
mon to sizing is the tendency of the fluid to raise the sur-
face grain of the wood, this being particularly the case
when the size is used hot.

Mixing oil stains, namely, stains prepared with a drying
oil and painter's pigments, is a simple matter. Take 3
parts oil to 1 part of turpentine, add the liquid, or even
paste, driers as before mentioned, and then the simple
addition of the pigment or stainer completes the mixture.
As advised for the preparatory coating, japan gold size and
turps may be used for the liquid, or, better still, copal var-
nish may be stained and diluted with turps. The advan-
tage of using the two last mentioned is their quickness of
hardening; whilst the cheaper oil mixtures are far better
for spreading evenly and regularly over large surfaces.
Herewith are a few particulars of color stains, which, with
the foregoing, should suffice for all ordinary purposes :

Light oak oil stain may be made from raw sienna, with
the addition of a little raw Turkey umber.

Medium oak oil stain may be made from raw sienna and
burnt Turkey umber.

Dark oak oil stain is best made from burnt Turkey umber
alone; the yellow cast of the copal varnish, which should be
used for finishing this class of work, is here sufficient to
give the required trace of yellowness.

Antique oak stain is a mixture of ivory black, finely
ground, with a very little burnt sienna. Vandyke brown
alone makes a deep rich stain, its color, when ground in
oil, being not so red as when used in distemper. This pig-

364 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

ment, being a notably bad drier, requires fully double the
usual quantity of terebine added to the oil fluid.

Walnut oil stain for varnishing upon, without any after
glazing and liguring, may be colored with burnt Turkey
umber and a little ivory black. For a ground color stain,
that is, one on which walnut figure is to be grained, raw
umber is the better pigment, since its subdued tone con-
trasts more naturally with the after figure work.

Pitchpine oil stains for use on light wood are formed
with raw sienna, with the addition of a little burnt sienna;
a little burnt umber can be added if the siennas alone are
too red. In most instances the pine is cheaply prepared, and
varnished with copal. The presence of so much resin and
matter of a discoloring nature in pitchpine soon causes a
very appreciable darkening of the original color, hence,
when it is desirous to keep the wood permanently light, the
copal varnish used should be of the whitest make, and the
size be either strong parchment, or the special light japan-
ners'. All holes should be carefully stopped with common
putty of two shades, colored to match both the ground and
grain of the wood, after the sizing. Allow it to harden for
a day or so before varnishing. When the real pine is
desired to be stained much darker, besides the umbers,
Vandyke brown, and black pigments, use may be made of
diluted washes of either black japan or Brunswick black.
Use only those of a thoroughly good quality, and then with
pure turpentine. When staining pine dark, it is preferable
to use the stain before sizing, if the grain is desired to be
very prominent, a full coat should be spread, and then
shortly afterwards all the stain lying on the surface may
be rubbed off with old cloth or rag free from fluffiness.

Mahogany oil stain can scarcely be obtained of a good
color by ordinary brush staining. Burnt sienna alone is
somewhat garish, and the only perfect substitute for the
victoria lake used in distemper graining is madder lake,
which is too expensive for ordinary use. Whenever cheap

STAINING 365

mahogany stain is required, it sliould be made to match
ordinary baywood as nearly as possible. For furniture and
better-class work, a good mahogany effect may be obtained
by oil staining with burnt sienna and Vandyke, and, when
dry, over-glazing with ordinary victoria or mahogany lake
in water. If the wood is at all sappy and strong in mark-
ings of a nature contrary to mahogany, it must first be
sized, stopped, and then oil-stained.

Cheap water stains may be made easily from any of the
above pigments, which, whether used in oil or water mix-
tures, should always be purchased ready ground. Nearly
all these colors have a natural binding quality with water
alone, but the addition of a little beer will easily bind ivory
or vegetable black. Water stains must always be applied
directly upon the wood, and therefore there is a double
disadvantage in using them. The stain itself has no filling
power, so that a second coat of either size or varnish is
necessary, and water stain does not spread so well with the
brush as oil. Preferably, water stain is applied with a
pjiece of sponge, and superfluous stain should be wiped off
the surface.

Maple and satinwood imitations, when grained on white
wood, are executed with the same water pigments and proc-
ess as upon paint. The wood for these two varieties must
be free from grain or knot, and must first be once sized and
varnished with the whitest materials. This gives a non-
absorbent ground for working the distemper stains upon.
When the figure is completed another good coat of varnish
gives a capital surface.

Walnut, mahogany, and similar dark woods must have
the grounds sized, and then colored with oil stain to the
shade nearest to the usual grounding paint. The size and
stain together will suffice for working upon, but two coats
of varnish are required for dark imitations of this kind.
With walnut and mahogany the first coating is applied spar-

3G6 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

ingly before the glazing, and a final flowing coat after-
wards.

Flat varnishing or dull polishing may be used to much
advantage in finishing any kind of copal-varnished or oil-
stained surface. A simple jjreparation of the former can be
made from a piece of genuine beeswax the size of a walnut
dissolved, and thoroughly mixed by heat, in I/2 piiit of
pure turpentine, and 1 ounce of copal varnish added thereto.
Dull polishing may be done by carefully dulling either
varnish or polish with finely ground pumice-stone and felt,
or a piece of soft cloth, used with water, and then rubbing
with putty-powder and oil to obtain a soft gloss.

Matching. The purpose of this process, is, as its name
implies, to make the different pieces of wood of which
any piece of furniture is made up, match or correspond,
so that they may be of a uniform color. It will therefore
be understood that some parts maj^ require lightening, and
others darkening. For the first, make a strong solution
of oxalic acid in hot water, and add a few di-ops of spirits
of nitre, and wash this carefully over the parts which are
to be lightened, when quite dry, the surface should have
two or three coats of white polish. Give the parts to be
lightened a wash of a clear white stain, and another of
white varnish, give the intermediate parts a coat of com-
mon varnish, and oil the untouched white parts, bring all
up to an equal tint by a darkening stain, if necessary.

Darkening. The darkeners generally used are logwood,
lime, brown, soft-soap, dyed oil, and various chemicals, such
as aquafortis, sulphate of iron and nitrate of silver. An
intelligent manipulation, however, of the stains themselves
will render special darkeners i;nnecessary, for in most cases
the required depth of color can be obtained by repeating
the stain, or by darkening it for a second wash, and a
small quantity of coloring matter may also be mixed up
with the varnish.

When it is desired to deepen the natural color of woods,

STAINING 367

or to restore such as may have become discolored by time
or other circumstances, the process called Improving is
adopted, and this differs in no essential particular from
staining, excepting that its object is merely to improve
the color and bring out the natural grain of the wood
itself, instead of attempting to make it represent another
from which its veining may entirely differ. Barberry root
boiled in water, Gamboge or Turmeric dissolved in spirit,
give good yellow stains adapted for the purpose. A good
red oil for rubbing discolored mahogany or rosewood, or
for deeping the color of bay-wood, may be made in the
following manner: Tie up some Alkanet-root in a muslin
bag, and let it soak over night in some sweet oil. The oil
which is then pressed from the bag will impart a beautiful
red color to all the rest. The grain of the wood is well
brought out by its being rubbed with ammonia before the
oil is applied. Rectified naphtha, colored with Camwood
dust, is another good red tint. Discolored ebony may be
improved by washing over it a strong decoction of gall-
nuts in which a quantity of steel filings has been immersed,
this liquid should be allowed to stand a day, and should
then be carefully strained, and, as before stated, a little
indigo should be added to the French polish. Raw oil mixed
with a small quantity of turpentine serves to improve most
woods when well rubbed into them, and this may be greatly
enhanced in value by grinding up with it a small quantity
of the color which it is desired to impart to the wood, or
by mixing with it oil previously colored in the manner
already described.

The well-known pigment called Gamboge is a gummy and
slightly resinous exudation from the young wood of the
Gamboge-tree, Though not a dye-stuff. Gamboge is much
used in coloring, forming a valuable water-color, and is also
used in coloring lacquer for varnish for brass-work. There
is some reason to believe that Gamboge is made from more
than one species. There are three kinds of Gamboge:

368 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

Pipe Gamboge, which is the best, it comes from Siam in
rolls one inch and a half in diameter and about twelve
inches long, through which there is a hole about half an
inch in diameter. Lump Gamboge, in masses weighing about
one or two pounds, and having the ai)pearance of a hard-
ened yellow paste. Gamboge in tears or small drops.

Turmeric is the rhizone, or root-stalk, of a plant called
the Curcuma longa. There are several varieties, of which
the China and Bengal are considered the best. The colors
produced by Turmeric are various and very beautiful shades
of yellow. It is not as a dye-stuff considei'ed permanent,
but in the stains, -when oiled or varnished, this failing is
materially remedied.

Alkanet-root. Tlie plant from which this root is obtained
is of a diffuse character, rarely attaining a height of a foot.
It is much cultivated in the south of France, and some
portions of Germany. Its chief use is in giving a fine crim-
son color to perfumerj- and woods, for which purposes it is
soaked in oil in the manner above described.

Cam-wood. This tree is a native of Sierra Leone, and
has shining leaves and white flowers. It is of considerable
size, often attaining the height of fifty feet. The stem is
the part used, it is cut into logs about four feet in length,
and these, after the removal of the bark and outer wood,
are split and trimmed square for exportation, they are of
a deep red color, and yield a brilliant red dye, which is
rendered much deeper by sulphate of iron.

STENCILLING.

Some of the methods by which the embellishment of
walls and ceilings can be achieved by means of stencilling
are extremely simple, and their effectiveness when finished
is far out of proportion to the smallness of the time, the
labor, and the cost involved. Some of these methods it is
intended briefly to indicate in this article, and the reader

3re5:5-^

Fig. 88.

will find no difficulty in following out the directions which
follow.

Fig. 88 shows a simple treatment in ashlar work suited
for ornamenting a dado. Stencils have been arranged with
a particular aim to their use for a drawing-room or parlor,
and as giving a sensation of more decided elegance and
delicacy of environment than does wall paper or paint.
We have a deep frieze (Fig. 89), a base and scroll-pattern
border (Fig. 90), and an ornament for the ceiling (Fig.

369

370

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

91). It will be seen that the frieze design will require
much more care in enlarging than the one shown by Fig.
88, and also that it cannot be extended in the same manner
as the latter. Some alteration in depth may be effected
with the dark border-band on top. This may be omitted
or, to gain width, may be repeated as a base-band to tlie
frieze.

It will be noticed that two ground colors are suggested
in the base-border (Fig. 90). On this feature much of

■ ^M^— ■■ ,.' ' ' ■— M^— _■-■»■ ... .'- . ■ .

Fig. 89.

the charm of the effect will depend, and it well repays the
trouble of first painting in the upper half with a darker
or contrasting color.

The chief danger, and one that must be avoided at all
cost of color prettiness, lies in the colors and tones not
being balanced — that is to say, the design must be kept
equally distinct and plain throughout, and not dying away
into the wall in some portions. The blending of stencil
ornament is scarcely a task for the novice, and perhaps the
best results will be met with when the color-charm is pres-

STENCILLING

371

ent in the contrasting masses of color, and the designs kept
full in contrast and pleasing by reason of their form and
arrangement of line and curve.

A deep Gobelin or greenish blue may be used for sten-
cilling the frieze design, or a marone brown. The base
(Fig. 92) should be stencilled with similar color, upon
grounds of medium Gobelin blue (upper) and wall color
(lower portion). If the frieze design is done in blue, use

Figr. 90.

marone brown for the margin band, which is, of course, put
in with a small separate stencil. The cornice will be in
old gold and creams, in tone with wall filling, the ceiling
gray, and the ceiling stencil in blue and marone brown
upon a margin having old gold ground. The woodwork of
room should be nut-brown and fawns, with a little gilding.
Stencil brushes, as shown in Figs. 93 and 94, specially
made for this work are to be bought at the dealers. They

372

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

are of short hair, flattened across the end for the purpose
of dabbing, fixed in round handles bound in tin or brass.

Stencilling has a perfect legitimate use as a help in lay-
ing in decorations which are afterwards to be finished by
hand pencilling. When stencilling is thus made only a

W
>%

Fig. 91.

preliminary process, the design may be treated freely.
Breadth and simplicity are no longer essentials, and in mak-
ing the plates ties may be put in at random, or wherever
they will give greatest strength, for all traces of them can
be removed, as before said, with the pencil, yet a difficult

-®- •

Fis. 02.

matter in purely stencilled work, as the pencil will not give
precisely the same texture as the stencil brush. Thus used
stencilling becomes an invaluable aid to an indifferent dec-
orator, who by this means gets in all the main details leaving
only unimportant parts to be made good afterwards by
hand work.

STENCILLING

373

Used as a decorative process, stencilling has a character
of its own, and an interest in proportion as it is character-
istic.

The design drawn, method of producing a stencil from it
will be described. Stencils may be cut in vellum, paper,
parchment, lead foil, and thin brass, the two latter are
unsuitable to the requirements of the decorator, the lead
foil being used principally by glass writers and embossers.
Having prepared the paper, the process of cutting out will
be found to demand the greatest care, and, above all, well
ground and sharpened tools. Have an oil-stone within
reach, therefore, and use it frequently. It is quite use-
less going to work with a blunt knife. There is much

Fig. 93.

diversity of opinion as to the most suitable blade for
stencil cutting. The ordinary penknife blade is scarcely
graduated enough for the purpose, for sweeping round the
curve in the pattern shape.

In cutting, the knife should be held firmly between the
forefinger and thumb, the thicker part of the blade rest-
ing lightly against the tip of the second finger. The stencil
paper should be held in its position by the left hand. In
cutting a curve draw the paper gently but steadily away
from the body, and consequently against the cutting blade
in the direction required by the degree of curvature shown
in the design. A square of plate glass is the best material
for cutting on. Perforations of a circular form are made
by the use of a leather-punch, procurable at any tool ware-

374

CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

house. These punches are made in various sizes, and are
so constructed that the pieces cut out of the stencil paper
by the cutting edge pass into the body of the punch, whence
they are easily removed at the opening in the upper portion
of the implement. It is not necessary to strike the punch,
a firm pressure of the hand is generally sufficient for the
Iturpose required, slightly turning the wrist at the same
moment.

A sheet of tin might, and probably does, answer for the
time, but the repeated indentations of the surface and the
deep cuts or scratches it receives beneath the pressure to

Fig. 94.

which it must of necessity be subjected, militate against
its use. The edge of the knife may not be so much injured,
but the point may at anj'^ moment slip into one
of the scratches, and that simple deviation from the direc-
tion in which it was intended it should have gone would
not improbably ruin an early completed stencil-plate.

It is, again, a frequent mistake to make a stencil on too
stout a paper. The strength of paper does not depend upon
its stoutness, a closely woven thin paper often possesses
greater tenacity than much more bulky specimens. Heavy
drawing paper may be used for almost every purpose.

TURPENTINE.

Turpentine does not burn the paint as many believe.
Turpentine evaporates the slowest of any of the volatile
paint solvents. It is used to give ease in working, foi-m
depth of penetration and assist in drying. Use turpentine
liberally in priming or middle coats. When used in undei'-
eoatings, turpentine reduces the gravity of the oil and as-
sists in opening the pores of the wood, thus allowing of
greater depth of penetration. If used in middle coats or
for reeoating old surfaces, it assists in penetrating the pre-
vious coating and materially helps to cut the oil which
is the gloss of the paint, leaving a better tooth for the
binding of the finishing coat.

Never substitute gasoline or benzine for turpentine, they
are not substitutes. Gasoline is not a paint solvent, it
is the lightest of the petroleum products and worthless as
a substitute for the use to which turpentine is put. Ben-
zine and naphtha, while better paint solvents than gasoline,
are light petroleum products of high specific gravity, reduc-
ing rapidly and evaporating quickl}-, they do not penetrate
but evaporate on the surface, making the paint work hard,
retarding the brushing out of paint and preventing working
the pigment into the pores of the wood, leaving too much
pigment and a dangerous undercoat without sufficient pen-
etration or binder.

Study the siu'face to be painted and use turpentine in
the reduction according to the condition of the surface. If
new work, constructed of hard, close-grained lumber, more
turpentine must be used than if constructed of soft, open-
grained lumber of quick absorption. The liberal use of
turpentine in priming improperly seasoned lumber or lumber

375

376 CYCLOPEDIA OF 1 AINTING

which contains moisture will assist in producing better
penetration.

In repainting an old surface, the first coat must be re-
duced with turpentine according to the porosity of the
surface. If a hard, flinty surface, much more turpentine
must be used than if porous or weather-beaten. The mix-
ture should range from flat, half flat to semi-gloss. Never
apply a heavy coating of full oil reduction.

Paint which has become fatty and gummy can be par-
tially remedied by the addition of a small amount of tur-
pentine. When painting in hot, humid weather, a small
amount of turpentine added to the finishing coat will aid
in hardening the paint.

VARNISHES.

It is not economical for painters to make these for them-
selves, as they may be purchased both cheaper and in
most cases better than they could make them. At the same
time it is well to know how to make these important com-
pounds, for it may so occur that the materials may be
obtained where the varnish itself could not, or other cir-
cumstances may render it desirable that the varnish should
be made at home, a few receipts for the purpose are, there-
fore, given.

Table Varnish. Take of oil of turpentine 1 pound, bees-
wax 2 ounces, colophony 1 drachm. Dammar resin 1 pound,
spirits of turpentine 2 pounds, camphor 200 grains. Allow
the mixture to stand for twenty-four hours, and the por-
tion poured off is fit for immediate use.

Furniture Varnishes. Dissolve l^/^ pounds of shellac in
1 gallon of naphtha, and it will be ready for use as soon
as the dissolution is complete. Dissolve 12 ounces of shellac
and 3 ounces of copal, or an equivalent of Copal Varnish,
in 1 gallon of naphtha. Dissolve 2 ounces mastic, 1^2
pounds shellac, 4 ounces seed lac, 4 ounces sandarach, or 1
gallon of rectified spirits of wine, benzoin, and dragon's
blood, tumeric and other coloring matters may be added
as required.

Mahogany Varnish. Gum sandarach 2 ounces, shellac 1
ounce, gum benjamin ^ ounce, Venice turpentine 1 ounce,
spirits of wine 1 pint. Color red with dragon's blood, or
yellow with saffron, place the vessel containing these in-
gredients in a warm spot, until the gum has dissolved, then
strain for use.

White Furniture Varnish. Dissolve 6 ounces of white
wax in 1 pint of oil of tarpentine by gentle heat, or white

377

378 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

wax 6 parts, petroleum 48. To be applied to the work
whilst warm; allowed to cool, and then to be polished by
rubbing with a coarse cloth.

Dark Varnish for light wood-work. Shellac 16 parts,
gum sandarach 32, gum mastic cS, gum elemi 8, dragon's
blood 4, anatto 1, white turpentine 16, alcohol 256. Dilute
also with alcohol, if required.

Varnish which resists boiling water. Linseed oil 1^/2
pounds, amber 1 pound, pulverized litharge 5 ounces, powder
white lead 5 ounces, minium 5 ounces. Boil the linseed oil
in an untinned copper vessel, and suspend in it the litharge
and minium in a small bag, which must not touch the bot-
tom of the vessel. Continue the ebullition until the oil has
acquired a deep brown color, then take out the bag, and
put in a clove of garlic, this is to be repeated seven or
eight times, the boiling being continued. Before amber is
added to the oil, it is to be mixed with 2 ounces of linseed
oil, and melted over a fire that is well kept up. When
the mass is fluid, it is to' be poured into the linseed oil,
this mixture is to be boiled and stirred continually for two
or three minutes. Afterwards, filter the mixture, and pre-
serve it in a bottle well corked up. When this varnish is
used the wood must be previously well polished, and covered
with a thin coat of soot and spirits of turpentine. When
this coat is dry, some of the varnish may be applied with
a sponge, taking care that it is equally distributed on every
part. This operation is to be repeated four times, being
always careful that each coat be well dried before another
is put over it. After the last coat of varnish the wood
must be dried in an oven, and afterwards polished.

Turpentine Varnish. One pint of spirits of turpentine,
10 ounces clear resin pounded, put it in a tin can on a
stove, and let it boil for half an hour. When the resin
is dissolved, and the mixture has cooled, it will be ready
for use.

White, hard, spirit Varnish. In three pints of rectified

VARNISHES . 379

spirit dissolve 1 pound of gum sandarach, and add 6 ounces
of turpentine. Dissolve 4 ounces gum mastic, 1/2 pound
gum juniper, in 4 pints rectified spirit, add to the mixture
1 ounce of turpentine. Mastic in tears 2 ounces, sandarach
8 ounces, gum elemi 1 ounce, Chio turpentine 4 ounces, rec-
tified spirit 1 quart.

Mastic Varnish. Immerse 10 ounces of the clearest gum
mastic in 1 pint of tui'pentine, place the vessel containing
the mixture in a sand bath until the mastic is all dissolved,
then strain it through a fine sieve, and it will be ready for
use, if too thick, it may be diluted by the addition of
spirits of turpentine.

Copal Varnish. Melt 8 parts of powdered copal gum in
an iron pot by slow heat, and 2 parts balsam capivi pre-
viously warmed. Then remove from the fire, and add 10
parts spirits of turpentine, also warmed, in order to reduce
to the necessary' degree of thickness for working.

Gum Copal is made more soluble in spirits of turpentine
"by melting the powdered crude gum, and allowing it to stand
for some time loosely covered. Powdered copal 24 parts,
spirits of turpentine 40, camphor 1, 4 ounces copal, I/2 ounce
camphor, 3 ounces white drying oil, 2 ounces essential oil
of turiDcntine. Reduce the copal to powder, mix the cam-
phor and drying oil, then heat it on a slow fire, add the
turpentine and strain. As other soft resins are sometimes
substituted for mastic, so inferior hard resins are some-
times employed in the place of copal, in the composition of
varnishes celebrated as copal varnishes. Copal is difficult
of solution in turpentine and linseed oils, both of which
enter into the composition of the ordinary Copal Varnishes,
which are employed by the coach painter and afford the
best varnishes used by the house painter and graiuer.
Combined, however, with linseed oil and oil of turpentine,
copal varnish affords a vehicle superior in texture, strength,
and durability to mastic and its megilp, though in its appli-
cation it is a less attractive instrument, and of more diffi-

380 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

cult management. As copal swells while dissolving, so its
solutions and varnishes contract, and consequently crack,
in drying, and thence linseed oil is essential to prevent its
cracking. The mixture of copal varnish and linseed oil is
best effected by the medium of oil of turpentine, and for
this jiurpose heat is sometimes requisite.

Iron-work, Varnish for. Dissolve in about 2 pounds of
tar oil, 1/2 pound of asphaltum and a like quantity of
pounded resin, mix hot in an iron kettle, care being taken
to prevent any contact with the flames. When cold the
varnish is ready for use. This varnish is for outdoor work
and iron-work.

Common work, Varnish for. Place 3 pounds of powdered
resin in a tin can, and add 21^ pints of spirits of turpen-
tine, shake well, and allow the mixture to stand for a day
or two, shaking it occasionally. Then add 5 quarts of
boiled oil, shake the whole, and allow it to stand in a warm
room until clear. This clear portion is then to be poured off
for use, and may be reduced in consistency by the addition
of turpentine. This varnish is intended for protesting sur-
faces against the effects of exposure to the atmosphere,
and has been used with great advantage for coating wood
and iron-work.

Defects in Varnishes and their Remedies. In api^lying
oil varnishes to different objects, various defects often make
their appearance, these are in many cases very obscure in
their origin, although painfully obvious in their effects.
The defects may arise through faults in making the var-
nishes, through defects in the surface of the objects which
have been varnished, through faulty methods of applica-
tion, or through climatic changes. Seeing, therefore, that
there are so many factors which produce defects in var-
nished surfaces, it is no wonder that the causes of such
defects are obscure, especially as the varnisher may be of
an unobservant character and fail to notice faults at the
time the varnish is being applied. Cracks and pinholes:

VARNISHES 381

these are often due to climatic changes, especially liable to
occur in winter time, when a cold day will follow a hot or
warm one. Keeping the object in a warm place for some
time will tend to cure this fault, and take care that the
varnish cannot get chilled while drying. Peeling, blistering,
spots, and crawling are defects which may be traced to a
greasy nature of the surface on which the varnish is ap-
plied. This may be due to the use of bad pinning, paint,
or rubbing the v/ork down with oily rags, or to drops of
oil on the surface on which the varnish is applied, and not
properly removed in the preparing operations. The remedy
consists in preventing the application of oily matters to the
surface, and to see that they are thoroughly removed. Sag-
ging: this defect arises from two causes, a very greasy
nature of the surface, or from applying the varnish too
thickly. The varnisher is tempted to take up too much
varnish on his brush, and unless he takes care to spread
this well he will leave it too thick, and then sagging or
running down may occur. If in the preparatory processes
too thick a coat of paint is put on, the varnish may tend
to soften this, and then this defect is liable to occur. Sweat-
ing and blurring may be due to defects in the manufacture
of the varnish, the gums used have not been properly melted
and too much of their volatile constituents left in, or the
varnish may have been sent out before it was properly ma-
tured. Varnishing on a damp surface will also develop
these defects. Deadening may be due to faulty preparation
of the varnish, but more often it is due to climatic condi-
tions, varnishing in too damp an atmosphere, on damp sur-
faces, in the presence of deleterious gases and vapors, too
porous a subject, too large a proportion of driers used in
making it, all of which tend to cause loss of lustre in a
varnish, either immediately or after a time. It is difficult
under these circumstances to point out a remedy, for one
will scarcely know the exact cause in any particular case,
and of course it is obvious that the remedy will vary with

382 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

the cause, and what will do for one case will not do for
another. The varnisher should, if he wants to produce a
good job, take every precaution to prevent defects arising,
for in this case an ounce of prevention is worth a ton of
cure. He should see that his varnish is of good quality,
that his cans and brushes are in good condition and clean,
that the surface he has to varnish is in proper condition,
free from grease, dry, and having a smooth surface. He
should never attempt a job in wet or damp weather, and
he should take care that, after varnishing, his work is not
exposed to any bad influences which will retard the drying
and hardening of the varnish.

VARNISHING.

Two grades of varnishes will usually be required by the
painter, inside and outside. That which is used outside will
cost a little more than that intended for the interior, as
it must be made of materials to resist the weather. If the
color of the work is dark, oak varnish is the best to use,
but there are various grades of pale varnishes suitable for
very light work, some can be obtained which have very
little color at all. A special grade of varnish is made for
application to wall paper, this, however, is a common grade
of varnish, and is not recommended. It is much better to
pay a little more and get a good copal varnish. Before
paper is varnished it is necessary to give it two coats of
size. Concentrated size powder may be used for the pur-
pose, two coats are necessary, so as to ensure no portion
of the work being missed. If this is not done the varnish
will soak in the paper and leave a nasty black mark.

As a rule, a paper wall should not be varnished. The
distempered surface of an ordinary paper looks much bet-
ter, and it may be kept quite clean if it is frequently brushed
down lightly. Dadoes are used in halls and staircases be-
cause they assist in giving a finished effect to what would
otherwise have a mere bare appearance, and also because
when varnished they prevent soiling of the paper by dirty
hands. The dado is twice sized, care being taken to apply
the size a little above the edge of the dado, so as to prevent
the varnish running.

The application of the varnish to either paper or wood
work requires some care. The painter is apt to try to get
over the work too quickly by taking too much in his brush
at once, and this is certain to lead to nasty running or tears.
The best way is to dip a little more than the tip of the

383

384 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

brush into the varnish, to apply it almost in the same man-
ner as paint across the work, and then to finish by lightly
stroking the surface all in the same direction with the tip
of the brush, so that the varnish flows and the brush marks
are obliterated. Special brushes are required for varnish-
ing, and it is useless to attempt to do good work of this
character with an ordinary paint brush. There is no
eeonomj' in buying a cheap varnish brush. The work done
Avith one is very likely to be marred by the bristles coming
out, and such tools only last a comparatively short time. A
varnish brush when put aside for a day should be put in
either raw linseed oil, or, better still, in some of the same
varnish in which it has been used. It should be suspended
and on no account to be left to rest upon its bristles. When
not required for further use for some time it should be
washed out first with raw linseed oil, and then with tur-
pentine, and then wrapped in paper and- put away in a
cool dry place.

When to Varnish. It might appear that it is unimport-
ant when varnish is applied so long as the work is inside,
and is not exposed to showers of rain. As a matter of fact,
varnish is the most susceptible material used in painting,
and the better quality it is the more sensitive is its nature.
In hundreds of cases of varnish which turned out badly, it
is safe to say that in nine cases out of ten the trouble is to
be attributed simply to the state of the weather. If var-
nish is applied on a foggy day, for instance, it is almost cer-
tain to bloom, that is, a dull appearance almost like the
bloom on fruit will appear on the surface. This is diilicult
to get rid of, although a rag dipped in kerosene oil passed
over the surface will often assist. It sometimes happens
that a day may be free from rain, and yet a very bad one
to do varnishing because the atmosphere may be charged
with humidity. A dry day and a warm one is the best for
applying varnish. Still, there are other considerations
which should not be overlooked. A hall which was var-

VARNISHING 385

nished showed on one side very badly, while the other side
was apparently perfect, the same varnish being used by the
same workman. Such a case appears to be somewhat mys-
terious, the explanation of such cases is probably that the
weather was cold, that the door was open during the process
of varnishing-, which chilled that portion of the surface
reached by the cold air.

Varnish manufacturers who understand quite well the
nature of their products take care to mature their varnishes
by storing them in tanks for months together, and in all
well-regulated varnish factories the temperature of the
maturing room is kept uniform the year round, for unless
this is done the products would vary greatly in use, and give
a great deal of dissatisfaction. It will be seen from this
that in putting varnish aside it is necessary to store it in a
warm place, and to take care that it does not get chilled,
if it should become very cold it is well to gently heat it
before using it. In jDiano factories, carriage shops, and in
any other places where the varnished surface must be very
brilliant and uniform, it is often the custom to take the
most painstaking care to prevent any marring of the var-
nish by cold, draughts, or dust. The temperature is kept
always uniform by means of steam or hot air pipes, double
doors and windows are used, and sometimes the precautions
taken go to the extent that all the air entering the room is
thoroughly strained and freed from dust. The workmen
have clothes which they put on previous to entering the
room. It is not suggested that painters should take any
precautions of this kind, but mention is made of the subject
here in order to impress them with the necessity of taking
the greatest care with varnishing.

There are two additional reasons which give rise to un-
satisfactory varnishing. The first is the habit of mixing
varnishes. Experienced painters will sometimes assert that
they can get a better result by mixing two varnishes to-
gether than they could by using only one. There is some

886 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

excuse for the practice when the supplj' of a certain var-
nish runs out, but ordinarily it is entirely against common
sense. Varnishes are made for so great a variety of pur-
poses that there is no necessity to mix two together. A
moment's reasoning will make it clear that if two varnishes
mixed together would give a better result than either one
used separately, that the varnish manufacturers themselves
would make such a mixture before sending the varnish out.
It is quite possible that the ingredients from which the
varnish are made would react detrimentally one on the other.
It is therefore strongly advisable for the painter not to mix
varnishes under any circumstances.

The second objectionable practice alluded to is that of
thinning the varnish by adding linseed oil to it; in cold
weather varnish sometimes pulls, that is, it is so thick that
it is a little difficult to apply without considerable strain
on the wrist. In such eases the workman will sometimes
add the oil, which may not show up at the time, but it is
sure to eventually prove disastrous. Cases have been known
where the painter, to save himself trouble, has smuggled
in a small bottle of linseed oil, and has added it sur-
reptitiously to the varnish, and caused a great deal of com-
plaint to the manufacturers. In the above remarks only
turpentine and oil varnishes have been referred to, not
spirit varnish. This, however, is almost invariably mixed
with stain as far as the painter's use is concerned. Under
the head of Staining Avill be found information on this
subject.

Varnishing can only be properly done by means of
brushes specially made for the ])urpose. There is a very
useful grade of varnish made which is known as rubbing
varnish. This is applied in the ordinary way, and is, when
dry, rubbed down with felt and water dipped in powdered
pumice stone. Several coats are usually given, each being
rubbed down.

WATER COLOR PAINTING.

It is difficult to give a list of the colors which are most
serviceable for water color painting, but from a comparison
of those employed by others, it would appear that the fol-
lowing twenty-four may be safely recommended as being
most useful:

Black Blue, Brown Madder, Brown Pink, Burnt Sienna,
Burnt Umber, Cadmium, Cobalt, Emerald Green, French
Blue, Gamboge, Indian Red, Indian Yellow, Indigo, Crimson
Lake, Lemon Yellow, Light Red, Payne's Gray, Prussian
Blue, Raw Sienna, Rose Madder, Sepia, Vandyke Brown,
Vermilion, Yellow Ochre.

These colors should be arranged in the box systematic-
ally. It will be found veiy convenient to place the yellow
pigments at one end, the reds and browns in the center, and
the blues at the other end.

In laying on the colors it must be borne in mind that if
two tints be mixed the effect will be different from that pro-
duced by first laying on one and then the other above it,
and if a transparent color be placed over an opaque one,
the result will be different from that produced if both be
blended. Thus cobalt and light red give a cool gray, but
cobalt washed over light red produces a gray of an entirely
different character.

It is not customary to put in the shadows with neutral
tints before employing the local colors, as it has been found
that the method Avhich best represents the effects of shade
is to deaden the local color by the admixture of gray or
blue tones.

Colors which are complementary produce harmonious ef-
fects when opposed to each other.

387

388 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Red is complementary to Green,
Blue " " Orange,

Yellow " " Purple.

White placed by the side of any color heightens its in-
tensity, while black similarly used reduces its power, gray
renders it more powerful.

Never touch a color till it is thoroughly dry; whether
. this is the ease may be ascertained bj^ seeing if the paper
glistens; should it do so, it is unfit to work upon.

Have plenty of color in the brush, and do not be afraid
to carry it boldly up to the outline.

A little powdered cuttlefish bone may be advantageously
used in skies or distances to produce a slightly hazy effect.
It should be rubbed in with the finger, and speedily removes
any irregularity of color.

The sun should never be allowed to shine on the paper
when a sketch is being made, as the eye becomes dazzled
and incapable of correctly judging the colors. The color
also is too rapidlj' dried, giving a dirty effect. This is espe-
cially the case with large washes.

Depth of tone should be produced by repeated washes of
color. If the artist attempts to produce it by a single wash,
it will produce an effect of paintiness, hardness, and want
of transparency.

While the sketch is in progress it should be frequently
viewed from a distance. Many artists throw the drawing
on the ground, or even view it upside down, so as to judge
of the effect as a whole, with reference to the arrangement
of light and shade, and without regard to the subjects
portrayed.

Primary colors must be very sparingly introduced, and
broken colors, composed of various pigments, duly com-
bined, produce very agreeable results, though it must be
remembered at the same time that the purest and freshest
effects result from the combination of a small number of
pigments.

WATER COLOR PAINTING 389

Local Color is the color of objects when viewed in ordi-
nary daylight, and comparatively near to the eye. Local
color is, of course, modified by increase or diminution in
the brightness of the light on the increased or diminished
distance from the spectator. Cast shadows are darker than
the objects which throw them. Foreground objects appear
to exhibit the brightest lights, the most powerful shaded
sides, and also cast the strongest shadows, while the atmos-
phere between the sketcher and the objects in the distance
and middle distance tends to reduce the value of those
which are furthest from the eye.

Breadth is a most desirable quality to be aimed at, so
that the lights and shades may be massed, and not cut up
into small detached pieces.

The color of a drawing should not be carried in its full
intensity up to the very edge, otherwise the subject will
appear to be cut out, with consequent loss of atmospheric
effect, and for the same reason the principal objects should
not be placed too near the margin, and lines such as roads
should be arranged so as to lead the eye into the picture.
The area of washes should diminish as the work proceeds.
The general coloring must not be darkest in the immediate
foreground, but nearer to the middle distance, where also
the highest lights should be placed.

Meaning and decision should always be given to all
strong and dark touches.

The entire horizon must never be allowed to cut hard
against the sky, and endeavors ought to be made to pro-
duce some appearance of mystery in every drawing.

Light and color should always be carried through the
picture, that is, the sky should not be entirely cold whilst
the landscape is warm, nor vice versa. The sky color must
always be carried into the landscape.

Aerial perspective is the modification of light, shade, and
color which is caused by the atmosphere, or more especially
by vapor in the form of mist or haze, interposing between

390 CYCLOPEDLV OF PAINTING

the spectator and the object represented. The local color
of objects is modified by the intervention of atmosphere
and vapor in proportion to the distance of the objects from
the eye.

Atmospheric effects influence colors in liii;ht as well as in
shade, modifying their distinctness, and producing that mys-
tery which is one of the principal charms of a drawing.

Aerial perspective is greatly assisted b}' employing retir-
ing colors, such as blue and gray, for the sky and distance
of a landscape, colors like madders and broken reds for the
middle distance, and by reserving yellow, red, and orange
for the background. It is also assisted by carrying over the
horizon and distance the colors of the sky and clouds in
the earlier washes.

If, during the progress of the drawing, any portions of
color appear to stand out too distinctly or prominently,
thej' may be taken out with the paint rag, so that they
might not obtrude or detach themselves too much from ob-
jects in the same plane.

Foregrounds. Here all color sliouhl be more or less
broken. Trees of which the foliage may be brilliant green
have twigs and stems of leaves which are of a warm red-
disli brown, the local colors are thus modified and subdued
where otherwise they might appear crude. Rocks may ap-
pear gray, but lichens, with their yellow ov rosy tint, warm
some portions of the stone, and thus i)rovent the appear-
ance of coldness. Buildings with their dilferent materials,
some of which may be toned by age and exposure, exhibit
broken tints f)f the greatest variety and beauty.

The great difficulty with an amateur is to fill up the
foreground iiitclligontly witlKMit undue display of detail.
It is most desirable therefore that herbage, heath or fore-
ground plants should be massed as fai' as may be prac-
ticable, and that, in Die t leal iiicnt nf slones, rocks or
broken ground, e.\cessi\e light and shade should be avoided,

WATER COLOR PAINTING 391

SO as not to attract the eye too strongly and prevent it from
penetrating further into the scene.

Trees. In representing these the local color should be
first laid on, a little warmer in the light and deeper and
cooler on the shadow side, separating definitely the lights
from the shadows, and in them showing detail. When the
foliage is massive, deep shadows must be added. The forms
of the highest lights must be carefully rendered, and they
must not be frittered away by any attempt to represent the
innumerable leaves which go to make up the entire foliage.

The trunks of trees may be usually treated with warm
color, purple lake or madder, combined if necessary with
light red and cobalt. Both trunks and branches should be
traced up and marked wherever visible. The warmth of
their colors contrasts well with the coolness of the foliage,
but care must be exercised that they do not come too for-
ward, or they will destroy the appearance of roundness.

In representing trees great assistance is afforded by the
modern plan of taking out. Where high lights are required,
vv^ater is ajoplied by the brush in the required form, this is
removed with blotting-paper, and the color is then sharply
wiped out with a handkerchief or wash-leather.

In coloring trees it must be remembered that they rarely
appear as a true green. The upper part of the leaves reflect
the blue or gray of sky, and the warm tints of earth are
reflected on their under sides. Although the local color of
trees in the foreground may be fully visible, it is nnieh
modified in the middle distance by their remoteness from the
spectator, so that the tone becomes more gray than green,
and the leafage is quite indistinct. In the extreme distance
neither trunk nor branches are visible, and the mass is
broken by the shadows occasioned by the varying positions
of the trees.

It is most desirable for any one who is anxious to rep-
resent rocks with accuracy to be acquainted with the differ-
ent strata and formations and with their colors when they

392 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

are first fractured and after they are weathered. Rocks,
by their hardness of foi'm, naturally affect the character of
the landscape. Too great an exhibition of detail gives the
impression of smallneSs.

However delicate the tints of rocks may be, they should
always be painted with more powerful pigments than those
employed for the sky and cloud, otherwise they may appear
weak and feeble. Variety may be given to the local color
by taking up on the point of the brush when charged with
the compound tints portions of pure pigment such as mad-
der, lake, blue or gray.

Water is most difficult to represent, and the suggestions
given for different tones and tints may be varied indefinite-
ly. The colors which appear in both running and still
water are largely the result of the reflections of sky, cloud,
and surrounding objects, but they are also produced by the
light or shade reflected from its surface, and by the color
of the objects over which it flows. . Smooth water should
always be treated broadly and be painted as far as possible
at the same time, and with the same tints, as the objects
which are to be reflected in it. The reflections, if too
powerful or too brilliant, may be modified by subsequent
glazing.

The surface of smooth water is best represented by work-
ing the tints in a horizontal direction, but reflections in
water are generally perpendicular. If the water is turbid
the shadows will be visible on the surface, but in perfectly
pure water they can hardly be recognized.

The first tone should be decidedly graj', as reflecting sky
and clouds, and on this may be worked raw sienna and
brown madder, while nearer the eye French blue, Prussian
blue, or indigo may be employed. For very dark parts
brown pink, purple madder, and Vandyke brown are useful.
On the sea the blue should increase in depth towards the
horizon, possibly, however, with a light streak just where
the sky meets the water.

WATER COLOR PAlNTINO 393

Waves breaking close to the shore will be warm in color,
owing to the sand and seaweed underneath.

In the representation of mountains the greatest atten-
tion should be paid to accuracy of outline and to the irregu-
larities of form, color, and shade in the general contour.
The outlines present themselves at such different angles,
and some will be in shade while others will be in brilliant
light or half-light.

To produce the effect of ruggedness on distant mountain
sides, a brush with dry color may be dragged over the sur-
face.

Mountains may be put in with light red, and this should
then be washed over with cobalt. The shadows should be
worked with a deeper tint of cobalt.

Mists or Clouds in the landscape greatly assist the artist
in producing aerial effects.

In painting clouds bring up the form sharply and de-
cisively with the side of the brush. This operation is of
essential importance.

Plenty of color should always be kept in the brush, and
care taken to preserve the purity of the tints. When the
drawing is commenced cadmium or rose madder may be
washed very lightly over the entire paper, omitting vei-y
white clouds or snow. Clouds differ very much in form
according to the character of the landscape, whether flat,
hilly, wooded, or mountainous.

To indicate the direction of the wind, keep the edges of
the clouds ragged on one side.

Sharpness of form in painting skies is needed to prevent
the appearance of woolliness, and when the use of a brush
with water is not sufficient to produce granulation and
atmosphere, the paper may be rubbed very carefully with a
piece of the finest glass-papei', this removes a little of the
surface. Color afterwards applied will flow freely, and the
clouds will not appear to have hard edges. The highest
lights may be taken out with a sharp knife.

394 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

The foregoing' directions are of the most practical char-
acter, and in the general hints for coloring various objects
widely different schemes of color are suggested, but the
artist's mind selects, refines, exalts the beautiful features of
Nature, moulding the plastic substance to its will, and
imbuing it with something- of its own spirituality.

WHEN NOT TO PAINT.

There are certain times of the year when outside paint-
ing should not be done if satisfactory results are to be ex-
pected. If painting is done too early in the spring, the
surface is verj' apt to be full of frost and moisture and the
pores closed through contraction, thus producing uneven
absorption. The side of the building exposed to the heat of
the sun will expand and the pores open to a greater extent
than the protected side of the building. All paints and oils
are much heavier in cold than in warm weather, and if
applied under a low temperature there is apt to be too
heavy a coat over a contracted surface, which will crack
through expansion under the summer heat.

Do not paint after a frost or in early spring when frost
is leaving the gTOund, filling every jjart of the building
with dampness. Remember that heat ascends and brings
the dampness with it.

Paint should never be applied to extremely hot sur-
faces. Paint applied under extreme heat sets and dries very
rapidly, and under the direct heat of the sun's rays is very
apt to blister, especially on old work. Remember that tints
absorb while white reflects heat, and when it is too hot to
paint with white, remember it is also too hot to paint with
tints. This should not be taken as an argument against
summer painting, but only as a caution against working on
extremely hot surfaces.

In spring painting follow the sun with your work. In
summer painting let the sun follow you. Switch your work
according to the time of the day.

Do not paint while the plaster is drying out; allow time
for it to harden through. Remember there are 80 to 90
gallons of water used in every 100 yards of plastering, most

395

396 CYCLOPEDIA OP PAINTING

of which must escape some place. If the building is tightly
closed or is being dried by heat, the moisture will be largely
driven out through the siding, causing the paint to break
away, blister or peel.

Do not paint buildings having damp basements without
first removing the cellar windows and ventilators so as to
have a free circulation of air, thus drying out the under
part of the building, otherwise the dampness will go up
through the house between the siding and plastered wall
and be attracted to the surface through the siding.

Do not paint near fresh mortar beds. The heat, mois-
ture and fumes from the lime will be absorbed by the oil
in drying, causing it to flatten out and destroying its life.

Do not paint in sultry weather or in a heavy, wet atmos-
phere, as the moisture from such conditions penetrates the
surface to an extent that it takes several days of good dry-
ing weather for the building to again be in condition to re-
ceive paint.

Do not paint during or immediately after a heavy fog
or dew. In a few hours lumber absorbs more dampness in
this kind of weather than from heavy rains. Moisture from
heavy fogs and dews penetrates lumber to a greater depth
than from any other source. It is especially important to
guard against these conditions.

In most sections of the counti*}' the season of exterior
painting is comparatively short and it is a great temptation
for painters who have been obliged to lie idle all winter
to start early spring painting. The season of painting can
be easily extended and more satisfactory results obtained
by using judgment as to the best time of the year to paint a
building according to its surroundings. There are very few
I)roperty owners who would not be willing to extend the
time of painting if shown that better and more satisfactory
results can be obtained by so doing.

A building exposed to the sun and weather on all sides
will dry out much quicker and be in condition to paint much

WHEN NOT TO PAINT 397

earlier in the spring than one in a confined space where
the sides of the building are not exposed to the sun or have
no opportunity to dry out before the summer weather ar-
rives.

A building surrounded by vines or dense foliage is in
no condition to paint until the heat of the summer has
drawn the moisture, not alone from the building but the
ground surrounding it. The building may be so densely
shaded that it will be paintable only at a time of the year
when it would be impossible to apply paint to an exposed
surface without danger of its blistering under the extreme
heat of the sun.

Under certain conditions, better results will be obtained
on a surface which is checked, cracked or shows indications
of peeling, by allowing the building to stand through the
summer and deteriorate to the full extent, repainting in the
fall when the old, loose surface can more easily be re-
moved.

PRACTICAL POINTS ON PAINTING.

Do not expect the paint to do all the work. It won't.

No paint manufacturer can make one paint which will
meet everj' requirement.

Judgment must be used as to the surface to be painted.

Never use a cheap primer. The priming coat should be
of the best. It is tlie foundation upon which all subsequent
coats must be built.

The best paint, if pi-oiDerly applied or a^Dplied over a
surface not in condition to receive paint, will not give good
results.

A successful j^ainter is one who makes a thorough study
of the work on hand and knows what is necessary to use
in order to produce the best results. If oil or turpentine is
needed, he should know when and how much.

Good results can not be obtained on poor lumber.

Moisture is the bane of the painter and paint manufac-
turer. Possibly more trouble can be traced to moisture than
to any other cause of paint going wrong.

Paint will blister, peel and scale if the surface painted
contains moisture.

Moisture is always present in improperly seasoned or
green lumber. It is often present because of defective win-
dow casings, leaky down spouts and freshly plastered walls.

It is important that the foundation should have ventila-
tors or windows, so that there will be a free circulation of
air underneath the buildings to carry off the dampness. If
this precaution is not taken, the dampness will go up
through the space between the plastering and siding and
the sun and warm air will draw it through to the outside,
causing the paint to blister, peel and scale.

Mildew is another serious trouble. This is a vegetable
growth and is always a sure indication of dampness.

398

PRACTICAL POINTS ON PAINTING 399

Do not be in a hurry with the work. Do not apply the
paint too heavily.

A well-brushed-out coat of the proper consistency and
plenty of time allowed for its hardening through will more
than repay in the after effects for the time spent.

There is a difference between paint drying and harden-
ing. Paint may dry in a few hours, but takes days to
harden.

Light and air are essential to the proper diying of paint.

With inside painting, do not tightly close the room and
expect the paint to dry. It won't.

Good results can not be had on an old surface unless it
is put in proper condition to receive paint and the paint
prepared and applied according to the condition of the
surface.

Paint when struck with frost before it is dry wrinkles
and loses its gloss.

Heavy dews on paint not dry also destroj' the gloss.

Thei'e are certain times of the year when outside painting
should not be done if satisfactory results are to be expected.

Do not paint too early in the spring, as the surface is very
apt to be full of frost and moisture.

More complaints of peeling can be traced to early spring
painting than to painting done at any other time of the
year.

All paints and oils are much heavier in cold than in warm
weather. If applied in a low temperature, there is apt to
be too heavy a coating.

Painting should never be done in extremely hot weather.

Better and more uniform results can be obtained if the
full amount of paint required for each coat is mixed at one
time.

Prevent the paint from skinning over as much as possible
by keeping the mixing keg covered when not in use. The
formation of skin robs the paint of its drier.

400 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Paint must be kept of a uniform consistency to give uni-
form results.

Where japan is used, always get the best and use it
sparingly. Never add japan last or after the mixture has
been thinned down.

An excess of japan will keep the paint from hardening
and make spongy work.

There are very few exceptions to the statement that
boiled linseed oil should never be used for undercoatings.

Always use pure raw linseed oil for reducing paints. In-
sist on having the best. See that it bears the brand of some
reputable oil crusher.

There are no substitutes for linseed oil.

An excess of oil in the middle coat on new work and first
coat on old work will retard the hardening and cause the fin-
ishing coat to flatten out, also very apt to cause blistering.

Tacky Paint. This is more often caused through im-
proper application of the undercoats than through anj' fault
of the paint.

Paint, varnish, or a similar product applied over a glossy
surface or a surface which is not hard dry is much more
likely to remain tacky than if applied over a thoroughly
dry, half flat or flat surface.

Some paint pigments are natural dr3'ers, while others are
non-dryers. The non-drying pigments, when used in paint-
ing, if not properly prepared and applied over a suitable
surface, are very apt to dry tacky and remain so.

Varnish added to oil paint will cause tlie paint to remain
tacky. Colors in oil mixed with varnish will not harden,
but soften under exposure to heat.

Always prime a building before the plasterer commences
his work.

Never second or third coat a building while the plaster
is drying out. A building should never be tightly closed
while the plaster is drying out.

USEFUL INFORMATION.

Alabaster, To Clean. Make a paste with quick-lime and
water, sjiread this well over the discolored article, and
leave it on for about twenty-four hours, then remove with
soap and water, applying some friction on parts which are
worse than others. Alabaster, if not too much discolored,
may be cleansed with a strong lye of soap and water, or,
the superficial dirt and grease having been removed, it may
be washed with diluted muriatic acid.

Glass, To Remove Grease From. Dissolve carbonate of
soda in water, in the proportion of 1 of the former to 10
of the latter, and let the liquid boil in a clean untinned
iron pot. Slake 8 parts of quick-lime in a covered vessel,
and add the hydrate thus formed to the boiling liquid,
stirring it meanwhile. Great care must be exercised in
using this caustic solution, which must not be allowed to
touch the hands, the glass must therefore be dipped in it
by the aid of tongs or pliers. When the grease is dissolved
the glass is to be well brushed and subsequently rinsed in
water.

Gold Size. Heat Yo pound linseed oil in a flask, and
gradually add 2 ounces of powdered gum animi, stimng
tlie oil continuously until the whole of the gum is dissolved.
Continue boiling until the mixture becomes a little thicker
than tar, when it must be strained through a coarse cloth.
Previous to use, it is to be ground up with suflBcient ver-
milion to render it opaque, and turpentine must be added
ill order that it may work freely.

The following method of making gold size is derived
from a verj' old source, and is given in the words of the
original :

401

402 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

To Make Gold Size. Take Gum Animi, Asphaltum, of
each 1 ounce, minium litharge of gold and umber, of each
% ounce, reduce all into a very 'fine powder, and add to
them, of linseed oil 4 ounces, of drying oil 8 ounces, digest
over a gentle fire that does not flame, so that it may only
simmer and bubble up, but not boil, for fear it should run
over and set the house on fire. Keep constantly stirring
with a stick till all the ingredients are dissolved and incor-
porated, and do not leave off stirring it till it becomes
thick and ropy, and is boiled enough, let it stand till it is
almost cold, and then strain it through a coarse linen cloth,
and keep it for use. To prepare for use, mix with oil of
turpentine during heating, and strain again, add vermilion,
and thin as required with turpentine.

Iron-work, Paints for preserving. Plumbago and hot coal
tar.

Equal parts of asphaltum and rosin dissolved in common
turpentine.

For machinery, dissolve 2 pounds india-rubber, 4 pounds
resin, 2 pounds shellac in 5 gallons of benzine. This may
be used with any other paint as a vehicle.

Wrought-iron bridges, are painted with white lead as
follows: The iron-work is first made clean by scrubbing
and brushing it with wire brushes, this done, all the cav-
ities and fissures are filled up with a putty of litharge,
linseed oil, varnish, and white lead. This filling being dry,
brushing is repeated. Afterwards paint is applied consist-
ing of 300 pounds of white lead, 10 gallons of crude linseed
oil, and li/4 gallons of turpentine. This paint is repeated
when the previous coat is sufficiently dry, and finally evenly
overspread with white sand. Galvanizing is also employed
to prevent rusting. A galvanizing paint consists chiefly of
zinc powder and oil varnish. Rusting is further prevented
by rubbing the red hot iron with wax, tallow, pitch, or coal
tar. Rubbing with heavy petroleum is also well adapted
for keeping iron-work clean.

USEFUL INFORMATION 403

Marble, Jasper, Porphyry. To clean. Mix quick-lime
with very strong soap-lees until the liquid is about the
consistence of milk, paint it over the substance to be
cleaned, and leave it on for twenty-four hours, after which
it is to be washed off, and the stone is to be well rubbed
with putty-powder and olive oil.

Marble which has not been tarnished by exposure to the
open air may be well washed with potash-water, and sub-
sequently with water with which a small quantity of hydro-
chloric acid has been mixed.

Mix soda, pumice stone, and finely powdered chalk, in
proportions of two parts of the former to one each of the
latter, pass these ingredients through a fine sieve, and mix
them with water so as to form a paste of some consistency.
This paste on being well rubbed into the marble will re-
move the stains, the marble is then to be washed with soap
and water, when a beautiful polish will be produced.

Clean with diluted muriatic acid, or soap and warm vine-
gar. Dissolve IV2 pounds of potash in a gallon of watei',
add 1 pound of virgin wax, and let the whole boil for half
an hour, then allow it to cool, when a cake of wax will be
formed on the surface. This cake is to be ground up in a
marble mortar, soft water being added, until a smooth paste
is formed, and this laid on the marble, and well rubbed with
a piece of fla~nnel when dry, will produce a good polish.

Paint, Anti-corrosive. Take equal parts by weight of
whiting and white lead, and half the quantity of fine sand,
gravel, or road-dust, and a sufficient quantity of coloring
matter. This mixture is made in water, and can be used as
a distemper-coloi', but it is more durable to dry it in cakes
or powder after mixing, and then use it as an oil-paint by
grinding it again in linseed oil. The proportion of oil
recommended for this purpose is 12 parts by weight of lin-
seed oil, 1 boiled linseed oil, and 3 sulphate of lime, well
mixed. One gallon of this prepared oil is used to 7 pounds
of the powder.

404 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

Paint, Economical. Skim milk 2 parts, fresh slaked lime
8 ounces, linseed oil 6 ounces, white Burgundy pitch 2
ounces, Spanish white 3 pounds. The lime to be slaked in
water exposed to the air, mixed in one-fourth of the milk.
The oil in which the pitch is previously dissolved to be
added a little at a time, then the rest of the milk, and after-
wards the Spanish white. This quantity is sufficient for
twenty-seven square yards, two coats.

Paint for Wire-work. Boil good linseed oil with as much
litharge as will make it of the consistency to be laid on
with the brush, add lamp black at the rate of 1 part to
every 10 by weight of the litharge, boil three hours over a
gentle fire. The first coat should be thinner than the fol-
lowing ones.

Paint, To remove old. Wet the place with naphtha, re-
peating as often as is required, but frequently one applica-
tion will dissolve the paint. As soon as it is softened, rub
the surface clean. Chloroform, mixed with a small quan-
tity of spirit ammonia, has been very successfully em-
ployed in removing the stains of dry paint from wood, silk,
and other substances.

Paint, To destroy. Mix one part by weight of pearlash
with three parts quick-stone lime, by slaking the lime in
water and then adding the pearlash, making the mixture
about the consistency of paint. Lay the above over the
whole of the work required to be cleaned with an old brush,
let it remain fourteen or sixteen hours, when the paint can
be easily scraped off.

Paint, To remove. In those cases where it is requisite to
remove painting entirely from its ground, it is usual to
resort to mechanical scraping, or to the very dangerous
operation of setting fire to the painted surface immediately
after washing it over with oil of turpentine, called tui*ps,
for burning off the paint from the old disfigured work,
an operation which may be safely and more easily accom-
plished by laying on a thick wash or plaster of fresh-slaked

USEFUL INFORMATION 405

quick-lime, mixed with soda, which may be washed off with
Avater the following day, carrying with it the paint, grease,
and other foulness, so that, when clean and dry, the paint-
ing may be renev/ed as on fresh work.

Paint, Metallic. Break common resin into dust or small
pieces, and dissolve in benzine or turpentine until the solu-
tion acquires the consistency of syruio or molasses, or, equal
parts of each of the above hydrocarbons, and any other
hydrocarbon that will dry and combine with drying oils,
can be used instead of turpentine or benzine. "When the
solution is complete, it is gTadually added to oxide of zinc,
which has previously been made into a paste with boiled
linseed oil, until the whole mixture acquires the consistency
of a paint suitable for-use. A white paint of a durable and
glossy character is thus produced. Other pigments, such as
sulphate of barj'tes, oxide of iron, Brunswick green, or red
lead, can be added to make any desired color of paint. One
great advantage of its use is its effectual resistance to heat
and moisture. It never blisters or cracks even under the
hottest sun or in the most inclement weather.

Painted work, To clean. When painted wainscot or other
wood requires cleaning, soft soap and fuller's earth should
be applied with a flannel. The work should proceed from
the top downwards, and the water should be prevented from
running on the clean parts as much as possible, or marks
will be made which will appear after the whole is finished.
One person should dry with a soft rag as fast as another
has scoured off the dirt and washed off the soap. When
the paint is soiled in parts only, and does not require a
general cleaning, dip a sponge or a piece of flannel into soda
and water, wash it off quickl}^, and dry immediately, or the
soda will eat off the paint. When paint simply requires
to have the dust removed from it, a cloth should not be
used, but, after blowing off the loose particles with a pair
of bellows, the operation should be completed with a long-

406 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

haired brush. With care, paint will look well for a long
time if guarded from the infiuenee of the sun.

Painting, Effect of, on Wood. It is, of course, generally
understood that the main puriiose of painting wood is to
preserve it from decay, but this effect is only to be ex-
pected when the wood is previously quite drj', if this is not
the case, the painting is injurious instead of being beneficial
to the timber. There is a cause which affects all wood
most materially, which is the application of paint, tar, or
pitch before the wood has been thoroughly dried. The
nature of these bodies j^revents all evaporation, and eon-
fines the internal moisture, which is the cause of sudden
decay. Both oak and fir posts may be brought into a pi'e-
mature state of decay, by their having been painted prior
to a due evaporation of their moisture, and painting affords
no protection to timber against dry rot. On the other hand,
the doors, pews, and carved work of many old churches
have never been painted, and yet are often found to be per-
fectly sound, after having existed for centuries. Painted
floor-cloths are very injurious to wooden floors, and soon
produce rottenness in the floors that are covered with them,
as the painted cloth prevents the access of atmospheric air,
and retains whatever dampness the boards may absorb, and
therefore soon causes decay, carpets are not so injurious,
but still assist in retarding fi-ee evaporation.

Putty, To make. Pulverize the required quantity of whit-
ing, which has been siDeeially dried, and pass through a
sieve of about forty-five holes to the square inch, mix the
powder with as much raw linseed oil as will form it into a
stiff paste, which should be well kneaded and left for a day
or so, it must then be worked up, a small quantity at a
time, so that it may be rendered quite smooth, and that
balls of the dry whiting powder may not be imprisoned
in different parts of the putty, for these would make their
appearance when the putty was being used, and would of
course injure the adhesiveness of the composition. Putty

USEIFUL INFORMATION 407

should be kept in an earthenware pan covered with a wet
cloth. Putty which has become hardened may be made
again fit for use by warming and beating it up, and knead-
ing it whilst in that condition. For particular pur-
poses, as for fanlights, iron-framed greenhouses, and other
places where the lap or hold is very narrow, a little white
lead may with advantage be added. To color putty, mix
red ochre, lamp black, or other color with the whiting.

Putty, To soften. Slake some quick stone lime in water, and
add one-third of the quantity of pearlash, make the mixture
about the thickness of paint. Apply it with a brush to the
putty on both sides of the glass, and leave it on for a day
or so, the putty will then have become so softened that
it may easily be removed with a glazier's knife, and the
pane of glass may then be taken out.

Size, To make. Practically, size is merely glue so much
diluted with water that it does not for a very long time
harden in the mass, but preserves a jellified condition, and
is thus sold in barrels. A better kind is however supplied,
made into very thin square cakes like glue, which is prin-
cipally used for sizing wood which has been stained, or for
i-efined purposes. Parchment size is the best for distem-
per colors, and is made in the following manner: Place
a quantity of parchment cuttings in an iron kettle, cover
them with water, and allow them to soak thoroughly, from
twenty-four to thirty-six hours will be required for this
purpose, and should the water have been absorbed, more
must be added. The whole is then to be boiled for about
six hours, during which the scum which rises must be re-
moved. It is afterwards to be strained through a coarse
cloth. Size prepared in the following manner will keep good
for several weeks: Dissolve 3 or 4 ounces of alum in boil-
ing water, and add the solution to every pailful, boil and
strain the size a second time, and set in a cool place.

Size, Glove-leather. Take 1/2 pound of the cuttings of
white glove-leather, put them into water and allow them

408 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

to steep for about twelve hours, add about 6 quarts of
water, and allow the mixture to boil down to 1 quart, strain,
and allow to cool.

Smell of Paint, To get rid of. Place a vessel full of
lighted charcoal in the middle of the room, and throw on it
two or three handfuls of Juniper berries, shut the windows,
the chimney, and the door, twenty-four hours afterwards
the room may be opened, when it will be found that the
sickly and unwholesome smell will have left. The smoke
of the Juniper berries possesses this advantage, that should
anything be left in the room, such as tapestry, it will not
be in any way injured.

Plunge a handful of hay into a pail of water, and let it
stand in the newly painted room.

Fill three or four tubs with about eight gallons of water,
and an ounce of vitriol, and place them in the newly painted
room near the wainscot. The water will absorb the ef-
fluvia from the paint in about three days, but it should be
renewed each day during that time.

Soft Putty. This is made of whiting and boiled linseed
oil, with white lead in the proportion of one-tenth of the
whiting, a small quantity of salad oil is then to be added
in order to prevent the white lead from hardening and
cracking off, as common putty often does in certain situa-
tions.

Varnish, Green transparent. Thin some copal varnish
with turpentine, grind well together etjual quantities of
Chinese blue and chromate of potash, and mix them thor-
oughly with the diluted varnish.

The precise shade of green may be varied by the differ-
ent proportions in which the Chinese blue and chromate of
potash are used.

For Venetian blinds, give the wood a couple of coats of
light lead-color, and allow it to become perfectly hard.
Grind some dry white lead in spirit of turpentine, and add
to it one-third of its quantity of verdigris or navy green,

USEFUL INFORMATION 409

which has previously been ground in oil, to this mixture
add sufficient common oak varnish to bind the color. Two,
or if required, three coats of this varnish are now to be
applied, and as it dries very rapidly the whole may be
finished in a few hours.

Varnish, To remove, from Pictures or Fine Work. By
friction, if it be a soft varnish such as that of mastic, the
simple rubbing of the finger ends, with or without water,
may be found sufficient, a portion of the resin attaches
itself to the fingers, and by continuous rubbing removes
the varnish. If it be hard varnish such as that of copal
which is to be removed, friction with sea or river sand, the
particles of which have a rotundity that prevents their
scratching, will accomplish the purpose. The solvents com-
monly employed for removing varnish are the several alka-
lies, alcohol and essential oils used simply or combined. Of
the alkalies, the volatile in its mildest state, or carbonate
of ammonia, is the only one which can be safely used in
removing dust, oil, and varnish from a picture, which it
does powerfully, it must, therefore, be much diluted with
water, according to the power required, and employed with
judgment and caution, stopping its action at the proper
time by the use of pure water and a sponge. A thick coat
of wet fuller's earth may be employed with safety, and,
after remaining on the paint a sufficient time to soften the
extraneous surface, may be removed by washing. Both
pictures and gilding have been restored to their original
beauty by the ajiplication of wet clay.

Worm in Wood-work, Prevention of. The ravages of
worms and insects are among the principal causes of the
destruction of timber. Some woods are more subject than
others to be destroyed by them, such as alder, beech, birch,
and in general all soft woods of which the juices are of
a saccharine nature. Against the common worm, oil of
spike is said to be an excellent remedy; and oil of juniper,
or of turpentine, will prevent them in some degi'ee. A free

410 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

use of linseed oil is a good preservative, and so is a cover-
ing of copal varnish, but these can be applied to small
articles onlj". Another application is sulphur which has
been immersed in nitric acid and distilled to dryness, which,
being exposed to the air, dissolves into an oil, the parts to
be secured from the worm are to be anointed with this oil,
wliieh does not give an unpleasant odor to the wood. Lime
is an excellent prevention against the worm, and sap-wcjod
should alwaj's be impregnated with it when used in a dry
situation. As worms do not attack bitter woods, soaking
wood in an infusion of quassia has been tried, and is said
to have the desired effect.

Zinc, To prepare for painting. In 64 parts of water, dis-
solve 1 part of chloride of copper, 1 of nitrate of copper,
and 1 of sal ammoniac, and add 1 part of commercial
hydrochloric acid, brush the zinc over with this mixture,
which gives it a deep black, leave it to dry for twenty-
four hours, when any oil color will firmly adhore to it, and
withstand both heat and damp.

A Useful Cement. Alum and plaster of Paris, mixed
with water and used in the liquid state, form a hard com-
position and a useful cement.

Barytes in Chrome Yellow. The detection of baiytes in
chrome yellow is a very simple matter, and as it is a very
commonly employed adulterant, the following may be found
useful : Put a small portion of the yellow into a test tube,
add a sufficient quantity of concentrate muriatic acid, and
boil. The yellow is almost immediately resolved into a
white semi-crystalline chloride of lead and a green solution
of chloride of chromium. A large amount of water is
added to the test, which is again boiled. If there is no
barytes pre.sent, a clear solution will be formed, as chloride
of lead is soluble in boiling water. The barytes, if pres-
ent, will be left behind as a heavy, fine white deposit, which
may be washed by repeatedly boiling with water.

Bathrooms. These shonld be warm in coloring, to assist

USEFUL INFOBMATION 411

a feeling of warmth during the winter toilet, and they
should of course be washable in every part, as otherwise
the steam from hot baths may destroy the work in a very
short time.

Black Varnish for Ironwork. The following is recom-
mended as a good recipe for a black varnish for ironwork :
Take y2 pound of asphaltum and ^^4 pound of resin, and
dissolve in 1 pint of turpentine, rub 2 ounces of lamp-black
with a little linseed oil to form a paste, and stir this into
the first-mentioned ingredients. The mixture, now being
ready, can be painted on any ironwork with a soft flat
brush.

Boiling Points. Mercury, 630° Fahrenheit, linseed oil,
266° Fahrenheit, olive oil, 412° Fahrenheit, sulphuric acid,
410° Fahrenheit, oil turpentine, 315° Fahrenheit, water,
212° Fahrenheit, and alcohol, 174° Fahrenheit.

Carver's Polish. In 1 pint of spirits of wine dissolve 2
ounces of seedlac and 2 ounces of white resin. The prin-
cipal use of this polish is for the carved parts of cabinet
work, such as standards, pillars, and claws. It should be
laid on warm, and if the work can also be warmed at the
time it will be still better. All moisture and dampness
should be carefully excluded.

Cement for Marble. Stir to a thick batter with silicate
of soda, 12 parts Portland cement, 6 parts slaked lime, 6
parts fine lead, 1 part infusorial earth. This is very excel-
lent for marble and alabaster. The cemented objects need
not be heated. After twenty-four hours the fracture is
firm, and the place can with difficulty be found.

Cement Mortar. About 8 parts of furnace ashes, slag, or
coke, 4 parts of slaked lime, and 1 of clay, are taken and
mixed dry, so as to form a cement, which, on mixing with
water, sets in the ordinary way. The proportions of the
materials may be varied so as to produce either an aerial
or hj-draulic cement.

Cleaning Paint. Provide a plate with some of the best

41li CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

wliitinu: to be had, and have ready some clean warm water
and a piooo of Hannel, which dip into the water and squeeze
nearly dry, then take as much whitinj,^ as will adhere to it,
api)ly it to the painted surface, when a little rubbing will
instantly remove any dirt or grease. After which wash
the part well with clean water, rubbing it dry with a soft
chamois leather. Paint thus cleaned looks as well as when
first laid on, without injury to the most delicate colors.
It is- far better than using soap, and does not require more
than half the time and labor.

Durable Colors. One of the necessary qualifications of
(he painter is the knowledge of the colors that will stand
the sun aiui weather. The manufactured chemical colors
are generally not very durable, and are therefore not very
suitable for outside work. The chrome yellows, chrome
greens, and Prussian blues are fugitive, whether used alone
or mixed. A combination of two colors of durable nature
is often subject to change of tone. Of the more durable
colors for external use, the ochres, Indian and Venetian
reds, burnt and raw umbers, and burnt and raw siennas may
be mentioned. Zinc white, though of less body than white
lead, is more delicate and durable, and should always be
used in place of white lead at the seashore, where it is
especially durable. The action of the salt air injures the
lead. The most durable blacks are lamp-black and vegetable
black, the most durable yellows are yellow ochre and Naples
yellow, both of wliicli have a good body. Chrome yellow
is fugitive, and, like other lead salts, it becomes dark in
bad air. Of the reds, those to be depended on are the
Venetian red, Indian red, light red, and madder lake; car-
mine lake, vermilion, and chrome red are best avoided on
the exterior. The only blue that will stand is ultramarine,
though it is expensive. Prussian blue, cobalt. Antwerp blue,
and indigo will fade either singly or in combination. The
umbers and siennas, burnt and raw, burnt ochres and Van-
dyke brown, are j)ennanen( colors. Haw umber is very

USEFUL INFORMATION 413

durable in both water and oil, and does not injure other
pigments when mixed with them. The same may be said
of yellow ochre, a natural-colored clay, which does not lose
its color when mixed with lime, and hence it is well adapted
for distemper painting. Mixed greens are not so durable
as those direct from copper, arsenic, etc., which are, how-
ever, injurious to health. Emerald green made of verdigris
and a solution of arsenious acid, and Scheele's green and
Vienna green, arsenites of copper, are very poisonous.

Durable Limewash. For one barrel of color wash, V2
a bushel of white lime, 3 pecks of hydraulic cement, 10
pounds umber, 10 pounds ochre, 1 pound Venetian red,
and 14 pound lamp-black. Slake the lime, melt the lamp-
black with vinegar, mix well together, add the cement, and
fill the barrel with water. Let it stand twelve hours before
using, and stir frequently while putting it on. This is not
white, but oi' a light stone color, without the unpleasant
glare of white. The color may be changed by adding more
or less of the colors named, or other colors. This wash
covers well, needing only one coat, and is superior to any-
thing excepting oil {)aint.

Enamelling a Bath. To remove the dirt and grease from
a bath, make a strong lye of soda, say 2 pounds of soda
to a pail of water, and well scrub it out with this. Then rub
it well down with pumice-stone or glass-paper, then wipe
out all the dust. To make a good job it will want three
coats of enamel. After giving the first coat let it stand
for a day, after it is dry, before applying the second, and
let it be two days between the second and third coats, to
allow it to get thoroughly dry, a very essential point.

Enamelling upon Glass. This is a German method for
enamelling glass: A mixture of dry enamel, thick pine oil,
and damar lac is laid on the glass in a semi-dried state.
After drying the drawing is pressed in. The enamel is then
burned. In this way it is possible to reproduce the forms

414 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

of figures iu slight relief, the hairs of auiuials, the feath-
ers of birds, and the veins of leaves.

Filler-up for Nail-Holes. As a material for filling up
nail-lioles in wood and broken places, the following is
recommended as simple and fli'ectual: Take line sawdust
and mix into a thick paste with glue, pound it into i;he
hole, and when drj' it will make the wood as good as new.

Filling, A very complete tilling for open cracks in floors:
may be made by thoroughly soaking newspapers in a paste
made of 1 pound of flour, 3 quarts of water, and a table-
spoonful of alum, thoroughly boiled and mixed, make the
mixture about as thick as putty, a kind of paper putty,
and it will harden like papier-mache.

Filling for Cracked Ceilings. Whiting mixed with glue
water or calcined plaster and Avater makes a good putty
for filling cracks in plastered ceilings.

Frost-withstanding Mortar. Mortar made in the follow-
ing manner will stand if used in almost all sorts of weather;
1 bushel of unslaked lime, 3 bushels of sharp sand, mix 1
pound of alum with 1 pint of linseed oil, and thoroughly
mix this with the mortar when making it, and use hot. The
alum will counteract the action of the frost on the mortar.

Fugitive Colors. Lakes and vermilions are very fugitive
when exposed to the light, and an endeavor must be made
to mix them so as to retain their beauty and natural color
the longest possible time. Varnish containing no resin gum
has been found by experience to extend their life and beauty
the longest.

Gilding on Iron. The following directions are for put-
ting on japan and gilding on ironwork: The articles to be
japanned are clean of oil, usually by the use of turpentine,
and the japan varnish applied, when the articles are placed
in a hot oven to dry. To gild japanned articles, the part
to be gilded is covered with oil si/.o, thinned with turpen-
tine, and gold powder put on with a puff. This is then

USEFUL INFORMATION 415

varnished and moderately heated in an oven. Leaf gold
may be applied in the same way.

Glass Window Writing. To mix colors: Mix dry fine
colors with clear varnish or linseed oil, turpentine, and
driers, also dry colors, gold size, and turpentine. By using
dry colors a good body is obtained. As to back-
ground, use quick drying varnish and dry colors or gold
size and turpentine, these will dry quickly. Rich brown :
2 parts black, 1 part yellow, 3 parts red, 3 parts turpentine,
1 part oil, a little gold size, and drier. Olive color: 16
parts lemon chrome, 2 parts Prussian blue, 2 parts lamp-
black, 3 parts turpentine, to 1 part oil, driers, and gold size.
For black letters get as much black as required, and mix
with gold size and turpentine, turpentine mostly, to required
thickness. Any other color can be treated in the same way.
For background use pure white lead, and mix with maple
varnish and turpentine, for cream color stain with lemon
chrome and yellow ochre in oil and stipple with a new
brush. Do not paint letters and background same day, or
thej' will work into one another.

Green or Golden Color for Brass. The pleasing green or
golden color generally to be found on the cheap and light
brass articles of French manufacture can be easily produced
at but trifling expense by the following means: 1% ounces
of caustic soda and IV2 ounces of milk sugar are dissolved
in 1% pints of water and boiled for a quarter of an hour.
The solution is as clear as water at first, but gradually
acquires a dark yellow color. The vessel is next taken from
the fire, placed on a wooden support, and II/2 ounces of a
cold concentrated solution of blue vitriol stirred in, A red
precipitate of suboxide of copper is at once formed, and
by the time the mixture cools to 167° Fahrenheit the pre-
cipitate will have settled. A suitable wooden sieve is placed
in the vessel, and in this the polished articles are laid. In
about a minute the sieve is lifted up to see how far the
operation has gone, and at the end of the second minute

416 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

the golden color is dark enough. The sieve and articles are
now taken out, and the latter are washed and then dried
in sawdust. If the brass is left longer in the copper solu-
tion, in a short time a fine green lustre is produced, becom-
ing yellow at first and then bluish green. After, it turns
green, then the well-known iridescent colors finally appear.
To obtain uniform colors it is necessai"}' that they be pro-
duced slowly, at temperatures between 135° and 170° Fahr-
enheit. The copper bath can be used repeatedly, and can
be kept a long time, if bottled up tightly, without change.
After it is exhausted it can be renewed by adding % of
an ounce of caustic soda, replacing the water that has
evaporated, heating to boiling, and adding Yg of an ounce
of a cold solution of blue vitriol.

Harmonious Colors. A whole wall, ceiling, or other space
should not be entirely covered over with rich ornament,
and so also in a colored piece of drapery or other orna-
mental work, it is better to have some portion of it much
less rich and of less complicated pattern than the rest, and
in some cases to have only a border round a single ground
destitute of any pattern, as it is apt to fatigue the eye
when overloaded with an equal richness of detail through-
out. This is still more important in a colored building,
where, if the whole walls, columns, and other parts are
covered with elaborate and colored patterns, the eye feels
a want of repose, and the same when a building is covered
entirely with sculptured ornament without color. The
richly carved part not only requires an unsculptured por-
tion in order that it shall not fatigue the eye, but is im-
proved and set off by the contrast, and contrast is as nec-
essary for effect in fonn^, quantity of detail, position of
lines, as it is in color. On this principle great effect is
sometimes given to a colored pattern by having a portion of
the composition on the wall of the building without any
color at all, and for the same reason an expanse of wall
in a room often looks well when painted with a single uni-

USEFUL INFORMATION 417

form ground surrounded by a rich pattern. Again, certain
colors are better suited for some places than for others, and
the brighter and more transparent for higher positions, and
if the hangings of a room are scarlet, crimson with gold has
a richer and better effect for chairs than scarlet and gold.
A carpet may be darker than the general tone of the drap-
eries, and some of its colors may be carried up by the
walls or the curtains, but if the carpet is dark, the furni-
ture shows better by being of a lighter hue. Red, or a light
color, is better than blue for table covers, and though green
is not recommended for daylight, it lights up well at night,
when blue does not, and this then often appears black, or
when of a light tone is scarcely to be distinguished from
green. Much, however, may be done to give blue its proper
effect, even by artificial light, either by placing a light tone
of blue close to the darker one, or by interspersing it with
white, which will often lead the eye to see the darker blue,
and prevent its appearing black. This may be seen in some
Persian carpets where two blues are used. And if some of
these have too much green for daylight, they have a good
effect at night, except when in excess. Dark green, like
dark blue, looks darker by artificial light.

How to Use Grlue. For glue to be properly effective it
requires to penetrate the pores of the wood, and the
more a body of glue penetrates the wood the more sub-
stantial the joint will remain. Glues that take the longest
to dry are to be preferred to those that dry quickly, the
slow drying being always the strongest, other things being
equal. For general use, no method gives such good results
as the following: Break the glue up small, put it into an
iron kettle, cover the glue with water, and allow it to soak
twelve hours. After soaking boil until done. Then pour it
into an air-tight box, leave the cover off until cold, then
cover up tight. As glue is required, cut out a portion and
melt in the usual way. Expose no more of the made glue
to the atmosphere for any length of time than is necessary,

418 CYCLOPEDLV OF PAINTING

as the atmosphere is very destructive to made glue. Never
heat made glue in a pot thai is subject to the direct heat
of a fire or a lamp. All such methods of heating glue
cannot be condemned in terms too severe. Do not use thick
glue for veneering or joints. In all cases work it well into
the wood, in a similar manner to what painters do with
paint. Glue both surfaces of the work, except in cases of
veneering. Never glue hot wood, as the hot wood will
absorb all the water in the glue too suddenly, and leave
only a very little residue.

Inert Pigments. An inert pigment is one which, when
mixed with oil, will have no chemical action upon it. It
will have no chemical effect upon any other substance with
which it is mixed, as for instance barj'tes, silica and gyp-
sum. On the other hand, white lead, Prussian blue, and
chrome yellow, are chemical colors, and are supposed to
chemically affect the oil and some other pigments.

Killing the Smell of Paint. Place a vessel of burning
charcoal in the center of the room and throw on it two- or
three handfuls of junij^er berries. Shut the windows and
doors close. Twenty-four hours afterwards the door may
be opened, when it will be found that the smell of the paint
has disappeared. This can be done without any injury to
curtains and tapestries.

Making Plaster Set Quickly or Slowly. In order to make
plaster set quickly, mix it witli water into which a little
sulphate of potash has been dissolved. To make it set
slowly, mix it with fine slaked lime. The time of setting
may be )-egulated by clumging the relative quantities.

Manganese. The various compounds of manganese are
))erhai)s more used than any other driers. Of these the
black manganese contains most oxygen, but many regard it
as less useful than umber, which contains considerable
manganese, and also iron. Umber is thought by some to
make a less sensitive oil, tJiat is, a fiuid oil, or varnish,
which changes less on exjiosure to the cold. Both man-

USEFUL INFORMATION 419

ganese and umber lose some of their substance in the oil,
but to what extent manganese' or iron soaps are formed
with the oil acids is not known. Both umber and black
manganese boiled with oil darken it.

Marbleizing Glass. One method of marbleizing glass con-
sists in applying a mixture of varnish and oil to the surface
of water of proper extent, and spraying or blowing upon
the layer or film of oil and varnish dry colored powders
to represent the mottled, speckled, veined, or other appear-
ance of mottled or other stone. The glass is prepared by
being coated upon one surface with varnish or japan, and
is then placed upon the powder supported by the oily sur-
faced water, and the powder immediately adheres or fastens
itself to the varnish or japan on the glass. The apjoaratus
for distributing the color consists of a spraying device or
distributor having a receptacle for the composition, which
is introduced through a hole covered by a perforated cap.
There is a diaphragm with holes or perforations, which are
closed by a slide. This diaphragm separates the space con-
taining the mixture from a passage or extension, the end
of the casing of the passage being contracted sufficiently to
fit upon the end of the bellows. To operate this device
the receptacle is filled with the composition, the cap is
secui'ed in its place, and the slide lifted. The bellows are
then operated, and the pressure of air drives the mixture
in fine spray or drops upon the surface of the water. The
device for applying the diy colors to the floating sheet or
drops of oil and varnish is similar to that described, but in
order that a number of colors may be sprayed or blown
upon the floating oil and varnish at the same time, the
receptacle is divided at the end into two or more parts,
and a shaft, having agitators, is extended through them.
The air is forced by bellows or other suitable means through
perforations in the diaphragm. Caps cover the various
chambers, etc., and are perforated to permit of the escape
of the powder. In operation the air from the bellows or

420 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

other source enters the perforations in the plate, and, pass-
ing through the chambers, causes the agitators to lift the
powder and agitate it, and at the same time the air pressure
forces the powder through the perforations in the cap in
fine streams of dust, and of course by moving the distrib-
utor, the dust may be distributed upon the floating oil or
varnish as may be desired. It is obvious that the design of
the marble, stone, or other article is produced upon the
floating body of oil and varnish before it is applied to
the glass, and it is also obvious that by coating the surface
of the glass with varnish or other adhesive material of a
like nature, upon placing the same with the surface having
the varnish or adhesive material down, so that it shall be
brought in contact with the coloring matter held by the
floating surface or layer of oil and varnish, the coloring
matter will immediately adhere to the japan or other ad-
hesive coating, and will thereby become fastened to the
glass, so that upon the removal of the glass the design laid
out upon the floating layer of japan and oil is removed
from the water, together with such of the floating oil and
japan as unites therewith. Of course the coloring or mot-
tled or other appearance of any marble or other stone, or
of any other material, may be reproduced upon the glass
by this process, as it will only be necessarj- to change the
dry colors to correspond to those of the stone or article
to be imitated or copied.

MetaUizing Wood. A new method of treating wood,
which gives it the appearance of a piece of shining polished
metal, with a surface so hard and smooth as to be sus-
ceptible of a high polish, is as follows: The wood is first
steeped in a bath of caustic alkali for two or three days,
according to its degree of permeability, at a temperature
of between 165° and 197° Fahrenheit. It is then placed
in a second bath of hydrosulphate of calcium, to which a
concentrated solution of sulpliur is added after some twen-
ty-four to thirty-six hours. The third bath is one of acetate

USEFUL INFORMATION 421

of lead, at a temperature of from 95° to 120° Fahrenheit,
and in this latter the wood is allowed to remain from thirty
to fifty hours. After being subjected to a thorough dry-
ing, it is in a condition for being polished with lead, tin,
or zinc, as may be desired, finishing the process with a
burnisher of either glass or porcelain, the appearance of
the wood being in every respect that of polished metal,
having, in fact, the semblance of a polished mirror, which
is unaffected by moisture.

Moulding Composition. A composition for making good
some slight portion of a defective moulding is made of
powdered whiting with glue in solution worked into a
paste, with a sufficiency of turpentine to destroy the brit-
tleness, a little linseed oil may be added to prevent sticki-
ness. The composition may be colored to suit the sur-
roundings.

Moulding Wax. To prepare wax for taking moulds, put
some common beeswax into an earthenware pot, place it
over a slow fire, and when it is all melted stir into it a
little white lead or plumbago, about 1 ounce of the lead
to 1 pound of the wax. This mixture tends to prevent the
mould from cracking when cooling, and from floating in
the solution. It should be re-melted two or three times
before using for the first time. Another kind is made thus:
Melt carefully over a moderate fire 2 pounds of yellow
beeswax, add 4I/2 pounds of Venice turpentine, 2 ounces of
lard, 1% pounds of purified bole, and mix thoroughly. Then
gradually pour the mixture into a vessel containing water,
and thoroughly knead several times with the hands. The
wax should be melted at such a low temperature that no
bubbles appear upon the melted surface.

Faint for Iron. The following are anticorrosive paints
for iron: Take 10 per cent, of burnt magnesia, or even
baryta or strontia, and mix it cold with ordinary linseed
oil paint, and then enough mineral oil to envelope the
alkaline earth, the free acid of the paint will be neutral^

422 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

ized, while the iron will be protected by the permanent
alkaline action of the paint. Iron to be buried in deep
earth may be painted with a mixture of 100 parts of resin,
25 parts of gutta percha, and 50 parts of paraffin, to which
20 parts of magnesia and some mineral oil have been
added.

Plumber's Solder. Mix 2 or 3 parts of lead and 1 part
of tin. It must be free from zinc.

Polished Floors. These should be rubbed two or three
times with linseed oil, and then polished every week with
turpentine and beeswax. The oftener the oil is rubbed in
to begin with, the darker the boards will be.

Preserving Painted Iron. A method of preventing paint
from detaching itself in large flakes from iron surfaces is
as follows: First wash the surface to be painted with soap
and water, rinse and let drj'. When dry, go over it \\ith a
stiff brush dipped in hot linseed oil. When this becomes
tacky the paint can be applied. If tlie object is small, and
of such a nature that heating will not hurt it, raise the
temperature until a drop of oil brought into contact with
it smokes. Go over the surface carefully with the raw oil,
and let cool. It is now ready to receive the paint. With
large objects which cannot be heated, the main point is to
apply the oil as hot as possible, the nearer to boiling point
the better. Objects thus painted will jireserve the coat
of color for an indehnite period, the i^aiut being unaffected
by heat or cold, excessive moisture or excessive dryness.
Wood exposed to the weather may be tieated with good
results in the manner indicated.

Preserving Putty. (Jood putty is made to harden on
exposure, and consequently cans should be kept closed, and
a little water, or, better still, linseed oil, should be kept on
top of putty in tubs, large cans, and barrels, to prevent a
hard crust from forming. A putty that shows no signs of
getting stiff or liaid iifiei- l)oing open and exposed, lacks
an important element of- value.

USEFUL INFORMATION 423

Preventing Glue from Cracking, The addition of a little
chloride of calcium to glue will prevent its cracking when
exposed to considerable heat.

Putty for Polished Wood. Take a small quantity of
white beeswax, melt it down, and, while liquid, mix with
whiting, as it gets thick, keep adding boiled oil until you
have it as you wish it, when using it, sheet the wood over
solid, let stand until the next day, when you can remove
the sui"plus by using No. ^^ sandpaper. It is easier and
cheaper than the shellac, and can be levelled sooner, leav-
ing nothing but the pores or grain of the wood filled, which
is better than having the wood all stained up with the
shellac.

Eemoving Iron Rust. Iron rust can be removed by salt
mixed with lemon juice being rubbed on, or either place
the article in a bowl containing kerosene oil or wrap it in
a soft cloth well saturated with the oil, allow it to remain
so for two days, and then scour the rusty spots with brick-
dust. If very badly rusted, use salt melted with hot sul-
phuric acid, after scouring well, rinse in boiling water, and
polish clean with soft flannel and a little sweet oil.

Removing Spots from Ceilings. A very simple remedy
for removing rain spots or such caused by water soaking
through ceilings, has been employed with good results. Take
unslaked white lime, dilute with alcohol, and paint the
spots with it. When the spots are dry, Avhich ensues
quickly, as the alcohol evaporates, and the lime forms a
sort of insulating layer, painting can be done with size
color, and the spots will not show through again.

Removing Oil Stains from Marble Statuary. Make a
paste with fullers' earth and hot watei", cover the spots
with it, let it dry on, and the next day scour it off with
soap. Another recipe is to take i/i pound soft soap, 14
pound powdered whiting, 1 ounce soda, piece of blue the
size of a walnut. Boil all together for a quarter of an
hour, and rub over the marble while hot. Leave it on for

424 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

twenty-four hours at least, then wash off, and polish with
a coarse flannel. The above quantity is quite enough for
an ordinary mantelpiece.

Restoring Antique Furniture. To restore to their orig-
inal appearance antique pieces of furniture which have be-
come unsightly on account of too frequent varnishing or
besmearing by unskilled hands, the following method should
be employed : Take equal parts of strong alcohol and good
oil of turpentine, and heat this mixture in a bottle by plac-
ing it in hot water. With this Avarm liquid paint the
article, whereupon the old varnish will dissolve at once.
The varnish is then removed by scraping and wiping, and
the spreading, scraping, and cleaning is repeated as often
as necessary until the surface has become entirely clean
again, so that the object may be rendered glossy, or dull,
as required. This process is especially recommended, since
it does not change or attack the color of the wood, as is
often the case if lye is used.

Rotten Stone. This is sometimes harsh and gritty, and
the best way of trying it is to take a little between the
teeth, when the least portion of grit may be detected. Care-
ful workmen will always wash it before they use it. This
is effected by stirring the fine powder in a considerable
quantity of water, then allowing it to remain at rest for
a few seconds, and pouring the water into a glazed earthen
vessel, the powder which precipitates will be veiy fine and
smooth, by washing the remainder, the whole of the finer
parts may be separated from the grit.

Rust on Marble. To remove rust from marble, an opera-
tion which depends upon the solubility of iron sulphide in
a solution of potassium cyanide, is thus effected : Clay is
made into a thin paste with ammonium sulphide, and the
rust spot smeared with the mixture, care being taken that
the spot is only just covered. After a lapse of ten minutes,
this paste is washed off and replaced by one consisting of
white bole mixed with a solution of potassium cyanide,

USEFUL INFORMATION 425

1 to 4, which is in its turn washed of after a lapse of about
two and a half hours. Should a reddish spot remain after
washing off the first paste, a second layer may be applied
for about five minutes.

Securing Brass Letters to Glass. Every one who uses
brass letters on glass windows, and knows how often they
drop off from unequal expansion, or from the too energetic
efforts of window cleaners, will find the following useful :
Litharge 2 parts, white lead 1 part, boiled linseed oil 3
parts, gum copal 1 part. Mixed just before using, this
forms a quick-drying and secure cement.

Size, or Mordant Varnish. One of the best mordants
or sizes for signs or for work to be exposed to the weather,
is called fat-oil size. It should be prepared as follows:
Expose boiled linseed oil to a strong heat in a pan, when
it begins to smoke, set fire to the oil, allow it to burn a
moment, and then suddenly extinguish it by covering the
pan. This will be ready for use, when cold, but will re-
quire thinning with a little turpentine.

Softening Putty. When ordinary putty becomes very
hard, it may be softened for the purpose of easy removal
by keeping it moist for a short time with caustic potash
or soda, or if the putty be painted with nitric or muriatic
acid it will be softened in about an hour.

Specks. These are liable to appear when varnish is al-
lowed to skin over. Some varnishes will skin over although
the can is constantly corked, and this skin being broken
and mixing with the varnish will cause it to look sandj' or
seedy. The well-known common causes of specky work
may be mentioned, dust or pumice powder upon the job,
dirt present in the air, particularly liable in loosely or
badly built shops during windy weather, and specks or lice
in the varnish brush due to a variety of causes.

Sponges. New sponges should alwaj^s be soaked in
warm water for several hours before being used, and the
water should be changed while it is at all colored. Feel

426 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

the sponge all over before using, as frequently small por-
tions of rock remain in it, the sharp points of which scratch
the paint.

Strong Glue for Damp Places. For a strong glue which
will hold in a clamp place, the following recipe works well:
Take of the best and strongest blue enough to make a pint
when melted. Soak this until soft, pour off the water as in
ordinary glue-making, and add a little water if the glue is
likely to be too thick. When melted add three tablespoon-
fuls of boiled linseed oil. Stir frequently, and keep up the
heat till the oil disappears, which may take the whole day,
and perhaps longer. If necessary, add water to make up
for that lost by evaporation. When no more oil is seen,
a tablespoonfnl of whiting is added and thoroughly incor-
porated with the glue.

Sulphate of Manganese. This is a pink-colored salt,
useful, especially with zinc white, for exposure to sulphur
gases. The following is the formula for its use : Sulphate
of manganese 1 part, calcined sulphate of zinc 1 part, and
acetate of manganese 1 part. These must be ground and
sifted into a fine powder, and then dusted over 97 parts
of zinc white. Another method for its use is : 6 to 8
ounces of sulphate of manganese to 100 pounds of ground
zinc white paint, the powder thoroughly mixed with a
portion of the paint, and this portion thoroughly mixed
with the whole. Unless care is taken in the mixing, the
work may be spotted.

Taking Grease out of Boards. Pipeclay and water mixed
together until they form a thick paste, and spread over the
part where there is a stain, will take out the grease very
soon. Other plans are to cover the part thickly with dry
fuller's earth, or a mixture may be made of 5 parts of
fuller's earth to 1 part each of pearlash and soft soap
with boiling water to make a paste, lay it on quite hot, and
leave till diy, and then scour it with soap or silver sand
and water. For simply making the boards a good color and

USEFUL INFORMATION 427

to keep them free from insects, use the following mixture:
14 pound of lime and 3,4 pound of sand to V2 pound of soft
soap. Lay it on the boards and scrub it in well, wash it off
with clean water, and make it as dry as possible. If ink
should he spilt on boards, it may be removed by the appli-
cation of muriatic acid, and aftenvards simply washed.
For painted boards, either on the floor or wainscoting,
nothing' better or more cleansing can be used than fuller's
earth, with or without soap.

Testing Plaster of Paris. The method of testing the
quality of plaster of Paris is by taking a small pinch of
the powder between the finger and thumb and gently rub-
bing it, if small joarticles of it are felt, grit indicates that
parts of the plaster have already absorbed water, and it
is therefore unfit for use. The same test may be observed
by taking a pinch of the powder again and placing the fin-
gers under water, and then rubbing the same way as before.
If, however, in both of these tests no grit is felt, and under
water a thin creamy substance is found, which is easily
rubbed off the fingers, the plaster is in a proper condition
for use.

To Clean White Marble. Mix together i/o pound of pearl-
ash, 1/2 pound of soft soap, and 1 pound of whiting. Boil
them until they become as thick as paste, and let the mix-
ture cool. Before it is quite cold spread it over the sur-
face of the marble and leave it for at least a whole day.
Use a soft water to wash it off, and rub it well with soft
cloths. For black marble nothing is better than spirits of
turpentine.

To Perforate Glass. In drilling glass, stick a piece of
stiff putty or clay where the hole is required, and make a
hole in the putty the size required, reaching down to the
glass. Pour a little molten lead in the hole, and if the
glass is not too thick, the piece will at once drop out.

To Polish Marble. To polish marble, such as table-tops,
the following mode is followed by masons: With a piece

428 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

of sanv^stone with a very fine grit rub the slab backward
and forward, using very fine sand and water, till the marble
appears, equally rough, and not in scratches, next use a
finer stone and finer sand, till its surface appears equally
gone over, then, with fine emery powder and a piece of felt
or old bat wrapped around a weight, rub till all the marks
left by the former process are worked out, and it appears
with a comparative gloss on its surface. Afterwards finish
the polish with putt}' powder and fine clean rags. As soon
as the face appears of a good gloss, do not put any more
powder on the rag, but rub it well, and in a short time it
will appear as if fresh from the mason's hands.

To Remove Rust. A mixture of kerosene oil and emery
powder rubbed on with a piece of cloth makes steel as
bright as a button. But as prevention is better than cure,
to prevent the formation of rust the bright steel should
be painted with wax varnish, made by dissolving 1 part
of solid paraffin in 15 parts of benzole. This is a much
more cleanly application than such fatty compounds as
white lead and oil, and is well suited for steel grates and
similar goods.

Transparent Paints for Glass. Take for a blue pigment
Prussian blue, for red crimson lake, for yellow Indian yel-
low, for brown burnt sienna, for black lamp-black, and for
other shades a mixture of the appropriate colors. Rub
them in a size made as follows: Venice turpentine 2 ounces,
oil of turpentine 1 ounce, and apply with a brush. For
temporai-y purposes, fine and brilliant colors are obtained
by dissolving aniline dyes in white shellac varnish, but
they are fleeting colors, and do not always i)ay for the
trouble.

Useful Size. A useful preparatory size can be made by
boiling a handful of the leaves of wormwood and two or
three heads of garlic in a quart of water, until the liquid
is reduced to one-half, then strain it through a cloth,
and add half a handful of common salt, and nearly half

USEFUL INFORMATION 429

a pint of vinegar. The design of this composition, usually
employed in gilding looking-glass and picture frames, is
to obviate the greasiness of the wood, and prepare it the
better to receive the coats which are to be laid on, and
to preserve it from the ravages of worms. When used
it is mixed with a suflicient portion of good glue, boiling
hot. In applying it to the gilding of plaster or marble,
the salt must be left out of its composition, as, in damp
situations, this would produce a white saline efflorescence
on the surface of the gold.

Varnishes for Engravings, Paints, and Maps. A piece
of plate glass is heated, and w^hile yet warm a little wax
rubbed over it, water is then poured over the plate, the
moistened picture laid thereon and pressed closely down
by means of a piece of filtering paper. When dry the
picture is removed, and will be found to possess a surface
of great brilliancy, which is not injured by the process of
mounting. Boil Chio turpentine till brittle, then powder
and dissolve in oil of turpentine. Canada balsam and clear
white resin of each 6 ounces, oil of turpentine 1 quart, dis-
solve. Digest gum sandarach 20 parts, gum mastic 8 parts,
camphor 1 part, with alcohol 48 parts. The map or engrav-
ing must previously receive one or two coats of gelatine.

Waterproof Glue. Dissolve V2 ounce each of gum san-
darach and mastic in 8 fluid ounces of strong alcohol, to
which add I/2 ounce of turpentine. Put the dissolved gums
into a double glue-pot, add by degrees a hot thick solution
of glue to which isinglass has been added, stir the whole
over the fire until all the ingredients are thoroughly incor-
porated. Next strain through a cloth while hot, and it is
ready for use. It may now be returned to the glue-pot, and
1/^ ounce of very finely powdered glass added to it. It
should be used quite hot. Take of shellac 3 parts, india-
rubber 1 part by weight. Dissolve each separately in ether
free from alcohol. It is best to do this in stoppered bot-
tles and without heating, as the ether readily evaporates.

430 CYCLOPEDIA OF PAINTING

When solution is complete, mix the two, and keep well stop-
pered for use.

Waterproof Wash for Lime. This may be made by mix-
ing the powder from 3 jiarts rock quartz, 3 parts broken
marble and sandstone, also 2 parts burned jDorcelain clay
with 3 parts freshly slaked lime, still warm. In this way
a wash is made Avhich forms a silicate if often wetted, and
becomes finally like stone. It is applied thickly to the sur-
face, allowed to drj* for a day, and the next day frequently
wetted, which makes it waterproof.

Whitewash that will not Rub off. Mix up half a pailful
of lime and watei', ready to i)ut on the wall, then take Vi
pint of flour, mix it with water, tlien pour on it a sufficient
quantity of boilini;- water to thicken it, and pour it while
hot into the whitewash, stir all well together, and it is ready
for use.

Writing on Glass. To wiite on glass, or, as it is prop-
erly termed, to etch, as the letters are eaten out by an
acid, either liquid hydrofluoric acid or hydrotluoric acid
gas is required, according to the effect desired to produce.
The former eats away the glass but leaves it clear, the lat-
ter gives the i:)art operated upon, a ground-glass appear-
ance. For the first way, clean a piece of glass, warm it,
rub over with white Avax or beeswax, and trace the letters
with a needle or penknife, going down to the surface of the
glass, make a wall of wax all round the edge of the glass,
and pour on hydrofiuoric acid, and leave for two or three
hours, then clean with turpentine. To produce letters with
a ground-glass a^Dpearance, place in a leaden dish 2 parts of
powdered fluoride of calcium, pour on 3 parts of sulphuric
acid, and with a stick mix into a paste. Prepare the glass
as before, except that there is no need for a wall of wax
around the edges, cover the leaden vessel with this piece of
glass, and by warming the vessel gas will be evolved which
will attack every clear part of the glass. The workman must
be very careful indeed in u'-ine the acid, of the gas, the

USEFUL INFORMATION 431

fumes, if breathed, are highly injurious, causing ulcers on
the lungs, whilst drops of the acid on the skin will act
like a red-hot iron, and produce very painful sores, which
are not very easily healed. Opal can also be treated as
described above, and the letters colored or enamelled after-
wards, or china colors may be used and the opal fired.
White letters on colored glass may be obtained by using
flashed glass, and treating the flashed side with acid, which
is soon eaten through, leaving the plain glass underneath.
Zinc Sheeting Paints. A very durable weathei'-resisting
paint for zinc sheets is made by mixing oxide of zinc with
a fluid silicate, such as water glass and potash and soda,
to which the required pigments are added. The proportion
should be about three-quarters of a pound of zinc white
to every pound of silicate, with or without water. This zinc
silicate paint becomes insoluble in water in about twen-
ty-four hours. It is equally useful for interior and outside
work, but it must not be applied to greasy surfaces, nor to
old coats of paint. New zinc, not being oxidized, should first
be prepared by the application of a solution of 1 part of
soda in 10 parts of water, and then be thoroughly washed
with water only. A quick drying, weather-resisting paint
of dark color for zinc sheets is made by mixing 5 pounds
of grajDhite with 1 gallon of vinegar. The oxidized surface
of the zinc, previously well brushed, is painted with the
above, one coat giving a sufficiently dark color. New sheet
zinc, however, requires two coats, and must first be oxidized
by the following application, which is not strong enough to
cause any deterioration of the metal : 1 part each of
chloride of copper, nitrate of copper, and sal ammoniac,
dissolved in 64 parts of water, and 1 part of hydx'ochlorie
acid added to the solution.

INDEX.

Adulteration of Paint 5

Blistering of Paint 10

Brushes 14

Calcimining 24

Carriage Painting 33

China Painting 42

Colors 48

Color Harmony 68

Color Mixing 77

Color Testing 116

Estimating 125

Exterior Painting— New Work 129

Exterior Painting— Old Work 142

Gilding 158

Graining 172

Graining — Pollard and Knotted Oak 190

Graining Grounds 200

House Painting— New Work 203

House Painting— Old Work 219

Marbling 224

Oils and Driers 236

Painting a Bath Tub 250

Painting in Distemper 254

Pai^erhangers' Tools 266

Painters' Tools 281

Paperhanging 285

Pigments 295

Plain Oil Painting 305

433

434 INDEX.

Poor Tools 317

Primary Colors 318

Priming 322

Scene Painting 325

Sign Painting 338

Stains 354

Staining 361

Stencilling 369

Turpentine 375

Varnishes 377

Varnishing 383

Water Color Painting 387

When Not to Paint 395

Practical Points on Painting .398

Useful Information 401

NOTICE

To the many workmen who are purchasing the publications under the
authorship of Fred T. Ihulgson, ami who wo feel sure have been beneflleil
by his excellent treatises on many Carpentry and HulUIlng subjects, we
desire to Inform them that the following list, of books have been published
since lOO:!, thereby makhifj; them strictly iipto-datt^ in every detail. All of
the newer books bearing the imprint of Frederick J. Drake & Co. are modern
in every respect and of a purely self-educatlonal character, expressly Issued
for Home Study.

PRACTICAL USES OF THE STEEL SQUARE, two volumes, over 500

pages, Including 100 per ei'livo views au<l floor i)lans of medlnin-
prleed houses. Cloth, two volumes, price $2.00. Half leather,
price $3.00.

MODERN CARPENTRY AND JOINERY, 300 pages, Including 50 house
plans, perspccllvo views ami lloor plans of medium and low-cost
houses. Cloth, price $1.00. Half leather, price $1.B0.

BUILDERS' ARCHITECTURAL DRAWING SELF-TAUQHT, over .^'S0
pages, liicltidlng 50 house plans. Cioih, prlct< $2.00. Half leather,
price $3.00.

JHODERN ESTIMATOR AND CONTRACTORS' GUIDE, for pricing build-
ers' work, H.")0 pages, IncUidiiig f)0 lu)uso plans. Cloth, price $1.60.
Half leather, price $2.00.

MODERN LOW-COST AMERICAN HOMES, over 2(K) pages. Cloth, price
$1.00. Half l.Mlhcr, price $1.60.

PRACTICAL UP-TO-DATE HARDWOOD FINISHER, over 300 pageR >
Cloth, price $1.00. Hall l.c;ilher, pric(> •J 1.60.

COMMON SENSE STAIR BUILDING AND HANDRAILINO. over 250

]):iges, luclucllng pcis])cctl\c \ lews and Ildor ])l;i,iis(>r !■>(! medium-priced
houses. Cloth, price $1.00. Half leather, price $1.60.

STONEMASONS' AND BRICKLAYERS' GUIDE, over L'OO pages. Cloth,
price $1.60. Half h-ather, price $2.00.

PRACTICAL WOOD CARVING, over 200 i)ages. Cloth, price $1.60. Half
leather, prhe $2.00.

Sold by booksellers generally, or sent, all charges paid, ui>ou receipt of
price, to any address in the world.

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO.
Publishers

Chicago* U. S. A.

Practical
Up-lo-Date

George B. Clow

Over 150

Illustrations

A PRACTICAL up-to-date work on Sanitary Plumbine, com-
prising useful information on the wiping and soldering of
lead pipe joints and the installation of hot and cold water and
drainage systems into modern residences. Including the
gravity tank supply and cylinder and tank system of water
heating and the pressure cylinder system of water heating.
Connections for bath tub. Connections for water closet.
Connections for laundry tubs. Connections for wash-bowl or
lavatory. A modern bath room. Bath tubs. Lavatories.
Closets. Urinals, Laundry tubs. Shower baths. Toilet
room in office buildings. Sinks. Faucets. Bibb-cocks. Soil-
pipe fittings. Drainage fittings. Plumber's tool kit, etc., etc
256 pages, 180 illustrations.

12 Mo. Cloth

$1.50

Sold by Booksellers generally or sent postpaid to
any address upon receipt of price by the Publishers

FREDERICK J. DRAKE ^ CO.

Chicago, U.S.A.

' MODERN ^
HOT WATER HEATING
'iTEAMfiOASflTTING

1bot

Iheatindt
Steam
and 6as
iFitting

By WM. DOMJiLDSOM

A MODERN treatise on Hot Water, Steam and Furnace
Heating, and Steam and Gas Fitting, which is in-
tended for the use and information of the owners of build-
ings and the mechanics who install the heating plants in
them. It gives full and concise information with regard
to Steam Boilers and Water Heaters and Furnaces, Pipe
Systems for Steam and Hot Water Plants, Radiation, Radi-
ator Valves and connections. Systems of Radiation, Heating
Surfaces, Pipe and Pipe Fittings, Damper Regulators, Fit-
ters' Tools, Heating Surface of Pipes, Installing a Heating
Plant and Specifications. Plans and Elevations of Steam
and Hot Water Heating Plants are shown and all other sub-
jects in the book are fully illustrated.

256 pages, 121 illvstrations, 12 mo, cloth, price, $1.50

Sold by Booksellers generally cr sent postpaid to
any address upon receipt of price by the Publishers

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO.

CHICAGO. U.S.A.

yiftodern Carpentry

ADV^VNCKD SERIES

- 36v ffrcd C, Ihodgson ==

Vol.

This is a continuation of Mr. Hodgson's first volume on Modem
Carpentry and is intended to carry the student to a higher plane
than is reached by the first volume. The first volume of this series

mav be considered as the al-
phabet of the science of car-
pentry and joinery, while the
present volume leads the stu-
dent into the intricacies of the
art and shows how certain
difficult problems may be solved
with a minimum of labor.
Every progressive workman —
and especially those who have
purchased the first volume of
this series - cannot afford to be
without this volume, as it con-
tains so many things necessary
the advanced workman should
know, and that is likely to crop
up at any time during his daily
labors. The work is well illustrated with over 1 00 diagrams, sketches
and scale drawings which are fully described and explained in the
text. Many puzzling working problems are shown, described and
solved. This is truly a valuable aid and assistant for the progressive
workman.

300 pages, fully illustrated. 12mo, cloth, price, $1.50

Sold by Booksellers generally or sent postpaid to
any address upon receipt of price by the Publishers

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO.

CHICAGO, U. S. A.

®I|^ ^tgntfit B l00k 0f Collected

./ftt* v A i 1 i ^ Engraved

Delamotte

Large oblong

octavo, 208

pages, 100

designs

Price, $1.50

N. B.— We
guarantee this
book to be
the largest and
best work of
this kind
pubHshed

JDLAIN and Ornamental, ancient and mediaeval, from the
Eight to the Twentieth Century, with numerals. In-
cluding German, Old English, Saxon, Italic, Perspective,
Greek, Hebrew, Court Hand, Engrossing, Tuscan, Riband,
Gothic, Rustic, and Arabesque, with several Original De-
signs and an Analysis of the Roman and Old English Alpha-
bets, Large, Small, and Numerals, Church Text, Large and
Small; German Arabesque; Initials for Illumination, Mono-
grams, Crosses, etc., for the use of Architectural and En-
gineering Draughtsmen, Surveyors, Masons, Decorative
Painters, Lithographers, Engravers, Carvers, etc.

Sold by Booksellers generally or send postpaid to
any address upon receipt of price by the Publishers

^r^h^ritk 3. Brakf Sc (tampan^

CHICAGO, u. s. A.

Hie AMATEUR

ARTIST

Or Oil and Water Color
Peunting without the Aid
of a Teacher :: :: :: ::

By F. DELAMOTTE

^ The aim of this book is to
instruct the student in the fund-
amental principles underlying
tfiose branches of art of which it treats and to teach the application
of those principles in a clear and concise manner. The knowledge
it contains is available, alike to the amateur whose only desire it is to
beautify the home and to pass pleasant hours at agreeable work and
also to those talented ones who lack the opportunities afforded by art
schools and teachers who are out of reach. To the latter, this work
contains elements that will quicken the germ of talent or genius into
life and send it well on its road to success. ^ This very late and most
complete work on amateur art gives thorough instructions ia nine
branches of decorative art. Each part is the product of the pen of a
famous teacher and lecturer who has made that branch his especial
life study. ^ Unlike other works on the market, it is brought up-to-
date — no obsolete branches being dragged in, to fill out space. ^ Each
chapter contains a complete list of materials and equipment, and
instruction enough to develop natural ability to a point where the
student may continue, independent of further aid, and trusting to his
own individuality of style.

200 pages, fully illustrated^ price $1.00

Sold by Bookseller! generally or sent postpaid to
any idd.ess upon receipt of price by the Publishers

FREDERICK J. DRAKE t^ CO.

CHICAGO. U.S.A.

Concretes, Cements,

Mort^Lrs,
Pl^Lsters
Stviccos

How to Make and
How to Use Them

fred T. Hodgson

Jtrchitect

THIS is another of Mr. Hodeson's practical works that appeals
directly to the workman whose business it is to make and apply
the materials named in the title. As far as it has been possible
to avoid chemical descriptions of limes, cements and other materials,
and theories of no value to the workman, such has been done, and
nothing has been admitted into the pages of the work that does not
possess a truly practical character.

Concretes and cements have received special attention, and the
latest methods of making and using cement building blocks, laying
cement sidewalks, putting in concrete foundations, making cement
casts and ornaments, are discussed at length. Plastering and stucco
work receive a fair share of consideration and the best methods of
making and using are described in the usual simple manner so
characteristic of Mr. Hodgson's style. The book contains a large
number of illustrations of tools, appliances and methods employed
in making and applying concretes, cements, mortars, plasters and
stucco, which will greatly assist in making it easy for the student to
follow and understand the text

300 pages fully illustrated.

12 Mo. Cloth, Price, $l.50

Sold by Booksellers generally or sent postpaid to
any address upon receipt of price by the Publishers

Frederick J. Drake ^ Co.

CHICAGO, us. A.

OInntrartor s (^mhi^

TO CORRECT MEASUREMENTS of areas and
cubic contents in all matters relating to buildings of any
kind. Illustrated with numerous diagrams, sketches and
examples showing how various and intricate measure-
ments should be taken :: :: :: :: :: :: :: :: ::

By Fred T. Hodgson, Architect, and W. M. Brown, C.E. and Quantity Surveyor

/jTHIS is a real practical book,
^^ showing how all kinds of
odd, crooked and difficult meas-
urejnents may be taken to
secure correct results. This
work in no way conflicts with
any work on estimating as it
does not give prices, neither
does it attempt to deal with
questions of labor or estimate
how much the execution of cer-
tain works will cost. It simply
deals with the questions of
areas and cubic contents of any
given work and shows how
their areas and contents may
readily be obtained, and fur-
nishes for the regular estimator
the data upon which he can
base his prices. In fact, the
work is a great aid and assist-
ant to the regular estimator
and of inestimable value to the
general builder and contractor.

12mo, cloth, 300 pages, fully illustrated, price - $1.50

Sold by Booksellers generally or sent postpaid to
any address upon receipt o/ price by the Publishers

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO.

CHICAGO, U.S.A.

Easy Electrical Experiments
and How to Make Them

By L. P. DICKINSON

This is the very latest and m'^si
valuable work on Electricity for the
amateur or practical Electrician pub
lis'ned. It gives in a simple an
easily understood language every
thing you should know about Gal-
vanometers, Batteries, Magnets, In-
duction, Coils, Motors, Voltmeters,
Dynamos, Storage Batteries, Simple
and Practical Telephones, Telegraph
Instruments, Rheostat, Condensers, Electrophorous,'
Resistance, Electro Plating, Electric Toy Making, etc.
The book is an elementary hand book of lessons,
experiments and inventions. It is a hand book for
beginners, though it includes, as well, examples for
the advanced students. The author stands second to
none in the scientific world, and this exhaustive work
will be found an invaluable assistant to either the
Student or mechanic.

Illustrated with hundreds of fine drawings; printed|
on a superior quality of paper.

I2mo Cloth. Price, $1.25.

Sent postpaid to any address upon receipt of prio

FREDERICK J. DRAKE O CO.. PubUshers.^

CHICAGO. ILL.

The Practical Gas ^
Oil Engine ha>td-book

MANUAL of useful in-
formation o n the care,
maintenance and repair of Gas
and Oil Engines.

This work gives full and
clear instructions on all points
relating to the care, mainte-
nance and repair of Stationary,
Portable and Marine, Gas and
Oil Engines, including How to
Start, How to Stop, How to Ad-
just, How to Repair, How to
Test.

Pocket size, 4x64. Over
jx^j-:- ■.••;•/; g»jB*«TKjjowi Jj:-. :••••• 200 pages. With numerous
iV^-:- ■•••■i-^irt(^3C»Jp^^^^- •■'::•■.:•. rules and formulas and dia-
grams, and over 50 illustrations
by L. Elliott Brookes, au-
thor of the "Construction of a
^j^-:.-: •:.•'••'•■.•.■•'.■ •'■'."•.•;:.v";''.*:'-"-"i>>'*^^ Gasoline Motor," and the "Au-

^; ■• ^■\.'-':-:''i:'yr'-::":'''2^^^'''^ tomobile Hand-Book."

This book has oeen w^ritten
with the intention of furnishing
practical information regaraing
gas, gasoline and kerosene engines, for the use of owners, operators and
others who may be interested in their construction, operation and man-
agement.

In treating the various subjects it has been the endeavor to avoid all
technical matter as far as possible, and to present the information given
in a clear and practical manner.

16mo. Popula-r Edition— Cloth. Price $1.00

Edition de Luxe— Full Lea.tKer Limp. Price 1.56

Sent Postpaid to any Address In the World upon Receipt of Price

FREDERICK J. DRAKE & CO.

PUBLISHERS

CHICAGO, ILL.

GETTY CENTER LIBRARY

3 3125 00114 3284

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